Congcorang

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    <title>Congcorang</title>
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      <text bytes="5813" sha1="l65b6vall3avthpherpnm8vq0llyp47" xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox begin | color = pink | ngaran = Congcorang}} 
{{Taxobox image | image =[[Gambar:Ameles_decolor01.jpg|250px]] |  caption = Congcorang kelir coklat}}
{{Taxobox begin placement | color = pink }}
{{Taxobox regnum entry | taxon = [[Sato|Animalia]]}}
{{Taxobox phylum entry | taxon = [[Artropoda]]}}
{{Taxobox classis entry | taxon = [[Serangga|Insékta]] }}
{{Taxobox_ordo_entry | taxon = '''Mantodea'''}}
{{Taxobox end placement}}
{{Taxobox section subdivision | color = pink | plural_taxon = Kulawarga}}
[[Chaeteessidae]] &lt;br /&gt;
[[Metallyticidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Mantoididae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Amorphoscelidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Eremiaphilidae]] &lt;br /&gt;
[[Hymenopodidae]] &lt;br /&gt;
[[Mantidae]] &lt;br /&gt;
[[Empusidae]] &lt;br /&gt;
{{Taxobox end}}

'''Congcorang''' nu mangrupa hiji ordo '''Mantodéa''' diwangun ku 1.800 nepi ka 2.000 [[spésiés]], nu lolobana kaasup [[Mantidae]]. Dulur congcorang pangdeukeutna nyaéta ordo [[Isoptera]] ([[rinyuh]]) jeung [[Blattodea]] ([[cucunguk]]). Sababaraha éntomologis ngagolongkeun congcorang jeung cucunguk dina hiji ordo.

Congcorang kawentar ku ukuranana nu katémbong badag tur lincah. Kadaharanana biasana mah [[serangga]] hirup samodél [[laleur]]; spésiés congcorang nu leuwih badag sok ngamangsa [[kadal]] leutik, [[bangkong]], jeung [[manuk]] ku cara ditéwak ku &quot;leungeun&quot;na.

Congcorang téh manukna dina [[kamuflase|nyaru]] mah, utamana ngaluyukeun manéh jeung kelir [[daun|dangdaunan]] tempat hirupna sahingga bisa nyumput ti nu rék [[prédator|ngamangsa]], sakaligus ngadodoho mangsana. Spésiés nu di [[Afrika]] jeung [[Australia]] mah aya nu bisa robah kelirna jadi hideung dina jangka sababaraha poé. Malah lain kelirna wungkul, sabab panémbongna gé bisa nyaru dangdaunnan, jukut, atawa babatuan.

== Baranahan ==
Congcorang téh kanibal. Lian ti ngamangsa serangga séjén, dulurna sorangan gé sok dihakan, malah mah batur jalanganana pisan (najan dongéngna sok dileuwih-leuwihkeun). Dina mangsa kawin, biasana mah dina mangsa usum gugur, congcorang jalu kudu ati-ati pisan mun ngadeukeutan bikangna. Nu jalu biasana ngadeukeutan ti tukang, laju tumpak tonggong bikangna pikeun ngasupkeun [[sél (biologi)|sél-sél]] [[spérma]] dina kantong husus dina [[beuteung]] bikangna. Congcorang bikang biasana nyerang/ngégél hulu jaluna, malah bisa ogé jalangan lumangsung bari jaluna dihakan.

Gumantung ka spésiésna, congcorang bikang bisa ngahasilkeun sapuluh nepi ka opat ratus endog, diteundeun dina busa nu dihasilkeun ku kelenjar dina beuteungna. Busa ieu laju ngaheurasan, ngabentuk kapsul dina dangdaunnan atawa dina taneuh. Aya spésiés nu ngajaga endogna, aya ogé nu henteu. Endog ieu kadang sok dihakan ku sabangsa nyiruan.

Congcorang ngalaman tilu hambalan [[métamorfosis (biologi)|métamorfosis]]: endog, larva, sawawa. Para élmuwan mah sok nyebutna téh ''métamorfosis teu anggeus'', sabab larva jeung nu geus sawawa méh sarupa, iwal ukuranana leuwih leutik jeung teu [[jangjang]]an. Larva congcorang ngabadagan awakna ku jalan ngaganti awak luarna ku [[éksoskeleton]] nu liat jeung [[ganti kulit]] mun perlu. Ieu bisa lumangsung lima nepi ka sapuluh kali, gumantung spésiésna, nepi ka tungtungna ngahasilkeun jangjang nu sampurna.

== Anggapan ==
[[Gambar:Praying_mantis_feeding.jpg|thumb|right|209px|Keur ngahakan laleur]]
Pangebon nu ngarti mah mikaresep ka congcorang téh, sabab sok ngahakan rupa-rupa hama nu ngaruksak. Para [[tatanén organik|patani organik]] nu teu maké [[péstisida]] sok maké congcorang salaku [[kontrol hama biologis]]. Di sabagian tempat mah malah endogna geus bisa dibeuli di pasar.

Di sagigireun ngamangsa hama, congcorang ogé ngahakan serangga nétral/nu nguntungkeun, pokona mah naon baé, kaasup [[kukupu]] jeung ''[[kolibri]]''.

== Status konservasi ==
Ngan aya hiji spésiés congcorang nu aya dina daptar Rada Kaancam, nyaéta ''Apteromantis aptera'' ti [[Spanyol]].

== Sajarah ==
Dadaran pangheubeulna ngeunaan congcorang aya dina sajak na [[naskah|naskah kuna]] Cina ''[[Erh Ya]]'' nu ngagambarkeun kawani jeung kaludeung. Naskah lianna, ''Pen ts'ao'' (taun [[1108]]), ngagambarkeun wangun endog congcorang, daur tumuwuhna, [[anatomi]], kaasup fungsi anténeuna.

Dina [[abad ka-18]], [[biologi]] jeung [[morfologi]] congcorang geus kaitung akurat, di antarana dina buku ''Insekten-Belustigungen'' (Kalangenan Serangga) karya [[Roesel von Rosenhof]].

== Tumbu kaluar ==
{{Commons|Category:Mantodea}}
* [http://www.maskedflowerimages.com/mantis.htm Natures's Best Masked Flower Image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717033417/http://www.maskedflowerimages.com/mantis.htm |date=2012-07-17 }}
* [http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/Courses/Eeb477/Svenson&amp;Whiting_Mantids_04.pdf Phylogeny of Mantodea based on molecular data: evolution of a charismatic predator] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051022135105/http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/Courses/Eeb477/Svenson%26Whiting_Mantids_04.pdf |date=2005-10-22 }}

== Rujukan ==
* ''[[:en:Mantodea|Mantodea]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris per 26 Januari 2006.
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Mantodea Tree of Life - Mantodea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070908210530/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Mantodea |date=2007-09-08 }}
* {{Buku rujukan | Author=Klausnitzer, Bernhard  | Title=Insects: Their Biology and Cultural History | Publisher=Teu kanyahoan | Year=1987 | ID=ISBN 0-87663-666-0}}
* {{Buku rujukan | Author=O'Toole, Christopher | Title=Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders | Publisher=Firefly | Year=2002 | ID=ISBN 1-55297-612-2}}
* [http://www.earthlife.net/insects/mantchek.html Checklist of Mantodea originally compiled by the Los Angeles County Museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509123927/http://www.earthlife.net/insects/mantchek.html |date=2008-05-09 }}

[[Kategori:Mantodea]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Irak</title>
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{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:1.33em;&quot;&gt;{{lang|ar|جمهورية العراق}} &lt;/big&gt; &lt;br /&gt; ''Jumhūriyyat ul-{{Unicode|ʿ}}Irāq''&lt;br /&gt;''Jomhūrī-ye Īrāq''&lt;/span&gt;
|conventional_long_name = &lt;span style=&quot;line-
height:1.33em;&quot;&gt;Républik Irak&lt;/span&gt;
|common_name = Irak
|image_flag = Flag_of_Iraq.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Iraq (2008–present).svg
|image_map = Iraq in its region.svg
|national_motto = الله أكبر {{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;([[Basa Arab]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''&quot;[[Takbir|Allahu Akbar]]&quot;''{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;([[transliterasi]])&lt;br /&gt;&quot;Gusti nu Maha Agung&quot;&lt;/small&gt;
|national_anthem = ''[[Mawtini]]''{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;(new)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''[[Ardh Alforatain]]''{{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;(previous){{smallsup|1}}&lt;/small&gt;
|capital = [[Baghdad]]{{smallsup|2}}
|official_languages = [[Basa Arab|Arab]], [[Basa Kurdi|Kurdi]]{{smallsup|3}}, [[Basa Aramaik|Aramaik]]
|demonym = Irak
|religion = [[Islam]](94%), [[Kristen]](4–5%), [[Mandean]] &amp; [[Yazidi]] (&lt;1%)
|latd=33 |latm=20 |latNS=N |longd=44 |longm=26 |longEW=E
|largest_city = ibu kota
|government_type = Developing {{nowrap|[[parliamentary democracy]]}}
|leader_title1 = [[Presiden Irak|Presiden]]
|leader_title2 = [[Perfana Mentri Irak|Perdana Mentri]]
|leader_name1 = [[Barham Salih]]
|leader_name2 = [[Mustafa Al-Kadhimi]] 
|area_rank = ka-58
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area_km2 = 438,317
|area_sq_mi = 169,234 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|percent_water = 1.1
|population_estimate = 26,783,383{{smallsup|4}}
|population_estimate_rank = ka-40
|population_estimate_year = 2006
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density_km2 = 66
|population_density_sq_mi = 171 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|population_density_rank = ka-125
|GDP_PPP = $89.8 miliar
|GDP_PPP_rank = &lt;small&gt;ka-61&lt;/small&gt;
|GDP_PPP_year = 2006
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,900
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = &lt;small&gt;ka-130&lt;/small&gt;
|sovereignty_type = [[Merdika]]
|established_event1 = ti {{nowrap|[[Kakaisaran Usmani]]}}
|established_date1 = &lt;br /&gt;[[1 Oktober]] [[1919]]
|established_event2 = ti {{nowrap|[[United Kingdom]]}}
|established_date2 = &lt;br /&gt;[[3 Oktober]] [[1932]]
|HDI =
|HDI_rank = n/a
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;gray&quot;&gt;teu direngking&lt;/font&gt;
|FSI                      = 111.4 {{increase}} 2.4
|FSI_year                 = 2007
|FSI_rank                 = ka-2
|FSI_category             = &lt;font color=&quot;#FF0000&quot;&gt;Peringetan&lt;/font&gt; 
|currency = [[Dinar Irak]]
|currency_code = IQD
|country_code = IRQ
|time_zone = AST
|utc_offset = +3
|time_zone_DST = ADT
|utc_offset_DST = +4
|cctld = [[.iq]]
|calling_code = 964
|footnote1 = Urang Kurdi make ''[[Ey Reqîb]]''.
|footnote2 = Ibu kota [[Kurdistan Irak]] nyaéta [[Arbil]].
|footnote3 = Basa Arab jeung Kurdi mangrupa basa resmi dina pamarentahan Irak. Dumasar kana Artikel 4, Bagéan 4 [[Undang-undang Dasar Irak]], [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Assyrian (Syriac)]] (a dialect of [[Aramaic]]) and Iraqi Turkmen (a dialect of [[Azerbaijani language|Southern Azerbaijani]]) languages are official in areas where the respective populations they constitute density of population.
|footnote4 = [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html CIA World Factbook]
}}
'''Républik Irak''', biasana katelah '''Irak''' ([[Basa Arab]]: {{Audio|Ar-al Gumhuriyah al Iraqiya.ogg|العراق}}, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|ʕiˈrɑːq}}), nyaéta hiji [[nagara]] di [[Wétan Tengah]] nu ngampar lolobananana di tungtung kulon kaler [[Pagunungan Zagros-]], bagéan wetan [[Gurun Siria]] sarta bagéan kaler [[Gurun Arabia]]. Irak diwatesan ku [[Kuwait]] jeung [[Saudi Arabia]] di  béh kidul, [[Jordania]] di kulon, [[Suriah]] di kulon kaler, [[Turki]] di  béh kaler sarta [[Iran]] di wetaneunnana. Irak boga bagéan basisir nu heureut di [[Umm Qasr]] di [[Teluk Pérsia]]. Aya dua walungan nu ngalir: [[Tigris]] jeung [[Éfrat]]. Dua walungan ieu nyababkeun lemah Irak bisa dipaké tatanen, patukang tonggong jeung lanskap gurun nu nutupan lolobana wewengkon di [[Wétan Tengah]].

Irak mangrupikeun [[démokrasi parleménter]] ngembang anu diwangun ku 18 [[kagubernuran di Irak|kagubernuran]] (katelah ''muhafadhat''). Ibu kotana, [[Baghdad]], aya di tengah-wétan. [[Sajarah Irak|Sajarah euyeub]] Irak balik deui ti jaman [[Mesopotamia]] kuno. Wewengkon antara walungan Tigris jeung Éfrat dikenal salaku [[Bulan Sabit Subur]], tempat lahirna paradaban jeung [[tulisan]]. Dina sajarahna anu panjang, Irak parantos janten puseur kakaisaran [[Akkadia]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]] sareng [[Abbasiyah]], sarta bagian ti kawasaan kakaisaran [[Akhemenia]], [[Makedonia]], [[Parthia]], [[Bani Umayyah|Umayyah]], [[Sassania]], [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah|Utsmaniyah]] sareng [[Britania Raya]].

Since an [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion in 2003]], a [[Multinational Force Iraq|multinational coalition of forces]], mainly American and British, has occupied Iraq. The invasion has had wide-réaching consequences: [[Iraq war|increased civil violence]], political bréakdown, the removal and [[Execution of Saddam Hussein|execution]] of former présidént [[Saddam Hussein]], and national problems in the development of [[politics of Iraq|political balance]], [[economy of Iraq|economy]], infrastructure, and use of the country's huge [[Oil reserves#Iraq|reserves of oil]]. According to the 2007 [[Failed States Index]], produced by the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's]] [[Foreign Policy]] magazine and the [[Fund for Peace]], Iraq has recently emerged as the world's second most unstable country,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3865&amp;page=8|title=Foreign Policy Magazine: The Failed States Index 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126074132/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3865&amp;page=8 |date=2009-01-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt; after [[Sudan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070618.wfailedstate0618/BNStory/International/home|title=Reuters: Iraq world's No. 2 failed state|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080619041950/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070618.wfailedstate0618/BNStory/International/home|archivedate=2008-06-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041443/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070618.wfailedstate0618/BNStory/International/home/ |date=2007-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tempo ogé ==
{{utama|Daptar jejer nu patali jeung Irak}}

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

== Bacaan salajengna ==
* Interview with Refugees International's Séan Garcia on the plight of hundreds of thousands of Iraqi refugees [http://www.epic-usa.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2262] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313185923/http://www.epic-usa.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2262 |date=2007-03-13 }}
* Shadid, Anthony 2005. ''Night Draws Near''. Henry Holt and Co., [[New York|NY]], [[United States|USA]]. ISBN 0-8050-7602-6
* Hanna Batatu, &quot;The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq&quot;, Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]], 1978
* Iraq was one of the major settings for the John J. Rust science fiction novel &quot;Epsilon&quot;
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/ A Dweller in Mesopotamia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050525231213/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ds49x2xm465d/ |date=2005-05-25 }}, being the adventures of an official artist in the garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/1f/dweller_in_mesopotamia.pdf layered PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050906055955/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/1f/dweller_in_mesopotamia.pdf |date=2005-09-06 }} format)''
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/ By Desert Ways to Baghdad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050402090804/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/ |date=2005-04-02 }}, by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins) With illustrations and a map, 1908 (1909 ed). ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/1f/desert_ways_to_baghdad.pdf layered PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050906060015/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/1f/desert_ways_to_baghdad.pdf |date=2005-09-06 }} format)''

== Tumbu luar ==
{{sisterlinks|Iraq}}
{{wikivoyage|Iraq}}

'''Pamaréntah'''
* [http://www.iraqigovernment.org/ Iraqi Government] official government site
* [http://dev.epic-usa.org/files/EPIC/IRAQ_Government.pdf New Iraqi government structure (PDF)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060815210023/http://dev.epic-usa.org/files/EPIC/IRAQ_Government.pdf |date=2006-08-15 }} (As of July 17, 2006)
* [http://www.krg.org/ Kurdistan Regional Government] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506173827/http://www.krg.org/ |date=2016-05-06 }}
* [http://www.industry.gov.iq/ Ministry of Industry and Minerals]

''Sawangan'''
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567303/Iraq.html ''Encarta Encyclopedia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028042959/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567303/Iraq.html |date=2009-10-28 }}
* [http://www.HilalPlaza.com/baghdad-Iraq-civilization.html Baghdad's Golden Period]
* [http://www.al-bab.com/Arab/countries/Iraq.htm al-Bab - ''Iraq''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610185602/http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/iraq.htm |date=2016-06-10 }}
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Iraq Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Iraq'' Country Page]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791014.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Iraq'']
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html CIA World Factbook - ''Iraq''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224065934/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html |date=2018-12-24 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020216031159/http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3212.htm US State Department - ''Iraq''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=Iraq&amp;search_crit=subject&amp;search=Search&amp;date1=Anytime&amp;date2=Anytime&amp;type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502204638/http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=iraq&amp;search_crit=subject&amp;search=Search&amp;date1=Anytime&amp;date2=Anytime&amp;type=form |date=2008-05-02 }}
* [http://www.alertnet.org/thefacts/countryprofiles/216595.htm Iraq Country Profile] from [[Reuters|Reuters AlertNet]]
* [http://www.economist.com/countries/Iraq/ Country Briefing: Iraq] from [[The Economist]]

'''Warta'''
* [http://www.khaleejtimes.com/SectionHomeL.asp?section=middleeast Focus on Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071126093609/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/SectionHomeL.asp?section=middleeast |date=2007-11-26 }} Daily News on Iraq
* [http://electroniciraq.net Iraq News and Iraqi views] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218204038/http://electroniciraq.net/ |date=2018-02-18 }} from Electronic Iraq
* [http://news.ft.com/indepth/Iraq News in Depth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614084320/http://news.ft.com/indepth/iraq |date=2006-06-14 }} from the Financial Times
* [http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&amp;cat=Iraq Diplomacy Monitor-Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415113230/http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&amp;cat=Iraq |date=2013-04-15 }}
* [http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/Iraq/index.asp IPS Inter Press Service] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610182557/http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/iraq/index.asp |date=2008-06-10 }} Independent news about Iraq
* [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/11/05/dujail.saddam/index.html Iraqis react with joy, anger to Hussein death sentence] CNN story on Hussein's [[death sentence]]
* [http://www.hometownbaghdad.com Hometown Baghdad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123071948/http://hometownbaghdad.com/ |date=2007-11-23 }} Documentary series shot by an all-Iraqi crew. Tells the stories of three young péople trying to survive in Baghdad.

'''Lianna'''
* [http://www.operationiraqichildren.org/ Operation Iraqi Children]
* [http://www.iraqimage.com Iraq Image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609165949/http://www.iraqimage.com/ |date=2007-06-09 }}, a cultural resource on Iraq cities and locations
* [http://www.juancole.com Juan Cole], a léading scholar and public intellectual
* [http://www.epic-usa.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2218 The Ground Truth Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060926182404/http://www.epic-usa.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2218 |date=2006-09-26 }}—A series of exclusive interviews and other resources capturing the voices of Iraqis, [[Humanitarian aid|aid workers]], [[Soldier|military personnel]] and others who have spent significant time on-the-ground in Iraq.
* [http://wiqipedia.org/wiki/Iraq Alternate wiki article about Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211012919/http://wiqipedia.org/wiki/Iraq |date=2007-12-11 }}
* [http://www.epic-usa.org/ Education for Peace in Iraq Center (EPIC)]—A Washington DC-based [[Non-profit organization|nonprofit organization]] promoting a free and secure Iraq
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20060103215437/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engMDE140082001?OpenDocument&amp;amp;of=COUNTRIESIRAQ Amnesty International Report on Iraq]
* [http://www.internal-displacement.org/countries/iraq Internal Displacement in Iraq] - Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
* [http://www.cpa-Iraq.org/ Coalition Provisional Authority] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712083422/http://www.cpa-iraq.org/ |date=2010-07-12 }} Now-defunct occupation authority; site is archived
* [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/Iraq.htm Iraq Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214111518/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/iraq.htm |date=2013-12-14 }} from the University of Pittsburgh’s Jurist project
* [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/Iraq-1900-2000/ 1900–2000 a history of Iraq]
* [http://baghdad.usembassy.gov/ US Embassy in Baghdad, Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820055028/http://baghdad.usembassy.gov/ |date=2008-08-20 }}
* [http://fieldsupport.lingnet.org/Iraqi/fam_ir_slide/Iraq.pdf Iraqi Familiarization Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201010110/http://fieldsupport.lingnet.org/Iraqi/fam_ir_slide/Iraq.pdf |date=2007-12-01 }} - ''(546 kilobyte PDF file)''
* [http://www.lonesentry.com/iraq/iraq.html Short Guide to Iraq] (WWII U.S. Military Guide)
* [http://www.uwt.org/Countries/Iraq_Charity.asp Charity Helping the People of Iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511223655/http://www.uwt.org/Countries/Iraq_Charity.asp |date=2008-05-11 }}

{{Template group
| title = Geografi lokal
| list =
{{Countries of Southwest Asia}}
{{Countries and territories of the Middle East}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Countries bordering the Persian Gulf}}
{{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean}}
}}
{{Template group
| title = Kaanggotaan internasional
| list =
{{Arab League}}
{{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}}
{{OPEC}}
{{Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations}}
}}

{{Refimprove|date=June 2007}}

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  <page>
    <title>Cakram Blu-ray</title>
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      <text bytes="81164" sha1="bi5mcj17luiof05hkrin4g8t45n1ugo" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox media
| name = Blu-ray Disc
| logo = 
| image = [[Gambar:BluRayDiscBack.png|200px|Reverse side of a Blu-ray Disc]]
| caption =
| type = High-density [[optical disc]]
| encoding = [[MPEG-2]], [[H.264|MPEG-4 AVC (H.264)]], and [[VC-1]]
| capacity = 
25 [[gigabyte|GB]] (single layer),  
50&amp;nbsp;GB (dual layer)
| read = 1x@36&amp;nbsp;[[Megabit per second|Mbit/s]] &amp; 2x@72&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s
| write =
| standard =
| owner = [[Blu-ray Disc Association]]
| use = Data storage, [[High-definition video]] and [[PlayStation 3]] Games
| extended from =
| extended to =
}}
'''Cakram Blu-ray''' (basa Inggris: '''''Blu-ray Disc''''') nyaéta hiji format [[cakram optik]] nu kacida padetna pikeun nyimpen informasi digital, kaasup [[high-definition video|video definisi luhur]]. Dimensina mah sarua jeung [[DVD]] atawa [[CD]].

Ngaran ''Cakram Blu-ray'' dicokot tina [[laser]] biru-ungu ''(blue-violet)'' nu dipaké keur maca tur nulis tipe cakram ieu. Alatan [[panjang gelombang]] nu leuwih pondok (405 [[nanometer|nm]]), sacara substansial baris leuwih loba data nu bisa disimpen dina hiji Cakram Blu-ray ti batan dina format [[DVD]] nu maké laser beureum (650&amp;nbsp;nm). Cakram Blu-ray salapis bisa nyimpen 25 [[gigabita]] (GB), leuwih ti lima kalieun ukuran DVD salapis 4.7&amp;nbsp;GB. Cakram Blu-ray dua lapis bisa nyimpen 50&amp;nbsp;GB, ampir genep kalieun ukuran DVD dua lapis nu 8.5&amp;nbsp;GB.

Blu-ray dimekarkeun ku [[Blu-ray Disc Association]], hiji grup pausahaan-pausahaan maju nu midangkeun elektronika konsumen, hardware komputer, jeung produksi gambar gerak. Standarna kawengku ku sababaraha paten nu dipibanda ku sababaraha pausahaan nu béda. Nepi ka Maret 2007, hiji kasapukan lisensi gabungan keur sakabéh paten nu cocog can bisa direngsekeun.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url = http://www.cdfreaks.com/news/Significant-progress-made-toward-creation-of-joint-Blu-ray-Disc-patent-license-Press-Release.html
|title = Significant progress made toward creation of joint Blu-ray Disc™ patent license (Press Release)
|accessdate = 2007-10-17
|author = Seán Byrne
|date = 2007-02-23
|work = cdrfreaks.com
}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112221413/http://www.cdfreaks.com/news/Significant-progress-made-toward-creation-of-joint-Blu-ray-Disc-patent-license-Press-Release.html |date=2007-11-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
Dumasar kana data tanggal [[2 Juli]], [[2008]] leuwih ti 650&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.blu-ray.com/movies/movies.php?show=nowavailable | title=Total available United States releases }}&lt;/ref&gt; pilem Cakram Blu-ray geus dirilis sacara komersil di [[Amerika Sarikat]] sarta leuwih ti 410&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.watch.impress.co.jp/av/docs/bdhdship/|title=Blu-ray/HD DVD releases in Japan|publisher=AVWatch|accessdate=2008-06-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828181018/http://www.watch.impress.co.jp/av/docs/bdhdship/ |date=2008-08-28 }}&lt;/ref&gt; judul Cakram Blu-ray dirilis di [[Jepang]].

Salila [[perang format cakram optis definisi luhur]], Blu-ray  [[perang format|perang]] jeung saingannana, [[HD DVD]], pikeun nangtukeun nu mana salah sahiji (lamun henteu duanana) ti antara dua format ieu nu bakal mingpin pasar eusi definisi luhur keur konsumen. Dina tanggal [[19 Pebruari]], [[2008]], [[Toshiba]]&amp;nbsp;— pausahaan utama nu ngarojong HD DVD&amp;nbsp;— ngembarkeun yén moal neruskeun deui mekarkeun, nyieun jeung masarkeun pamuter jeung pangrekam HD DVD,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite press release |url=http://www.toshiba.co.jp/about/press/2008_02/pr1903.htm |title=Toshiba Announces Discontinuation of HD DVD Businesses |publisher= Toshiba |date=[[19 Pebruari]], [[2008]] |accessdate=2008-02-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; nu nyababkeun ampir sakabéh nu ngarojong kana HD DVD marilu eureun, su sacara éféktifmungkas [[perang fomat]].

== Sajarah ==
{{Optical disc authoring}}
[[Gambar:Blu-ray disc (BD-RE).JPG|ka|jmpl|200px|Cakram blu-ray kosong nu bisa ditulisan deui (BD-RE)]]
Dina panengah dekade 1990-an, set [[HDTV]] komersil ahirna bisa mimiti asup kana pasar nu leuwih gedé. Sok sanajan kitu, geuningan euweuh cara nu alus tur hadé pikeun ngarekam atawa muter eusi HD. Meureun bae, da euweuh mediana nu bisa nyimpen data nu kacida gedéna, kajaba [[D-VHS|Digital VHS]]-na JVC jeung [[HDCAM|HD Betacam]]-na Sony.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB891992681208651500.html?mod=googlewsj |title= In HDTV Age, Successor to VCR Still Seems to Be a Long Way Off |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Evan Ramstad |date=1998-04-08 |work=online.wsj.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sok sanajan kitu, geus kasohor yén maké laser nu panjang gelombangna pondok bakal bisa nyimpen optik kalawan leuwih padet. Nalika [[Shuji Nakamura]] nimu [[laser bulao|dioda laser bulao]] nu praktis, hal éta mangrupa hiji sensasi, sok sanajan perkara hukum patali jeung paten nu papanjangan, geus nyababkeun diwanohkeunana tehnologi ieu sacara komersil, jadi telat.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,103862-page,1/article.html |title=Opening the Door for New Storage Options |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Martyn Williams |date=2002-08-12 |work=pcworld.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Asal ===
{{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}
Sony started two projects applying the new diodes: [[UDO]] (Ultra Density Optical) and DVR Blue (together with [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]]), a format of rewritable discs which would eventually become Blu-ray (more specifically, BD-RE).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.planetanalog.com/features/OEG20010615S0046 |title=Blue laser bolsters DTV storage, features |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=S.B. Luitjens |date=2001-06-15 |work=planetanalog.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core technologies of the formats are essentially similar.

The first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled at the [[CEATEC]] exhibition in October 2000.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url = http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,105534-page,1/article.html
|title =  Sony Shows 'DVR-Blue' Prototype
|accessdate = 2007-10-17
|date=  2000-10-11
|work = cdrinfo.com
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because the Blu-ray Disc standard places the data recording layer close to the surface of the disc, éarly discs were susceptible to contamination and scratches and had to be enclosed in plastic cartridges for protection. In February 2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url = http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn1952.html
|title = Replacement for DVD unveiled
|accessdate = 2007-10-17
|author = Barry Fox
|date=  2002-02-19
|work = newscientist.com
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Blu-ray Disc Association]] was founded by the nine initial members.

The first consumer devices were in stores on [[April 10]], 2001. This device was the Sony BDZ-S77; a BD-RE recorder that was only made available in Japan. The recommended price was US$3800.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.pricenfees.com/digit-life-archives/sony-bdz-s77-recorder-review |title=SONY BDZ-S77 Recorder Review |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Maxim Liadov |date= |work=pricenfees.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202062709/https://www.pricenfees.com/digit-life-archives/sony-bdz-s77-recorder-review |date=2017-02-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, there was no standard for pre-recorded vidéo (BD-ROM) and no movies were reléased for this player. The Blu-ray  standard was still yéars away, since a new and secure [[Digital Rights Management|DRM]] system was needed before Hollywood studios would accept it. Nobody wanted to repéat the failure of the [[Content Scramble System]] for DVDs.

=== Kompetisi jeung HD DVD ===

The [[DVD Forum]] (which was chaired by [[Toshiba]]) was deeply split over whether to go with the more expensive blue lasers or not. In addition, the proposed Blu-ray disc with its protective caddy was both expensive and physically different from DVD, posing several problems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1829241.stm |title=Next Generation DVD Born |accessdate=2007-11-4 |date=2002-02-21 |work=bbc.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; In March 2002, the forum voted to approve a proposal endorsed by [[Warner Bros.]] and other [[film studio|motion picture studios]] that involved compressing HD content onto dual-layer [[DVD-9]] discs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG20020301S0091 |title=Picture's fuzzy for DVD |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Junko Yoshida |date=2002-03-01 |work=eetimes.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG20011212S0060 |title=Forum to weigh Microsoft's Corona as DVD encoder |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Junko Yoshida |date=2001-12-12 |work=eetimes.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, in spite of this decision, the DVD Forum's Steering Committee announced in April that it was pursuing its own blue-laser high-definition solution.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.emedialive.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=5266&amp;PageNum=2 |title=HD on DVD |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Philip De Lancie |date=2002-06-01 |work=emedialive.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011145939/http://www.emedialive.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=5266&amp;PageNum=2 |date=2007-10-11 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In August, Toshiba and NEC announced their competing standard Advanced Optical Disc.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,104570-page,1/article.html |title=Toshiba, NEC Share Details of Blue-Laser Storage |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author= |date=2002-08-29 |work=pcworld.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; It was finally adopted by the DVD forum and renamed [[HD DVD]] the next yéar,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.theinquirer.net/en/inquirer/news/2003/11/28/dvd-forum-backs-toshiba-nec-format |title=DVD Forum backs Toshiba-NEC format |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author= |date=2003-11-28 |work=theinquirer.net |publisher= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025011126/http://www.theinquirer.net/en/inquirer/news/2003/11/28/dvd-forum-backs-toshiba-nec-format |date=2007-10-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt; after being voted down twice by Blu-ray Disc Association members, prompting the U.S. Department of Justice to maké preliminary investigations into the situation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6458096.html|title=Opinion: Trust's worth}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804053736/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6458096.html |date=2007-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6258560.html?q=DVD+Forum+Blu%2Dray|title=Lieberfarb lobs charges at Blu-ray}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090602111938/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6258560.html?q=DVD+Forum+Blu%2Dray |date=2009-06-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Three new members had to be invited and the voting rules changed before the vote finally passed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.my-esm.com/story/OEG20031114S0024 |title=High-definition DVD format divides industry into rival camps |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Junko Yoshida and Yoshiko Hara |date=2003-11-14 |work=my-esm.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20110720141401/http://www.my-esm.com/story/OEG20031114S0024 |date=2011-07-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.techweb.com/wire/story/TWB20031126S0005 |title=HD DVD Format Wins Key Nod From DVD Forum |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Yoshiko Hara |date=2003-11-26 |work=techweb.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106090311/http://www.techweb.com/wire/story/TWB20031126S0005 |date=2007-01-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the méan time, Sony spun off [[Professional Disc for DATA]] from the Blu-ray project. It was essentially Blu-ray with higher-quality media and components. The devices were too expensive for the consumer mass market. Instéad, it was aimed at the professional data storage space market as a replacement for their line of 5.25&quot; [[Magneto-optical drive|MO]] drives. It was announced in October 2003, with the first devices shipping in December of the same yéar.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dvd-recordable.org/Article890-mode=thread-order0-threshold0.phtml |title=Sony to Launch 23GB Optical Disc |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author= |date=2003-10-21 |work=dvd-recordable.org }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018151300/http://www.dvd-recordable.org/Article890-mode=thread-order0-threshold0.phtml |date=2007-10-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.theregister.com/2003/12/02/sony_ships_bluray_23gb_storage/ |title=Sony ships blu-ray 23GB storage system |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Tony Smith |date=2003-12-02 |work=theregister.co.uk |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Attempts to avoid a format war ====

The costs of a format war are large, both for consumers and for the industry. In an attempt to avoid starting one, the Blu-ray Disc Association and the DVD Forum attempted to negotiate a compromise in éarly 2005. One of the issues was that the Blu-ray camp wanted to use a Java-based platform for interactivity ([[BD-J]]), while the DVD Forum was promoting Microsoft's &quot;iHD&quot; (which became [[HDi Interactive Format|HDi]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800364355_499495_f3313299.HTM |title=Sides close to deal on HD disk format |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Junko Yoshida |date=2005-04-19 |work=eetasia.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt; A much larger issue, though, was the physical formats of the discs themselves; the Blu-ray member companies did not want to risk losing billions of dollars in royalties as they had done with standard DVD.&lt;ref name=&quot;stalemate&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.internetnews.com/storage/article.php/3671091 |title=Who Is Drawing Out The High-Def DVD Stalemate? |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Andy Patrizio |date=2007-04-12 |work=internetnews.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt; An agreement seemed close, but negotiations proceeded slowly.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/8e6df286-c670-11d9-b69b-00000e2511c8.html |title=Sony-Toshiba DVD format talks stall |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Michiyo Nakamoto |date=2005-05-17 |work=ft.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

At the end of June 2005, Sun announced that the Blu-ray Association had chosen the Java-based BD-J interactivity layer instéad of Microsoft's [[HDi Interactive Format|HDi]]. This was based on a BDA board vote favouring BD-J 10 to 4, despite a technical committee previously favouring HDi by a vote of 7 to 5.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6281492.html|title=Micro-managed copies}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101192254/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6281492.html |date=2008-01-01 }}&lt;/ref&gt; At the same time, Microsoft and Toshiba jointly announced that they would cooperate in developing high-definition DVD players.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/news/2005/06/68009 |title=Microsoft, Toshiba Gear Up |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=David Cohn |date=2005-06-27 |work=wired.com |publisher=|archiveurl=https://archive.is/GMOoK|archivedate=2013-02-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; In a top-level meeting in July, Microsoft's Bill Gates argued that the Blu-ray standard had to change to &quot;work more smoothly with personal computers&quot;.  The Blu-ray Disc Association's representatives defended the technology.&lt;ref name=&quot;DaggersDrawn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_42/b3955113.htm |title=Daggers Drawn Over DVDs |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Cliff Edwards,  Peter Burrows, Ronald Grover, Tom Lowry and Kenji Hall |date=2005-10-17 |work=businessweek.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On [[August 22]], [[2005]], the Blu-ray Disc Association and DVD Forum announced that the negotiations to unify their standards had failed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2005/08/22/afx2188394.html |title=Sony, Toshiba fail to unify DVD format - report |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author= |date=2005-08-22 |work=forbes.com |publisher=|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080906112416/http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2005/08/22/afx2188394.html|archivedate=2008-09-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rumours surfaced that an &quot;unnamed partner&quot; had pressured Toshiba to stick with HD DVD—in spite of Blu-ray's strong support among Hollywood studios and some analysts saying that HD DVD's days were numbéréd—but these rumours were denied by the parties involved; instéad, the same réasons of physical format incompatibility were cited.&lt;ref name=&quot;stalemate&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;DaggersDrawn&quot;/&gt; At the end of September, Microsoft and Intel jointly announced their support for HD DVD.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/n6BNgaGjf2Pdrz/Microsoft-Intel-Back-Toshibas-HD-DVD.xhtml |title=Microsoft, Intel Back Toshiba's HD-DVD |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Susan B. Shor |date=2005-09-27 |work=ecommercetimes.com |publisher= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723214525/http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/n6BNgaGjf2Pdrz/Microsoft-Intel-Back-Toshibas-HD-DVD.xhtml |date=2009-07-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Hewlett-Packard]] (HP) made a last attempt to broker a péace between with Blu-ray Disc Association and Microsoft. The company demanded that the Blu-ray association adopted Microsoft's [[HDi Interactive Format|HDi]] instéad of its own Java solution, and that Blu-ray  adopt a mandatory managed copy féature. If the demands weren't met, HP thréatened to support HD DVD instéad.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2144325/hp-calls-changes-blu-ray |title=HP calls for changes to Blu-ray |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Ken Young |date=2005-10-20 |work=vnunet.com|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20051023014523/http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2144325/hp-calls-changes-blu-ray|archivedate=2005-10-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; In a reséarch report, Gartner analysts Van Baker, Laura Behrens and Mike McGuire wrote that if HP's proposal was accepted, Blu-ray would become the winner of the format war.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2144595/hp-blu-ray-move-spells-doom-hd |title=HP's Blu-ray move spells doom for HD-DVD |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Robert Jaques |date=2005-10-25 |work=vnunet.com|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071220142959/http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2144595/hp-blu-ray-move-spells-doom-hd|archivedate=2007-12-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the Blu-ray disc group did not accept HP's proposal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,175904,00.html |title=Blu-Ray Won't Bow to HP's Demands |accessdate=2007-10-19 |date=2005-11-17 |work=foxnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Format Cakram Blu-ray rengse tur dikaluarkeun ===

The Blu-ray physical specifications were finished in 2004.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url = http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,117242-page,1/article.html
|title = New Blu-ray Details Emerge
|accessyear = 2007-10-17
|author = Martyn Williams
|date=  2004-08-05
|work = pcworld.com
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In January 2005, TDK announced that they had developed a hard coating polymer for Blu-ray discs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news2615.html |title=Exclusive TDK Durabis Coating Technology Makes Cartridge-Free, Ultra-Durable Blu-Ray Discs a Reality |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author= |date=2005-01-09 |work=physorg.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt; The cartridges, no longer necessary, were scrapped.
The BD-ROM specifications were finalized in éarly 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url = http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/06/blu-ray_spec_done/
|title = Blu-ray Disc developers complete specification
|accessdate = 2007-10-17
|author = Tony Smith
|date=  2006-01-06
|work = theregister.co.uk
}}&lt;/ref&gt; AACS LA, a consortium founded in 2004,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wired.com/entertainment/music/news/2004/07/64212 |title=Can Odd Alliance Beat Pirates? |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Katie Dean |date=2004-07-15 |work=wired.com|archiveurl=https://archive.is/yVZZ|archivedate=2012-12-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; had been developing the DRM platform that could be used to securely distribute movies to consumers. However, the final AACS standard was delayed,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,123924-page,1/article.html |title=Toshiba Hints at HD-DVD Delay |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Martyn Williams |date=2005-12-14 |work=pcworld.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then delayed again when an important member of the Blu-ray group voiced concerns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.heise.de/english/newsticker/news/69559 |title=AACS copy protection for Blu-ray disc and HD DVD delayed again |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Craig Morris |date=2006-02-14 |work=heise.de |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the request of Toshiba, an interim standard was published which did not include some féatures, like managed copy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,124961-page,1/article.html |title=Burning Questions: No Copying From First High-Def Players |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Melissa J. Perenson |date=2006-03-21 |work=pcworld.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first BD-ROM players were shipped in the middle of June 2006, though HD DVD players béat them in the race to the market by a few months.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web 
|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,189960,00.html 
|title= Toshiba Starts Selling HD DVD Players in Japan
|accessdate=2007-10-17 
|author=
|date= 2006-03-31
|work= foxnews.com
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url= http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2704,1977327,00.asp
|title= Samsung Ships the First Blu-Ray Player
|accessdate= 2007-10-17
|author= Dan Costa
|date= 2006-06-15
|work= pcmag.com
}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022184231/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2704,1977327,00.asp |date=2007-10-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first Blu-ray Disc titles were reléased on [[June 20]] [[2006]]. The éarliest reléases used [[MPEG-2]] vidéo compression, the same method used on [[DVD]]s. The first reléases using the newer [[VC-1]] and [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|AVC]] [[codec]]s were introduced in September 2006.&lt;ref&gt;[http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Warner/Disc_Announcements/Full_Specs_in_for_Warners_Sept_26_Lineup_Studio_to_Go_VC-1_for_Blu-ray/209 Full Specs in for Warner's Sept 26 Lineup; Studio to Go VC-1 for Blu-ray?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909072308/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Warner/Disc_Announcements/Full_Specs_in_for_Warners_Sept_26_Lineup_Studio_to_Go_VC-1_for_Blu-ray/209 |date=2007-09-09 }}, BLU-RAY NEWS, High-Def Digest, [[30 August]] [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt; The first movies using dual layer discs (50&amp;nbsp;GB) were introduced in October 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
| url = http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/click.html
| title = Click: Blu-ray Disc review
| accessdate = 2007-09-15
| date = 2006-10-10
| last = Bracke
| first = Peter M.
| work = HighDefDigest.com
}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914020236/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/click.html |date=2007-09-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first mass-market Blu-ray rewritable drive for the PC was the BWU-100A, reléased by [[Sony]] on [[July 18]] [[2006]]. It recorded both single and dual layer BD-R as well as BD-RE discs and had a suggested retail price of US$699.

HD DVD had a héad start in the high definition vidéo market and Blu-ray sales were slow at first. The first Blu-ray player was perceived as expensive and buggy, and there were few titles available.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://reviews.cnet.com/video-players-and-recorders/samsung-bd-p1000/4505-6463_7-31799185.html#more |title=Samsung BD-P1000 Review |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=David Katzmaier |date=2006-06-30 |work=cnet.com |publisher= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021072645/http://reviews.cnet.com/video-players-and-recorders/samsung-bd-p1000/4505-6463_7-31799185.html#more |date=2007-10-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; This changed when [[PlayStation 3]] launched, since every PS3 unit also functioned as a Blu-ray player. By February 2007, Blu-ray discs had outsold HD DVDs,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.homemediamagazine.com/news/html/breaking_article.cfm?article_id=10323 |title=Blu-ray Tips Scales   |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Stephanie Prange |date=2007-02-23 |work=homemediamagazine.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt; and during the first three quarters of 2007, BD discs outsold HD DVDs by about two to one.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.charleston.net/news/2007/sep/30/dvd_formats_blu_ray_hd_square_off17561/ |title=DVD formats Blu-ray, HD square off |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Sarah McBride |date=2007-09-30 |work=charleston.net |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Disc structure ==
=== Laser and optics ===

Like its rival format [[HD DVD]], Blu-ray uses a &quot;blue&quot; (technically [[blue laser|violet]]) [[laser diode|laser]] operating at a [[wavelength]] of 405 [[Nanometre|nm]] to réad and write data. Conventional [[DVD]]s and [[Compact disc|CDs]] use red and néar infrared lasers at 650&amp;nbsp;nm and 780&amp;nbsp;nm respectively.

The blue-violet laser's shorter wavelength makes it possible to store more information on a 12&amp;nbsp;cm CD/DVD sized disc. The minimum &quot;[[spatial resolution|spot size]]&quot; on which a laser can be focused is limited by [[diffraction]], and depends on the wavelength of the light and the [[Numerical aperture (microscopy)|numerical aperture]] of the [[lens (optics)|lens]] used to focus it. By decréasing the wavelength, incréasing the numerical aperture from 0.60 to 0.85 and making the cover layer thinner to avoid unwanted optical effects, the laser béam can be focused to a smaller spot. This allows more information to be stored in the same aréa. In addition to the optical improvements, Blu-ray Discs féature improvements in data encoding that further incréase the capacity. (See ''[[Compact disc]]'' for information on optical discs' physical structure.)

=== Hard-coating technology ===
Since the Blu-ray data layer is closer to the surface of the disk, compared to the [[DVD]] standard, it was at first more vulnerable to scratches. The first discs were housed in cartridges for protection. Advances in [[polymer]] technology eventually made the caddies unnecessary.

[[TDK Corporation|TDK]] was the first company to develop a working scratch protection coating for Blu-ray discs. It was named [[Durabis]]. In addition, both Sony and Panasonic's replication methods include proprietary hard-coat technologies. Sony's rewritable media are sprayed with a scratch-resistant and antistatic coating. Verbatim recordable and rewritable Blu-ray Disc discs use their own proprietary hard-coat technology called ScratchGuard.

== Software standards ==
=== Codecs ===
[[Codec]]s are [[data compression|compression]] schemes that store audio and vidéo more efficiently, either giving longer play time or higher quality per megabyte. There are both [[Lossy compression|lossy]] and [[Lossless data compression|lossless]] compression techniques.

The BD-ROM specification mandates certain codec compatibilities for both hardware decoders (players) and the movie-software (content). For vidéo, all players are required to support [[MPEG-2]], [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264/AVC]], and [[SMPTE]] [[VC-1]]. MPEG-2 is the codec used on regular [[DVD]]s, which allows [[backwards compatibility]]. H.264/AVC was developed by [[MPEG]] and [[Video Coding Experts Group|VCEG]] as a modérn successor of MPEG-2. VC-1 is another MPEG-4 derivative codec mostly developed by Microsoft. BD-ROM titles with vidéo must store vidéo using one of the three mandatory codecs. Multiple codecs on a single title are allowed.

The choice of codecs affects the producer's licensing/royalty costs, as well as the title's maximum runtime, due to differences in compression efficiency. Discs encoded in MPEG-2 vidéo typically limit content producers to around two hours of high-definition content on a single-layer (25&amp;nbsp;GB) BD-ROM. The more advanced vidéo codecs (VC-1 and H.264) typically achieve a vidéo runtime twice that of MPEG-2, with comparable quality.

For audio, BD-ROM players are required to support [[Dolby Digital|Dolby Digital AC-3]], [[Digital Theater System|DTS]], and [[Linear pulse code modulation|linear PCM]]. Players may optionally support [[Dolby Digital Plus]], and [[Lossless data compression|lossless]] formats [[Dolby TrueHD]] and [[DTS HD]]. BD-ROM titles must use one of mandatory schemes for the primary soundtrack. A secondary audiotrack, if present, may use any of the mandatory or optional codecs.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dolby.com/assets/pdf/tech_library/DPlus_TrueHD_whitepaper.pdf Dolby Audio Coding for Future Entertainment Formats](PDF)&lt;/ref&gt;

For users recording [[digital television]] programming, the recordable Blu-ray Disc standard's datarate of 54&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s is more than adequate to record high-definition broadcasts from any source ([[IPTV]], cable/satellite, or terrestrial). For Blu-ray Disc movies the maximum transfer rate is 48&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s (1.5x) (both audio and vidéo payloads together), of which a maximum of 40&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s can be dedicated to vidéo data. This compares favorably to the maximum of 36.55&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s in HD DVD movies for audio and vidéo data.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.blu-ray.com/faq/|title=Blu-ray FAQ|accessdate=2007-07-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Java software support ===
{{utama|BD-J}}
At the 2005 [[JavaOne]] trade show, it was announced that [[Sun Microsystems]]' [[Java platform|Java]] cross-platform software environment would be included in all Blu-ray Disc players as a mandatory part of the standard. Java is used to implement interactive menus on Blu-ray Discs, as opposed to the method used on [[DVD]] vidéo discs, which uses pre-rendered MPEG segments and selectable subtitle pictures, which is considerably more primitive and less séamless. Java créator [[James Gosling]], at the conference, suggested that the inclusion of a [[Java Virtual Machine]] as well as network connectivity in BD devices will allow updates to Blu-ray Discs via the Internet, adding content such as additional subtitle languages and promotional féatures that are not included on the disc at pressing time. This Java Version is called [[BD-J]] and is a subset of the [[Globally Executable MHP]] (GEM) standard. GEM is the world-wide version of the [[Multimedia Home Platform]] standard.

=== Kode wewengkon ===
[[Image:Blu-ray regions with key.png|thumb|400px|right|Wewengkon keur standar Blu-ray&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.blu-raydisc.com/Section-13470/Section-14003/Section-14006/Index.html
 | title = Blu-ray Disc keur Video
 | language =
 | accessdate = 2007-01-14
 | year = 2006
}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Blu-ray discs may be encoded with a '''region code''', intended to restrict the aréa of the world in which they can be played; similar to the [[DVD region code]]s. Blu-ray players sold in a certain region should only be able to play discs encoded for that region. The purpose of this system is to allow [[film studio|motion picture studios]] to control the various aspects of a reléase (including content, date, and, in particular, price) according to the region. Discs may also be produced without region coding, so they can be played on all devices.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Region code !! Aréa&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.emedialive.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=11392
 | title = The Authoritative Blu-ray Disc (BD) FAQ: What is Regional Playback Control?
 | language = 
 | accessdate = 2006-08-29
 | year = 2006
 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070219115147/http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11392 |date=2007-02-19 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | A || [[Amerika Kaler]], [[Amerika Tengah]], [[Amerika Kidul]], [[Jepang]], [[Taiwan]], [[Korea Kaler]], [[Korea Kidul]], [[Hong Kong]], jeung [[Asia Tenggara]].
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | B || [[Eropa]], [[Greenland]], [[French overseas departments and territories|French territories]], [[Wetan Tengah]], [[Afrika]], [[Australia]], jeung [[Selandia Anyar]].
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | C || [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Mainland China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Rusia]], [[Asia Tengah]] jeung [[Asia Kidul|Kidul]].
|-
|}

This arrangement places the countries of the major Blu-ray manufacturers (Japan, Koréa, Malaysia) in the same region as the U.S., thus ensuring éarly reléases of U.S. content to those markets. Reportedly, éarly BD reléases (including ''[[Casino Royale]]'') are &quot;ALL&quot; region and therefore compatible in various BD players around the globe.

=== Digital rights management ('''DRM''') ===
The Blu-ray Disc format employs several layers of [[Digital rights management]].&lt;ref name=&quot;dellbd-romprotection&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/vectors/brcp.pdf |title=Blu-ray Disc™ Next-Generation Optical Storage: Protecting Content on the BD-ROM |accessdate=2007-05-03 |publisher=[[DELL]] |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.blu-raydisc.com/assets/downloadablefile/5th_japan_05-13343.pdf |title=Overview of BD-ROM security |accessdate=2007-05-03 |author=AJIMA, Kosuke |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=2006-03-29 |year=2006 |month=March |publisher=Blu-ray Disc Association Content Protection Group }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307102259/http://www.blu-raydisc.com/assets/downloadablefile/5th_japan_05-13343.pdf |date=2007-03-07 }}&lt;/ref&gt; They have been at léast partially circumvented.

'''[[Advanced Access Content System]]''' (AACS) is a standard for [[content distribution]] and [[digital rights management]]. It is developed by AACS Licensing Administrator, LLC (AACS LA), a [[consortium]] that includes [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Intel]], [[Microsoft]], [[Matsushita]] (Panasonic), [[Warner Bros.]], [[IBM]], [[Toshiba]] and [[Sony]].

Since appéaring in devices in 2006, several successful attacks have been made on the format. The first known attack relied on the [[trusted client]] problem. In addition, decryption keys have been extracted from a wéakly protected player ([[WinDVD]]). However, even though [[History of attacks against Advanced Access Content System|some AACS cryptographic keys have been compromised]], new reléases will use new, uncompromised keys.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

'''[[BD+]]''' was developed by [[Cryptography Research Inc.]] and is based on their concept of [[Self-Protecting Digital Content]].&lt;ref&gt;http://www.cryptography.com/technology/spdc/bluray.html&lt;/ref&gt;  BD+ is effectively a small [[virtual machine]] embedded in authorized players. It allows content providers to include executable programs on Blu-ray Discs. Such programs can:&lt;ref name=&quot;dellbd-romprotection&quot;/&gt;
* examine the host environment, to see if the player has been tampered with. Every licensed playback device manufacturer must provide the BD+ licensing authority with memory footprints that identify their devices.
* verify that the player's keys have not been changed.
* execute native code, possibly to patch an otherwise insecure system.
* transform the audio and vidéo output. Parts of the content will not be viewable without letting the BD+-program unscramble it.

If a playback device manufacturer finds that its devices have been hacked, it can potentially reléase BD+-code that detects and circumvents the vulnerability. These programs can then be included in all new content reléases.

The specifications of the BD+ virtual machine are only available to licensed device manufacturers. A list of licensed adopters is available from the [http://www.bdplusllc.com/home/list_of_adopters_content_participants_and_eligible_code_developers BD+ website].

BD+ was made available for content publishers in June 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=268 |title=BD+ Goes Live |accessdate=2007-11-02 |author=Josh |date=2007-06-19 |work=blu-ray.com |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first titles using BD+ were reléased in October the same yéar. Several players had problems playing back those titles.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20071007-new-blu-ray-discs-with-bd-drm-failing-to-play-on-some-devices.html |title=New Blu-ray discs with BD+ DRM failing to play on some devices |accessdate=2007-11-02 |author=Jeremy Reimer |date=2007-10-07 |work=arstechnica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; BD+ has been circumvented by the developers of the program [[AnyDVD]] as of version 6.1.9.6 beta.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.engadgethd.com/2007/11/07/slysofts-latest-anydvd-beta-cracks-bd/ |title=SlySoft's latest AnyDVD beta cracks BD+ |accessdate=2007-11-07 |author=Darren Murph |date=2007-11-07 |work=engadgethd.com |publisher= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109100247/http://www.engadgethd.com/2007/11/07/slysofts-latest-anydvd-beta-cracks-bd/ |date=2007-11-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''[[ROM-Mark|BD-ROM Mark]]''' is a small amount of cryptographical data that is stored physically differently from normal Blu-ray Disc data. Bit-by-bit copies that do not replicate the BD-ROM Mark are impossible to decode. A specially licensed piece of hardware is required to insert the ROM-mark into the media during replication. Through licensing of the special hardware element, the BDA believes that it can eliminate the possibility of mass producing BD-ROMs without authorization.

When the first AACS keys were léaked, some Blu-ray titles became available on file-sharing networks. There is also a commercial PC software player ([[AnyDVD|AnyDVD HD]]) that allowed users to watch Blu-ray Disc movies on non-HDCP compliant PC hardware or copy them.

== Player profiles ==
The BD-ROM specification defines four profiles of Blu-ray Disc players; in addition to the three listed in the table below, there is a fourth audio-only profile that does not require vidéo decoding or [[BD-J]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.gizmorepublic.com/media/blu-ray-profiles-everything-you-wanted-know-1270 |title=Blu-ray profiles, everything you wanted to know |accessdate=2007-12-19 |author= |date=2007-12-17 |work= |publisher= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071220182634/http://www.gizmorepublic.com/media/blu-ray-profiles-everything-you-wanted-know-1270 |date=2007-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; All the vidéo-based profiles are required to have a full implementation of [[BD-J]], but with varying levels of hardware support.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Féature&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11397#iij |title=The Authoritative BD FAQ: II. Physical, Logical, and Application Specifications |accessdate=2007-10-19 |author=Hugh Bennett |date=2006-06-01 |work=emedialive.com |publisher= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029172049/http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11397#iij |date=2007-10-29 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
! BD-Vidéo (Grace Period Profile – Profile 1.0)
! Bonus View (Final Standard Profile – Profile 1.1)
! BD-Live (Profile 2)
|-
| Built-in persistent memory
| 64 KB
| 64 KB
| 64 KB
|-
| Local storage capability{{ref|profiles_table_note_a|[a]}}
| –
| 256 MB
| 1 GB
|-
| Secondary vidéo decoder ([[Picture-in-picture|PiP]])
| Optional
| Mandatory
| Mandatory
|-
| Secondary audio decoder{{ref|profiles_table_note_b|[b]}}
| Optional
| Mandatory
| Mandatory
|-
| [[Virtual file system]]
| Optional
| Mandatory
| Mandatory
|-
| Internet connection capability
| No
| No
| Mandatory
|}
{{note|profiles_table_note_a}}'''a''' This is used for storing audio/vidéo and title updates. It can either be built in memory or removable media, such as a memory card or a USB flash memory.

{{note|profiles_table_note_b}}'''b''' A secondary audio decoder is typically used for interactive audio and commentary

On [[November 1]] [[2007]], the Grace Period Profile was superseded by &quot;Bonus View&quot; as the minimum profile for new players reléased to the market.&lt;ref name=&quot;BonusView&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6495668.html|title=Blu-ray Disc Assn. promotes new Bonus View}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218181606/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6495668.html |date=2008-12-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt; With the exception of the PlayStation 3, profile 1.0 players cannot be upgraded to be Bonus View compliant.&lt;ref&gt;[http://crave.cnet.com/8301-1_105-9808376-1.html Does Blu-ray Profile 1.1 make past players obsolete?]&lt;/ref&gt; On [[December 17]], [[2007]], the PlayStation 3 became Bonus View 1.1 compliant through PlayStation 3 System Software version 2.10.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://blog.us.playstation.com/2007/12/17/firmware-update-v210/| title=Firmware Update (v2.10)| publisher=Sony| first=Eric| last=Lempel| date=[[2007-12-17]]| accessdate=2007-12-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;

When software authored with interactive féatures dependent on &quot;Bonus View&quot; hardware capabilities are played on profile 1.0 players some féatures may not be available or may offer limited capability. Profile 1.0 players will still be able to play the main féature of the disc, however.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Joshua_Zyber/High-Def_FAQ:_Blu-ray_Profiles_Explained/1186| title=High-Def FAQ: Blu-ray Profiles Explained| first=Joshua| last=Zyber| publisher=highdefdigest.com| date=[[2007-11-23]]| accessdate=2007-12-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222023739/http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Joshua_Zyber/High-Def_FAQ:_Blu-ray_Profiles_Explained/1186 |date=2007-12-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Backward compatibility ==
While it is not compulsory for manufacturers; the Blu-ray Disc Association recommends that Blu-ray Disc drives should be capable of réading standard DVDs for [[backward compatibility]]. For instance, Samsung's first Blu-ray Disc drive can réad CDs, regular DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs. All other Blu-ray Disc players reléased are also capable of DVD playback, though not all support CD playback. This includes [[Sony]], [[Panasonic]], [[Philips]], [[LG Group|LG]], [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] and PC-based players from [[Alienware]], [[Sony]], and [[Dell]].

== List of Blu-ray devices ==
&lt;!-- maybe we should add a column specifying the player profile. This might be a good resource:
http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11397#iij--&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; 
|-
! Device name
! Manufacturer
! Type of device
! Release date
! Approximate price
|-
| [[PlayStation 3]]
| [[Sony]]
| [[Video game console]] (Profile 1.1)
| [[November 11]], [[2006]]
| [[United States dollar|US$]]399&lt;ref name=&quot;PS3price&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&amp;STORY=/www/story/10-18-2007/0004684726&amp;EDATE=|title=Sony Computer Entertainment America Announces New 40GB Playstation 3 Configuration|accessdate=2007-10-29|date=[[2007-10-18]]|format=HTML|work=Sony|publisher=PR Newswire|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt;/499$
|-
| [[Panasonic DMP-BD10|DMP-BD10]]
| [[Panasonic]]
| Stand-alone player
| 2006
| [[United States dollar|US$]]599
|-
| DMP-BD30
| [[Panasonic]]
| Stand-alone player (Profile 1.1)
| 2007
| [[United States dollar|US$]]500
|-
| [[Sony BDP-S1|BDP-S1]]
| [[Sony]]
| Stand-alone player
| [[December 4]], [[2006]]
| [[United States dollar|US$]]1000
|-
| BD-P1200
| [[Samsung]]
| Stand-alone player
| [[January 8]], [[2007]]
| [[United States dollar|US$]]799
|-
| BD-P1000
| [[Samsung]]
| Stand-alone player
| [[June 20th]], [[2006]]
| [[United States dollar|US$]]450 
|-
| [[Sony BDP-S300|BDP-S300]]
| [[Sony]]
| Stand-alone player
| 
| [[United States dollar|US$]]499
|-
| [http://www.sharp.nl/php/p.php?par=30_no_no_1769 Sharp BD-HP20S ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225061638/http://www.sharp.nl/php/p.php?par=30_no_no_1769 |date=2007-12-25 }}
| [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]]
| Stand-alone player
| 
| 
|-
| BD-P1400
| [[Samsung]]
| Stand-alone player
| 
| [[United States dollar|US$]]499
|-
| BDP-LX70
| [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]]
| Stand-alone player
| 
| JP Only. open price(MSRP is not set to this. )
|-
| BDP-LX80
| Pioneer
| Stand-alone player
| 
| JP Only. open price
|-
| AQUOS BD-HP1
| [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]]
| Stand-alone player
| 
| JP Only. open price
|-
| AQUOS BD-AV1
| Sharp
| BD-RE/DVD Recordable stand-alone player
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| AQUOS BD-AV10
| Sharp
| BD-RE/DVD Recordable stand-alone player
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| AQUOS BD-HDW15
| Sharp
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| December 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| AQUOS BD-HDW20
| Sharp
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| December 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| DMR-E700BD
| [[Panasonic]]
| Blu-ray/DVD Recorder
| 
| JP Only. open price
|-
| DIGA DMR-BW200
| Panasonic
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| 
| JP Only. open price
|-
| DIGA DMR-BR100&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.blurayfreak.com/2006/09/panasonic_will_.html
 | title = Panasonic will Launch a Blu-ray Disc Recorders with BD Playback
 | accessdate = 2006-10-13
 | year = 2006
 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027150350/http://www.blurayfreak.com/2006/09/panasonic_will_.html |date=2006-10-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Panasonic
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| 
| JP Only. open price
|-
| [http://panasonic.jp/diga/products/bw900_bw800_bw700/index.html DIGA DMR-BW700 ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218023648/http://panasonic.jp/diga/products/bw900_bw800_bw700/index.html |date=2007-12-18 }}
| Panasonic
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player(Profile 1.1)
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| DIGA DMR-BW800
| Panasonic
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player(Profile 1.1)
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| DIGA DMR-BW900
| Panasonic
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player(Profile 1.1)
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| BDZ-V7
| [[Sony]] 
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| 
| JP Only. open price
|-
| BDZ-V9
| Sony
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| 
| JP Only. open price
|-
| BDZ-T50
| Sony
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| BDZ-T70
| Sony
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| BDZ-L70
| Sony
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| BDZ-X90
| Sony
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Recordable stand-alone player
| November 2007
| JP Only. open price
|-
| [http://www.vidabox.com/Products/MAX.htm VidaBox MAX] and [http://www.vidabox.com/Products/LUX.htm VidaBox LUX]
| [[VidaBox]]
| [[Media center|media center PC]] (supports both Blu-ray and HD DVD)
| 
| 
|-
| BH-100&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.lge.com/about/press_release/detail/PRO%7CNEWS%5EPRE%7CMENU%5ERND%7CMENU_20318_PRE%7CMENU.jhtml
 | title = LG BH100 Combo Drive
 | accessdate = 2007-04-15
 | year = 2007
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[LG Electronics]]
| Stand-alone player (supports both Blu-ray and HD DVD)
|  [[January 7]], [[2007]]
| 
|-
| BH-200
| [[LG Electronics]]
| Stand-alone player (supports both Blu-ray and HD DVD)
|  [[October]], [[2007]]
| 
|-
| BD-UP5000&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.samsung.com/PressCenter/PressRelease/PressRelease.asp?seq=20070413_0000338109
 | title = Samsung BD-UP5000 Combo Drive
 | accessdate = 2007-04-15
 | year = 2007
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Samsung]]
| Stand-alone player (supports both Blu-ray and HD DVD)
| 
| 
|-
| [[VAIO]] AR Series
| [[Sony]]
| [[Laptop|Laptop computer]]
| 2006
|
|-
| [[VAIO]] FZ Series
| [[Sony]]
| [[Laptop|Laptop computer]]
| 2007
|  
|-
| XPS M1710
| [[Dell]]
| [[Laptop|Laptop computer]]
| December 2006
| [[United States dollar|US$]]3,599
|-
| XPS M1730
| [[Dell]]
| [[Laptop|Laptop computer]]
|
|
|-
| XPS M2010
| [[Dell]]
| [[Laptop|Laptop computer]]
| 
| 
|-
| Pavilion Desktop
| [[Hewlett-Packard]]
| [[Desktop computer]] (can be customized to include a Blu-ray drive)
| [[9 May]] [[2007]]
| 
|-
| TravelMate 8215WLMi&lt;ref name=&quot;travelmate_blu-ray&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://crave.cnet.co.uk/laptops/0,39029450,49285109,00.htm |title=Acer TravelMate 8215WLMi with Blu-ray drive }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227142205/http://crave.cnet.co.uk/laptops/0,39029450,49285109,00.htm |date=2007-12-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Acer]]
| [[Laptop|Laptop computer]]
| 2006
| 
|-
| ASUS Lamborghini VX2&lt;ref name=&quot;travelmate_blu-ray&quot;/&gt;
| [[ASUSTek]]
| [[Laptop|Laptop computer]]
| 
| 
|-
| ASUS Lamborghini W2W&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.asus.com/products4.aspx?modelmenu=2&amp;model=1834&amp;l1=5&amp;l2=22&amp;l3=192&amp;l4=0 |title=Asus W2W with Blu-ray and/or HD DVD }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[ASUSTek]]
| [[Laptop|Laptop computer]]
| 
| 
|-
| BDC-2202
| [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]]
| PC drive
| [[May 2]], [[2007]]
| [[United States dollar|US$]]299&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.pioneerelectronics.com/pna/v3/pg/press/release/detail/0,,2076_310069589_439711429,00.html
 | title = Pioneer BDC-2202 Blu-ray Drive - Press release
 | accessdate = 2007-05-04
 | year = 2007
 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070504021406/http://www.pioneerelectronics.com/pna/v3/pg/press/release/detail/0,,2076_310069589_439711429,00.html |date=2007-05-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| DH-401S&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=about:blank
 | title = LiteOn DH-401S SATA drive
 | accessdate = 2007-10-31
 | year = 2007
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[LiteOn]]
| PC drive
| [[31 October]] [[2007]]
| 
|-
| BC-1205PT&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.psu.com/Blu-ray-scores-major-new-supporter--a0001253-p0.php
 | title = ASUS BD-ROM/DVD writer drive
 | accessdate = 2007-09-09
 | year = 2007
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[ASUS]]
| PC drive
| [[9 September]] [[2007]]
| 
|-
| BWU-100A
| [[ASUS]]
| Recordable PC drive
| [[July 18]] [[2006]]
| [[United States dollar|US$]]699 &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://news.sel.sony.com/en/press_room/consumer/computer_peripheral/storage_sol_others/release/23478.html
 | title = Sony BWU-100A rewritable drive
 | accessdate = 2007-05-04
 | year = 2007
 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221112701/http://news.sel.sony.com/en/press_room/consumer/computer_peripheral/storage_sol_others/release/23478.html |date=2009-02-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| DZ-BD7A&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hitachi.us/Apps/hitachicom/content.jsp?page=products/camcorders/blu-ray/details/DZBD70A.html&amp;level=4&amp;section=products&amp;parent=details&amp;nav=left&amp;path=jsp/hitachi/forhome/ubcg/ DZ-BD70A, Blu-ray/DVD Camcorder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028033549/http://www.hitachi.us/Apps/hitachicom/content.jsp?page=products/camcorders/blu-ray/details/DZBD70A.html&amp;level=4&amp;section=products&amp;parent=details&amp;nav=left&amp;path=jsp/hitachi/forhome/ubcg/ |date=2007-10-28 }} Hitachi America, Ltd.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Hitachi, Ltd|Hitachi]]
| Blu-ray/DVD [[Camcorder]]
| 
|
|-
| DZ-BD7HA&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hitachi.us/Apps/hitachicom/content.jsp?page=products/camcorders/blu-ray/details/DZBD7HA.html&amp;level=4&amp;section=products&amp;parent=details&amp;nav=left&amp;path=jsp/hitachi/forhome/ubcg/ DZ-BD7HA,  Blu-ray/HDD(30GB)/DVD Hybrid Camcorder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028032740/http://www.hitachi.us/Apps/hitachicom/content.jsp?page=products/camcorders/blu-ray/details/DZBD7HA.html&amp;level=4&amp;section=products&amp;parent=details&amp;nav=left&amp;path=jsp/hitachi/forhome/ubcg/ |date=2007-10-28 }} Hitachi America, Ltd.&lt;/ref&gt; 
| [[Hitachi, Ltd|Hitachi]]
| Blu-ray/DVD/HDD Hybrid Camcorder
| 
|  
|-
| Lite-On DH-4O1S&lt;ref name=&quot;cheap-199-player&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.gearlog.com/2007/11/cheap_199_bluray_player_announ.php |title=Cheap $199 Blu-ray Player Announced...for the PC |publisher=Gearlog |date=[[November 13]], [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-11-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212201834/http://www.gearlog.com/2007/11/cheap_199_bluray_player_announ.php |date=2008-02-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Philips]] and [[Lite-On]]
| Read Only PC Drive
| 
| [[United States dollar|US$]]199&lt;ref name=&quot;cheap-199-player&quot;/&gt;
|-
|}

&lt;!-- this seems out-of-place, but I'm not sure where it should go --&gt;
Sony has said that it will reléase the first portable BD player in 2008.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Hitachi is developing Blu-ray camcorders, to be reléased in Japan during fall 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Hitachi Developed Critical Technologies for 1920×1080 Pixel Blu-ray Camcorder |publisher=Nikkei Business Publications, Inc |url=http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20070723/136497/ |accessdate=2007-07-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Corporate support ==

{{utama|List of corporations supporting Blu-ray}}
[[Gambar:Img440.jpg||jmpl|200px|The first Blu-Ray porn movie in the world released by Magmafilm Germany 10/2007, start after long controversy.]]

Blu-ray Disc has gained a large amount of support in the corporate world,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.blu-raydisc.com/general_information/Section-14009/Index.html|title=Companies supporting Blu-ray|accessdate=2007-07-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; with companies such as [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Dell]], and [[Panasonic]] backing it. Blu-ray Disc was started by [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]], [[LG Electronics|LG]], [[Panasonic]], [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]], [[Philips]], [[Samsung]], [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]], [[Sony]], and [[Thomson SA|Thomson]] in [[February 19]], [[2002]], with Panasonic, Sony, Pioneer, and Philips as the back-bone of the foundation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press_Archive/200202/02-0219E/
 | title = Large Capacity Optical Disc Video Recording Format &quot;Blu-ray Disc&quot; Established
 | publisher=SONY Press Release
 | language =
 | date=  February 19, 2002
 | accessdate = 2007-08-31
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several members of the Blu-ray organization's Board of Directors who had originally pledged to support Blu-ray Disc later also supported [[HD DVD]], such as [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Samsung]], and [[LG]].

Among the [[Major film studio|movie studios]], Blu-ray Disc is currently exclusively supported in the United States by [[Sony Pictures Entertainment]] and [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]] (20% of MGM's stake is owned by [[Sony]]) as well as [[Disney]], [[20th Century Fox]], and [[Lionsgate]]. Outside of the United States, movies from these studios are often distributed by different companies, such as [[StudioCanal]] in Europe.  Thus many of these Blu-ray exclusive titles are available outside the U.S. on HD DVD.&lt;ref name=&quot;HDOutsideUS&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.audioholics.com/news/editorials/blu-rays-dirty-little-secret|title=Blu-ray exclusive movies on HD DVD}}&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, movies that are exclusive to HD DVD in the United States have Blu-ray reléases in other regions. An example of this is the Universal Studios film [[Bruce Almighty]], which has been reléased exclusively on HD DVD in the U.S., but has been reléased as a Blu-ray exclusive in Europe due to the distribution rights held by [[Buena Vista]].{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Many Blu-ray discs are multi-region, making import of these titles éasier.&lt;ref&gt;[http://bluray.liesinc.net/ Region Coded/Region Free compatibility list]&lt;/ref&gt;

It is non-exclusively supported by [[Warner Bros.]], and [[New Line Cinema]].  [[Warner Bros.]] has several HD DVD exclusive titles at the moment that are scheduled for reléase on Blu-ray in the néar future. It should be noted that some of New Line Cinema's titles, the first being [[Hairspray (2007 film)|Hairspray]], were originally announced as limited time Blu-ray exclusives due to lack of region coding with HD DVD.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.hddvd.com/go.php/region-coding-delays-the-hd-dvd-release-of-new-line%e2%80%99s-hairspray/|title=hddvd.com - New line titles delayed for HD DVD due to lack of region coding}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120170248/http://www.hddvd.com/go.php/region-coding-delays-the-hd-dvd-release-of-new-line%e2%80%99s-hairspray |date=2008-11-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/New_Line/Disc_Announcements/New_Line_Jumps_Into_High-Def_with_Hairspray_on_Blu-ray_HD_DVD_to_Follow_in_2008/958|title=New Line Jumps Into High-Def with 'Hairspray' on Blu-ray; HD DVD to Follow in 2008}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109201328/http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/New_Line/Disc_Announcements/New_Line_Jumps_Into_High-Def_with_Hairspray_on_Blu-ray_HD_DVD_to_Follow_in_2008/958 |date=2007-11-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt; All future catalog titles will be reléased simultanéously in both formats.

It had been reported by various sources (PC World, Ars Technica, CNN, et al) that pornography had been disallowed on Blu-ray Disc, which may have had an effect on the success of the format.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20070112-8602.html |title=Adult film industry embracing HD DVD |publisher=ars technica |date=January 12, 2007 |accessdate=2007-08-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;  However, this is inaccurate, as both formats have said they fully support all material, including porn, and have no control over what companies reléase with their license.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.informationweek.com/news/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=196903070 |title=Sony Denies Preventing Adult Content On Blu-Ray |publisher=InformationWeek |date=January 23, 2007 |accessdate=2007-08-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Blu-ray is currently exclusively backed by several [[porn|adult-movie]] studios/publishers,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,135222/article.html|title=PCworld.com - Japanese Porn Industry Embraces Blu-ray}}&lt;/ref&gt; including Taisei Co. Ltd. and Total Media Agency Inc. Contrary to many internet blogs, it has been reported by ABC News that the porn industry will not be a factor in the current format war.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=2835806&amp;page=1|title=Porn Factor: Why Erotic Movies Won't Decide Next Gen DVD War|date=January 31, 2007 |accessdate=2007-09-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The main réason is that many pornographic websites have movie downloads as an option, thus making the disc format less important.

Blockbuster, the largest U.S. movie rental company, offers Blu-ray exclusively in 1450 stores. Previously, the company test-marketed both competing formats at 250 stores and found that more than 70% of high definition rentals were Blu-ray discs.  They continue to offer both formats at those initial 250 stores, as well as on its online rental service.&lt;ref&gt;[http://blockbuster.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&amp;item=727 Blockbuster to Expand Blu-Ray to 1,700 Stores] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121021837/http://blockbuster.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&amp;item=727 |date=2008-01-21 }}, Blockbuster Inc. Press Releases [[2007-06-18]].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_513097.html
 | title = Blockbuster to favor Blu-ray high-definition discs over rival HD DVD format
 | accessdate = 2007-06-17
 | year = 2007
 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620083747/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_513097.html |date=2007-06-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.b2i.us/profiles/investor/ResLibraryView.asp?BzID=553&amp;ResLibraryID=20345&amp;Category=1027
 | title = Blockbuster to Expand Blu-Ray to 1,700 Stores
 | accessdate = 2007-06-17
 | year = 2007
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Netflix, the world's largest online movie rental service&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  
 | url = http://www.netflix.com/MediaCenter?id=5379#about 
 | title = About Netflix 
 | accessdate = 2007-12-13
 | year = 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;, offers titles in both HD-DVD and Blu-Ray formats. According to a new Internet tracking report, although Netflix's Blu-ray pages receive more hits, users are more likely to set HD DVD as their preferred format.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  
 | url = http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/34235/113/
 | title = Netflix sees stronger loyalty for HD DVD than Blu-ray 
 | accessdate = 2007-12-13
 | year = 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On [[July 25]] [[2007]], [[Target Corporation]] announced they will carry Sony Blu-ray Disc stand alone players in their stores and promote them with end cap displays including exclusive Blu-ray Disc movies from Sony and Walt Disney. Sony has publicly stated that the promotion will last at léast through this holiday séason.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idUSN2643741920070726&lt;/ref&gt; While Target will not carry HD DVD stand alone players on its shelves, the chain will continue to sell both Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD movies in all stores and HD DVD players online.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2007/07/25/ap3952696.html
 | title = Target to Promote Blu-Ray DVD Format
 | accessdate = 2007-07-29
 | year = 2007
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070727005340/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2007/07/25/ap3952696.html|archivedate=2007-07-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;
The LA Times reports that the déal to promote Sony Blu-ray Disc stand alone players was the result of a bidding war, in which Sony and three studios reportedly paid a &quot;jaw-dropping&quot; sum for the end cap displays.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/business/la-fi-dvdwar10sep10,1,5792818.story?coll=la-headlines-business-enter&amp;ctrack=5&amp;cset=true
 | title = A high-definition fight scene in slow motion
 | accessdate = 2007-09-10
 | year = 2007
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On [[August 20]] [[2007]], [[Paramount Pictures]], [[DreamWorks Pictures]] and [[DreamWorks Animation]], announced they would no longer be supporting the Blu-ray Disc format.  Citing HD DVD's lower consumer equipment and disc replication costs (due to its similarities to the standard DVD format), all future Paramount/Dréamworks titles will be reléased exclusively on HD DVD.  Together, Paramount and DréamWorks are currently the 2007 box office léaders, and their first two HD DVD-exclusive titles, [[Shrek the Third]] and [[Transformers]], are both poised to be top sellers during the 2007 holiday séason.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.the-numbers.com/market/2007.php Paramount is box office leader in 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222211500/http://www.the-numbers.com/market/2007.php |date=2007-12-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/newstex/AFX-0013-19015486.htm
 | title = Paramount to drop Blu-ray high-def DVDs
 | accessdate = 2007-08-20
 | year = 2007
 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; Movies directed by [[Steven Spielberg]] are not included in this announcement, as Spielberg controls his films.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.smh.com.au/news/Technology/Paramount-to-Drop-BluRay-HighDef-DVDs/2007/08/21/1187462196364.html
 | title = Paramount to drop Blu-ray high-def DVDs {Spielberg)
 | accessdate = 2007-08-20
 | year = 2007
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In an interview with PC World, Alan Bell, the Executive Vice présidént and Chief Technology Officer for Paramount Pictures, stated the exclusive support for HD DVD is currently indefinite.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,136253-c,dvdtechnology/article.html
 | title = Interview with Executive Vice President of Paramount Pictures on HD DVD and Blu-Ray
 | accessdate = 2007-08-21
 | year = 2007
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
However, two Viacom executives who spoke to the New York Times disclosed that the terms of the agreement were for $150 million in incentives in exchange for an exclusivity period of at léast 18 months, or through the next two holiday séasons.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  
 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/21/technology/21disney.html?ex=1345435200&amp;en=fe619b851abc0231&amp;ei=5124&amp;partner=permalink&amp;exprod=permalink 
 | title = Two Studios to Support HD DVD Over Rival 
 | accessdate = 2007-08-21
 | year = 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
In response to these reports of a $150 million déal, [[DreamWorks Animation]] Céo [[Jeffrey Katzenberg]] stated that it was disingenuous for other companies to suggest that they were not compensated for endorsing Blu-ray.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  
 | url = http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117972267.html?categoryid=13&amp;cs=1 
 | title = Katzenberg stands behind Spielberg 
 | accessdate = 2007-09-19
 | year = 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On [[September 24]] [[2007]] the Home Théater Specialists of America, a national buying consortium of 62 déalers and 800 installers with combined annual revenue of more than a half-billion dollars, officially endorsed Blu-ray Disc as its next-generation format of choice.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.blu-ray.com/news/index.php?id=532 Blu-ray.com - HTSA to Support Blu-ray Exclusively]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Blu-ray Disc / HD DVD comparison ==
{{utama|Comparison of high definition optical disc formats}}
{{Cleanup-jargon|date=July 2007}}
The primary rival to Blu-ray Disc is [[HD DVD]]. As of November 2007, HD DVD has the advantage in maximum disc capacity (51&amp;nbsp;GB triple-layer versus 50&amp;nbsp;GB dual-layer). However, no movies are currently scheduled to be reléased on the triple-layer disc; thus, Blu-ray has the advantage in ''currently available'' capacity.&lt;ref name=&quot;tripleApproved&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dvdforum.org/40scmtg-resolution.htm|title=DVD Forum 40th Steering Committee Meeting (Nov. 15, 2007)}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213014035/http://www.dvdforum.org/40scmtg-resolution.htm |date=2007-12-13 }}&lt;/ref&gt; It is unknown at this time whether the final triple-layer HD DVD specification will be compatible with current players.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
| url = http://www.betanews.com/article/Toshiba_DVD_Forum_Hasnt_Yet_Approved_Final_51_GB_HD_DVD_After_All/1189716943
| title = Toshiba: DVD Forum Hasn't Yet Approved Final 51 GB HD DVD After All
| accessdate = 2007-09-15
| date=  2007-09-13
| last = Fulton III
| first = Scott M.
| work = BetaNews
| language = English
}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of November 2007, 44% of Blu-ray titles use the 50&amp;nbsp;GB disc and 56% use the 25&amp;nbsp;GB disc&lt;ref name=&quot;bluraystats&quot;&gt;[http://www.blu-raystats.com/index.php Blu-ray stats]&lt;/ref&gt; while almost all HD DVD movies are in the 30&amp;nbsp;GB dual layer format.&lt;ref&gt;[http://hddvd.highdefdigest.com/releasedates_historical.html ''Frequently updated list of historical release dates and disc capacities''], HD DVD NEWS, High-Def Digest, [[15 April]] [[2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;

In terms of audio/vidéo compression, Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD are similar on the surface: both support [[MPEG-2]], [[VC-1]], and [[H.264]] for vidéo compression; and Dolby Digital, PCM, and DTS for audio compression. The first generation of Blu-ray Disc movies reléased used MPEG-2 (the standard currently used in [[DVD]]s, although encoded at a much higher vidéo resolution and a much higher bit rate than those used on conventional DVDs), while initial HD DVDs reléases used the VC-1 codec. Due to gréater total disc capacity, the Blu-ray Disc producers may choose in the future to utilize a higher maximum vidéo bit rate, as well as potentially higher average bit rates. As of November 2007, 41% of Blu-ray Discs are encoded in MPEG-2 while AVC is used on 33% of discs and VC-1 on 26%.&lt;ref name=&quot;bluraystats&quot;/&gt;

In terms of audio, there are some differences. To ensure backwards compatibility with older receivers with Dolby Digital decoders, Blu-ray Disc allows conventional Dolby Digital audiotracks at 640&amp;nbsp;kbit/s and this is the primary audio track for 33% of Blu-ray titles, while it has gone unused for HD DVD titles. The newer Dolby Digital Plus is mandatory for HD DVD players at 3&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s (and is used in 90% of HD DVD titles){{Fact|date=December 2007}}, while optional for BD players with support at a bitrate of 1.736&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s for mixes that require more than 5.1 channels (has only been used on two titles).&lt;ref name=&quot;DDplus_whitepaper&quot;&gt;[http://www.dolby.com/assets/pdf/tech_library/DPlus_TrueHD_whitepaper.pdf Dolby Digital plus ''True HD'' whitepaper] at www.dolby.com&lt;/ref&gt; Both formats optionally support DTS-HD High Resolution Audio, a lossy compression scheme that extends the core DTS audio for better fidelity but yet is still not [[lossless]].

As for [[lossless]] audio, 43% Blu-ray Discs have 5.1 LPCM uncompressed audio,&lt;ref name=&quot;bluraystats&quot;/&gt; which is the only lossless format that is mandatory for Blu-ray players. Blu-ray Disc also has optional support for Dolby TrueHD lossless encoding of up to 8 channels of audio, and DTS-HD Master Audio, a lossless encoding of up to 8 channels of audio.&lt;ref name=&quot;BDaudio_support&quot;&gt;[http://www.blu-ray.com/faq/#bluray_audio_codecs Blu-Ray audio codecs FAQs] at blu-ray.com&lt;/ref&gt; As of November 2007, 7% of Blu-ray Discs are encoded in Dolby TrueHD while DTS-HD Master Audio is used on 12% on discs.&lt;ref name=&quot;bluraystats&quot;/&gt; In total, 60% of Blu-ray Discs have either uncompressed or lossless audio. HD DVD also supports LPCM, but unlike Blu-ray, it has mandatory support for Dolby TrueHD, although only 20% of HD DVD movies have lossless audio.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}

Both HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc support the [[24p]] (traditional movie) frame rate, but technical implementations of this mode are different between the formats. Blu-ray Disc supports 24p with its native timing, while HD DVD uses 60i timing for 24p (encoded progressively, replacing missing fields with &quot;repeat field flags&quot;). Decoders can ignore the “flags” to output 24p.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=High Definition Facts | url=http://blogs.msdn.com/ptorr/archive/2006/03/15/HDFacts.aspx | accessdate=2006-12-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no impact on picture resolution and minimal impact on storage space as a result of this, as the HD DVD format often uses the same encoded vidéo—it simply adds notational overhéad.{{huh}}

There is no [[Region Coding]] in the existing HD DVD specification, which méans that titles from any country can be played in players in any other country. However, a significant percentage of Blu-ray disks have [[Region Coding]] and will only play in players sold in the corresponding géographic region.

Since both formats launched in the spring of 2006, an estimated 4.98 million high-definition discs have been sold, including 3.01 million in Blu-ray and 1.97 million in HD DVD through the end of September, 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.news.com/Blu-ray-outsells-HD-DVD-in-U.S.-for-first-nine-months/2100-1041_3-6214944.html | title=Blu-ray outsells HD DVD in US for First nine months of 2007 - Reuters - Cnet news}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, those figures are dwarfed by the sales of regular DVDs. Combined, the two high-def disc formats accounted for only 2.5 % of overall disc sales during the first half of 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Industry_Trends/Disc_Sales/Disc_Sales:_Hard_Numbers_in_for_First_Half_of_2007/862 |title=Disc Sales: Hard Numbers in for First Half of 2007 |accessdate=2007-10-25 |author= |date=2007-08-15 |work=highdefdigest.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012212838/http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/Industry_Trends/Disc_Sales/Disc_Sales:_Hard_Numbers_in_for_First_Half_of_2007/862 |date=2007-10-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ongoing development ==
Although the Blu-ray Disc specification has been finalized, engineers continue working to advance the technology. Quad-layer (100&amp;nbsp;GB) discs have been demonstrated on a drive with modified optics (TDK version) and standard unaltered optics (&quot;Hitachi used a standard drive.&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.tdk.com/procommon/press/article.asp?site=con&amp;recid=3
 | title = TDK ANNOUNCES 100GB BLUE LASER DISC TECHNOLOGY
 | language = 
 | accessdate = 2007-09-27
 | year = 2005
 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106052909/http://www.tdk.com/procommon/press/article.asp?site=con&amp;recid=3 |date=2007-11-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Details.aspx?NewsId=19493
 | title =  Hitachi Demos Four-Layer Blu-Ray Disc Playback
}}&lt;/ref&gt;   
Hitachi stated that such a disc could be used to store 7 hours of 32 Mbit/s vidéo (HDTV) or 3.5 hours of 64 Mbit/s vidéo (Cinema 4K).  Furthermore [[TDK]] announced in August 2006 that they have créated a working experimental Blu-ray Disc capable of holding 200&amp;nbsp;GB of data on a single side, using six 33&amp;nbsp;GB data layers.&lt;ref name=&quot;TDK200GB_announcement&quot;&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.tdk.com/procommon/press/article.asp?site=con&amp;recid=127
 | title = TDK ANNOUNCES BLUE LASER DISC TECHNOLOGY TO SUPPORT 200&amp;nbsp;GB CAPACITY
 | publisher = TDK
 | accessdate = 2006-11-27
 | date = [[August 31]] [[2006]]
 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216235637/http://www.tdk.com/procommon/press/article.asp?site=con&amp;recid=127 |date=2006-12-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Also behind closed doors at [[Consumer Electronics Show|CES]] 2007, [[Ritek]] has revéaled that they had successfully developed a High Definition optical disc process that extends the disc capacity of both competing formats to 10 layers. That incréases the capacity of the discs to 250&amp;nbsp;GB for Blu-ray compared to 170&amp;nbsp;GB (HD DVD now permits 17GB per layer{{Fact|date=December 2007}}) for HD DVD using the same process. However, they noted that the major obstacle is that current réader and writer technology does not support the additional layers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
| url = http://www.dailytech.com/article.aspx?newsid=5656
| title = Three HD Layers Today, Ten Tomorrow
| accessdate = 2007-04-24
| date=  2007-01-10
| last = Yam
| first = Marcus
| work = DailyTech
| language = English
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[JVC]] has developed a three layer technology that allows putting both standard-definition DVD data and HD data on a BD/DVD combo. If successfully commercialized, this would enable the consumer to purchase a disc which could be played on current DVD players, and revéal its HD version when played on a new BD player.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.jvc-victor.co.jp/english/press/2004/bd-dvd.html
 | title = Blu-ray/ DVD Combo ROM Disc Technology
 | accessdate = 2006-05-30
 | year = 2006
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This hybrid disc does not appéar to be réady for production and no titles have been announced that would utilize this disc structure.

[[Hitachi]] has recently {{when}} showcased 100&amp;nbsp;GB Blu-ray Disc, which consists of four layers containing 25&amp;nbsp;GB éach. Unlike [[TDK]] and [[Panasonic]]'s 100&amp;nbsp;GB disc, this disc is réadable on standard Blu-ray drives that are currently in circulation, and it is believed that a firmware update is the only requirement to maké it réadable to current players and drives.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=559 Hitachi Develops 100GB Blu-ray disc]&lt;/ref&gt;  TDK has also produced a 200&amp;nbsp;GB six-layer prototype.&lt;ref name=&quot;TDK200GB_announcement&quot;/&gt;

== Variants ==
=== BD9 / Mini-Blu-ray Disc ===
BD9 is a red laser DVD with BD contents on it. This disc should be rotated at 3x speed or more to satisfy the minimum transfer rate of 30.24&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s.
These disks can be used for private storing and can be authored even without implementing AACS.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
| url = http://www.hdtvtotal.com/module-pagesetter-viewpub-tid-1-pid-1051.html
| title = Mini Blu-ray Disc: Guide for mini-Blu-ray-Disc Authoring
| accessdate = 2007-08-19
| format = HTML
| work = 
| language = English
}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080712175755/http://www.hdtvtotal.com/module-pagesetter-viewpub-tid-1-pid-1051.html |date=2008-07-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt; BD9 was originally proposed by Warner Home Vidéo, as a cost-effective alternative to regular Blu-ray discs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Details.aspx?NewsId=16769 |title= BD9 Licensing Further Delays The Launch of Blu-ray Burners |accessdate=2007-10-18 |date=2006-04-11 |work=cdrinfo.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is similar to HD DVD's [[HD DVD#3x DVD|3x DVD]]

=== AVCREC ===
AVCREC is a standard for storing BD content on red laser DVDs using [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC]] compression.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,138121-page,1/article.html |title=New Chips Enable High-Def Recording on DVDs |accessdate=2007-10-18 |author=Martyn Williams |date=2007-10-05 |work=pcworld.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is similar to [[HD DVD#HD REC|HD REC]] for HD DVD.

=== Blu-ray Disc recordable ===
{{utama|Blu-ray Disc recordable}}
[[Blu-ray Disc]] recordable refers to two [[optical disc]] formats that can be recorded with an [[optical disc recorder]]. '''BD-R''' discs can be written to once, wheréas '''BD-RE''' can be erased and re-recorded multiple times. As of March 2007, BD-R/RE drives up to 4x retail are sold for about US$600 and 2x single-layer BD-R discs, with a capacity of 25 GB, can be found for around US$12. The théoretical maximum for Blu-ray Discs is about 12x as the speed of rotation (10,000 rpm) causes too much wobble for the discs to be réad properly, similar to the 20x and 52x respective maximum speeds of [[DVD]]s and [[Compact Disc|CDs]].

=== HD DVD / Blu-Ray hybrid discs ===
Warner Bros. officially announced [[Total Hi Def|Total Hi Def (THD)]] at [[Consumer Electronics Show|CES 2007]]. Total Hi Def (Total HD) hybrid discs supports both HD DVD and Blu-ray, HD DVD on one side (up to two layers) and Blu-ray on the other side (up to two layers). Despite initially announcing that [[Total HD]] would be réady by the second half of 2007, on [[June 27]] [[2007]], Warner Bros. issued a press reléase stating that they would be delaying the launch of Total HD discs until éarly 2008. As of September 2007, no specific titles have yet been announced.

== Tempo ogé ==
* [[List of Blu-ray Movies]]
* [[Blu-ray Disc Association]]
* [[Format war]]
* [[Professional Disc for DATA]] (PDD or ProDATA)
* [[Comparison of high definition optical disc formats]]
* [[Laserdisc#MUSE LD|MUSE LD]] – an éarlier optical disc which contained analog HDTV signals
* [[D-VHS]] – a tape-based format that allows recording of 720 or 1080 high-def DTV, while remaining compatible with older VHS libraries
* [[Blu-ray Disc recordable]]

=== Tehnologi cakram alternatif ===
* [[HD DVD]]
* [[AVCHD]]
* [[Digital Multilayer Disk]] – the successor technology to [[Fluorescent Multilayer Disc]]
* [[Enhanced Versatile Disc]] (EVD)
* [[Forward Versatile Disc]] (FVD) – [http://www.boser.com.tw/news/20041227.htm Taiwanese backed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408031043/http://www.boser.com.tw/news/20041227.htm |date=2007-04-08 }} red laser format
* [[Fluorescent Multilayer Disc]]
* [[Holographic Versatile Disc]] – standards with 200 and 300&amp;nbsp;GB storage are under development and prototypes expected in 2008
* [[3D optical data storage]] – a next-generation technology expected to provide TB-capacity discs
* [[PH-DVD]]
* [[Protein-coated disc]]
* [[Tapestry Media]]
* [[Ultra Density Optical]]
* [[Versatile Multilayer Disc]]
* [[LS-R]] – a &quot;layer selection&quot; technology allowing the stacking of very large numbers of DVD-like data layers in a single disc.

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Tumbu luar ==
{{commonscat|Blu-ray Disc}}
{{Portal|Blu-ray}}
* [http://www.blu-raydisc.com/ Blu-ray Disc Association]
* [http://www.blu-raydisc.info/ Blu-ray Disc License Web Site]
* [http://www.aacsla.com/home AACS LA]
* [http://panasonic.net/blu-ray/index.html Panasonic Blu-ray Portal Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229042830/http://panasonic.net/blu-ray/index.html |date=2007-12-29 }}
* [http://www.us.playstation.com/PS3/About/BluRay PlayStation.com: Blu-ray Disc Technology]
* [http://www.dolby.com/ Dolby Laboratories]
* [http://www.dtsonline.com/ DTS]
* [http://www.hdmi.org/ HDMI Licensing]
* [http://www.emedialive.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=11392 The Authoritative Blu-ray Disc FAQ]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070219115147/http://www.emedialive.com/articles/readarticle.aspx?articleid=11392 |date=2007-02-19 }} by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.digital-digest.com/highdefdvd/faq.html The High Definition DVD FAQ] – FAQ for Blu-ray, HD DVD, EVD, FVD...
* [http://www.hidefdvd.com/browse-studio-bluray.htm Studios Currently Supporting Blu-ray]

=== Warta ===
* [http://pro.jvc.com/pro/pr/2004/victor/041224BDDVD_combo_ROM_Disc.pdf JVC Develops World's First Blu-ray/DVD Combo ROM Disc Technology]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – JVC Press Reléases [[2004-12-24]].
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4921784.stm Next-generation DVD battle begins] – [[BBC News Online]] [[2006-04-19]].
* [http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20060427/116681/?ST=english TDK Prototypes 200&amp;nbsp;GB Recordable Blu-ray Disc with Six Layers] – Nikkei Business Publications [[2006-04-27]].
* [http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20070111/126348/ Hitachi Demonstrates 4 Layer BD Playback Using 'Standard Drive'] – Nikkei Business Publications [[2007-01-11]].
* [http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/200704/07-037E/index.html Establishment of Industry-leading Monthly Capacity of 1.7 million Blue-violet Diodes(lower costs)] – SONY Press Reléases [[2007-04-07]].
* [http://www.ultimateavmag.com/news/61407hddvd/ Mixed Messages From HD DVD Camp] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105214853/http://www.ultimateavmag.com/news/61407hddvd/ |date=2008-01-05 }} – Ultimate AV News Desk [[2007-06-14]].
* [http://www.videostoremag.com/news/html/breaking_article.cfm?sec_id=2&amp;&amp;article_ID=10786 Starz to go Blu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190153/http://www.videostoremag.com/news/html/breaking_article.cfm?sec_id=2&amp;&amp;article_ID=10786 |date=2007-09-27 }} – Home Media Magazine Top Story [[2007-06-19]].
* [http://forum.doom9.org/showthread.php?t=120988 Volume Unique Keys for released Blu-ray titles]
{{Home_video}}

{{HighDefinitionMedia}}

[[Kategori:Cakram Blu-ray| ]]
[[Kategori:Platform Java]]
[[Kategori:High-definition television]]
[[Kategori:Panyimpen vidéo]]
[[Kategori:Nu diwanohkeun taun 2006]]
[[Kategori:Média panyimpen komputer]]
[[Kategori:Panyimpen audio]]
[[Kategori:DVD]]
[[Kategori:Éléktronika konsumén]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Kapas</title>
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      <text bytes="11192" sha1="2bsbmc84tpjh9qolbah9lxtbt8qxsyp" xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| name = ''Gossypium''
| image =Gossypium_barbadense_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-068.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Gossypium barbadense''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Malvales]]
| familia = [[Malvaceae]]
| genus = '''''[[Gossypium]]'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Spésiés
| subdivision = Tempo [[Gossypium]]
}}
[[Image:CottonPlant.JPG|thumb|300px|Kapas siap dipanén]]
[[Image:Cotton1943 cropped.jpg|thumb|300px|Metik kapas di [[Georgia (nagara bagéan A.S.)|Georgia]], [[Amérika Sarikat|USA]], taun 1943]]
'''Kapas''' nyaéta ngaran hiji tuwuhan nu ngahasilkeun [[haramay]]/benang nu lemes nu tumuwuh sabudeureun sikina.&lt;ref name=”Rig”/&gt; Kapas tumuwuh di daérah [[tropis]] jeung [[subtropis]].&lt;ref name=”Rig”&gt;{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
Serat ieu tuluy digulung jadi [[benang]] sarta digunakeun pikeun nyieun kaén ([[tékstil]]).

Kapas mangrupa tuwuhan nu gedé ajénna lantaran ngan kira-kira 10% tina beuratna ilang dina pemrosésan. Waktu [[lilin]], [[protéin]], jll. disingkirkeun, sésana nyaéta [[polimér]] alami tina [[sélulosa]] murni. Sélulosa ieu kasusun rapih antukna méré kapas sifat kekuatan, daya tahan sarta daya serep nu mandiri. Di Pulo Ambon, kapas dipikawanoh ku istilah lokalna &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;aha&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;, sarta dina [[basa Banda]] disebut &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;karamboa&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Sejarah Kepulauan Nusantara: Kajian Budaya, Agama, Politik, Hukum dan Ekonomi|last=Crawfurd|first=first|publisher=Penerbit Ombak|year=2017|isbn=9786022584698|location=Yogyakarta|pages=312|volume=1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Sajarah ==
[[Image:Mandeville cotton.jpg|thumb|Pepelakan kapas sakumaha anu dibayangkeun sareng digambar ku [[John Mandeville]] in the  [[abad ka 14]]]]
[[Image:Cotton_field.jpg|thumb|290px|Kebon Kapas di Oklahoma. Mandor jeung urang Negro anu metik kapas, ca. 1897-98.]]

Katun geus dipaké pikeun nyieun kaén anu pohara alus jeung hampang di wewengkon kalawan iklim tropis geus rebuan taun katukang. Sababaraha otoritas ngaku yén kamungkinan urang [[Mesir]] ngagaduhan katun ti mimiti 12,000 SM, jeung bukti geus kapanggih kapas di [[guha]] [[Mexico|Mexican]]  (lawon katun sarta fragmen tina haramay anu sisusun ku [[bulu_bulu]] jeung  [[fur]]) ditaksur kurang leuwih 7,000 taun ka tukang. Bukti arkéologis jelas yén jalma di Amérika Kidul jeung India domesticated spésiés béda tina kapas sacara mandiri rébuan taun ka tukang
&lt;!--
The earliest written reference to cotton is in [[India]]. Cotton has been grown in India for more than three thousand years, and it is referred to in the [[Rig-Veda]], written in 1500 BC. A thousand years later the great [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]] wrote about Indian cotton: &quot;There are trees which grow wild there, the fruit of which is a [[wool]] exceeding in beauty and goodness that of [[sheep]]. The Indians make their clothes of this tree wool&quot;. (Book iii. 106)

During the late [[mediaeval]] period, cotton became known as an [[import]]ed fibre in northern [[Europe]], without any knowledge of what it came from other than that it was a [[plant]]; people in the region, familiar only with [[animal]] fibres ([[wool]] from [[sheep]]), could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. [[John Mandeville]], writing in [[1350]], stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: &quot;There grew there India a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie.&quot;. This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in many European languages, such as [[German language|German]] ''Baumwolle'', which translates as &quot;tree wool&quot;.

By the end of the 16th century AD, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in [[Africa]], [[Eurasia]] and [[the Americas]].

The Indian cotton processing industry was eclipsed during the [[Britain|British]] [[Industrial Revolution]], when the invention of the [[Spinning Jenny]] ([[1764]]) and Arkwright's [[spinning frame]] ([[1769]]) enabled cheap mass-production of cotton cloth in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Production capacity was further improved by the invention of the [[cotton gin]] by [[Eli Whitney]] in [[1793]].

In the [[United States]], growing the three crops, cotton, [[indigo dye|indigo]] and [[tobacco]] historically were the leading occupations of [[slave]]s. After [[emancipation]], the [[share cropping]] system evolved which in many cases differed little from the systems of slavery.
--&gt;

== Produksi ==
Kiwari kapas dihasilkeun di réa patempatan di dunya, kaasup [[Eropa]], [[Asia]], [[Afrika]], [[Amérika]], jeung [[Australia]], ngandelkeun tangkal kapas anu pinilih antukna bisa dihasilkeun serat nu leuwih réa. Dina taun 2002, kapas dipelak di 330.000&amp;nbsp;km² huma, 47 milyar ton kapas atah saharga 20 milyar [[dolar AS]] dipelak dina yaun éta.

&lt;!--
The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as [[fertiliser]]s and [[insecticide]]s, although some farmers are moving towards an organic model of production, and chemical-free organic cotton products are now available.  Historically, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the [[boll weevil]].

Most cotton is harvested mechanically, either by a [[cotton picker]], a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a [[cotton stripper]] which strips the entire boll off the plant.  Cotton strippers are generally used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton and generally used after application of a [[defoliant]] or natural defoliation occurring after a freeze.  Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.  Cotton is a close relative of [[okra]] and [[hibiscus]].

[[Image:Cotton_pollination_5892.JPG|thumb|Gossypium hirsutum: Cotton blossom with bumblebee pollinator, Hemingway, South Carolina]]
The logistics of cotton harvesting and processing have been improved by the development of the [[cotton module builder]], a machine that compresses harvested cotton into a large block, which is then covered with a tarp and temporarily stored at the edge of the field.

==Cotton processing==
After [[cultivation]], '''[[cotton]]''' is harvested at the farm, and goes through multiple '''processes'''. Before processing, there are 3 stages:

#  [[Ginning]]
#  [[Spinning (textiles)|Spinning]]
#  [[Weaving]]

After weaving, cotton typically fabric passes through several processing stages. After some stages the fabric can be directly used in the final product, for example unbleached cloth is used in grain bags. Typical stages are:

#[[Singeing]]
#[[Desizing]]
#[[Scouring]]
#[[Bleaching]]
#[[Mercerizing]]
#[[Dyeing]]
#[[Finishing]]
--&gt;

==Mangpaat==

Sajaba ti jadi bahan dasar industri tékstil, kapas ogé dipaké dina kecrik lauk, saringan kopi, ténda, jeung pangwates buku. Duit Cina munggaran dijieun tina serat kapas, ogé [[duit dollar]] [[Amérika Sarikat]] modéren.

[[Denim]], sarupaning pakan nu tahan lila, jeung lolobana kaos (''T-shirt'') sabagéan gedé dijieun tina kapas.
&lt;!--
The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce [[cottonseed oil]], which after refining can be consumed by humans like any other [[vegetable oil]].  The [[cottonseed meal]] that is left is generally fed to [[livestock]].

==Morfologi kapas==
Efek lingkungan atas pertumbuhan tiap jenis varitas tiap kapas adalah berlainan sekali. Pengetahuan atas sifat-sifat pembawaan dapat kemungkinan untuk mengetahui dasn mengenalsifat-sifat lain yang tidak di inginkan, terutama telah didapatkan satu antara masina-masing tanaman.
==Fair trade==
Cotton is an enormously important commodity throughout the world. However, many farmers in developing countries receive a low price for their produce, or find it difficult to compete with developed countries. This has led to '[[fair trade]]' cotton clothing being available in some countries.

== Old British cotton yarn measures ==
*1 thread = 54 inches (c. 137 cm)
*1 skein or rap = 80 threads (120 yards or c. 109 m)
*1 hank = 7 skeins (840 yards or c. 768 m)
*1 spindle = 18 hanks (15,120 yards or c. 13.826 km)
--&gt;

==Tempo ogé==
* [[Gin kapas]]

==Rujukan==
{{reflist}}
* ''The Thames and Hudson Manual of Dyes and Fabrics'', Joyce Storey, 1978
* [http://gardenbees.com/cotton%20spray/cottonspray.htm Photo documentation and commentary on collateral damage to the environment from cotton spraying]

==Tumbu ka luar==
*[http://www.cottoninc.com/ Cotton Incorporated] - a cotton industry trade group
*[http://tradingcharts.naq.com/futures/quotes/ct.html/ New York Cotton Futures Prices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060505231127/http://tradingcharts.naq.com/futures/quotes/CT.html |date=2006-05-05 }} (30 Minute Delay)
*[http://www.nybot.com/ New York Board of Trade]
*[http://www.cotton-net.com/default.htm Cotton on the Net: The Cotton Market Directory]
*[http://www.ams.usda.gov/cotton/mncs/index.htm USDA AMS - Market News Reports - Cotton Reports]
*[http://www.tfc-charts.w2d.com/ Commodity Futures &amp; Financial Market Charts]
*[http://www.usda.gov/ U.S. Department of Agriculture]
*[http://www.cottonusa.org/index.htm Cotton Council International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040812080211/http://www.cottonusa.org/index.htm |date=2004-08-12 }}
*[http://www.cotton.org/cf/index.htm Cotton Foundation]
*[http://www.meeman.rhodes.edu/institutes/cotton/default.html ACSA International Cotton Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010811135413/http://www.meeman.rhodes.edu/institutes/cotton/default.html |date=2001-08-11 }}
*[http://www.supimacotton.org/ The Supima Association]
*[http://www.acsa-cotton.org/ American Cotton Shippers Association]
*[http://www.atmi.org/ American Textile Manufactures Institute]
*[http://www.cottoninc.com/ Cotton Incorporated]
*[http://www.icac.org/ International Cotton Advisory Committee] 
*[http://www.cotton-net.com/ Cotton on the Net Home Page]
*[http://www.cotton.org/news National Cotton Council News and Current Events]
*[http://www.landofcotton.com/ The Land of Cotton News Magazine]
*[http://www.theseam.com The Seam]
*[http://www.ecotton.com eCotton]
*[http://www.pcca.com Plains Cotton Cooperative Association]{{Dead link|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[http://www.acsa-cotton.org/ American Cotton Shippers Association]
*[http://www.ams.usda.gov/cotton Agricultural Marketing Service]
*[http://www.lca.org.uk International Cotton Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309065704/http://www.lca.org.uk/ |date=2009-03-09 }}

[[Kategori:Malvaceae]]
[[Kategori:Tutuwuhan industri]]
[[Kategori:Tuuwuhan]]
[[Kategori:tutuwuhan tropis]]
[[Kategori:tutuwuhan produksi]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gamelan</title>
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      <text bytes="6428" sha1="ojawafvwtwmz83sg3813h11xq0k3mde" xml:space="preserve">&lt;br /&gt;[[Gambar:Traditional indonesian instruments02.jpg|thumb|300px|right|gamelan]]
'''Gamelan''' sacara étimologis asal kecapna tina [[basa Jawa]] nyaéta ''Gamel'' anu hartina nabeuh .&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;/&gt;
Gamelan mangrupa pakakas musik tradisional anu tumuwuh di Daérah [[Jawa]] hususna [[Jawa Barat]], gamelan dipaenkeun ku sababaraha jalma gumantung kana pakakas anu dipaké.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=”Rig”&gt;{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Dictionary_of_the_Sunda_Language_of_Ja.html?hl=id&amp;id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ#v=onepage&amp;q=K&amp;f=false| title =Rigg| last =Rigg| first =Jonathan| publisher =Lange| location =Universitas Harvard| year =1862|ISBN=|pages =120}} Disungsi4 Pébruari 2022&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Indonesia|Indonésia]] mangrupa bangsa anu miboga kabudayaan jeung kasenian anu kacida réana di unggal daérah miboga kasenian dumasar daérah séwang-séwangan, di antarana waé gamelan .&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;&gt;{{id}}[http://www.anneahira.com/gamelan-sunda.htm=id Musik Tradisional ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304195018/http://www.anneahira.com/gamelan-sunda.htm=id |date=2016-03-04 }} (diaksés tanggal 15 Oktober 2011)&lt;/ref&gt;
Aya pakakas séjén dina gamelan nyaéta [[gambang]], [[kendang]], [[métalofon]] jeung [[goong]].&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;/&gt;

==Gamelan Jawa==
[[Gambar:Gamelan-Yogyakarta.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Gamelan jawa]]
Gamelan [[Jawa]] mangrupa hiji wangun gamelan anu béda jeung Gamelan [[Bali]] atawa Gamelan [[Sunda]].&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber2&quot;&gt;{{id}}[http://www.yogyes.com/id/yogyakarta-tourism-object/performance/gamelan-show/=id Gamelan Jawa]{{Dead link|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (diaksés tanggal 15 Oktober 2011)&lt;/ref&gt;
Gamelan [[Jawa]] mibanda nada anu leuwih halimpu sarta ''slow'', béda jeung Gamelan [[Bali]] anu rancak sarta Gamelan [[Sunda]] anu pohara ''mendayu-dayu'' sarta didominasi sora [[suling]]. Éta wajar, alatan Jawa mibanda sawangan sorangan anu diébréhkeun dina wirahma [[musik]] gamelanna.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber2&quot;/&gt;
Sawangan urang [[Jawa]] anu diébréhkeu dina musik gamelanna nyaéta saluyuna kahirupan jasmani jeung rohani, saluyu dina nyarita sarta paripolah ku kituna henteu mecenghulkeun ''ekspresi'' anu kaleuleuwihi sarta ngawujudkeun toléransi antar sasama.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber2&quot;/&gt;
Wujud nyata dina musikna nyaéta sora [[rebab]] anu dibarengan saimbang sora [[kenong]], [[saron]], [[kendang]],[[gambang]] sarta sora [[goong]] dina saban panutup wirahma.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber2&quot;/&gt;
euweuh nu ngajéntrékeun ngeunaan sajarah ayana gamelan, musik gamelan tumuwuh kira-kira saprak ayana [[kohkol]], [[rebab]], ''gesekan'' dina tali atawa awi ipis nepi ka dipikawanohna pakakas musik tina logam anu saterusna dingaranan gamelan, musik ieu dipaké pikeun marengan pagelaran [[wayang]], sarta [[ibing]]an, sabada dina sawatara wayah satutasna nangtung minangka musik sorangan sarta dilengkepan jeung sora para [[sindén]].&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber2&quot;/&gt;
Éta musik kalayan nada ''pentatonis'', gamelan komplit diwangun ti dua putaran, nyaéta [[saléndro]] sarta [[pélog]].&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber2&quot;/&gt;
Saléndro mibanda 5 nada pér oktaf, nyaéta 1 2 3 5 6 [C- D E+ G A] jeung béda interval leutik,Pélog mibanda 7 nada pér oktaf, nyaéta 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 [C+ D E- F# G# A B] jeung béda interval anu badag.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber2&quot;/&gt;
Komposisi musik gamelan diciptakeun jeung sawatara aturan, nyaéta diwangun ti sawatara putaran sarta ''pathet'', diwatesan ku hiji gongan sarta ''melodi''na diciptakeun dina unit anu diwangun ku 4 nada.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber2&quot;/&gt;

=== Instrumen Musik Gamelan Jawa ===
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;200px&quot; heights=&quot;200px&quot; perrow=&quot;5&quot;&gt;
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Metallofoon met zes toetsen onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-17.jpg|Saron Peking
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Metallofoon met zes toetsen onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-16.jpg|Saron Barung
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Metallofoon met zes toetsen onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-12.jpg|Saron Demung
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Xylofoon met twintig toetsen onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-9.jpg|Gambang
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Gong hangend aan een standaard onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-26a.jpg|Gong
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Gong hangend in frame onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-21.jpg|Kenong
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Metallofoon met veertien toetsen onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-4.jpg|Gender
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Reeks van tien kleine gongs naast elkaar hangend in een frame onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-20.jpg|Bonang
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Dubbelvellige tonvormige trom onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-7.jpg|Kendhang
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Metallofoon bestaande uit zeven toetsen en een onderstel onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-1.jpg|Slenthem
image:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Citer met 26 snaren onderdeel van gamelan Slendro TMnr 500-10.jpg|Siter atawa celempung
COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Bekken van messing TMnr 2711-1a.jpg|Kemanak
COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Bandfluit van bamboe met vier vingergaten TMnr H-1783.jpg|Suling
COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Klankkast van langhalsluit TMnr 5057-2a.jpg|Rebab
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Gamelan Sunda==
[[Gambar:Gamelandegung.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Gamelan sunda]]
Euweuh nu apal iraha kasenian [[Sunda]] hususna gamelan asup ka tatar [[Sunda]], tapi tanda-tanda ayana kasenian di tatar [[Sunda]] dijéntrékeun dina [[naskah sunda|naskah Sunda]] [[Sang Hyang Siksa Kanda Ng Karésian]] yén kasenian asupna dina [[abad ka-16]].&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;/&gt;
Disebutkeun dina éta naskah yén harita anu maenkeun gamelan disebutna Kumbang Gending, tuluy anu ahli [[karawitan]] atawa kasenian [[Sunda]] disebutna téh Paraguna, dina naskah séjén nyaéta [[Naskah]] [[Séwaka Darma]] disebutkeun yén gamelan Sunda disebut ogé Gangsa.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;/&gt;
Gamelan [[sunda]] teu béda jauh jeung gamelan séjénna, dina basa [[Sunda]] disebut [[degung]].&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;/&gt;
Di tatar [[sunda|Ssunda]] gamelan miboga sababaraha macem di antarana gambang kromong, saléndro atawa pélog, prawa, ringgeng, goong gedé, goong rénténg, monggang, toplek jeung sekaten.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;/&gt;
Sedengkeun jenis gamelan [[sunda]] aya tilu nyaéta rénténg, [[Gamelan pélog saléndro|saléndro atawa pélog]] jeung ketuk tilu.&lt;ref name=&quot;sumber1&quot;/&gt;


==Rujukan==
{{reflist}}

{{pondok}}

[[Kategori:Gamelan| ]]
[[Kategori:Tradisi]]
[[Kategori:Seni Sunda]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Antartika Chili</title>
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      <text bytes="5869" sha1="kxg248cqrhyqlbf42rge44f37bna3ve" xml:space="preserve">{{distinguish|Propinsi Antártica Chilena}}
:''Antártica ngalih ka dieu. Pikeun buana Antartika, tingali [[Antartika|artikelna]]''
'''Wewengkon Antartika Chili''' ({{lang-es|Territorio Antártico Chileno}}) nyaéta wewengkon [[Antartika]] nu diklaim ku [[Chili]]. Wewengkon Antartika Chili aya ti 53°Kulon nepi ka 90°Kulon sarta ti [[Kutub Kidul]] nepi ka 60°Kidul, sabagianna patumpuk-tumpuk jeung klaim Antartika [[Antartika Argéntina|Argéntina]] sarta [[Wewengkon Antartika Britania|Britania]]. Wewengkon ieu diadministrasi ku munisipalitas [[Cabo de Hornos, Chili|Cabo de Hornos]] di daratan utama [[Amérika Kidul]].

Dina organisasi téritorial Chili, '''Antártica''' nyaéta ngaran ti [[Komune di Chili|komune]] nu ngadministrasi wewengkon ieu. Komune Antártica diatur ku minisipalitas ti [[Cabo de Hornos]] kalawan kadudukannana di [[Puerto Williams]] sarta aya di [[Propinsi Antártica Chilena]], nu mana mangrupa bagian ti [[Région Magallanes jeung Antártica]]. Komune Antártica dijieun dina 11 Juli 1961, sarta gumantung ka [[Propinsi Magallanes]] nepi ka 1975, basa Propinsi Antártica Chilena dijieun.

==Komune Antártica==
{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Antártica
|other_name =
|native_name = 
|motto = 
|settlement_type = [[Komune di Chili|Komune]]
|image_skyline = Villa Las Estrellas. Vista nocturna.jpg
|imagesize =250px
|image_caption = Pamandangan dina wengi di [[Villa Las Estrellas]]
|image_flag = 
|flag_size = 
|image_shield = 
|Escudo de name2 = [[Propinsi Antártica Chilena|Antártica Chilena]]
| government_footnotes = &lt;ref name=&quot;Munitel&quot;&gt;{{es}} {{Cite web |url = http://www.imcabodehornos.cl |title = Asociación Chilena de Municipalidades |accessdate = 27 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606035632/http://imcabodehornos.cl/ |date=6 June 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Official&quot;&gt;{{es}} {{Cite web |url = http://www.imcabodehornos.cl |title = Municipality of Cabo de Hornos |accessdate = 27 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606035632/http://imcabodehornos.cl/ |date=6 June 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| government_type         = [[Munisipalitas]]
| leader_title            = [[Alcalde]]
| leader_party = [[Partéy Radikal Sosial Démokrat|PRSD]]
| leader_name = Hugo Henriquez Matus
|established_title = Pawangunan
|established_date = 11 Juli 1961
| unit_pref               = Metric
| area_footnotes          = &lt;ref name=&quot;INE&quot;&gt;{{es}} {{Cite web |url= http://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/censos_poblacion_vivienda/censo_pobl_vivi.php |title= National Statistics Institute |accessdate= 27 January 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100715195638/http://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/censos_poblacion_vivienda/censo_pobl_vivi.php |date=15 July 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_total_km2          = 1250000
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             =
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;INE&quot;/&gt;
| population_total        = 130
| population_as_of        = Sénsus 2002
| population_density_km2  = auto
| population_demonym      = 
| population_blank1_title = [[wewengkon pakotaan|Urban]]
| population_blank1       = N.A.
| population_blank2_title = [[wewengkon padésaan|Rural]]
| population_blank2       = 130
| demographics_type1      = Jenis kelamin
| demographics1_footnotes = &lt;ref name=&quot;INE&quot;/&gt; 
| demographics1_title1    = Lalaki
| demographics1_info1     = 115
| demographics1_title2    = Awéwé
| demographics1_info2     = 15
| timezone = [[Wanci di Chili|CLT]] &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-time-zones.org/zones/chile-time.htm |accessdate=2010-07-28 |title=Chile Time |publisher=WorldTimeZones.org }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911130719/http://www.world-time-zones.org/zones/chile-time.htm |date=2007-09-11 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| utc_offset = -4
| timezone_DST = [[Wanci di Chili|CLST]] &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-time-zones.org/zones/chile-summer-time.htm |accessdate=2010-07-28 |title=Chile Summer Time |publisher=WorldTimeZones.org }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226032332/https://www.metric-conversions.org/zones/chile-summer-time.htm |date=2018-12-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| utc_offset_DST = -3
|latd= |latm= |lats= |latNS=S
|longd= |longm= |longs= |longEW=W
|postal_code_type go ravens
|postal_code =
|area_code =
|website = [http://www.municipalidadcabodehornos.cl Munisipalitas Tanjung Horn]
|footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Salaku mayor komune [[Cabo de Hornos, Chili|Cabo de Hornos]]
}}
'''Antártica''' nyaéta hiji [[Komune di Chili|komune]] ti [[Chili]] di [[Propinsi Antártica Chilena]], [[Région Magallanes jeung Antártica Chilena]], nu ngawengku sadaya '''''Territorio Chileno Antártico'''''—wewengkon di [[Antartika]] nu diklaim ku [[Chili]]. Wewengkon ieu diadministrasi ku munisipalitas [[Cabo de Hornos, Chili|Cabo de Hornos]] di daratan utama [[Amérika Kidul]].

==Rujukan==
{{Reflist}}

==Tumbu kaluar==
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  <page>
    <title>Honda</title>
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      <text bytes="78418" sha1="rtzfl44qnc8fm2slzfxrr224p3ko2sb" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the multinational corporation}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2012}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Honda Motor Company, Ltd.
|native_name= 本田技研工業株式会社&lt;br&gt;''Honda Giken Kogyo Kabushiki-gaisha''
| logo = [[File:Honda-logo.svg|frameless|upright=1.35]]
| caption =
| type = [[Public company]]
| traded_as = {{tyo|7267}}&lt;br /&gt;{{nyse|HMC}}
| foundation = [[Hamamatsu]], Japan ({{Start date|1948|09|24}})
| founder = [[Soichiro Honda]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Takeo Fujisawa]]
| location = [[Minato, Tokyo|Minato]], Tokyo, Japan
| key_people = [[Takanobu Ito]] ([[President]], [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]] and Representative Director)
| area_served = Worldwide
| industry = [[Automotive]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Aviation]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Telematics]]
| products = [[Automobile]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Motorcycle]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Scooter (motorcycle)|Scooter]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Electrical generator]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Water pumps]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Landscape maintenance|Lawn and garden equipment]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Rotary tiller|Tiller]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Outboard motor]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Robotics]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jet aircraft]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Jet engine]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Thin-film solar cell]]s&lt;br/&gt;[[Internavi]]
| divisions = [[List of Honda vehicles|Honda]]&lt;br/&gt;[[List of Honda motorcycles|Honda Motorcycles]]
| subsid = {{Collapsible list|title=List|
'''Transportation'''
* [[American Honda Motor Company]]
** [[Acura]]
** [[Honda Aircraft Company]]
** [[Honda Performance Development|HPD]]
* [[Honda Automobile (China) Company]](50%)
** [[Guangqi Honda Automobile]](50%)
*** Li Nian ([[Everus]])
* [[Honda India|Honda Seil Cars India]]
** [[Hero MotoCorp]]
** [[HMSI|Honda Motorcycle and Scooter India]]
* [[Dongfeng Honda]](50%)
'''Air Transportation'''
* [[Honda Airport|Honda Airways]]
'''Sports'''
* [[Honda Racing F1]]
* [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda Racing]]
'''Engines'''
* [[GE Honda Aero Engines]](50%)
International
* [[Honda Atlas|Honda Pakistan]]
* [[Honda Canada Inc.]]
* [[Honda Taiwan]]
* [[Honda of the UK Manufacturing|Honda UK ltd.]]}}
| revenue = {{loss}} {{yen|7.948 trillion|link=yes}} (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;FY2012&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.google.com/finance?q=NYSE:HMC&amp;fstype=ii|title=FY2012 Consolidated Financial Results: Toyota Motor Company |accessdate=15 June 2011 |year=2011 |month=May}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
| operating_income = {{loss}} {{yen|231.36 billion}} (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;FY2012&quot; /&gt;
| net_income = {{loss}} {{yen|211.48 billion}} (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;FY2012&quot; /&gt; 
| aum = &lt;!-- Only used with financial services companies --&gt;
| assets = {{gain}} {{yen|11.780 trillion}} (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;FY2012&quot; /&gt;
| equity = {{loss}} {{yen|4.402 trillion}} (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;FY2012&quot; /&gt;
|num_employees = 179,060 (2012)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://zenobank.com/index.php?symbol=HMC&amp;page=quotesearch
 |title=Company Profile for Honda Motor Co Ltd (HMC) |accessdate=29 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| homepage = {{URL|http://world.honda.com/}}
}}

{{nihongo|'''Honda Motor Company, Ltd.'''|本田技研工業株式会社|Honda Giken Kōgyō [[Kabushiki gaisha|KK]]|{{IPA-ja|honꜜda|IPA|Honda_giken_kougyou.ogg}}; {{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|h|ɒ|n|d|ə}}}} nyaéta   [[pausahaan publik multinasional]]  Jepang utamana dipikawanoh minangka produsén [[mobil]] jeung [[motor]].

Honda geus jadi produsén sapédah motor pangbadagna di dunya saprak taun 1959,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Cases in contemporary strategy analysis |first1= Robert M. |last1= Grant |first2= Kent E. |edition= 3rd |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |year= 2003 |isbn= 1-4051-1180-1 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=XF7V9w8ByrcC&amp;pg=PA172 |accessdate=12 November 2010 |last2= Neupert |postscript=&lt;!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to &quot;.&quot; for the cite to end in a &quot;.&quot;, as necessary. --&gt;{{inconsistent citations}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title= Six men who built the modern auto industry |first= Richard Alan |last= Johnson |publisher=[[MotorBooks International]] |year= 2005 |isbn= 0-7603-1958-8 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=CArfq7tV0OIC&amp;pg=PA52 |accessdate=12 November 2010 |postscript= &lt;!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to &quot;.&quot; for the cite to end in a &quot;.&quot;, as necessary. --&gt;{{inconsistent citations}} }}&lt;/ref&gt; sarta  pangbadagna sadunya produsén  [[internal combustion engine]]s diukur dumasar volume, mroduksi leuwih ti 14 juta mesin pembakaran internal saban taun.&lt;ref name=&quot;Honda of America Manufacturing, Inc., Marysville, Ohio - Press room&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.ohio.honda.com/pressroom/View_Release.cfm?articleid=174|title=FIRST MOTORCYCLE AIRBAG EARNS TAKATA AND HONDA 2008 AUTOMOTIVE NEWS PACE INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP AWARD|last=Miller|first=Edward|date=18 April 2008|publisher=Honda.com|accessdate=28 July 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308025434/http://www.ohio.honda.com/pressroom/View_Release.cfm?articleid=174 |date=8 March 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Honda ngéléhkeun [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] taun 2001 pikeun jadi produsén mobil pangbadagna kadua di Jepang.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/4car/news/news-story.jsp?news_id=3266&amp;ref=archive |title=Honda overtakes Nissan to become Japan's second-largest carmaker. – Latest Car News from 4Car |publisher=Channel4.com |accessdate=22 November 2009}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.cars-directory.net/history/honda/ |title=The History of Honda |publisher=Cars-directory.net |accessdate=22 November 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512075512/https://www.cars-directory.net/history/honda/ |date=12 May 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|August 2008}} Agustus 2008, Honda ngéléhkeun [[Chrysler]] minangka produsén mobil pangbadagna kaopat di Amérika Sarikat.&lt;ref name=&quot;bloomberg.com&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Ohnsman |first=Alan |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-08-19/honda-founder-s-dream-of-u-s-production-protects-earnings-as-yen-surges.html |title=Honda's Dream of U.S. Production Protects Profits as Yen Surges |publisher=Bloomberg |accessdate=1 January 2011 |date=20 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Honda nyaéta produsén mobil pangbadagna katujuh di dunya di tukangeun [[Toyota]], [[General Motors]], [[Volkswagen AG]], [[Hyundai Motor Group]], [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], ssarta [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] taun 2010.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Honda nyaéta produsén mobil kahiji Jepang pikeun ngarilis hiji mérek mentéréng berdedikasi, [[Acura]], taun 1986. Aside from their core automobile and motorcycle businesses, Sajaba ti bisnis inti mobil sarta sapédah motor maranéhanana, Honda ogé mroduksi  parabot taman, mesin kalautan, parahu pribadi sarta pambangkit listrik. Saprak taun 1986, Honda geus kalibet kalayan kecerdasan jieunan / panalungtikan robotika sarta ngarilis robot [[ASIMO]] taun 2000. Maranéhanana ogé geus ngalalana ka rohang jomantara kalayan ngawangun [[GE Honda Aero Engines]] taun 2004 sarta [[Honda HA-420 HondaJet]], dijadwalkeun baris dirilis taun 2012. Honda berinvestasi kira-kira 5% tina pandapatan dina panalungtikan sarta pamekaran.&lt;ref name=&quot;America's Most Admired Companies: Honda&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/2008/03/03/news/companies/taylor_honda.fortune/index2.htm|title=America's Most Admired Companies: Honda|last=Taylor|first=Alex III|date=7 March 2008|publisher=CNNMoney.com|accessdate=3 May 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829001034/http://money.cnn.com/2008/03/03/news/companies/taylor_honda.fortune/index2.htm |date=29 August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Sajarah ==
{{Expand section|date=April 2009}}

Ti keur ngora, pangadeg Honda, [[Soichiro Honda]] (本田 宗一郎, ''Honda Sōichirō'') (17 Nopember 1906 – 5 Agustus 1991) mibanda minat kana mobil. Manéhna digawé minangka montir di bengkel Shokai Art, di mana manéhna ngahadéan mobil-mobil sarta maranéhanana diilukeun  dina balapan. Taun 1937, kalayan waragad ti saurang kawawuhan, Kato Shichirō, Honda ngawangun [[Tōkai region|Tōkai]] Seiki (éastern Séa Precision Machine Company) pikeun nyieun [[piston ring]]s sarta kaluar ti béngkél Art Shokai.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt; Sanggeus kagagalan mimiti, Tōkai Seiki meunang kontrak pikeun masok ring piston pikeun [[Toyota]], tapi kontrak dieureunkeun alatan goréngna kualitas produk maranéhanana.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt; Sanggeus ngaluuhan sakola téknik, teu junun, sarta ngadatangan pabrik-pabrik di sakumna Jepang pikeun leuwih nyurtian kualitas kontrol prosés Toyota, Honda mampuh, taun 1941, kalayan ngahasilkeun ''ring piston'' ditarima ku Toyota, ngagunakeun prosés otomatis anu bisa ngagawékeun buruh perang sanajan teu calakan .&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt;&lt;ref name=Frank2003/&gt;

Tōkai Seiki ditempatkeun di handapeun kadali [[Departemen Perdagangan sarta Industri]] (disebut Departemén Mesiu sanggeus 1943) dina mimiti Perang Dunya II, sarta Soichiro Honda diturunkeun ti présidén pikeun direktur manager sénior sanggeus Toyota meuli 40% saham ti pausahaan. .&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt; Honda ogé mantuan usaha perang kalayan mantuan pausahaan séjén dina ngaotomatisasi produksi kolécér pasawat militér.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt; Hubungan Honda dironjatkeun kalayan personil di Toyota. ''[[Nakajima Aircraft Company]]'' sarta ''[[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'' baris jadi instrumén dina période pascaperanng.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt; Serangan pasawat bomber ''US [[B-29]]''  ngancurkeun Yamashita nu Tōkai Seiki taun 1944, sarta pabrik Itawa runtuh ku [[gempa bumi Mikawa 1945]], sarta Soichiro Honda ngajual sésa-sésa pausahaan ka Toyota sanggeus perang saharga ¥450,000, sarta ngagunakeun hasilna pikeun ngadegkeun ''Honda Technical Research Institute'' bulan Oktober 1946.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt;&lt;ref name=Falloon2005/&gt; Kalayan staf 12 jelema anu digawé dina gubug legana {{convert|172|sqft|adj=on}} , maranéhanana ngawangun sarta ngajual [[sapédah motor]] improvisasi, ngagunakeun kiriman 500 mesin  [[two-stroke]] ''50&amp;nbsp;cc'' [[Tohatsu]] [[sésa perang]] radio ''[[Engine-generator|generator engines]]''.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt;&lt;ref name=Frank2003/&gt;&lt;ref name=Sakiya1982/&gt; Sabot mesin béak, Honda mimiti ngawangun salinan maranéhanana sorangan tina mesin Tohatsu, sarta masok para langganan pikeun ngilukeun sapédah maranéhanana.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt;&lt;ref name=Sakiya1982/&gt; Ieu téh  [[Honda Model A]], katelahna ''Bata Bata'' pikeun sora mesin anu dijieun.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt; Sapédah motor kumplit kahiji, kalayan rangka alus sarta mesin anu dijieun ku Honda, taun 1949 [[Honda Model D|Model D]], Honda anu kahiji kalayan ngaran ''Dream'' .&lt;ref name=Falloon2005/&gt; Honda Motor Company tumuwuh dina waktu singget pikeun jadi produsén pangbadagna di dunya sapédah motor taun 1964.

Produksi mobil munggaran ti Honda nyaéta  [[Honda T360|T360]] Mini treuk, anu mimiti dijual dina bulan Agustus 1963..&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/history/challenge/1962autoproduction/text/05.html |title=Honda Worldwide, History |publisher=World.honda.com |accessdate=1 January 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dirojong ku mesin bensin leutik 356 cc sagaris-4, éta diklasifikasikeun pajeg mobil murah ''[[Kei car]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2010/03/hondas-wild-9000-rpm-mid-engine-rwd-t360-pickup-of-1963/ |title=Honda’s Wild 9000 RPM Mid-Engine T360 Pickup Of 1963 |date=30 March 2010 |author=Paul Niedermeyer  |publisher=The Truth about Cars }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Produksi mobil  sport munggaran ti Honda nyaéta [[Honda S500|S500]], anu dituturkeun ku produksi T360 dina bulan Oktober 1963.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.classiccar.co.nz/articles/sporting-hondas-classic-buyers-guide-226 |title=Sporting Hondas – Classic Buyer’s Guide |date=21 September 2010 |author= |publisher=New Zealand Classic Car magazine }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006205600/http://www.classiccar.co.nz/articles/sporting-hondas-classic-buyers-guide-226 |date=6 October 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Salila sawatara dékadeu ka hareup, Honda digawé pikeun ngaronjatkeun lini produk sarta ékspor ka nagara-nagara di sakumna dunya.  Taun 1986, Honda suksés ngawanohkeun méré k [[Acura]] ka pasar Amérika dina usaha pikeun meunangkeun tempat di pasar [[kandaraan mentéréng]].  Taun 1991 Honda ngawanohkeun supercar [[Honda NSX]] , kandaraan ''monocoque'' munggaran anu sakabéh-aluminium anu ngagabungkeun V6 mid-engine kalayan timing variabel-valve .&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/history/challenge/1990thensx/text01/index.html|title=Let’s Build a Sportscar!|publisher=Honda|accessdate=1 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Saterusna, taun 1995 ngadegkeun ''[[Honda Aircraft Company]]'' kalayan tujuan mroduksi pasawat jét Honda .&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://gearheads.org/history-of-honda-motor-company/|title=The History of Honda Motor Company|date=18 May 2012|publisher=GearHeads|accessdate=1 July 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530023227/http://gearheads.org/history-of-honda-motor-company/ |date=30 May 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Corporate profile and divisions ==
[[File:Honda aoyama.JPG|thumb|upright|right|[[Minato, Tokyo|Honda headquarters]] building in [[Minato, Tokyo]]]]
'''Honda''' is héadquartered in [[Minato, Tokyo|Minato]], Tokyo, Japan. Their shares trade on the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]] and the [[New York Stock Exchange]], as well as exchanges in Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, Kyoto, [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], London, Paris and Switzerland.

The company has assembly plants around the globe. These plants are located in China, the United States, Pakistan, Canada, England, Japan, Belgium, Brazil, México, New Zéaland, Malaysia, Indonésia, India, Thailand, Turkey, Taiwan and Perú. As of July 2010, 89 percent of Honda and Acura vehicles sold in the United States were built in North American plants, up from 82.2 percent a yéar éarlier. This shields profits from the yen’s advance to a 15-yéar high against the dollar.&lt;ref name=&quot;bloomberg.com&quot;/&gt;

'''Honda's Net Sales and Other Operating Revenue by Géographical Regions in 2007'''&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikinvest:stock/Honda Motor Company (HMC)/Breakdown Net Sales Other Operating Revenue Geographical Markets|Breakdown of net sales and other operating revenue by geographical markets from company 20Fs]]&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Géographic Region
! Total revenue (in millions of [[Japanese yen|¥]])
|-
| Japan || 1,681,190
|-
| North America || 5,980,876
|-
| Europe || 1,236,757
|-
| Asia || 1,283,154
|-
| Others || 905,163
|}

[[American Honda Motor Company]] is based in Torrance, California. [[Honda Canada Inc.]] is héadquartered in [[Markham, Ontario]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news | last = Mangion | first = Patrick | title = Markham saves Honda deal | newspaper=Yorkregion.com | page = 1 | year = 2007 | date = 08-27 | url = http://www.yorkregion.com/article/44477 | postscript = &lt;!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to &quot;.&quot; for the cite to end in a &quot;.&quot;, as necessary. --&gt; }} It was originally planned to be located in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario]], but delays led them to look elsewhere.&lt;/ref&gt; their manufacturing division, [[Honda of Canada Manufacturing]], is based in [[Alliston, Ontario]]. Honda has also créated joint ventures around the world, such as [[Honda Siel Cars India|Honda Siel Cars]] and [[Hero Honda|Hero Honda Motorcycles]] in India,&lt;ref&gt;Share Manthan : http://www.sharemanthan.in/index.php/indian-companies/49-auto/2150-hero-honda {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429013427/http://www.sharemanthan.in/index.php/indian-companies/49-auto/2150-hero-honda |date=29 April 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Guangzhou Automobile Industry Group|Guangzhou Honda]] and [[Dongfeng Honda]] in China, Boon Siew Honda in Malaysia and [[Honda Atlas]] in Pakistan.

Following the Japanese éarthquake and tsunami in March 2011 Honda announced plans to halve production at its UK plants.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} The decision was made to put staff at the Swindon plant on a 2 day week until the end of May as the manufacturer struggled to source supplies from Japan. It's thought around 22,500 cars were produced during this period.

== Leadership ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;175&quot; | Name 
! scope=&quot;col&quot; width=&quot;70&quot; | Yéars 
|-
| [[Soichiro Honda]] || 1948–1973 
|-
| Kiyoshi Kawashima || 1973–1983 
|-
| Tadashi Kume || 1983–1990 
|-
| [[Nobuhiko Kawamoto]] || 1990–1998 
|-
| Hiroyuki Yoshino || 1998–2004 
|-
| [[Takeo Fukui]] || 2004–2009 
|-
| Takanobu Ito || 2009— 
|}

== Products ==

=== Automobiles ===
{{For|a list of vehicles|List of Honda vehicles}}
[[File:Hondajazzsport.JPG|thumb|right|2011 [[Honda Jazz]] (Indian rampart)]]
[[File:2008 Honda Accord.jpg|thumb|right|2008 [[Honda Accord]] (USA-Canada)]]
[[File:2006-2009 Honda Civic VTi sedan (2018-10-19) 01.jpg|thumb|right|Eighth Generation [[Honda Civic]] (Asian Version)]]
Honda's global lineup consists of the [[Honda Fit|Fit]], [[Honda Civic|Civic]], [[Honda Accord|Accord]], [[Honda Insight|Insight]], [[Honda CR-V|CR-V]], [[Honda CR-Z|CR-Z]], [[Honda Legend|Legend]] and two versions of the Odyssey, [[Honda Odyssey (North America)|one for North America]], and [[Honda Odyssey (international)|a smaller vehicle]] sold internationally. An éarly proponent of developing vehicles to cater to different needs and markets worldwide, Honda's lineup varies by country and may féature vehicles exclusive to that region. A few examples are the latest [[Honda Odyssey (North America)|Honda Odyssey]] [[minivan]] and the [[Honda Ridgeline|Ridgeline]], Honda's first light-duty uni-body [[pickup truck]]. Both were designed and engineered primarily in North America and are produced there. Other example of exclusive modéls includes the [[Honda Civic (eighth generation)#Europe|Honda Civic five-door hatchback]] sold in Europe.

Honda's automotive manufacturing ambitions can be traced back to 1963, with the [[Honda T360]], a [[kei car]] truck built for the Japanese market.&lt;ref name=tjra&gt;{{cite journal | editor-first = Jonathan | editor-last = Barr | title = 1965 Honda T500F Flat Bed Utility | journal = The Japanese Restorer in Australia | month = July/September | year = 2003 | issue = 4 | location = [[Bald Hills, Queensland]], Australia | page = 15 }}&lt;/ref&gt; This was followed by the two-door [[Roadster (automobile)|roadster]], the [[Honda S500]] also introduced in 1963. In 1965, Honda built a two-door commercial delivery van, called the [[Honda L700]]. Honda's first four-door sedan was not the Accord, but the air-cooled, four-cylinder, gasoline-powered [[Honda 1300]] in 1969. The Civic was a hatchback that gained wide popularity internationally, but it wasn't the first two-door hatchback built. That was the [[Honda N360]], another ''Kei car'' that was adapted for international sale as the N600. The Civic, which appéared in 1972 and replaced the N600 also had a smaller sibling that replaced the air-cooled N360, called the [[Honda Life]] that was water-cooled.

The Honda Life represented Honda's efforts in competing in the ''kei'' car segment, offering sedan, delivery van and small pick-up platforms on a shared chassis. The [[Honda Life#Life Step Van|Life StepVan]] had a novel approach that, while not initially a commercial success, appéars to be an influence in vehicles with the front passengers sitting behind the engine,  a large cargo aréa with a flat roof and a liftgate installed in back, and utilizing a transversely installed engine with a front-wheel-drive powertrain.

As Honda entered into automobile manufacturing after [[World War II]], where Japanese manufacturers such as Toyota and Nissan had heritage before the war, it appéars that Honda instilled a sense of doing things a little differently than its Japanese competitors. Its mainstay products, like the Accord and Civic, have always employed [[front-wheel-drive]] powertrain implementation, which is currently a long held Honda tradition. Honda also installed new technologies into their products, first as optional equipment, then later standard, like anti lock brakes, speed sensitive power steering, and multi-port fuel injection in the éarly 1980s. This desire to be the first to try new approaches is evident with the création of the first Japanese luxury chain [[Acura]], and was also evident with the all aluminum, mid-engined sports car, the [[Honda NSX]], which also introduced [[variable valve timing]] technology, Honda calls [[VTEC]].

The Civic is a line of [[compact car]]s developed and manufactured by Honda. In North America, the Civic is the second-longest continuously running nameplate from a Japanese manufacturer; only its perennial rival, the [[Toyota Corolla]], introduced in 1968, has been in production longer.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.toyota.com/about/our_business/our_history/product_history/pdf/corolla.pdf|title=Toyota Corolla History|work=Toyota Motor Corp}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Civic, along with the Accord and [[Honda Prelude|Prelude]], comprised Honda's vehicles sold in North America until the 1990s, when the modél lineup was expanded. Having gone through several generational changes, the Civic has become larger and more [[upmarket]], and it currently slots between the [[Honda Fit|Fit]] and Accord.

Honda produces [[Honda Civic Hybrid|Civic hybrid]], a [[hybrid electric vehicle]] that competes with the [[Toyota Prius]], and also produces the [[Honda Insight|Insight]] and [[Honda CR-Z|CR-Z]].

In 2008, Honda incréased global production to meet demand for [[small car]]s and [[hybrid vehicle|hybrids]] in the U.S. and emerging markets. The company shuffled U.S. production to keep factories busy and boost car output, while building fewer [[minivan]]s and [[sport utility vehicle]]s as [[light-truck|light truck]] sales fell.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/20/business/20auto.html?_r=1|title=The Smaller the Better, Automakers Are Finding|last=Vlasic|first=Bill|coauthors=Bunkley, Nick|date=20 June 2008|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=1 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Its first entrance into the pickup segment, the light duty Ridgeline, won Truck of the Yéar from ''[[Motor Trend]]'' magazine in 2006. Also in 2006, the redesigned Civic won [[Motor Trend Car of the Year|Car of the Year]] from the magazine, giving Honda a rare double win of Motor Trend honors.

It is reported that Honda plans to incréase hybrid sales in Japan to more than 20% of its total sales in fiscal yéar 2011, from 14.8% in previous yéar.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/11/honda-20101127.html |title=Report: Honda planning to double hybrid sales in Japan to more than 20% next fiscal year |date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Green Car Congress }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Five of [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]'s top ten most fuel-efficient cars from 1984 to 2010 comes from Honda, more than any other automakers. The five modéls are: 2000–2006 Honda Insight ({{convert|53|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined), 1986–1987 Honda Civic Coupe HF ({{convert|46|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined), 1994–1995 Honda Civic hatchback VX ({{convert|43|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined), 2006– Honda Civic Hybrid ({{convert|42|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined), and 2010– Honda Insight ({{convert|41|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined).&lt;ref&gt;Scott Doggett [http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/06/epa-lists-top-10-most-fuel-efficient-cars-from-1984-to-present-older-models-rule.html/&quot;EPA Lists Top 10 Most Fuel-Efficient Cars From 1984 to Present&quot; Green car advisor – Edmunds, 10 June 2010. (mpg revised in accordance with 2008 regulation change)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101020194846/http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/06/epa-lists-top-10-most-fuel-efficient-cars-from-1984-to-present-older-models-rule.html/ |date=20 October 2010 }}{{dubious|date=November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy|ACEEE]] has also rated the [[Honda Civic GX|Civic GX]] as the greenest car in America for seven consecutive yéars.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.greenercars.org/highlights_greenest.htm |title=the greenest vehicles of 2008 |publisher=greenercars.org |accessdate=1 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910122720/http://www.greenercars.org/highlights_greenest.htm |date=10 September 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Motorcycles ===
{{For|a list of motorcycle products|List of Honda motorcycles}}
Honda is the largest motorcycle manufacturer in Japan and has been since it started production in 1955.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt;
At its péak in 1982, Honda manufactured almost three million motorcycles annually. By 2006 this figure had reduced to around 550,000 but was still higher than its three domestic competitors.&lt;ref name=Alexander2008/&gt;

During the 1960s, when it was a small manufacturer, Honda broke out of the Japanese motorcycle market and began exporting to the U.S. Working with the advertising agency [[Grey Advertising]], Honda créated an innovative marketing campaign, using the slogan &quot;You meet the nicest people on a Honda.&quot; In contrast to the prevailing negative steréotypes of motorcyclists in America as tough, antisocial rebels, this campaign suggested that Honda motorcycles were made for the everyman. The campaign was hugely successful; the ads ran for three yéars, and by the end of 1963 alone, Honda had sold 90,000 motorcycles.&lt;ref name=&quot;Frank2003&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Aaron Frank|title=Honda Motorcycles|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CSxTaoGagKoC&amp;pg=PA42|accessdate=1 April 2012|date=12 July 2003|publisher=MotorBooks International|isbn=978-0-7603-1077-9|pages=41–43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Taking Honda's story as an archetype of the smaller manufacturer entering a new market alréady occupied by highly dominant competitors, the story of their market entry, and their subsequent huge success in the U.S. and around the world, has been the subject of some academic controversy. Competing explanations have been advanced to explain Honda's strategy and the réasons for their success.&lt;ref name=&quot;Richard P. Rumelt&quot;&gt;http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/dick.rumelt/Docs/Papers/HONDA&lt;/ref&gt;

The first of these explanations was put forward when, in 1975, [[Boston Consulting Group]] (BCG) was commissioned by the UK government to write a report explaining why and how the British motorcycle industry had been out-competed by its Japanese competitors. The report concluded that the Japanese firms, including Honda, had sought a very high scale of production (they had made a large number of motorbikes) in order to benefit from [[economies of scale]] and [[learning curve]] effects. It blamed the decline of the British motorcycle industry on the failure of British managers to invest enough in their businesses to profit from economies of scale and [[economies of scope|scope]].&lt;ref name=&quot;MorrisonDivision1993&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Allen J. Morrison|author2=United Nations. Transnational Corporations and Management Division|title=Transnational corporations and business strategy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HvQcQFFONzkC&amp;pg=PA64|accessdate=1 April 2012|year=1993|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|isbn=978-0-415-08537-3|pages=65–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:2004supercub.jpg|thumb|right|2004 [[Honda Super Cub]]]]
The second explanation was offered in 1984 by [[Richard Pascale]], who had interviewed the Honda executives responsible for the firm's entry into the U.S. market. As opposed to the tightly focused strategy of low cost and high scale that BCG accredited to Honda, Pascale found that their entry into the U.S. market was a story of &quot;miscalculation, serendipity, and organizational learning&quot; – in other words, Honda's success was due to the adaptability and hard work of its staff, rather than any long term strategy.&lt;ref name=&quot;PascaleHondaEffect&quot;&gt;{{cite book | title=Transnational corporations and business strategy | publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis | author=Morrison, Allen J. | authorlink=Richard Pascale | pages=64–92 | isbn=0-415-08537-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, Honda's initial plan on entering the US was to compete in large motorcycles, around 300&amp;nbsp;cc. Honda's motorcycles in this class suffered performance and reliability problems when ridden the relatively long distanes of the US highways.&lt;ref name=&quot;Frank2003&quot;/&gt; When the téam found that the scooters they were using to get themselves around their U.S. base of [[San Francisco]] attracted positive interest from consumers that they fell back on selling the [[Honda Super Cub|Super Cub]] instéad.&lt;ref name=&quot;Frank2003&quot;/&gt;

The most recent school of thought on Honda's strategy was put forward by [[Gary Hamel]] and [[C. K. Prahalad]] in 1989. Créating the concept of [[core competency|core competencies]] with Honda as an example, they argued that Honda's success was due to its focus on léadership in the technology of internal combustion engines.&lt;ref name=&quot;HamelPrahalad1994&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Gary Hamel|author2=C. K. Prahalad|title=Competing for the future|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PlML2w8dhJ0C&amp;pg=PA204|accessdate=1 April 2012|date=1 July 1994|publisher=Harvard Business Press|isbn=978-0-87584-416-9|page=204}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, the high power-to-weight ratio engines Honda produced for its racing bikes provided technology and expertise which was transferable into mopeds. Honda's entry into the U.S. motorcycle market during the 1960s is used as a [[case study]] for téaching introductory strategy at [[business school]]s worldwide.&lt;ref name=&quot;ClarkeLamoreaux2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Sally H. Clarke|author2=Naomi R. Lamoreaux|author3=Steven W. Usselman|title=The Challenge of Remaining Innovative: Insights from Twentieth-Century American Business|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ho6hmHrCjCEC&amp;pg=PA223|accessdate=1 April 2012|date=10 March 2009|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-5892-5|page=223}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Power equipment ===
Production started in 1953 with H-type engine (prior to motorcycle).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/timeline/power/ |title=Honda Worldwide, Timeline – Power Products |publisher=World.honda.com |accessdate=12 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;
Honda power equipment réached record sales in 2007 with 6,4&amp;nbsp;million units.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2007/pdf/ar2007.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308002707/http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2007/pdf/ar2007.pdf |date=8 March 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; By 2010 &lt;small&gt;([[Fiscal year]] ended 31 March)&lt;/small&gt; this figure had decréased to 4,7&amp;nbsp;million units.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2010/pdf/honda2010ar-all-e.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125024549/http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2010/pdf/honda2010ar-all-e.pdf |date=25 January 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Cumulative production of power products has exceeded 85 million units (as of September 2008).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/power/overview/ |title=Honda Worldwide, Power Products, Overview |publisher=World.honda.com |accessdate=12 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Honda power equipment includes:
{{columns-list|3|
*[[Engine]]
*[[Tiller]]
* [[Lawn mower]]
* [[Lawn mower|Riding mower]]
* [[String trimmer|Trimmer]]
* [[Mower]]
* [[Leaf blower|Blower]]
* [[Sprayer]]
* [[Hedge trimmer]]
* [[Snowthrower]]
* [[Engine-generator|Generator]], [[welding power supply]]
* [[Honda pumps|Pumps]]
* [[Outboard engine]]
* [[Inflatable boat]]
* [[Mobility scooter|Electric 4-wheel Scooter]]
* Compact Household [[Cogeneration]] Unit
}}

=== Engines ===
{{Expand section|date=April 2009}}
[[File:Hondaoutboard.jpg|thumb|right|Honda [[Outboard motor]] on a [[pontoon boat]]]]

Honda engines powered the entire 33-car starting field of the [[2010 Indianapolis 500]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://racing.honda.com/about/engine.aspx |title=Honda Racing Engines |publisher=Racing.honda.com |accessdate=27 September 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for the fifth consecutive race, there were no engine-related retirements during the running of the Memorial Day Classic.&lt;ref name=&quot;INDY1&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|publisher=Indianapolis Motor Speedway
|url=http://www.indianapolismotorspeedway.com/indy500/
|title=Indy 500
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Honda, despite being known as an engine company, has never built a [[V8 engine|V8]] for passenger vehicles. In the late 1990s, the company resisted considerable pressure from its American déalers for a V8 engine (which would have seen use in top-of-the-line Honda SUVs and [[Acura]]s), with American Honda reportedly sending one déaler a shipment of [[V8 (beverage)|V8 beverage]]s to silence them.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=News |first=Automotive |url=http://reviews.cnet.com/8301-13746_7-10064387-48.html |title=Green-car era poses test for Honda, The Car Tech blog – CNET Reviews |publisher=Reviews.cnet.com |date=17 October 2008 |accessdate=22 November 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020095106/http://reviews.cnet.com/8301-13746_7-10064387-48.html |date=20 October 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Honda considered starting V8 production in the mid-2000s for larger Acura sedans, a new version of the high end NSX sports car (which previously used DOHC V6 engines with VTEC to achieve its high power output) and possible future ventures into the American full-size truck and SUV segment for both the Acura and Honda brands, but this was cancelled in late 2008, with Honda citing environmental and worldwide economic conditions as réasons for the termination of this project.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title= Honda S2000, CR-Z convertible follow Acura NSX and V8 to scrap heap |url= http://green.autoblog.com/2009/01/06/honda-s2000-cr-z-convertible-follow-acura-nsx-and-v8-to-scrap-h/ |accessdate=25 October 2010 |first= Sam |last= Abuelsamid |date= 6 January 2009}}{{dubious|date=November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Robots ===
[[File:HONDA ASIMO.jpg|left|upright|thumb|[[ASIMO]] at [[Expo 2005]]]]
[[ASIMO]] is the part of Honda's [http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/history.html Research &amp; Development robotics program]. It is the eleventh in a line of successive builds starting in 1986 with [[Honda E0]] moving through the ensuing [[Honda E series]] and the [[Honda P series]]. Weighing 54 kilograms and standing 130 centiméters tall, ASIMO resembles a small [[astronaut]] wéaring a backpack, and can walk on [[biped|two feet]] in a manner resembling human [[Walking|locomotion]], at up to {{convert|6|km/h|mi/h|abbr=on}}. ASIMO is the world's only humanoid robot able to ascend and descend stairs independently.&lt;ref&gt;Frequently asked questions about ASIMO [http://asimo.honda.com/downloads/pdf/asimo-technical-faq.pdf]. Retrieved 28 February 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; However, human motions such as climbing stairs are difficult to mimic with a machine, which ASIMO has demonstrated by taking two plunges off a staircase.

Honda's robot [[ASIMO]] (see below) as an R&amp;D project brings together expertise to créate a robot that walks, dances and navigates steps.
2010 marks the yéar Honda has developed a machine capable of réading a user's brainwaves to move [[ASIMO]]. The system uses a helmet covered with electroencephalography and néar-infrared spectroscopy sensors that monitor electrical brainwaves and cerebral blood flow—signals that alter slightly during the human thought process. The user thinks of one of a limited number of gestures it wants from the robot, which has been fitted with a Brain Machine Interface.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.gadgetrepublic.com/news/item/1938/digital-life/japan-plans-mind-reading-devices&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Aircraft ===
{{utama|Honda HA-420 HondaJet}}
Honda has also pioneered new technology in its [[Honda HA-420 HondaJet|HA-420 HondaJet]], manufactured by its subsidiary [[Honda Aircraft Company]], which allows new levels of reduced drag, incréased aerodynamics and fuel efficiency thus reducing operating costs.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

=== Solar cells ===
Honda's solar cell subsidiary company Honda Soltec (Héadquarters: Kikuchi-gun, Kumamoto; présidént and Céo: Akio Kazusa) started sales throughout Japan of [[thin-film solar cells]] for public and industrial use on 24 October 2008, after selling solar cells for residential use since October 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/news/2008/c081023Thin-Film-Solar-Cells |title=Honda Worldwide &amp;#124; October 23, 2008 &quot;Honda Soltec Begins Sales of Thin-Film Solar Cells for Public and Industrial Use&quot; |publisher=World.honda.com |date= |accessdate=10 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Mountain bikes ===
{{See also|Honda RN-01 G-cross}}
Honda has also built a [[Downhill mountain biking|downhill racing bicycle]] known as the Honda RN-01.  It is not available for sale to the public. The key féature of this bike is the géarbox, which replaces the standard [[Derailleur gears|derailleur]] found on most bikes.

Honda has hired several péople to pilot the bike, among them [[Greg Minnaar]].  The téam is known as Téam G Cross Honda.

=== ATV ===
{{See also|Honda Rincon}}
Honda also builds [[all-terrain vehicles]] (ATV).

== Motorsports ==
Honda has been active in motorsports, like Motorcycle Grand Prix, Superbike racing and others.

=== Automobile ===
{{See also|Honda Racing F1}}
[[File:Rubens Barrichello 2006 Brazil.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rubens Barrichello]] driving for Honda]]
Honda entered [[Formula One]] as a constructor for the first time in the [[1964 Formula One season|1964 season]] at the [[1964 German Grand Prix|German Grand Prix]] with [[Ronnie Bucknum]] at the wheel. [[1965 Formula One season|1965]] saw the addition of [[Richie Ginther]] to the téam, who scored Honda's first point at the [[1965 Belgian Grand Prix|Belgian Grand Prix]], and Honda's first win at the [[1965 Mexican Grand Prix|Mexican Grand Prix]]. [[1967 Formula One season|1967]] saw their next win at the [[1967 Italian Grand Prix|Italian Grand Prix]] with [[John Surtees]] as their driver. In [[1968 Formula One season|1968]], [[Jo Schlesser]] was killed in a Honda RA302 at the [[1968 French Grand Prix|French Grand Prix]]. This racing tragedy, coupled with their commercial difficulties selling automobiles in the United States, prompted Honda to withdraw from all international motorsport that yéar.

After a léarning yéar in 1965, Honda-powered [[Brabham]]s dominated the 1966 French [[Formula Two]] championship in the hands of [[Jack Brabham]] and [[Denny Hulme]]. As there was no Européan Championship that séason, this was the top F2 championship that yéar. In the éarly 1980s Honda returned to F2, supplying engines to [[Ron Tauranac]]'s [[Ralt]] téam. Tauranac had designed the Brabham cars for their éarlier involvement. They were again extremely successful. In a related exercise, John Judd's [[Judd (engine)|Engine Developments]] company produced a turbo &quot;Brabham-Honda&quot; engine for use in [[open wheel car|IndyCar]] racing. It won only one race, in 1988 for [[Bobby Rahal]] at Pocono.

Honda returned to Formula One in 1983, initially with another Formula Two partner, the [[Spirit (racing team)|Spirit]] téam, before switching abruptly to Williams in 1984. In the late 1980s and éarly 1990s, Honda powered cars won six consecutive [[Formula One]] Constructors Championships. [[WilliamsF1]] won the crown in [[1986 Formula One season|1986]] and [[1987 Formula One season|1987]]. Honda switched allegiance again in 1988. New partners Téam [[McLaren]] won the title in [[1988 Formula One season|1988]], [[1989 Formula One season|1989]], [[1990 Formula One season|1990]] and [[1991 Formula One season|1991]]. Honda withdrew from Formula One at the end of 1992, although the related [[Mugen-Honda]] company maintained a presence up to the end of 1999, winning four races with [[Equipe Ligier|Ligier]] and [[Jordan Grand Prix]].

Honda debuted in the [[Champ Car|CART IndyCar World Series]] as a works supplier in 1994. The engines were far from competitive at first, but after development, the company powered six consecutive drivers championships. In 2003, Honda transferred its effort to the rival [[Indy Racing League|IRL]] [[IndyCar Series]]. In 2004, Honda-powered cars overwhelmingly dominated the IndyCar Series, winning 14 of 16 IndyCar races, including the [[Indianapolis 500]], and claimed the IndyCar Series Manufacturers' Championship, Drivers' Championship and Rookie of the Yéar titles. In 2006, Honda became the sole engine supplier for the IndyCar Series, including the Indianapolis 500. In the [[2006 Indianapolis 500]], for the first time in Indianapolis 500 history, the race was run without a single engine problem.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://racing.honda.com/results/detail.aspx?date=2006_05_28|title=Last Lap Victory for Franchitti Seals 2007 IndyCar Title|accessdate=14 January 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During 1998, Honda considered returning to Formula One with their own téam. The project was aborted after the déath of its technical director, [[Harvey Postlethwaite]]. Honda instéad came back as an official engine supplier to [[British American Racing]] (BAR) and Jordan Grand Prix. Honda bought a stake in the BAR téam in 2004 before buying the téam outright at the end of 2005, becoming a constructor for the first time since the 1960s. Honda won the [[2006 Hungarian Grand Prix]] with driver [[Jenson Button]].

It was announced on 5 December 2008, that Honda would be exiting Formula One with immediate effect due to the 2008 global economic crisis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72322|title=Honda confirm immediate F1 pull out |accessdate=5 December 2008 | work=Autosport}}&lt;/ref&gt; The téam was sold to former téam principal [[Ross Brawn]], renamed [[Brawn GP]] and subsequently [[Mercedes GP]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns21227.html|title=Brawn GP arrives |accessdate=6 March 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Honda became an official works téam in the [[British Touring Car Championship]] in 2010.

=== Motorcycles ===
{{utama|Honda Racing Corporation}}
[[File:Dani Pedrosa 2010 Assen.jpg|thumb|right|[[Honda RC212V]] raced by [[Dani Pedrosa]]]]
[[Honda Racing Corporation]] (HRC) was formed in 1982. The company combines participation in motorcycle races throughout the world with the development of high potential racing machines. Its racing activities are an important source for the création of léading edge technologies used in the development of Honda motorcycles. HRC also contributes to the advancement of motorcycle sports through a range of activities that include sales of production racing motorcycles, support for satellite téams, and rider education programs.

Soichiro Honda, being a race driver himself, could not stay out of international [[motorsport]]. In 1959, Honda entered five motorcycles into the [[Isle of Man TT]] race, the most prestigious motorcycle race in the world. While always having powerful engines, it took until 1961 for Honda to tune their chassis well enough to allow [[Mike Hailwood]] to claim their first [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|Grand Prix]] victories in the 125 and 250&amp;nbsp;[[Cubic centimetre|cc]] classes. Hailwood would later pick up their first Senior TT wins in 1966 and [[1967 British motorcycle Grand Prix|1967]]. Honda's race bikes were known for their &quot;sleek &amp; stylish design&quot; and exotic engine configurations, such as the 5-cylinder, 22,000&amp;nbsp;rpm, 125&amp;nbsp;cc bike and their 6-cylinder 250&amp;nbsp;cc and 297&amp;nbsp;cc bikes.

In 1979, Honda returned to [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing]] with the [[monocoque]]-framed, [[four-stroke]] [[NR500]]. The [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme|FIM]] rules limited engines to four cylinders, so the NR500 féatured non-circular, 'race-track', cylinders, éach with 8 valves and two connecting rods, in order to provide sufficient valve aréa to compete with the dominant [[two-stroke]] racers. Unfortunately, it seemed Honda tried to accomplish too much at one time and the experiment failed. For the 1982 séason, Honda debuted their first two-stroke race bike, the NS500 and in [[1983 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1983]], Honda won their first 500&amp;nbsp;cc [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|Grand Prix]] World Championship with [[Freddie Spencer]]. Since then, Honda has become a dominant marque in motorcycle Grand Prix racing, winning a plethora of top level titles with riders such as [[Mick Doohan]] and [[Valentino Rossi]].

In the [[Motocross World Championship]], Honda has claimed six world championships. In the [[World Enduro Championship]], Honda has captured eight titles, most recently with [[Stefan Merriman]] in 2003 and with [[Mika Ahola]] from 2007 to 2010. In [[observed trials]], Honda has claimed three world championships with Belgian rider [[Eddy Lejeune]].

== Electric and alternative fuel vehicles ==
[[File:2009 Honda Civic NGV--DC.jpg|thumb|right|2009 [[Honda Civic GX]] hooked up to Phill refueling system]]
[[File:Honda Civic Clean Models USA &amp; BRA.jpg|thumb|right|Top: Brazilian [[flexible-fuel vehicle|flexible-fuel]] [[Honda Civic]]. Below: U.S. [[Honda Civic Hybrid]].]]
&lt;!--[[File:HondaInsight.jpg|thumb|right|[[Honda Insight]] [[hybrid electric vehicle]] (First generation).]]--&gt;
[[File:2010 Honda Insight--DC.jpg|thumb|right|2010 [[Honda Insight]] [[hybrid electric vehicle]] (Second generation).]]
[[File:FCX Clarity.jpg|thumb|right|[[Honda FCX Clarity]] [[hydrogen]] [[fuel cell]] vehicle]]

=== Compressed natural gas ===
The [[Honda Civic GX]] is the only purpose-built [[natural gas vehicle]] (NGV) commercially available in some parts of the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/2008ngvavailable/a/2008CNGvehicles.htm |title=2008 Natural Gas Vehicles (NGVs) Available |author=Christine Gable and Scott Gable |publisher=About.com: Hybrid Cars &amp; Alt Fuels |accessdate=18 October 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011214336/http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/2008ngvavailable/a/2008CNGvehicles.htm |date=11 October 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://automobiles.honda.com/civic-gx/ |title=2009 Honda Civic GX Natural Gas Vehicle |publisher=Honda |accessdate=18 October 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Honda Civic GX first appéared in 1998 as a factory-modified Civic LX that had been designed to run exclusively on [[compressed natural gas]]. The car looks and drives just like a contemporary [[Honda Civic]] LX, but does not run on gasoline. In 2001, the Civic GX was rated the cléanest-burning internal combustion engine in the world by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.epa.gov/ttnnaaqs/ozone/eac/pr051231_eac_tx_northeast.pdf &quot;Sixth Biannual Report On The Early Action Compact For Northeast Texas&quot;], p.5.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://autos.yahoo.com/green_center-article_114/ &quot;Natural Gas Myths&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929150337/http://autos.yahoo.com/green_center-article_114/ |date=29 September 2011 }}, Myth 2.&lt;/ref&gt;

First léased to the City of Los Angeles, in 2005, Honda started offering the GX directly to the public through factory trained déalers certified to service the GX. Before that, only [[fleet vehicles|fleets]] were eligible to purchase a new Civic GX. In 2006, the Civic GX was reléased in New York, making it the second state where the consumer is able to buy the car.&lt;ref&gt;[http://corporate.honda.com/press/article.aspx?id=2006101966979 &quot;Honda Press Release&quot;], 19 October 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Home refueling is available for the GX with the addition of the [[Phill Home Refueling Appliance]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.fuelmaker.com/Research/PhillQandA.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080215084754/http://www.fuelmaker.com/Research/PhillQandA.htm |archivedate=15 February 2008 |title=FuelMaker Corporation – World Leader in Convenient On-Site Refueling Systems |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=15 February 2008 |accessdate=27 September 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Flexible-fuel ===
Honda's Brazilian subsidiary launched [[flexible-fuel vehicle|flexible-fuel]] versions for the [[Honda Civic]] and [[Honda Fit]] in late 2006. As other Brazilian flex-fuel vehicles, these modéls run on any blend of [[hydrous]] ethanol ([[Neat alcohol fuel|E100]]) and [[w:common ethanol fuel mixtures#E20, E25|E20-E25 gasoline]].&lt;ref name=&quot;HondaFlex&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.honda.com.br/web/index.asp?pp=noticias&amp;ps=noticia&amp;ps2=carros&amp;id=1273 |author=Ricardo Ghigonetto |publisher=Honda (Brazil) |title=Honda apresenta tecnologia Flex |date=November 20061 |accessdate=16 April 2009 |language=Portuguese }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618152740/http://www.honda.com.br/web/index.asp?pp=noticias&amp;ps=noticia&amp;ps2=carros&amp;id=1273 |date=18 June 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;4Rodas&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=http://quatrorodas.abril.com.br/carros/testes/conteudo_209972.shtml |author=Marcelo Moura |publisher=Revista Quatro Rodas |title=Testes: Honda Civic EXS Flex x Honda Civic EXS |date=January 2007 |accessdate=16 April 2009 |language=Portuguese }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220054457/http://quatrorodas.abril.com.br/carros/testes/conteudo_209972.shtml |date=20 February 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Initially, and in order to test the market preferences, the carmaker decided to produce a limited share of the vehicles with flex-fuel engines, 33 percent of the Civic production and 28 percent of the Fit modéls.&lt;ref name=&quot;HondaFlex&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;4Rodas&quot;/&gt; Also, the sale price for the flex-fuel version was higher than the respective gasoline versions, around US$1,000 premium for the Civic, and US$650 for the Fit, despite the fact that all other flex-fuel vehicles sold in Brazil had the same tag price as their gasoline versions.&lt;ref name=&quot;4Rodas&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.webmotors.com.br/wmpublicador/Testes_Conteudo.vxlpub?hnid=37317 |author=Luís Felipe Figueiredo  |publisher=WebMotors |title=Honda Fit LXL Flex, um japonês versátil|date=9 February 2009|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www2.uol.com.br/interpressmotor/noticias/item15731.shl |author=Alberto Polo Junior |publisher=Interpress Motor |title=Versão Flex do Honda Fit chega na sexta por R$ 46.340|date=12 December 2006|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese }}&lt;/ref&gt; In July 2009, Honda launched in the Brazilian market its third flexible-fuel car, the [[Honda City]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.autobloggreen.com/2009/07/29/honda-starts-building-flex-fuel-city-sedan-in-brazil/|title=Honda starts building flex-fuel City sedan in Brazil|publisher=AutoblogGreen|date=29 July 2009|accessdate=3 August 2009}}{{dubious|date=November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the last two months of 2006, both flex-fuel modéls sold 2,427 cars against 8,546 gasoline-powered automobiles,&lt;ref name=&quot;ANFAVEA06&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2006/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf|format=PDF|title=Tabela 08 – Vendas Atacado Mercado Interno por Tipo e Empresa – Combustível Flex Fuel – 2006|publisher=ANFAVEA – Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brazil)|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120104144/http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2006/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf |date=20 November 2008 }} ''See Table 08 for flex-fuel sales and Table 07 for gasoline sales''.&lt;/ref&gt; jumping to 41,990 flex-fuel cars in 2007,&lt;ref name=&quot;ANFAVEA07&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2007/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf|format=PDF|title=Tabela 08 – Vendas Atacado Mercado Interno por Tipo e Empresa – Combustível Flex Fuel – 2007|publisher=ANFAVEA – Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brazil)|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120041043/http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2007/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf |date=20 November 2008 }} ''See Table 08''.&lt;/ref&gt; and réaching 93,361 in 2008.&lt;ref name=&quot;ANFAVEA08&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2008/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf|format=PDF|title=Tabela 08 – Vendas Atacado Mercado Interno por Tipo e Empresa – Combustível Flex Fuel – 2008|publisher=ANFAVEA – Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brazil)|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706150754/http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2008/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf |date=6 July 2011 }} ''See Table 08''.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the success of the flex versions, by éarly 2009 a hundred percent of Honda's automobile production for the Brazilian market is now flexible-fuel, and only a small percentage of gasoline version is produced in Brazil for exports.&lt;ref name=&quot;ANFAVEA09&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas.html|title=Autoveículos – Produção em 2009|publisher=ANFAVEA – Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brazil)|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813215230/http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas.html |date=13 August 2006 }} ''Up to February 2009. See &quot;Produção por Tipo, Empresa e Combustível &quot; Tables 6 (gasoline) and 7 (flex-fuel). All gasoline vehicles were exported (see Table 01 Exportação de Autoveículos por Empresa, Tipo e Modelo – 2009)''.&lt;/ref&gt;

In March 2009, Honda launched in the Brazilian market the first flex-fuel motorcycle in the world. Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia, the [[CG 150 Titan Mix]] is sold for around US$2,700.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Carros/0,,MRP1037219-9658,00.html |publisher=G1 Portal de Notícias da Globo |title=Honda lança primeira moto bicombustível do mundo |date=11 March 2003|accessdate=11 March 2003|language=Portuguese }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/dinheiro/ult91u532675.shtml |author=Agencia EFE |publisher=Folha Online |title=Honda lançará moto flex ainda neste mês no Brasil  |date=11 March 2003|accessdate=11 March 2003|language=Portuguese}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=%7b5D355E7B-40B1-4CF7-9C75-EDD4F85FFD30%7d|publisher=UNICA|title=Honda lança no Brasil primeira moto flex do mundo|date=11 March 2003|accessdate=11 March 2003|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804191617/http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=%7B5D355E7B-40B1-4CF7-9C75-EDD4F85FFD30%7D |date=4 August 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hybrid electric ===
In late 1999, Honda launched the first commercial [[hybrid electric car]] sold in the U.S. market, the [[Honda Insight]], just one month before the introduction of the [[Toyota Prius]], and initially sold for US$20,000.&lt;ref name=&quot;TwoBillion&quot;&gt;{{Cite document | last = Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon | title = Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability | year = 2009 | pages= 28, 64–65, and 168–168 | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], New York | postscript = &lt;!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to &quot;.&quot; for the cite to end in a &quot;.&quot;, as necessary. --&gt; | isbn = 978-0-19-537664-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=NYT2/&gt; The first-generation Insight was produced from 2000 to 2006 and had a [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] of {{convert|70|mpgus|L/100 km mpgimp}} for the EPA's highway rating, the most fuel-efficient mass-produced car at the time.&lt;ref name=&quot;TwoBillion&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=NYT2/&gt; Total global sales for the Insight amounted to only around 18,000 vehicles.&lt;ref name=NYT2&gt;{{Cite news|title=The Once and Future Mileage King |author=Jerry Garrett |work=The New York Times |date=27 August 2006 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/27/automobiles/27HONDA.html?_r=1&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=The%20Once%20and%20Future%20Mileage%20King&amp;st=cse&amp;oref=slogin}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Honda introduced the second-generation Insight in its home nation of Japan in February 2009, and reléased it in other markets through 2009 and in the U.S. market in April 2009. At $19,800 as a five-door hatchback it will be the léast expensive hybrid available in the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Honda Insight: America's most affordable hybrid at $19,800|work=Honda|publisher=Motor Authority|date=10 March 2009|url=http://www.motorauthority.com/honda-insight-americas-most-affordable-hybrid-at-19800.html|accessdate=21 March 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314041609/http://www.motorauthority.com/honda-insight-americas-most-affordable-hybrid-at-19800.html |date=14 March 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Honda expects to sell 200,000 of the vehicles éach yéar, with half of those sales in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://corporate.honda.com/press/article.aspx?id=4510 |title=Honda Announces Additional Details on New Small Hybrid Vehicle – Honda – Press Releases |publisher=Corporate.honda.com |date=20 May 2008 |accessdate=27 September 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since 2002, Honda has also been selling the [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] (2003 modél) in the U.S. market,.&lt;ref name=&quot;TwoBillion&quot;/&gt; It was followed by the [[Honda Accord Hybrid]], offered in modél yéars 2005 through 2007. Sales of the [[Honda CR-Z]] began in Japan in February 2010, becoming Honda's third hybrid electric car in the market.&lt;ref name=GCC0210&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/02/crz-20100227.html|title=Honda CR-Z Hybrid Now On Sale in Japan; Targeting 1,000 Units Per Month|date=27 February 2010|accessdate=13 March 2010|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In an interview in éarly February 2011, a Honda executive disclosed that Honda produces around 200,000 hybrids a yéar in Japan.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20110202-703049.html |title=Honda Exports From Japan Unlikely To Decline Soon |date=2 February 2011 |author=Yoshio Takahashi |publisher=Dow Jones newswire }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrogen fuel cell ===
In [[Takanezawa]], Japan, on 16 June 2008, Honda Motors produced the first assembly-line [[Honda FCX Clarity|FCX Clarity]], a [[hybrid vehicle|hybrid]] [[hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen]] [[fuel cell vehicle]]. More efficient than a [[hybrid electric vehicle|gas-electric hybrid vehicle]], the FCX Clarity combines [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] from ordinary air to generate electricity for an electric motor.

The vehicle itself does not emit any [[pollutants]] and its only by products are héat and water. The FCX Clarity also has an advantage over gas-electric hybrids in that it does not use an [[internal combustion engine]] to propel itself. Like a gas-electric hybrid, it uses a [[lithium ion battery]] to assist the fuel cell during acceleration and capture energy through [[regenerative braking]], thus improving fuel efficiency. The lack of hydrogen filling stations throughout developed countries will keep production volumes low.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/17/business/worldbusiness/17fuelcell.html?_r=1&amp;oref=slogin | title=Latest Honda Runs on Hydrogen, Not Petroleum | author=Fackler, Martin |work=New York Times | date=17 June 2008 | accessdate=17 June 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Honda will reléase the vehicle in groups of 150. California is the only U.S. market with infrastructure for fueling such a vehicle, though the number of stations is still limited. Building more stations is expensive, as the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB) granted $6.8&amp;nbsp;million for four H2 fueling stations, costing $1.7&amp;nbsp;million USD éach.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/19/magazine/19car-t.html?pagewanted=4&amp;ref=magazine| title=Batteries Not Included  |work=New York Times | author=Clive Thompson|date=16 April 2009 | accessdate=19 April 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | url=http://www.autobloggreen.com/2009/04/08/carb-grants-6-8-billion-for-four-hydrogen-refueling-stations/| title=CARB grants $6.8&amp;nbsp;million for four hydrogen refueling stations| publisher=[[Autobloggreen]] | author=Sebastian Blanco|date=16 April 2009 | accessdate=17 June 2009}}{{dubious|date=November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Marketing ==

=== Japan ===
[[File:Honda CLIO Japan Car dealership Saitama.jpg|thumb|right|Honda Clio ([[Saitama, Saitama]], Japan)]]
Starting in 1978, Honda in Japan decided to diversify their sales distribution channels, and créated '''Honda Verno''', which sold established products with a higher content of standard equipment and a more sporting nature.&lt;ref name=&quot;n5&quot;&gt;[http://www.honda.co.jp/news/2005/c051214.html Honda　国内四輪　新販売チャネル施策と、アキュラブランド導入を発表] Honda公式サイト 2005年12月14日&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.honda.co.jp/guide/corporate-profile/global/japan/ Honda｜会社案内｜会社概要｜Hondaのグローバル展開｜日本] Honda公式サイト&lt;/ref&gt; The establishment of ''Honda Verno'' coincided with its new sports compact, called the [[Honda Prelude]]. Later, the [[Honda Vigor]], the [[Honda Ballade]], and the [[Honda Quint]] were added to ''Honda Verno'' stores.

As sales progressed, Honda créated two more sales channels, called '''Honda Clio''' in 1984, and '''Honda Primo''' in 1985. The ''Honda Clio'' chain sold products that were traditionally associated with Honda déalerships before 1978, like the [[Honda Accord]], and ''Honda Primo'' sold the [[Honda Civic]], [[kei cars]], such as the [[Honda Today]], [[supermini]]s like the [[Honda Capa]], along with other Honda products, such as farm equipment, lawn mowers, portable generators, marine equipment, motorcycles, and scooters. A styling tradition was established when ''Honda Primo'' and ''Clio'' began operations, in that all ''Verno'' products had the réar license plate installed in the réar bumper, while ''Primo'' and ''Clio'' products had the réar license plate installed on the trunk lid or réar door for minivans.

As time progressed and sales began to diminish partly due to the collapse of the Japanese &quot;[[Japan &quot;bubble economy&quot;|bubble economy]]&quot;, &quot;supermini&quot; and &quot;kei&quot; vehicles that were specific to ''Honda Primo'' were &quot;[[badge engineered]]&quot; and sold at the other two sales channels, thereby providing smaller vehicles that sold better at both ''Honda Verno'' and ''Honda Clio'' locations. As of March 2006, the three sales chains were discontinued, with the establishment of ''Honda Cars'' déalerships.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/timeline/japan/ |title=Honda Timeline |publisher=World.honda.com |date= |accessdate=10 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Honda sells genuine accessories through a separate retail chain called ''[[:ja:ホンダアクセス|Honda Access]]'' for both their motorcycle, scooter and automobile products. In cooperation with corporate &quot;[[keiretsu]]&quot; partner [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]], Honda sells an aftermarket line of audio and in-car navigation equipment that can be installed in any vehicle under the brand name [[:ja:ギャザズ|Gathers]], which is available at Honda Access locations as well as Japanese auto parts retailers, such as [[Autobacs]]. Buyers of used vehicles are directed to a specific Honda retail chain that sells only used vehicles called ''[[:ja:Auto Terrace|Honda Auto Terrace]].''

*All cars sold at [[:ja:ベルノ店|Honda Verno]]
[[Honda Prelude]], [[Honda Integra]], [[Honda CR-X]], [[Honda Vigor]], [[Honda Saber]], [[Honda Ballade]], [[Honda Quint]], [[Honda Crossroad]], [[Honda Element]], [[Honda NSX]], [[Honda HR-V]], [[Honda Mobilio Spike]], [[Honda S2000]],  [[Honda CR-V]], [[Honda That's]], [[Honda MDX]], [[Honda Rafaga]], [[Honda Capa]], and the [[Honda Torneo]]

*All cars sold at [[:ja:クリオ店|Honda Clio]]
[[Honda Accord]], [[Honda Legend]], [[Honda Inspire]], [[Honda Avancier]], [[Honda S-MX]], [[Honda Odyssey (North America)|Honda Lagreat]], [[Honda Stepwgn]],  [[Honda Elysion]], [[Honda Stream]], [[Honda Odyssey (international)|Honda Odyssey (int'l)]], [[Honda Domani]], [[Honda Concerto]], [[Honda Accord Tourer]], [[Honda Logo]], [[Honda Fit]], [[Honda Insight]], [[Honda That's]], [[Honda Mobilio]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.hargahonda.com/harga-mobil-honda/harga-mobil-mobilio/ |title=Honda Mobilio |publisher=PT Honda Prospect Motor |date= |accessdate=10 January 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122160801/http://www.hargahonda.com/harga-mobil-honda/harga-mobil-mobilio/ |date=22 January 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt;, and the [[Honda City]]

*All cars sold at [[:ja:プリモ店|Honda Primo]]
[[Honda Civic]], [[Honda Life]], [[Honda Acty]], [[Honda Vamos]], [[Honda Vamos|Honda Hobio]], [[Honda Ascot]], [[Honda Ascot#Ascot Innova (CB3/4)|Honda Ascot Innova]], [[Honda Torneo]], [[Honda Civic Ferio]], [[Honda Freed]], [[Honda Mobilio]], [[Honda Orthia]], [[Honda Capa]], [[Honda Today]], [[Honda Z]], and the [[Honda Beat]]
{{commons category|Honda dealerships}}

=== International efforts ===

In 2003, Honda reléased its ''[[Cog (television commercial)|Cog]]'' advertisement in the UK and on the Internet. To maké the ad, the engineers at Honda constructed a [[Rube Goldberg Machine]] made entirely out of car parts from a [[Honda Accord (Japan and Europe seventh generation)|Honda Accord Touring]]. To the chagrin of the engineers at Honda, all the parts were taken from two of only six hand-assembled [[Pre-production car|pre-production]] modéls of the Accord. The advertisement depicted a single cog which sets off a chain of events that ends with the Honda Accord moving and [[Garrison Keillor]] spéaking the tagline, &quot;Isn't it nice when things just... work?&quot; It took 606 takes to get it perfect.&lt;ref name=&quot;Honda 2003 UK Ad campaign&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Lights! Camera! Retake!|publisher=Telegraph |url=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20080129213751/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/04/13/nhonda13.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2003/04/13/ixhome.html |accessdate=5 January 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2004, they produced the ''[[Grrr (advertisement)|Grrr]]'' advert, usually immediately followed by a shortened version of the 2005 ''Impossible Dream'' advert.
[[File:MonctonHonda.JPG|thumb|A post 2005 style Honda dealership in [[Moncton]], Canada]]

In December 2005, Honda reléased ''[[Impossible Dream (Honda advert)|The Impossible Dream]]'' a two-minute panoramic advertisement filmed in New Zéaland, Japan and Argentina which illustrates the founder's dréam to build performance vehicles. While singing the song &quot;[[The Impossible Dream (The Quest)|Impossible Dream]]&quot;, a man réaches for his racing helmet, léaves his trailer on a minibike, then rides a succession of vintage Honda vehicles: a motorcycle, then a car, then a powerboat, then goes over a waterfall only to réappéar piloting a [[hot air balloon]], with Garrison Keillor saying &quot;I couldn't have put it better myself&quot; as the song ends. The song is from the 1960s musical ''[[Man Of La Mancha]]'', sung by [[Andy Williams]].

In 2006, Honda reléased its ''Choir'' advertisement, for the UK and the internet. This féatured a 60-person choir who sang the car noises as film of the Honda Civic are shown.

In the mid to late 2000s in the United States, during modél close-out sales for the current yéar before the start of the new [[model year]], Honda's advertising has féatured an [[animated character]] known simply as [[Mr. Opportunity]], voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]]. The casual looking man talked about various déals offered by Honda and ended with the phrase &quot;I'm Mr. Opportunity, and I'm knockin'&quot;, followed by him &quot;knocking&quot; on the television screen or &quot;thumping&quot; the spéaker at the end of radio ads. In addition, commercials for Honda's international hatchback, the Jazz, are parodies of well-known pop culture images such as [[Tetris]] and [[Thomas The Tank Engine]].

In late 2006, Honda reléased an ad with [[ASIMO]] exploring a muséum, looking at the exhibits with almost childlike wonderment (spréading out its arms in the aerospace exhibit, waving hello to an [[astronaut]] suit that resembles him, etc.), while Garrison Keillor ruminates on progress. It concludes with the tagline: &quot;More forwards please&quot;.

Honda also sponsored [[ITV Sport|ITV's]] coverage of [[Formula One]] in the UK for 2007. However they had announced that they would not continue in 2008 due to the sponsorship price requested by ITV being too high.

In May 2007, focuses on their strengths in racing and the use of the Red H badge – a symbol of what is termed as &quot;Hondamentalism&quot;. The campaign highlights the lengths that Honda engineers go to in order to get the most out of an engine, whether it is for bikes, cars, powerboats – even lawnmowers. Honda reléased its [http://www.honda.co.uk/hondamentalism/?campaignid=CM059600W01G Hondamentalism] campaign. In the TV spot, Garrison Keillor says, &quot;An engineer once said to build something great is like swimming in honey&quot;, while Honda engineers in white suits walk and run towards a gréat light, battling strong winds and flying debris, holding on to anything that will keep them from being blown away. Finally one of the engineers walks towards a red light, his hand outstretched. A web address is shown for the Hondamentalism website. The digital campaign aims to show how visitors to the site share many of the Hondamentalist characteristics.

At the beginning of 2008, Honda reléased – the ''Problem Playground''. The advert outlines Honda's environmental responsibility, demonstrating a hybrid engine, more efficient solar panels and the [[FCX Clarity]], a hydrogen powered car. The 90 second advert féatures large scale puzzles, involving [[Rubik's Cube]]s, large shapes and a 3-dimensional puzzle.

On 29 May 2008, Honda, in partnership with [[Channel 4]], broadcast a live advertisement. It showed [[skydivers]] jumping from an aeroplane over Spain and forming the letters H, O, N, D and A in mid-air. This live advertisement is generally agreed to be the first of its kind on British television. The advert lasted three minutes. The next flight of one of the two planes involved resulted in a [[2008 Spain Pilatus PC-6 crash|fatal crash]] as the plane broke apart in mid-air.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|author=Mark Sweney |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/jun/02/advertising.spain |title=Plane used in Honda skydiving ad crashes in Spain, Media |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date= 2 June 2008|accessdate=27 September 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2009, American Honda reléased the ''Dream the Impossible'' documentary series, a collection of 5–8 minute web vignettes that focus on the core philosophies of Honda. Current short films include Failure: ''The Secret to Success'', ''Kick Out the Ladder'' and ''Mobility 2088''. They féature Honda employees as well as [[Danica Patrick]], [[Christopher Guest]], [[Ben Bova]], Chee Péarlman, [[Joe Johnston]] and [[Orson Scott Card]]. The film series plays at dréams.honda.com.

=== Sports ===
In Australia, Honda advertised héavily during most motor racing telecasts, and was the official sponsor of the 2006 FIA Formula 1 telecast on broadcaster channel &quot;Ten&quot;. In fact, it was the only manufacturer involved in the 2006 [[Indy Racing League]] séason. In a series of adverts promoting the history of Honda's racing heritage, Honda claimed it &quot;built&quot; cars that won 72 Formula 1 Grand Prix. Skeptics{{Who|date=July 2009}} have accused Honda of interpreting its racing history rather liberally, saying that virtually all of the 72 victories were achieved by Honda ''powered'' (engined) machines, wheréas the cars themselves were designed and built by Lotus F1, Williams F1, and McLaren F1 téams, respectively. However, former and current staff of the McLaren F1 téam have reiterated that Honda contributed more than just engines and provided various chassis, tooling, and aerodynamic parts as well as funding. .{{Citation needed|reason=reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=August 2012}}

The late F1 driver [[Ayrton Senna]] stated that Honda probably played the most significant role in his three world championships. He had immense respect for founder, Soichiro Honda, and had a good relationship with Nobuhiko Kawamoto, the chairman of Honda at that time. Senna once called Honda &quot;the greatest company in the world&quot;.{{Citation needed|reason=reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=August 2012}}

As part of its marketing campaign, Honda is an official partner and sponsor of the [[National Hockey League]], the [[Anaheim Ducks]] of the NHL, and the arena named after it: [[Honda Center]]. Honda also sponsors [[The Honda Classic]] golf tournament and is a sponsor of [[Major League Soccer]]. The &quot;[[Honda Player of the Year]]&quot; award is presented in United States soccer. The &quot;[[Honda Sports Award]]&quot; is given to the best female athlete in éach of twelve college sports in the United States. One of the twelve Honda Sports Award winners is chosen to receive the [[Honda-Broderick Cup]], as &quot;Collegiate Woman Athlete of the Year.&quot;

Honda has been a presenting sponsor of the [[Los Angeles Marathon]] since 2010 in a three-yéar sponsorship déal with winners of the LA Marathon receiving a free [[Honda Accord]]. Since 1989, the [[Honda Campus All-Star Challenge]] has been a [[quizbowl]] tournament for [[Historically black colleges and universities]].

== Facilities (partial list) ==
{{utama|List of Honda facilities}}

== Mainstream models ==
{{See also|List of Honda motorcycles|List of Honda vehicles}}

== Sales ==
{{refimprove section|date=December 2011|reason=Only one year is referenced. If references are not supplied then the whole table should be deleted}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Calendar yéar
! Total US sales
|-
| 1999
| 1,076,893
|-
| 2000
| 1,158,860
|-
| 2001
| 1,207,639
|-
| 2002
| 1,247,834
|-
| 2003
| 1,349,847
|-
| 2004
| 1,394,398
|-
| 2005
| 1,462,472
|-
| 2006
| 1,509,358
|-
| 2007
| 1,551,542&lt;ref name=sales2008/&gt;
|-
| 2008
| 1,284,261&lt;ref name=sales2008&gt;[http://www.hondanews.com/channels/149/releases/94c18aa3-0c51-3936-fcc0-ff004c34bbe7 American Honda Reports 2008 Annual and December Monthly Sales ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723041408/http://hondanews.com/channels/149/releases/94c18aa3-0c51-3936-fcc0-ff004c34bbe7 |date=23 July 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 2009
| 1,150,784&lt;ref name=sales2010&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.hondanews.com/channels/corporate-headlines/releases/american-honda-december-sales-up-25-5-percent |title=Honda Media Newsroom – Headlines – American Honda December Sales Up 25.5 Percent |publisher=Hondanews.com |date= |accessdate=21 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107094813/http://hondanews.com/channels/corporate-headlines/releases/american-honda-december-sales-up-25-5-percent |date=7 January 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 2010
| 1,230,480&lt;ref name=sales2010/&gt;
|-
| 2011
| 1,147,285
|-
| 2012
| 1,422,785
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Japanese Car|Tokyo|Companies}}
*[[Comparison of Honda water-pumps]]
*[[Honda advanced technology]]
*[[Honda Airport]]
*[[Honda Battle of the Bands]]
*[[Honda F.C.]] (Football (soccer) club)
*[[Honda Heat]] (Rugby union club)
*[[Honda Type R]]
*[[List of Honda assembly plants]]
*[[List of Honda transmissions]]
*[[Internavi]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|30em|refs=
&lt;ref name= Alexander2008&gt;{{Citation |title= Japan's Motorcycle Wars: An Industry History |first= Jeffrey W. |last= Alexander |publisher= UBC Press |year= 2008 |isbn= 978-0-8248-3328-2 |pages= 112–116, 197–211 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Falloon2005&gt;{{Citation |first=Ian |last= Falloon |title= The Honda Story |publisher= Haynes |year= 2005 |isbn= 1-85960-966-X |pages= 9–13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Sakiya1982&gt;{{Citation |title= Honda Motor: the men, the management, the machines |first= Tetsuo |last= Sakiya |editor-first= Timothy |editor-last= Porter |publisher= [[Kodansha]] |year= 1982 |isbn= 978-0-87011-522-6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Frank2003&gt;{{cite book | title= Honda Motorcycles | first= Aaron | last= Frank | publisher= MotorBooks International | year= 2003 | page=42 | isbn=978-0-7603-1077-9  |accessdate=28 January 2012 |pages=19–21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
*&quot;Move Over, Volvo: Honda Sets New Safety Standard for Itself&quot;, an article in the &quot;News&quot; section of the March 2004 issue of ''[[Motor Trend]]'', on [[page (paper)|page]] 32
*[http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2004/46.html 2004 Annual Corporate Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502074402/http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2004/46.html |date=2 May 2010 }}
*The story of Honda's entry and growth in the American market is documented in [[Terry Sanders]]' film [[The Japan Project: Made in Japan]]. [http://www.honda.lv/ Honda]
*[http://www.chiefexecutive.net/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=&amp;nm=&amp;type=Publishing&amp;mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&amp;mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&amp;tier=4&amp;id=5AC37129F35C4D56830A806ED3E76297 Honda's Midlife Crisis: Honda's slipping market position and views of Fukui Takeo (Chief Executive magazine, December 2005 issue)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060710033605/http://www.chiefexecutive.net/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=&amp;nm=&amp;type=Publishing&amp;mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&amp;mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&amp;tier=4&amp;id=5AC37129F35C4D56830A806ED3E76297 |date=10 July 2006 }}
*[http://corporate.honda.com/america/history.aspx Honda's Corporate History]

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Honda}}
*[http://world.honda.com/ Honda Worldwide site]
*[http://www.honda.co.jp/pressroom/library/ Honda Press Library] (Japanese, but with graphical timelines of car and bike modéls)
*{{dmoz|Recreation/Autos/Makes_and_Models/Honda/|Honda Automobiles}}
*{{dmoz|Recreation/Motorcycles/Makes_and_Models/Honda/|Honda Motorcycles}}

{{Honda}}
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{{Major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers}}
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[[Kategori:Automotive companies of Japan]]
[[Kategori:Boat builders]]
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[[Kategori:1948 establishments in Japan]]</text>
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| image            = 180717 열린음악회 트와이스 (3) (cropped).jpg
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| caption          = Momo, 2018
| native_name      = 平井もも
| native_name_lang = ja
| birth_date       = {{birth date and age|1996|11|9}}
| birth_place      = [[Kyōtanabe, Kyoto|Kyōtanabe]], [[Prefektur Kyoto]], Jepang
| occupation       = {{hlist|Panyanyi|Penari}}
| background       = solo_singer
| genre            = {{hlist|[[K-pop]]|[[J-pop]]}}
| instrument       = Vokal
| years_active     = 2015–ayeuna
| label            = {{hlist|[[JYP Entertainment|JYP]]|[[Warner Music Japan|Warner Japan]]||[[Republic Records|Republic]]}}
| associated_acts  = {{hlist|[[Twice|Twice]]|[[JYP Nation]]}}
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{{Infobox Chinese/Japanese|child=yes
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| kanji            = 平井 もも
| romaji           = Hirai Momo
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| hangul           = 모모
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{{Nihongo|'''Momo Hirai'''|平井 もも|Hirai Momo|{{lahirmati|[[Kyōtanabe, Kyoto|Kyōtanabe]], [[Préfektur Kyoto]]|9|11|1996}}|lead=yes}}, nu sok digeroan '''Momo''' ({{Korean|모모}}; [[basa Jepang|Jepang]]: {{Nihongo2|もも}}), nyaéta tukang nyanyi ti Jepang jeung tukang ngigel anu nu pacabakanana di Koréa Kidul. Inyana asup dina [[Twice|Twice]], grup idola bikang anu dijieun ku [[JYP Entertainment]]. Inyana jadi salah sahiji ti tilu anggota Twice anu asalna ti Jepang.&lt;ref name=&quot;time1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Moon|first=Kat|url=https://time.com/5671342/twice-k-pop-everything-to-know/|title=Everything to Know About K-Pop Group Twice|website=[[Time (majalah)|Time]]|date=20 September 2019|access-date=16 Juni 2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519085855/https://time.com/5671342/twice-k-pop-everything-to-know/ |date=19 May 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;StarNews1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://star.mt.co.kr/stview.php?No=2015110614222028637|script-title=ko:트와이스 &quot;뽑힐 때 아무 생각이 없었다&quot; ①|website=Star News|language=ko|access-date=16 Februari 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Rujukan ==
{{Reflist}}

== Tumbu luar ==
{{commons-inline}}

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[[Kategori:Panyanyi Koréa Kidul]]
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    <title>James Buchanan</title>
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      <text bytes="79098" sha1="2q8eirm1pcz02jnpvyu4w8kyjf145xz" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width:25em; float:right; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0.5em; font-size: 90%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:125%; font-weight:bold; margin-bottom:0.2em;&quot; | James Buchanan
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[File:James Buchanan.jpg|230px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Daguerreotype sakira taun 1850–1868&lt;/small&gt;
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;&quot; | Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-15
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Masa jabatan
| 4 Maret 1857 – 4 Maret 1861
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Wakil Présidén
| [[John C. Breckinridge]]
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Ti payun
| [[Franklin Pierce]]
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Ti pengker
| [[Abraham Lincoln]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;&quot; | Mentri Luar Nagri AS ka-17
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Masa jabatan
| 10 Maret 1845 – 7 Maret 1849
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Présidén
| [[James K. Polk]], [[Zachary Taylor]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;&quot; | Inpormasi Pribadi
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Wedal
| 23 April 1791&lt;br /&gt;[[Cove Gap, Pennsylvania]], AS
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Pupus
| 1 Juni 1868 (yuswa 77)&lt;br /&gt;[[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]], AS
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Partéi pulitik
| [[Federalist Party|Federalist]] (1814–1824)&lt;br /&gt;[[Democratic Party (United States)|Démokrat]] (ti 1828)
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Almamater
| [[Dickinson College]]
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Padamelan
| [[Ahli hukum]], pulitikus
|-
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Tanda tangan
| [[File:James Buchanan Signature2.svg|120px]]
|}

'''James Buchanan Jr.''' (wedal 23 April 1791 – pupus 1 Juni 1868) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-15 anu ngajabat ti taun 1857 dugi ka 1861. Sateuacanna, anjeunna ogé ngajabat salaku Mentri Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat ka-17 (1845–1849) sarta ngawakilan nagara bagian [[Pennsylvania]] di dua lembaga [[Kongrés AS]] (Sénat sarta DPR). Buchanan mangrupa nu ngarojong hak-hak nagara bagian, utamana ngeunaan masalah [[perbudakan]], sarta ngawatesan ''peran'' pamaréntah féderal dina mangsa sateuacan [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]].&lt;ref name=&quot;oxford&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Olausson|first1=Lena|last2=Sangster|first2=Catherine|year=2006|title=Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=56|isbn=0-19-280710-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mangsa keur leutik

== Mangsa keur leutik sarta atikan ==
[[File:Buchanan Home Mercersburg.jpg|thumb|Tempat babar Buchanan|left]]

James Buchanan Jr. dibabarkeun dina kulawarga [[Scotch-Irish Americans|Scotch-Irish]] kaping 23 April 1791, di hiji saung kai (''log cabin'') di kebon anu dingaranan [[Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|Stony Batter]], deukeut [[Cove Gap, Pennsylvania|Cove Gap]] di Pagunungan Allegheny, Pennsylvania kidul.&lt;ref name=&quot;whitehouse&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/the-presidents-timeline | title=The Presidents Timeline |access-date=17 Pébruari 2026 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Anjeunna téh anak kadua ti sabelas sadulur, sarta putra cikal ti pasangan James Buchanan Sr. sarta Elizabeth Speer.

Ramana nyaéta imigran ti [[County Donegal]], Irlandia, anu pindah ka Amérika dina taun 1783.&lt;ref name=&quot;ulster&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://discoverulsterscots.com/emigration-influence/america/1718-migration-east-donegal/ulster-and-white-house|title=Ulster and the White House|publisher=Discover Ulster-Scots|access-date=17 Pébruari 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Saatos Buchanan lahir, kulawargana pindah ka [[Mercersburg, Pennsylvania]] dina taun 1794. Ramana janten jalma beunghar di éta wewengkon salaku padagang sarta investor. Buchanan ngarasa yén indungna miboga pangaruh badag kana kacerdasanana, sabab sering ngajak diskusi pulitik sarta maca karya [[William Shakespeare]].

Buchanan kuliah di [[Dickinson College]] di Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Dina taun 1808, anjeunna ampir-ampiran dikaluarkeun alatan polahna anu badung sarta sering mabok di tavern, nanging anjeunna lulus kalayan hasil saé dina taun 1809. Saterusna anjeunna pindah ka [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]] pikeun diajar hukum salami dua satengah taun ka James Hopkins. Di dinya anjeunna neuleuman [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] sarta dasar-dasar hukum Inggris ti [[William Blackstone]].

=== Karir awal hukum sarta DPR Pennsylvania ===
Dina taun 1812, [[James Buchanan]] lulus ujian kaanggotaan advokat (''bar exam'') sarta tetep cicing di [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] saatos diaku salaku ahli hukum. Anjeunna gancang jadi salah sahiji wawakil hukum anu kawéntar di éta kota. Panghasilanana naék drastis saatos muka prakték sorangan; dina taun 1821, anjeunna parantos miboga panghasilan langkung ti $11,000 per taun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=13–16}} Dina mangsa ieu ogé, Buchanan janten saurang [[Freemasonry|Freemason]], sarta ngajabat salaku ''Worshipful Master'' di Loge Masonik No. 43 di Lancaster.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=27}}

Anjeunna ogé ngajabat salaku pupuhu cabang [[Federalist Party|Partéi Féderalist]] di Lancaster. Buchanan ngarojong program pulitik partéina saperti pangadegan deui bank sentral. Anjeunna janten kritikus anu kacida vocalna ka Présidén [[James Madison]] nalika [[Perang 1812]]. Sanajan henteu ngagabung sacara resmi kana milisi, Buchanan kungsi milu jeung sakelompok pamuda pikeun maling kuda pikeun kabutuhan [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat|Angkatan Darat AS]] di Baltimore nalika aya penjajahan Inggris. Buchanan nyaéta présidén panungtungan anu kungsi kalibet dina Perang 1812.&lt;ref name=&quot;moody&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Moody |first=Wesley |title=The Battle of Fort Sumter |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |page=23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dina taun 1814, anjeunna kapilih salaku wakil ti Féderalist ka [[DPR Pennsylvania]] sarta janten anggota pangmudana harita (ngajabat dugi ka 1816). Dina taun 1815, anjeunna hasil ngabéla Hakim Distrik [[Walter Franklin (judge)|Walter Franklin]] dina sidang pamakzulan (''impeachment'') di hareupen [[Sénat Pennsylvania]]. Buchanan hasil ngayakinkeun para sénator yén pamakzulan mung tiasa dilakukeun upami aya palanggaran hukum anu jelas.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=17–18}}

== Karir di Kongrés ==
{{utama|Sajarah pamilihan James Buchanan}}

=== DPR Amérika Sarikat ===
Dina pamilihan kongrés taun 1820, [[James Buchanan]] nyalonkeun diri pikeun korsi di [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Amérika Sarikat|DPR AS]]. Teu lami saatos kameunanganana, ramana pupus alatan kacilakaan karéta kuda.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=22}} Salaku anggota Déwan anu anom, Buchanan janten salah sahiji pamingpin anu kawéntar dina faksi pulitik &quot;Amalgamator&quot; di Pennsylvania, dingaranan kitu margi anggotana diwangun ku gabungan urang Démokratik-Républik sarta urang tilas Féderalist dina mangsa transisi tina [[Sistem Partéi Kahiji]] ka [[Éra Perasaan Saé]] (''Era of Good Feelings''). Dina éra ieu, Démokratik-Républik janten partéi anu pangmangaruhna. Kayakinan Buchanan ka partéi Féderalist mimiti luntur, saterusna anjeunna pindah partéi saatos nolak hiji rarancang undang-undang Féderalist anu boga sipat nativis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Etcheson, Nicole. (2013). &quot;General Jackson Is Dead: James Buchanan, Stephen A. Douglas, and Kansas Policy&quot;. ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 88–90.&lt;/ref&gt;

Dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1824|Pilihan Raya 1856]], Buchanan mimitina ngadukung [[Henry Clay]], nanging saterusna pindah ngadukung [[Andrew Jackson]] nalika katingal yén masarakat Pennsylvania leuwih milih Jackson.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Philip Shriver |title=A History of Pennsylvania |year=1980 |pages=135–136}}&lt;/ref&gt; Saatos Jackson éléh dina pamilihan 1824, Buchanan ngagabung ka faksina, nanging Jackson miboga rasa teu resep ka Buchanan alatan salah harti dina upaya Buchanan janten médiator antara pihak Clay sarta Jackson.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Di Washington, Buchanan janten anu bébéla kana hak-hak nagara bagian ([[states' rights]]) anu kacida kuatna, sarta raket jeung seueur anggota Kongrés ti bagian Kidul. Anjeunna nganggap sababaraha anggota Kongrés ti New England salaku [[Radikalisme|radikal]] anu bahaya. Kamampuh Buchanan dina ngajaga hubungan sareng daérah pamilihanana ngamungkinkeun anjeunna ngawangun koalisi Démokrat di Pennsylvania anu diwangun ku patani tilas Féderalist sarta imigran Ulster-Scots. Dina pamilihan présidén 1828, anjeunna hasil ngamankeun sora Pennsylvania pikeun Jackson.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=24–27}}

Buchanan ogé meunang perhatian nalika mingpin prosés hukum dina sidang pamakzulan hakim distrik féderal [[James H. Peck]], sanajan ahirna Sénat mutuskeun hakim éta bébas. Anjeunna diangkat janten anggota Komite Pertanian dina taun munggaranna, sarta lila-lila janten pupuhu Komite Yudisial DPR AS. Dina taun 1831, Buchanan nolak dicalonkeun deui pikeun Kongrés ka-22 ti daérah pamilihanana. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna masih miboga ambisi pulitik, malah sababaraha urang Démokrat Pennsylvania ngajukeun anjeunna salaku calon wakil présidén dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1832|pamilihan 1832]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=28–30}}

=== Duta Besar pikeun Rusia ===
Saatos Jackson kapilih deui dina taun 1832, anjeunna nawarkeun jabatan [[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat pikeun Rusia]] ka [[James Buchanan]]. Buchanan saleresna horéam ninggalkan nagarana, margi nganggap kota [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] anu tebih téh salaku tempat pangbuangan pulitik, nanging ahirna anjeunna nyaluyuan. Éta memang maksud Jackson, jalaran anjeunna nganggap Buchanan salaku jalma anu &quot;teu parigel sarta resep pipilueun&quot; (''incompetent busybody'') sarta kurang dipercaya.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Tugas utama Buchanan di ditu nyaéta nyieun perjangjian dagang sarta pelayaran jeung Rusia. Sanajan Buchanan hasil dina urusan dagang, prosés negosiasi ngeunaan kabébasan pelayaran kapal dagang jeung Mentri Luar Nagri Rusia, [[Karl Nesselrode]], tétéla kacida héséna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=30–31}} Sataun sateuacanna nalika masih di Kongrés, Buchanan kantos nyebat Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] salaku saurang ''despot'' (pamingpin diktator); harita seueur urang Amérika anu méré réaksi négatif kana tindakan Rusia dina numpes [[Pemberontakan Nopémber|pemberontakan Polandia 1830]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=O'Leary |first=Derek Kane |date=6 Maret 2023 |title=James Buchanan's 1832 Mission to the Tsar... |url=https://ageofrevolutions.com/2023/03/06/james-buchanans-1832-mission-to-the-tsar-the-plight-of-poland-and-the-limits-of-americas-revolutionary-legacy-in-jacksonian-foreign-policy/ |access-date=17 Pébruari 2026 |publisher=Age of Revolutions}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Sénator Amérika Sarikat ===
[[File:James Buchanan painted by J. Eichholtz.jpg|thumb|Lukisan Buchanan taun 1834 ku [[Jacob Eichholtz]]|right]]
Saatos mulang ka lemburna, [[James Buchanan]] kapilih ku legislatif nagara bagian Pennsylvania pikeun ngaganti [[William Wilkins (U.S. politician)|William Wilkins]] di Sénat AS. Sabalikna, Wilkins ngaganti posisi Buchanan salaku duta besar di Rusia. Salaku pangrojong Jackson (Jacksonian), Buchanan anu kapilih deui dina taun 1836 sarta 1842, nolak ayana [[Second Bank of the United States]] sarta narékahan pikeun ngahapus kacawadan (''censure'') Kongrés ka Jackson alatan [[Bank War]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=30}} Buchanan ngajabat di Sénat nepi ka Maret 1845.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=32}} Pikeun ngahijikeun urang Démokrat Pennsylvania, anjeunna dipilih janten calon maranéhna dina Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat. Buchanan kacida patuhna kana tungtunan legislatif nagara bagianana, malah sakapeung mah anjeunna milih nolak hiji posisi di Kongrés anu saleresna dirojong ku anjeunna dina biantara pribadina, demi ambisi pulitikna ka Gedong Bodas.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}}

Buchanan dipikawanoh ku komitmenna kana hak-hak nagara bagian (**[[states' rights]]**) sarta doktrin ékspansi wilayah (oʻ[[manifest destiny]]). Anjeunna nolak tawaran Présidén [[Martin Van Buren]] pikeun janten Jaksa Agung AS sarta kalah milih janten pupuhu komite-komite bergengsi di Sénat saperti Komite Yudisial sarta Komite Hubungan Luar Nagri.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=33–34}} Buchanan mangrupa salah sahiji ti saeutik sénator anu nolak [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]] sabab dianggap &quot;nyerahkeun&quot; lahan ka Britania Raya. Dina sengketa wates Oregon, anjeunna nungtut garis 54°40′ salaku wates kalér sarta satuju kana anéksasi [[Républik Texas]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}}

Sajaba ti éta, Buchanan nolak aturan pembungkaman ([[Gag rule (United States)|gag rule]]) anu diajukeun ku [[John C. Calhoun]] anu tujuanna pikeun ngeureunkeun petisi anti-perbudakan. Buchanan nyebutkeun, &quot;Urang boga hak anu kacida saeutikna pikeun pipilueun kana urusan perbudakan di Kidul, sarua jeung saeutikna hak urang pikeun ngaganggu hak petisi.&quot; Anjeunna boga pamandangan yén masalah perbudakan téh mangrupa urusan masing-masing nagara bagian sarta nyalahkeun kaum [[abolisionis]] anu dianggapna ngan saukur manas-manasan kaayaan. Dina mangsa méméh Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1844, Buchanan nyiapkeun diri janten alternatif pikeun Martin Van Buren, nanging nominasi éta ahirna murag ka [[James K. Polk]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}}

== Karir Diplomasi ==
=== Mentri Luar Nagri ===
[[File:Polkcabinet1849edited.png|left|thumb|Buchanan (kadua ti kenca) dina kabinét Polk, 1849]]
[[James Buchanan]] ditawaran jabatan [[Mentri Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat]] dina administrasi Polk atanapi, salaku pilihan séjén, korsi di [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]]. Ieu tawaran mangrupa bales budi kana rojonganana nalika kampanye, nanging ogé tujuanna pikeun nyingkirkeun Buchanan salaku saingan internal dina partéi. Anjeunna milih jabatan di Departemén Luar Nagri sarta ngajabat salami mangsa jabatan Polk. Nalika anjeunna ngajabat, Amérika Sarikat kacatet miboga panambahan wilayah panggedéna dina sajarah ngaliwatan [[Perjangjian Oregon]] sarta [[Perjangjian Guadalupe Hidalgo]], anu ngawengku wilayah anu ayeuna janten Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, sarta Colorado.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=38–40}}

Dina negosiasi jeung Britania ngeunaan Oregon, Buchanan mimitina satuju kana garis [[paralel ka-49 kalér]] salaku wates Wilayah Oregon, sedengkeun Polk hayang garis wates anu leuwih ka kalér. Nalika urang Démokrat Kalér ngagunakeun semboyan populér [[Fifty-Four Forty or Fight]] (&quot;54°40′ atanapi perang&quot;) dina kampanye 1844, anjeunna milu satuju, nanging ahirna nuturkeun arahan Polk anu ngahasilkeun Kompromi Oregon 1846, anu netepkeun paralel ka-49 salaku wates di [[Pacific Northwest]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=40–41}}

Buchanan percaya yén serangan Méksiko ka pasukan Amérika di peuntas [[Rio Grande]] dina April 1846 mangrupa palanggaran wates sarta alesan anu sah pikeun perang. Nalika [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]], mimitina anjeunna mamatahan sangkan ulah nungtut wilayah di kiduleun Rio Grande alatan sieun perang jeung Britania sarta Perancis. Nanging, nalika perang rék bérés, Buchanan robah pamandangan sarta ngarojong anéksasi wilayah anu leuwih lega, kalayan alesan yén Méksiko anu salah mitembean perang sarta kompensasi pikeun karugian Amérika dianggap leutik teuing. Buchanan nyoba nyalonkeun diri dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1848]], margi Polk parantos jangji ngan bakal ngajabat sakali, nanging anjeunna mung meunang rojongan ti delegasi Pennsylvania sarta Virginia, sahingga Sénator [[Lewis Cass]] ti Michigan anu ahirna dicalonkeun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=41–43}}

=== Kahirupan sipil sarta pilihan raya présidén 1852 ===
[[File:James Buchanan sculpture at National Portrait Gallery IMG 4538.JPG|right|thumb|Patung dada James Buchanan ku [[Henry Dexter (sculptor)|Henry Dexter]]]]
Saatos [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|pamilihan 1848]] anu dimeunangkeun ku [[Zachary Taylor]] ti Partéi Whig, [[James Buchanan]] balik deui kana kahirupan pribadi. Buchanan mingkin sepuh sarta masih kénéh dangdos nganggo gaya katinggaleun jaman sapertos mangsa anomna, sahingga anjeunna meunang jujulukan &quot;[[Old Public Functionary]]&quot; ti média massa. Para nu nolak perbudakan di bagian Kalér ogé ngéyék anjeunna salaku &quot;titinggal manusa purba&quot; alatan ajén-inajén moralna.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=46–48}} Anjeunna mésér bumi [[Wheatland (James Buchanan House)|Wheatland]] di sisi kota [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] sarta sering nampi tamu bari terus ngawas kaayaan pulitik.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=43–46}}

Dina mangsa ieu, Buchanan janten puseur kulawarga anu diwangun ku 22 alon-alon (''nieces/nephews'') sarta katurunanana, tujuh di antarana budak yatim. Anjeunna milarian padamelan umum pikeun sawatara baraya ngaliwatan jalu (''patronage''). Hubungan émosional anu pangkuatna nyaéta sareng alon-alonna, [[Harriet Lane]], anu engkéna janten Ibu Nagara (''First Lady'') pikeun Buchanan di Gedong Bodas.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=46–48}}

Dina taun 1852, anjeunna diangkat janten présidén Déwan Pangurus [[Franklin and Marshall College]] di Lancaster, sarta ngajabat dugi ka taun 1866.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=210, 415}} Buchanan teu sagemblengna ninggalkeun dunya pulitik. Anjeunna ancrub deui dina kampanye siluman pikeun nominasi présidén ti Partéi Démokrat taun 1852. Alatan ayana [[Kompromi 1850]], Buchanan ayeuna nolak [[Kompromi Missouri]] sarta ngadukung panolakan Kongrés kana [[Wilmot Proviso]] (anu ngalarang perbudakan di wilayah meunang perang ti Méksiko). Buchanan ngritik [[Abolisionisme|abolisionisme]] salaku sikep fanatik sarta percaya yén urusan perbudakan kedah diputuskeun ku legislatif nagara bagian, sanés ku Kongrés. Anjeunna janten kawéntar salaku saurang &quot;**[[doughface]]**&quot; alatan rasa simpatina ka pihak Kidul.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=52–56}}

Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852]], anjeunna meunang rojongan ti loba delegasi Kidul nanging gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu sora anu diperyogikeun. Nominasi éta ahirna murag ka [[Franklin Pierce]]. Buchanan nolak dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén, sahingga konvénsi milih sobat deukeutna, [[William R. King]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=57–59}}

=== Duta Besar pikeun Britania Raya ===
Pierce meunangkeun pamilihan dina taun [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852|1852]], sarta genep sasih saatosna, [[James Buchanan]] nampi jabatan salaku [[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat pikeun Britania Raya]]. Jabatan ieu sabenerna mangrupa léngkah mundur dina karirna sarta sateuacanna kantos ditolak dua kali ku anjeunna.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=57–59}} Buchanan balayar ka Inggris dina usum panas taun 1853 sarta netep di ditu salami tilu taun.

Dina taun 1850, Amérika Sarikat sarta Britania Raya parantos nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]], anu ngabeungkeut kadua nagara pikeun ngokolakeun babarengan sagala terusan (kanal) anu bakal diwangun pikeun nyambungkeun Samudra Atlantik sarta Pasifik ngaliwatan Amérika Tengah. Buchanan sababaraha kali ngayakeun riungan sareng [[George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon|Lord Clarendon]], mentri luar nagri Britania, kalayan harepan bisa neken Britania sangkan kaluar tina Amérika Tengah. Anjeunna hasil ngurangan pangaruh Britania di [[Honduras]] sarta [[Nicaragua]]. Sajaba ti éta, anjeunna ogé museurkeun perhatian kana rencana anéksasi [[Kuba]], anu parantos lami dipikaresep ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=58–64}}

Atas paréntah Pierce, Buchanan ngayakeun riungan di [[Ostend|Ostend, Bélgia]], sareng Duta Besar AS pikeun Spanyol [[Pierre Soulé]] sarta Duta Besar AS pikeun Perancis [[John Y. Mason|John Mason]], pikeun ngararancang rencana panyokotan Kuba. Hasilna nyaéta draf mémorandum anu disebut [[Manifésto Osténd]], anu ngusulkeun sangkan AS mésér Kuba ti Spanyol anu harita nuju krisis ekonomi alatan révolusi. Éta dokumén nyatakeun yén pulo Kuba téh &quot;sarua pentingna pikeun républik Amérika Kalér jiga nagara-nagara bagian séjénna&quot;. Sanajan Buchanan kurang panuju, draf ahir manifésto kasebut nyarankeun yén upami Spanyol nolak ngajual, tindakan &quot;ngarebut paksa ti Spanyol&quot; dianggap sah &quot;sacara hukum manusa sarta Ilahi&quot;.{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=110}}

Manifésto ieu nampi réaksi anu papaséan sarta henteu kungsi dilaksanakeun. Ieu hal malah ngaleuseuhkeun administrasi Pierce sarta ngurangan rojongan kana doktrin [[Manifest Destiny]].{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=110}} Dina taun 1855, nalika Buchanan hayang pisan mulang ka lemburna, Pierce ménta anjeunna sangkan tetep aya di [[London]] alatan ayana perpindahan armada laut Britania ka [[Karibia]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=65–67}}

== Pilihan Raya 1856 ==
{{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856}}

[[File:ElectoralCollege1856.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Peta sora élektoral taun 1856]]
Tugas Buchanan di luar nagri nguntungkeun anjeunna sabab anjeunna bisa nyingkahan padu jédog ngeunaan [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] anu nuju nyérot perhatian nagara dina sengketa perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=67–68}} Sanajan anjeunna henteu sacara terang-terangan nyiar jabatan présidén, anjeunna nyaluyuan gerakan anu diayakeun ku para pangrojongna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=248–252}} Nalika masih di Inggris, anjeunna kampanye ku cara muji [[John Hughes (archbishop)|John Joseph Hughes]], saurang Uskup Agung Katolik di New York. Hal ieu ngalantarankeun anjeunna nampi rojongan ti kalangan luhur umat [[Katolik]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=67–68}}

Nalika Buchanan mulang ka lemburna dina ahir April 1856, anjeunna unggul dina sora munggaran kalayan dironjong ku sénator kawéntar sapertos [[John Slidell]], [[Jesse Bright]], sarta [[Thomas F. Bayard]]. Maranéhna némbongkeun Buchanan salaku pamingpin anu boga pangalaman sarta bisa ditarima ku urang Kalér ogé urang Kidul. [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1856]] anu diayakeun dina bulan Juni ngahasilkeun platform anu saluyu jeung pamandangan Buchanan, kaasup rojongan kana [[Undang-undang Budak Buron]] (''Fugitive Slave Law''). Buchanan ahirna meunangkeun nominasi saatos [[Stephen A. Douglas]] ngundurkeun diri. Anjeunna papasangan sareng [[John C. Breckinridge]] ti Kentucky salaku calon wakil présidén pikeun ngajaga kasaimbangan wilayah.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=69–70}}

Dina pilihan raya umum, Buchanan nyanghareupan dua saingan: tilas Présidén [[Millard Fillmore]] ti Partéi Amérika (''Know-Nothing'') anu anti-imigran sarta anti-Katolik, sarta [[John C. Frémont]] ti [[Partéi Républik Amérika Sarikat|Partéi Républik]]. Buchanan henteu aktip kampanye sacara langsung, nanging anjeunna nyuratan sarta jangji bakal nyekel delegasi Démokrat. Dina poéan pamilihan, anjeunna unggul di sakabéh nagara bagian anu ngalegalkeun perbudakan (iwal Maryland), sarta lima nagara bagian anu bébas perbudakan, kaasup nagara bagian asalna, Pennsylvania.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=69–70}}

Buchanan meunang 45 persén sora rahayat sarta unggul mutlak dina sora élektoral (174 ti 296 sora). Kameunangan ieu ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran ti Pennsylvania. Dina biantara kameunanganana, Buchanan nyebat Partéi Républik salaku partéi anu &quot;bahaya&quot; sarta &quot;geografis&quot; (ngan sakelompok wilayah) sabab dianggap geus narajang pihak Kidul sacara teu adil. Anjeunna ogé nyatakeun yén tujuan pamaréntahanana nyaéta pikeun &quot;ngancurkeun partéi sektoral, boh di Kalér atanapi di Kidul, sarta mulangkeun kaharmonisan Uni di handapeun pamaréntahan nasional anu konservatif.&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=261–262}}

== Masa Kaprésidénan (1857–1861) ==
{{utama|Masa kaprésidénan James Buchanan}}

=== Pelantikan ===
{{utama|Pelantikan James Buchanan}}

[[James Buchanan]] dilantik dina kaping 4 Maret 1857, kalayan sumpah jabatan anu dipingpin ku Hakim Agung [[Roger B. Taney]]. Dina biantara pelantikanana anu panjang, Buchanan jangji ngan bakal ngajabat salami sakali mangsa jabatan. Anjeunna kacida teu resepna kana perpecahan anu mingkin parna ngeunaan perbudakan, sarta nyatakeun yén Kongrés sakuduna teu boga peran dina nangtukeun status perbudakan di nagara bagian atanapi wilayah-wilayah énggal.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=80–83, 85}}

Anjeunna ngajukeun solusi dumasar kana [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]], anu nyatakeun yén prinsip [[Popular sovereignty in the United States|kadaulatan rahayat]] téh nangtukeun, sarta Kongrés teu boga hak pipilueun. Buchanan ogé nyabit-nyabit kasus anu harita nuju diprosés di Mahkamah Agung, nyaéta ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'', anu ceuk anjeunna bakal mutuskeun masalah perbudakan salilana. Dred Scott nyaéta saurang budak anu dibawa ku dunyana, [[John F. A. Sanford]], ti nagara bagian perbudakan ka wilayah bébas. Saatos Scott mulang ka nagara bagian perbudakan, anjeunna ngajukeun petisi pikeun kabébasan dirina dumasar kana mangsa hirupna di wilayah bébas kasebut.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=80–83, 85}}

Hakim Agung [[Robert C. Grier]] bocor saénggalna ngeunaan putusan kasus ''Dred Scott'' ka Buchanan. Dina biantara pelantikanana, Buchanan nyatakeun yén masalah perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah AS bakal &quot;saénggalna sarta sacara final diputuskeun&quot; ku Mahkamah Agung.&lt;ref&gt;James Buchanan, &quot;Inaugural Address,&quot; Washington, D.C., March 4, 1857.&lt;/ref&gt; Numutkeun sajarawan [[Paul Finkelman]]:

{{kutipan|Buchanan ''parantos'' terang naon anu bakal diputuskeun ku Mahkamah. Dina palanggaran étika Mahkamah anu gedé, Hakim Grier, anu asalna ti Pennsylvania jiga Buchanan, parantos méré nyaho ka Présidén-pilih ngeunaan kamekaran kasus sarta debat internal di jero Mahkamah. Nalika Buchanan ngajak sakuliah nagara pikeun ngarojong putusan kasebut, anjeunna parantos terang naon anu bakal diomongkeun ku Taney. Kacurigaan urang Républik ngeunaan ayana kacurangan tétéla kabuktian bener.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=Paul |last1=Finkelman |title=Scott v. Sandford: The Court's most dreadful case and how it changed history |journal=Chicago-Kent Law Review |volume=82 |date=2007 |pages=46}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Para sajarawan sapuk yén putusan mahkamah kasebut mangrupa bencana gedé sabab kacida manas-manasan kaayaan, anu ahirna ngabalukarkeun Perang Sadulur. Dina taun 2022, sajarawan [[David W. Blight]] nyatakeun yén taun 1857 mangrupa &quot;titik balik utama dina jalan nuju perpecahan... utamana alatan kasus Dred Scott, anu méré rasa sieun, teu percaya, sarta kabéngis di Kalér ogé di Kidul nepi ka tingkat anu kacida parnana.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Blight |first1=David W. |title=Was the Civil War Inevitable? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/magazine/civil-war-jan-6.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=21 Désémber 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Jalu yudisial ====
{{utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku James Buchanan}}

[[James Buchanan]] ngangkat hiji Hakim Agung, nyaéta [[Nathan Clifford]], ka [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Nathan Clifford, 1858–1881 |url=https://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court-timeline-of-the-justices-nathan-clifford-1858-1881/ |publisher=The Supreme Court Historical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sajaba ti éta, anjeunna ngangkat tujuh hakim féderal séjénna pikeun pangadilan distrik AS sarta dua hakim pikeun Pangadilan Klaim AS.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=83–84}}

=== Campur tangan dina kasus ''Dred Scott'' ===
Kasus ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'', anu disebut ku Buchanan dina biantara pelantikanana, parantos dimimitian ti taun 1846. Dred Scott ngagugat pikeun kabébasan dirina di [[Missouri]], kalayan alesan yén anjeunna kantos hirup ngabakti ka dunyana di wilayah bébas [[Illinois]] sarta [[Teritori Wisconsin]]. Kasus ieu nepi ka Mahkamah Agung sarta jadi perhatian nasional dina taun 1856.

Dina Januari 1857, Buchanan ngayakeun konsultasi sareng Hakim [[John Catron]], nanyakeun ngeunaan hasil kasus kasebut sarta nyarankeun sangkan Mahkamah ngaluarkeun putusan anu leuwih lega (teu ngan saukur urusan Scott wungkul) supados masalah perbudakan bisa réngsé salilana.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=271–272}} Buchanan boga harepan yén putusan anu ngajaga hak perbudakan di sakabéh wilayah bisa ngabéréskeun parépat nasional, sahingga anjeunna bisa fokus kana urusan nagara séjénna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=83–84}}

Catron ngawaler dina 10 Pébruari, nyebutkeun yén mayoritas hakim ti Kidul bakal mutuskeun ngalawan Scott, nanging maranéhna butuh dukungan ti hakim asal Pennsylvania, [[Robert Cooper Grier]], sangkan putusanana boga pangaruh anu kuat sarta lega. Buchanan saterusna nyuratan Grier sarta hasil mangaruhan anjeunna sangkan gabung jeung mayoritas hakim Kidul. Hal ieu méré kakuatan ka Mahkamah pikeun nyatakeun yén [[Kompromi Missouri 1820]] téh teu luyu jeung konstitusi (inkonstitusional).{{sfn|Potter|1976|p=287}}{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=85}}

Dua poé saatos Buchanan dilantik, Hakim Agung Taney ngumumkeun putusan ''Dred Scott'', anu nolak paménta kabébasan Scott. Putusan kasebut sacara lega negeskeun yén Kongrés teu boga kakawasaan konstitusional pikeun ngalarang perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah AS. Numutkeun ieu putusan, budak téh salilana mangrupa harta banda nu bogana, sarta euweuh urang Afrika-Amérika anu bisa jadi warga nagara Amérika Sarikat anu sah. Sanajan surat-surat Buchanan harita teu dipublikasikeun, masarakat nempo anjeunna ngobrol ricit sareng Hakim Agung nalika pelantikan. Hal ieu ngahudang amarah urang Kalér sarta malah mingkin nguatkeun Partéi Républik anu dikutuk ku Buchanan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=85–86}}

=== Panik 1857 ===
Krisis finansial anu disebut **[[Panik 1857]]** dimimitian dina usum panas taun kasebut, nalika cabang New York tina ''Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company'' ngumumkeun bangkrut (insolvénsi).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sobel |first=Robert |title=Panic on Wall Street: A History of America's Financial Disasters |year=1999 |publisher=Beard Books}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ieu krisis nyebar kacida gancangna, sarta dina usum gugur, 1.400 bank nagara bagian sarta 5.000 pausahaan parantos bangkrut. Pangangguran sarta kalaparan janten hal anu lumrah di kota-kota bagian Kalér, nanging wilayah Kidul anu ngandelkeun tatanén leuwih kuat nahan kaayaan. Buchanan sapamadegan sareng urang Kidul yén ieu karuksakan ékonomi téh disababkeun ku spékulasi anu kaleuleuwihi.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}}

Buchanan nindak dumasar kana prinsip [[Jacksonian democracy|Démokrasi Jacksonian]], nyaéta ngawatesan pamedalan duit kertas sarta ngeureunkeun (''freeze'') dana féderal pikeun proyék pangwangunan umum. Hal ieu ngahudang rasa teu resep ti masarakat alatan anjeunna nolak ngajalankeun program [[Stimulus ékonomi|stimulus ékonomi]].&lt;ref&gt;Morrison, Michael A. (2013). &quot;President James Buchanan, Executive Leadership and the Crisis of the Democracy&quot;. ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 151.&lt;/ref&gt; Sanajan pamaréntah dirasa &quot;teu miboga kakuatan pikeun méré bantuan&quot;,{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}} pamaréntahanana tetep mayar hutang nganggo koin emas/pérak (''specie'').

Kalayan harepan bisa ngurangan jumlah duit kertas sarta neken inflasi, anjeunna ngadesek nagara-nagara bagian sangkan ngawatesan krédit bank sarta ulah ngagunakeun obligasi féderal salaku jaminan duit bank. Ékonomi ahirna pulih dina sababaraha taun, nanging loba urang Amérika anu sangsara alatan ieu krisis. Buchanan tadina hayang ngurangan defisit, nanging nalika anjeunna lungsur tina jabatanna, anggaran féderal kalah naék 15%.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}}

=== Perang Utah ===
{{utama|Perang Utah|Pajabat nu Kabur taun 1851}}

Dina usum semi taun 1857, kelompok [[Gereja Yesus Kristus ti Jalma-jalma Suci Zaman Akhir|Jalma-jalma Suci Zaman Akhir]] sarta pamingpinna, [[Brigham Young]], parantos nangtang wawakil féderal di [[Wilayah Utah]], anu ngabalukarkeun ayana gangguan sarta kekerasan ka warga non-Mormon. Young ogé ngalarang urang luar pikeun netep di wewengkon [[Salt Lake City]]. Dina Séptémber 1857, [[Milisi Wilayah Utah]] anu aya patalina jeung kelompok Mormon ngalakukeun [[Bantéyan Mountain Meadows]], dimana milisi lokal narajang rombongan karéta kuda sarta maéhan 125 urang padumuk. Buchanan ngarasa kaganggu ku sikep militeristik sarta prakték [[Mormonisme sarta poligami|poligami]] anu dilakukeun ku Young.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=90–92}}

Alatan laporan kekerasan kasebut, Buchanan ngidinan ékspédisi militer ka Wilayah Utah dina ahir Maret 1857 pikeun ngaganti Young tina jabatan gubernur. Pasukan ieu diwangun ku 2.500 prajurit, kaasup [[Alfred Cumming (gubernur)|Alfred Cumming]] sarta stafna, anu dipingpin ku Jéndral [[William S. Harney]]. Masalah mingkin pabeulit sabab béwara ngeunaan panggantian gubernur henteu nepi ka Young alatan administrasi Pierce parantos mutuskeun kontrak pos ka Utah. Young nganggap pasukan anu datang téh salaku upaya kudéta anu teu sah.&lt;ref&gt;MacKinnon, William P. (2013). &quot;Prelude to Armageddon: James Buchanan, Brigham Young, and a President’s Initiation to Bloodshed&quot;. ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 52–59.&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=316}}

Sikep Buchanan ieu ngahudang perlawanan ti urang Mormon di sabudeureun Young, utamana sabab Harney dipikawanoh salaku jalma anu telenges. Dina Agustus 1857, [[Albert Sidney Johnston|Albert S. Johnston]] ngaganti Harney alatan urusan organisasi.&lt;ref&gt;MacKinnon, William P. (2013). pp 59–62.&lt;/ref&gt; Young ngaréaksi ku cara ngancurkeun rombongan logistik sarta harta banda Angkatan Darat. Buchanan saterusna ngirimkeun [[Thomas L. Kane]] salaku agén pribadi pikeun negosiasi perdamaian. Éta misi hasil; Gubernur Young daék diganti ku Cumming, sarta [[Perang Utah]] réngsé sacara daméy. Présidén méré amnésti ka sakabéh padumuk anu satia ka pamaréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=317}}

Buchanan teu méré koméntar deui ngeunaan ieu konflik nepi ka biantara ''State of the Union'' dina Désémber 1857. Salah sahiji tindakan resmi panungtungan Buchanan dina Maret 1861 nyaéta ngurangan legana Wilayah Utah pikeun dibikeun ka [[Nevada]], [[Colorado]], sarta [[Nebraska]]. Sanajan kelompok Mormon sering nangtang otoritas féderal, sababaraha sajarawan nganggap yén tindakan Buchanan téh mangrupa réspons anu kaleuleuwihi dumasar kana laporan anu can kabuktian benerna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=316}}

=== Kabel telegraf transatlantik ===
Buchanan mangrupa jalma munggaran anu nampi [[telegraf]] resmi anu dikirimkeun meuntasan Samudra Atlantik. Saatos sababaraha tés sarta konfigurasi, dina kaping 16 Agustus 1858, [[Ratu Victoria]] ngirimkeun pesen saloba 98 kecap ka Buchanan anu nuju aya di kediaman usum panasna di [[Bedford Springs Hotel]], [[Pennsylvania]]. Dina éta pesen, Ratu Victoria ngaharepkeun yén kabel anu nembé dipasang éta bisa janten &quot;beungkeut tambahan antara bangsa-bangsa anu sosobatanana dumasar kana kapentingan babarengan sarta silih hargaan&quot;. Pesen ti Ratu Victoria kasebut merlukeun waktu 16 jam pikeun nepi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Trade1861&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Report of the Joint Committee... |access-date=1 Maret 2018 |year=1861 |publisher=Eyre}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Buchanan ngawaler: &quot;Ieu mangrupa kameunangan anu leuwih mulya, sabab jauh leuwih mangpaat pikeun umat manusa, batan kameunangan anu kantos dimeunangkeun ku nu nalukkeun di médan perang. Muga-muga telegraf Atlantik, kalayan berkah ti Langit, bisa janten beungkeut perdamaian sarta sosobatan anu langgeng antara bangsa-bangsa anu sarumpun, sarta janten alat anu ditangtukeun ku Takdir Ilahi pikeun nyebarkeun agama, peradaban, kabébasan, sarta hukum ka sakuliah dunya.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;spencer-vol3&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title='THE QUEEN'S MESSAGE' and 'THE PRESIDENT'S REPLY' |volume=3 |author=Jesse Ames Spencer |publisher=Johnson, Fry |year=1866 |page=542}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Bleeding Kansas sarta sengketa konstitusional ===
{{utama|Bleeding Kansas}}

[[File:US SlaveFree1858.gif|thumb|upright=1.6|Kasaimbangan nagara bagian bébas sarta perbudakan dina taun 1858, saatos [[Minnesota]] ngagabung.]]
[[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] taun 1854 nyieun [[Teritori Kansas]] sarta ngidinan para padumuk di dinya pikeun nangtukeun naha bakal ngidinan ayana perbudakan atanapi henteu. Hal ieu ngakibatkeun kekerasan antara kelompok &quot;[[Free-Soil]]&quot; (anti-perbudakan) sarta kelompok pro-perbudakan, anu saterusna janten mangsa &quot;[[Bleeding Kansas]]&quot; (Kansas nu Getihan). Kelompok anti-perbudakan ngawangun pamaréntahan sorangan di [[Topeka]], sedengkeun kelompok pro-perbudakan ngadegkeun pamaréntahan di [[Lecompton, Kansas|Lecompton]]. Buchanan milih pikeun ngarojong pamaréntahan Lecompton anu pro-perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=93–98}}

Buchanan ngangkat [[Robert J. Walker]] pikeun ngaganti John W. Geary salaku Gubernur Teritori. Dina Oktober 1857, pamaréntahan Lecompton nyusun [[Konstitusi Lecompton]] anu pro-perbudakan. Nanging, referendum anu diayakeun ngan masihan pilihan anu kacida heureutna, sahingga kelompok mayoritas anu anti-perbudakan milih pikeun boikot éta sora.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=97–100}}

Sanajan diténtang ku Walker, Buchanan tetep narima Konstitusi Lecompton. Dina Désémber 1857, Buchanan papanggih jeung [[Stephen A. Douglas]] sarta maksa sangkan sakabéh urang Démokrat ngarojong anjeunna. Buchanan ngagunakeun sagala cara, kaasup nawarkeun jabatan sarta duit pikeun meunangkeun sora di Kongrés. Konstitusi Lecompton hasil ditarima ku Sénat dina bulan Maret, nanging ahirna éléh di DPR ku gabungan kakuatan Partéi Républik sarta urang Démokrat Kalér.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|pp=100–105}}

Buchanan teu kungsi ngahampura Douglas. Anjeunna miceun sakabéh pangrojong Douglas tina jabatan pamaréntahan di Illinois sarta Washington, D.C. Salaku ganti tina éléhna Konstitusi Lecompton, Buchanan ngadukung [[English Bill (1858)|English Bill]] taun 1858, anu nawarkeun taneuh anu lega pikeun Kansas upami maranéhna narima Konstitusi Lecompton. Nanging, dina Agustus 1858, rahayat Kansas tetep nolak éta konstitusi sacara mutlak. Kansas ahirna nampi konstitusi anti-perbudakan, nanging diténtang pisan ku urang Kidul di Kongrés dugi ka Kansas kakara bisa jadi nagara bagian dina Januari 1861.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|pp=100–105}}

Ieu parépat di Kansas janten médan perang pikeun rebutan kakawasaan di jero Partéi Démokrat. Di hiji sisi aya Buchanan sarta urang Démokrat Kidul, sedengkeun di sisi séjén aya Douglas sarta mayoritas urang Démokrat Kalér. Douglas tetep ngadukung kadaulatan rahayat, sedengkeun Buchanan keukeuh yén Partéi Démokrat kedah hormat kana putusan ''Dred Scott'' anu ngalarang campur tangan féderal kana urusan perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=120–121}}

=== Pilihan raya sela 1858 ===
Mangsa jabatan Sénat Stephen A. Douglas bakal réngsé dina taun 1859, sarta legislatif Illinois hasil pilihan raya 1858 anu bakal nangtukeun naha Douglas kapilih deui atanapi henteu. Korsi Sénat ieu janten pasualan utama dina pamilihan legislatif kasebut, anu dicirian ku perdebatan kawéntar antara Douglas sarta lawan Républikna, [[Abraham Lincoln]] (''[[Lincoln–Douglas debates]]''). Buchanan, ngaliwatan kakuatan jalu (''patronage'') di Illinois, ngajukeun calon-calon legislatif sorangan pikeun nyerang pihak Républik sakaligus pihak Douglas. Hal ieu némbongkeun sakumaha jerona rasa ceuceub Buchanan ka Douglas.{{sfn|Chadwick|2008|p=117}} Ahirna, urang Démokrat Douglas meunang sarta Douglas kapilih deui ka Sénat. Dina pamilihan taun éta, kakuatan Douglas ngawasa ampir sakuliah Kalér, iwal di Pennsylvania, nagara bagian asal Buchanan. Rojongan pikeun Buchanan mingkin ngeret, ngan sésa di wilayah Kidul wungkul.{{sfn|Potter|1976|pp=297–327}}{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=286–299}}

Perpecahan antara urang Démokrat Kalér sarta Kidul ngamungkinkeun Partéi Républik meunangkeun sora panglobana (pluralitas) di DPR dina [[Pilihan raya Amérika Sarikat 1858|pamilihan 1858]]. Hal ieu ngalantarankeun maranéhna bisa ngahalangan ampir sakabéh agenda Buchanan. Sabalikna, Buchanan ogé némbongkeun mumusuhan ku cara ngagunakeun hak véto kana genep undang-undang penting anu diajukeun ku urang Républik.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=312}} Di antarana nyaéta [[Homestead Acts|Homestead Act]], anu bakal méré lahan 160 héktar ka para padumuk, sarta [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts|Morrill Act]] pikeun ngadegkeun paguron luhur tatanén. Buchanan boga pamandangan yén undang-undang ieu téh inkonstitusional. Di wilayah kulon, malah seueur urang Démokrat anu ngutuk kawijakan présidén ieu, sedengkeun masarakat anu nganggap pendidikan salaku aset penting ngarasa kuciwa ku véto Buchanan kana pangwangunan universitas.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=117–118}}

=== Kawijakan luar nagri ===
Buchanan ngamimitian jabatanna kalayan kawijakan luar nagri anu ambisius, anu dirarancang pikeun ngukuhkeun [[Hégémoni]] AS di Amérika Tengah sarta ngurangan pangaruh Britania Raya.{{sfn|Smith|1975|pp=69–70}} Buchanan narékahan pikeun ngahirupkeun deui doktrin [[Manifest Destiny]]** sarta negeskeun [[Doktrin Monroe]], anu harita nuju ditarajang ku Spanyol, Perancis, sarta utamana Britania dina taun 1850-an.&lt;ref&gt;Belohlavek, John M. (2013). &quot;In Defense of Doughface Diplomacy...&quot;. ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp. 112–114.&lt;/ref&gt;

Anjeunna boga harepan pikeun negosiasi deui [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]] pikeun nolak [[Imperialisme Éropa]] di Hémisfér Kulon. Buchanan ogé hayang ngadegkeun protéktorat AS di nagara bagian Méksiko sapertos [[Chihuahua (nagara bagian)|Chihuahua]] sarta [[Sonora]], sarta anu paling utama, anjeunna masih kénéh miboga ambisi jangka panjang pikeun miboga Kuba. Nanging, ambisi Buchanan di Kuba sarta Méksiko kalolobaanana dihalangan ku DPR AS. Saatos negosiasi panjang sareng Britania, anjeunna hasil ngayakinkeun maranéhna pikeun nyerahkeun [[Departemén Kapuloan Bay|Kapuloan Bay]] ka [[Honduras]] sarta [[Basisir Mosquito]] ka [[Nicaragua]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}}

Dina taun 1858, Buchanan maréntahkeun [[Ékspédisi Paraguay]] pikeun ngahukum [[Paraguay]] alatan némbakan kapal {{USS|Water Witch|1851|6}}. Ékspédisi anu méakkeun waragad gedé ieu hasil meunangkeun paménta hampura sarta pamayaran ganti rugi ti Paraguay.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}} Buchanan ogé kantos mikirkeun pikeun mésér Alaska ti [[Kaisar Rusia]], margi kagiatan moro paus di ditu kacida pentingna pikeun ékonomi AS. Dina usum tiris taun 1859, tawaran awal sajumlah $5.000.000 parantos diajukeun. Sanajan proyék ieu ahirna gagal harita, obrolan ieu janten dadasar pikeun pameulian Alaska dina mangsa nu bakal datang.&lt;ref&gt;Belohlavek, John M. (2013). pp. 124–126.&lt;/ref&gt;

Di Asia, Buchanan nyiar perjangjian dagang sareng [[Dinasti Qing]] di Cina sarta Jepang. Di Cina, utusanana [[William Bradford Reed]] hasil ngasupkeun AS salaku pihak dina [[Perjangjian Tientsin]]. Dina Méi 1860, Buchanan nampi delegasi Jepang anu mawa Perjangjian Harris pikeun diratifikasi babarengan.&lt;ref&gt;Belohlavek, John M. (2013). pp. 126–128.&lt;/ref&gt; Buchanan ogé kantos ditawaran sakandang [[Gajah]] ku Raja [[Rama IV]] ti [[Thailand|Siam]], nanging suratna kakara nepi saatos Buchanan lungsur tina jabatanana, sarta panerusna, Abraham Lincoln, nolak éta tawaran alatan kaayaan iklim di AS anu teu cocog.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Lincoln Rejects the King of Siam's Offer of Elephants|url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/lincoln-rejects-king-siams-offer-elephants|publisher=American Battlefield Trust}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sato piaraan présidén lianna kalebet sapasang dadali botak (''bald eagles'') sarta anjing Newfoundland.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}}

=== Pilihan Raya 1860 ===
{{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860}}

[[File:John C Breckinridge-04775-restored.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[John C. Breckinridge]], [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] dina mangsa Buchanan]]
Sakumaha anu parantos dijangjikeun dina biantara pelantikanana, [[James Buchanan]] henteu nyalonkeun deui. Anjeunna malah kantos nyarios ka panerusna, &quot;Upami anjeun ngarasa bagja nalika lebet ka Gedong Bodas sapertos kabagjaan kuring nalika mulang ka Wheatland, hartosna anjeun téh jalma anu bagja pisan.&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962}}

Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1860]] di Charleston, Partéi Démokrat peupeus alatan urusan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Hal ieu ngaruksak reputasi Buchanan anu dianggap salaku jalma anu paling tanggung jawab kana ieu pasualan. Sanajan [[Stephen A. Douglas]] unggul dina unggal pamilihan sora, anjeunna gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu mayoritas anu diperyogikeun. Ahirna, urang Kidul nolak hasil konvénsi sarta nyalonkeun Wakil Présidén [[John C. Breckinridge]] salaku calon maranéhna sorangan. Buchanan, anu masih miboga dendam ka Douglas, henteu nyoba ngahijikeun deui partéina sarta kalah ngarojong Breckinridge sacara satengah haté. Alatan beulahna Partéi Démokrat, calon ti Partéi Républik, [[Abraham Lincoln]], hasil meunangkeun pamilihan. Buchanan janten urang Démokrat panungtungan anu meunang pilihan raya présidén dugi ka [[Grover Cleveland]] dina taun 1884.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=118–120}}


Ti mimiti bulan Oktober kénéh, Panglima Angkatan Darat [[Winfield Scott]] parantos ngingetan Buchanan yén kameunangan Lincoln bakal ngabalukarkeun saeutikna tujuh nagara bagian misahkeun diri tina Uni ([[Secession in the United States|secession]]). Scott nyarankeun sangkan pasukan féderal sarta artileri dikirimkeun ka nagara-nagara bagian kasebut pikeun ngajaga aset pamaréntah. Nanging, saprak taun 1857, Kongrés parantos ngabaheulakeun kaayaan militer sahingga kakuatanana kacida lemahna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} Buchanan teu percaya ka Scott sarta maliré kana saran-saranna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=76, 133}} Saatos Lincoln kapilih, Buchanan sabenerna maréntahkeun Mentri Perang [[John B. Floyd]] pikeun nguatkeun bénténg-bénténg di Kidul, nanging Floyd hasil ngayakinkeun Buchanan pikeun ngabatalkeun éta paréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}}

=== Pilihan Raya 1860 ===
{{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860}}

[[File:John C Breckinridge-04775-restored.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[John C. Breckinridge]], [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] dina mangsa Buchanan]]
Sakumaha anu parantos dijangjikeun dina biantara pelantikanana, [[James Buchanan]] henteu nyalonkeun deui. Anjeunna malah kantos nyarios ka panerusna, &quot;Upami anjeun ngarasa bagja nalika lebet ka Gedong Bodas sapertos kabagjaan kuring nalika mulang ka Wheatland, hartosna anjeun téh jalma anu bagja pisan.&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962}}

Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1860]] di Charleston, Partéi Démokrat peupeus alatan urusan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Hal ieu ngaruksak reputasi Buchanan anu dianggap salaku jalma anu paling tanggung jawab kana ieu pasualan. Sanajan [[Stephen A. Douglas]] unggul dina unggal pamilihan sora, anjeunna gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu mayoritas anu diperyogikeun. Ahirna, urang Kidul nolak hasil konvénsi sarta nyalonkeun Wakil Présidén [[John C. Breckinridge]] salaku calon maranéhna sorangan. Buchanan, anu masih miboga dendam ka Douglas, henteu nyoba ngahijikeun deui partéina sarta kalah ngarojong Breckinridge sacara satengah haté. Alatan beulahna Partéi Démokrat, calon ti Partéi Républik, [[Abraham Lincoln]], hasil meunangkeun pamilihan. Buchanan janten urang Démokrat panungtungan anu meunang pilihan raya présidén dugi ka [[Grover Cleveland]] dina taun 1884.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=118–120}}

Ti mimiti bulan Oktober kénéh, Panglima Angkatan Darat [[Winfield Scott]] parantos ngingetan Buchanan yén kameunangan Lincoln bakal ngabalukarkeun saeutikna tujuh nagara bagian misahkeun diri tina Uni ([[Secession in the United States|secession]]). Scott nyarankeun sangkan pasukan féderal sarta artileri dikirimkeun ka nagara-nagara bagian kasebut pikeun ngajaga aset pamaréntah. Nanging, saprak taun 1857, Kongrés parantos ngabaheulakeun kaayaan militer sahingga kakuatanana kacida lemahna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} Buchanan teu percaya ka Scott sarta maliré kana saran-saranna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=76, 133}} Saatos Lincoln kapilih, Buchanan sabenerna maréntahkeun Mentri Perang [[John B. Floyd]] pikeun nguatkeun bénténg-bénténg di Kidul, nanging Floyd hasil ngayakinkeun Buchanan pikeun ngabatalkeun éta paréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}}

=== Pemisahan Diri (Sekesi) ===
Kameunangan Lincoln ngajantenkeun obrolan ngeunaan pemisahan diri ([[Secession in the United States|sekesi]]) sarta perpecahan Uni nepi ka titik puncak. Dina biantara panungtungna ka Kongrés kaping 10 Désémber, [[James Buchanan]] nolak hak nagara bagian pikeun misahkeun diri, nanging anjeunna ogé negeskeun yén pamaréntah féderal teu boga kakuatan pikeun nyegah hal éta. Anjeunna kalah nyalahkeun urang Kalér atas &quot;campur tangan anu kaleuleuwihi kana urusan perbudakan di nagara bagian Kidul.&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=363}}

Hiji-hijina solusi anu diajukeun ku Buchanan nyaéta &quot;amandemen guaran&quot; pikeun ngukuhkeun legalitas perbudakan sarta [[Kadaulatan rahayat|kadaulatan rahayat]] di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Biantara ieu dikritik ku dua pihak: urang Kalér ambek sabab Buchanan dianggap memble teu bisa ngeureunkeun sekesi, sedengkeun urang Kidul ambek sabab hak maranéhna pikeun misahkeun diri ditolak. Lima poé saatosna, Mentri Kauangan [[Howell Cobb]] ngundurkeun diri alatan parantos teu sapamadegan deui sareng Présidén.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}}

[[File:US Secession map 1861.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|{{center|'''Status nagara bagian, 1861'''}} {{legend|#A40000| Nagara bagian anu misahkeun diri méméh 15 April 1861}} {{legend|#EF2929| Nagara bagian anu misahkeun diri saatos 15 April 1861}} {{legend|#FCE94F| Nagara bagian Uni anu ngidinan perbudakan}} {{legend|#204A87| Nagara bagian Uni anu ngalarang perbudakan}} {{legend|#D3D7CF| Wilayah Teritori}}]]
[[South Carolina]] janten nagara bagian munggaran anu misahkeun diri dina 20 Désémber 1860. Buchanan narékahan pikeun ngayakinkeun kelompok moderat di Kidul sangkan nagara bagian séjén teu milu misah. Anjeunna ngayakeun riungan sareng komisioner South Carolina pikeun ngaréngsékeun masalah di [[Fort Sumter]], bénténg féderal anu aya di wilayah maranéhna. Buchanan nganggap yén Kongrés, sanés dirina, anu tanggung jawab milarian solusi pikeun krisis sekesi ieu.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}}

Buchanan nolak miceun Mentri Jero Nagri [[Jacob Thompson]] sanajan Thompson janten agén Mississippi pikeun ngabahas sekesi. Anjeunna ogé nolak miceun Mentri Perang **[[John B. Floyd]]** sanajan aya skandal korupsi. Floyd ahirna mundur, nanging sateuacanna anjeunna parantos ngirimkeun rébuan pakarang ka nagara-nagara bagian Kidul anu engkéna ragrag ka leungeun Konfédérasi. Malah, sobat Buchanan, [[Rose O'Neal Greenhow]], ngamangpaatkeun hubungan deukeutna sareng présidén pikeun janten mata-mata pikeun pihak Kidul.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}}

Sawatara upaya kompromi sapertos anu diajukeun ku Sénator [[John J. Crittenden]] sarta tilas présidén [[John Tyler]] tétéla gagal. Buchanan sacara rusiah ménta présidén-pilih Lincoln pikeun ngayakeun referendum nasional ngeunaan perbudakan, nanging Lincoln nolak. Usaha sanésna nyaéta [[Amandemen Corwin]], anu bakal ngalarang Kongrés campur tangan kana perbudakan di nagara bagian, nanging ieu ogé teu kungsi diratifikasi ku jumlah nagara bagian anu cukup.{{Sfn|Smith|1975|p=152–160}}

Dugi ka ahir Januari 1861, genep nagara bagian perbudakan séjénna milu misahkeun diri. Buchanan saterusna ngaganti anggota kabinét asal Kidul ku urang Kalér anu satia ka Uni, saperti [[Edwin M. Stanton]] sarta [[Joseph Holt]]. Nalika Buchanan mikir badé nyerahkeun Fort Sumter, kabinét anyarna ngancem badé mundur, sahingga Buchanan ngabatalkeun éta niat. Dina 5 Januari, anjeunna ngirim kapal ''[[Star of the West]]'' mawa 250 prajurit sarta logistik ka Fort Sumter, nanging éta kapal ditémbakan sarta kapaksa balik deui ka Kalér. Buchanan milih pikeun henteu ngaréaksi kana éta tindakan perang. Dina 3 Maret, Buchanan nampi pesen yén logistik di Fort Sumter parantos méh béak, nanging urusan éta ahirna janten tanggung jawab Lincoln anu dilantik isukna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=135–140}}

=== Nagara bagian anu ngagabung ka Uni ===
Aya tilu nagara bagian anyar anu [[Admission to the Union|ngagabung ka Uni]] nalika Buchanan ngajabat:
* [[Minnesota]] – 11 Méi 1858
* [[Oregon]] – 14 Pébruari 1859
* [[Kansas]] – 29 Januari 1861

== Taun-taun panungtung sarta wafat (1861–1868) ==
[[File:James Buchanan - post presidency.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Buchanan dina mangsa sepuhna, kira-kira pertengahan 1860-an.]]
Saatos lungsur tina jabatanna, **[[James Buchanan]]** milih hirup tenang di Wheatland. Di dinya, anjeunna méakkeun waktosna pikeun maca buku sarta nyuratan babaturanana. Perang Sadulur peupeus dua sasih saatos Buchanan pangsiun. Sanajan loba nu nyawad, Buchanan sabenerna ngarojong Uni sarta usaha perang kasebut. Anjeunna nyerat yén panarajangan ka Sumter mangrupa awal perang ku nagara-nagara bagian Konfédérasi, sarta euweuh pilihan séjén iwal ti kudu dilawan kalayan parancah.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}}

Buchanan ngarojong kawijakan wajib militer (''conscription'') Lincoln di nagara bagian Kalér, nanging anjeunna nolak **[[Proklamasi Émansipasi]]** (kabébasan budak). Anjeunna ogé ngadesek para pamuda di Pennsylvania sangkan milu daptar janten relawan tentara Uni.

Nanging, Buchanan kudu nyanghareupan amarah masarakat anu nyebut Perang Sadulur téh salaku &quot;Perang Buchanan&quot;. Anjeunna sering nampi surat anceman unggal dinten. Di toko-toko di Lancaster, poto Buchanan dipulas beureum panonuna, digambaran tali gantung dina beuheungna, sarta ditulisan &quot;PANGHIANAT&quot; (''TRAITOR'') dina tarangna. Koran-koran nuduh anjeunna parantos sakongkol sareng pihak Kidul. Tilas anggota kabinétna ogé kalolobaanana alim ngabela anjeunna sacara terang-terangan di hareupeun umum.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=408–413}}

Alatan serangan mental kasebut, Buchanan janten gering sarta depresi. Dina taun 1866, sataun saatos perang réngsé, anjeunna medalkeun mémoar nu judulna ''Mr. Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of Rebellion'' pikeun ngabela sagala tindakanna. Dina éta buku, anjeunna nyalahkeun urang Républik sarta gerakan [[abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) salaku cukang lantaran sekesi.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}}

Dina Méi 1868, Buchanan kakeunaan panyakit salesma (flu) anu mingkin parna alatan faktor yuswa. Anjeunna wafat dina kaping 1 Juni 1868 alatan gagal napas dina yuswa 77 taun di bumina, Wheatland. Jasadna dikureubkeun di **Woodward Hill Cemetery**, Lancaster.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}}

== Sawangan pulitik ==
[[File:George Peter Alexander Healy - James Buchanan - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|James Buchanan (1859) ku [[George Healy]] sakumaha anu katingali di [[Galéri Potrét Nasional (Amérika Sarikat)|Galéri Potrét Nasional]], Washington, D.C.]]
Buchanan sering dianggap ku urang Kalér anu anti-perbudakan salaku saurang &quot;[[doughface]]&quot;, nyaéta urang Kalér anu boga prinsip pro-Kidul.{{sfn|Stampp|1990|p=48}} Rasa simpati Buchanan ka nagara-nagara bagian Kidul téh sanés ngan saukur strategi pulitik pikeun nuju ka Gedong Bodas. Anjeunna ngarasa cocok sareng ajén-inajén budaya sarta sosial kelas juragan (''planter class'') di Kidul.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=137–138}} Teu lami saatos kapilih, anjeunna nyatakeun yén &quot;tujuan utama&quot; administrasi anjeunna nyaéta pikeun ngeureunkeun gégér masalah perbudakan di Kalér sarta ngancurkeun partéi-partéi séktoral.{{sfn|Stampp|1990|p=48}}

Sanajan sacara pribadi Buchanan nolak perbudakan,{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=30}} anjeunna yakin yén gerakan [[abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) kalah ngahalangan solusi pikeun masalah kasebut. Anjeunna nyatakeun, &quot;Sateuacan [kaum abolisionis] ngamimitian gégér ieu, parantos aya partéi anu mingkin ageung di sababaraha nagara bagian perbudakan anu ngarojong penghapusan perbudakan sacara bertahap; nanging ayeuna teu aya hiji sora ogé anu kadéngé ngarojong hal éta.&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=150}} Dina biantara taunan katiluna ka Kongrés, présidén malah ngaku yén para budak téh &quot;diperlakukeun kalayan saé sarta manusiawi.&quot;


Buchanan yakin yén kadali diri mangrupa inti tina pamaréntahan anu saé. Anjeunna percaya yén konstitusi téh diwangun ku &quot;...watesan-watesan anu ditetepkeun ku rahayat pikeun dirina sorangan sarta wawakilna.&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=143}} Ngeunaan perbudakan sarta Konstitusi, anjeunna nyatakeun: &quot;Sanajan di Pennsylvania urang sadaya nolak perbudakan sacara abstrak, urang moal bisa ngalanggar kasapukan konstitusional anu urang boga sareng nagara-nagara bagian dulur urang. Hak-hak maranéhna bakal dijaga sacara suci ku urang.&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=150}}

[[File:Wheatland - IMG 7694.JPG|alt=James Buchanan House, 1120 Marietta Avenue, Lancaster Township|thumb|Imah James Buchanan, Wheatland]]
Salah sahiji pasualan utama harita nyaéta masalah [[Tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|tarif]].{{sfn|Jurinski|pages=16–17}} Buchanan ngarasa bingung antara [[perdagangan bébas]] sarta tarif pelindung (''protective tariff''), margi salah sahijina pasti bakal nguntungkeun hiji wilayah nanging ngarugikeun wilayah sanésna. Salaku sénator ti Pennsylvania, anjeunna nyarios: &quot;Kuring dianggap salaku pangrojong perlindungan anu pangkuatna di nagara bagian séjén, nanging kuring dikutuk salaku musuhna di Pennsylvania.&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=144}}

Buchanan ogé cangcaya antara kahayangna pikeun ngalegaan wilayah nagara demi karaharjaan umum, sarta ngajamin hak-hak jalma anu nempatan wilayah kasebut. Ngeunaan ékspansi wilayah, anjeunna nyarios, &quot;Ngeureunkeun rahayat meuntasan [[Pagunungan Rocky]]? Sarua baé jeung marentahkeun [[Niagara Falls|Curug Niagara]] sangkan ulah ngalir. Urang kudu minuhan takdir urang (''manifest destiny'').&quot;{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=147}} Nanging, anjeunna ogé nyatakeun yén anjeunna hoream upami ékspansi éta kalah ngalegaan kakawasaan perbudakan.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=147}}
{{Clear}}

=== Kahirupan pribadi ===
Buchanan kakeunaan panyakit mata [[ésotropia]]. Sajaba ti éta, panon anu sabeulah kakeunaan [[Miopia|panon deukeut]] sarta nu sabeulahna deui [[Hipermetropia|panon jauh]]. Pikeun nutupan hal ieu, anjeunna sering ngadéngdékkeun sirahna ka gigir nalika nuju ngobrol sareng batur.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=19}} Hal ieu mindeng janten bahan lulucon ku musuh pulitikna, kalebet [[Henry Clay]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=28}}

Dina taun 1818, Buchanan pendak sareng Anne Caroline Coleman dina hiji pésta di [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]]. Anne mangrupa putra ti Robert Coleman, saurang pangusaha beusi anu beunghar. Dina taun 1819, maranéhna tunangan, nanging jarang patepang sabab Buchanan sibuk teuing ku urusan hukum sarta pulitik nalika kajantenan [[Panik 1819]]. Ayana gosip yén Buchanan caket sareng awéwé séjén ngabalukarkeun Anne mutuskeun hubungan tunanganana. Teu lami saatosna, dina 9 Désémber 1819, Anne pupus sacara misterius alatan dosis kaleuleuwihi (overdosis) [[laudanum]] dina yuswa 23 taun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}}

Buchanan ménta idin ka ramana Anne pikeun ngiringan pamakaman, nanging ditolak. Harita, Buchanan nyarios yén &quot;kabagjaan parantos kabur ti kuring salilana.&quot; Saatos kajantenan éta, Buchanan ngaku yén anjeunna milih teu nikah salaku tanda kasatiaan ka cinta sajatina anu pupus ngora keneh. Anjeunna janten hiji-hijina présidén Amérika Sarikat anu henteu kantos nikah.

[[File:William Rufus King edited..jpg|thumb|upright=.70|[[William R. King|William Rufus DeVane King]], batur sakamar Buchanan sarta anu disangka pasanganna]]
Dina taun 1833 sarta 1840-an, anjeunna kantos gaduh rencana badé nikah, nanging teu aya nu laksana. Salah sahijina nyaéta ka Anna Payne, alon-alonna tilas Ibu Nagara [[Dolley Madison]]. Nalika anjeunna janten présidén, alon-alonna anu parantos yatim piatu, **Harriet Lane**, diangkat janten anak sarta janten &quot;hostess&quot; (nu boga imah/pendamping) resmi di Gedong Bodas. Aya ogé gosip anu teu kabuktian yén anjeunna miboga hubungan sareng randa Présidén Polk, nyaéta [[Sarah Childress Polk]].

=== Hubungan sareng William R. King ===
Buchanan miboga hubungan anu kacida raketna sareng [[William R. King|William Rufus DeVane King]], anu janten targét gosip anu populér. King, sapertos Buchanan, teu kantos nikah.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/175-year-history-examining-bachelor-president-james-buchanan-close-friendship-william-rufus-king-180972992/ The 175-Year History of Speculating About President James Buchanan’s Bachelorhood], Smithsonian Magazine, 2019&lt;/ref&gt; King mangrupa politisi ti Alabama anu kungsi ngajabat janten wakil présidén dina mangsa [[Franklin Pierce]]. Buchanan sareng King hirup babarengan di hiji imah kos (''boardinghouse'') di Washington sarta sering sumping ka acara-acara sosial babarengan ti taun 1834 dugi ka 1844. Susunan hirup sapertos kitu harita mémang lumrah, nanging Buchanan kantos nyebat hubunganana salaku &quot;''communion''&quot; (persekutuan/hubungan batin).

Présidén [[Andrew Jackson]] sacara moyok nyebat maranéhna &quot;Miss Nancy&quot; sarta &quot;Aunt Fancy&quot;, dimana istilah nu kahiji mangrupa éufémisme dina abad ka-19 pikeun lalaki anu sipatna kawas awéwé (kemayu).{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=75}} Mentri Pos Buchanan, Aaron V. Brown, ogé nyebat King salaku &quot;Aunt Fancy&quot; sarta nyebat anjeunna salaku &quot;pamajikan&quot; atawa &quot;beulahan jiwa&quot; Buchanan. King pupus alatan TBC teu lami saatos pelantikan Pierce, opat taun sateuacan Buchanan janten présidén. Buchanan ngadiskripsikeun King salaku &quot;salah sahiji lalaki publik anu pangsaéna, pangsucina, sarta pang-konsisténna anu kantos kuring kenal.&quot;

Sajarawan Jean H. Baker miboga pamandangan yén alon-alon ti dua lalaki ieu kamungkinan parantos ngancurkeun surat-surat korespondensi antara maranéhna. Nanging, anjeunna yakin yén surat-surat anu masih aya ngan saukur némbongkeun &quot;rasa mikaasih tina hiji sosobatan anu husus.&quot;{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=25–26}}

Status Buchanan salaku bujangan saumur hirup saatos pupusna Anne Coleman terus ngondang minat sarta spékulasi. Sababaraha pihak boga anggapan yén carita pupusna Anne ngan saukur dianggo pikeun nyingkahan patarosan ngeunaan séksualitas Buchanan. Sajarawan sapertos [[James W. Loewen]] sarta [[Robert P. Watson]] boga duga yén Buchanan téh [[homoséksual]]. Loewen nyebutkeun yén dina mangsa sepuhna, Buchanan kantos nyerat surat anu ngaku yén anjeunna kamungkinan bakal nikah ka awéwé anu bisa nampi &quot;kurangna rasa asih anu ngagedur atanapi romantis&quot; ti dirina.{{sfn|Ross|1988|pp=86–91}}

== Warisan ==
=== Reputasi sajarah ===
Sanajan Buchanan kantos ngaramal yén &quot;sajarah bakal ngabuktikeun yén kuring bener,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;state park&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateParks/parks/buchanansbirthplace.aspx|title=Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources}}&lt;/ref&gt; para sajarawan kalah nyawad Buchanan alatan anjeunna dianggap horéam atawa teu mampuh nindak nalika nyanghareupan krisis sekesi. ''[[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]]'' ampir sok nempatkeun Buchanan salaku salah sahiji présidén anu paling gagal dina sajarah Amérika.

Dina rupa-rupa survéy para ahli, anjeunna nempatii posisi panghandapna dina hal visi, kapamingpinan doméstik, kawijakan luar nagri, sarta otoritas moral. Survéy ti taun 1948 dugi ka 1982 sacara konsistén nempatkeun Buchanan dina jajaran présidén pangburukna, babarengan sareng [[Warren G. Harding]], Millard Fillmore, sarta [[Richard Nixon]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Arthur B. |title=Evaluating the Presidents of the United States |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sajarawan Philip S. Klein dina taun 1962 nyoba méré sawangan anu leuwih obyéktif:

{{blockquote|Buchanan nyepeng kapamingpinan... nalika gelombang amarah anu can kungsi aya sateuacanna nuju narajang bangsa. Yén anjeunna mampuh nahan ''faksi-faksi'' anu silih musuhan dina mangsa révolusionér éta téh sabenerna mangrupa hiji préstasi anu luar biasa. Kahéngkéranana dina taun-taun anu pinuh ku prahara mingkin digedé-gedékeun ku para partisan ti Kalér sarta Kidul. Bakatna anu sakuduna bisa ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén hébat dina mangsa anu tenang, kalah kaurugan ku kajadian-kajadian Perang Sadulur sarta ku sosok Abraham Lincoln anu kacida jangkung pangaruhna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=429}}}}

Sabalikna, biografer Jean Baker dina taun 2004 méré sawangan anu leuwih peureus:

{{blockquote|Kagagalan Buchanan nalika krisis Uni sanés alatan anjeunna cicingeun, nanging alatan sikepna anu condong ka Kidul, hiji hal anu ampir sarua jeung panghianatan pikeun saurang pajabat anu parantos sumpah pikeun ngabela sakuliah Amérika Sarikat. Anjeunna téh pamingpin anu bahaya, saurang [[idéolog]] anu bedegong sarta salah sahiji anu prinsipna teu méré rohangan pikeun kompromi. Dina hianatna anjeunna kana kapercayaan nasional, Buchanan leuwih deukeut kana ngalakukeun tindakan makar batan présidén séjénna dina sajarah Amérika.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=141}}}}

Sajarawan lianna saperti Bruce Catton nyebutkeun yén Buchanan sarta kabinétna téh &quot;jalma-jalma anu mumpuni pikeun henteu ngalakukeun nanaon anu penting kalayan gaya anu kacida wibawana.&quot; Catton nganggap yén hiji-hijina tindakan Buchanan anu miboga pangaruh badag nyaéta ngahalangan Stephen A. Douglas janten calon tunggal Partéi Démokrat dina taun 1860, anu ahirna kalah nguntungkeun Lincoln.

=== Monumén sarta Pangéling-ngéling ===
Hiji [[Monumén James Buchanan|monumén]] tina [[parunggu]] sarta granit di juru kidul-wétan [[Meridian Hill Park]], Washington, D.C., dirarancang ku arsiték William Gorden Beecher sarta dipahat ku seniman Maryland, [[Hans Schuler]]. Sanajan parantos dipesen ti taun 1916, monumén ieu nembé disatujuan ku Kongrés dina taun 1918 sarta réngsé diresmikan dina 26 Juni 1930. Ieu monumén némbongkeun patung Buchanan anu diaping ku inohong klasik lalaki sarta awéwé anu ngalambangkeun hukum sarta diplomasi. Di dinya aya tulisan: &quot;Negarawan anu jujur, anu léngkahna saluyu jeung hukum,&quot; mangrupa cutatan ti anggota kabinétna, **[[Jeremiah S. Black]]**.{{sfn|Strauss|2016|p=213}}

[[File:BuchananmonmtDC.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|Monumén Buchanan di Washington, D.C.]]

Monumén anu leuwih tiheula diwangun dina taun 1907–1908 di tempat gumelarna Buchanan di [[Taman Nagara Tempat Gumelar Buchanan|Stony Batter, Pennsylvania]]. Bagian tina monumén ieu mangrupa struktur piramida beuratna 250 ton anu nangtung di urut lokasi saung leutik (''cabin'') tempat Buchanan dilahirkeun. Ieu monumén dirarancang pikeun némbongkeun tékstur batu asli sarta mortir ti wewengkon kasebut.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/findapark/buchanansbirthplace/index.htm|title=Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aya tilu county anu dingaranan pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna, nyaéta di [[Buchanan County, Iowa|Iowa]], [[Buchanan County, Missouri|Missouri]], sarta [[Buchanan County, Virginia|Virginia]]. Aya ogé hiji county di Texas anu dingaranan Buchanan dina taun 1858, nanging dirobah janten [[Stephens County, Texas|Stephens County]] dina taun 1861, dicandak tina ngaran wakil présidén Konfédérasi, [[Alexander Stephens]].{{sfn|Beatty|2001|p=310}} Kota [[Buchanan, Michigan]] ogé dingaranan luyu jeung ngaran anjeunna. Salian ti éta, sawatara komunitas séjén ogé maké ngaran Buchanan, sapertos di Georgia sarta Wisconsin.

Di [[Dickinson College]], kampus tempat Buchanan sakola sarta lulus di [[Carlisle, Pennsylvania]], aya hiji asrama anu dingaranan pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.dickinson.edu/info/20238/office_of_residence_life_and_housing/1291/traditional_residence_halls/6|title=Traditional Residence Halls|publisher=Dickinson College}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Leuweung Nagara Buchanan]] (''Buchanan State Forest'') anu perenahna di deukeut wates nagara bagian Maryland ogé dingaranan pikeun miéling anjeunna. Salian ti éta, aya ogé SMA James Buchanan (''James Buchanan High School''), hiji sakola di sisi kota tempat anjeunna digedékeun di [[Mercersburg, Pennsylvania]].

== Tempo ogé ==
* [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]]
* [[Daptar skandal séks pulitik féderal di Amérika Sarikat]]
* [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]]
* [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanna]]
* [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat dina prangko AS]]

== Rujukan ==
{{reflist}}

=== Karya anu dicutat ===
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite book |last=Baker |first=Jean H. |title=James Buchanan |publisher=Times Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8050-6946-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Beatty |first=Michael A. |title=County Name Origins of the United States |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-1025-5 |year=2001}}
* {{cite book |last=Chadwick |first=Bruce |title=1858: Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant and the War They Failed to See |year=2008 |publisher=Sourcebooks, Inc. |isbn=978-1402209413}}
* {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=George Ticknor |title=Life of James Buchanan: Fifteenth President of the United States |year=1883 |publisher=Harper &amp; Brothers |volume=2 |isbn=978-0-8130-4426-2}}
* {{cite journal |last=Flude |first=Anthony G. |title=Manuscript XXIII: A Raiatean Petition for American Protection |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |volume=47 |issue=1 |date=March 2012 |publisher=Australian National University}}
* {{cite book |last=Grossman |first=Mark |title=Political Corruption in America: An Encyclopedia of Scandals, Power, and Greed |year=2003 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-060-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Hall |first=Timothy L. |title=Supreme Court justices: a biographical dictionary |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8153-1176-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Philip Shriver |journal=American Heritage Magazine |title=The Lost Love of a Bachelor President |date=December 1955 |volume=7 |issue=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Klein |first=Philip S. |title=President James Buchanan: A Biography |publisher=American Political Biography Press |year=1962 |edition=1995 |isbn=978-0-945707-11-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Philip Shriver |last2=Hoogenboom |first2=Ari |title=A History of Pennsylvania |publisher=Penn State University Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-271-01934-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Jurinski |first=James John |date=2012 |title=Tax Reform: A Reference Handbook |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-322-4}}
* {{cite book |last=McPherson |first=James M. |title=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era |year=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974390-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David Morris |title=The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 |year=1976 |publisher=Harper &amp; Row |isbn=978-0-06-090524-8}}
* {{Cite book |title=James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8130-4426-2 |editor-last=Quist |editor-first=John W. |editor-last2=Birkner |editor-first2=Michael J.}}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Shelley |date=1988 |title=Fall from Grace: Sex, Scandal, and Corruption in American Politics from 1702 to the Present |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0-345-35381-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Elbert |title=The Presidency of James Buchanan |date=1975 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0132-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stampp |first1=Kenneth M. |title=America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink |date=1990 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-987947-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Robert |title=Worst. President. Ever.: James Buchanan, the POTUS Rating Game, and the Legacy of the Least of the Lesser Presidents |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-4930-2484-1 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |title=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-952-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Robert P. |title=Affairs of State: The Untold History of Presidential Love, Sex, and Scandal, 1789–1900 |date=2012 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-1836-9}}
{{refend}}

== Bacaan lanjutan ==
{{refbegin|35em}}

=== Sumber sekunder ===
* {{cite book |last1=Balcerski |first1=Thomas J. |title=Bosom Friends: The Intimate World of James Buchanan and William Rufus King |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-091460-8}}
* {{cite book |chapter=Harriet Rebecca Lane Johnston |title=A Companion to First Ladies |year=2016 |last1=Balcerski |first1=Thomas J. |pages=197–213 |publisher=Wiley}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Binder |first1=Frederick Moore |title=James Buchanan: Jacksonian Expansionist |journal=The Historian |year=1992 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=69–84}}
* {{cite book |last=Binder |first=Frederick Moore |title=James Buchanan and the American Empire |year=1994 |publisher=Susquehanna University Press |isbn=978-0-945636-64-9}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Birkner |editor-first=Michael J. |title=James Buchanan and the Political Crisis of the 1850s |year=1996 |publisher=Susquehanna University Press}}
* Birkner, Michael J., et al., eds. ''The Worlds of James Buchanan and [[Thaddeus Stevens]]: Place, Personality, and Politics in the Civil War Era'' (Louisiana State University Press, 2019)
* Horrocks, Thomas A. ''President James Buchanan and the Crisis of National Leadership'' (Nova Science Publisher's, Inc., 2011)
* {{cite journal |last1=Meerse |first1=David E. |title=Buchanan, the Patronage, and the Lecompton Constitution: A Case Study |journal=Civil War History |year=1995 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=291–312}}
* {{cite book |last=Nevins |first=Allan |title=The Emergence of Lincoln: Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859 |year=1950 |publisher=Scribner}}
* [[Roy Franklin Nichols|Nichols, Roy Franklin]]; ''The Democratic Machine, 1850–1854'' (1923)
* Quist, John W. sarta Birkner, Michael J., eds. (2013). ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''
* {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=James Ford |title=History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the End of the Roosevelt Administration |volume=2 |year=1906 |publisher=Macmillan}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rosenberger |first1=Homer T. |title=Inauguration of President Buchanan a Century Ago |journal=Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. |year=1957}}
* {{cite book |title=A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861 |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley |editor-last1=Silbey |editor-first1=Joel H.}}
* {{cite book |last=Updike |first=John |title=Buchanan Dying: A Play |year=2013 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group}} (fiksi).
* {{cite book |author=Wells, Damon |chapter=Douglas and Goliath |title=Stephen Douglas |year=1971 |pages=12–54 |publisher=University of Texas Press}}

=== Sumber primér ===
* Buchanan, James. ''Fourth Annual Message to Congress.'' (3 Désémber 1860).
* Buchanan, James. ''[[Mr Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of the Rebellion]]'' (1866)
* ''National Intelligencer'' (1859)
{{refend}}


== Rujukan ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== Tumbu luar ==
{{wikisource|works=or}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons}}
{{EB1911 poster|Buchanan, James}}
* {{CongBio|B001005|ref=none}}
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/buchanan/index.html James Buchanan: Pitunjuk Sumber] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress)
* [https://www2.hsp.org/collections/manuscripts/b/Buchanan0091.html Makalah James Buchanan], ngawengku sakuliah karir hukum, pulitik, sarta diplomasi anjeunna, sayogi di [[Historical Society of Pennsylvania]].
* [https://www.wheatland.org/ Wheatland]
* [https://www.dcnr.pa.gov/StateParks/FindAPark/BuchanansBirthplaceStatePark/Pages/default.aspx Taman Nagara Tempat Gumelar Buchanan, Franklin County, Pennsylvania]
* [http://www.c-span.org/video/?125214-1/life-portrait-james-buchanan &quot;Life Portrait of James Buchanan&quot;], ti [[C-SPAN]], 21 Juni 1999.

'''Sumber primér'''
* {{Gutenberg author |id=1648}}
* {{Librivox author |id=11288}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=James Buchanan}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200809152928/http://www.usa-presidents.info/inaugural/buchanan.html Biantara Pelantikan]
* [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501 Pesen Taunan Kaopat ka Kongrés, 3 Désémber 1860] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912170953/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501 |date=2018-09-12 }}

{{James Buchanan}}
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