Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.14 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 601 711725 697719 2026-08-07T02:38:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711725 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Indonesia infobox}}{{geulis}} '''Républik Indonésia''' ('''RI''') (Aksara Sunda: ᮛᮦᮕᮥᮘᮣᮤᮊ᮪ ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ) nyaéta hiji nagara di [[Asia Tenggara]], nu diliwatan ku gurat [[khatulistiwa]] jeung aya di antara Buana [[Asia]] jeung [[Australia]] sarta antara [[Samudra Pasifik]] jeung [[Samudra Hindia]]. Indonésia mangrupa nagara [[kapuloan]] nu panggedéna sadunya, diwangun ku 13.487 pulo,<ref>[http://nasional.vivanews.com/news/read/260537-indonesia-daftarkan-13-487-pulau-ke-pbb Indonesia Daftarkan 13.487 Pulau ke PBB]{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/1282089150/indonesia-has-completed-surveys-on-its-13-000-islands "Indonesia has completed surveys on its 13,000 islands", ][[Antara|ANTARA News Agency]]<span>, 18 August 2010</span> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318145945/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/1282089150/indonesia-has-completed-surveys-on-its-13-000-islands|date=18 March 2015}}</ref> ku kituna disebut ogé [[Nusantara]] ("pulo luar", Jawa dianggap salaku puseurna).<ref name=Kroef>{{cite journal |title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |author=Justus M. van der Kroef |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=166–171 |year=1951 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |doi=10.2307/595186 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410201834/http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |date=2020-04-10 }}</ref> Kalawan populasi disawang 270 yuta jiwa dina taun 2020,<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite press release |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia |title=Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005–2006 |date=[[1 September]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |format=PDF |language=[[Basa Indonésia]] |accessdate=[[26 September]] [[2006]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927070525/http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |date=2006-09-27 }}</ref> Indonésia minangka nagara nu populasina panglobana kaopat sadunya sarta nagara populasi pangagem [[Islam]] nu panglobana sadunya, sanajan sacara resmi Indonésia lain [[Républik Islam|nagara Islam]]. Wangun pamaréntahan Indonésia nyaéta [[républik]], kalawan [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Indonésia|Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]], [[Déwan Perwakilan Daérah Indonésia|Déwan Perwakilan Daérah]], jeung [[Présidén Indonésia|Présidén]] nu dipilih langsung ku rahayatna. Puseur dayeuh nagara Indonésia nyaéta [[Daérah Husus Ibukota Jakarta|Jakarta]]. Indonésia boga wates wewengkon jeung [[Malaysia]] di [[Pulo Kalimantan]], [[Papua Nugini]] di [[Pulo Papua]], sarta [[Timor Lésté]] di [[Pulo Timor]]. Indonésia mangrupa anggota [[PBB]] sarta sahiji-hijina anggota PBB nu kungsi kaluar ti organisasi éta. Salian éta, Indonésia ogé anggota ti [[ASEAN]], [[APEC]], [[OSI]] jeung [[G-20]]. == Ngaran == {{seealso|Sajarah ngaran Indonésia}} Kecap "Indonésia" asalna ti [[Basa Latin]]<nowiki/> tina kecap ''dus'' nu hartina "Hindia" sarta kecap [[Basa Yunani]] ''nesos'' nu hartina "pulo".<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book |last=Tomascik |first=T |coauthors=Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. |title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |id=ISBN 962-593-078-7}}</ref> Jadi, lamun ditilik sacara harti kecap ''Indonésia'' hartina [[wewengkon]] Hindia kapuloan, atanapi kapuloan nu aya di Hindia, nu nunjukkeun yén ngaran ieu geus aya saméméh Indonésia jadi nagara daulat.<ref name="indoety">{{cite news |last=Anshory |first=Irfan |title=Asal Usul Nama Indonesia |publisher=Pikiran Rakyat |date=[[16 Agustus]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |date=2006-12-15 }}</ref> Dina taun 1850, [[George Earl]], [[étnologi|etnolog]] nu asalna ti nagara Inggris, mimiti ngusulkeun sesebutan ''Indunesia'' jeung ''Malayunesia'' pikeun pangeusi "Kapuloan Hindia atawa Kapuloan Melayu".<ref name="JIAEA_1">{{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=119}}</ref> Murid éarl, [[James Richardson Logan]], maké kecap ''Indonésia'' salaku sinonim ti ''Kapuloan India''.<ref name="JIAEA_3">{{cite journal |last=Logan |first=James Richardson |title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnologyIndian00Loga |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ethnologyIndian00Loga/page/n15 4], 252–347}}; {{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=254, 277–278}}</ref> Tapi, panulisan akademik Walanda di média Hindia-Walanda teu maké kecap ''Indonésia'', tapi ''Kapuloan Melayu'' (''Maleische Archipel''); ''Hindia Wétan Walanda'' (''Nederlandsch Oost Indië''), atawa ''Hindia'' (''Indië''); ''Wétan'' (''de Oost''); sarta ''Insulinde'' (istilah ieu diwanohkeun taun 1860 dina novel ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' (1859), yasana [[Multatuli]], ngeunaan kritik kana kolonialisme Walanda).<ref name=Kroef/> Saprak taun 1900, ngaran Indonésia jadi leuwih ilahar dina lingkungan akademik di luareun [[Walanda]] , sarta golongan nasionalis Indonésia maké kecap éta dina widang pulitik.<ref name=Kroef/> [[Adolf Bastian]] ti [[Universitas Humboldt Bérlin|Universitas Bérlin]] ngawanohkeun ngaran ieu dina buku ''Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894''. Pelajar Indonésia munggaran nu maké ngaran ieu nyaéta [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|Suwardi Suryaningrat]] (Ki Hajar Dewantara), nalika anjeunna ngawangun kantor warta di Walanda nu ngaranna ''Indonesisch Pers Bureau'' dina taun 1913.<ref name="indoety"/> == Sajarah == {{utama|Sajarah Indonésia}} === Sajarah awal === Titinggal fosil-fosil ''[[Homo erectus]]'', nu ku [[Antropologi|antropolog]] ogé dilandi "[[Manusa Jawa]]", mawa pamadegan yén kapuloan Indonésia geus dieusian antara 2 yuta nepi ka 500.000 taun kaliwat.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pope |title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=17 |pages=43–77 |year=1988 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309–312 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=80 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=[[15 Agustus]], [[1983]] |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988 |accessdate= |pmid=6410399 |doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121211948/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988 |date=2008-11-21 }} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=de Vos |first=J.P. |coauthors=P.Y. Sondaar, |title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia |journal=Science Magazine |volume=266 |issue=16 |pages=4, 988–4992 |date=[[9 Desember]] [[1994]] |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.1126/science.7992059 |accessdate= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929225215/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |date=2009-09-29 }} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309 |id=}}</ref>. Bangsa [[Austronésia]], nu ayeuna mangrupa mayoritas pangeusi Indonésia, pindah ka Asia Tenggara ti [[Formosa]]. Maranéhna disawang nepi ka Indonésia dina taun 2000&nbsp;SM, sarta ngabalukarkeun Bangsa [[Mélanésia]] nu geus aya saméméhna kagigirkeun ka wewengkon nu jauh di beulah wétan.<ref>Taylor (2003), kaca 5–7</ref> Kaayaan nu cocog pikeun tatanén ngabalukarkeun geu ayana kaahlian [[Sawah|melak paré]] saprak [[abad ka-8 SM]],<ref> {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/9 8]–9 |id=ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref>. ku kituna ngabalukarkeun ogé ku lobana désa, kota, jeung karajaan-karajaan leutik tumuwuh jeung mekar dina [[abad ka-1]] M. Salian ti éta, Indonésia nu aya di jalur perdagangan laut internasional jeung antar pulo, geus jadi jalur lalayaran antara India jeung Cina dina sababaraha abad.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/16 15]–18 |id=ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref> Sajarah Indonésia saterusna boga loba pangaruh ti kagiatan paniagaan éta.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005), hal. 18–20, 60, 133–134</ref> [[Gambar:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Rélief kapal di Candi [[Borobudur]], <u>+</u>800 M.]] Ti pangaruh agama [[Hindu]] jeung [[Buddha]], sababaraha karajaan ngadeg di pulo [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], jeung [[Jawa]] saprak [[abad ka-4]] nepi ka [[abad ka-14]]. [[Karajaan Kutai|Kutai]], nyaéta karajaan nu pangkolotna di Indonésia nu ngadeg dina abad ka-4 di hulu [[Walungan Mahakam]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]]. Di wewengkon kulon Pulo Jawa, dina abad ka-4 nepi ka ka-7 M aya Karajaan [[Tarumanagara]]. Dina abad ka-7 aya Karajaan Malayu nu puseurna di [[Kota Jambi|Jambi]], Sumatra. [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]] ngéléhkeun Malayu sarta jadi karajaan maritim nu pangkuatna di wewengkon [[Nusantara]]. Wewengkon kakawasaanna ngawengku Sumatra, Jawa, samenanjung Melayu, ogé ngawasaan paniagaan di Selat Malaka, Selat Sunda, sarta Laut Cina Kidul.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), hal. 3</ref> Kadatangan padagang-padagang [[urang Arab|Arab]] jeung [[urang Pérsia|Pérsia]] liwat Gujarat, India, tuluy mawa agama [[Islam]]. [[Samudera Pasai]] nu ngadeg dina taun [[1267]], mangrupa karajaan Islam kahiji di Indonésia. === Panjajahan === Indonésia ogé mangrupa nagara nu kungsi diéréh ku loba nagara. Ieu di handap nyaéta sababaraha nagara nu kungsi ngaéréh atawa ngajajah sakabéh atawa sabagian wewengkon Indonésia. * [[Portugal]] ([[1509]]-[[1595]]) * [[Spanyol]] ([[1521]]-[[1692]]) * [[Walanda]] * [[Perancis]], sacara teu langsung ngawasaan Jawa dina jaman 1806-1811 lantaran Karajaan Walanda taluk ka Prancis. Basa [[Louis Bonaparte]], adina [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], diistrénan di walanda dina taun 1806, ku kituna otomatis jajahan Walanda pindah ka Prancis. périodeu ieu lumangsung dina mangsa pamaréntahan Gubernur Jenderal [[Herman Willem Daendels]] di taun 1808-1811. Dipungkas taun 1811 nalika Inggris ngéléhkeun kakuatan Walanda-Prancis di pulo Jawa. * [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] [[1811]], saprak [[Kapitulasi Tungtang]] ditandatanganan nu salah sahiji eusina nyaéta [[Pulo Jawa]] dibéré ti [[Walanda]] ka [[Britania Raya|Inggris]]. Dina taun [[1814]] dilaksanakeun [[Konvénsi London]] nu eusina pamaréntah [[Walanda]] balik deui nyekel kakawasaan kana wewengkon jajahan [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] di Indonésia. Dina taun [[1816]], pamaréntahan [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] di Indonésia sacara resmi réngsé. * [[Jepang]] [[1942]] nepi ka [[1945]], ku sabab éléhna [[Jepang]] ti pihak sakutu dina [[Perang Dunya II]]. Nalika urang [[éropa]] daratang di mimiti [[abad ka-16]], maranéhna manggih sababaraha karajaan nu gampang diéléhkeun pikeun ngawasaan perdagangan rempah-rempah. Portugis mimiti nepi di 2 palabuan [[Karajaan Sunda]] nyaéta [[Banten]] jeung [[Padrao Sunda Kalapa|Sunda Kalapa]], tapi bisa ditundung jeung teras pindah ka wétan ngawasaan [[Maluku]]. Dina [[abad ka-17]], [[Walanda]] ngéléhkeun [[Britania Raya]] jeung [[Portugal]] (iwal di [[Timor Portugis]]). Disawang mangsa harita ageman [[Kristen]]<nowiki/>kmimiti sumebar dindonésia salaku salah sahiji tujuan imperialisme lawas nu kawanoh salaku ''3G'', nyaéta ''[[Gold, Glory, and Gospel]]'' atanapi "Emas, Kajayaan, jeung Ageman".<ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Louis B. |title=Gold, Glory, and the Gospel: The Adventurous Lives and Times of the Renaissance Explorers |url=https://archive.org/details/goldglorygospel0000unse |publisher=Atheneum |date=1970 |location=New York |pages= |id= }}</ref> Walanda ngawasaan Indonésia salaku wewengkon jajahan nepi ka [[Perang Dunya II]]. KaMimitina [[VOC]], tapi tuluy ku pamaréntah Walanda saprak awal abad ka-19. [[file:Raden Sarief Bastaman Saleh - Johannes Graaf van den Bosch.jpg|left|200px|thumb|[[Johannes van den Bosch]], panaratas ''Cultuurstelsel''.]] Walanda nyieun sistim ''[[Cultuurstelsel]]'' (''Sistem Pamelakan'') dina abad ka-19, nyaéta sistim melak kebon-kebon garedé sarta pelak paksa nu sakabéhna dilaksanakeun di Jawa, nu méré kauntungan pikeun Walanda nu teu bisa dihasilkeun ku VOC. Dina jaman pamaréntahan panjajahan nu leuwih bébas sanggeus [[1870]], sistim ieu dihapus. Sanggeus [[1901]] pihak Walanda ngawanohkeun [[Pulitik étis|Kawijakan étis]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300 |publisher=MacMillan |date =1991 |location=London |pages=151 |url= |doi= |id=ISBN 0-33-579690-X}}</ref> nu ngawengku parobahan pulitik nu tangtu sarta invéstasi nu leuwih gedé di Hindia-Walanda. Dina jaman Perang Dunya II, nalika Walanda dijajah ku [[Jérman]], [[Jepang]] ngawasaan Indonésia. Indonésia dieréh deui dina taun [[1942]], Jepang nempo yén para pajuang Indonésia mangrupa batur paniagaan nu kooperatif jeung bisa milu jadi prajurit lamun dibutuhkeun. [[Sukarno]], [[Mohammad Hatta]], [[Mas Mansur, Kiai Haji|KH. Mas Mansur]], jeung [[Ki Hajar Dewantara]] dibéré pangajén ku [[Hirohito|Kaisar Jepang]] dina taun [[1943]]. === Indonésia merdika === {{seealso|Agrési Militér Walanda I|Agrési Militér Walanda II}} [[file:Presiden Sukarno.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Sukarno]], présidén kahiji Indonésia.]] Dina Maret [[1945]], Jepang ngawangun hiji komite pikeun kamerdikaan Indonésia. Sanggeus [[Perang Pasifik]] bérés dina taun 1945, dina tekenan organisasi nonoman, Soekarno-Hatta [[Proklamasi Kamerdikaan Indonésia|ngadéklarasikeun]] kamerdikaan Indonésia dina [[17 Agustus]] [[1945]]. [[Sukarno]] jadi [[Présidén Indonésia]], sarta [[Mohammad Hatta]] jadi [[Wakil Présidén Indonésia]]. Dina usaha ngawasaan deui Indonésia, Walanda ngirimkeun pasukanna. Usaha-usaha ngalawan pergerakan kamerdikaan Indonésia ieu tuluy dipikawanoh ku Walanda salaku 'aksi kapulisian' (''Politionele Actie''), atanapi ku Indonésia dipikawanoh minangka 'Agrési Militér'.<ref>{{cite book |last=ZWEERS |first=L. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Agressi II: Operatie Kraai. De vergeten beelden van de tweede politionele actie |publisher=SDU uitgevers |date=1995 |location=[[Den Haag]] |pages= |url= |doi= |id= }}</ref> Walanda ahirna ngaku kamerdikaan Indonésia dina [[27 Désémber]] [[1949]] salaku nagara [[féderal]] nu disebut [[Républik Indonésia Sarikat]] sanggeus aya tekenan ti kalangan internasional, utamana [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Mosi Integral [[Natsir]] dina 17 Agustus 1950, ngahudangkeun balikna Negara Kesatuan Républik Indonésia sarta ngabubarkeun Républik Indonésia Sarikat. Dina jaman 1950-an jeung 1960-an, pamaréntahan Sukarno milu sakaligus naratas [[gerakan non-blok]] awalna, tapi tujuanna sangkan leuwih deukeut jeung blok [[sosialisme|sosialis]], saperti [[Républik Rahayat Cina]] jeung [[Yugoslavia]]. Taun 1960-an minangka saksi ayana konfrontasi militér jeung [[Malaysia]] ("''[[Konfrontasi Indonésia-Malaysia|Konfrontasi]]''"),<ref>van der Bijl, Nick. ''Confrontation, The War with Indonesia 1962—1966'', (London, 2007) ISBN 978-1-84415-595-8</ref> sarta kateupuasan kana héséna ékonomi. Salajuna dina 1965 aya kajadian [[G30S]] nu nyababkeun maotna 6 [[jendral]] sarta sababaraha [[perwira]] tengah lianna. Kaluar kakuatan anyar nu dilandi ''[[Orde Baru]]'' (Ordeu Anyar) nu nuduh [[Partéy Komunis Indonésia]] salaku dalang kajadian jeung boga maksud ngaléngsérkeun pamaréntahan nu keur aya sarta ngarobah dasar nagara kana paham [[sosialisme|sosialis]]-[[komunisme|komunis]]. Tuduhan ieu sakaligus dijadikeun alesan pikeun ngaganti pamaréntahan saméméhna dina paréntah Sukarno kana pamaréntahan nu anyar. Jendral [[Soeharto]] jadi Présidén Indonésia dina taun [[1967]] maké alesan pikeun ngamankeun nagara tina bahya [[komunisme]]. Ratusan rébu warga Indonésia nu dianggap milu pihak komunis ditelasan, samentara loba warga Indonésia nu keur aya di luar negri, teu wanieun mulih ka Indonésia, sarta teras dicabut [[kawarganagaraan]]na. Jaman kakawasaan Soeharto dilandi [[Orde Énggal]] sarta jaman pamaréntahan Sukarno disebut [[Orde Lawas]]. Soeharto ngagunakeun ékonomi [[néoliberalisme|néoliberal]] sarta hasil ngadatangkeun raloba [[invéstasi]] luar negri asup ka Indonésia sarta ngahasilkeun pamekaran ékonomi nu gedé, sanajan teu rata. Dina awal rézim Orde Énggal, kawijakan ékomomi Indonésia disusun ku sababaraha urang [[ékonom]] lulusan [[Universitas California, Berkeley]], nu dilandi "[[Mafia Berkeley]]".<ref>Wibowo, Sigit, Sjarifuddin. ''[http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0606/05/sh02.html Ekonomi Indonesia Gagal karena Mafia Berkeley] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616191928/http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0606/05/sh02.html |date=2008-06-16 }}'', Harian Umum Sore Sinar Harapan. Copyright © Sinar Harapan 2003. Diaksés: Salasa, 6 Agustus 2008.</ref> Soeharto ahirna dipaksa léngsér ti jabatanna ku aksi [[démonstrasi]] sarta kaayaan ékonomi nagara nu goréng dina taun [[1998]]. Sanggeus léngsérna Suharto, saprak 1998 nepi ka 2001, Indonésia miboga tilu [[Présidén Indonésia|présidén]]: [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]], [[Abdurrahman Wahid]], sareng [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]. Dina taun [[2004]], diayakeun [[pamilihan umum Indonésia|pamilihan umum]] hiji poé nu panggedéna sadunya<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Laporan dari [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Center Carter Center] |pages=30 |year=2004 |title=The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=[[29 Juli]] [[2008]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614025148/http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |date=2007-06-14 }}</ref> sarta [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] kapilih salaku présidén. Sawatara wengkon Indonésia ngusahakeun pikeun misahkeun manéh, saperti [[Organisasi Papua Merdika|Papua Kulon]] jeung [[Républik Maluku Kidul|Maluku Kidul]]. [[Timor Wétan]] resmi misah ti Indonésia dina taun [[1999]] sanggeus 3 taun dina administrasi [[PBB]], jadi nagara [[Timor Lésté]]. Dina Désémber [[2004]] jeung Maret [[2005]], di wewengkon [[Acéh]] sarta [[Pulo Nias|Nias]] ngalaman [[lini]] nu nelasan rébuan jiwa. (Tingali ''[[Lini Samudra Hindia 2004]]'' jeung ''[[Lini Sumatra Maret 2005]]''.) Kajadian ieu disusul ku [[Lini Yogyakarta Méi 2006|lini di Yogyakarta]] jeung [[Lini Jawa Juli 2006|sunami]] di wewengkon [[Basisir Pangandaran]] dina taun [[2006]], sarta [[Caah leutak panas Sidoarjo 2006|caah leutak]] di [[Sidoarjo]] saprak taun 2006. == Pulitik jeung pamaréntahan== {{utama|Pulitik Indonésia}} [[File:MPRDPRBuilding.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Gedong MPR-DPR Indonésia]] [[File:IstanaMerdekaFront.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Istana Merdeka''', bagian ti Istana Kaprésidénan Jakarta.]] Indonésia miboga pamaréntahan [[républik]] [[démokrasi]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] multipartéy. Sistim pulitik Indonésia didasarkeun kana [[Pamisahan kakawasaan|Trias Politika]]: [[législatif]], [[éksekutif]], jeung [[yudikatif]]. Kakawasaan législatif dibogaan ku [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat Indonésia|Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat]] (MPR). MPR Indonésia pernah jadi [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat Indonésia#Posisi|lembaga nagara pangluhurna]] sarta mangrupa [[sistim hiji kamar|hiji kamar (unikameral)]], tapi sanggeus [[Améndemén Ka-4 Undang-Undang Dasar Indonésia|améndmén ka-4 UUD Indonésia]] MPR sanés lembaga nu pangluhurna deui, sarta komposisi kaanggotaanna ogé robah. Saprak [[2004]], MPR miboga [[sistim dua kamar|sistim parlemén dua kamar (bikameral)]] nu disusun ku 560 anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Indonésia]] (DPR) nu pajabatna ti jalur [[partéy pulitik di Indonésia|partéy pulitik]], sarta ditambih ku 132 anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Daérah Indonésia]] (DPD) nu minangka wakil propinsi ti jalur [[indepénden]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.bappenas.go.id/get-file-server/node/88/ | title = Perubahan Ketiga Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 | language = Indonesia | format = pdf | accessdate = 2011-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118195924/http://www.bappenas.go.id/get-file-server/node/88/ |date=2012-01-18 }}</ref> Anggota DPR jeung DPD dipilih langsung ku rahayat dina [[pamilihan umum di Indonésia|pamilihan umum législatif]] sarta diangkat pikeun masa jabatan lima taun. Lembaga éksekutif museur kana [[présién Indonésia|présidén]], [[wakil présidén Indonésia|wakil présidén]], jeung [[kabinet Indonésia|kabinét]]. Kabinét di Indonésia mangrupa kabinét présidénsial jadina mentri mibanda tanggung jawab ka présidén. Lembaga yudikatif dilaksanakeun ku [[Mahkamah Agung Indonésia|Mahkamah Agung]], [[Komisi Yudisial Indonésia|Komisi Yudisial]], jeung [[Mahkamah Konstitusi Indonésia|Mahkamah Konstitusi]]. Tapi [[Kamentrian Hukum jeung Hak Asasi Manusa Indonésia|Kamentrian Hukum jeung Hak Asasi Manusa]] tetep aya. == Babagian administratif == {{Utama|Propinsi di Indonésia|Kabupatén di Indonésia|Kotamadya di Indonésia|Kacamatan di Indonésia}} Indonésia ayeuna miboga 38 [[propinsi]], 5 propinsi miboga status husus. Propinsi dibagi kana [[kabupatén di Indonésia|kabupatén]] jeung [[kotamadya di Indonésia|kotamadya]] nu dibagi deui kana [[kacamatan di Indonésia|kacamatan]]. Babagian administratifna lanjut deui nepi ka bagian nu pangleutikna nyaéta Rukun Tatangga (RT) nu mangrupa daérah tingkat ka-6. Unggal propinsi miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Propinsi di Indonésia|DPRD Propinsi]] salaku badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[gubernur]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Unggal kabupatén miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Kabupatén di Indonésia|DPRD Kabupatén]] salakeun badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[bupati]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Unggal kotamadya miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Kotamadya di Indonésia|DPRD Kotamadya]] salaku badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[walikota]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Sadayana, dipilih langsung ku rahayat langku pamilihan umum. Tapi di Jakarta (Wewengkon Husus Ibu Kota Jakarta) euweuh DPRD Kabupatén atanpai Kotamadya, ku sabab Kabupatén Administrasi jeung Kota Administrasi di Jakarta sanés wewengkon otonom.<ref>[http://www.kemendagri.go.id/pages/profil-daerah/kabupaten/id/31/name/dki-jakarta/detail/3172/kota-adm-jakarta-utara ''Kabupaten - Kementerian Dalam Negeri - Republik Indonesia'' Diaksés 4 Pébruari 2013 (UTC+7)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306004821/http://www.kemendagri.go.id/pages/profil-daerah/kabupaten/id/31/name/dki-jakarta/detail/3172/kota-adm-jakarta-utara |date=2016-03-06 }}</ref> Propinsi [[Acéh]], [[Daérah Husus Yogyakarta]], [[Papua Kulon]], jeung [[Papua]] miboga hak husus sarta tingkat otonomi nu leuwih luhur ti propinsi nu lian. Misalna, Acéh boga hak pikeun nagntukeun sistim hukumna sorangan; dina taun 2003, Acéh mimiti maké hukum [[Syariah]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michelle Ann Miller |title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism? |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |year=2004 |pages=333–351 |doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521082956/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |date=2015-05-21 }}</ref> Yogyakarta miboga status daérah husus salaku pangakuan kana pentingna Yogyakarta dina ngarojong Indonésia nalika Révolusi.<ref>[[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (1999). Bab XIV Other Provisions, Pasal 122; {{PDFlink|[http://id.wikisource.org/wiki/Undang-Undang_Republik_Indonesia_Nomor_5_Tahun_1974 Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 5 Tahun 1974 tentang Pokok-Pokok Pemerintahan di Daerah]|146&nbsp;}}. [[Présidén Indonésia]] (1974). Bab VII Aturan Peralihan, Pasal 91</ref> [[Propinsi Papua]] (baheulana disebut Irian Jaya), miboga status otonomi husus taun 2001.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dursin |first=Richel |coauthors=Kafil Yamin |title=Another Fine Mess in Papua |work=Editorial |pages= |language= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060115090759/http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |date=2006-01-15 }}; {{cite news |title=Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060115090759/http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |date=2006-01-15 }}</ref> [[DKI Jakarta]] mangrupa wewengkon husus ibu kota nagara. [[Timor Portugis]] digabungkeun ka wewengkon Indonésia minangka propinsi [[Timor Wétan]] dina 1979–1999, nu teras misahkeun manéh liwat réferéndum jadi nagara merdika, [[Timor Lésté]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Burr |first=W. |coauthors=Evans, M.L. |title=Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto |work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62 |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Archive National Security Archieve], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_University Universitas George Washington], [[Washington, D.C.]] |date=2001-12-06 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |accessdate=2006-09-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822171438/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |date=2011-08-22 }}</ref> ==Propinsi== {{Peta Indonesia}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} '''Pulo [[Sumatra]]''' * [[Acéh]] - [[Kota Banda Acéh|Banda Acéh]] * [[Langsa]] - [[Kota Langsa|Kotua Langsa]] * [[Sumatra Kalér]] - [[Kota Médan|Médan]] * [[Sumatra Kulon]] - [[Kota Padang|Padang]] * [[Riau]] - [[Kota Pekanbaru|Pekanbaru]] * [[Kapuloan Riau]] - [[Kota Tanjungpinang|Tanjungpinang]] * [[Jambi]] - [[Kota Jambi|Jambi]] * [[Sumatra Kidul]] - [[Kota Palembang|Palembang]] * [[Kapuloan Bangka Belitung]] - [[Kota Pangkal Pinang|Pangkal Pinang]] * [[Bengkulu]] - [[Kota Bengkulu|Bengkulu]] * [[Lampung]] - [[Kota Bandar Lampung|Bandar Lampung]] '''Pulo [[Jawa]]''' * [[Daérah Husus Ibukota Jakarta]] * [[Banten]] - [[Kota Sérang|Sérang]] * [[Jawa Kulon]] - [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]] * [[Jawa Tengah]] - [[Kota Semarang|Semarang]] * [[Yogyakarta|Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta]] - [[Kota Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] * [[Jawa Wétan]] - [[Kota Surabaya|Surabaya]] '''Kapuloan [[Sunda Alit]]''' * [[Bali]] - [[Kota Denpasar|Denpasar]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Kulon]] - [[Kota Mataram|Mataram]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Wétan]] - [[Kota Kupang|Kupang]] {{col-break}} '''Pulo [[Kalimantan]]''' * [[Kalimantan Kulon]] - [[Kota Pontianak|Pontianak]] * [[Kalimantan Tengah]] - [[Kota Palangka Raya|Palangka Raya]] * [[Kalimantan Kidul]] - [[Kota Banjarmasin|Banjarmasin]] * [[Kalimantan Wétan]] - [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] * [[Kalimantan Kalér]] - [[Tanjung Selor]] '''Pulo [[Sulawesi]]''' * [[Sulawesi Kalér]] - [[Kota Manado|Manado]] * [[Gorontalo]] - [[Kota Gorontalo|Gorontalo]] * [[Sulawesi Tengah]] - [[Kota Palu|Palu]] * [[Sulawesi Kulon]] - [[Kota Mamuju|Mamuju]] * [[Sulawesi Kidul]] - [[Kota Makassar|Makassar]] * [[Sulawesi Tenggara]] - [[Kota Kendari|Kendari]] '''Kapuloan [[Maluku]]''' * [[Maluku]] - [[Kota Ambon|Ambon]] * [[Maluku Kalér]] - [[Sofifi]] '''Pulo [[Papua]]''' * [[Papua Kulon]] - [[Kota Manokwari|Manokwari]] * [[Papua]] - [[Kota Jayapura|Jayapura]] {{col-end}} == Géografi == {{utama|Géografi Indonésia}} [[file:Waterfall Madakaripura B.JPG|150px|thumb|right|[[Curug Madakaripura]] di [[Taman Nasional Bromo-Tengger-Semeru]], [[Lumbang, Probolinggo|Lumbang]], [[Kabupatén Probolinggo|Probolinggo]], [[Jawa Wétan]].]] Indonésia mangrupa [[nagara kapuloan]] di [[Asia Tenggara]]<ref>{{cite book | first=Harm | last=Dotinga | coauthors=Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea | title=International organizations and the law of the sea: documentary yearbook, Vol 14 |pages=960 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | year=2000 | isbn=9041113452, 9789041113450}}</ref> nu miboga 17.504 pulo, kalawan kirang-langkung 6.000 pulo heunteu dieusian<ref name="Indonesia Regions">{{cite press release |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=536&S=PPPWGT-PPPPC&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0&x=45&y=5 Estimate |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |title=World Economic Outlook Database |month=April |year=2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501013111/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005 |date=2018-05-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first =Hendriawan | title =Indonesia Regions | publisher =Indonesia Business Directory | url =http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | accessdate =2007-04-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051228011848/http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ |date=2005-12-28 }}</ref>, nu nyebar di wewengkon [[khatulistiwa]], kira-kira ti 95°BW - 141°45'BW sarta aya di antara 2 buana nyaéta [[Asia]] jeung [[Australia (buana)|Australia]]/[[Oséania]]. == Atikan == {{utama|Atikan di Indonésia}} Dumasar kana undang-undang di Indonésia, pamaréntah puseur jeung daérah miboga anggaran atikan 20% ti anggaran nagara jeung anggaran daérah salian ti upah guru jeung biaya kadinasan. Tapi dina taun [[2007]], dana nu disadiakeun karak 17,2 %<ref>World Bank, (2008), ''Spending for development: making the most of Indonesia's new opportunities : Indonesia public expenditure review'', World Bank Publications, ISBN 978-0-8213-7320-0</ref>. == Ékonomi == {{utama|Ékonomi Indonésia}} [[file:PDRB per kapita Indonesia 2008.svg|450px|thumb|left|Peta nu némbongkeun Produk Doméstik Régional Bruto (PDRB) per kapita propinsi-propinsi di Indonésia dina taun 2008. {| style="width:100%;" |- | valign=top | {{legend|#441650|Langkung ti Rp 100 yuta}} {{legend|#006680|Rp 50 yuta ++ - Rp 100 yuta}} {{legend|#217867|Rp 40 yuta ++ - Rp 50 yuta}} {{legend|#2ca089|Rp 30 yuta ++ - Rp 40 yuta}} | valign=top | {{legend|#37c8ab|Rp 20 yuta ++ - Rp 30 yuta}} {{legend|#aaeeff|Rp 10 yuta ++ - Rp 20 yuta}} {{legend|#d7eef4|Rp 5 yuta ++ - Rp 10 yuta}} {{legend|#dbdee3|Kirang ti Rp 5 yuta}} |}]] Sistim ékonomi Indonésia awalna dirojong ku ayana ''[[Oeang Repoeblik Indonesia|Oeang Repoeblik Indonesia (ORI)]]'' minangka mata uang kahiji Indonésia, nu sanggeusna ganti jadi [[Rupiah]]. Dina jaman pamaréntahan [[Orde Lawas]], Indonésia heunteu sapinuhna ngagunakeun sistim ékonomi kapitalisme, tapi dicampurkeun jeung sistim nasionalisme ékonomi. Pamaréntah nu masih anyar, raloba milu kana produksi nu boga pangaruh ka masarakat, ditambah ku kaayaan pulitik, nyababkeun ayana kateustabilan ékonomi nagara.<ref name="SCHWARZ">Schwarz, A. (1994). ''A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s''. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2, halaman 52–57.</ref> [[file:Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) banknotes2009.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Uang [[Rupiah]].]] Pamaréntahan Orde Énggal geura maké disiplin ékonomi pikeun neken [[inflasi]], stabilisasi mata uang, pangaturan [[tambut luar nagri]], sarta ngondang investasi asing.<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> Dina jaman [[1970-an]], harga [[minyak bumi]] nu naék nyababkeun naékna angka ékspor sarta tingkat tumbuh ékonomi rarata nu luhur saloba 7% antara taun 1968 nepi ka 1981.<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> Parobahan ékonomi salajengna dina jaman 1980-an, saperti dérégulasi kauangan jeung déflasi,<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> teras ngalirkeun invéstasi asing ka Indonésia hususna dina industri-industri nu ngarah ka ékspor antara 1989 nepi ka 1997<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Country Brief |work=Indonesia:Key Development Data & Statistics |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |month=September |year=2006 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |format= |doi= |accessdate= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101135702/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |date=2012-11-01 }}</ref> Ékonomi Indonésia ngalaman kamunduran dina ahir [[1990-an]] ku sabab [[krisis finansial Asia|krisis ékonomi]] di raloba wewengkon [[Asia]] keur éta,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them |journal=[[The Economist]] |date=2006-09-14 |accessdate=2006-12-26 |url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7925064 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128215856/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp |date=2006-11-28 }}</ref> nu dibarengan ku réngséna pamaréntahan Orde Énggal sarta mundurna Soeharto salaku présidén dina 21 Méi 1998. Pertumbuhan [[PDB|PDB Indonésia]] dina 2004 jeung 2005 leuwih ti 5%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Forecast |work=Country Briefings |publisher=[[The Economist]] |date=2006-10-03 |url=http://www.economist.com/countries/Indonesia/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast |accessdate= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804014414/http://www.economist.com/countries/Indonesia/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast |date=2008-08-04 }}</ref> Tapi, akibatna heunteu boga pangaruh loba dina tingkat pangangguran, nyaéta 9,75%.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia |title=Beberapa Indikator Penting Mengenai Indonesia |date=2008-12-02 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf |format=PDF |language=[[Basa Indonésia]] |accessdate=2008-03-18 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080401200753/http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf |date=2008-04-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| author=Ridwan Max Sijabat| title=Unemployment still blighting the Indonesian landscape| publisher=[[The Jakarta Post]]| date=2007-23-03| url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501081947/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp |date=2007-05-01 }}</ref> Perkiraan taun 2006, 17,8% masarakat hirup di handapeun [[gurat kamiskinan]], sarta aya 49,0% masarakat hirup kalawan panghasilan kirang ti AS$ 2 sapoé.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Making the New Indonesia Work for the Poor - Overview |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |year=2006 |accessdate=[[26 Desember]] [[2006]] |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf |format=PDF }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817013648/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf |date=2008-08-17 }}</ref> === Sumber daya alam === Indonésia miboga raloba [[sumber daya alam]] saperti [[minyak bumi]], [[timah]], [[gas alam]], [[nikel]], [[kai]], [[bauksit]], [[taneuh subur]], [[batu bara]], [[emas]], jeung [[pérak]] kalawan babagian lemah [[tatanén]] 10%, [[perkebonan]] 7%, [[tegalan]] 7%, [[leuweung]] 62%, sarta lianna 14% kalawan wewengkon [[irigasi]] 45.970&nbsp;km²<ref name="Indonesia: environment and development">{{cite book | first= | last=World Bank | coauthors= | title=A World Bank country study Country Studies: Indonesia: environment and development | publisher=World Bank Publications | year=1994 | isbn=0821329502, 9780821329504}}</ref> Hasil tatanén nu utama saperti [[béas]], [[entéh]], [[kopi]], [[rempah-rempah]], jeung [[karét]].<ref name='indoCIA'/> Widang [[jasa]] mangrupa panyumbang PDB nu panggedéna, nyaéta 45,3% dina PDB 2005. [[Industri]] 40,7%, sareng [[tatanén]] 14,0%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Statistics and its Development in Indonesia |work=Sub Committee on Statistics: First Session 18–20 February, 2004 |publisher=Economic and Social Commission for Asia & the Pacific |page=19 |format=PDF |url=http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929225211/http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf |date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> Sanajan kitu, widang tatanén miboga pagawé nu leuwih loba ti widan séjénna, nyaéta 44,3% ti 95 yuta jiwa. Widang jasa 36,9%, sarta widang industri 18,8%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia at a Glance |work=Indonesia Development Indicators and Data |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |date=2006-08-13 |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/idn_aag.pdf |format=PDF }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223050110/http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/IDN_aag.pdf |date=2009-12-23 }}</ref> Sanajan kitu, lembaga [[Transparency International]] nempatkeun Indonésia di paringkat ka-143 ti 180 nagara dina [[Indéks Persépsi Korupsi]] taun 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title =[[Indeks Persepsi Korupsi]] |publisher =[[Transparency International]] |year =2007 |url =http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |accessdate =2007-09-28 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080428203145/http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |date=2008-04-28 }}</ref> == Démografi == {{utama|Démografi Indonésia}} [[file:Kepadatan 2010.JPG|thumb|250px|Kapadetan populasi Indonésia dumasar kana Sénsus 2010]] Dumasar kana sénsus populasi taun 2000, Indonésia miboga kirang-langkungna 206 yuta jiwa,<ref name='bps2000'>{{cite press release |title=2000 Population Statistics |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |date=30 Juni 2000 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090725055302/http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |date=2009-07-25 }}</ref> sarta diperkirakeun taun 2006 miboga 222 yuta jiwa.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> 130 yuta (leuwih ti 50%) ngeusian [[Pulo Jawa]] nu mangrupa pulo nu panglobana pangeusina sakaligus pulo tempatna ibu kota [[Jakarta]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Calder |first=Joshua |title=Most Populous Islands |publisher=World Island Information |date=2006-05-03 |url=http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |accessdate=2006-09-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060814170852/http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |date=2006-08-14 }}</ref> Kalobaannana urang Indonésia mangrupa [[Austronésia|Urang Austronésia]], sarta aya ogé kelompok urang [[Mélanésia]], [[Polinésia]], jeung [[Mikronésia]] utamina di Indonésia beulah wétan. Aya ogé urang nu asalna ti luar nagri saperti étnis [[Tionghoa]], [[urang India|India]], jeung [[urang Arab|Arab]]. Indonésia miboga kira-kira 4 yuta populasi urang Tionghoa.<ref name="eiu">{{cite paper |title=Country Profile 2008: Indonesia |pages= |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit Economist Intelligence Unit] |date=16 Mei 2008 |doi= |url=http://portal.eiu.com/report_dl.asp?issue_id=1973383782&mode=pdf |format=pdf |id= |accessdate=2008-07-31 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129085351/https://portal.eiu.com/Login.aspx?c=1 |date=2021-01-29 }}</ref> ==Ageman== {{utama|Agama di Indonésia}} [[Islam]] mangrupa [[agama]] mayoritas nu pangagemna saloba kira-kira 85,2% urang Indonésia, nu nyababkeun Indonésia salaku nagara kalawan populasi muslim nu panglobana sadunya.<ref name='indoCIA'>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|title=Indonesia - The World Factbook}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210041527/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> Umat lian saperti [[Protéstan|Kristen Protéstan]] (8,9%), [[Katolik|Kristen Katolik]] (3%), [[Hindu]] (1,8%), [[Buddha]] (0,8%), jeung sajabana (0,3%). Pamaréntah Indonésia ogé sacara resmi ngakuan [[agama Konghucu]].<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Heriyanto |title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia |journal=Religion |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=8 |month=August |year=2005 |url=http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-10-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060910063300/http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |date=2006-09-10 }}</ref> ==Basa== {{utama|Basa di Indonésia}} Indonésia miboga [[basa Indonésia]] salaku basa kahijian jeung [[basa nasional]]. Indonésia ogé kaasup salah sahiji nagara kareng basa panglobana di dunya.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_map.asp?name=World&seq=10 Ethnologue Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113015058/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_map.asp?name=World&seq=10 |date=2013-01-13 }}</ref> laloba basa, miboga rébuan panyatur tapi kaayaanna kaancam ku sabab generasi ngorana teu nyaturkeunna deui, sarta para panyatur pindah ka basa nasional.<ref name="endanger">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language Endangered language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205000731/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language |date=2013-02-05 }}</ref> == Kabudayaan == {{utama|Budaya Indonésia}} === Péntas === [[file:WayangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Wayang|Wayang kulit]].]] Indonésia miboga kira-kira 300 kelompok étnis nu boga rupa-rupa warisan budaya nu mekar sairing jaman, nu ogé dipangaruhan ku kabudayaan India, Arab, Cina, Éropa, sarta kaasup ogé budaya sorangan, [[Melayu]]. Saperti kasenian [[wayang]] ti wewengkon [[Jawa]] jeung [[Bali]] nu midangkeun carita-carita mitologi Hindu kawas [[Ramayana]] jeung [[Baratayuda]], ogé carita-carita adaptasi kaayaan modéren. Aya ogé kasenian tarian contona ti [[Sumatra]] saperti tari [[Tari Ratéb Meuseukat|Ratéb Meuseukat]] jeung tari [[Tari Seudati|Seudati]] ti [[Acéh]]. Aya ogé seni [[sisindiran]], [[gurindam]], jeung sajabana ti raloba wewengkon misalna Melayu. === Busana === {{utama|Daptar busana daérah Indonésia}} [[file:Aesan Gede Songket Palembang.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Mojang [[Urang Palémbang|Palémbang]] keur maké [[songkét]], salah sahiji busana tradisional Indonésia.]] Salah sahiji budaya pakéan ti Indonésia nyaéta [[batik]]. Sababaraha wewengkon nu katelah ti industri batikna saperti [[Yogyakarta]], [[Kota Surakarta|Surakarta]], [[Cirebon]], [[Pandeglang]], [[Garut]], [[Kabupatén Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]], jeung [[Kabupatén Pekalongan|Pekalongan]]. Busana lian ti wewengkon Indonésia saperti [[baju kurung]] jeung [[songkét]]na ti [[Sumatra Kulon]] ([[Minangkabau]]), kaén [[ulos]] ti [[Sumatra Kalér]] ([[Batak]]), [[kabaya]], [[baju bodo]] ti [[Sulawesi Kidul]], [[koteka]] ti [[Papua]], jeung sajabana. === Olahraga === {{utama|Olahraga Indonésia}} [[file:Badminton Beijing 2008 Lu Lan vs Yulianti.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Maria Kristin Yulianti]] (beureum), nu meunang medali perunggu dina [[Olimpiade Usum Panas Beijing 2008]].]] Olahraga nu populér di Indonésia utamina [[badminton]] jeung [[maén bal]]. Olahraga tradisional saperti [[takraw]] jeung [[karapan sapi]]. Pasanggiri adu tempur contona ''caci'' di [[Florés]], sarta ''[[pasola]]'' di [[Sumba]]. Olahraga béla diri nu populér di Indonésia misalna saperti [[pencak silat]]. === Musik === {{utama|Musik Indonésia}} Raloba wewengkon Indonésia miboga [[musik tradisional]]na sorangan. Aya ogé musik tradisional campuran saperti [[keroncong]] nu dipangaruhan ku [[Portugal|Portugis]] di wewengkon [[Kampung Tugu|Tugu]], [[Jakarta]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |title=Kampung Tugu, Menyimpan Kenangan Sejarah |work=Kompas |date=28 April 2004 |accessdate=2008-08-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211203446/http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |date=2008-12-11 }}</ref>. Msik Indonésia lianna saperti [[dangdut]] nyaéta musik aliran Melayu modéren nu dipangaruhan ku musik India. [[file:Traditional indonesian instruments02.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Degung]]/Gamelan]] [[daptar alat musik Indonésia|Alat musik tradisional Indonésia]] di antarana: {{Col|2}} * [[Angklung]] * Bendé * [[Calung]] * [[Degung]]/[[Gamelan]] * Gandang Tabuik * Gendang Bali * Gondang Batak * Gong Kemada * Gong Lambus * Jidor * [[Tembang Cianjuran|Kacapi Suling]] * Kulcapi Batak * Kendang Jawa * Kenong * [[Kulintang]] * [[Rebab]] * [[Rebana]] * [[Saluang]] * [[Saron]] * [[Sasando]] * [[Serunai]] * Seurune Kale * Suling Lembang * Sulim Batak * Suling Sunda * [[Talempong]] * Tanggetong * Tifa, dan sebagainya </div> === Kulinér === {{utama|Masakan Indonésia}} [[file:SOTO FOOD.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Soto]].]] [[Sangu]] mangrupa kadaharan utama di lolobana wewengkon Indonésia. [[Sambel]], [[saté]], [[baso]], [[soto]], jeung [[sangu goréng]] nyaéta sababaraha contoh kadaharan masarakat Indonésia.<ref>http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/eat/40-foods-indonesians-cant-live-without-327106 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025194254/http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/eat/40-foods-indonesians-cant-live-without-327106 |date=2011-10-25 }} 40 of Indonesia's best dishes. Diaksés 5 Désémber 2011.</ref> === Sinema === {{utama|Perpileman Indonésia}} [[file:Tjoet Nja' Dhien.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Poster pilem ''[[Tjoet Nja' Dhien]]'' (1988), pilem ngeunaan pahlawan nasional Indonésia ti Acéh.]] Pilem kahiji nu diproduksi di nusantara nyaéta pilem taun [[1926]] kalawan judul ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'' nu dijieun ku sutradara Walanda, G. Kruger jeung L. Heuveldorp, dina jaman [[Hindia Walanda]]. Pilem ieu dijieun ku Pausahaan Pilem Jawa NV di [[Bandung]] sarta diputer kahiji kalina dina 31 Désémber [[1926]] di téater Elite and Majestic, [[Bandung]]. Popularitas industri pilem Indonésia muncak dina jaman 1980-an sarta diputer di raloba bioskop di Indonésia,<ref name="kompasmovies">{{cite news |last=Kristianto |first=JB |title=Sepuluh Tahun Terakhir Perfilman Indonesia |publisher=Kompas |date=2 Juli 2005 |url=http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113052204/http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |date=2008-01-13 }}</ref>. Antawis 2000 nepi ka 2005, jumlah pilem Indonésia nu dirilis unggal taunna teras ningkatan.<ref name="kompasmovies"/> Pilem ''[[Laskar Pelangi]]'' (2008) mangrupa pilem kalawan pamasukan anu panglobana sapanjang sajarah pilem di Indonésia nepi ka danget ieu. === Kasusastraan === {{utama|Sastra Indonésia}} Figur penting dina sastra modéren Indonésia saperti panulis Walanda [[Douwes Dekker|Multatuli]] nu méré kritikan kana kalakuan Walanda ka Indonésia dina jaman panjajahan Walanda; [[Muhammad Yamin]] jeung [[Hamka]] nu mangrupa panulis sarta pulitisi pra-kamerdikaan;<ref>Taylor (2003), halaman 299–301</ref> sarta [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], panulis novel Indonésia nu kakoncara salah sahijina nyaéta nulis novel Bumi Manusia.<ref>Vickers (2005) halaman 3 to 7; Friend (2003), halaman 74, 180</ref> Salah sahiji conto panulis puisi Indonésia misalna [[Chairil Anwar]]. Raloba urang Indonésia miboga [[tradisi lisan]] nu kiat, nu ngarojong dina nerangkeun sarta ngamumulé kaayaan budayana.<ref name="UNESCO Jakarta, Indonesia">{{cite web|last= Czermak|first= Karen|authorlink= |coauthors= Philippe DeLanghe, Wei Weng|title= "Preserving Intangible Cultural Heritage in Indonesia"|publisher= SIL International|url= http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|format= PDF|accessdate= 2007-07-04}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194435/http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf |date=2007-07-09 }}</ref> == Lingkungan hirup == {{utama|Flora Indonésia|Fauna Indonésia}} [[file:Rafflesia sumatra.jpg|thumb|150px|left|''[[Rafflesia arnoldii]]'' kembang nu panggedéna sadunya.]] [[file:Varanus komodoensis6.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Komodo]], sato réptil langka ti wewengkon [[Nusa Tenggara]].]] Wewengkon Indonésia miboga rupa-rupa mahluk hirup. Ku kituna sababaraha sumber nyebatkeun yén wewengkon lingkungan Indonésia mangrupa "''Mega biodiversity''" atanapi "anéka rupa mahluk hirup nu loba"<ref>http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311011452/http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker |date=2009-03-11 }} http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311011452/http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker |date=2009-03-11 }}</ref><ref>http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311005957/http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html |date=2009-03-11 }} Dunia Sebut Indonesia Mega Biodiversity</ref>. Rupa-rupa mahluk hirup Indonésia aya di paringkat ka-3 sadunya sanggeus [[Brasil]] jeung [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]].<ref>http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007155430/http://cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf |date=2010-10-07 }} Report on the CITES workshop on mega-biodiversity exporters (with the assistance of the European Commission)</ref> Sanajan kitu, [[Guinness World Records]] dina taun 2008 pernah nyutat rékor Indonésia salaku nagara nu panggancangna ruksak leuweungna sadunya. Unggal taunna, Indonésia dituar leuweungna saluas <u>+</u>1,8 yuta héktar. Karuksakan ieu aya di wewengkon hulu/jero leuweung (hutan) nu ngaruksak ogé wewengkon di hilir (basisir).<ref>http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328164842/http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html |date=2008-03-28 }} Sulung Prasetyo. Ekologi Indonésia Masuki Masa Genting, Paragraf 1. Sinar Harapan Online. Diaksés 13 Nopémber 2009</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Hindia Walanda]] * [[Sajarah Indonésia]] * [[Gurat wanci sajarah Indonésia]] * [[Gerakan 30 Séptémber|Gerakan 30 Séptémber 1965]] == Rujukan == {{col|3}} {{Reflist}} </div> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Indonesia}} {{wikivoyage|Indonesia}} * {{id}} [http://www.indonesia.go.id Loka resmi pamaréntah Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203203120/http://indonesia.go.id/ |date=2012-02-03 }} * {{id}} [http://www.antara.co.id Antara - Kantor Warta Indonésia] * {{en}} [http://www.my-indonesia.info/ Pariwisata Indonésia] {{Propinsi di Indonésia}} {{Template group|state=collapsed |title = [[file:Nuvola filesystems www.png|23px]]&nbsp;Géografi wewengkon |list = {{LN Indonesia}} {{Asia}} {{Asia Tenggara}} }} {{Template group|state=collapsed |title = Organisasi internasional |list = {{OSI}} {{APEC}} {{G15}} {{G20}} {{ASEAN}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Indonésia| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Nagara anggota ASEAN]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] hmjo2pif36surn65lpq9ljy040h6mo6 0 857 711728 705261 2026-08-07T02:40:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711728 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Tomb of Nakht (2).jpg|thumb|right|]] '''Agrikultur''' atawa '''tatanén''' nyaéta hiji kagiatan manusa dina ngamangpaatkeun [[sumber daya hayati]] pikeun ngahasilkeun bahan [[pangan]], bahan baku [[industri]], sumber [[énergi]], sarta pikeun ngokolakeun [[lingkungan hirup]].<ref name="OECD">{{cite web |title=Agriculture |url=https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=48 |publisher=OECD |accessdate=2026-01-27 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126151023/https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=48 |date=2022-01-26 }}</ref> Kagiatan anu kaasup kana agrikultur téh lega ambahanana, mimiti tina [[budidaya]] tutuwuhan, [[peternakan]] (melesat sato), nepi ka pamanfaatan [[mikroorganisme]] sarta [[bioénzim]] pikeun ngolah produk lanjutan. == Sajarah == Tatanén mangrupa salah sahiji tonggak pangpentingna dina sajarah ''[[peradaban]]'' manusa. Kagiatan ieu dimimitian rébu-rébu taun ka tukang nalika manusa pindah tina pola hirup [[nomadén]] (pindah-pindah tempat) jadi [[sédentér]] (netep) di hiji wewengkon. == Ringkesan == Tatanén ngawengku kana hiji sistim pikeun ngahasilkeun kabutuhan [[pangan]] boh tina [[pepelakan]] anapon [[sato]] ingon-ingon, ieu kabéh  di mimitian tina hiji tarékah pikeun yumponan pangabutuh rumah tangga sapopoé. Kiwari tatanén geus jadi salah sahiji widang penting anu jadi bahan atikan di sakola-sakola,  kumaha prak-prakan ngolah [[taneuh]] tur miarana, sangkan ngaronjat hasil sarta kauntunganna. Beuki ngaronjatna, kabutuhan kadaharan pikeun salian [[manusa]] ogé kadaharan sasatoan/[[fodder]], tatanen ngahasilkeun barang-barang saperti kembang potong, jeung tatangkalan hiasan [[nursery]], [[gemuk]], [[kulit sasatoan]], [[kulit]], kimia industri ([[pati]], [[éthanol]], jeung [[plastik]]), [[benang]] ([[kapas]], [[wol]], [[rami]], jeung linen/''[[flax]]''), ''bahan bakar ([[méthané]]'', ''[[biodiésel]]'', ''[[biomass]])'', jeung naha meunang idin atawa henteu rupa-rupa [[ubar]] ([[biofarmasi]], [[bako]], [[Ganja|marijuana]], [[opium]], [[cocaine]]). [[GMO|Rekayasa génétik]] tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan anu bisa ngahasilkeun [[ubar]] husus. Dina dunya Kulon, panggunaan [[génétika]] anu leuwih hadé, manajemén [[nutrisi]] taneuh anu leuwih rapih, sarta kontrol [[gulma]] (jujukutan) anu leuwih maju geus ngaronjatkeun hasil panén leuwih mucekil dina unggal bagian legana lahan. Di sagigireun éta, panggunaan [[mékanisasi]] geus ngurangan kabutuhan tanaga gawé, sahingga sabagian badag pangeusi nagara bisa leupas tina pagawéan tatanén anu beurat. Sabalikna, nagara-nagara anu nuju mekar masih kénéh katinggaleun upami dibandingkeun sareng ukuran produktivitas dunya Kulon. Hal ieu dilantarankeun ku kurangna aksés kana [[atikan]] (pendidikan), [[modal (ékonomi)|modal]], sarta dasar [[téknologi]] anu diperlukeun pikeun ngarojong kamajuan kasebut. Sajaba ti éta, faktor [[ékorégion]] kalayan kaayaan [[iklim]] sarta [[taneuh]] anu kurang optimal ogé milu mangaruhan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mazoyer |first=Marcel |title=A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofworldag0000mazo |year=2006 |publisher=Monthly Review Press}}</ref> Tatanén modérn kacida gumantungna kana widang [[téknik]] sarta [[téknologi]], ogé kana [[élmu biologi]] sarta [[élmu pisika]]. Sistim [[irigasi]], [[drainase]], [[konsérvasi]], sarta téknik [[sanitasi]]—anu masing-masing miboga peran penting dina kasuksésan tatanén—mangrupa sababaraha widang anu merlukeun kaweruh husus ti para ahli [[téknik tatanén]]. [[Kimia tatanén]] ngabahas rupa-rupa kabutuhan tatanén anu kacida pentingna, saperti pamakéan [[gemuk]] (pupuk), [[inséktisida]] (tempo ogé: [[ngadalikeun hama]]), sarta [[fungisida]]. Sajaba ti éta, widang ieu ogé neuleuman ngeunaan susunan [[taneuh]], analisis produk tatanén, sarta pangabutuh [[giji]] pikeun sato-sato anu dingu (ternak). [[Pamuliaan tutuwuhan]] sarta [[génétika]] méré kontribusi anu kacida gedéna kana produktivitas tatanén. Élmu génétika ogé geus ngajadikeun kagiatan [[sato]] ''(peternakan)''/ingon-ingon melesat leuwih ilmiah. Sajaba ti éta, aya ogé métode [[hidroponik]], nyaéta cara melak tutuwuhan tanpa ngagunakeun taneuh (ngagunakeun leyuran nutrisi kimia), anu bisa mantuan nyumponan pangabutuh pangan nalika [[populasi]] dunya terus nambah sacara drastis. Prosés ngabungkus (''packing''), ngolah, sarta masarkeun produk tatanén mangrupa kagiatan anu raket patalina sarta sarua dipangaruhanana ku [[élmu pangaweruh]]. Métode [[pembekuan]] gancang (''quick-freezing'') sarta [[déhidrasi]] (ngaleungitkeun kadar cai) geus ngalegaan pasar pikeun produk tatanén (tempo ogé: [[Ngolah jeung Ngawétkeun Kadaharan]]; [[Industri Pangolahan Daging]]). [[Mékanisasi]], anu mangrupa ciri utama tatanén dina ahir abad ka-19 sarta abad ka-20, geus ngurangan loba pagawéan beurat anu kacida nyasarkeun tanaga patani. Leuwih pentingna deui, mékanisasi geus ngaronjatkeun [[éfisiénsi]] sarta ''produktivitas'' tatanén sacara luar biasa (tempo ogé: [[Mesin Tatanén]]). Sanajan kitu, rupa-rupa sato saperti [[kuda]], [[sapi]], [[munding]], [[llama]], [[alpaka]], sarta [[anjing]], masih kénéh dipaké pikeun ngolah lahan, méréshéan (panén) pepelakan, sarta ngangkut hasil tatanén ka pasar di loba bagian dunya séjénna. [[Kapal udara]] sarta [[hélikopter]] dipaké dina widang tatanén pikeun nyebarkeun bibit, nyemprotkeun ubar pikeun ngadalikeun serangga sarta panyakit tutuwuhan, ngangkut produk anu gancang ruksak, sarta pikeun mareuman seuneu di leuweung. [[Radio]] sarta [[televisi]] kacida pentingna pikeun nyebarkeun laporan [[cuaca]] sarta inpormasi séjénna saperti harga pasar anu dibutuhkeun ku para patani. Di sagigireun éta, [[komputer]] geus jadi pakakas utama anu kacida pentingna pikeun manajemén atawa pangokolakeun usaha tatanén modéren. [[Kateranga '''[[Melesat sato]]''' (''animal husbandry'') hartina kagiatan ngalilira ''(breeding)'' sarta miara sato pikeun diala dagingna, atawa pikeun ngala hasil sato séjénna (saperti [[susu]], [[endog]], atawa [[wol]]) sacara tuluy-tumuluy sarta maneuh. Dina sababaraha taun pamungkas, sababaraha aspék tina [[tatanén intensif]] industri geus jadi bahan padungdugan (diskusi) anu beuki ramé. Meunangna pangaruh anu beuki lega ku pausahaan-pausahaan siki (bibit) jeung kimia raksasa, sarta pausahaan pangolahan daging, geus jadi sumber kahogoréan (kakhawatiran) boh di kalangan patani boh di masarakat umum. Perlindungan [[patén]] anu dibikeun ka pausahaan anu mekarkeun jenis [[siki]] anyar ngagunakeun [[rékayasa génétika]] geus ngabalukarkeun siki kasebut miboga lisénsi pikeun patani, ampir sarua jeung cara lisénsi [[perangkat lunak]] komputer ka pamakéna. Hal ieu geus ngarobah kasaimbangan kakuatan anu leuwih nguntungkeun pausahaan siki, sahingga maranéhna bisa nangtukeun sarat jeung kaayaan anu saméméhna can kungsi aya. Sababaraha pihak boga pamanggih yén ieu pausahaan téh geus ngalakukeun [[biopirasi]]. [[Konsérvasi taneuh]] sarta manajemén nutrisi geus jadi perhatian penting ti mimiti taun [[1950-an]], di mana para patani anu panghadéna miboga peran salaku [[pangurus]] (''stewardship'') lahan anu dikolakeunana. Beuki ningkatna kasadaran konsumen kana isu-isu tatanén geus ngabalukarkeun munyulna rupa-rupa gerakan, saperti [[tatanén anu dirojong ku komunitas]], [[gerakan pangan lokal]], ''[[slow food]]'', sarta [[tatanén organik]] komérsial, sanajan ieu industri téh masih kénéh dina tahap mekarkeun (''fledgling industries''). == Sajarah == Nangtukeun asal-usul tatanén bisa disebut hésé sabab geus aya méméh budaya [[tulisan]]. Sababaraha ahli keukeuh nyebutkeun yén tatanén geus aya leuwih ti 10.000 taun katukang, sedengkeun nu séjén yakin yén pepelakan nu sistimatis pangheubeulna teu leuwih ti 7.000 taun katukang. Prakprakan tatanén mindeng dipaké pikeun ngabédakeun jaman [[néolitik]] ti [[jaman batu]] nu saméméhna. Palawija nu munggaran dibudidayakeun ku manusa di antarana [[gandum]] ([[einkorn]] jeung [[emmer]]) sarta [[barley]]. Geus tétéla yén tatanén téh kapanggih sahenteuna dua kali, malah bisa jadi leuwih: sakali di wilayah [[Bulan Sabit Subur]] (''Fertile Crescent'') nalika mangsa [[Kabudayaan Natufian]], sarta diteruskeun ku jaman [[Néolitikum Pra-Tembikar A]] jeung B; sakali deui di Asia Wétan ([[gandum]] jeung [[millet]]); sarta di [[Mesoamerika|Amérika Tengah]] ([[jagong]]). Kamungkinan badag, aya parobahan saeutik-saeutik tina ékonomi [[moro jeung ngumpulkeun kadaharan]] (''hunter-gatherer'') jadi ékonomi tatanén, ngaliwatan mangsa anu lila nalika sawatara pepelakan mimiti ngahaja dipelak, sedengkeun kadaharan séjénna masih dikumpulkeun ti alam liar. Alesan utama tatanén mimiti diwanohkeun téh bisa jadi alatan parobahan [[iklim]]. Tatanén méré lolongkrang pikeun [[populasi]] anu leuwih rapet batan ngan saukur ngandelkeun moro jeung ngumpulkeun kadaharan. Saatos taun [[1492]], pola tatanén dunya robah sacara rongkah alatan ayana silih tukeur pepelakan sarta sato anu kacida legana, anu katelah ku sebutan [[Silih Tukeur Columbia]] (''Columbian Exchange''). Pepelakan sarta sato anu saméméhna ngan dipikawanoh di [[Dunya Heubeul]] (Éropa, Asia, jeung Afrika) ayeuna dipelak sarta dikembangbiakkeun di [[Dunya Anyar]] (Amérika), sarta sabalikna. [[Kawijakan tatanén]] mokuskeun kana tujuan jeung cara produksi tatanén. Dina tingkat kawijakan, tujuan umum tatanén di antarana: * '''[[Kasalametan dahareun]]''' (''Food safety''): Mastikeun sangkan asupan dahareun bébas tina kontaminasi atawa bahaya [[biologi]], [[kimia]], sarta [[fisik]]. * '''[[Kaamanan dahareun]]''' (''Food security''): Mastikeun sangkan sakabéh masarakat mibanda aksés kana asupan dahareun anu cukup sarta saluyu jeung pangabutuhna. * '''[[Kualitas dahareun]]''': Mastikeun sangkan asupan dahareun mibanda kualitas nu tetep tur bisa kaukur. * '''[[Konsérvasi]]''': Ngajaga sarta ngokolakeun sumber daya alam dina prosés tatanén. * '''[[Dampak lingkungan]]''' (''Environmental impact''): Ngaminimalisir pangaruh goréng tatanén kana alam, saperti [[polusi]] atawa ruksakna [[ékosistém]]. * '''[[Stabilitas ékonomi]]''': Mastikeun tatanén tetep nguntungkeun pikeun patani sarta hargana kahontal ku balaréa. == Métode == Tatanén modérn sarta tradisional ngagunakeun rupa-rupa métode pikeun ningkatkeun hasil produksi, di antarana: * '''[[Hidroponik]]''': Métode melak maké leyuran nutrisi tanpa ngagunakeun taneuh. * '''[[Ngawuluku]]''' (''Tillage''): Ngolah taneuh maké [[wuluku]] (''plough'') pikeun nyiapkeun lahan pelak. * '''[[Irigasi]]''': Sistim pangaturan sarta panyaluran cai pikeun nyébor pepelakan. * '''[[Gemuk]]''' (''Pupuk''): Pemberian zat nutrisi pikeun ningkatkeun kasuburan taneuh sarta pepelakan. * '''[[Rotasi pepelakan]]''' (''Crop rotation''): Ganti-ganti jinis pepelakan dina hiji lahan sangkan taneuhna teu béak nutrisi. * '''[[Ngadalikeun gulma]]''' (''Weed control''): Usaha miceun atawa maéhan jukut liar (gulma) anu ngaganggu pepelakan. * '''[[Doméstikasi]]''': Prosés ngalilira sato atawa tutuwuhan liar sangkan bisa dipiara ku manusa. * '''[[Pager tatanén]]''' (''Fencing''): Masang pager pikeun nangtayungan lahan sarta ngatur sato dingu. * '''[[Ranching]]''': Sistim peternakan badag di lahan anu lega pikeun ngingu sato saperti sapi atawa domba. * '''[[Tatanén organik]]''': Métode tatanén anu teu ngagunakeun bahan kimia sintétis (alami). == Pepelakan == === Produksi utama dunya taun 2002 === Dina jutaan ton métrik, dumasar kana ''estimasi'' [[USDA]]: :[[Jagong]]: 624 :[[Gandum]]: 570 :[[Paré]]: 381,1 :[[Kapas]]: 96,5 ''Paddy rice'' atawa '''[[gabah]]''' nyaéta paré anu nembé pisan dipanén sarta masih aya cangkangan. ''Milled rice'' atawa '''[[béas]]''' nyaéta paré anu geus diolah ku cara dipiceun cangkangna (huut), sarta sakapeung disosop (dipolish) sangkan beresih. [[California]] mangrupa nagara bagian di [[Amérika Sarikat]] anu jadi produsaén utama paré. === Pamékar pepelakan === Pamékar atawa pamuliaan pepelakan (''crop improvement'') geus dimimitian ti saprak manusa mimiti milih siki tina tutuwuhan anu panghadéna pikeun dipelak deui dina usum salajengna. [[Gambar:Cropscientist.jpg|right|thumbnail|An agriculural scientist records corn growth]] * '''[[Hasil panén]]''': Ningkatkeun jumlah produksi dina unggal unit legana lahan. * '''[[Résistansi]]''': Nyiptakeun variétas anu leuwih kuat tina serangan [[hama]] sarta [[panyakit tutuwuhan]]. * '''[[Adaptasi]]''': Sangkan pepelakan bisa tahan dina kaayaan [[iklim]] anu kurang merenah, saperti halodo panjang (''drought resistance'') atawa taneuh anu haseum. * '''[[Kualitas giji]]''': Ningkatkeun kandungan nutrisi, vitamin, atawa protéin dina hasil panén. * '''[[Kajajapan]]''' (''Post-harvest quality''): Ngaronjatkeun daya tahan hasil panén sangkan teu gampang ruksak nalika diteundeun atawa dibawa ka pasar. Dina jaman modéren, ieu prosés geus ngagunakeun téknologi [[rékayasa génétika]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[Organisme Dimodifikasi Sacara Génétik|GOM]] (GMO) anu miboga sipat-sipat husus anu saméméhna hésé dihontal ku cara tradisional. Contona, rata-rata hasil panén jagong ([[jagong|maize]]) di [[Amérika Sarikat]] geus ningkat tina kira-kira 2,5 ton per héktar (40 bushel per acre) dina taun [[1900]] jadi sakitar 9,4 t/ha (150 bushel per acre) dina taun [[2001]]. Hal ieu utamana dilantarankeun ku kamajuan dina widang [[génétika]]. Kitu ogé hasil rata-rata [[gandum]] dunya anu ningkat tina kurang ti 1 t/ha dina taun [[1900]] jadi leuwih ti 2,5 t/ha dina taun [[1990]]. Rata-rata hasil gandum di [[Amérika Kidul]] nyaéta sakitar 2 t/ha, [[Afrika]] di handapeun 1 t/ha, sedengkeun [[Mesir]] jeung Arab bisa nepi ka 3,5 nepi ka 4 t/ha kalayan bantuan [[irigasi]]. Sabalikna, rata-rata hasil gandum di nagara-nagara saperti [[Perancis]] geus leuwih tina 8 t/ha. Hasil anu leuwih luhur ieu ditarima alatan kamajuan génétika sarta panggunaan téknik [[tatanén intensif]] (pamakéan [[gemuk]], [[ngadalikeun hama]] sacara kimiawi, sarta pangaturan tumuwuhna tutuwuhan sangkan teu gampang rungkad). [Catetan konvérsi: 1 [[bushel]] (q) gandum = 60 pon (lb) ≈ 27,215 kg. 1 bushel jagong = 56 pon ≈ 25,401 kg] Nu panganyarna, [[rékayasa génétika]] geus mimiti dilarapkeun di sababaraha bagian dunya pikeun ngagancangkeun prosés seléksi sarta [[pamuliaan tutuwuhan]]. Modifikasi anu panglobana dipaké nyaéta gén résistansi [[hérbisida]] anu ngamungkinkeun tutuwuhan kuat nalika kakeunaan ku ''glyphosate''. Modifikasi séjénna anu jarang dipaké tapi leuwih kontrovérsial nyaéta modifikasi anu ngabalukarkeun tutuwuhan bisa ngahasilkeun racun (toksin) sorangan pikeun ngurangan karuksakan alatan serangga (contona: [[Starlink]]). Aya ogé produsaén husus anu miara jinis sato dingu atawa pepelakan anu langka. * '''[[Akuakultur]]''': Tatanén [[lauk]], [[hurang]], sarta [[lukut]] (alga), anu miboga hubungan raket jeung dunya tatanén. * '''[[Apikultur]]''' (''Beekeeping''): Ngingu [[lebah]] atawa deudeur, anu ilaharna pikeun ngahasilkeun [[madu]], sarta beuki dieu beuki dipaké pikeun mantuan prosés [[penyerbukan]] pepelakan. ''Tempo ogé'': [[botani]], [[Daptar tutuwuhan domestik]], [[Daptar sayuran]], [[Daptar bungbu dapur]], [[Daptar bubuahan]], [[Daptar sato dingu]]. == Masalah lingkungan == Tatanén modéren, sanajan hasilna mucekil, mawa sababaraha balukar goréng kana lingkungan, di antarana: * Surplus [[nitrogén]] di [[walungan]] jeung [[situ]] alatan pamakéan [[gemuk]] kimia anu kaleuleuwihi. * Pangaruh ngaruksak tina [[hérbisida]], [[fungisida]], [[inséktisida]], jeung [[biosida]] séjénna ka [[ékosistem]]. * Konvérsi atawa parobahan sagala rupa ékosistem alami jadi lahan tatanén (''arable land''). * [[Érosi]] taneuh anu ngabalukarkeun tumpesna lapisan taneuh anu subur. * [[Gulma]] — Tutuwuhan jeung sato liar (''feral'') anu jadi hama sarta ngaganggu kasaimbangan alam. [[Katerangan Istilah]]: == Tempo ogé == * [[Agricultural and Food Research Council]] (Déwan Panalungtikan Tatanén sarta Pangan) * [[Élmu tatanén]] (''Agricultural science'') * [[Topik dasar élmu tatanén]] * [[Tatanén lahan garing]] (''Arid-zone agriculture'') * [[Tatanén anu dirojong ku komunitas]] (''Community-supported agriculture'') * [[Panalungtikan tatanén internasional]] * [[Daptar parabot tatanén]] * [[Daptar téknik tatanén darurat]] (''Subsistence techniques'') * [[Daptar topik tatanén tuluy-tumuluy]] (''Sustainable agriculture'') * [[Garis wanci tatanén sarta téknologi pangan]] * [[Tatanén di Amérika Sarikat]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.nationalpak.com Agriculture of Pakistan, All Agricultural Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040727135152/http://nationalpak.com/ |date=2004-07-27 }} * [http://www.fao.org FAO of The UN's World Agricultural Information Centre] * [http://www.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics_en.asp FAO of The UN Statistical Databases] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509123908/http://www.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics_en.asp |date=2008-05-09 }} * [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]]'s [[Foreign Agricultural Service]] : [http://www.fas.usda.gov/currwmt.html Current World Production, Market and Trade Reports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060112111429/http://www.fas.usda.gov/currwmt.html |date=2006-01-12 }} * [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]]'s [[Agricultural Research Service]] : [http://www.ars.usda.gov/ USDA's In-house Research Arm] * [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]]'s [[National Agricultural Library]] : [http://www.nal.usda.gov/ Portal to USDA's National Agricultural Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612005150/http://www.nal.usda.gov/ |date=2010-06-12 }} * [http://www.nationalacademies.org/agriculture/ Agriculture] at the [[United States National Academies]] * [http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Environment/Agriculture/ Agriculture Directory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040710171623/http://dmoz.org/Science/Environment/Agriculture/ |date=2004-07-10 }} [[Kategori:Agrikultur| ]] [[Kategori:Tatanén]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Tatanén]] [[Kategori:Téknologi Tatanén]] czkedsbe7jv89hlx5da24wic9uljqwe 0 900 711726 650524 2026-08-07T02:39:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711726 wikitext text/x-wiki {{for|jurnal ilmiah|Géologi (jurnal)}} [[Image:World geologic provinces.jpg|thumb|300px|Propinsi géologi di dunya <br /> '''[[Kulit samudra]]''' {{legend|#cde|0-20 Ma}} {{legend|#abc|20-65 Ma}} {{legend|#89a|>65 Ma}} '''[[Propinsi géologis]]''' {{legend|#f96|[[Shield (geology)|Shield]]}} {{legend|#f9c|[[Continental platform|Platform]]}} {{legend|#9fc|[[Orogeny|Orogen]]}} {{legend|#9cf|[[Basin (geology)|Basin]]}} {{legend|#969|Large [[igneous rock|igneous]] province}} {{legend|#ff9|Extended [[crust (geology)|crust]]|border=#dc8}} ]] {{WVS}} '''Géologi''' (tina [[basa Yunani]] γη- (''ge-'', "bumi") and λογος (''logos'', "kecap", "alesan")) nyaéta [[élmu]] jeung pangajaran ngeunaan [[bumi]], kaasup kajadiannana, strukturna, sifat fisikna, sajarah, jeung prosés ''pembentukannana'', mangrupa salah sahiji bagéan [[Earth science|elmu bumi]]. [[Geologist|Ahli geologi]] netepkeun [[age of the Earth|umur bumi]] kira-kira 4.6 milyar (4.6x10⁹) taun, sarta nangtukeun yén [[lithosphere|litosfer]] bumi, nu kaasup [[Crust (geology)|kerak]], nyaéta bagéan tina [[tectonic plate|tektonik lempeng]] nu pipindahan dina saluhureun [[rheid|rheic]] [[Mantle (geology)|mantel]] bagian luhur ([[asthenosphere]]) ngaliwatan prosés nu nujul kana [[plate tectonics|lempeng-lempeng tektonik]]. Ahli géologi mantuan néangan tur ngokolakeun [[natural resource|sumber daya alam]] Bumi, saperti [[petroleum|minyak bumi]] jeung [[coal|batubara]], ogé [[metals|logam]] saperti [[iron|beusi]], [[copper|tambaga]], jeung [[uranium]]. ogé nu dipikaresep sacara ekonomi kaasup [[gemstone|batu mulia]] tur mineral séjén saperti [[asbestos]], [[perlite]], [[mica]], [[phosphates]], [[zeolites]], [[clay]], [[pumice]], [[quartz]], sarta [[silica]], ogé unsur séjén saperti [[sulfur]], [[chlorine]], jeung [[helium]]. [[Planetary geology|Geologi luar angkasa]] (kadangkala disebut Astrogéology) nujul kana dipakéna prinsip géologi keur [[Surya Mandala|sistim surya mandala]] séjénna. Watesan husus saperti ''selenology'' (nalungtik [[moon]]), ''areology'' (keur [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]), jst., ilahar ogé dipaké. Dina basa sapopoe, ''geologi'' ogé ilahar dipaké dirangketkeun jeung kecap séjén keur ngajelaskeun hal salian ti bumi (upamana. "geologi planet Mars"). Kecap "geologi" mimiti dipaké ku [[Jean-André Deluc]] dina taun 1778 sarta diwanohkeun tur maké watesan nu tetep ku [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]] dina taun 1779. Elmu ieu teu kaasup dina ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' edisi katilu nu lengkep dina 1797, tapi mimiti asup sacara jéntré dina edisi kaopat nu lengkep dina 1809.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winchester|first=Simon|authorlink=Simon Winchester|title=[[The Map that Changed the World]]|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|date=2001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mapthatchangedwo00winc_0/page/26 25]}} ISBN 0-06-093180-9</ref> Harti nu leuwih ti heula mimiti dipaké ku [[Richard Aungerville|Richard de Bury]] keur ngabédakeun antara ka-bumi-an jeung yurisprudensi [[Theology|theologi]]. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} == Sajarah == {{utama|Sajarah géologi}} Karya ''[[Peri Lithon]]'' (''Dina Batu, Ing: On Stones'') ku [[Theophrastus]] (372-287 BC), salah saurang murid [[Aristotle|Aristoteles]], bukti nyata keur abad kiwari. Interpréatsi [[fossils]] ieu teu pernah dibuka nepi anggeusna [[Scientific Revolution|Revolusi Elmu]] tur ditarjamahkeun kana [[Latin|Basa Latin]] sarta sababaraha basa asing séjénna. Sababaraha ahli kiwari, saperti [[Fielding H. Garrison]], boga nyebutkeun yén elmu géologi modérn dimimitian dina [[Muslim world|zaman Muslim]].<ref>[[Fielding H. Garrison]] wrote in the ''History of Medicine'': <br />{{quote|"The [[Saracen]]s themselves were the originators not only of [[algebra]], [[chemistry]], and geology, but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as [[Street light|street lamps]], [[window]]-[[Paned window|panes]], [[firework]], [[string instrument|stringed instruments]], [[cultivation|cultivated]] [[fruit]]s, [[perfume]]s, [[spice]]s, etc."}}</ref> [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni]] (973-1048 AD) dianggap salaku ahli géologi [[Muslim]] modérn, karya munggaranna nyaéta [[geology of India|geologi India]].<ref name=Salam>[[Abdus Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref> Ibnu Sina (Avicenna, 981 - 1037 C.E.), dina hal husus, méré kontribusi nyata kana elmu alam (nu disebut ''Attabieyat'') bareng jeung filsuf séjénna saperti Ikhwan AI-Safa jeung nu séjénna. Enslikopedi karya anjeunna nyaéta “''Kitab AI-Shifa''” (the Book of Cure, Héaling or Remedy from ignorance), dina bagéan 2, seksi 5, nulis ngeunaan Mineral jeung Metéorologi, dina bab genep: Formasi gunung-gunung, The advantages of mountains in the formation of clouds; Sources of water; Origin of éarthquakes; Formation of minerals; The diversity of éarth’s terrain. These principles were later known in the Renaissance of Europe as the law of superposition of strata, the concept of catastrophisim, and the doctrine of uniformitarianism. These concepts were also embodied in the Théory of the éarth by James Hutton in the Eighteenth century C.E. Academics such as Toulumin and Goodfield (1965), commented on Avicenna's contribution: "Around A.D. 1000, Avicenna was already suggesting a hypothesis about the origin of mountain ranges, which in the Christian world, would still have been considered quite radical eight hundred years later".<ref>Toulumin, S. and Goodfield, J. (1965), ’The Ancestry of science: The Discovery of Time’, Hutchinson & Co., London, p.64. Also see http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=319 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314204805/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=319 |date=2010-03-14 }}</ref> In [[China]], the [[polymath]] [[Shen Kua]] (1031-1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of [[fossil]] [[animal shell|shells]] in a géological [[stratum]] in a mountain hundreds of miles from the océan, he inferred that the land was formed by [[erosion]] of the [[mountain]]s and by [[Deposition (sediment)|deposition]] of [[silt]]. [[Georg Agricola]] (1494-1555), a physician, wrote the first systematic tréatise about [[mining]] and [[smelting]] works, ''[[De re metallica]] libri XII'', with an appendix ''Buch von den Lebewesen unter Tage'' (Book of the Créatures Benéath the éarth). He covered subjects like [[wind energy]], [[hydropower|hydrodynamic power]], melting cookers, transport of [[ore]]s, extraction of [[sodium|soda]], [[sulfur]] and [[alum]], and administrative issues. The book was published in 1556. [[Nicolas Steno]] (1638-1686) is credited with the [[law of superposition]], the [[principle of original horizontality]], and the [[principle of lateral continuity]]: three defining principles of [[stratigraphy]]. Previous attempts at such statements meet accusations of heresy from the Church.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} By the 1700s [[Jean-Étienne Guettard]] and [[Nicolas Desmarest]] hiked central France and recorded their observations on [[Geologic map|geological maps]]; Guettard recorded the first observation of the [[Volcano|volcanic]] origins of this part of France. [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]] (1769-1839) drew some of the first géological maps and began the process of ordering [[rock strata]] (layers) by examining the fossils contained in them. [[James Hutton]] is often viewed as the first modérn géologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled ''Theory of the Earth'' to the [[Royal Society of Edinburgh]]. In his paper, he explained his théory that the éarth must be much older than had previously been supposed in order to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for [[sediment]]s to form new rocks at the bottom of the séa, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Hutton published a two-volume version of his idéas in 1795 ([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12861 Vol. 1], [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14179 Vol. 2]). [[Gambar:Carl Spitzweg 025.jpg|thumb|left|''The geologist'', 19th century painting by [[Carl Spitzweg]].]] Followers of Hutton were known as ''[[Plutonism|Plutonists]]'' because they believed that some rocks were formed by [[vulcanism]] which is the deposition of lava from [[volcano]]es, as opposed to the ''[[Neptunism|Neptunists]]'', who believed that all rocks had settled out of a large océan whose level gradually dropped over time. In 1811 [[Georges Cuvier]] and [[Alexandre Brongniart]] published their explanation of the antiquity of the éarth, inspired by Cuvier's discovery of fossil elephant bones in Paris. To prove this, they formulated the principle of [[Stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] succession of the layers of the éarth. They were independently anticipated by [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith's]] stratigraphic studies on England and Scotland. By 1827 [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'' reiterated Hutton's uniformitarianism, which influenced the thought of [[Charles Darwin]]. [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first published his famous book, ''Principles of Geology'', in 1830 and continued to publish new revisions until he died in 1875. He successfully promoted the doctrine of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]. This théory states that slow géological processes have occurred throughout the [[History of Earth|Earth's history]] and are still occurring today. In contrast, [[catastrophism]] is the théory that éarth's féatures formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged theréafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idéa was not widely accepted at the time. [[Gambar:Wegener.jpg|thumb|right|Plate tectonics - [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]] illustrated on relief globe of the [[Field Museum]] ]] 19th century géology revolved around the question of the [[Age of the Earth|Earth's exact age]]. Estimates varied from a few 100,000 to billions of yéars. The most significant advance in 20th century géology has been the development of the théory of [[plate tectonics]] in the 1960s. Plate tectonic théory arose out of two separate géological observations: [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]]. The théory revolutionized the [[Earth sciences]]. The théory of continental drift was proposed by [[Frank Bursley Taylor]] in 1908, expanded by [[Alfred Wegener]] in 1912 and by [[Arthur Holmes]], but wasn't broadly accepted until the late 1960s when the théory of plate tectonics was developed. == Prinsip-prinsip penting dina géologi == There are a number of important principles in géology. Many of these involve the ability to provide the relative ages of strata or the manner in which they were formed. '''The principle of intrusive relationships''' concerns crosscutting [[Intrusion (geology)|intrusions]]. In géology, when an [[igneous rocks|igneous]] intrusion cuts across a formation of [[sedimentary rock]], it can be determined that the ignéous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. There are a number of different types of intrusions, including stocks, [[laccolith]]s, [[batholith]]s, [[Sill (geology)|sills]] and [[Dike (geology)|dikes]]. '''The [[principle of cross-cutting relationships]]''' pertains to the formation of [[Geologic fault|faults]] and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a [[normal fault]] or a [[thrust fault]]. '''The principle of inclusions and components''' states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or ''[[Clastic rocks|clasts]]'') are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with ignéous rocks occurs when [[xenolith]]s are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as [[magma]] or [[lava]] flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which contains them. '''The [[Uniformitarianism (science)|principle of uniformitarianism]]''' states that the géologic processes observed in operation that modify the éarth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over géologic time. A fundamental principle of géology advanced by the 18th century Scottish physician and géologist [[James Hutton]], is that "the present is the key to the past." In Hutton's words: "the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now." '''The [[principle of original horizontality]]''' states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modérn marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization (although [[cross-bedding]] is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal). '''The [[Law of superposition|principle of superposition]]''' states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one benéath it and older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip benéath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed. '''The [[principle of faunal succession]]''' is based on the appéarance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found. Based on principles laid out by [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]] almost a hundred yéars before the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]], the principles of succession were developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, the localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat ([[facies]] change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils may be found globally at the same time. [[Gambar:Syncline and anticline.jpg|thumb|300px|Ilustrasi ''[[syncline]]'' jeung ''[[anticline]]'' nu ilahar diulik dina [[géologi struktur]] jeung [[géomorfologi]].]] == Géologi regional == *[[Géologi Alpén]] *[[Géologi Appalachia]] *[[Géologi Himalaya]] === Dumasar nagara === *[[Géologi Australia]] **[[Géologi Daerah Ibukota Australia]] **[[Géologi Victoria]] **[[Kraton Yilgarn|Géologi Kraton Yilgarn]] *[[Géologi Tiongkok]] **[[Géologi Taiwan]] *[[Géologi Éropa]] **[[Géologi Belanda]] ** [[Géologi Britania Raya]] ***[[Géologi Inggris]] ****[[Geology of Dorset]] ****[[Geology of Hampshire]] ****[[Geology of Hertfordshire]] ****[[Geology of Shropshire]] ****[[Geology of Lizard, Cornwall]] ***[[Géologi Skotlandia]] ***[[Géologi Wales]] * [[Geology of the Falkland Islands]] *[[Géologi India]] **[[Géologi Sikkim]] *[[Géologi Jepang]] *[[Géologi Nigéria]] *[[Géologi Amérika Sarékat]] **''[[Géologi nagara bagéan AS]]:'' ***[[List of California-related topics#Geology of California|Geology of California]] ***[[Geology of Connecticut]] ***[[Geology of Georgia (U.S. state)|Geology of Georgia]] ***[[Geology of Idaho]] ***[[Geology of Illinois]] ***[[Geology of Minnesota]] ***[[Geology of Pennsylvania]] ***[[Geology of Tennessee]] ***[[Geology of Texas]] **''US Geology by region or feature:'' ***[[Geology of the Appalachians]] ***[[Geology of the Pacific Northwest]] ***[[Geology of the Bryce Canyon area]]''(Utah)'' ***[[Geology of the Canyonlands area]] ''(Utah)'' ***[[Geology of the Capitol Reef area]] ''(Utah)'' ***[[Geology of the Death Valley area]] ''(California)'' ***[[Geology of the Grand Canyon area]] ''(Arizona)'' ***[[Geology of the Grand Teton area]] ''(Wyoming)'' ***[[Geology of the Lassen area]] ''(California)'' ***[[Mount Adams (Washington)#Geology|Geology of Mount Adams]] ''(Washington)'' ***[[Geology of Mount Shasta]] ''(California)'' ***[[Geology of the Yosemite area]] ''(California)'' ***[[Geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area]] ''(Utah)'' ***[[Glacial geology of the Genesee River]] ''(New York, Pennsylvania)'' == Geologi luar angkas == {{see also|Géologi planét terestrial surya}} [[Gambar:Mars Viking 21i093.png|thumb|right|300px|Bukaan Mars sapertos dipoto ku [[Viking 2]] lander [[9 Désémber|December 9]], [[1977]].]] *[[Géologi Mérkurius]] *[[Géologi Vénus]] *[[Géologi Bulan]] *[[Géologi Mars]] * [[Jupiter#internal structure|Géologi Jupiter]] *[[Saturnus#Physical characteristics|Géologi Saturnus]] * [[Uranus#Physical characteristics|Géologi Uranus]] *[[Néptunus#Physical characteristics|Géologi Néptunus]] == Rujukan == <references/> == Tempo ogé == * [[Agrogeology]] * [[Geochemistry]] * [[Geologist]] * [[Geologic modeling]] * [[Geologic time scale]] * [[International Union of Geological Sciences]] ([[IUGS]]) * [[List of geology topics]] * [[List of fossil sites]] ''(with link directory)'' * [[List of minerals]] * [[List of rock types]] * [[List of publications in geology|Important publications in geology]] * [[List of rock textures]] * [[Mineral]] * [[Timeline of geology]] * [[Paleorrota]] == Tumbu luar == * James Hutton's [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/essays/Hutton.htm ''Theory of the Earth''] * James Hutton's [http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/hutton/hutton.htm ''Theory of the Earth & Abstract of the Theory of the Earth''] {{Earth science}} {{Nature nav}} [[Kategori:Géologi| ]] a5ptcup84q0sl5hnlhu7niyztparkpq 0 972 711655 659568 2026-08-07T01:01:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711655 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} [[Image:Ybc7289-bw.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Tablet lempung Babylonia YBC 7289<br>(c. 1800–1600 BCE) [http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/ybc/ybc.html] with annotations. (Image by Bill Casselman)]] '''Analisis numeris''' nyaéta pangajaran [[algoritma]] keur pasualan-pasualan''matematika kontinyu'' (keur ngabédakeun jeung [[discrete mathematics|matematika diskrit]]). One of the éarliest mathematical writings is the Babylonian tablet YBC 7289, which gives a [[sexagesimal]] numerical approximation of <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, the length of the diagonal in a unit square.<ref>The approximation of the [[square root of 2]] is four [[sexagesimal]] figures, which is about six [[decimal]] figures. 1 + 24/60 + 51/60² + 10/60³ = 1.41421296... <br>[http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html Photograph, illustration, and description of the ''root(2)'' tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813054036/http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html |date=2012-08-13 }}</ref> Being able to compute the sides of a triangle (and hence, being able to compute square roots) is extremely important, for instance, in carpentry and construction.<ref>The New Zealand Qualification authority specifically mentions this skill in document 13004 version 2, dated 17 October 2003 titled [http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/nqfdocs/units/pdf/13004.pdf CARPENTRY THEORY: Demonstrate knowledge of setting out a building]</ref> In a square wall section that is two méters by two méters, a diagonal béam has to be <math>\sqrt{8} \approx 2.83</math> méters long.<ref>By the [[Pythagorean theorem]], a square whose side is 2 meters has a diagonal of length <math>\sqrt{2^2+2^2}=\sqrt{8}</math> meters.</ref> Numerical analysis continues this long tradition of practical mathematical calculations. Much like the Babylonian approximation to <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, modérn numerical analysis does not seek exact answers, because exact answers are impossible to obtain in practice. Instéad, much of numerical analysis is concerned with obtaining approximate solutions while maintaining réasonable bounds on errors. Numerical analysis naturally finds applications in all fields of engineering and the physical sciences, but in the 21st century, the life sciences and even the arts have adopted elements of scientific computations. [[Ordinary differential equation]]s appéar in the movement of héavenly bodies (planets, stars and galaxies); [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]] occurs in portfolio management; [[numerical linear algebra]] is essential to quantitative psychology; [[stochastic differential equation]]s and [[Markov chain]]s are essential in simulating living cells for medicine and biology. Before the advent of modérn computers numerical methods often depended on hand [[interpolation]] in large printed tables. Nowadays (after mid 20th century) these tables have fallen into disuse, because computers can calculate the required functions. The [[interpolation]] [[algorithms]] nevertheless may be used as part of the software for solving [[differential equations]] and the like. ==General introduction== We will now outline several important themes of numerical analysis. The overall goal is the design and analysis of techniques to give approximate solutions to hard problems. To fix idéas, the réader might consider the following problems and methods: * If a company wants to put a toothpaste commercial on television, it might produce five commercials and then choose the best one by testing éach one on a focus group. This would be an example of a [[Monte Carlo method|Monte Carlo optimization]] method. * To send a rocket to the moon, rocket scientists will need a rocket simulator. This simulator will essentially be an integrator for an [[ordinary differential equation]]. * Car companies can improve the crash safety of their vehicles by using computer simulations of car crashes. These simulations are essentially solving [[partial differential equation]]s numerically. * [[Hedge fund]]s (private investment funds) use tools from all fields of numerical analysis to calculate the value of stocks and derivatives more precisely than other market participants. * Airlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms to decide ticket prices, airplane and crew assignments and fuel needs. This field is also called [[operations research]]. * Insurance companies use numerical programs for [[Actuary|actuarial]] analysis. ===History=== The field of numerical analysis predates the invention of modérn computers by many centuries. [[Linear interpolation]] was alréady in use more than 2000 yéars ago. Many gréat mathematicians of the past were préoccupied by numerical analysis, as is obvious from the names of important algorithms like [[Newton's method]], [[Lagrange polynomial|Lagrange interpolation polynomial]], [[Gaussian elimination]], or [[Euler's method]]. To facilitate computations by hand, large books were produced with formulas and tables of data such as interpolation points and function coefficients. Using these tables, often calculated out to 16 decimal places or more for some functions, one could look up values to plug into the formulas given and achieve very good numerical estimates of some functions. The canonical work in the field is the [[NIST]] publication edited by [[Abramowitz and Stegun]], a 1000-plus page book of a very large number of commonly used formulas and functions and their values at many points. The function values are no longer very useful when a computer is available, but the large listing of formulas can still be very handy. The [[mechanical calculator]] was also developed as a tool for hand computation. These calculators evolved into electronic computers in the 1940s, and it was then found that these computers were also useful for administrative purposes. But the invention of the computer also influenced the field of numerical analysis, since now longer and more complicated calculations could be done. ===Direct and iterative methods=== {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; width: 250px; margin-left: 1em;" |- | '''Direct vs iterative methods''' Consider the problem of solving :3''x''³+4=28 for the unknown quantity ''x''. {| align="center" |+ Direct Method |- | &nbsp; || 3''x''³ + 4 = 28. |- | ''Subtract 4'' || 3''x''³ = 24. |- | ''Divide by 3'' || ''x''³ = 8. |- | ''Take cube roots'' || ''x'' = 2. |} For the iterative method, apply the [[bisection method]] to ''f''(''x'') = 3''x''³ + 4. The initial values are ''a'' = 0, ''b'' = 3, ''f''(''a'') = 4, ''f''(''b'') = 85. {| align="center" |+ Iterative Method |- | ''a'' || ''b'' || mid || ''f''(mid) |- | 0 || 3 || 1.5 || 14.125 |- | 1.5 || 3 || 2.25 || 38.17... |- | 1.5 || 2.25 || 1.875 || 23.77... |- | 1.875 || 2.25 || 2.0625 || 30.32... |} We conclude from this table that the solution is between 1.875 and 2.0625. The algorithm might return any number in that range with an error less than 0.2. ==== Discretization and numerical integration ==== [[Image:Schumacher (Ferrari) in practice at USGP 2005.jpg|right|125px]] In a two hour race, we have méasured the speed of the car at three instants and recorded them in the following table. Time 0:20 1:00 1:40&nbsp;km/h 140 150 180 A '''discretization''' would be to say that the speed of the car was constant from 0:00 to 0:40, then from 0:40 to 1:20 and finally from 1:20 to 2:00. For instance, the total distance traveled in the first 40 minutes is approximately (2/3h x 140&nbsp;km/h)=93.3&nbsp;km. This would allow us to estimate the total distance traveled as 93.3&nbsp;km + 100&nbsp;km + 120&nbsp;km = 313.3&nbsp;km, which is an example of '''numerical integration''' (see below) using a [[Riemann sum]], because displacement is the [[integral]] of velocity. '''Ill posed problem''': Take the function ''f''(''x'') = 1/(''x''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1). Note that ''f''(1.1) = 10 and ''f''(1.001) = 1000: a change in ''x'' of less than 0.1 turns into a change in ''f''(''x'') of néarly 1000. Evaluating ''f''(''x'') néar ''x'' = 1 is an ill-conditioned problem. '''Well-posed problem''': By contrast, the function <math>f(x)=\sqrt{x}</math> is continuous and so evaluating it is well-posed. |} Direct methods compute the solution to a problem in a finite number of steps. These methods would give the precise answer if they were performed in [[Computer numbering formats|infinite precision arithmetic]]. Examples include [[Gaussian elimination]], the [[QR]] factorization method for solving [[system of linear equations|systems of linéar equations]], and the [[simplex method]] of [[linear programming]]. In practice, [[Floating point|finite precision]] is used and the result is an approximation of the true solution (assuming [[Numerically stable|stability]]). In contrast to direct methods, [[iterative method]]s are not expected to terminate in a number of steps. Starting from an initial guess, iterative methods form successive approximations that [[convergence|converge]] to the exact solution only in the limit. A [[convergence criterion]] is specified in order to decide when a sufficiently accurate solution has (hopefully) been found. Even in infinite precision arithmetic these methods would not réach the solution in finitely many steps (in general). Examples include [[Newton's method]], the [[bisection method]], and [[Jacobi iteration]]. In computational matrix algebra, iterative methods are generally needed for large problems. Iterative methods are more common than direct methods in numerical analysis. Some methods are direct in principle but are usually used as though they were not, e.g. [[GMRES]] and the [[conjugate gradient method]]. For these methods the number of steps needed to obtain the exact solution is so large that an approximation is accepted in the same manner as for an iterative method. ===Discretization=== Furthermore, continuous problems must sometimes be replaced by a discrete problem whose solution is known to approximate that of the continuous problem; this process is called ''discretization''. For example, the solution of a [[differential equation]] is a function. This function must be represented by a finite amount of data, for instance by its value at a finite number of points at its domain, even though this domain is a continuum. ===The generation and propagation of errors=== The study of errors forms an important part of numerical analysis. There are several ways in which error can be introduced in the solution of the problem. ====Round-off==== [[Round-off error]]s arise because it is impossible to represent all [[real number]]s exactly on a [[finite-state machine]] (which is what all practical [[digital computer]]s are). On a pocket calculator, if one enters 0.0000000000001 (or the maximum number of zeros possible), then a +, and then 100000000000000 (again, the maximum number of zeros possible), one will obtain the number 100000000000000 again, and not 100000000000000.0000000000001. The calculator's answer is incorrect because of ''roundoff'' in the calculation. ====Truncation and discretization error==== [[Truncation]] errors are committed when an iterative method is terminated and the approximate solution differs from the exact solution. Similarly, discretization induces a [[discretization error]] because the solution of the discrete problem does not coincide with the solution of the continuous problem. For instance, in the iteration in the sidebar to compute the solution of <math>3x^3+4=28</math>, after 10 or so iterations, we conclude that the root is roughly 1.99 (for example). We therefore have a truncation error of 0.01. Once an error is generated, it will generally propagate through the calculation. For instance, we have alréady noted that the operation + on a calculator (or a computer) is inexact. It follows that a calculation of the type a+b+c+d+e is even more inexact. ====Numerical stability and well posedness==== This léads to the notion of [[numerical stability]]: an algorithm is numerically stable if an error, once it is generated, does not grow too much during the calculation. This is only possible if the problem is [[condition number|well-conditioned]], méaning that the solution changes by only a small amount if the problem data are changed by a small amount. Indeed, if a problem is ill-conditioned, then any error in the data will grow a lot. However, an algorithm that solves a well-conditioned problem may or may not be numerically stable. An art of numerical analysis is to find a stable algorithm for solving a well-posed mathematical problem. For instance, computing the square root of 2 (which is roughly 1.41421) is a well-posed problem. Many algorithms solve this problem by starting with an initial approximation ''x''₁ to <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, for instance ''x''₁=1.4, and then computing improved guesses ''x''₂, ''x''₃, etc... One such method is the famous [[Babylonian method]], which is given by ''x''_''k''+1 = ''x_k''/2 + 1/''x_k''. Another iteration, which we will call Method X, is given by ''x''_{''k'' + 1} = (''x''_''k''²&minus;2)² + ''x''_''k''.<ref>This is a [[fixed point iteration]] for the equation <math>x=(x^2-2)^2+x=f(x)</math>, whose solutions include <math>\sqrt{2}</math>. The iterates always move to the right since <math>f(x)\geq x</math>. Hence <math>x_1=1.4<\sqrt{2}</math> converges and <math>x_1=1.42>\sqrt{2}</math> diverges.</ref> We have calculated a few iterations of éach scheme in table form below, with initial guesses ''x''₁ = 1.4 and ''x''₁ = 1.42. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Babylonian ! Babylonian ! Method X ! Method X |- | ''x''₁ = 1.4 | ''x''₁ = 1.42 | ''x''₁ = 1.4 | ''x''₁ = 1.42 |- | ''x''₂ = 1.4142857... | ''x''₂ = 1.41422535... | ''x''₂ = 1.4016 | ''x''₂ = 1.42026896 |- | ''x''₃ = 1.414213564... | ''x''₃ = 1.41421356242... | ''x''₃ = 1.4028614... | ''x''₃ = 1.42056... |- | | | ... | ... |- | | | ''x''_1000000 = 1.41421... | ''x''₂₈ = 7280.2284... |} Observe that the Babylonian method converges fast regardless of the initial guess, wheréas Method X converges extremely slowly with initial guess 1.4 and diverges for initial guess 1.42. Hence, the Babylonian method is said to be numerically stable, while Method X is said to be numerically unstable. ==Areas of study== The field of numerical analysis is divided in different disciplines according to the problem that is to be solved. ===Computing values of functions=== {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; width: 250px; clear: right; margin-left: 1em;" | '''Interpolation''': We have observed the temperature to vary from 20 degrees Celsius at 1:00 to 14 degrees at 3:00. A linéar interpolation of this data would conclude that it was 17 degrees at 2:00 and 18.5 degrees at 1:30pm. '''Extrapolation''': If the [[gross domestic product]] of a country has been growing an average of 5% per yéar and was 100 billion dollars last yéar, we might extrapolate that it will be 105 billion dollars this yéar. [[Image:Linear-regression.png|right|100px|A line through 20 points?]] '''Regression''': In linéar regression, given ''n'' points, we compute a line that passes as close as possible to those ''n'' points. [[Image:LemonadeJuly2006.JPG|right|100px|How much for a glass of lemonade?]] '''Optimization''': Say you sell lemonade at a lemonade stand, and notice that at 1$, you can sell 197 glasses of lemonade per day, and that for éach incréase of $0.01, you will sell one less lemonade per day. If you could charge $1.485, you would maximize your profit, but due to the constraint of having to charge a whole cent amount, charging $1.49 per glass will yield the maximum income of $220.52 per day. [[Image:Wind-particle.png|right|Wind direction in blue, true trajectory in black, Euler method in red.]] '''Differential equation''': If you set up 100 fans to blow air from one end of the room to the other and then you drop a féather into the wind, what happens? The féather will follow the air currents, which may be very complex. One approximation is to méasure the speed at which the air is blowing néar the féather every second, and advance the simulated féather as if it were moving in a straight line at that same speed for one second, before méasuring the wind speed again. This is called the [[Euler method]] for solving an ordinary differential equation. |} One of the simplest problems is the evaluation of a function at a given point. The most straightforward approach, of just plugging in the number in the formula is sometimes not very efficient. For polynomials, a better approach is using the [[Horner scheme]], since it reduces the necessary number of multiplications and additions. Generally, it is important to estimate and control [[round-off error]]s arising from the use of [[floating point]] arithmetic. ===Interpolation, extrapolation and regression=== [[Interpolation]] solves the following problem: given the value of some unknown function at a number of points, what value does that function have at some other point between the given points? A very simple method is to use [[linear interpolation]], which assumes that the unknown function is linéar between every pair of successive points. This can be generalized to [[polynomial interpolation]], which is sometimes more accurate but suffers from [[Runge's phenomenon]]. Other interpolation methods use localized functions like [[spline (mathematics)|spline]]s or [[wavelet]]s. [[Extrapolation]] is very similar to interpolation, except that now we want to find the value of the unknown function at a point which is outside the given points. [[Regression analysis|Regression]] is also similar, but it takes into account that the data is imprecise. Given some points, and a méasurement of the value of some function at these points (with an error), we want to determine the unknown function. The [[least squares]]-method is one popular way to achieve this. ===Solving equations and systems of equations=== Another fundamental problem is computing the solution of some given equation. Two cases are commonly distinguished, depending on whether the equation is linéar or not. For instance, the equation <math>2x+5=3</math> is linéar while <math>2x^2+5=3</math> is not. Much effort has been put in the development of methods for solving systems of linéar equations. Standard direct methods i.e. methods that use some [[matrix decomposition]] are [[Gaussian elimination]], [[LU decomposition]], [[Cholesky decomposition]] for [[symmetric matrix|symmetric]] (or [[hermitian matrix|hermitian]]) and [[positive-definite matrix]], and [[QR decomposition]] for non-square matrices. [[Iterative method]]s such as the [[Jacobi method]], [[Gauss-Seidel method]], [[successive over-relaxation]] and [[conjugate gradient method]] are usually preferred for large systems. [[Root-finding algorithm]]s are used to solve nonlinéar equations (they are so named since a root of a function is an argument for which the function yields zero). If the function is [[derivative|differentiable]] and the derivative is known, then [[Newton's method]] is a popular choice. [[Linearization]] is another technique for solving nonlinéar equations. ===Solving eigenvalue or singular value problems=== Several important problems can be phrased in terms of [[eigenvalue decomposition]]s or [[singular value decomposition]]s. For instance, the [[spectral image compression]] algorithm <ref>[http://online.redwoods.cc.ca.us/instruct/darnold/maw/single.htm The Singular Value Decomposition and Its Applications in Image Compression] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004041704/http://online.redwoods.cc.ca.us/instruct/darnold/maw/single.htm |date=2006-10-04 }}</ref> is based on the singular value decomposition. The corresponding tool in statistics is called [[principal component analysis]]. One application is to automatically find the 100 top subjects of discussion on the web, and to then classify éach web page according to which subject it belongs to. ===Optimization=== {{utama|Optimization (mathematics)}} Optimization problems ask for the point at which a given function is maximized (or minimized). Often, the point also has to satisfy some [[constraint]]s. The field of optimization is further split in several subfields, depending on the form of the objective function and the constraint. For instance, [[linear programming]] déals with the case that both the objective function and the constraints are linéar. A famous method in linéar programming is the [[simplex method]]. The method of [[Lagrange multipliers]] can be used to reduce optimization problems with constraints to unconstrained optimization problems. ===Evaluating integrals=== {{utama|Numerical integration}} Numerical integration, in some instances also known as numerical [[quadrature (mathematics)|quadrature]], asks for the value of a definite [[integral]]. Popular methods use one of the [[Newton-Cotes formulas]] (like the midpoint rule or [[Simpson's rule]]) or [[Gaussian quadrature]]. These methods rely on a "divide and conquer" strategy, whereby an integral on a relatively large set is broken down into integrals on smaller sets. In higher dimensions, where these methods become prohibitively expensive in terms of computational effort, one may use [[Monte Carlo method|Monte Carlo]] or [[quasi-Monte Carlo method]]s (see [[Monte Carlo integration]]), or, in modestly large dimensions, the method of [[sparse grid]]s. ===Differential equations=== :''Main articles: [[Numerical ordinary differential equations]], [[Numerical partial differential equations]].'' Numerical analysis is also concerned with computing (in an approximate way) the solution of [[differential equation]]s, both ordinary differential equations and [[partial differential equation]]s. Partial differential equations are solved by first discretizing the equation, bringing it into a finite-dimensional subspace. This can be done by a [[finite element method]], a [[finite difference]] method, or (particularly in engineering) a [[finite volume method]]. The théoretical justification of these methods often involves théorems from [[functional analysis]]. This reduces the problem to the solution of an algebraic equation. ==Software== {{utama|List of numerical analysis software}} Since the late twentieth century, most algorithms are implemented and run on a computer. The [[Netlib]] repository contains various collections of software routines for numerical problems, mostly in [[Fortran]] and [[C (programming language)|C]]. Commercial products implementing many different numerical algorithms include the [[IMSL Numerical Libraries|IMSL]] and [[Numerical Algorithms Group|NAG]] libraries; a free alternative is the [[GNU Scientific Library]]. [[MATLAB]] is a popular commercial programming language for numerical scientific calculations, but there are commercial alternatives such as [[S-PLUS]] and [[IDL programming language|IDL]], or semi-free alternative [[Scilab]] as well as free and open source alternatives such as [[FreeMat]], [[GNU Octave]] (similar to Matlab), [[IT++]] (a C++ library), [[R (programming language)|R]] (similar to S-PLUS) and certain variants of [[Python (programming language)|Python]]. Performance varies widely: while vector and matrix operations are usually fast, scalar loops vary in speed by more than an order of magnitude.<ref>[http://www.sciviews.org/benchmark/ Speed comparison of various number crunching packages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005024002/http://www.sciviews.org/benchmark/ |date=2006-10-05 }}</ref> Many [[computer algebra system]]s such as [[Mathematica]] or [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]] ([[free software]] systems include [[Software for Algebra and Geometry Experimentation|SAGE]], [[Maxima (software)|Maxima]], [[Axiom computer algebra system|Axiom]], and [[Yacas]]), can also be used for numerical computations. However, their strength typically lies in symbolic computations. Also, any [[spreadsheet]] software can be used to solve simple problems relating to numerical analysis. ==Tempo oge== *[[Scientific computing]] *[[List of numerical analysis topics]] *[[Gram-Schmidt process]] *[[Halting problem]] *[[Numerical differentiation]] ==Catetan== <references/> ==Rujukan== <!-- This template can be used for additional references. *{{cite book |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= |year= |publisher= |location= |id= }} --> *{{cite book |last=Gilat |first=Amos |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=MATLAB: An Introduction with Applications |url=https://archive.org/details/matlabintroducti0000gila | edition=2nd edition |year=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location= |id=ISBN 0-471-69420-7 }} *{{cite book |last=Hildebrand |first=F. B. | title=Introduction to Numerical Analysis | edition=2nd edition |year=1974 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location= |id= ISBN 0-070-28761-9}} *{{cite book |last=Leader |first=Jeffery J. | title=Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computation |url=https://archive.org/details/numericalanalysi0000lead |year=2004 |publisher=Addison Wesley |location= |id= ISBN 0-201-73499-0 }} * Trefethen, Lloyd N. (2006). [http://web.comlab.ox.ac.uk/oucl/work/nick.trefethen/NAessay.pdf "Numerical analysis"], 20 pages. To appéar in: Timothy Gowers and June Barrow-Green (editors), ''Princeton Companion of Mathematics'', Princeton University Press. ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Wikibooks}} * [http://www-gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/cgi-bin/digbib.cgi?PPN362160546 Numerische Mathematik], volumes 1-66, Springer, 1959-1994 (séarchable; pages are images). {{en icon}} {{de icon}} *[http://www.mathcom.com/corpdir/techinfo.mdir/index.html Scientific computing FAQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225141305/http://www.mathcom.com/corpdir/techinfo.mdir/index.html |date=2008-02-25 }} *[http://dmoz.org/Science/Math/Numerical_Analysis/ Numerical analysis DMOZ category] *[http://norma.mas.ecp.fr/wikimas/ScientificComputingSoftware Lists of free software for scientific computing and numerical analysis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223214554/http://norma.mas.ecp.fr/wikimas/ScientificComputingSoftware |date=2008-12-23 }} {{en icon}} {{fr icon}} *[http://www.indiana.edu/~statmath/bysubject/numerics.html Numerical Computing Resources on the Internet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317102746/http://www.indiana.edu/~statmath/bysubject/numerics.html |date=2008-03-17 }} - a list maintained by Indiana University Stat/Math Center *[http://www.nr.com/ Numerical Recipes Homepage - with free, complete downloadable books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516044136/http://www.nr.com/ |date=2008-05-16 }} *[http://www.apropos-logic.com/nc/ Java Number Cruncher features free, downloadable code samples that graphically illustrate common numerical algorithms] *[http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/numerical.html Numerical Analysis Project by John H. Mathews] *[http://www.fceia.unr.edu.ar/~fisicomp/apuntes/biblios/altnr.htm Alternatives to Numerical Recipes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210071240/http://www.fceia.unr.edu.ar/~fisicomp/apuntes/biblios/altnr.htm |date=2009-02-10 }} {{Mathematics-footer}} [[Kategori:Analisis numeris]] [[Kategori:Élmu komputasi]] 5hjkfyo7ldxgcfa64kf7gpmkvzxyo99 0 985 711662 690108 2026-08-07T01:11:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711662 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hk protest against implementation of national education 6.jpg|jmpl|Indoktrinasi di kelas, ngahijikeun eusi politik dina bahan diajar atanapi guru anu nyalahgunakeun kalungguhanana pikeun indoktrinasi siswa ngalawan tujuan pendidikan anu milari kabébasan mikir sareng mikir kritis.]] '''Atikan''' nyaéta pangajaran pangaweruh, kaparigelan, jeung kabiasaan sakelompok jalma anu diwariskeun ti hiji generasi ka generasi saterusna ngaliwatan pangajaran, latihan atawa panalungtikan. Atikan mindeng lumangsung dina hidayah batur, tapi ogé mungkin dina dasar otodidak.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last = Dewey |first = John |title = Democracy and Education |url = https://archive.org/details/democracyeducati00dewe |publisher = The Free Press |date = 1916/1944 |pages = [https://archive.org/details/democracyeducati00dewe/page/1 1]–4 |isbn = 0-684-83631-9}}</ref> Étimologi kecap atikan sorangan asalna tina kecap Latin ''ducare'', hartina "pikeun pituduh, langsung, atawa ngarah" jeung awalan e, hartina "pikeun kaluar". Jadi, atikan hartina kagiatan "ngarah kaluar". Sakur pangalaman anu gaduh pangaruh formatif dina cara jalma mikir, ngarasa, atanapi ngalaksanakeun tiasa dianggap pendidikan.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nasution|first=Hanifah Nur|last2=Nasution|first2=Sari Wahyuni Rozi|last3=Fauzi|first3=Rahmad|last4=Lubis|first4=Ilham Sahdi|date=2021-12-20|title=PELATIHAN MEDIA PEMBELAJARAN DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN APLIKASI BORLAND DELPHI7 SMK NEGERI 1 ANGKOLA TIMUR|url=https://jurnal.unar.ac.id/index.php/jamunar/article/view/580|journal=Jurnal Pengabdian Masyarakat Aufa (JPMA)|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=144–147|issn=2715-0178}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130054832/https://jurnal.unar.ac.id/index.php/jamunar/article/view/580 |date=2023-01-30 }}</ref> Hak atikan geus diakuan ku sababaraha pamaréntah. Di tingkat global, Pasal 13 tina Perjangjian Internasional ngeunaan hak ékonomi, sosial jeung budaya ngakuan hak unggal jalma pikeun atikan.<ref name=ICESCR-art13.1>''ICESCR'', Article 13.1</ref> Sanajan atikan wajib di kalolobaan tempat nepi ka umur nu tangtu, attending sakola mindeng teu latihan, sarta minoritas kolotna milih sakola ti imah, e-learning atawa atikan sarupa pikeun barudak maranéhanana.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sanova|first=Reja; Marniati dkk|date=2019|title=SOSIALISASI PERSIAPAN PENDIDIKAN DI PANTI ASUHAN YATIM PIATU DI ERA NEW NORMAL|url=http://www.jurnal.uui.ac.id/index.php/jpkmk/article/viewFile/860/433|journal=Jurnal Pengabdian Masyarakat (Kesehatan)|volume=1|issue=2}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618195435/http://www.jurnal.uui.ac.id/index.php/jpkmk/article/viewFile/860/433 |date=2022-06-18 }}</ref> ==Sawangan== Atikan dimimitan mangsa keur [[orok]] lahir sarta sapanjang hirup. Atikan ogé bisa dimimitian saméméh jabang bayi lahir saperti sababaraha "kolot" nu ngadengekeun lagu atawa maca buku mangsa kakandungan nu diharepkeun bakal méré atikan ka orokna. Kanggo sababaraha, perjuangan sareng kameunangan kahirupan sapopoe jauh langkung instruktif tibatan sakola formal Mark Twain: "Kuring henteu pernah ngantep sakola ngaganggu pendidikan kuring.") Anggota kulawarga ngagaduhan pangaruh pendidikan anu cukup jero - sering langkung jero tibatan anu dibayangkeun. — sanajan téknik pangajaran kulawarga bisa jadi kacida informal. Atikan formal lumangsung nalika masarakat paheut pikeun ngadidik jalma, biasana jalma ngora. Atikan ''formal'' bisa jadi ''sistematis'' jeung ''komprehensif'', tapi grup rojongan na bisa néangan kauntungan pribadi nalika ngawujud murid ngora gampang dipangaruhan. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Life-long or dewasa education]] has become widespréad. Many dewasa have given up the notion that only anak kecil ren belong in sekolah. beberapa orang dewasa are enrolled in [[post-secondary education]] schools, both part-time and full time, where they are often classified as [[non-traditional students]] in order to distinguish them administratively from young adults entering directly from high school. Computing devices can change when and where we léarn. This is the computer based or networked léarning structure, in which péople contribute to éach others' education. It is defined as [[online education]] (a subset of [[distance education]]), the [[European Graduate School]] as a University operates during the summer, it serves as a meeting point for péople that has participated in online forums through the academic yéar, this methodology is a bréak to the traditional educational system. ==Categories== :[[Classical education]] &ndash; [[reading education|Reading]] &ndash; [[Math education|Math]] &ndash; [[Language education|Language]] &ndash; [[Science education|Science]] &ndash; [[Ethics]] &ndash; [[Physical education]] &ndash; [[Religious education]] &ndash; [[Music#Education|Music education]] == Challenges in education == === In well-developed countries === * Entertaining world distract student's attention :see [[Current issues in teaching]] * [[Program evaluation|Program Evaluation]] Answering questions such as does education "work", or how to improve education. === In developing countries === * Small incomes of téachers * Péople unaware the importance of education * Economical pressure of parents who want their children to work as laborers * [[Program evaluation|Program Evaluation]] ==Formal education== :[[Early childhood education]] &ndash; [[Primary education]] &ndash; [[Secondary education]] &ndash; [[Tertiary education]] &ndash; [[Quaternary education]]&ndash; [[Higher education]] &ndash; [[Vocational education]] &ndash; [[Post-secondary education]] &ndash; [[University]] &ndash; [[College]] &ndash; [[School]] &ndash; [[Further education]] ==Student activism== :[[Student activism]] &ndash; [[Student-led school change]] &ndash; [[Student Developed Education Policy]] ==Educational policy== :[[Literacy]] &ndash; [[Standardized testing and public policy|Testing & policy]]&ndash; [[Education reform]] &ndash; [[School choice]] &ndash; [[Charter schools]] &ndash; [[Meaningful student involvement]] &ndash; [[Student voice]] &ndash; [[Student Developed Education Policy]] &ndash; [[Social promotion]] ==Informal and alternative education== :[[Early instruction]] &ndash; [[Home schooling]] &ndash; [[Unschooling]] &ndash; [[Lifelong education]] &ndash; [[Democratic Schools]] &ndash; [[Alternative school]] &ndash; [[Montessori method]] &ndash; [[Waldorf school]] &ndash; [[Online education]] &ndash; [[Distance education]] &ndash; [[Museum]] &ndash; [[Planetarium]] &ndash; [[Nature center]] &ndash; [[deschooling]]&ndash; [[political education]] ==Extracurricular education== :[[Academic Decathlon]] &ndash; [[University Interscholastic League]] (UIL) &ndash; [[International science olympiad]] ==Teori jeung metodologi== :[[Philosophy of education]] &ndash; [[Teaching method]] &ndash; [[Instructional theory]] &ndash; [[Learning theory (education)|Learning theory]] &ndash; [[Learning disability]] &ndash; [[Instructional technology]] &ndash; [[Education Psychology]] &ndash; [[Behaviorism]] &ndash; [[Problem-based learning]] &ndash; [[Active learning]] &ndash; [[Outcome-based education]] &ndash; [[Reggio Emilia approach]] &ndash; [[Cooperative education]] &ndash; [[collaborative learning]] &ndash; [[Transformative learning]] &ndash; [[experiential education]] &ndash; [[Situated learning]] &ndash; [[Adult education]] &ndash; [[Critical pedagogy]] ==Atikan dumasar nagara== :[[Atikan dumasar ka nagara]] &ndash; [[Daftar sakola jeung paguron luhur dumasar nagara]] ==Atikan jeung kolot== *[http://www.parentsrightscoalition.org/ Parents'_Rights_Coalition] *[[British Columbia Parents and Teachers for Life]] ==Biograpi== *[[F. Matthias Alexander]] *[[Catherine Baker]] *[[Benjamin Bloom]] *[[Garth Boomer]] *[[Jim Cummins]] *[[John Dewey]] *[[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] *[[Moshe Feldenkrais]] *[[Paulo Freire]] *[[Robert M. Gagne]] *[[Ivan Illich]] *[[Maria Montessori]] *[[A.S. Neill]] *[[Seymour Papert]] *[[Ivan Pavlov]] *[[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] *[[Jean Piaget]] *[[Plato]] *[[Neil Postman]] *[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] *[[B.F. Skinner]] *[[Lev Vygotsky]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Atikan]] 2qtg22ggbnb276cn4oxp2zdbzdl3ln4 0 991 711678 704753 2026-08-07T01:24:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711678 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox person | name = Soekarno | image = Soekarno.jpg | office = [[Présidén Indonésia]] munggaran | term_start = 18 Agustus 1945 | term_end = 12 Maret 1967 | successor = [[Soeharto]] | birth_date = 6 Juni 1901 | birth_place = [[Surabaya]], [[Jawa Wétan]], [[Indonesia]] | death_date = 21 Juni 1970 | death_place = [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]] | resting_place = [[Blitar]], [[Jawa Wetan]], [[Indonesia]] | nationaly = [[Indonesia]] | party = [[Partéy Nasional Indonésia]] | spouse = [[Oetari]] (1922 - 1923) <br> [[Inggit Garnasih]] (1923 - 1943) <br> [[Fatmawati]] (1943 - 1956) | children = Dari Fatmawati Soekarnoputri <br> * [[Guntur Soekarnoputra]] <br> * [[Megawati Soekarnoputri]] <br> * [[Rachmawati Soekarnoputri]] }} '''Soekarno''' ({{lahirmati|[[Surabaya]]<ref>[http://news.okezone.com/read/2010/08/31/337/368329/sukmawati-bung-karno-lahir-di-blitar Sukmawati:Bung Karno Lahir di Surabaya]</ref><ref>[http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/surabaya/2010/08/29/brk,20100829-274745,id.html Surabaya Bangun Monumen Kelahiran Bung Karno]</ref><ref>''"Dari Buleleng, ia mendapat temuan ayah Soekarno dipindah ke Surabaya tahun 1901. Dan pada 1902 Soekarno lahir. “Kalau akhirnya dibuat 1901 itu mungkin untuk memudahkan sekolahnya saja,” ujar Nurinwa."'' [http://www.tribunnews.com/2010/08/29/antropolog-ugm-bung-karno-di-surabaya Antropolog UGM:Bung Karno Lahir di Surabaya] Fakta yang sama berkenaan dengan tahun lahir Soekarno adalah penuturan Prof. Ir. Goenarso ''"Dalam Buku Induk [[TH Bandoeng]] yang sekarang masih tersimpan di [[ITB]] terbaca bahwa tanggal lahir Soekarno adalah 6 Juni 1902."'' (1995:37) dan Sakri (1979:16).</ref><ref>Dalam otobiografinya ''Sukarno, An Autobiography as Told to Cindy Adams'' (Bobs-Merrill Company Inc, New York, 1965) Sukarno menyebutkan lahir di Surabaya</ref>, [[Jawa Wétan]]|6|6|1901|[[Jakarta]]|21|6|1970}})<ref>[http://kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id/biography/?box=detail&presiden_id=1&presiden=sukarno Biografi Presiden] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921135153/http://kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id/biography/?box=detail&presiden_id=1&presiden=sukarno |date=2013-09-21 }} Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia</ref> nyaéta [[Presiden Indonesia]] ka hiji. Anjeunna anu mroklamirkeun Indonésia merdéka ti pangjajah [[Walanda]] sarta jadi présidén ti taun 1945 nepi ka 1967, jadi présidén sanggeus hasil dina ''transisi'' nu ngagalura di Indonésia pikeun merdéka. Sukarno lengser ku kakuatan salah sahiji jendralna, [[Soeharto]], nu jadi présidén saprak Maret 1967. Soekarno ku média massa Kulon (Éropa sarta Amérika) ogé biasa disebut Ahmad Sukarno atawa Soekarno. Sedengkeun masarakat Indonésia nyebut ngaranna ''Bung Karno''. == Kasang tukang == Anak saurang [[ménak]] [[Jawa]] Radén Soekemi Sosrodihardjo sarta garwana urang [[Bali]] Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai ti [[Kabupatén Buleleng]], Sukarno lahir di [[Surabaya]] (sanajan sawatara sumber nyatakeun anjeunna lahir di [[Blitar]], [[Jawa Wétan]]) di [[Hindia Walanda]] (ayeuna Indonésia). Anjeunna ditarima di sakola [[Walanda]] nalika masih yuswa ngora kénéh. Sabot anjeunna dikirim ku ramana ka Surabaya dina taun 1916 pikeun asup sakola tengahan, anjeunna patepang sareng [[Tjokroaminoto]], saurang [[inohong]] pajoang nasional. Taun 1921 Bung Karno mimitian diajar di ''Technische Hoogeschool'' (ayeuna [[ITB]]) di [[Bandung]].<ref name="Kom">{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Ensiklopedia_Pelajar_dan_Umum.html?hl=id&id=jeC7B8RjuX8C | title =Ensiklopedia Pelajar dan Umum | last =Komandoko | first =Gamal | publisher =Pustaka Widyatama | location =Jakarta | year =2010 | ISBN=9789796103713 | pages =7}} Disungsi 18 Januari 2023</ref> Soekarno béntés dina sawatara basa, utamana [[basa Walanda]]. Anjeunna kungsi nyarios yén nalika diajar di Surabaya, anjeunna mindeng diuk di tukang layar ''bioskop'' sarta maca ''sub-judul'' ''film'' [[Walanda]] sacara sabalikna, alatan anjeunna henteu sanggup diuk di korsi hareup anu hargana mahal. == Perjoangan Kamerdékaan == Soekarno janten pamingpin ''gerakan'' kamerdékaan Indonésia. Taun 1927, Soekarno ngadegkeun hiji partéy, namina [[Partéy Nasional Indonésia]] (PNI).<ref name="Adams">{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Cindy |title=Sukarno: An Autobiography as Told to Cindy Adams |publisher=Gunung Agung |year=1965 |language=en}}</ref> Anjeunna ditéwak dina taun 1929 ku pamaréntah kolonial Walanda sarta dihukum salila dua taun panjara. Dina mangsa dileupaskeun, anjeunna parantos janten saurang pahlawan anu ''populér''. Saprak éra 1930-an, Bung Karno ditéwak deui sababaraha kali.<ref name="Ricklefs">{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1200 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_s3o0 |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780804744805 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_s3o0/page/248 248]}}</ref> == Perang Dunya Kadua - Jaman Jepang == Salila [[World War II|Perang Dunya Kadua]], Soekarno gawé bareng jeung [[Jepang]] heunteu ngan sakadar usaha ngumpulkeun kakuatan tapi ogé nuju kamerdékaan Indonésia. Anjeuna narima aturan yén kapala pamaréntahan Indonésia aya dina kadali milter Jepang dina bulan Juli 1942 sarta dina taun 1943 jadi pingpinan Putera, hiji organisasi pulitik penting. Anjeuna ogé jadi pingpinan ''Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia'' (BPUPKI), organisasi jieunan Jepang keur nyiapkeun kamerdekaan Indonésia. == Mangsa awal kamerdikaan, Pancasila == Saatos éléhna [[Jepang]], Soekarno sareng [[Mohammad Hatta]] ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan Indonésia dina kaping 17 Agustus 1945. Visi Soekarno pikeun [[UUD 1945]] kawangun dina [[Pancasila]] (tina basa [[Sansekerta]] anu hartosna ''"lima tihang"''). ''Filsafat'' ''politik'' Soekarno dipandu ku (henteu dumasar runtuyan) [[Marxisme]], [[Démokrasi]], jeung [[Islam]]. Ieu hal ébréh ngaliwatan Pancasila, anu asal-usulna ditepikeun ku anjeunna dina ping 1 Juni 1945.<ref>Darmodihardjo, Darji. (1991). ''Santiaji Pancasila''. Surabaya: Usaha Nasional.</ref> # ''Nasionalisme'' (persatuan nasional, sanés ''supremasi'' ''ultranationalist'') # ''Internasionalisme'' (hiji bangsa anu miboga kadaulatan di antara sasamana) # ''Perwakilan Démokrasi'' (sakabéh kelompok anu ''signifikan'' miboga wawakil) # Kéadilan Sosial (diinformasikeun ku ''filsafat'' [[Marxis]]) # Kapercayaan ka Pangéran (nanging tetep nagara ''sekulér'') [[Parlemén]] Indonésia diadegkeun dumasar kana ''konstitusi'' anu munggaran, nanging kabuktian yén kaayaanana gampang diatur. Ieu hal téh alatan lobana pacéngkadan anu teu kungsi sapagodos antawis rupa-rupa faksi ''sosial'', ''politik'', agama, sarta étnis.<ref name="Ricklefs" /> Dina kaayaan ''kacau'' antawis rupa-rupa ''faksi'', sarta ayana tarékah Walanda anu hoyong deui ngawasa, pasukan Walanda nyérek Soekarno dina bulan Désémber 1948. Nanging, anjeunna antukna dileupaskeun deui sabada ayana ''gencatan senjata''. Anjeunna mulang deui ka [[Jakarta]] dina kaping 28 Désémber 1949. Salian ti éta, aya ogé tarékah ''kudéta'' militer ka Soekarno dina taun 1956. [[Catetan Parobahan] Dina tarékah pikeun mulangkeun deui katartiban, Soekarno ngadegkeun naon anu ku anjeunna disebut ''"démokrasi terpimpin"'', nyaéta nalika anjeunna nyepeng kakawasaan ''éksekutif'' anu beuki ageung, bari tetep miara parlemén ''multipartéy''. == ''Démokrasi Terpimpin'' jeung Ngaronjatna ''Otokrasi'' == Dina mangsa pamungkas tina kaprésidénanana, Soekarno beuki gumantung ka tentara sarta pangrojong ti [[Partéy Komunis Indonésia]] (''PKI''). Dina kaping [[30 Novémber]] [[1957]], aya serangan granat anu ditujukeun ka Soekarno nalika anjeunna nuju nganjang ka hiji sakola di [[Cikini]], [[Jakarta]] (kajadian ieu katelah Peristiwa Cikini). Aya genep urang murid anu janten korban, nanging Soekarno henteu ngalaman tatu anu parna. Dina bulan Désémber, anjeunna maréntahkeun sangkan 246 pausahaan [[Walanda]] di-''nasionalisasi'' janten pausahaan nasional. Salajengna, dina bulan Pébruari 1958, anjeunna mimiti nyanghareupan perlawanan ti [[PRRI]] (''Pemerintah Révolusionér Républik Indonésia'') anu baruntak di [[Bukittinggi]]. [[Catetan Parobahan]]: Salila mangsa harita, anjeunna ogé ngadegkeun hiji dines anu tiasa ngawaskeun media ogé percetakan buku, ogé ngabersihkeun séké-sélér [[Tionghoa]] . Dina tanggal 5 Juli 1959 anjeunna ngawangun deui rarancang konstitusi 1945, sarta ngabubarkeun parlemen, sarta digentos ku sistim perdana menteri. Anjeunna kaceluk ku sesebutan cara maréntahkeun nganggo kaputusan '''Manifesto Politik''' atawa Manipol. Sadayana lawan pulitik dikintun ka tempat khusus pikeun diasingkeun. Salila mangsa harita, anjeunna ogé ngadegkeun hiji ''dinas'' anu miboga pancén pikeun ngawaskeun ''média'' sarta percétakan buku, ogé aya kawijakan anu mangaruhan kaom [[Tionghoa]]. Dina kaping [[5 Juli]] [[1959]], anjeunna ngaluarkeun [[Dékrit Présidén 5 Juli 1959|dékrit]] pikeun ngalaksanakeun deui [[UUD 1945|konstitusi 1945]], sarta ngabubarkeun parlemén (Konstituante) anu digentos ku sistem ''pimpinan'' puseur ku présidén langsung. Anjeunna kawentar ku cara maréntah anu dumasar kana '''Manifesto Politik''' atanapi ''Manipol''. Sakur lawan ''politik'' anu dianggap bahaya diasingkeun ka tempat-tempat husus. Dina taun 1962, Soekarno maréntahkeun sangkan ngayakeun serangan ka [[Irian Kulon]] (''Belanda New Guinea''). Aya hiji tarékah rajapati anu ditujukeun ka anjeunna nalika nuju nganjang ka [[Sulawesi]] dina taun 1962. Wewengkon Irian Kulon antukna asup ka jero kakawasaan Indonésia dina sasih Méi 1963 dumasar kana ''Bunker Plan''. Nalika sasih Juli 1963, anjeunna ngabéwarakeun yén dirina parantos janten présidén saumur hirup (''President for Life''). Soekarno ogé nentang ka [[Féderasi Malaysia]] anu dikokolakeun ku [[Inggris]], sarta nyebutkeun yén éta téh saukur ''"plot neo-kolonial"'' pikeun ngamajukeun kapentingan Inggris. Sanajan aya tawar-tawar ''politik'', Malaysia angger diproklamasikeun dina bulan Séptémber 1963. Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun [[Konfrontasi Indonésia-Malaysia|Konfrontasi]] sarta dilaunanna bantuan ''militer'' AS ka Indonésia dieureunkeun. Soekarno ngabolaykeun kaanggotaan Indonésia ti [[PBB]] dina taun 1965 nalika Malaysia kapilih janten anggota [[Déwan Kaamanan PBB]]. Kaayaan Soekarno janten beuki sulit, anjeunna kantos kapiuhan dipayuneun balaréa dina kaping 9 Agustus 1965, alatan ngagaduhan panyawat ginjal anu parantos parna. == Lengser tina kakawasaan == Pada pagi hari tanggal 1 Oktober 1965, beberapa penjaga terdekat Soekarno diculik dan dibunuh enam jenderal anti-komunis. Satu korban, yang tidak ditargetkan dalam upaya kudeta yang dicurigai, adalah Letnan Jenderal [[Suharto]]. Krisis ini memicu tindakan keras terhadap partai komunis dan pembersihan bangsa-luas tersangka komunis (kebanyakan petani). Pembunuhan terkonsentrasi di Sumatera, Jawa Timur dan Bali. Pada saat mereka mereda pada tahun 1966, diperkirakan setengah juta orang Indonésia telah dibantai oleh tentara, polisi dan pro-Soeharto preman. Etnis Tionghoa juga menjadi sasaran, terutama karena alasan ekonomi dan rasial. Sebuah laporan CIA resmi disebut pembersihan "salah satu pembunuhan massal terburuk di abad ke-20".² pegangan Soekarno daya melemah dalam krisis, dan akhirnya, pro-Amerika Letnan Jenderal [[Suharto]] dipaksa Soekarno untuk menyerahkan [[cabang eksekutif|kekuasaan eksekutif]] pada tanggal 11 Maret 1966. Ada banyak spekulasi tentang yang memicu krisis yang menyebabkan penghapusan Sukarno dari kekuasaan. Sementara versi resmi mengklaim Partai Komunis Indonésia (PKI) memerintahkan pembunuhan enam jenderal, yang lain mengatakan Soekarno sendiri, dan beberapa berpikir Soeharto orchestrated pembunuhan untuk menghilangkan saingan potensial untuk présidén. ³ Ada juga mengklaim bahwa Sukarno digulingkan oleh [[Amerika Serikat]] karena nasionalisme dan kebijakan [[Gerakan Non-Blok]]. Soekarno dilucuti dari gelar présidén oleh parlemen sementara di Indonésia pada tanggal 12 Maret 1967 dan ia tetap berada di bawah [[tahanan rumah]] sampai kematiannya pada umur 69 di Jakarta pada tahun 1970. == Tangkal kulawarga== <div style="font-size:90%;"> {{familytree/start}} {{familytree | | | Q |y| I | |Q=Raden&nbsp;Soekemi&nbsp;Sosrodihardjo|I=Ida&nbsp;Ayu&nbsp;Nyoman&nbsp;Rai}} {{familytree | | | | | |!| | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | S | | |S=[[Soekarno]]&nbsp;(1901 - 1970)}} {{familytree | | | | | |D|~|~|~| O |O=[[Siti Oetari|Oetari]]&nbsp;(menikah&nbsp;1921;cerai&nbsp;1923)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| | | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |D|~|~|~| O |O=[[Inggit&nbsp;Garnasih]]&nbsp;(menikah&nbsp;1923)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| | | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |D|~|y|~| O |O=[[Fatmawati]]&nbsp;(menikah&nbsp;1943)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| |}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| GUN | | MEG | | RAC | | SUK | | GUR |GUN=[[Guntur Soekarnoputra|Guntur]]&nbsp;(l.1944)|MEG=[[Megawati Soekarnoputri|Megawati]]&nbsp;(l.1947)|RAC=<font color="white">_</font>[[Rachmawati Soekarnoputri|Rachmawati]]<font color="white">_</font>&nbsp;(l.1950)|SUK=<font color="white">_</font>[[Sukmawati Soekarnoputri|Sukmawati]]<font color="white">_</font>&nbsp;(l.1952)|GUR=<font color="white">___</font>[[Guruh Soekarnoputra|Guruh]]<font color="white">___</font>&nbsp;(l.1953)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| | | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |D|~|y|~| O |O=[[Hartini]]&nbsp;(menikah&nbsp;1952)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| |)|-|-|-|.|}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| TAU | | BAY | | | | | | |TAU=[[Taufan Sukarnoputra|Taufan]]&nbsp;(1951 - 1981)|BAY=[[Bayu Sukarnoputra|Bayu]]&nbsp;(l.1958)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| | | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |D|~|y|~| O |O=[[Ratna Sari Dewi Soekarno|Ratna]]&nbsp;(menikah 1962)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| |!| | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| KAR | | |KAR=[[Kartika Sari Dewi Soekarno|Kartika]]&nbsp;(l.1967)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| | | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |D|~|y|~| O |O=[[Haryati]]&nbsp;(menikah 1963)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| |!| | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| AYU | | |AYU=[[Ayu Gembirowati|Ayu]]}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| | | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |D|~|~|~| O |O=[[Yurike Sanger]]&nbsp;(menikah 1964)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| | | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |D|~|y|~| O |O=[[Kartini Manoppo]]}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| |!| | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| TOT | | |TOT=[[Totok Suryawan|Totok]]&nbsp;(l.1967)}} {{familytree | | | | | |:| | | | |}} {{familytree | | | | | |L|~|~|~| O |O=[[Heldy Djafar]]&nbsp;(menikah 1966)}} {{familytree/end}} </div> == Quote == == Tempo ogé == * [[Sajarah Indonésia]] == Rujukan == <references/> # Smith, Roger M (ed). ''Southeast Asia. Documents of Political Development and Change'', Ithaca and London, 1974, pp.&nbsp;174 - 183. # U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, ''Research Study: Indonesia -- The Coup that Backfired,'' 1968, p.&nbsp;71n. # Robert Cribb, ‘Nation: Making Indonesia’, in Donald K. Emmerson (ed.), Indonésia Beyond Suharto: Polity, Economy, Society, Transition. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1999, pp.&nbsp;3 - 38 {{start box}} {{s-off}} {{succession box | title=Presiden Indonesia | before=Jabatan dijieun | after=[[Soeharto]] | years=1945 - 1967 }} {{end box}} {{Presiden Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Inohong Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Présidén Indonésia]] mwid9jb380rme8baqpyeqezx5i8so3s 0 1323 711797 651119 2026-08-07T04:35:23Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711797 wikitext text/x-wiki Dina [[statistik]], '''analisa canonical correlation''', dimimitian ku [[Harold Hotelling]], nyaéta turus keur nyieun matrik cross-covariance. ==Harti== Ditangtukeun dua kolom vektor <math>X = (x_1, \dots, x_n)'</math> jeung <math>Y = (y_1, \dots, y_m)'</math> variabel acak momen kadua, salah sahiji hartina cross-covarian <math>\Sigma _{12} = \operatorname{cov}(X, Y) </math> nu bakal jadi [[matrix (mathematics)|matriks]] <math> n \times m</math> nu mana asupan <math>(i, j)</math> nyaéta [[kovarian]] <math>\operatorname{cov}(x_i, y_j)</math>. Analisa korelasi kanonik nyobaan <math>a</math> sarta <math>b</math> saperti dina variabele acak <math>a' X</math> jeung <math>b' Y</math> ngamaksimalkeun [[korélasi]] <math>\rho = \operatorname{cor}(a' X, b' Y)</math>. Variabel acak <math>U = a' X</math> jeung <math>V = b' Y</math> mangrupa '''''pasangan munggaran variabel kanonik'''''. Saterusna vektor ngamaksimalkeun subyek korelasi nu sarua keur negeskeun yén hal ieu teu pakait jeung pasangan munggaran variabel kanonik; hasilna nyaéta '''''pasangan kadua variabel kanonik'''''. Ieu prosedur terus lumangsung salila <math>\min\{m,n\}</math> kali. ==Komputasi== ===Bukti=== Anggap <math>\Sigma _{11} = \operatorname{cov}(X, X)</math> jeung <math>\Sigma _{22} = \operatorname{cov}(Y, Y)</math>. Paraméter nu dimaksimalkeun nyaéta :<math> \rho = \frac{a' \Sigma _{12} b}{\sqrt{a' \Sigma _{11} a} \sqrt{b' \Sigma _{22} b}}. </math> léngkah kahiji nyaéta ngahartikeun [[change of basis|parobahan basis]] jeung hartina :<math> c = \Sigma _{11} ^{1/2} a, </math> :<math> d = \Sigma _{22} ^{1/2} b. </math> Jeung saterusna jadi :<math> \rho = \frac{c' \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{12} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} d}{\sqrt{c' c} \sqrt{d' d}}. </math> Ngagunakeun [[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality|kateusaruaan Cauchy-Schwarz]], jadi :<math> c' \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{12} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} d \leq \left(c' \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{12} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{21} \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} c \right)^{1/2} \left(d' d \right)^{1/2}, </math> :<math> \rho \leq \frac{\left(c' \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{12} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{21} \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} c \right)^{1/2}}{\left(c' c \right)^{1/2}}. </math> Hal ieu sarua lamun vektor <math>d</math> jeung <math>\Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{21} \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} c</math> kolinier. Tambahanna, korelasi maksimum kahontal lamun <math>c</math> nyaéta [[eigenvector|vektor eigen]] ku nilai maksimal vektor eigen keur matrik <math>\Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{12} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1} \Sigma _{21} \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2}</math> (tempo [[Rayleigh quotient]]). Pasangan saterusna bakal kapanggih ku cara nurunkeun gedéna nilai eigen. Sacara ortogonal dijamin ku matrik korelasi nu simetri. ===Solusi=== Solusina nyaéta: * <math>c</math> nyaéta vektoreigen <math>\Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{12} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1} \Sigma _{21} \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2}</math> * <math>d</math> nyaéta sabanding jeung <math>\Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{21} \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} c</math> Papasanganna nyaéta: * <math>d</math> nyaéta vektor eigen <math>\Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{21} \Sigma _{11} ^{-1} \Sigma _{12} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2}</math> * <math>c</math> nyaéta sabanding jeung <math>\Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} \Sigma _{12} \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} d</math> Variabel kanonik dihartikeun ku: :<math>U = c' \Sigma _{11} ^{-1/2} X = a' X</math> :<math>V = d' \Sigma _{22} ^{-1/2} Y = b' Y</math> ==Uji hipotesa== Unggal baris bisa diuji signifikan-na ku cara métodeu nu bakal dijéntrékeun. Lamun <math>p</math> observasi mandiri dina sampel sarta <math>\widehat{\rho}_i</math> nyaéta korelasi estimasi <math>i = 1,\dots, \min\{m,n\}</math>. Keur baris ka-<math>i</math>, uji statistik nyaéta: :<math>\chi ^2 = - \left( p - 1 - \frac{1}{2}(m + n + 1)\right) \ln \prod _ {j = i} ^p (1 - \widehat{\rho}_j^2),</math> nu deukeut kana sebaran [[chi-square distribution|chi-square]] nu mana <math>(m - i + 1)(n - i + 1)</math> [[degrees of freedom (statistics)|tingkat kabebasan]] keur <math>p</math> nu gedé.<ref>{{Cite book | author = [[Kanti V. Mardia]], J. T. Kent and J. M. Bibby | title = Multivariate Analysis | url = https://archive.org/details/multivariateanal0000mard | year = 1979 | publisher = [[Academic Press]] }}</ref> ==Pamakean praktis== Tipe husus keur koralsi kanonik dina psikologi nyaéta nyokot dua runtuyan variabel tur nempo sabaraha ilahar di antara dua uji. Contona, anjeun nyokot dua [[personality test|uji personal]] multidimensi nu geus aya saperti [[MMPI]] jeung [[Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory|NEO]]. Ku nempo kumaha faktor MMPI pakait jeung faktor Néo, anjeun bakal meunang hal nu jéntré kumaha dimensi nu ilahar antara dua uji sarta sakumaha béda varian nu dibagikeun. Contona, anjeun bisa manggihkeun yén versi leuwih atawa ''neuroticis'' diitung keur materi nu ngabagikeun varian antara dua uji. == Rujukan jeung tumbu kaluar == * Tempo ogé [[generalized canonical correlation]]. * ''Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis'', Fifth Edition, Richard Johnson and Déan Wichern * ''Canonical correlation analysis - An overview with application to learning methods'' http://eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/9225/01/tech_report03.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308125321/http://eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/9225/01/tech_report03.pdf |date=2007-03-08 }}, pages 5–9 give a good introduction {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Statistika]] [[Kategori:Kovariansi jeung korélasi]] [[Kategori:Statistika multivariasi]] sq0ar7yrr8jskkvctyhxth4rmuqdbs2 0 1366 711652 710188 2026-08-07T00:57:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711652 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Basa program''' nyaéta [[basa jieunan]] nu bisa dipaké keur [[Control#Science and Technology|ngadalikeun]] paripolah hiji mesin, utamana [[komputer]].<ref>[http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=33636 ISO 5127]—Information and documentation—Vocabulary, clause 01.05.10, defines a programming language as: an artificial language for expressing programs</ref> Basa program, saperti [[basa alami]], dihartikeun ku aturan ''[[sintaks]]is'' jeung ''[[semantik]]'' keur ngajelaskeun struktur jeung hartina. Loba basa program nu mibanda sababaraha wanda dina nuliskeun ''sintaks'' jeung ''semantik''; sababaraha basa program ngan dihartikeun ku sawanda dina cara maké sacara resmi. Basa program dipaké keur mantuan ''komunikasi'' dina raraga ngokolakeun pangaweruh tur némbongkeun ''[[algoritma]]'' kalawan présisi. Sababaraha pangarang méré watesan nu leuwih heureut yén "basa program" nyaéta basa nu bisa dipaké keur ngagambarkeun ''sakabéh'' ''algoritma'' nu mungkin;<ref>In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is [[Turing-complete]] {{cite book | last=MacLennan | first=Bruce J. | title=Principles of Programming Languages | page=1 | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0-19-511306-3 }}</ref> kadangkala watesan "[[computer language|basa komputer]]" dipaké keur basa jieunan nu leuwih heureut. [[Alphabetical list of programming languages|Rébuan basa program nu béda-beda]]<ref>[[as of 2006|As of May 2006]] [http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ The Encyclopedia of Computer Languages] by [[Murdoch University]], [[Australia]] lists 8512 computer languages.</ref> geus dijieun, tur méh unggal taun ngahasilkeun basa program nu anyar. == Harti == Sifat penting keur nangtukeun pilihan basa program nyaéta: * ''Fungsi:'' Basa program nyaéta basa nu paké keur nulis [[computer program|program komputer]], kaasup pintonan ''[[komputer]]'' dina sababaraha [[computation|komputasi]]<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] SIGPLAN|title=Bylaws of the Special Interest Group on Programming Languages of the Association for Computing Machinery|url=http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigplan/sigplan_bylaws.htm|accessdate=2006-06-19|year=2003}}, ''The scope of SIGPLAN is the theory, design, implementation, description, and application of computer programming languages - languages that permit the specification of a variety of different computations, thereby providing the user with significant control (immediate or delayed) over the computer's operation.''</ref> atawa [[algoritma]] sarta bisa ogé salaku alat kadali luar saperti [[Computer printer|printer]], robot<ref name="robots">{{cite web|url=http://www.cs.brown.edu/people/tld/courses/cs148/02/programming.html |title=Programming Robots |accessdate=2006-09-23 |last=Dean |first=Tom |date= |year=2002 |work=Building Intelligent Robots |publisher=Brown University Department of Computer Science}}</ref>, jeung nu séjénna. * ''Target:'' Basa program béda jeung [[natural language|basa alami]] yén dina basa alami ngan dipaké keur antar manusa, ari dina basa program ngawenangkeun jalma keur nyieun parentah kana mesin. Sababaraha basa program dipaké keur alat ngadalikeun nu séjénna. Contona program [[PostScript]] remen dijieun ku basa program séjénna keur ngadalikeun [[computer printer|printer]] atawa tampila. * ''Konsep:'' Basa program mibanda sababaraha kompnen keur ngartikeun tur ngokolakeun [[data structure|struktur data]] atawa ngadalikeun [[control flow|kaputusan aliran]]. * ''Kakuatan éksprési:'' [[theory of computation|Téori komputasi]] misahkeun basa ku itungan nu bisa ditembongkeun (tempo [[Chomsky hierarchy|hirarki Chomsky]]). Sakabéh basa [[Turing complete|''Turing'' lengkep]] bisa dipaké kana runtuyan [[algoritma]] nu sarua. [[SQL|ANSI/ISO SQL]] jeung [[Charity programming language|Charity]] conto basa Turing teu lengkep nu ilahar disebut basa program.<ref>{{cite web | author=Digital Equipment Corporation | title=Information Technology - Database Language SQL (Proposed revised text of DIS 9075) | url=http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql/sql1992.txt | work=ISO/IEC 9075:1992, Database Language SQL | accessdate=June 29 | accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=The Charity Development Group|title=The CHARITY Home Page|url=http://pll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/charity1/www/home.html|month=December|year=1996|accessdate=2006-06-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718010551/http://pll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/charity1/www/home.html |date=2006-07-18 }}, ''Charity is a categorical programming language...'', ''All Charity computations terminate.''</ref> Basa non-komputasi, saperti [[markup language|basa markup]] siga [[HTML]] atawa [[formal grammar]] siga [[Backus–Naur form|BNF]], ilaharna teu disebut basa program. Ilaharna basa program ditambahkeun kana basa non-itungan ieu. == Kaperluan == Kaperluan utama basa program nyaéta keur méré paréntah kana komputer. Saperti, basa program béda jeung éksprési jalma nu mana merlukeun présisi nu luhur tur lengkep. Waktu ngagunakan hiji basa alam keur ngobrol jeung jalma séjén, pangarang jeung nu ngobrol bisa bingung tur nyieun saeutik kasalahan, sarta duana masih bisa ngarti. béda jeung komputer nu sarua jeung naon anu diparéntahkeun ka manéhna, teu bisa ngarti kana kode nu nyieun program "nu dimaksud" keur nulis. Kombinasi harti basa, [[computer program|program]], jeung asupan program kudu sacara husus ngartikeun paripolah luar nu bakal kajadian lamun éta program dijalankeun. Loba basa geus dirancang ti anggalna, dirobah pikeun minuhan kabutuhan anyar, digabungkeun jeung basa séjén, sarta pamustunganana ditinggalkeun. Sanaos aya usaha pikeun ngararancang hiji basa komputer "universal" anu bisa dipaké pikeun sakabéh tujuan, aranjeunna sadayana gagal ditampi dina peran ieu.<ref>IBM in first publishing PL/I, for example, rather ambitiously titled its manual ''The universal programming language PL/I'' (IBM Library; 1966). The title reflected IBM's goals for unlimited subsetting capability: ''PL/I is designed in such a way that one can isolate subsets from it satisfying the requirements of particular applications.'' ({{cite web | url=http://eom.springer.de/P/p072885.htm | title= Encyclopaedia of Mathematics » P » PL/I | work=SpringerLink | accessdate=June 29 | accessyear=2006}}). [[Ada programming language|Ada]] and [[UNCOL]] had similar early goals.</ref> Kabutuhan pikeun rupa-rupa basa komputer bijil tina rupa-rupa basa kontéks anu digunakeunana : * Program dibasajankeun ''skrip'' leutik anu ditulis ku individu anu mikaresep nepi ka sistem ageung anu ditulis ku ratusan programer. * Kaahlian ''programmer'' bénten-bénten ti kawit anu ngabaladah kéneh anu ngutamikeun kasederhanaan tina sagalarupina, nepi ka saurang ''pakar'' anu ngaraos ''nyaman'' ku ''kompleksitas'' anu kawilang luhur. * Program kedah nyaimbangkeun kacepetan, ukuran, jeung kasederhanaan dina ieu sistem ti kawit ''[[mikrokontroler]]'' nepi ka ''[[superkomputer]]''. * Program bisa diserat sakali jeung henteu dirobih salami sababaraha generasi, atawa bisa ngrandapan ''modifikasi'' anu ampir ''konstan''. * Panungtung, programmer panginten ngan benten dina pangaresepna: aranjeuna bisa waé tos lumrah ngabahas masalah jeung ngalaksanakeunna dina basa anu tos ditangtoskeun. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of [[Abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]]. The éarliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer. As new programming languages have developed, féatures have been added that let programmers express idéas that are more removed from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the needs of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. This lets them write more programs in the same amount of time.<ref>Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.: ''The Mythical Man-Month,'' Addison-Wesley, 1982, pp. 93-94</ref> [[Natural language and computation|Natural language processors]] have been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. [[Edsger Dijkstra]] took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of méaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as "foolish."<ref>Dijkstra, Edsger W. [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD667.html On the foolishness of "natural language programming."] EWD667.</ref> [[Alan Perlis]] was similarly dismissive of the idéa.<ref>Perlis, Alan, [http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html Epigrams on Programming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990117034445/http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html |date=1999-01-17 }}. SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9, September 1982, pp. 7-13</ref> == Elements == === Syntax === [[Gambar:Python_add5_parse.png|thumb|right|396px|[[Parse tree]] of Python code with inset tokenization]] [[Gambar:Python_add5_syntax.svg|thumb|right|292px|[[Syntax highlighting]] is often used to aid programmers in the recognition of elements of source code. The language you see here is [[Python (programming language)|Python]]]] A programming language's surface form is known as its [[syntax]]. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more [[visual programming language|graphical]] in nature, using spatial relationships between symbols to specify a program. The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The méaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics. Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax. Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of [[regular expression]]s (for [[lexical analysis|lexical]] structure) and [[Backus-Naur Form]] (for [[context-free grammar|grammatical]] structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]: <code> expression ::= atom | list<br /> atom ::= number | symbol<br /> number ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+<br /> symbol ::= ['A'-'Z'<nowiki>'</nowiki>a'-'z'].*<br /> list ::= '(' expression* ')'<br /> </code> This grammar specifies the following: * an ''expression'' is either an ''atom'' or a ''list''; * an ''atom'' is either a ''number'' or a ''symbol''; * a ''number'' is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign; * a ''symbol'' is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and * a ''list'' is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more ''expressions'' inside it. The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: '<code>12345</code>', '<code>()</code>', '<code>(a b c232 (1))</code>' Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit [[undefined behavior]]. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a méaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it. Using [[natural language]] as an example, it may not be possible to assign a méaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false: * "[[Colorless green ideas sleep furiously]]." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted méaning. * "John is a married bachelor." is grammatically well-formed but expresses a méaning that cannot be true. The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs an operation that is not semantically defined (because <tt>p</tt> is a [[null pointer]], the operations <tt>p->réal</tt> and <tt>p->im</tt> have no méaning): complex *p = NULL; complex abs_p = sqrt (p->réal * p->réal + p->im * p->im); The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the [[Chomsky hierarchy]]. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are [[context-free grammar]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation |url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_0534956513 | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Section 2.2: Pushdown Automata, pp.101–114.</ref> === Type system === {{details|Type system}} {{details|Type safety}} A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into ''types'', how it can manipulate those types and how they interact. This generally includes a description of the [[data structure]]s that can be constructed in the language. The design and study of type systems using formal mathematics is known as ''[[type theory]]''. Internally, all [[data]] in modérn digital computers are stored simply as zeros or ones ([[Binary numeral system|binary]]). ==== Typed versus untyped languages ==== A language is ''typed'' if operations defined for one data type cannot be performed on values of another data type.<ref name="typing">{{cite web | url=http://www.acooke.org/andrew/writing/lang.html#sec-types | author=Andrew Cooke | title=An Introduction to Programming Languages | accessdate=June 30 | accessyear=2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521224046/http://www.acooke.org/andrew/writing/lang.html#sec-types |date=2008-05-21 }}</ref> For example, "<code>this text between the quotes</code>" is a string. In most programming languages, dividing a number by a string has no méaning. Most modérn programming languages will therefore reject any program attempting to perform such an operation. In some languages, the méaningless operation will be detected when the program is compiled ("static" type checking), and rejected by the compiler, while in others, it will be detected when the program is run ("dynamic" type checking), resulting in a runtime [[Exception handling|exception]]. A special case of typed languages are the ''single-type'' languages. These are often scripting or markup languages, such as [[Rexx]] or [[SGML]], and have only one data type — most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data. In contrast, an ''untyped language'', such as most [[assembly language]]s, allows any operation to be performed on any data, which are generally considered to be sequences of bits of various lengths.<ref name="typing"/> High-level languages which are untyped include [[BCPL]] and some varieties of [[Forth (programming language)|Forth]]. In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the point of view of [[type theory]] (verifying or rejecting ''all'' operations), most modérn languages offer a degree of typing.<ref name="typing"/> Many production languages provide méans to bypass or subvert the type system. ==== Static versus dynamic typing ==== In ''[[static typing]]'' all expressions have their types determined prior to the program being run (typically at compile-time). For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.<ref name="typing"/> Statically-typed languages can be ''manifestly typed'' or ''[[type inference|type-inferred]]''. In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable [[declaration (computer science)|declarations]]). In the second case, the compiler ''infers'' the types of expressions and declarations based on context. Most mainstréam statically-typed languages, such as [[C Plus Plus|C++]] and [[Java (programming language)|Java]], are manifestly typed. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with less mainstréam languages, such as [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]] and [[ML programming language|ML]]. However, many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference; for example, [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[C Sharp|C#]] both infer types in certain limited cases.<ref>Specifically, instantiations of [[generic programming|generic]] types are inferred for certain expression forms. Type inference in Generic Java—the research language that provided the basis for Java 1.5's bounded [[parametric polymorphism]] extensions—is discussed in two informal manuscripts from the [[Types mailing list]]: [http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/types/archive/1999-2003/msg00849.html Generic Java type inference is unsound] ([[Alan Jeffrey]], 17 Dec 2001) and [http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/types/archive/1999-2003/msg00921.html Sound Generic Java type inference] ([[Martin Odersky]], 15 Jan 2002). C#'s type system is similar to Java's, and uses a similar partial type inference scheme.</ref> ''Dynamic typing'', also called ''latent typing'', determines the type-safety of operations at runtime; in other words, types are associated with ''runtime values'' rather than ''textual expressions''.<ref name="typing"/> As with type-inferred languages, dynamically typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions. Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution. However, type errors cannot be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, making debugging more difficult. [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]], [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[JavaScript]], and [[Python (programming language)|Python]] are dynamically typed. ==== Weak and strong typing ==== ''Weak typing'' allows a value of one type to be tréated as another, for example tréating a string as a number.<ref name="typing"/> This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at [[compile time]]. ''Strong typing'' prevents the above. Attempting to mix types raises an error.<ref name="typing"/> Strongly-typed languages are often termed ''type-safe'' or ''[[type safety|safe]]''. Type safety can prevent particular kinds of program faults occurring (because constructs containing them are flagged at compile time). An alternative definition for "weakly typed" refers to languages, such as [[Perl]], [[JavaScript]], and [[C++]] which permit a large number of implicit type conversions; Perl in particular can be characterized as a dynamically typed programming language in which type checking can take place at runtime. See [[type system]]. This capability is often useful, but occasionally dangerous; as it would permit operations whose objects can change type on demand. ''Strong'' and ''static'' are generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs. Some use the term ''strongly typed'' to méan ''strongly, statically typed'', or, even more confusingly, to méan simply ''statically typed''. Thus [[C (programming language)|C]] has been called both strongly typed and wéakly, statically typed.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-4.html | title=Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme (February 20, 1998) | accessdate=June 9 | accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cardelli85understanding.html | title=On Understanding Types, Data Abstraction, and Polymorphism | author=[[Luca Cardelli]] and [[Peter Wegner]] | work=Manuscript (1985) | accessdate=June 9 | accessyear=2006}}</ref>. === Execution semantics === Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. The ''execution semantics'' of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. For example, the semantics may define the [[evaluation strategy|strategy]] by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which [[control structure]]s conditionally execute statements. === Core library === {{details|Standard library}} Most programming languages have an associated [[library (computer science)|core library]] (sometimes known as the 'Standard library', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output. A language's core library is often tréated as part of the language by its users, although the designers may have tréated it as a separate entity. Many language specifications define a core that must be made available in all implementations, and in the case of standardized languages this core library may be required. The line between a language and its core library therefore differs from language to language. Indeed, some languages are designed so that the méanings of certain syntactic constructs cannot even be described without referring to the core library. For example, in [[Java (programming language)|Java]], a string literal is defined as an instance of the <tt>java.lang.String</tt> class; similarly, in [[Smalltalk]], an [[anonymous function]] expression (a "block") constructs an instance of the library's <tt>BlockContext</tt> class. Conversely, [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]] contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library. == Practice == A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language ''specification'' and ''implementation''. === Specification === {{details|Programming language specification}} The '''specification''' of a programming language is intended to provide a definition that language [[programmer|users]] and [[programming language implementation|implementors]] can use to determine the behavior of a [[computer program|program]], given its [[source code]]. A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following: * An explicit definition of the syntax and semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in [[natural language]] (e.g., the [[C language]]), or a [[formal semantics of programming languages|formal semantics]] (e.g., the [[Standard ML]] <ref>{{cite book | last = Milner | first = R. | authorlink = Robin Milner | coauthors = [[Mads Tofte|M. Tofte]], [[Robert Harper (computer scientist)|R. Harper]] and D. MacQueen. | title = The Definition of Standard ML (Revised) | publisher = MIT Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0-262-63181-4 }}</ref> and [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]]<ref>{{cite web|first=Richard |last=Kelsey|coauthors=William Clinger and Jonathan Rees|title=Section 7.2 Formal semantics|work=Revised⁵ Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme|url = http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-10.html#%_sec_7.2| year=1998|month=February|accessdate=2006-06-09}}</ref> specifications). * A description of the behavior of a [[compiler|translator]] for the language (e.g., the [[C++]] and [[Fortran]] specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or a formal language. * A ''reference'' or ''model'' implementation, sometimes written in the language being specified (e.g., [[Prolog]] or [[Rexx|ANSI REXX]]<ref>[[ANSI]] — Programming Language Rexx, X3-274.1996</ref>). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation. === Implementation === {{details|Programming language implementation}} An '''implementation''' of a programming language provides a way to execute that program on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: ''[[compiler|compilation]]'' and ''[[interpreter (computing)|interpretation]]''. It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique. The output of a [[compiler]] may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that maké use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of the [[BASIC programming language]] compile and then execute the source a line at a time. Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software. One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is [[just-in-time compilation]]. Here the [[virtual machine]] monitors which sequences of [[bytecode]] are frequently executed and translates them to machine code for direct execution on the hardware. == History == [[Gambar:Programming language textbooks.jpg|thumb|230px|right|A selection of textbooks that teach programming, in languages both popular and obscure. These are only a few of the thousands of programming languages and dialects that have been designed in history.]] {{details|History of programming languages}} === Early developments === The first programming languages predate the modérn computer. The 19th century had "programmable" [[loom]]s and [[player piano]] scrolls which implemented what are today recognized as examples of [[domain-specific programming language]]s. By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing. In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of [[Alonzo Church]]'s [[lambda calculus]] and [[Alan Turing]]'s [[Turing machine]]s provided mathematical abstractions for expressing [[algorithm]]s; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design.<ref>Benjamin C. Pierce writes: :". . . the lambda calculus has seen widespread use in the specification of programming language features, in language design and implementation, and in the study of type systems." {{cite book | last=Pierce | first=Benjamin C. | authorlink=Benjamin C. Pierce | title=Types and Programming Languages | publisher=[[MIT Press]] | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-262-16209-1 | pages=52 }}</ref> In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were créated. The computers of the éarly 1950s, notably the [[UNIVAC I]] and the [[IBM 701]] used [[Machine code|machine language programs]]. [[First-generation programming language|First generation]] machine language programming was quickly superseded by a [[Second-generation programming language|second generation]] of programming languages known as [[Assembly language]]s. Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of [[macro instruction]]s, was followed by the development of three higher-level programming languages: [[FORTRAN]], [[Lisp programming language|LISP]], and [[COBOL]]. Updated versions of all of these are still in general use, and importantly, éach has strongly influenced the development of later languages.<ref name="influences">{{cite web | url=http://www.oreilly.com/news/graphics/prog_lang_poster.pdf | type=pdf | title=History of programming languages | author=[[O'Reilly Media]] | accessdate=October 5 | accessyear=2006 }}</ref> At the end of the 1950s, the language formalized as [[Algol 60]] was introduced, and most later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol.<ref name="influences"/> The format and use of the éarly programming languages was héavily influenced by the [[Computer programming in the punch card era|constraints of the interface]]. <ref>Frank da Cruz. [http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/cards.html IBM Punch Cards] [http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/index.html Columbia University Computing History].</ref> === Refinement === The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of idéas in the very first [[Third-generation programming language]]s: * [[APL (programming language)|APL]] introduced ''[[array programming]]'' and influenced [[functional programming]].<ref>Richard L. Wexelblat: ''History of Programming Languages'', Academic Press, 1981, chapter XIV.</ref> * [[PL/I]] (NPL) was designed in the éarly 1960s to incorporate the best idéas from FORTRAN and COBOL. * In the 1960s, [[Simula programming language|Simula]] was the first language designed to support ''[[object-oriented programming]]''; in the mid-1970s, [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]] followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language. * [[C (programming language)|C]] was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a ''[[systems programming]]'' language, and remains popular.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~flab/languages.html | author=François Labelle | title=Programming Language Usage Graph | work=[[Sourceforge]] | accessdate=June 21 | accessyear=2006}}. This comparison analyzes trends in number of projects hosted by a popular community programming repository. During most years of the comparison, C leads by a considerable margin; in 2006, Java overtakes C, but the combination of C/C++ still leads considerably.</ref> * [[Prolog programming language|Prolog]], designed in 1972, was the first ''[[logic programming]]'' language. * In 1978, [[ML programming language|ML]] built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering ''[[static typing|statically typed]] [[functional programming]]'' languages. éach of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modérn languages count at léast one of them in their ancestry. The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of ''[[structured programming]]'', and whether programming languages should be designed to support it.<ref>{{Citation | title=The Semicolon Wars | journal=American Scientist | first1=Brian | last1=Hayes | volume=94 | issue=4 | year=2006 | pages=pp. 299-303}}</ref> [[Edsger W. Dijkstra|Edsger Dijkstra]], in a famous 1968 letter published in the [[Communications of the ACM]], argued that [[GOTO]] statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dijkstra|first=Edsger W.|authorlink=Edsger Dijkstra|title=Go To Statement Considered Harmful|journal=Communications of the ACM|volume=11|issue=3|month=March|year=1968|pages=147–148|url=http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/|accessdate=2006-06-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050443/http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/ |date=2007-07-03 }}</ref> The 1960s and 1970s also saw expansion of techniques that reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The [[Computer programming in the punch card era|card deck]] for an éarly [[Fourth-generation programming language|4GL]] was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a [[Third-generation programming language|3GL deck]]. === Consolidation and growth === The 1980s were yéars of relative consolidation. [[C Plus Plus|C++]] combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized [[Ada programming language|Ada]], a systems programming language intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called [[Fifth generation computer|"fifth generation" languages]] that incorporated logic programming constructs<ref>Tetsuro Fujise, Takashi Chikayama Kazuaki Rokusawa, Akihiko Nakase (December 1994). "KLIC: A Portable Implementation of KL1" ''Proc. of FGCS '94, ICOT'' Tokyo, December 1994. [http://www.icot.or.jp/ARCHIVE/HomePage-E.html KLIC is a portable implementation of a concurrent logic programming language ][[KL1]]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925132105/http://www.icot.or.jp/ARCHIVE/HomePage-E.html |date=2006-09-25 }}</ref>. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the idéas invented in the previous decade. One important trend in language design during the 1980s was an incréased focus on programming for large-scale systems through the use of ''modules'', or large-scale organizational units of code. [[Modula-2]], Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as [[PL/I]], alréady had extensive support for modular programming. Module systems were often wedded to [[generic programming]] constructs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jim Bender|url=http://readscheme.org/modules/|title=Mini-Bibliography on Modules for Functional Programming Languages|work=ReadScheme.org|accessdate=2006-09-27|date=March 15th, 2004}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924085057/http://readscheme.org/modules/ |date=2006-09-24 }}</ref> The rapid growth of the [[Internet]] in the mid-1990's créated opportunities for new languages. [[Perl]], originally a Unix scripting tool first reléased in 1987, became common in dynamic [[Web site]]s. [[Java (programming language)|Java]] came to be used for server-side programming. These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages. Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and reséarch. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity ([[mixin]]s, [[Delegation (programming)|delegates]], [[aspect-oriented programming|aspects]]), and database integration. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} The [[4GL]]s are examples of languages which are domain-specific, such as [[SQL]], which manipulates and returns [[set]]s of data rather than the scalar values which are canonical to most programming languages. [[Perl]], for example, with its '[[here document]]' can hold multiple 4GL programs, as well as multiple JavaScript programs, in part of its own perl code and use variable interpolation in the 'here document' to support multi-language programming<ref>Wall, ''Programming Perl'' ISBN 0-596-00027-8 p.66</ref>. === Measuring language usage === It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage méans varies by context. One language may occupy the gréater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third utilize the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, [[COBOL]] is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large [[Mainframe computer|mainframes]]; [[Fortran (programming language)|FORTRAN]] in engineering applications; [[C (programming language)|C]] in embedded applications and operating systems; and other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications. Various methods of méasuring language popularity, éach subject to a different bias over what is méasured, have been proposed: * counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language<ref>[http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2007/09/11/226631/sslcomputer-weekly-it-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-it-job.htm Survey of Job advertisements mentioning a given language]</ref> * the number of books sold that téach or describe the language<ref>[http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/08/programming_language_trends_1.html Counting programming languages by book sales]</ref> * estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language—which may underestimate languages not often found in public séarches<ref>Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001</ref> * counts of language references found using a web séarch engine. == Taxonomies == {{details|Categorical list of programming languages}} There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new idéas in circulation at the time. Idéas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then léap suddenly across familial gaps to appéar in an entirely different family. The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple [[Thread (computer science)|threads]] in parallel). [[Python (programming language)|Python]] is an object-oriented [[scripting language]]. In broad strokes, programming languages divide into ''[[programming paradigm]]s'' and a classification by ''intended domain of use''. Paradigms include [[procedural programming]], [[object-oriented programming]], [[functional programming]], and [[logic programming]]; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An [[assembly language]] is not so much a paradigm as a direct modél of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tunes.org/wiki/programming_20languages.html|title=TUNES: Programming Languages}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020203251/http://tunes.org/wiki/programming_20languages.html |date=2007-10-20 }}</ref> Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wirth|first=Niklaus|authorlink=Niklaus Wirth|title=Recollections about the development of Pascal|journal=Proc. 2nd [[ACM SIGPLAN]] conference on history of programming languages|pages=333–342|year=1993|url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=155378|accessdate=2006-06-30}}</ref> A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use [[English language]] keywords, while a [[Categorical list of programming languages#Non-English-based languages|minority do not]]. Other languages may be classified as being [[Esoteric programming language|esoteric]] or not. == See also == {{portal|Computer science}} {{wikibooks|Computer programming}} {{wiktionarypar|programming language}} * [[List of programming languages]] * [[Comparison of programming languages]] * [[Literate programming]] * [[Invariant based programming]] * [[Programming language dialect]] * [[Programming language theory]] * [[Computer science]] and [[List of basic computer science topics]] * [[Software engineering]] and [[List of software engineering topics]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == * Daniel P. Friedman, Mitchell Wand, Christopher Thomas Haynes: ''Essentials of Programming Languages'', The MIT Press 2001. * David Gelernter, Suresh Jagannathan: ''Programming Linguistics'', The MIT Press 1990. * Shriram Krishnamurthi: ''Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation'', [http://www.cs.brown.edu/~sk/Publications/Books/ProgLangs/ online publication]. * Bruce J. MacLennan: ''Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation'', Oxford University Press 1999. * John C. Mitchell: ''Concepts in Programming Languages'', Cambridge University Press 2002. * Benjamin C. Pierce: ''Types and Programming Languages'', The MIT Press 2002. * Ravi Sethi: ''Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs'', 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley 1996. * Michael L. Scott: ''Programming Language Pragmatics'', Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2005. * Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.): ''History of Programming Languages'', Academic Press 1981. == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.99-bottles-of-beer.net/ 99 Bottles of Beer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209194347/http://99-bottles-of-beer.net/ |date=2010-02-09 }} A collection of implementations in many languages. * [http://www.levenez.com/lang/history.html Computer Languages History graphical chart] * [http://cgibin.erols.com/ziring/cgi-bin/cep/cep.pl Dictionary of Programming Languages] * [http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ History of Programming Languages (HOPL)] * [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/ Open Directory - Computer Programming Languages] * [http://merd.sourceforge.net/pixel/language-study/syntax-across-languages/ Syntax Patterns for Various Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510185903/http://merd.sourceforge.net/pixel/language-study/syntax-across-languages/ |date=2008-05-10 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060513071849/http://www.ulb.ac.be/di/rwuyts/INFO020_2003/grogono-evolution.pdf The Evolution of Programming Languages] by Peter Grogono {{Programming language}} {{Computer language}} [[Kategori:Jejer basa pamrograman| ]] [[Kategori:Basa komputer]] dmiud7we48xg6whpwjli4x8vzgsfr8a 0 3834 711723 672175 2026-08-07T02:34:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711723 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | name = Réptil | image = Graeca_034.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[Kuya Hermann]] Wétan | taxon = Reptilia | classis_authority = Goodrich, 1916 | subdivision_ranks = Ordo | subdivision = Baca téks. }} '''Réptil''' hartina [[tétrapoda]] jeung [[amniota]], nyaéta sasatoan nu [[émbrio]]na dibungkus ku [[mémbran]] amniotik. Kiwari, réptil ieu ngawengku opat '''[[ordo]]''': * '''[[Crocodilia]]''' ([[buhaya]], ''[[caiman]]'', jeung [[aligator]]): 23 [[spésiés]] * '''[[Tuatara|Rhynchocephalia]]''' ([[tuatara]] ti [[Selandia Baru]]): 2 spésiés * '''[[Squamata]]''' ([[kadal]], [[oray]], jeung [[amphisbaenia]] ("kadal cacing")): kira aya 7600 spésiés * '''[[Kuya|Testudine]]''' ([[kuya]]): kira 300 spésiés Réptil aya di unggal [[buana]], iwal [[Antartika]], tapi tempat hirup utamana mah di wewengkon [[tropis]] jeung [[subtropis]]. <!--Though all [[cell (biology)|cellular]] [[metabolism]] produces some [[heat]], modern [[species]] of reptiles do not generate enough to maintain a constant [[body]] [[temperature]] and are thus referred to as "[[cold-blooded]]" (ectothermic). (See the [[Leatherback Sea Turtle]] for an exception: a reptile that elevates its body temperature well above that of its surroundings.) Instead they rely on gathering and losing heat from the [[environment]] to regulate their internal temperature, e.g, by moving between [[sun]] and shade, or by preferential [[circulatory system|circulation]] — moving warmed [[blood]] into the body core, while pushing cool blood to the periphery. In their natural [[habitat]]s, most species are adept at this, and can maintain core body temperatures within a fairly narrow range, comparable to that of [[mammal]]s and [[bird]]s, the two surviving groups of "[[warm-blooded]]" animals. While this lack of adequate internal heating imposes costs relative to temperature regulation through [[behavior]], it also provides a large benefit by allowing reptiles to survive on much less [[food]] than comparably-sized mammals and birds, who burn much of their food for warmth. While warm-blooded animals move faster in general, an attacking lizard, snake or crocodile moves very quickly. Except for some members of the Testudines, all reptiles are covered by scales. Most reptile species are [[egg (biology)|oviparous]] (egg-laying). Many species of squamates, however, are capable of giving live birth. This is achieved, either through [[ovoviviparous|ovoviviparity]] (egg retention), or [[viviparous|viviparity]] (babies born without use of [[calcium|calcified]] eggs). Many of the viviparous species feed their [[fetus]]es through various forms of [[placenta]], just like mammals (Pianka & Vitt, 2003 pgs: 116-118). They often provide considerable initial care for their [[hatch]]lings. However, note the [[taxonomy]] issues described below; mammals and birds can also be viewed as descendants of reptiles. --> == Klasifikasi réptil == Tina jihat klasik, réptil ngawengku sakabéh [[amniota]] iwal [[manuk]] jeung [[mamalia]], sahingga jadina téh diwatesan salaku [[sato|sasatoan]] nu ngawengku [[buhaya]], [[aligator]], [[tuatara]], [[kadal]], [[oray]], [[amphisbaenia]], jeung [[kuya]], nu digolongkeun kana kelas '''Réptilia''' (Latin ''repere'', "ngarayap"). <!-- However, in recent years, many taxonomists have begun to insist that taxa should be [[monophyly|monophyletic]], that is, groups should include all descendants of a particular form. The reptiles as defined above would be [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]], since they exclude both birds and mammals, although these also developed from the original reptile. Colin Tudge writes: :''Mammals are a [[cladistics|clade]], and therefore the cladists are happy to acknowledge the traditional taxon [[Mammal]]ia; and birds, too, are a clade, universally ascribed to the formal taxon [[bird|Aves]]. Mammalia and Aves are, in fact, subclades within the grand clade of the Amniota. But the traditional class reptilia is not a clade. It is just a section of the clade Amniota: the section that is left after the Mammalia and Aves have been hived off. It cannot be defined by synamorphies, as is the proper way. It is instead defined by a combination of the features it has and the features it lacks: reptiles are the amniotes that lack fur or feathers. At best, the cladists suggest, we could say that the traditional Reptila are 'non-avian, non-mammalian amniotes'.'' (Tudge, p.85) Some cladists thus redefine Reptilia as a monophyletic group, including both the classic reptiles as well as the birds and perhaps the mammals (depending on ideas about their relationships). Others abandon it as a formal taxon altogether, dividing it into several different classes. However, other biologists believe that the common characters of the standard four orders are more important than the exact relationships, or feel that redefining the Reptilia to include birds and mammals would be a confusing break with tradition. A number of biologists have adopted a compromise system, marking paraphyletic groups with an asterisk, e.g. class Reptilia*. Colin Tudge notes other uses of this compromise system: :''By the same token, the traditional class Amphibia becomes Amphibia*, because some ancient amphibian or other gave rise to all the amniotes; and the phylum Crustacea becomes Crustacea*, because it may have given rise to the insects and myriapods (centipedes and millipedes). If we believe, as some (but not all) zoologists do, that myriapods gave rise to insects, then they should be called Myriapoda*....by this convention Reptilia without an asterisk is synonymous with Amniota, and includes birds and mammals, whereas Reptilia* means non-avian, non-mammalian amniotes.'' (Tudge, p.85) Recent college-level references, such as Benton (2004) [http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/benton/vertclass.html], offer another compromise by applying traditional ranks to accepted phylogenetic relationships. In this case, reptiles belong to the Class [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]], and mammal-like reptiles to the Class [[Synapsida]], with birds and mammals separated into their own traditional classes. --> === Kelompok Réptil === * '''Class Sauropsida''' :* Famili [[Protorothyrididae]] - ''[[Hylonomus]]'' (lastari) :* '''Subkelas [[Anapsid]]''' ::Famili [[Mesosaurus|Mesosauridae]] (lastari) ::* Ordo [[Pareiasaurus|Procolophonida]] - Pareiasaurus (lastari) ::* Ordo [[Kuya|Testudine]] - Kuya :* '''Subkelas [[Diapsid]]a''' ::* Superordo [[Ichthyopterygia]] - Ichthyosaurus (lastari) ::* Superordo [[Sauropterygia]] - Plesiosaurus (lastari) ::* Superordo [[Lepidosauria]] :::* Ordo [[tuatara|Rhynchocephalia]] - Tuatara :::* Ordo [[Squamata]] ::::Subordo [[Kadal|Lacertilia]]- Kadal ::::Subordo [[Oray|Serpentes]] - Oray ::::Subordo [[Amphisbaenia]] - Kadal cacing ::* Ordo [[Crocodilia]] - Buhaya ::* Ordo [[Pterosauria]] - Pterodactyl (lastari) ::* Superordo [[Dinosaurus|Dinosauria]] - Dinosaurus :::* Ordo [[Ornithischia]] (lastari) :::* Ordo [[Saurischia]] ::::* '''Kelas [[Unggas|Aves]]''' - Manuk <!-- == Evolution of the reptiles == [[Image:Gator7658.JPG|thumb|right|Young American Alligator<br> Georgetown, South Carolina]] Several thousand fossil species showing a clear smooth transition from the ancestors of reptiles to present-day reptiles exist. [[Hylonomus]] is the oldest-known reptile, and was about 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 cm) long. [[Westlothiana]] has been suggested as the oldest reptile, but is for the moment considered to be more related to amphibians than [[amniote]]s. Petrolacosaurus, Araeoscelis, Paleothyris, Hylonomus, Ophiacodontidae, Archaeothyris, mesosaurs and Ophiacodon are other examples. The first true "reptile" or Amniotes are categorized as [[Anapsid|Anapsids]], having a solid skull with holes only for nose, eyes, spinal cord, etc. Turtles are believed by some to be surviving Anapsids, as they also share this skull structure; but this point has become contentious lately, with some arguing that turtles reverted to this primitive state in order to improve their armor. Both sides have strong evidence, and the conflict has yet to be resolved. Shortly after the first reptiles, two branches split off, one leading to the Anapsids, which did not develop holes in their skulls. The other group, [[Diapsid]]a, possessed a pair of holes in their skulls behind the eyes, along with a second pair located higher on the skull. The Diapsida split yet again into two lineages, the lepidosaurs (which contain modern snakes, lizards and tuataras, as well as (in debate) the extinct sea reptiles of the Mesozoic) and the archosaurs (modernly represented by only crocodiles and birds, but containing pterosaurs and dinosaurs). The earliest, solid-skulled amniotes also gave rise to a separate line, the [[Synapsid]]a. [[Synapsid]]s developed a pair of holes in their skulls behind the eyes (similar to the diapsids), which were used to both lighten the skull and increase the space for jaw muscles. The synapsids eventually evolved into [[mammal]]s, and are often refered to as mammal-like reptiles, though they are not true members of the class Sauropsida. ==Systems== ===Circulatory=== Most reptiles have closed circulation via a three-chamber [[heart]] consisting of two [[atrium|atria]] and one, variably-partitioned [[ventricle]]. There is usually one pair of aortic arches. In spite of this, due to the fluid dynamics of blood flow through the heart, there is little mixing of [[oxygen]]ated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chamber heart. Furthermore, the blood flow can be altered to shunt either deoxygenated blood to the body or oxygenated blood to the lungs, which gives the animal greater control over its blood flow, allowing more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species. There are some interesting exceptions among reptiles. For instance, [[Crocodilia|crocodilians]] have an incredibly complicated four-chamber heart that is capable of becoming a functionally three-chamber heart during dives (Mazzotti, 1989 pg 47). Also, it has been discovered that some snake and lizard species (e.g., monitor lizards and pythons) have three-chamber hearts that become functional four-chamber hearts during contraction. This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during [[cardiac cycle|ventricular diastole]] and completely divides it during [[Systole|ventricular systole]]. Because of this ridge, some of these [[Squamata|squamates]] are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts (Wang et al, 2003). [[Image:Graeca ibera.jpg|thumb|Greek tortoise of North-East Turkey]] ===Respiratory=== All reptiles breathe using lungs. Exceptions to this are in aquatic [[Turtles|turtles]]. These animals have developed more permeable skin, and even gills in their anal region, for some species (Orenstein, 2001). Even with these adaptations, breathing is never fully accomplished without lungs. Lung ventilation is accomplished differently in each main reptile group. In [[Squamata|squamates]] the lungs are ventilated almost exclusively by the axial musculature. This is also the same musculature that is used during locomotion. Because of this constraint, most squamates are forced to hold their breath during intense runs. Some, however, have found a way around it. Varanids, and a few other lizard species, employ [[buccal pumping]] as a complement to their normal "axial breathing." This allows the animals to completely fill their lungs during intense locomotion, and thus remain aerobically active for a long time. Tegu lizards are known to possess a proto-[[diaphragm]], which separates the pulmonary cavity from the visceral cavity. While not actually capable of movement, it does allow for greater lung inflation, by taking the weight of the viscera off the lungs (Klein et al, 2003). [[Crocodilia|Crocodilians]] actually have a muscular [[diaphragm]] that is analogous to the mammalian diaphragm. The difference is that the muscles for the crocodilian diaphragm pull the pubis (part of the pelvis, which is movable in crocodilians) back, which brings the liver down, thus freeing space for the lungs to expand. This type of diaphragmatic setup has been referred to as the "hepatic piston." Also, there are the [[Turtle|Turtles & Tortoises]]. How these animals breathe has been the subject of much study. To date, only a few species have been studied thoroughly enough to get an idea of how turtles do it. The results indicate that turtles & tortoises have found a variety of solutions to this problem. The problem is that most turtle shells are rigid and do not allow for the type of expansion and contraction that other amniotes use to ventilate their lungs. Some turtles such as the Indian flapshell (''Lissemys punctata'') have a sheet of muscle that envelopes the lungs. When it contracts, the turtle can exhale. When at rest, the turtle can retract the limbs into the body cavity and force air out of the lungs. When the turtle protracts its limbs, the pressure inside the lungs is reduced, and the turtle can suck air in. Turtle lungs are attached to the inside of the top of the shell (carapace), with the bottom of the lungs attached (via connective tissue) to the rest of the viscera. By using a series of special muscles (roughly equivalent to a[diaphragm]), turtles are capable of pushing their viscera up and down, resulting in effective respiration, since many of these muscles have attachment points in conjunction with their forelimbs (indeed, many of the muscles expand into the limb pockets during contraction). Breathing during locomotion has been studied in three species, and they show different patterns. Adult female green sea turtles do not breathe as they crutch along their nesting beaches. They hold their breath during terrestrial locomotion and breathe in bouts as they rest. North American box turtles breathe continuously during locomotion, and the ventilation cycle is not coordinated with the limb movements (Landberg et al., 2003). They are probably using their abdominal muscles to breathe during locomotion. The last species to have been studied is red-eared sliders, which also breathe during locomotion, but they had smaller breaths during locomotion than during small pauses between locomotor bouts, indicating that there may be mechanical interference between the limb movements and the breathing apparatus. Box turtles have also been observed to breathe while completely sealed up inside their shells (ibid). Most reptiles lack a secondary palate, meaning that they must hold their breath while swallowing. Crocodylians have evolved a bony secondary palate that allows them to continue breathing while remaining submerged (and protect their brains from getting kicked in by struggling prey). Skinks (family Scincidae) also have evolved a bony secondary palate, to varying degrees. Snakes took a different approach and extended their trachea instead. Their tracheal extension sticks out like a fleshy straw, and allows these animals to swallow large prey without suffering from asphyxiation. ===Excretion=== [[Excretion]] with two small [[kidney]]s. [[Uric acid]] is the main [[nitrogen]]ous waste product. ===Nervous=== Advanced nervous system compared to [[amphibian]]s. They have twelve pairs of [[Anatomical_terms_of_location|cranial]] [[nerve]]s. ===Sexual=== Most reptiles reproduce sexually. Asexual reproduction has been identified in [[squamata|squamate]]s in six families of lizards and one snake. In some species of squamates, a population of females are able to produce a unisexual diploid clone of the mother. This asexual reproduction called [[parthenogenesis]] occurs in several species of [[gecko]], and is particularly widespread in the [[teiids]] (expecially ''Aspidocelis'') and lacertids ''([[Lacerta]])''. Parthenogentic species are also suspected to occur among [[chameleon]]s, [[agamids]], [[xantusiids]], and [[typhlopids]]. Amniotic eggs covered with leathery or calcareous shells: [[amniotic sac|Amnion, chorion]], and [[allantois]] present during [[embryo]]nic life. No [[larva]]l stages. --> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Reptilia}} * [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Amniota&contgroup=Terrestrial_Vertebrates Tree of Life Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927181949/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Amniota&contgroup=Terrestrial_Vertebrates |date=2007-09-27 }} * [http://www.reptile-database.org The EMBL Reptile Database] * [http://www.herpcenter.com The HC Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714211448/http://www.herpcenter.com/ |date=2020-07-14 }} * [http://www.whozoo.org/herps/herpphylogeny.html Reptile Phylogeny] * [http://reptilis.net The Reptipage] == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Reptile|Reptile]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (7 Maret 2006). * {{RefTudgeVariety}} * Benton, M. J. 2004. ''Vertebrate Paleontology'', éd ka-3. Blackwell Science Ltd. * {{cite book | author=Pianka, Eric; Vitt, Laurie | title=Lizards Windows to the Evolution of Diversity | publisher=University of California Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-520-23401-4 | pages=116-118}} * {{cite book | author=Mazzotti, Frank; Ross, Charles(ed) | title="Structure And Function" Crocodiles and Alligators | publisher=Facts on File | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0-8160-2174-0}} * {{cite journal | author=Wang, Tobias; Altimiras, Jordi; Klein, Wilfried; Axelsson, Michael | title=Ventricular haemodynamics in Python molurus: separation of pulmonary and systemic pressures | journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology | year=2003 | volume=206 | pages=4242-4245}} * {{cite journal | author=Klein, Wilfried; Abe, Augusto; Andrade, Denis; Perry, Steven | title=Structure of the posthepatic septum and its influence on visceral topology in the tegu lizard, Tupinambis merianae (Teidae: Reptilia) | journal=Journal of Morphology | volume=258 | issue=2 | year=2003 | pages=151-157}} * {{cite book | author=Orenstein, Ronald | title=Turtles, Tortoises & Terrapins: Survivors in Armor | url=https://archive.org/details/turtlestortoises0000oren | publisher=Firefly Books | year=2001 | id=ISBN 1-55209-605-X}} * {{cite journal | author=Landberg, Tobias; Mailhot, Jeffrey; Brainerd, Elizabeth| title=Lung ventilation during treadmill locomotion in a terrestrial turtle, Terrapene carolina | journal=Journal of Experimental Biology| volume=206 | issue=19 | year=2003 | pages=3391-3404}} * {{cite book | author= Pough, Harvey; Janis, Christine; Heiser, John | title=Vertebrate Life| publisher= Pearson Prentice Hall | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-13-145310-6 }} {{Eureptilia}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Sauropsida]] mtzu15ffpg6jkgg85cbk0zhxy65rpw3 0 3842 711687 706858 2026-08-07T01:34:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711687 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Gegeremet (Insékta) | image = Pszczola_skrzydelka.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[Nyiruan]] (ordo [[Hymenoptera]]) | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Artropoda]] | subphylum = [[Héksapoda]] | classis = '''Gegeremet''' | classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Ordo | subdivision = Tempo téks. }} [[Gambar:A Fly by Matthias Zimmermann.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Laleur]]]] '''Gegeremet''', '''insék''', atawa '''insékta''' (basa Indonésia:'''''serangga''''') nyaéta hiji [[kelas (biologi)|kelas]] [[sato]] [[invertebrata]], takson anu paling lega ambahanana (di darat) ti [[filum]] ''[[Artropoda]]''. Insék ngawengku panglobana rupa sato di [[Bumi]], kira aya 925.000 [[spésiés]] nu geus digambarkeun — leuwih ti gabungan golongan sato lian. Aya kira lima rébu spésiés [[Odonata|papatong]], dua rébu [[Mantodea|congcorang]], 20.000 [[ortoptera|simeut]], 170.000 [[lépidoptera|kukupu jeung ngenget]], 120.000 [[Diptera|laleur]], 82.000 [[hémiptera|kutu]], 350.000 [[éngang]], sarta 110.000 [[himénoptera|nyiruan jeung sireum]]. Hasil ngira-ngira mah, kaasup nu can kacatet sacara ilmiah, jumlah spésiésna téh bisa nepi ka 30 juta. Ulikan ilmiah ngeunaan insékta disebut [[éntomologi]]. == Hubungan jeung artropoda lianna == [[Gambar:Mantodea.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Congcorang]]]] Golongan sato nu sarupa dedeganana jeung insékta, modél (''[[Collembola]]''), dihijikeun jeung insékta dina Subfilum [[Héksapoda]]. Tapi ka dieunakeun ieu subfilum téh teu ngawengku Collembola, sabab sigana boga asal-usul nu béda. Jadi, dulur nu deukeut jeung insékta mah anggota ''Entognatha'' nu lianna: [[Protura]] jeung [[Diplura]]. Nu bener-bener insékta (nyaéta spésiés-spésiés nu kaasup kelas Insékta) dibédakeun ti artropoda lianna ku ayana '''ectognathous''', sungut nu nembrak jeung sawelas buku/ruas abdominal. Sungutna ieu ogé nu nyababkeun golongan ieu disebut Ectognatha. Spésiés-spésiés insékta lolobana [[jangjang]]an, mun geus sawawa. Artropoda terestrial samodél [[lipan]], [[titinggi]], [[kalajengking]], jeung [[lancah]], sakapeung sok disaruakeun jeung insékta, alatan awakna sarupa sarta boga rangka luar (éksoskeleton). == Morfologi jeung kamekaran == [[Image:Insect anatomy diagram.svg|left|300px|thumb|Anatomi insékta <br /> '''A'''- Hulu &nbsp; '''B'''- Toraks (dada) &nbsp; '''C'''- Abdomén (beuteung) <br /> 1. anténeu<br /> 2. ocelli (handap)<br /> 3. ocelli (luhur)<br /> 4. [[panon|panon majemuk]]<br /> 5. [[uteuk]] (cerebral ganglia)<br /> 6. protoraks<br /> 7. arteri dorsal<br /> 8. solobong [[trahéa]] (trunk with [[spiracle]])<br /> 9. mésotoraks<br /> 10. métathoraks<br /> 11. jangjang kahiji<br /> 12. jangjang kadua<br /> 13. peujit tengah ([[burih]])<br /> 14. [[jantung]]<br /> 15. [[ovarium]]<br /> 16. peujit tungtung ([[peujit]], [[réktum]] & [[bool]])<br /> 17. bool<br /> 18. [[heunceut]]<br /> 19. urat [[saraf]] (abdominal ganglia)<br /> 20. Solobong Malpighian<br /> 21. bantal<br /> 22. [[kuku]]<br /> 23. [[arthropod tarsus|tarsus]]<br /> 24. [[arthropod tibia|tibia]]<br /> 25. [[arthropod femur|femur]]<br /> 26. [[arthropod trochanter|trochanter]]<br /> 27. peujit hareup (crop, gizzard)<br /> 28. thoracic ganglion<br /> 29. [[arthropod coxa|coxa]]<br /> 30. [[kelenjar ciduh]]<br /> 31. subesophagéal ganglion<br /> 32. [[sungut]]]] Ukuran insékta téh rupa-rupa, ti nu ukur samiliméter nepi ka nu leuwih ti 18&nbsp;cm. Awakna ruruasan nu dirojong ku [[éksoskeleton]], cangkang nu teuas nu utamana diwangun ku [[kitin]]. Awakna dibagi kana tilu bagian: [[hulu]], [[dada|dada/toraks]], jeung [[beuteung|beuteung/abdomén]]. Dina huluna aya [[Anténeu (biologi)|anténeu]] sénsor, sapasang [[panon majemuk]], jeung [[sungut]]. Dina dadana aya genep [[suku]] (sapasang dina unggal ruasna) jeung [[jangjang]] (mun aya). Beuteungna, nu diwangun ku sawelas ruas, mibanda struktur pikeun [[ékskrési]] jeung baranahan. Sistim sarafna dibagi kana [[uteuk]] jeung urat saraf véntral. Luyu jeung kapsul hulu nu diwangun ku genep ruas awak anterior, anatomi [[uteuk]] insékta ogé ngandung genep pasang [[ganglia]]. Tilu pasang nu kahiji ngagabung dina uteuk, sedengkeun tilu pasang nu séjénna ngagabung kana struktur nu disebut ''subesophageal ganglion''. Susunan kieu ogé aya dina dada nepi ka abdomén, iwal yén dina abdomén mah pasangan gangliana téh ukur aya dina dalapan ruas nu di hareup. Loba di antara spésiés-spésiés insékta nu ngurangan jumlah ganglionna ku ngagabungkeun sababaraha ganglion abdominal atawa ngagabungkeun nu na abdomén jeung nu na dada. Misalna [[cucunguk]], na abdoménna téh ukur aya genep ganglion. Ogé dina [[laleur]], ganglion awakna téh digabungkeun jeung ganglion dada. Insékta mibanda [[sistim cerna]] nu lengkep, dina harti boga solobong nu nyambung ti sungut nepi ka bool. Sistim éksrésina ngawengku [[tubula Malpighi]] pikeun miceun runtah nu ngandung [[nitrogén]] sarta 'peujit tukang' (''hindgut'') pikeun [[osmorégulasi]]. Dina tungtung peujit tukang, insékta bisa nyerep deui cai sarta [[ion|ion-ion]] [[kalium]] jeung [[natrium]]. Ku kituna, insékta mah tara ngaluarkeun cai bareng jeung [[tai]]na. Prosés nyerap ulang ieu jadi 'bekel' insékta sangkan bisa hirup di lingkungan nu panas tur garing. Insékta mah lolobana boga dua pasang jangjang nu perenahna dina buku toraks/dada kadua jeung katilu. Mun tina jihat téori évolusi mah, kelompok sato ieu téh mangrupa hiji-hijina kelompok invertebrata nu jangjangan, antukna kacatet salaku kelompok sato nu bisa salamet nepi ka kiwari. Insékta jangjangan jeung dulurna nu teu jangjangan ngahiji dina subkelas [[Pterygota]]. Cara hiber insékta can pati kateuleuman. Insékta nu leuwih maju, nyaéta nu kaasup [[Neoptera]], sacara umum, jangjangna téh bosa ditilepkeun dina tonggongna, antukna teu ngaganggu gerakna nalika teu hiber. Dina insékta kitu, jangjangna ieu diatur ku otot hiber-teu langsung ku jalan neken pinding toraks. Otot ieu bisa kontraksi tanpa impuls saraf, antukna jangjangna bisa gerak gancang pisan. Rorongkong luar insékta nu disebut kutikula/kutikel diwangun ku dua lapisan: (1) épikutikel nu mangrupa lapisan luar nu ipis tur ngandung lilin antukna teu tembus cai, teu ngandung [[kitin]] jeung (2) lapisan handapeunana nu disebut prokutikel nu ngandung kitin sarta leuwih kandel batan lapisan luar. Lapisan jero ieu bisa dibagi deui kana dua lapisan: éksokutikel jeung éndokutikel. Éndokutikel ieu weweg tapi ngenyod kawas nu diwangun ku sababaraha lapis, ngandung serat kitin jeung [[protéin]] nu disusun silih timpah silang. Insékta ngagunakeun réspirasi [[trahéa]]l pikeun ngakut [[oksigén]] ka sakujur awakna. Lawang na awakna disebut [[spirakel]] nu nyambung ke sistim trahéal tubular. Udara nepi ka jaringan jero ngaliwatan sistim ieu. Moal leuwih ti sapasang spirakel per ruasna, sarta moal leuwih ti dua pasang spirakel dina toraksna (mésotoraks jeung métatoraks), atawa leuwih ti dalapan pasang dina abdoménna (dalapan ruas nu mimiti). Aya watesan pikeun tekenan anu bisa ditahan ku tabung trachéa tanpa nepi ka peupeus, ieu nu jadi salah sahiji alesan ukuran gegeremet laleutik. Spirakel téh dilengkepan ku kelép/katup nu diatur ku otot, antukna bisa ditutup nalika perlu (misalna keur na cai atawa ngurangan kalembaban). Pikeun ngahalangan kebul jeung partikel lianna, spirakel téh dilengkepan ku bulu nu bisa nyaring éta gangguan. Aya sababaraha spésiés insékta, kayaning anggota [[Chironomidae]], nu ngandung pigmén résporatori kawas [[hémoglobin]] dina hambalan [[bilatung]]na. Dina insékta sarupa kitu mah trahéana téh leutik sabab awakna bisa nyerep oksigén langsung tina cai, antukna bisa hirup dina jero leutak nu kandungan oksigénna saeutik pisan. Tilu pasang spirakel na kutu cai dibungkus ku mémbran nu sénsitip tekenan, sarupa jeung cara gawé jero [[ceuli]] [[manusa]]. == Paripolah == [[Gambar:Flies around 60 watt light globe.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Laleur kairut ku cahya]] Insékta mah loba nu mibanda organ [[rasa|pangrasa]]. Dina sababaraha kasus mah, malah, leuwih onjoy batan [[manusa]]. Pikeun conto, nyiruan bisa nempo spéktrum [[ultrabungur]], sedengkeun ngenget [[jalu]] bisa 'ngambeu' [[féromon]] [[bikang]]na nu anggangna sababaraha kilo. Insékta ogé loba nu bisa ngitung, di antarana ''wasp'' (aya nu uninga Sundana?), nu nempatkeun endog-endogna masing-masing dina hiji sél katut sababaraha [[hileud]] pikeun parabna mun geus megar. Aya nu nyadiakeun lima, sawelas, atawa dua puluh opat hileud per sél, gumantung ka spésiés jeung jenis kelaminna (nu jalu awakna leuwih leutik batan nu bikang, jadi hileud nu disadiakeun ogé leuwih saeutik). [[Insékta sosial]], kayaning [[sireum]] jeung [[nyiruan]], mangrupa sato spésiés [[Eusosialitas|eusosial]] nu paling dipikawanoh ku manusa. Insékta-insékta éta nyayang hirup dina koloni nu diatur kalawan ketat, antukna kadang dianggap [[superorganisme]]. == Peran di lingkungan jeung kahirupan manusa == [[Gambar:Aedes aegypti biting human.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Aedes aegypti]]'', parasit véktor [[demam berdarah]] jeung [[panyakit konéng]].]] Insékta loba nu dianggap hama ku manusa, utamana salaku parasit ([[reungit]], [[kutu]], [[tumbila]]), népakeun panyakit (reungit, [[laleur]]), ngaruksak wangunan ([[rinyuh]]), atawa ngaruksak pepelakan ([[bejog]] atawa simeut badag). Para [[éntomologis]] dina hal ieu sok boga peran, boh maké [[inséktisida]] atawa métode [[biokontrol]]. Najan insékta téh lolobana mah dianggap hama, sabenerna mah loba ogé insékta nu penting ajénna pikeun [[lingkungan]] jeung [[manusa]]. Di antarana baé insékta nu ngabantu [[penyerbukan]] tutuwuhan kembangan (misalna ''wasp'', [[nyiruan]], [[kukupu]], [[sireum]]). Hubungan ieu sipatna mutualusme, silih untungkeun: insékta nyeuseup sari kembang, sedengkeun tutuwuhanana kabantu dina penyerbukan kembangna. Masalah lingkungan jaman kiwari téh justru di dieu pisan, yén insékta nu bisa ngabantu penyerbukan populasina beuki ngurangan. == Taksonomi == [[Gambar:Insect antennae.jpg|thumb|right|165px|Numutkeun téorina, évolusi téh ngahasilkeun rupa-rupa insékta. Gambar ieu nunjukkeun sababaraha kamungkinan bentuk [[anténeu (biologi)|anténeu]] insékta.]] <div style="font-size: 85%"> '''Subkelas:''' [[Apterygota]] :'''Ordo''' :* [[Archaeognatha]] (Bristletails) :* [[Thysanura]] (Silverfish) :* [[Monura]] - ''lastari'' '''Subkelas:''' [[Pterygota]] :* '''Infrakelas:''' "[[Paleoptera]]" (parafilétik) ::'''Ordo''' ::* [[Ephemeroptera]] (mayflies) ::* [[Palaeodictyoptera]] - ''lastari'' ::* [[Megasecoptera]] - ''lastari'' ::* [[Archodonata]] - ''lastari'' ::* [[Diaphanopterodea]] - ''lastari'' ::* [[Protodonata]] - ''lastari'' ::* [[Odonata]] ([[papatong]] jeung [[papatong jarum]]) :* '''Infrakelas:''' [[Neoptera]] ::* '''Superordo:''' [[Exopterygota]] :::'''Ordo''' ::* [[Caloneurodea]] - ''lastari'' ::* [[Titanoptera]] - ''lastari'' ::* [[Protorthoptera]] - ''lastari'' :::'''Polyneoptera''' ::* [[Grylloblattodea]] (ice-crawlers) ::* [[Mantophasmatodea]] (gladiators) ::* [[Plecoptera]] (stoneflies) ::* [[Embioptera]] (webspinners) ::* [[Zoraptera]] (angel insects) ::* [[Dermaptera]] (cocopét) :::''' Orthopteroidea ''' ::* [[Orthoptera]] ([[simeut]], [http://www.mp3-indir.gen.tr mp3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204183738/http://www.mp3-indir.gen.tr/ |date=2017-02-04 }}, jsb.) ::* [[Phasmatodea]] (walking sticks) :::'''Dictyoptera''' ::* [[Blattodea]] (cucunguk) ::* Isoptera ([[rinyuh]]) ::* [[Mantodea]] (congcorang) :::'''Paraneoptera''' ::* [[Psocoptera]] (booklice, barklice) ::* [[Thysanoptera]] (thrips) ::* [[Phthiraptera]] ([[lice]]) ::* [[Hemiptera]] (true [[bug (disambiguation)|bugs]]) :* '''Superordo:''' [[Endopterygota]] ::'''Ordo''' ::* [[Hymenoptera]] ([[sireum]], [[nyiruan]], jsb.) ::* [[beetle|Coleoptera]] (éngang) ::* [[Strepsiptera]] (twisted-winged parasites) :::'''Neuropteroidea''' ::* [[Raphidioptera]] (snakeflies) ::* [[Megaloptera]] ([[alderfly|alderflies]], etc.) ::* [[Neuroptera]] (net-veined insects) :::'''Mecopteroidea''' ::* [[Mecoptera]] (scorpionflies, etc.) ::* [[Siphonaptera]] ([[kutu]]) ::* [[Diptera]] ([[laleur]]) ::* [[Protodiptera]] ''lastari'' :::'''Amphiesmenoptera''' ::* [[Trichoptera]] ([[caddisfly|caddisflies]]) ::* [[Lepidoptera]] ([[kukupu]], [[ngenget]]) ::'''Incertae sedis''' ::* [[Glosselytrodea]] ''lastari'' ::* [[Miomoptera]] - ''lastari'' </div> == Évolusi == {{utama|évolusi insékta}} Nepi ka kiwari, hubungan antara insékta jeung bangsa sato séjén téh masih can écés. Najan sacara tradisional disakelompokkeun jeung titinggi sarta lipan, bukti nu némbongan mah malah nunjukkeun yén insékta mah leuwih deukeut hubungan [[évolusi]]onérna jeung crustacéan. Numutkeun téori [[Pancrustacea]], insékta jeung [[Remipedia]] sarta [[Malacostraca]] téh ngabentuk ''[[clade]]'' alami. Catetan [[fosil]] nunjukkeun yén insékta dumadakan mucunghul munggaran dina awal périodeu [[Carboniferous]] Ahir, [[Bashkirian|Yuga Bashkirian]] Awal, kira 350 juta taun ka tukang. Dina mangsa éta, tétéla spésiés insékta téh geus rupa-rupa. Catetan fosil gé nunjukkeun yén harita téh geus aya leuwih ti satengah losin ordo. Ku kituna, insékta munggaran téh meureun mucunghulna dina périodeu Carboniferous nu leuwih awal, atawa dina périodeu Devonian saméméhna. == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Insect|Insect]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (8 Maret 2006) * {{cite book|author=Triplehorn, Charles A. & Norman F. Johnson|title=Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects|edition=éd. ka-7|year=[[2005]]|publisher=Thomas Brooks/Cole|id=ISBN 0-03-096835-6}} — pustaka buhun di Amérika Kalér * {{cite book|author=Grimaldi, David and Michael S. Engel|title=Evolution of the Insects|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofinsec0000grim|year=[[2005-05-16]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|id=ISBN 0-521-82149-5}} — dadaran mutahir ngeunaan sajarah évolusionér insékta == Baca ogé == * [[Insékta prasajarah]] * [[Gambar:Film reel.svg|50px|left|Film (Xvid/ogg)]] [[:Image:Sarcophaga carnaria (Portugal2005).ogg|Pilem laleur salila 4:05 menit]] - 8MB [[xvid]] dina wadah [[ogg]] nunjukkeun laleur nu keur méré sihan hulu jeung jangjangna maké suku-sukuna. Pilemna dilaunan satengah kali sangkan nu lalajo kagesitan ieu sato. == Galeri == <gallery> Image:Adult citrus root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus.jpg|''Diaprepes abbreviatus'' Image:Ctenomorpha chronus02.jpg|''Ctenomorpha chronus'' Image:Wasserläufer bei der Paarung crop.jpg|''[[éncang-éncang|Gerris najas]]'' Image:Aelia acuminata.JPG|''Aelia acuminata'' Image:Prachtlibelle-2.jpg|''Calopteryx virgo'' Image:Forficula auricularia.jpg|''[[cocopét|Forficula auricularia]]'' Image:Patanga_japonica_larva.jpg|''[[simeut|Patanga japonica]]'' Image:Episyrphus balteatus on flower (2).jpg|''[[laleur kembang|Episyrphus balteatus]]'' Image:Osmia rufa couple (aka).jpg|''[[nyiruan|Osmia rufa]]'' Image:Guepe.jpg|''Wasp'' Image:Iphiclides podalirius.jpg|''[[kukupu|Iphiclides podalirius]]'' Image:Rosy Maple Moth.png|''[[ngenget|Dryocampa rubicunda]]'' </gallery> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Wikispecies|Insecta}} {{Commons|Category:Insecta}} * [http://www.cirrusimage.com/ North American Insects] Pabukon opat rébuan poto insékta katut rujukanana. Lisénsi Créative Commons * [http://cmave.usda.ufl.edu/~rmankin/soundlibrary.html Bug Bytes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981201231023/http://cmave.usda.ufl.edu/~rmankin/soundlibrary.html |date=1998-12-01 }} Pabukon digital rujukan sora-sora insékta. * [http://www.insects.org/index.html INSECTS .org] Promosi ngeunaan insékta. * [http://www.food-insects.com/ Insects as Food] karya Gene DeFoliart. Émbaran ngeunaan insékta salaku bahan pangan. * [http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/index.htm Kendall Bioresearch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060206044435/http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/index.htm |date=2006-02-06 }} Bug Index, Féatured Bugs, Classification, ID, Fossils, Body-parts, Micro Views, Life Cycles, Pesticide Safety. * [http://www.ub.es/dpep/meganeura/meganeura.htm Meganeura] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114232025/http://www.ub.es/dpep/meganeura/meganeura.htm |date=2006-11-14 }} Ramatloka ngeunaan évolusi insékta jeung catetan fosilna. * [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Insecta&contgroup=Hexapoda Tree of Life Project] – Insecta * [http://ufbir.ifas.ufl.edu/ UF Book of Insect Records], dokuméntasi "insékta jawara" dina rupa-rupa kategori * [http://bugguide.net/ BugGuide] Poto, émbaran kahirupan, jeung idéntifikasi artropoda, utamana insékta, di Amérika Kalér. [[Kategori:Artropoda]] [[Kategori:Éntomologi]] 3zr5b4itmopswex97sm8pw2u01hxs5c 0 3874 711669 707255 2026-08-07T01:17:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711669 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Bangkong | image = Magnificent tree frog (Litoria splendida) crop.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Bangkong Héjo (''Litoria caerulea'') | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Ampibi|Amphibia]] | ordo = Anura | ordo_authority = [[Blasius Merrem|Merrem]], 1820 | subdivision_ranks = Subordo | subdivision = [[Archaeobatrachia]]<br /> [[Mesobatrachia]]<br /> [[Neobatrachia]] <br /> - <br /> [[Daptar famili Anura]] }} '''Bangkong''' mangrupa ngaran umum pikeun [[ampibi]] ordo '''[[Anura]]'''. Bangkong sawawa dicirikeun ku [[suku]] tukangna nu panjang, awakna pondok, [[ramo]] selaputan, sarta [[panon]]na nolol. lolobana bangkong biasa hirup di dua alam, semi-akuatik, tapi lincah di darat ku cara ngaclog jeung nérékél. Biasana ngendog dina balong, [[situ]], [[ranca]], ku sabab larvana, [[buruy]], tumuwuh dina cai. Bangkong sawawa hirupna [[karnivora]], utamana ngahakan [[artropoda]], [[annelida]], jeung [[Gastropoda]]. Paling gampang kanyahoan mun disada, utamana dina [[siklus éstrus|mangsa jalangan]]. Bangkong sumebar ti wewengkon [[tropis]] nepi ka [[subantartika]], tapi lolobana mah aya di [[leuweung hujan tropis]]. Bangkong mangrupa golongan [[vertebrata]] nu panglobana, kabagi kana sahanteuna 5000 [[spésiés]]. Najan kitu, populasina kiwari beuki ngurangan. == Taksonomi == Ordo Anura ngawengku 5.250-an spésiés dina 33 famili, di antarana [[Leptodactylidae]] (1100 spp.), [[Hylidae]] (800 spp.) jeung [[Ranidae]] (750 spp.). Leuwih ti 80% spésiés [[ampibi]] téh kaasup kana golongan bangkong. Tina jihat [[taksonomi]], sakabéh anggota ordo Anura téh disebutna bangkong, sedengkeun sapopoé mah nu disebut bangkong téh leuwih nujul ka "''bangkong korodok''", anggota famili Bufonidae, nu leuwih loba hirup di darat, teu kaasup bancét (nu loba hirup na cai) jeung cakung (hirup na tatangkalan). Bangkong dibagi kana tilu subordo: [[Archaeobatrachia]] (nu ngawengku opat famili bangkong primitip), [[Mesobatrachia]] (nu ngawengku lima famili bangkong évolusionér panengah), jeung [[Neobatrachia]] (golongan panggedéna nu ngandung 24 famili bangkong "modéren"). Néobatrachia salajengna dibagi kana Hyloidéa jeung Ranoidéa{{ref|Ford}}. Klasifikasi ieu dumasar kana fitur morfologis kayaning jumlah vertebrae, struktur ''pectoral girdle'', jeung morfologi buyur. Najan klasifikasi ieu sacara umum ditarima, pancakaki antar familina mah masih diaduregengkeun. Studi [[genetika]] molekulér salajengna dipiharep bisa méré jalan pikeun nangtukeun pancakaki famili-famili bangkong ieu{{ref|Faiv}}. Sababaraha spésiés bangkong bisa ngalaman [[hibrid]]isasi. Misalna, ''Rana esculenta'' mangrupa hibrid ''R. lessonae'' jeung ''R. ridibunda''. == Morfologi jeung fisiologi == Salaku ampibi, morpologi bangkong mah kaasup ahéng. Mun dibandingkeun jeung ampibi lianna, misalna [[salamander]] jeung [[caecilia]], bangkong béda ku sabab teu buntutan mun geus sawawa sarta sukuna leuwih cocog pikeun ngaclog batan leumpang. Pisiologi bangkong sacara umum mah sarupa jeung ampibi séjén (sarta béda ti [[vertebrata]] darat lianna) sabab [[oksigén]] bisa nembus [[kulit]]na nu perméabel pisan. Fitur ahéng ieu jadi pakarang bangkong pikeun "ngarénghap" ngaliwatan kulit. ku sabab oksigén leyur dina lapisan cai dina kulitna sarta lajeng nembus kana [[getih]]na, kulit bangkong téh salawasna kudu baseuh/lembab; balukarna, bangkong jadi gampang karacunan ku lingkunganana, nu bisa baé milu leyur dina cairan na kulitna lajeng asup kana aliran getih. <!-- ===Awakna=== [[Image:Rana_skeleton.png|thumb|Rorongkong ''Rana'']] Many characteristics are not shared by all of the approximately 5,250 described species of frogs. However, some general characteristics distinguish them from other amphibians. Frogs are usually well suited to jumping, with long hind legs with elongated ankle bones. They have a short vertebral column, with no more than ten free vertebrae, followed by a fused tail bone (''urostyle'' or ''coccyx''), typically resulting in a tailless phenotype. Frogs range in size from 10&nbsp;mm (''[[Psyllophryne didactyla]]'' of [[Brazil]] and ''[[Eleutherodactylus iberia]]'' of [[Cuba]]) to 300&nbsp;mm ([[Goliath frog]], ''Conraua goliath'', of [[Cameroon]]). The skin hangs loosely on the body because of the lack of [[loose connective tissue]]. Skin texture varies: it can be smooth, warty or folded. Frogs have three eyelid membranes: one is transparent to protect the eyes underwater, and two vary from translucent to opaque. Frogs have a [[tympanum]] on each side of the head, which is involved in hearing and, in some species, is covered by skin. ===Feet and legs=== The structure of the feet and legs varies greatly among frog species, depending in part on whether they live primarily on the ground, in water or in trees. Frogs must be able to move quickly through their environment to catch prey and escape predators, and numerous adaptations help them do so. [[Image:L tyleri.jpg|thumb|190px|left|[[Tyler's Tree Frog]] (''Litoria tyleri'') illustrates large toe pads and webbed feet.]] Many frogs, especially those that live in water, have webbed toes. The degree to which the toes are webbed is directly proportional to the amount of time the species lives in the water. For example, the completely aquatic [[African dwarf frog]] (''Hymenochirus sp.'') has fully webbed toes, whereas the toes of [[White's tree frog]], an arboreal species, are only a half or a quarter webbed. [[Tree frogs|Arboreal frogs]] have "toe pads" to help grip vertical surfaces. These pads, located on the ends of the toes, do not work by suction. Rather, the surface of the pad consists of interlocking cells, with a small gap between adjacent cells. When the frog applies pressure to the toe pads, the interlocking cells grip irregularities on the substrate. The small gaps between the cells drain away all but a thin layer of moisture on the pad, and maintain a grip through [[capillarity]]. This allows the frog to grip smooth surfaces, and does not function when the pads are excessively wet.{{ref|Emerson}} In many arboreal frogs, a small "intercalary structure" in each toe increases the surface area touching the substrate. Furthermore, since hopping through trees can be dangerous, many arboreal frogs have hip joints that allow both hopping and walking. Some frogs that live high in trees even possess an elaborate degree of webbing between their toes, as do aquatic frogs. But in these arboreal frogs, the webs allow the frogs to "parachute" or control their glide from one position in the canopy to another.{{ref|Harvey}} Ground-dwelling frogs generally lack the adaptations of aquatic and arboreal frogs. Most have smaller toe pads, if any, and little webbing. Some burrowing frogs have a toe extension—a metatarsal tubercle—that helps them to burrow. The hind legs of ground dwellers are more muscular than those of aqueous and tree-dwelling frogs. ===Skin=== [[Image:Crinia signifera.jpg|thumb|190px|right|[[Common Eastern Froglet]] (''Crinia signifera'') camouflaged against leaf litter.]] Many frogs are able to absorb water directly through the skin, especially around the pelvic area. However, the permeability of a frog's skin can also result in water loss. Some [[tree frogs]] reduce water loss with a waterproof layer of skin. Others have adapted behaviours that conserve water, including engaging in [[nocturnal]] activity and resting in a water-conserving position. This position involves the frog lying with its toes and fingers tucked under its body and chin, respectively, with no gap between the body and substrate. These adaptations only reduce water loss enough for a predominately arboreal existence, and are not suitable for arid conditions. [[Camouflage]] is a common defensive mechanism in frogs. Most camouflaged frogs are [[nocturnal]], which adds to their ability to hide. Nocturnal frogs usually find the ideal camouflaged position during the day to sleep. Some frogs have the ability to change colour. However, this is usually restricted to shades of one or two colours. For example, [[White's tree frog]] (''Litoria caerulea'') varies in shades of green and brown. Features such as warts and skin folds are usually found on ground-dwelling frogs, where a smooth skin would not disguise them effectively. Arboreal frogs usually have smooth skin, enabling them to disguise themselves as leaves. Certain frogs change colour between night and day, as light and moisture stimulate the pigment cells and cause them to expand or contract. <br style="clear:both;" /> ===Poison=== [[Image:Dendrobates pumilio.jpg|thumb|190px|right|[[Poison Dart Frog]] (''Dendrobates pumilio'') contains numerous alkaloids which deter predators.]] Many frogs contain mild [[toxin]]s that make them distasteful to potential predators. For example, all toads have large poison glands—the parotid glands—located behind the eyes on the top of the head. Some frogs, such as some [[Poison Dart Frog]]s, are especially toxic. The chemical makeup of toxins in frogs varies from irritants to [[hallucinogen]]s, [[Seizure|convulsant]]s, [[neurotoxin|nerve poisons]], and [[vasoconstrictor]]s (which narrow the blood vessels). Many predators of frogs have adapted to tolerate high levels of these poisons. Others, including humans, may be severely affected. Some frogs obtain poisons from the ants and other arthropods they eat;{{ref|Saporito}} others, such as the Australian [[Corroboree Frog]]s (''Pseudophryne corroboree'' and ''Pseudophryne pengilleyi''), can manufacture an [[alkaloid]] not derived from their diet.{{ref|Smith}} Some native people of South America extract poison from the poison dart frogs and apply it to their [[dart]]s for hunting,{{ref|Myers}} although few species are toxic enough to be used for this purpose. It was previously a misconception that the poison was placed on arrows rather than darts. The common name of these frogs was thus changed from "Poison Arrow Frog" to "Poison Dart Frog" in the early 1980s. Poisonous frogs tend to advertise their toxicity with bright colours, an adaptive strategy known as [[aposematism]]. There are at least two non-poisonous species of frogs in tropical America (''Eleutherodactylus gaigei'' and ''Lithodytes lineatus'') that mimic the colouration of dart poison frogs' coloration for self-protection.{{ref|Savage}}{{ref|Duellman}} Because frog toxins are extraordinarily diverse, they have raised the interest of biochemists as a "natural pharmacy". The alkaloid [[epibatidine]], a painkiller 200 times more potent than [[morphine]], is found in some species of poison dart frogs. Other chemicals isolated from the skin of frogs may offer resistance to [[HIV]] infection.{{ref|van}} Arrow and dart poisons are under active investigation for their potential as therapeutic drugs.{{ref|Phillipe}} ===Respiration and circulation=== The skin of a frog is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as to water. There are a number of blood vessels near the surface of the skin. When a frog is underwater, oxygen is transmitted through the skin directly into the bloodstream. On land, adult frogs use their lungs to breathe. Their lungs are similar to those of humans, but the chest muscles are not involved in respiration, and there are no [[rib]]s or [[diaphragm]] to support breathing. Frogs breathe by taking air in through the nostrils (causing the throat to puff out), and compressing the floor of the mouth, which forces the air into the lungs. Frogs are known for their three-chambered [[heart]], which they share with all [[tetrapod]]s except [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s. In the three-chambered heart, oxygenated blood from the lungs and de-oxygenated blood from the [[respiration|respiring]] tissues enter by separate [[atrium|atria]], and are directed via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel—[[aorta]] for oxygenated blood and [[pulmonary vein]] for deoxygenated blood. This special structure is essential to keeping the mixing of the two types of blood to a minimum, which enables frogs to have higher metabolic rates, and be more active than otherwise.--> == Biologi == Daur hirup bangkong, sakumaha ilaharna ampibi, diwangun ku opat hambalan: endog, buyur, métamorfosis, jeung sawawa. Nalika geus manggih pitempateun melak endog, bangkong [[jalu]] biasana disada pikeun ngirut [[bikang]]na kangkan datang ka éta tempat. Aya sababaraha spésiés bangkong nu sok ngajaga endogna, malah nepi ka geus jadi buyur. === Ti endog nepi ka sawawa === [[Gambar:Frogspawn_closeup.jpg|150px|thumb|Endog bangkong]] [[Gambar:Tadpoles_10_days.jpg|150px|thumb||10 poé: buruy]] [[Gambar:Frog-Zhe.jpg||150px|thumb|8–12 minggu: Buruy sukuan = bangkong buntutan]] [[Gambar:Green-leopard-frog-in-swamp.jpg||150px|thumb|12–16 minggu: sawawa]] Daur hirup bangkong dimimitian tina endog. Lolobana mah ieu endog téh dipelak dina cai, sakalina bisa ngandung rébuan endog. Mangsa ngendog téh biasana mah bareng, antukna mun dihakan [[prédator]] gé, sahanteuna bakal nyésa, da kaburu wareg; buyurna ogé loba kénéh nu ngadodoho, tapi sahanteuna geus bisa ngojay pikeun nyalametkeun manéh. Aya ogé bangkong nu ngendog dina dangdaunnan luhureun cai, naplok, antukna mun geus megar, buyurna langsung murag kana cai. Spésiés bangkong séjénna, nu ngendog di darat, bisa ngarasakeun geleserna prédator (misalna oray), sarta megar saméméh waktuna pikeun ngejat tina pamangsa{{Ref|Warkentin}}. ''Bufo marinus'' mah béda deui, ieu bangkong ngaluarkeun endog nu ngandung racun. Najan hambalan endog ieu rupa-rupa gumantung spésiés jeung lingkunganana, endog bangkong cai mah ilaharna megar dina jangka saminggu. Samegarna tina endog, buruy téh hirup na cai, tanpa suku, tapi boga buntut nu dipaké pikeun ngojay. Buruy mah [[hérbivora]], utamana ngahakan [[ganggang]], kaasup [[diatom]] nu disaring tina cai ngaliwatan [[insang]]na, tapi aya ogé nu karnivora, ngahakan [[serangga]] atawa buruy jeung lauk nu leuwih leutik. Buruy kudu bajoang antara silih hakan jeung dimangsa prédator lianna. Buruy aya ogé nu ngandung racun. Lilana jadi buruy téh rupa-rupa, ti saminggu nepi ka sataun, sabab métamorfosisna kapegat ku usum tiris. Dina panungtung hambalan, buruy ngalaman [[métamorfosis]], transisi ka bentuk sawawa. Métamorfosis ngawengku parobahan morpologi jeung pisiologi, nyaéta tumuwuhna suku tukang, suku hareup, leungitna [[insang]], sarta mekarna [[bayah]]. Peujitna mondokan sabab ngised tina hérbivora jadi karnivora, panonna ngised sacara rostral jeung dorsal, antukna tetempoanana jadi binokulér. Parobahan posisi [[panon]] bangkong nunjukkeun parobahan tina mangsa jadi pamangsa. Salajengna, hambalan ahir kamekaran bangkong ngawengku [[apoptosis]] (program paéh sél) jeung ngelokna buntut. Sanggeus métamorposis, bangkong ngora aya nu nyebar di habitat darat ninggalkeun cai, aya ogé nu tetep cicing di habitat cai. Ampir sakabéh spésiés bangkong [[karnivora]], ngahakan invertebrata kayaning [[artropoda]], [[annelida]], jeung [[gastropoda]]. Sababaraha spésiés nu badag kadang ngahakan [[mamalia]] leutik, [[lauk]], jeung bangkong nu leuwih leutik. Aya nu ngamangsa maké [[létah]]na nu cepel pikeun néwak mangsa nu gesit, aya ogé nu maké 'leungeun'na pikeun nyamualkeun mangsa kana sungutna. Lian ti ngamangsa, aya ogé bangkong nu kahakanan utamana tutuwuhan{{ref|Silva}}. Bangkong mangrupa mangsa [[manuk]], lauk badag, [[oray]], [[careuh]], jeung sato lianna. Manusa ogé aya nu beuki bangkong (ukur sababaraha spésiés bangkong, baca bab [[#Tatanén|tatanén]] di handap). === Baranahan === Nalika nincak sawawa, biasana mah bangkong téh sok balik deui ka tempat megarna, antukna bisa jadi migrasi taunan rébuan bangkong. [[Gambar:Bufo bufo couple during migration(2005).jpg|thumb|left|190px|Bangkong korodok (''Bufo bufo'') keur [[ampléksus]]]] Mun geus aya di tempat kawin, bangkong jalu disada pikeun ngirut bikangna. <!-- The male and female frogs then undergo [[amplexus]]. This involves the male mounting the female and gripping her tightly. Fertilization is [[External fertilization|external]]: the [[Ovum|egg]] and [[sperm]] meet outside of the body. The female releases her eggs, which the male frog covers with a sperm solution. The eggs then swell and develop a protective coating. The eggs are typically brown or black, with a clear, [[gelatin]]-like covering. Most temperate species of frogs reproduce between late autumn and early spring. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], most common frog populations produce frogspawn in February, although there is wide variation in timing. Water temperatures at this time of year are relatively low, typically between four and 10 degrees [[Celsius]]. Reproducing in these conditions helps the developing tadpoles because dissolved oxygen concentrations in the water are highest at cold temperatures. More importantly, reproducing early in the season ensures that appropriate food is available to the developing frogs at the right time. [[Image:Haeckel Batrachia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Colour plate from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s 1904 ''Kunstformen der Natur'', depicting frog species that include two examples of parental care.]] ===Parental care=== Although care of offspring is poorly understood in frogs, it is estimated that up to 20% of amphibian species may care for their young in one way or another, and there is a great diversity of parental behaviours.{{ref|Crump}} Some species of poison dart frog lay eggs on the forest floor and protect them, guarding the eggs from predation and keeping them moist. The frog will urinate on them if they become too dry. After hatching, a parent (the gender depends upon the species) will move them, on its back, to a water-holding [[bromeliad]]. The parent then feeds them by laying unfertilized eggs in the bromeliad until the young have metamorphosed. Other frogs carry the eggs and tadpoles on their hind legs or back (e.g. the [[midwife toad]]s, ''Alytes spp.''). Some frogs even protect their offspring inside their own bodies. The male Australian pouched frog (''Assa darlingtoni'') has pouches along its side in which the tadpoles reside until metamorphosis. The female [[Gastric-brooding Frog]]s (genus ''Rheobatrachus'') from [[Australia]] swallows its tadpoles, which then develop in the stomach. To do this, the Gastric-brooding Frog must stop secreting [[stomach acid]] and suppress [[peristalsis]] (contractions of the stomach). [[Darwin's Frog]] (''Rhinoderma darwinii'') from [[Chile]] puts the tadpoles in its vocal sac for development. ===Call=== The call of a frog is unique to its species. Frogs call by passing air through the [[larynx]] in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth that distend during the amplification of the call. Some frogs lack vocal sacs, such as those from the genera ''Heleioporus'' and ''Neobatrachus'', but these species can still produce a loud call. Their buccal cavity is enlarged and dome-shaped, acting as a [[resonance chamber]] that amplifies their call. Species of frog without vocal sacs and that do not have a loud call tend to inhabit areas close to flowing water. The noise of flowing water overpowers any call, so they must communicate by other means. The main reason for calling is to allow males to attract a mate. Males call either individually or in a group called a chorus. Females of many frog species, for example ''Polypedates leucomystax'', produce calls reciprocal to the males', which act as the catalyst for the enhancement of reproductive activity in a breeding colony.{{ref|roy97}} A male frog emits a release call when mounted by another male. Tropical species also have a rain call that they make on the basis of humidity cues prior to a rain shower. Many species also have a territorial call that is used to chase away other males. All of these calls are emitted with the mouth of the frog closed. A distress call, emitted by some frogs when they are in danger, is produced with the mouth open, resulting in a higher-pitched call. The effectiveness of the call is unknown; however, it is suspected that the call intrigues the predator until another animal is attracted, distracting them enough for its escape. Many species of frog have deep calls, or croaks. The [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] spelling is often "crrrrk" in Britain and "ribbit" in the US. This difference is due to the different species within each region (e.g., [[Common frog]] (''Rana temporaria'') in Britain and [[Leopard frog]] (''Rana pipiens'') in the US). The croak of the [[bullfrog|American bullfrog]] (''Rana catesbiana'') is sometimes spelt "jug o' rum".--> == Sebaran jeung status konservasi == [[Gambar:Bufo_periglenes1.jpg|thumb|left|190px|[[Bangkong emas]] (''Bufo periglenes'') - panungtung katempo taun 1989]] Bangkong téh aya di mana-mana, iwal di [[Antartika]] jeung pulo-pulo tengah sagara; panglobana mah di wewengkon tropis, sabab cocog jeung kaayaan kulitna nu butuh loba cai. Aya éta ogé bangkong nu hirup dina keusik nu carang caina, tapi ieu mah geus adaptasi sacara husus. Genus Australia ''[[Cyclorana]]'' jeung Amérika ''[[Pternohyla]]'' bakal ngubur manéh dina taneuh, nyieun kepongpong nu teu tembus cai, sarta hibernasi salila halodo. Mun geus hujan, sakadang bangkong kakara kaluar, terus néang situ/balong pikeun kawin/baranahan. Kamekaran endog jeung buyurna gancang pisan dibanding bangkong lianna, antukna pas halodo deui téh geus sawawa. Aya sababaraha bangkong nu bisa hirup di nu tiis, kayaning [[Bangkong Kai]] nu hirup di wewengkon Kutub, nu ngubur manéh dina taneuh nalika usum tiris dina kaayaan méh sakujur awakna beku. <!-- [[Decline in amphibian populations|Frog populations have declined]] dramatically since the 1950s, with more than one third of species believed to be threatened with extinction and more than 120 species suspected to have become extinct since the 1980s.{{ref|Stuart}} Among these species are the [[Golden toad]] of Costa Rica, and the [[Gastric-brooding Frog]]s of Australia. Habitat loss is a significant cause of frog population decline, as are pollutants, climate change, the introduction of non-indigenous predators/competitors, and emerging infectious diseases including [[chytridiomycosis]]. Many environmental scientists feel that amphibians, including frogs, are excellent biological [[indicator species|indicators]] of broader ecosystem health because of their intermediate position in food webs, permeable skins, and typically biphasic life (aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults){{ref|Phillips}}. ==Evolution== The earliest amphibian discovered is [[Elginerpeton]], in Late Devonian rocks of [[Scotland]] dating to approximately 368 million years ago. The earliest well-known amphibian, [[Ichthyostega]], was found in Late [[Devonian]] deposits in [[Greenland]], dating back about 363 million years. The later [[Paleozoic]] saw a great diversity of amphibians, ranging from small, legless swimming forms ([[Aïstopoda]]) to bizarre "horned" forms ([[Nectridea]]). These first amphibians are thought to have evolved from bony fish of the class [[Osteichthyes]], which were widespread during the period that amphibia emerged. There is, however, substantial debate over what type of bony fish was the precursor to amphibians. Suggestions include the lungfish and the [[Actinopterygii]] as the forerunners to modern amphibia. The earliest known (proto)frog is '''''Triadobatrachus massinoti''''', from the early [[Triassic]] of [[Madagascar]]. It is about 250 million years old, and had not yet evolved the full combination of features currently associated with frogs. The skull is frog-like, being broad with large eye sockets, but the fossil has a number of other features diverging from modern amphibia. These include a different [[ilium]], a longer body with more [[vertebrae]], and separate vertebrae in its tail (whereas in modern frogs, the tail vertebrae are fused, and known as the ''urostyle'' or ''coccyx''). The [[tibia]] and [[fibula]] bones are unfused and separate, making it probable that Triadobatrachus was not an efficient leaper. Another fossil frog, discovered in [[Arizona]] and called '''''Prosalirus bitis''''', was uncovered in 1985, and dates from roughly the same time as ''Triadobatrachus''. Like ''Triadobatrachus'', ''Prosalirus'' did not have greatly enlarged legs, but had the typical three-pronged [[pelvic]] structure. Unlike ''Triadobatrachus'', ''Prosalirus'' had already lost nearly all of its tail. The earliest true frog is '''''Vieraella herbsti''''', from the early [[Jurassic]] (188–213 Mya). It is known only from the [[dorsal]] and [[ventral]] impressions of a single animal and was estimated to be 33&nbsp;mm in snout-vent length. '''''Notobatrachus degiustoi''''' from the middle Jurassic is slightly younger, about 155–170 million years old. It is likely that the evolution of modern Anura was completed by the Jurassic period. The main evolutionary changes involved the shortening of the body and the loss of the tail. Frog fossils have been found on all continents, including [[Antarctica]]. ==Uses in agriculture and research== Frogs are raised commercially for several purposes. Dead frogs are sometimes used for [[dissection]]s in high school and university anatomy classes, often after being injected with coloured plastics to enhance the contrast between the [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s. This practice has declined in recent years with the increasing awareness of animal rights issues. Frogs are used as a food source; [[frog legs]] are a delicacy in [[China]], [[France]], and in many parts of the [[American South]], especially [[Louisiana]]. Frogs have served as important model organisms in the study of [[embryology]] because frog eggs lack shells characteristic of most other vertebrates, and therefore facilitate observations of early development. The [[African clawed frog]], ''[[Xenopus laevis]]'' is an important laboratory organism. ''Xenopus'' was first widely used in laboratories in pregnancy assays in the first half of the 20th century. When [[human chorionic gonadotropin]], a [[hormone]] found in substantial quantities in the [[urine]] of pregnant women, is injected into a female ''X. laevis'', it induces them to lay [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s. Although alternative pregnancy assays have been developed, biologists continue to use ''Xenopus'' as a [[model organism]] in [[developmental biology]] because it is easy to raise in captivity and has a large and easily manipulatable embryo. In 1952 [[Robert Briggs]] and [[Thomas J. King]] cloned a frog by [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], the same technique that was later used to create [[Dolly the Sheep]], their experiment was the first time successful nuclear transplantation had been accomplished in metazoans.{{ref|briggs}} Recently, ''X. laevis'' is increasingly being displaced by its smaller relative ''X. tropicalis'', which reaches its reproductive age in five months rather than one to two years (as in ''X. laevis''),{{ref|gentime}} facilitating faster studies across generations. The [[genome project|genome sequence]] of ''X. tropicalis'' will probably be completed by 2015 at the latest{{ref|xenopus}}.--> [[File:Bufo melanostictus Bali.jpg|150px|left|Bufo melanostictus Bali]] == Rujukan nu disebut == <div style="font-size: 90%"> # {{note|Emerson}}{{cite journal|last=Emerson| first=S.B.| coauthors=Diehl, D.| year=1980| title=Toe pad morphology and mechanisms of sticking in frogs| journal=Biol. J. Linn. Soc.| volume=13| issue=3| pages=199-216}} # {{note|Harvey}}{{cite journal|lsat=Harvey|first=M. B| coauthors=A. J. Pemberton, and E. N. Smith| year=2002| title=New and poorly known parachuting frogs (Rhacophoridae : ''Rhacophorus'') from Sumatra and Java| journal=Herpetological Monographs| volume=16| pages=46-92}} # {{note|Saporito}}{{cite journal|last=Saporito| first=R.A.| coauthors= H.M. Garraffo, M.A. Donnelly, A.L. Edwards, J.T. Longino, and J.W. Daly| year=2004| title=Formicine ants: An arthropod source for the pumiliotoxin alkaloids of dendrobatid poison frogs| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Science| volume=101| pages=8045-8050}} # {{note|Smith}}{{cite journal| last=Smith| first=B. P.| coauthors=Tyler M. J., Kaneko T., Garraffo H. M., Spande T. F., Daly J. W.| year=2002| title=Evidence for biosynthesis of pseudophrynamine alkaloids by an Australian myobatrachid frog (pseudophryne) and for sequestration of dietary pumiliotoxins| journal=J Nat Prod| volume=65| issue=4| pages=439-47}} # {{note|Myers}}{{cite journal| last=Myers| first=C.W.| coauthors= J.W. Daly| year=1983| title=Dart-poison frogs| journal=Scientific American| volume=248| pages=120-133}} # {{note|Savage}}{{cite book| last=Savage| first=J. M.| year=2002| title=The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica| url=https://archive.org/details/amphibiansreptil0000sava| publisher=University of Chicago Press, Chicago}} # {{note|Duellman}}{{cite journal| last=Duellman| first= W. E.| year=1978| title=The Biology of an Equatorial Herpetofauna in Amazonian Ecuador| journal=University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Miscellaneous Publication| volume=65| pages=1-352}} # {{note|van}}{{cite journal|last=VanCompernolle| first=S. E.| coauthors=R. J. Taylor, K. Oswald-Richter, J. Jiang, B. E. Youree, J. H. Bowie, M. J. Tyler, M. Conlon, D. Wade, C. Aiken, and T. S. Dermody| year=2005| title=Antimicrobial peptides from amphibian skin potently inhibit Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection and transfer of virus from dendritic cells to T cells| journal=Journal of Virology| volume=79| pages=11598-11606}} # {{Note|Warkentin}}{{cite journal| last=Warkentin| first=K.M.| year=1995| title=Adaptive plasticity in hatching age: a response to predation risk trade-offs| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume=92| pages=3507-3510}} # {{note|Silva}}{{cite journal| last=Silva| first=H. R.| coauthors=Britto-Pereira M. C., & Caramaschi U.| year=1989| title=Frugivory and Seed Dispersal by ''Hyla truncata'', a Neotropical Treefrog| journal=Copeia| volume=1989(3)| pages=781–783}} # {{note|Phillipe}}{{cite journal| last=Phillipe| first=G.| coauthors=Angenot L.| year=2005| title=Recent developments in the field of arrow and dart poisons| journal=J Ethnopharmacol| volume=100(1-2)| pages=85-91}} # {{Note|Crump}}{{cite journal|last=Crump| first=M.L.| year=1996| title=Parental care among the Amphibia| journal=Advances in the Study of Behavior| volume=25| pages=109-144}} # {{note|Stuart}}{{cite journal| last=Stuart| first=S.N.| coauthors= J.S. Chanson, N.A. Cox, B.E. Young, A.S.L. Rodrigues, D.L. Fischman, and R.W. Waller| year=2004| title=Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide| journal=Science| volume=306| pages=1783-1786}} # {{note|Phillips}}{{cite book| last=Phillips| first=Kathryn| title=Tracking the Vanishing Frogs| publisher=New York: Penguin Books| year=1994| id=ISBN 0-14-024646-0}} # {{note|roy97}}{{cite journal|last=Roy| first=Debjani| year=1997| title=Communication signals and sexual selection in amphibians| journal=Current Science| volume=72| pages= 923-927}} # {{note|Ford}}{{cite journal|last=Ford| first=L.S.| coauthors=D.C. Cannatella| year=1993| title=The major clades of frogs| journal=Herpetological Monographs| volume=7| pages=94-117}} # {{note|Faiv}}{{cite journal|last=Faivovich| first=J.| coauthors=C.F.B. Haddad, P.C.A. Garcia, D.R. Frost, J.A. Campbell, and W.C. Wheeler| title=Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: Phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision| journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History| volume=294| pages=1-240}} # {{note|briggs}}http://newton.nap.edu/html/biomems/rbriggs.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901100507/http://newton.nap.edu/html/biomems/rbriggs.html |date=2006-09-01 }} # {{note|gentime}}{{cite web | url=http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/rfa-files/RFA-HD-01-008.html | title=Developing the potential of ''Xenopus tropicalis'' as a genetic model | accessdate=2006-03-09 | format=HTML}} # {{note|xenopus}}{{cite web | title=Joint Genome Institute - ''Xenopus tropicalis'' Home | url=http://genome.jgi-psf.org/Xentr4/Xentr4.home.html | accessdate=2006-03-03 | format=HTML}} </div> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Frog|Frog]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (27 Maret 2006) * {{cite book|last=Cogger|first=H.G.|coauthors=R.G. Zweifel, and D. Kirschner| year=2004| title=Encyclopedia of Reptiles & Amphibians Second Edition| publisher=Fog City Press| id=ISBN 1-877019-69-0}} * Estes, R., and O. A. Reig. (1973). "The early fossil record of frogs: a review of the evidence." pp.&nbsp;11–63 In J. L. Vial (Ed.), ''Evolutionary Biology of the Anurans: Contemporary Research on Major Problems''. University of Missouri Press, Columbia. * {{cite book|last=Holman|first=J. A| year=2004| title=Fossil Frogs and Toads of North America| publisher=Indiana University Press| id=ISBN 0-253-34280-5}} * {{cite book| last=Tyler| first=M. J.| year=1994| title=Australian Frogs A Natural History| publisher=Reed Books| id=ISBN 0-7301-0468-0}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Frog}} {{wikispecies|Anura}} * [http://www-itg.lbl.gov/ITG.hm.pg.docs/Whole.Frog/Whole.Frog.html The Whole Frog Project] - Bangkong: bédah jeung anatomi maya * ''[http://raysweb.net/specialplaces/pages/frogsdecline.html Disappearance of toads, frogs has some scientists worried]'' - ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 20 April 1992 * [http://www.xenbase.org/ Xenbase] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904220935/http://xenbase.org/ |date=2009-09-04 }} - Sumberdaya Ramat ''Xenopus laevis'' jeung ''tropicalis'' * [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Salientia Tree of Life (Salientia)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613194138/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Salientia |date=2006-06-13 }} * [http://amphibiaweb.org Amphibia Web] * [http://markus.nolf.org/blog.php?p=160 Time-lapse video showing the egg's development until hatching] * [http://froggy.lbl.gov/movies/whole.frog/frog.Qtime.jpg.1.0.mov Whole Frog] Vidéo Quicktime ngeunaan anatomi bangkong * [http://froggy.lbl.gov/virtual/ Try an on-line "virtual frog dissection" here.] * [http://www.midwestfrogs.com Frog calls] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813082330/http://www.midwestfrogs.com/ |date=2015-08-13 }} - short vidéo clips of calling frogs and interviews with scientists about frog issues, including declining and malformed frog causes * [http://www.dartden.com Dart Den] - Dart frog resource and forums * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/wildbritain/springwatch/ Record UK Frogspawn sightings here] - Springwatch 2006 * [http://www.nwf.org/frogwatchUSA/ Frogwatch USA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629072456/http://www.nwf.org/frogwatchusa/ |date=2009-06-29 }} volunteer frog and toad monitoring program by National Wildlife Federation and USGS, includes links to frog calls of the United States * [http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_1.html Amphibian photo gallery by scientific name] - féatures many unusual frogs {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Anura]] bu6f1b59y97jmd71sg1oibwlsc109dv 0 3989 711805 710617 2026-08-07T04:43:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Sajarah lisan''' atawa '''sajarah oral''' hartina [[sajarah]] anu diturunkeun sacara lisan, turun-tumurun ti hiji [[generasi]] ka generasi salajengna. Ku lolobana [[ahli sajarah|ahli]] mah, sajarah lisan téh teu bisa dipercaya salaku sumber rujukan. Najan kitu, aya ogé ahli nu nganggap salaku cara pikeun miara jeung nyebarkeun sajarah, utamana nalika budaya tulisan can nyerep di hiji kaadaban. Pangalaman dina budaya [[sastra]] nunjukkeun yén manusa téh salawasna ngawangun ulang [[ingetan]]ana (mémori). Najan aya parobahan, inti caritana mah ilaharna tetep kapiara. Nuturkeun guluyurna waktu, parobahan-parobahan téh beuki euyeub nepi ka antukna teu dipikawanoh deui. Jalma nu hirup dina budaya sastra bisa baé salah ngajénan kana kasohéhan sajarah lisan nu sumebar dina budaya prasastra. Saméméh mekarna basa tulisan dina hiji masyarakat, sajarah lisan téh mangrupa alat utama pikeun ngawariskeun émbaran ka turunanana. Nu ilahar mah nyaéta maké dongéng, utamana dina wanda sajak/tembang (misalna [[carita pantun]] & [[guguritan]], sangkan leuwih gampang kaapalkeun) nu katelah tradisi lisan. Kombinasi tradisi lisan nu ngandung [[moral]] katut [[ritual]] téh katelahna [[carita rahayat]] (''folklore''). Sajarah lisan mangrupa salah sahiji ti asal kahirupan manusa, anu bisa dipaké sah minangka penulisan sajarah. Sajarah lisan ieu dibedakeun kalawan tradisi lisan, anu miboga harti béda. Lamun talari lisan éta ngagaduhan hartos ceritera rahayat anu diungkabkeun ku jalan lisan sarta dikembangkeun beruntun ogé ku jalan lisan. Si pelisan (pengungkap ceritera) henteu kabeungkeut ku kajadian na éta sorangan. Si pelisan lain penyaksi atawa lain peserta dina kajadian sajarah ceritera, sarta henteu tanggel walon luhur parnyataan anu diceriterakannya. Sajarah lisan ngabogaan harti anu has anu tanggel walon, nyaéta asal sajarah anu dilisankeun ku jalmi pamilu atawa anu barobah kaayaan saksi rék kitu kaayaanana kajadian sajarah dina jaman na. Si pelisan bener-bener nyaho, milu dina kajadian mangsa kapungkur anu diceriterakeun, kalawan caos tanggel walon luhur leresan na. Ku kituna si pelisan kudu diseleksi sacara kritis sakumaha nyanghareupan asal sajarah.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Darban|first=A. Adaby|date=1997|title=Sejarah Lisan Memburu Sumber Sejarah dari Para Pelaku dan Penyaksi Sejarah|url=https://www.neliti.com/id/publications/12222/|journal=Humaniora|language=id|issue=4|pages=12222|doi=10.22146/jh.v0i4.1908|issn=0852-0801}}</ref> Kaleuwihan ti panalungtikan sajarah lisan nyaéta dina panalungtikan (panalitian). Ari kaleuwihan ti panalungtikan sajarah lisan, di antarana pangumpulan data bisa dipigawé kalawan kitu kaayaanana komunikasi ti dua arah (antawis peneliti kalawan inohong) ku kituna lamun aya perkawis anu teu bisa langsung ditanyakeun ka narasumber. Penulisan sajarah robah kaayaan langkung démokratis (kabuka) margi matak bisa sejarawan kanggo pilari informasi ti sakabéh golongan balaréa (boh rahayat dawam dugi pajabat). Ngalengkepan kakurangan data atawa informasi anu tacan kacutat dina asal ditulis atawa dokumén.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2022/08/30/133000269/sejarah-lisan-pengertian-jenis-data-kelebihan-dan-kekurangannya|title=Sejarah Lisan: Pengertian, Jenis Data, Kelebihan, dan Kekurangannya Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2023-03-01}}</ref> <!-- The information passed on has occasionally shown a surprising accuracy over long periods of time. For example, the ''[[Iliad]]'', an epic poem of [[Homer]] describing the conquest of [[Troy]], was passed down as oral history from perhaps the [[8th century BC]], until being recorded in writing by [[Pisistratus|Pisistratos]]. Nonetheless, factual elements of the ''Iliad'' were at least partially validated by the discovery of ruins discovered by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in [[1870]], thought to be those of the city described in the poem. A famous example of oral history comes from the works of several authors who have, over the span of many hundreds of years, collected folklore which was ultimately put together in a book known as the [[Old Testament]]. The [[New Testament]] was created by several different original authors whose slightly differing versions of many biblical events were combined. The [[Bible]] was therefore nearly entirely created using oral history. Contemporary oral history involves recording or transcribing eyewitness accounts of historical events. Some [[anthropologist]]s started collecting recordings (at first especially of [[American Indian folklore]]) on [[Phonograph cylinder|phonograph cylinders]] in the late [[19th century]]. In the [[1930s]] the [[United States]] [[Library of Congress]] started an oral history program to record traditional folk music, and accounts by surviving witnesses of the [[American Civil War]], [[Slavery]], and other major historical events, onto [[gramophone record|acetate discs]]. With the development of [[audio tape]] recordings the task of oral historians became easier. Anthropologists who collect oral history avoid asking leading questions, for many people will tend to say what they think the interviewer wants them to say. Oral historians attempt to record the memories of many different people when researching a given event. Since any given individual may misremember events or distort their account for personal reasons, the historical documentation is considered to reside in the points of agreement of many different sources, rather than the account of any one person. Oral history is now often used when historians investigate [[history from below]]. ==Notable people== ===Storytellers=== *[[Thomas King]] *[[Harry Robinson]] *[[Studs Terkel]] ===Theorists=== *[[Milman Parry]] *[[Albert Lord]] *[[Eric A. Havelock]] *[[Marshall McLuhan]] *[[Walter J. Ong]] *[[Wendy Wickwire]]--> ==Rujukan== *''[[:en:Oral history|Oral history]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (5 Méi 2006). * {{cite book | first=Donald A. | last=Ritchie | year=2003 | title=Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Oxford University Press | id= | url=https://archive.org/details/doingoralhistory0000ritc_x1p9| authorlink= }} ==Tumbu kaluar== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120718145057/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/wpaintro/wpahome.html American Life Histories] WPA Writers' Project 1936–1940 di Library of Congress (US) * [http://www.oraltradition.org/ Center for Studies in Oral Tradition] The center's mission is to facilitate communication across disciplinary boundaries by créating linkages among specialists in different fields. Through our various activities we try to foster conversations and exchanges about oral tradition that would not otherwise take place. * [http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/oralhistory/index.html Oral History Archives of World War II — Universitas Rutgers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616212344/http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/oralhistory/index.html |date=2006-06-16 }} * [http://omega.dickinson.edu/organizations/oha/ Oral History Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060405090007/http://omega.dickinson.edu/organizations/oha/ |date=2006-04-05 }} (US) * [http://www.ohaa.net.au/ Oral History Association of Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201528/http://www.ohaa.net.au/ |date=2016-03-03 }} * [http://www.nla.gov.au/ohdir/ Oral History Directory of Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060603153500/http://www.nla.gov.au/ohdir/ |date=2006-06-03 }} * [http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/ohonline/ Oral History Online —Berkeley University] (lolobana California jeung Dunya Kulon) * [http://www.oralhistory.org.uk/ Oral History Society (GB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501012441/http://www.oralhistory.org.uk/ |date=2011-05-01 }} * [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/oral.htm Techniques and Procedures of Oral History] US Army Center of Military History * [http://www.tellingstories.org/index.html Telling stories — Urban School of San Francisco] (Holocaust narratives) * [http://www.oralhistoryproject.com/ World War II Submarine Veterans History Project] California Center for Military History *[http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Work+Projects+Administration eTexts] of oral history of former U.S. slaves collected in the 1930s by the WPA, at [[Project Gutenberg]] *[http://www.inthefirstperson.com/ In the First Person] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516024800/http://www.inthefirstperson.com/ |date=2008-05-16 }} Béréndélan leuwih ti 2.500 kumpulan sajarah lisan dina basa Inggris ti sakuliah dunya. *[http://www.newhavenoralhistoryproject.org/ Proyék Sajarah Lisan New Haven di Universitas Yale.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060626055934/http://www.newhavenoralhistoryproject.org/ |date=2006-06-26 }} *[http://storycorps.net/ Story Corps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410042616/http://storycorps.net/ |date=2014-04-10 }} Program nu ngarékam sajarah lisan manusa kiwari; sakabéhna disimpen di Library of Congress. *[http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ ALPAMYSH; A study in Central Asian oral history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034048/http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ |date=2020-11-09 }} *[http://www.sohp.org/ Southern Oral History Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516162951/http://www.sohp.org/ |date=2006-05-16 }} diadegkeun taun 1979 ku UNC-Chapel Hill kalawan prinsip "''Anjeun teu kudu kawentar pikeun jadi sajarah''" - Nell Sigmon *[http://www.fleau.be/mondelingegeschiedenis/ ORAL HISTORY IN FLANDERS; Ramatloka ngeunaan sajarah lisan Flanders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426122443/http://www.fleau.be/mondelingegeschiedenis/ |date=2006-04-26 }} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Komunikasi lisan]] [[Kategori:Sajarah]] [[Kategori:Historiografi]] [[Kategori:Tradisi]] 8isflm6e9zqm2hedpcc1poyz2jjk2g6 0 4002 711579 698033 2026-08-06T23:28:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711579 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} [[Gambar:Kusuma bike large.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Sapédah balap]]'' jaman kiwari dijieun tina solobong [[alumunium]] nu hampang jeung sadel/jok sarta garpuh [[plastik nu dikuatan ku grafit|serat karbon]]. Setangna tungkul sarta banna dirancang ipis sangkan éfisién jeung aérodinamis.]] '''Sapédah''' (basa Sunda mangsa III: '''karéta mesin''') téh tutumpakan manusa nu diboséh nu gilindingna aya dua, hiji di hareup jeung hiji di tukang. Sapédah mimiti dipikawanoh di [[Éropah]], dina [[abad ka-19]]. Kiwari aya kira samilyar sapédah, dipaké pikeun alat angkutan, olahraga, jeung pelesir/hiburan. Bentuk jeung konfigurasi dasar sapédah kiwari aya robahna ti bentuk munggaran nu dijieun kira taun 1885<ref name="herlihy">{{cite book | title = Bicycle: the history | year = 2004 | url = https://archive.org/details/bicyclehistory0000herl_n1m2 | last = Herlihy | first = David V. | publisher = Yale University Press | id = ISBN 0-300-10418-9 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bicyclehistory0000herl_n1m2/page/200 200]-250}}</ref>. Sapédah kiwari mah unak-anikna leuwih loba, utamana ku beuki mekarna bahan modéren jeung rancangan anu dibantu komputer. <!-- {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} ==History== {{main|History of the bicycle}} No single time or person can be identified with the invention of the bicycle. Its earliest known forebears were called ''[[velocipede]]s'', and included many types of human-powered vehicles. One of these, the scooter-like ''[[dandy horse]]'' of the French Comte de Sivrac, dating to 1790, was long cited as the earliest bicycle. Most bicycle historians now believe that these hobby-horses with no steering mechanism probably never existed, but were made up by [[Louis Baudry de Saunier]], a 19th-century French bicycle historian. [[Image:bicycle two 1886.jpg|thumb|280px|A smartly dressed couple seated on an 1886 "[[quadricycle]]" for two.]] The most likely originator of the bicycle is German [[Karl Drais|Karl Drais]], then still a baron, who invented his 1817 machine to replace starved horses after the [[Tambora]] catastrophe. He patented his ''draisine'', a number of which still exist, including one at the ''Paleis het Loo'' museum in [[Apeldoorn]], [[the Netherlands]]. These were ''pushbikes'', powered by the action of the rider's feet pushing against the ground. Scottish blacksmith [[Kirkpatrick MacMillan]] was believed to share creative credit with Drais for adding a ''treadle'' drive mechanism, in 1840, that enabled the rider to lift his feet off the ground while driving the rear wheel. However, some reports describe the vehicle attributed to MacMillan as more of a "quadricycle". In the 1850s and 1860s, Frenchman Ernest Michaux and his pupil Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a different direction, placing pedals on an enlarged front wheel. Their creation, which came to be called the "Boneshaker", featured a heavy steel frame on which they mounted wooden wheels with iron tires. Lallement emigrated to America, where he recorded a patent on his bicycle in 1866 in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. The Boneshaker was further refined by James Starley in the 1870s. He mounted the seat more squarely over the pedals, so that the rider could push more firmly, and further enlarged the front wheel to increase the potential for speed. With tires of solid rubber, his machine became known as the ''ordinary''. British cyclists likened the disparity in size of the two wheels to their coinage, nicknaming it the ''[[penny-farthing]]''. The primitive bicycles of this generation were difficult to ride, and the high seat and poor weight distribution made for dangerous falls. ''[[Image:BicyclePlymouth.jpg|left|thumb|Bicycle in Victorian Plymouth, with a predecessor of the Starley diamond-frame]]'' The subsequent ''dwarf ordinary'' addressed some of these faults, by adding gearing, reducing the front wheel diameter, and setting the seat further back with no loss of speed. Having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. Starley's nephew, [[J. K. Starley]], J. H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the ''chain'' and producing rear-wheel drive. These models were known as ''dwarf safeties'', or ''safety bicycles'', for their lower seat height and better weight distribution. Starley's 1885 Rover is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle. Soon the ''seat tube'' was added, creating the double-triangle, ''diamond frame'' of the modern bike. While the Starley design was much safer, the return to smaller wheels made for a bumpy ride. The next innovations increased comfort and ushered in the 1890s ''Golden Age of Bicycles''. In 1888 Scotsman [[John Boyd Dunlop]] introduced the [[pneumatic tire]], which soon became universal. Shortly thereafter the rear [[freewheel]] was developed, enabling the rider to coast without the pedals spinning out of control. This refinement led to the 1898 invention of ''coaster brakes''. [[Derailleur gears]] and hand-operated, [[Bicycle brake systems|cable-pull brakes]] were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders. By the turn of the century, bicycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing were soon the rage. ''[[Image:Bamboobike.jpg|thumb|American bike from 1896. The frame made of [[bamboo]]]]'' Successful early bicycle manufacturers included Englishman [[Frank Bowden]] and German builder Ignaz Schwinn. Bowden started the [[Raleigh (bicycle)|Raleigh]] company in Nottingham in the 1890s, and soon was producing some 30,000 bicycles a year. Schwinn emigrated to the United States, where he founded his similarly successful company in Chicago in 1895. [[Schwinn Bicycle Company|Schwinn]] bicycles soon featured widened tires and spring-cushioned, padded seats, sacrificing some efficiency for increased comfort. Facilitated by connections between European nations and their overseas colonies, European-style bicycles were soon available worldwide. By the mid-20th century bicycles had become the primary means of transportation for millions of people around the globe. [[Image:Amsterdam-flowerbike.jpg|thumb|A more-than-typical Amsterdam 'granny bike']] In many western countries the use of bicycles levelled off or declined, as motorized transportation became affordable and car-centred policies led to an increasingly hostile road environment for bicycles. In North America, bicycle sales declined markedly after 1905, to the point where by the 1940s, they had largely been relegated to the role of children's toys. In other parts of the world however, such as [[China]], [[India]], and European countries such as [[Germany]], [[Denmark]], and the [[Netherlands]], the traditional utility bicycle remained a mainstay of transportation, its design only gradually changing to incorporate hand-operated brakes and internal hub gears allowing up to seven speeds. In the Netherlands, such so-called 'granny bikes' have remained popular, and are again in production. Especially in [[Amsterdam]] they are often colourfully painted and/or otherwise decorated. [[Image:Mountain bicycle.jpg|thumb|left|This ''[[Mountain bike|mountain bicycle]]'' features oversized tires, a sturdy frame, front shock absorbers, and handlebars oriented perpendicular to the bike's axis]] In North America, increasing consciousness of physical fitness and environmental preservation spawned a renaissance of bicycling in the late 1960s. Bicycle sales in the United States boomed, largely in the form of the [[racing bicycle]]s long used in such events as the hugely popular [[Tour de France]]. Sales were also helped by a number of technical innovations that were new to the US market, including higher performance steel alloys and gearsets with an increasing number of gears. While 10-speeds were the rage in the 1970s, 12-speed designs were introduced in the 1980s, and today most bikes feature 18 or more speeds. By the 1980s these newer designs had driven the [[three-speed bicycle]] from the roads. In the late 1980s the [[mountain bike]] became particularly popular, and in the 1990s something of a major fad. These task-specific designs led many American recreational cyclists to demand a more comfortable and practical product. Manufacturers responded with the [[hybrid bicycle]], which restored many of the features long enjoyed by riders of the time-tested European [[utility bicycle|utility bikes]]. ==Technical aspects== [[Image:Bicycle.jpg|frame|Reflectors for night riding are one of many available safety accessories]] ===Legal requirements=== The 1968 [[Vienna Convention on Road Traffic]] considers a bicycle to be a vehicle, and a person controlling a bicycle is considered a driver. The traffic codes of many countries reflect these definitions and demand that a bicycle satisfy certain legal requirements, including licencing, before it can be used on public roads. In many jurisdictions it is an offence to use a bicycle that is not in roadworthy condition and which does not have functioning front and rear [[bicycle brake systems|brakes]]. In some places, bicycles must have functioning front and rear [[bicycle lighting|lights]] or ''lamps''. As some generator or dynamo-driven lamps only operate while moving, rear [[retroreflectors|reflectors]] are frequently also mandatory. Since a moving bicycle makes very little noise, in many countries bicycles must have a warning bell for use when approaching pedestrians, equestrians and other bicyclists. ===Construction and parts=== ====Frame==== {{main|Bicycle frame}} Nearly all modern [[upright bicycle]]s feature the ''diamond frame'', composed of two [[triangle]]s: the front triangle and the rear triangle. The front triangle consists of the head tube, top tube, down tube and seat tube. The head tube contains the [[headset (bicycle part)|headset]], the interface with the [[bicycle fork|fork]]. The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the top, and the down tube connects the head tube to the [[bottom bracket]]. The rear triangle consists of the seat tube and paired chain stays and seat stays. The chain stays run parallel to the [[bicycle chain|chain]], connecting the bottom bracket to the rear dropouts. The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube (often at or near the same point as the top tube) to the rear dropouts. Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top, resulting in a lower standover height. This allowed the rider to dismount while wearing a skirt or dress. Although some women's bicycles continue to use this frame style, there is also a hybrid form, the ''mixte'' or ''step-through frame'', which also allows easier mounting and dismounting for both male and female riders. Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being strength and low weight. Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines. [[Celluloid]] found application in mudguards, and aluminium alloys are increasingly used in components such as handlebars, seat stems (also known as seatposts), and brake levers. In the 1980s [[aluminium]] alloy frames became popular, and their affordability now makes them common. More expensive [[carbon fibre]] and [[titanium]] frames are now also available, as well as advanced steel alloys. ====Drivetrain==== {{details|bicycle gearing}} The ''drivetrain'' begins with [[bicycle pedal|pedals]] which rotate the [[crankset]], which fit into the [[bottom bracket]]. Attached to the crank is the ''chainring'' which drives the [[bicycle chain|chain]], which in turn rotates the rear wheel via the rear [[sprocket]]s. Between the chain and rear wheel may be interspersed various [[bicycle gearing|gearing systems]], described below, which vary the number of rear wheel revolutions produced by each turn of the pedals. Since cyclists' legs produce a limited amount of power most efficiently over a narrow range of ''[[Cadence (cycling)|cadences]]'', a variable [[gear ratio]] is needed to maintain an optimum pedaling speed while covering varied terrain. The gear systems are hand-operated, via cables (or rarely, hydraulics), and are of two types. * ''Internal [[hub gear]]ing'' works by [[Epicyclic gearing|planetary, or epicyclic, gearing]], in which the outer case of the hub gear unit turns at a different speed relative to the rear axle depending on which gear is selected. Rear hub gears may offer 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, or 14 speeds. Bottom bracket fittings offer a choice of 2 speeds. * ''External gearing'' utilizes [[derailleur gear|derailleurs]], which can be placed on both the front ''chainring'' and on the rear ''cluster'' or ''cassette'', to push the chain to either side, derailing it from the sprockets. The sides of the gear rings catch the chain, pulling it up onto their teeth to change gears. There may be 1 to 3 chainrings, and 5 to 10 sprockets on the cassette. Internal hub gears are much less affected by adverse weather conditions than derailleurs, and often last longer and require less maintenance. However, they may be heavier and/or more expensive, and often do not offer the same range or number of gears. Internal hub gearing still predominates in some regions, particularly on utility bikes, whereas in other regions, such as the USA, external derailleur systems predominate. Road bicycles have ''close set'' multi-step gearing, which allows very fine control of cadence, while ''utility cycles'' offer fewer, more widely spaced speeds. ''Mountain bikes'' and most entry-level road racing bikes may offer an extremely low gear to facilitate climbing slowly on steep hills. Fixed-gear track racing bikes have transmission efficiencies of over 99% (nearly all the energy put in at the pedals ends up at the wheel). While generally variable ratio gear mechanisms are essential for human efficiency, they do reduce mechanical efficiency. The efficiency varies considerably with the gear ratio being used. In a typical hub gear mechanism the mechanical efficiency will be between 82% and 92% depending on the ratio selected. Which ratios are ''best'' and ''worst'' depends on the specific model of hub gear. Derailleur type mechanisms fare better, with a typical mid-range product (of the sort used by serious amateurs) achieving between 88% and 99% efficiency at 100W. In derailleur mechanisms the highest efficiency is achieved by the larger cogs. Efficiency generally decreases with smaller cog sizes because the chain must bend more sharply as it rolls on and off the cog, and it also forms a sharp angle at the chain tensioner^[[#Notes|9]]. Derailleur efficiency is also compromised with '''cross-chaining''', or running large-ring to large-cog or small-ring to small-cog. This also results in increased wear because of the lateral deflection of the chain. [[Retro-Direct]] drivetrains used on some early 20th century bicycles have been resurrected by bicycle hobbyists. ====Steering and seating==== The [[handlebar]]s rotate the [[bicycle fork|fork]] and the front [[bicycle wheel|wheel]] via the ''stem'', which articulates with the [[headset (bicycle part)|headset]]. Three styles of handlebar are common. ''Touring handlebars'', the norm in Europe and elsewhere until the 1970s, curve gently back toward the rider, offering a natural grip and comfortable upright position. ''Racing handlebars'' are "dropped", offering the cyclist either an aerodynamic "hunched" position or a more upright posture in which the hands grip the brake lever mounts. Mountain bikes feature a crosswise handlebar, which helps prevent the rider from pitching over the front in case of sudden deceleration. Variations on these styles exist. ''Bullhorn'' style handlebars are often seen on modern [[time trial bicycle]]s, equipped with two forward-facing extensions, allowing a rider to rest his entire forearm on the bar. These are usually used in conjunction with the ''aero bar'', a pair of forward-facing extensions spaced close together, to promote better aerodynamics. The ''Bullhhorn'' was banned from ordinary road racing because it is difficult for the rider to control in bike traffic. ''Seats'', or ''saddles'', also vary with rider preference, from the cushioned ones favoured by short-distance riders to narrower seats which allow more free leg swings. Comfort depends on riding position. With comfort bikes and hybrids the cyclist sits high over the seat, their weight directed down onto the saddle, such that a wider and more cushioned saddle is preferable. For racing bikes where the rider is bent over, weight is more evenly distributed between the handlebars and saddle, and the hips are flexed, and a narrower and harder saddle is more efficient. [[Recumbent bicycle]]s have more chair-like seats, and so are much more comfortable to ride, although generally slower up hills due to this positioning. The reclined, low seating position does provide increased aerodynamics over standard seating. ====Brakes==== {{main|bicycle brake systems}} Bicycle ''brakes'' are either ''rim brakes'', in which friction pads are compressed against the wheel rims, ''internal hub brakes'', in which the friction pads are contained within the wheel hubs, or disc brakes. A rear hub brake may be either hand-operated or pedal-actuated, as in the back pedal ''coaster brakes'' which were the rule in North America until the 1960s. Hub drum brakes do not cope well with extended braking, so rim brakes are favoured in hilly terrain. With hand-operated brakes, force is applied to brake handles mounted on the handle bars and then transmitted via [[Bowden cable]]s to the friction pads. In the late 1990s, [[disc brakes]] appeared on some off-road bicycles, [[tandem bicycle|tandem]]s and [[recumbent bicycle]]s, but are considered impractical on road bicycles, which rarely encounter conditions where the advantages of discs are significant. The advantages of discs make them well-suited to steep, extended downhills through wet and muddy off-road terrain, which falls under the category of downhill and freeride bicycle riding. The use of tires as large as 3.0 inches in width also makes disc brakes a necessity, as rim brakes simply cannot straddle a tire that wide. Two main disc brake systems exist: hydraulic and mechanical (cable-actuated). Mechanical disc brakes have less modulation than hydraulic disc brake systems, and since the cable is usually open to the outside, mechanical disc brakes tend to pick up small bits of dirt and grit in the cable lines when ridden in harsh terrain. Hydraulic disc brake systems generally keep contaminants out better. However, since hydraulic disc brakes usually require relatively specialized tools to bleed the brake systems, repairs on the trail are difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc brakes rarely fail. Also, the hydraulic fluid may boil on steep, continuous downhills. This is due to the brake losing its ability to transmit force through incompressible fluids, since some of it has become a gas, which is compressible. For these reasons, one must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using a hydraulic system versus a mechanical system. ====Accessories and repairs==== Utility bicycles have many standard features which enhance their usefulness and comfort that would be considered accessories on sports bicycles. ''Chainguards'' and ''mudguards'', or ''fenders'', protect clothes and moving parts from oil and spray. ''Kick stands'' help with parking. Front-mounted wicker or steel ''baskets'' for carrying goods are often used. Rear racks or carriers can be used to carry items such as school satchels. Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children. [[Image:Reiserad-beladen.jpg|left|thumb|Touring bicycle equipped with head lamp, pump, rear rack, fenders/mud-guards, and numerous saddle-bags.]] Other accessories include lights, pump, lock, and additional (pedal or wheel-mounted) reflectors. Technical accessories include solid-state speedometers and odometers for measuring distance. ''Toe-clips'' help to keep the foot planted firmly on the pedals, and enable the cyclist to pull as well as push the pedals. In most countries where cycling is common, [[bicycle helmet]] use is negligible. In North America a significant minority, possibly up to 25% of bicyclists, wear helmets. While no U.S. federal law requires helmets, many states require children to wear them, and some municipalities require them for all riders. In [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and parts of [[Canada]], helmets are required by law. Outside the West, use of helmets by utility cyclists is practically unknown. No correlation between decreased injury rates and helmet use has been demonstrated in whole populations. Many cyclists carry ''tool kits'', containing at least a tire patch kit, [[tire lever]]s, and spanners. A single tool once sufficed for most repairs. More specialised parts now require more complex tools, including proprietary tools specific for a given manufacturer. Some bicycle parts, particularly hub-based gearing systems, are complex, and many prefer to leave [[repair and maintenance|maintenance and repairs]] to professionals. Others maintain their own bicycles, enhancing their enjoyment of the [[hobby]] of cycling. ===Performance=== In both biological and mechanical terms, the bicycle is extraordinarily efficient. In terms of the amount of energy a person must expend to travel a given distance, investigators have calculated it to be the most efficient self-powered means of transportation.^[[#Notes|1]] From a mechanical viewpoint, up to 99% of the energy delivered by the rider into the pedals is transmitted to the wheels, although the use of gearing mechanisms may reduce this by 10-15% ^[[#Notes|2]] ^[[#Notes|9]]. In terms of the ratio of cargo weight a bicycle can carry to total weight, it is also a most efficient means of cargo transportation. A human being travelling on a bicycle at low to medium speeds of around 10-15 mph (16-24 km/h), using only the energy required to walk, is the most energy-efficient means of transport generally available. Air drag, which increases with the square of speed, requires increasingly higher power outputs relative to speed. A bicycle in which the rider lies in a prone position and which may be covered in an aerodynamic fairing to achieve very low air drag is referred to as a [[Recumbent bicycle]] or [[Human Powered Vehicle]]. [[Image:RacingBicycle-non.JPG|right|thumb|Racing bicycles have dropped handlebars, a narrow seat, and minimal accessories.]] On firm, flat, ground, a 70 kg man requires about 100 watts to walk at 5 km/h. That same man on a bicycle, on the same ground, with the same power output, can average 25 km/h, so energy expenditure in terms of kcal/kg/km is roughly one-fifth as much. Generally used figures are * 1.62 kJ/(km∙kg) or 0.28 kcal/(mile∙lb) for cycling, * 3.78 kJ/(km∙kg) or 0.653 kcal/(mile∙lb) for walking/running, * 16.96 kJ/(km∙kg) or 2.93 kcal/(mile∙lb) for swimming. For many people whose running might be limited by muscle and knee pain, cycling offers comparable outdoor exercise that can be enjoyed by people of a wide range of fitness levels: it is a "no-impact" sport that is easy on the body as long as the bike is properly "fit." In addition, since bicycling can also provide convenient transportation, less self-discipline may be required to keep to the activity, since it has a practical purpose. However, because of its efficiency, cycling requires a longer distance, and often greater time, than running to consume the same amount of energy. The average "in-shape" man can produce about 3 watts/kg for more than an hour (e.g., around 200 watts for a 70 kg rider), with top amateurs producing 5 watts/kg and elite athletes achieving 6 watts/kg for similar lengths of time. Elite track sprinters are able to attain an instantaneous maximum output of around 2,000 watts, or in excess of 25 watts/kg; elite road cyclists may produce 1,600 to 1,700 watts as an instantaneous maximum in their burst to the finish line at the end of a five-hour long road race. Even at moderate speeds, most cycling energy is spent in overcoming aerodynamic [[drag (physics)|drag]], which increases with the square of speed; therefore, power needs increase approximately with the cube of speed. Typical speeds for bicycles are 16 to 32&nbsp;[[km/h]] (10 to 20&nbsp;[[Miles per hour|mph]]). On a fast racing bicycle, a reasonably fit rider can ride at 50&nbsp;km/h (30&nbsp;mph) on flat ground for short periods. The highest speed ever officially attained on the flat, without using motor pacing and wind-blocks, is by Canadian [[Sam Whittingham]], who in 2002 set a 130.36&nbsp;km/h (81.00&nbsp;mph) record on his highly aerodynamic [[recumbent bicycle]]. This stands as the official record for all human-powered vehicles. There has been major corporate competition to lower the weight of racing bikes through the use of advanced materials and components. Additionally, advanced wheels are available with low-friction bearings and other features to lower road resistance. In measured tests these components have almost no effect on cycling performance. For instance, lowering a bike's weight by 1 kg, a major effort considering they may weigh less than 15 kg to start with, will have the same effect over a 40 km [[time trial]] as removing a protrusion into the air the size of a pencil. For this reason more recent designs have concentrated on lowering wind resistance, using aerodynamically shaped tubing, flat spokes on the wheels, and handlebars that allow the rider to bend over into the wind. These changes can impact performance dramatically, cutting minutes off a time trial. ===Bicycle physics=== A rider stays upright on a bicycle by steering the bicycle so that the point where the wheels touch the ground stays underneath the center of gravity. Once underway, this effort is largely replaced by physical forces generated by the rotation of the wheels which produce a remarkable "self-steering" effect.^[[#Notes|3]] The [[angular momentum]] of the wheels and the [[torque]] applied to them by the ground generates a phenomenon called [[precession]], by which the wheel turns, or ''trails'', toward whichever side the bicycle tilts. Like the rider's steering adjustments, this motion automatically returns the contact point of the wheel directly under the center of gravity. These forces, perhaps aided at very high speeds by the gyroscopic effect of the spinning wheels,^[[#Notes|4]] are sufficiently strong that a riderless bicycle going down a slope will stay upright by itself. Conversely, a bicycle whose steering fork is ''locked'' in a perfectly straight ahead position is virtually impossible to balance. That gyroscopic effects are unimportant at normal cycling speeds was shown by physicist and researcher into bicycle stability [[David E. H. Jones]], whose series of "URBs" ("unrideable bikes" with various modifications to the front end) included a bike which cancelled the gyroscopic effect of the front wheel by dint of attaching a second wheel to his front forks (alongside the regular wheel) whose lower edge was about an inch (25 mm) above the ground. By gearing this wheel to the regular front wheel so that it spun in the opposite direction at equal speed, the net angular momentum of both wheels together was close to zero. Jones found he could ride this bike with no difficulty, but did discover that without a rider the non-gyroscopic bike fell over much faster than a regular bike. Stability is also influenced by a geometric factor called ''trail''. This is the distance between the point of contact the front wheel makes with the ground and the place the steering axis makes contact with the ground. The greater the amount of trail, the greater the reaction. One can see the effect that trail has by simply holding a bicycle by the seat and leaning it. The movement due to trail and the weight of the bicycle will turn the front wheel in the direction of the turn. Negative trail (rolling a bicycle backwards) results in immediate steering problems. Zero trail (as in a unicycle) requires constant rider adjustment. Positive trail - found on typical bicycles - creates positive stability by steering the contact patch back under the CG of the bicycle and rider. [http://www.johnforester.com/Articles/BicycleEng/dahon.htm] [http://www.velonews.com/tech/report/articles/7322.0.html] At higher speeds bicycles can also experience [[speed wobble]]s or shimmies, where the front wheel spontaneously oscillates to the left and right. While the wobbles can be easily remedied by slowing down, adjusting position, or relaxing one's grip on the handlebars, speed wobbles can be [http://www.mailtribune.com/archive/2004/0915/local/stories/01local.htm fatal]. This shimmy is often seen in shopping cart front wheels. Some otherwise minor irregularity accelerates the wheel to one side. The restoring force is applied in phase with the progress of the irregularity, and the wheel turns to the other side where the process is repeated. If there is insufficient damping in the steering the oscillation will increase until system failure. Speed changes, making the bicycle/motorcycle stiffer or lighter, or increasing the stiffness of the steering (of which the rider is the main component) can change the oscillation frequency, though only speed change is applicable in the situation. For more information on the technical aspects of bicycles, see also: *[[List of bicycle parts]] and [[:Category:Bicycle parts]] ==Social and historical aspects== [[Image:BikesInAmsterdam 2004 SeanMcClean.jpg|right|thumb|Present day: Bikes still popular in Amsterdam]] ===Economic and social implications=== Bicycle manufacturing proved to be a training ground for other industries. Building modern bicycle frames led to the development of advanced metalworking techniques, both for the frames themselves and for special components such as [[Bearing (mechanical)|ball bearings]], [[washer (mechanical)|washer]]s, and [[sprocket]]s. These techniques later enabled skilled metalworkers and mechanics to develop the components used in early [[automobile]]s and [[aircraft]]. J. K. Starley's company became the ''Rover Cycle Company Ltd.'' in the late 1890s, and then the ''[[Rover (car)|Rover]]'' auto maker. The [[Morris Motor Company]] and [[Škoda Auto|Škoda]] also began in the bicycle business, as did [[Henry Ford]] and the [[Wright Brothers]]. Some bicycle clubs and national associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways. In the [[United States]], the [[League of American Wheelmen]] was a prominent advocate for the improvement of roads in the last part of the 19th century, founding and leading the national [[Good Roads Movement]] in the US. [[Image:WhiteBikesVeluwe.jpg|thumb|250px|left|In the Netherlands, bicycles are made available for use in national parks]]The evolution of the bicycle had less tangible effects as well, extending early to areas as diverse as fashion and politics. In the 1890s the cycling craze led to a new set of fashions, including ''bloomers'', which helped liberate women from corsets and other restrictive clothing. A British perfumer marketed ''Cycling Bouquet'', which came in a tiny vial designed to fit into a lady cyclist's purse. The diamond-frame safety bicycle gave women unprecedented mobility, contributing to their emancipation in Western nations. Sociologists suggest that bicycles enlarged the gene pool for rural workers, by enabling them to easily reach the next town and increase their ''courting radius''. In cities, bicycles helped reduce crowding in inner-city tenements by allowing workers to commute from single-family dwellings in the suburbs. They also reduced dependence on horses, and allowed people to travel into the country, since bicycles were three times as energy efficient as walking, and three to four times as fast. In North America, the political organization of bicycle enthusiasts, in such groups as the ''League of American Wheelmen'', led to further changes. Both their model for political organization and the paved roads for which they argued facilitated the growth of the bicycle's rival, the [[automobile]]. In recent years, US and European bicycle makers have moved much of their production to Asia. Some sixty percent of the world's bicycles are now being made in China. Despite this shift in production, as nations such as China and India become more wealthy, their own use of bicycles has declined. One of the major reasons for the proliferation of Chinese-made bicycles in foreign markets is the increasing affordability of cars and motorcycles for its own citizens ^[[#Notes|5]]. ===Bicycles at work=== [[Image:PoliceOfficerOnBike.jpg|thumb|right|Police officer on a bicycle]] The [[mail|postal service]]s of many countries have long relied on bicycles. The [[Royal Mail]] first started using bicycles in 1880. Bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], 25,700 in [[Germany]] and 10,500 in [[Hungary]]. [[Police]] officers adopted the bicycle as well, initially using their own. However, they eventually became a standard issue, particularly for police in rural areas. The [[Kent]] police purchased 20 bicycles in 1896, and by 1904 there were 129 police bicycle patrols operating. Some countries retained the police bicycle while others dispensed with them for a time. Bicycle patrols are now enjoying a resurgence in many cities, as the mobility of car-borne officers is becoming increasingly limited by traffic congestion and [[Auto-free zone|pedestrianisation]]. They also have the advantages that the officers are inherently more open to the public, and the transport is quieter to permit a more stealthy approach toward suspects. The pursuit of suspects can also be assisted by a bicycle. [[Image:Indian Couple on Bicycle.jpg|right|thumb|Bicycles are still an important mode of transportation for people of lower middle class in [[India]]]] Bicycles have enjoyed substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many cities. In the UK, this use persisted for some purposes with generations of teenagers getting their first jobs delivering newspapers by bicycle. In [[India]], many of [[Mumbai]]'s [[Dabbawala]]s use bicycles to deliver hot lunches to the city’s workers. In [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]] the city’s largest bakery recently replaced most of its delivery trucks with bicycles. Even the car industry uses bicycles. At the huge [[Mercedes-Benz]] factory in [[Sindelfingen]], [[Germany]] workers use bicycles, colour-coded by department, to move around the factory. ===Bicycle recreation=== Bicycles are used for recreation at all ages. [[Bicycle touring]] involves touring and exploration or sightseeing with the use of a bicycle for leisure. A [[brevet (cycling)|brevet]] or randonnée is an organized long-distance ride. One major aspect of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] popular culture is enjoying relaxed cycling in the [[rural|countryside]] of the [[Netherlands]]. The land is very flat and full of special public bicycle trails where cyclist aren't bothered by [[automobile|cars]] and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling [[recreation]]. Many [[Dutch people]] subscribe every [[year]] to an event called ''[[fietsvierdaagse]]'' — four days of organised cycling through the local environment. [[Paris-Brest-Paris]] (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on a regular basis on the open road, covers over 1200 km and imposes a 90-hour time limit. ===Bicycles and war=== {{main|bicycle infantry}} The bicycle is not suited for combat, but it has been used as a method of transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones. Bicycles were used in the [[Second Boer War]], where both sides used them for scouting. In [[World War I]], France and Germany used bicycles to move troops. In its 1937 invasion of China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's march through [[Malaya]] in [[World War II]]. Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while the British employed airborne ''Cycle-commandos'' with folding bikes. In the [[Vietnam War]], communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the [[Ho Chi Minh Trail]]. There are reports of mountain bicycles being used in scouting by U.S. Special Forces in the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and in subsequent battles against the [[Taliban]]. The only country to recently maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was [[Switzerland]], who disbanded the last unit in 2003. ===Bicycle racing=== {{main|bicycle racing}} Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the world. Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries. Large races became popular during the 1890's "Golden Age of Cycling", with events across Europe, and in the U.S. and Japan as well. At one point, almost every major city in the US had a [[velodrome]] or two for [[track racing]] events. However since the middle of the 20th Century cycling has become a minority sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particulrly in France, Belgium and Italy. The most famous of all bicycle races is the [[Tour de France]]. This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world. As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed. Road races may involve both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways. They range from the one-day road race, [[criterium]], and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister events which make up cycling's [[Grand Tour (cycling)|Grand Tours]]. [[Recumbent bicycle]]s were banned from bike races in 1934 after [[Marcel Berthet]] set a new [[hour record]] in his ''Velodyne streamliner'' (49.992 km on Nov 18, 1933). [[Track bicycle]]s are used for [[Track cycling|track racing]] in [[Velodrome]]s , while [[cyclo-cross]] races are held on rugged outdoor terrain. In the past decade, [[mountain biking|mountain bike racing]] has also reached international popularity and is even an Olympic sport. The governing body of international cycle sport, the Union Cycliste International, decided in the late 1990s to create additional rules restricting the design of racing bicycles. These rules met with considerable controversy and to some extent arrested the development of the racing bicycle. Their stated motive was so that developing countries could compete in international competitions without requiring large equipment budgets, and to re-focus attention on the athlete rather than the bicyle. For example. monocoque frames, such as used by Chris Boardman to win the Gold medal in 1992 Olympic individual pursuit event in Barcelona, were no longer permitted. ===Modal share: cycle use in modern cities=== {{main|utility cycling}} Cyclists and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to conflicts both in politics and on the streets. Some jurisdictions give priority to motorised traffic, for example setting up extensive one-way street systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, and slip roads. Other cities may apply active ''traffic restraint'' measures to limit the impact of motorised transport. In the former cases, cycling has tended to decline while in the latter it has tended to be maintained. Occasionally, extreme measures against cycling may occur. In [[Shanghai]], a city where bicycles were once the dominant mode of transportation, bicycle travel on city roads was actually banned temporarily in December 2003. In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities using [[bicycle rack]]s, lockable ''mini-garages'', and patrolled cycle parks are used to reduce theft. Local governments also promote cycling by permitting the carriage of bicycles on public transport or by providing external attachment devices on public transport vehicles. Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-parking is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling. Extensive [[bicycle path]] systems may be found in some cities. Such dedicated paths often have to be shared with inline skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians. Segregating bicycle and automobile traffic in cities has met with mixed success, both in terms of safety and bicycle promotion. At some point the two streams of traffic inevitably intersect, often in a haphazard and congested fashion. Studies have demonstrated that, due to the high incidence of accidents at these sites, such segregated schemes can actually ''increase'' the number of car-bike collisions.^[[#Notes|7]] ===Cycling activism=== Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.) and for more global goals ([[energy conservation]], pollution reduction, promotion of fitness). Two broad themes run in bicycle activism: one more overtly political with roots in the [[environmental movement]]; the other drawing on the traditions of the established bicycle lobby. Such groups promote the bicycle as an alternative mode of transport and emphasize the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from cycling versus automobile use. Activists in both camps also argue for improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass transportation, and also for greater provision for cycle carriage on such services. Many cities also have [[community bicycle program]]s that promote cycling, especially as a means of inner-city transport. Controversially, some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisors) seek the construction of [[segregated cycle facilities]] for journeys of all lengths. Other activists, especially those from the more established tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of many [[segregated cycle facilities]] with suspicion. They favour a more holistic approach based on [[Traffic psychology#Accident prevention and improvement of traffic safety|the 4 'E's]]; ''education'' (of everyone involved), ''encouragement'' (to apply the education), ''enforcement'' (to protect the rights of others), and ''engineering'' (to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so). In some cases this opposition has a more ideological basis: some members of the [[Vehicular cycling|Vehicular Cycling movement]] oppose segregated public facilities, such as on-street [[segregated cycle facilities|bike lanes]], on principle. Some groups offer [[Vehicular cycling#VC Education|training courses]] to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic. This is part of the ongoing [[cycle path debate]]. A recent focus, especially for European bicycle activists, has been opposition to compulsory [[bicycle helmet]] legislation. They cite evidence suggesting that compulsory helmet laws and helmet promotion have been associated with significant reductions in bicycle use and with increases in the risk of death or injury to individual cyclists. As a consequence, activists from both sides have put aside their differences in order to fight the helmet lobby. [[Critical Mass]] is a worldwide activist movement of mass bicycle protest rides. It incorporates the themes of increasing the road- and mind-share given to bicycle transport, and has drawn support from environmentally minded campaigners and other schools of political thought. According to participants in Critical Mass, "We aren't blocking traffic, we ''are'' traffic!" However, their particular forms of protest has drawn criticism from the broader streams of activism. ==Types of bicycle== There are many different types of bicycle. See also [[:Category:Cycle types]]. ====By function==== * ''[[Utility bicycle]]s'' are designed for [[Bicycle commuting|commuting]], shopping and running errands. They employ middle or light weight frames and tires, internal [[hub gear]]ing, and a variety of helpful accessories. * ''[[Mountain bicycle]]s'' are designed for off-road cycling, and include other sub-types of off-road bicycles such as Cross Country (i.e."XC"), Downhill , and to a lesser extent Freeride bicycles. All mountain bicycles feature sturdy, highly durable frames and wheels, wide-gauge treaded tires, and cross-wise handlebars to help the rider resist sudden jolts. Some mountain bicycles feature various types of suspension systems (e.g. coiled spring, air or gas shock), and hydraulic or mechanical disc brakes. Mountain bicycle gearing is very wide-ranging, from very low ratios to high ratios, typicaly with 21 to 30 gears. * ''[[Racing bicycle]]s'' are designed for speed, and include road, time trial, and track bicycles. They have lightweight frames and components with minimal accessories, ''dropped'' handlebars to allow for an aerodynamic riding position, narrow high-pressure tires for minimal rolling resistance and multiple gears. Racing bicycles have a relatively narrow gear range, and typically varies from medium to very high ratios, distributed across 18, 20, 27 or 30 gears. The narrow gear ratios allow racers to fine tune their gear selection so as to produce an efficient pedalling cadence. ** ''[[Time trial bicycle]]s'' are similar to road bicycles but are differentiated by a more aggressive frame geometry that throws the rider into a more compact (i.e "aero") riding position. They also feature aerodynamic frames, wheels, and handlebars. ** ''[[Track bicycle]]s'', intended for indoor racing circuits, are exceptionally simplified to reduce weight. They have a single gear mounted to a fixed hub (i.e. no freewheel), no brakes, and are minimally adorned with other components that would otherwise be typical for a racing bicycle. * Messenger bikes, as ridden by some riders especially in US, resemble track bikes, having fixed gears and no brakes, but are riden by messengers hustling packages for law firms, advertising firms, etc. [[Image:Bike refelector safety flash.JPG|thumb|A modern ''touring bicycle'', with accessories and baggage]] * ''[[Randonneur]]'' or ''Audax bicycles'' are designed for [[randonnée]]s or brevet rides, and fall in between racing bicycles and those intended for touring. * ''[[Touring bicycle]]s'' are designed for [[bicycle touring]] and long journeys. They are durable and comfortable, capable of transporting baggage, and may feature any type of gearing system. ====By number of riders==== * A ''[[tandem bicycle|tandem]]'' or ''twin'' has two riders. * A ''triplet'' has three riders; a ''quadruplet'' has four. * The largest ''multi-bike'' had 40 riders. In most of these types the riders ride one behind the other. Exceptions are "The Companion", or "sociable," a side-by-side two-person bike (that converted to a single-rider) built by the Punnett Cycle Mfg. Co. in Rochester, N. Y. in the 1890s. Another bicycle rented to tourists in [[Berlin]] carries eight people seated in a circle. ====By general construction==== * A ''[[penny-farthing]]'' or ''ordinary'' has one high wheel directly driven by the pedals and one small wheel. * On an ''[[upright bicycle]]'' the rider sits astride the saddle. This is the most common type. * On a ''[[recumbent bicycle]]'' the rider reclines or lies supine. * A ''Pedersen'' bicycle has a bridge truss frame. * A ''[[folding bicycle]]'' can be quickly folded for easy carrying, for example on public transport. * A ''[[Moulton Bicycle]]'' has a traditional seating position, and utilises small diameter, high pressure tires and front and rear suspension. * An ''[[exercise bicycle]]'' remains stationary; it is used for exercise rather than propulsion. ====By gearing==== * ''[[hub gear|Internal hub gearing]]'' is most common in European utility bicycles, usually ranging from [[three-speed bicycle]]s to five and seven speed options. But hub gears with eight and fourteen speeds are available as well. * ''[[Shaft-driven bicycle]]s'' use a [[driveshaft]] rather than a chain to power the rear wheel. These are often used as commuter bikes because they eliminate inconveniences associated with chains and pant-legs, but they are less efficient than chain-driven bicycles. Shaft- driven bicycles usually employ internal hub gearing. * ''[[Derailleur gears]]'', featured on most racing and touring bicycles, offering from 5 to 30 speeds * ''[[Single-speed bicycle]]s'' and ''[[Fixed-gear bicycle]]s'' have only one gear, and include all [[BMX]] bikes, children's bikes, crowded city messenger bikes, and many others. The fixed gear has no [[freewheel]] mechanism, so whenever the bike is in motion the pedals continue to spin. An advantage of this is the pedals can also be used to slow down. * ''[[Retro-Direct]] bicycles'' have two [[sprockets]] on the rear wheel. By backpedaling, the secondary, usually lower, gear is engaged. [[Image:Velo acrobatique 2.jpg|thumb|[[Flatland_BMX|Flatland]] rider on a BMX bike]] ====By sport==== * ''[[Track bicycle]]s'' are ultra-simple, lightweight [[Fixed-gear bicycle|fixed-gear]] bikes with no brakes, designed for [[track cycling]] on purpose-built cycle tracks, often in [[velodrome]]s. * ''[[Time trial bicycle]]s'' are similar to road bicycles with an extremely aerodynamic design for use in a cycling [[time trial]]. * ''[[Cyclo-cross]] bicycles'' are lightweight enough to be carried over obstacles, and robust enough to be cycled through mud. * ''Down-hill racers'' are a specialized type of mountain bike with a very strong frame, altered geometry, and long travel suspension. They are designed for use only on downhill tracks. * ''[[BMX]]'' (bicycle motocross) bicycles have small wheels and are used for [[BMX racing]], as well as for [[wheelie]]s, jumps, and other acrobatics. * ''[[Triathlon]]'' bicycles have seat posts that are closer to vertical than the seat posts on road racing bicycles. This concentrates the effort of cycling in the [[quadriceps]] muscles, sparing the other large muscles of the leg for the running segment of the race. Triathlon bicycles also have specialized handlebars known as [[triathlon bars]] or aero bars. ====By means of propulsion==== * A ''pedal cycle'' is driven by pedals. * A ''hand-cranked bicycle'' is driven by a hand crank. * A ''rowing bicycle'' is driven by a rowing action using both arms and legs. * A ''[[Motorized bicycle]]'' provides motor assistance. * A ''[[moped]]'' propels the rider with a motor, but includes bicycle pedals for human propulsion. * ''Shaft drive'' bicycles connect the pedals to the rear hub with a shaft instead of a chain. * a "Flywheel" uses stored kinetic energy. ====Other types==== * ''[[Hybrid bicycle]]s'' are a compromise between the mountain and racing style bicycles which replaced European-style ''utility bikes'' in North America in the early 1990s. They have a light frame, medium gauge wheels, and derailleur gearing, and feature straight or curved-back, ''touring'' handlebars for more upright riding. * ''[[Cruiser bicycle]]s'' are designed for comfort, with curved back handlebars, padded seats, and ''balloon'' tires. Cruisers typically have minimal gearing and are often available for rental at beaches and parks which feature flat terrain. * ''[[Freight bicycle]]s'' are designed for transporting large or heavy loads. * ''[[Cycle rickshaw]]s'' (also called ''pedicabs'' or ''trishaws'') are used to transport passengers for hire. * ''[[Velomobile]]s'' or ''bicycle cars'' provide enclosed pedal-powered transportation. * ''[[Clown bicycle]]s are designed for comedic effect or stunt riding. Some types of clown bicycles are: ** ''bucking bike'' (with one or more eccentric wheels) **''[[tall bike]]'' (often called an ''upside down bike'', constructed so that the pedals, seat and handlebars are all higher than normal) -- other types tall bikes are made by welding two more more bicycle frames on top of each other, and running additional chains from the pedals to the rear wheel. **''Come-apart bike'', (essentially a unicycle, plus a set of handlebars attached to forks and a wheel). :Clown bikes are also built that are directly geared, with no freewheeling, so that they may be pedaled backwards. Some are built very small but are otherwise normal. * [[Art bike]]s: Some bikes are built so that the frame appears to be made of junk or found objects: [[Bongo the Clown]] built several ridable parade bikes which were as much kinetic sculptures as transport. * A ''[[unicycle]]'' is not a bicycle, as it has only one wheel, but it is related. ==Standards== A number of formal and industry standards exist for bicycle components, to help make spare parts exchangeable: * [[ISO 5775]] Bicycle tire and rim designations * ISO 8090 Cycles — Terminology (same as BS 6102-4) * ISO 4210 Cycles — Safety requirements for bicycles ==See also== [[Image:Bicycles snow Graz 2005 original.jpg|thumb|250px|Bicycles in the snow]] * [[Bicycle gearing]] * [[Trampe bicycle lift|Bicycle lift]] * [[Bicycle lock]] * [[Bicycle messenger]] * [[Bicycle safety]] * [[Bicycling terminology]] * [[Clothing-optional bike rides]] * [[Clown bicycle]] * [[Countersteering]] * [[Cycling]] * [[Cycling hand signals]] * [[Fietsvierdaagse]] * [[French bicycle industry]] * [[List of bicycle manufacturers]] * [[List of environment topics]] * [[List of important cycling events]] * [[Mountain biking]] * [[Quadricycle]] * [[Raleigh Chopper]] * [[Segregated cycle facilities]] * [[Safety standards]] * [[Timeline of transportation technology]] * [[Tricycle]] * [[Utility cycling]] * [[Vehicular cycling]] ==Notes== *1 [[Scientific American]], March 1973: "Bicycle Technology", by S.S.Wilson. *2 [http://www.jhu.edu/~gazette/1999/aug3099/30pedal.html "Johns Hopkins Gazette", Aug.30, 1999] *3 "The Stability of the Bicycle", David Jones, "Physics Today", April 1970: pp.34-40 (external link, below) *4 Townsend (external link, below) *5 [[The Economist]], Feb.15, 2003 *6 "Cities for Cyclists" (external link, below) *7 "Bicycling Life" (external link, below) *8 [[Effective Cycling|John Forester's Effective Cycling]] *9 See Chapter 9 of "Bicycling Science" (Reference, below) for details of transmission efficiency. ==References== {{wikibookspar||Bicycle repair}} * ''All About Bicycling'', Rand McNally. * ''The New Columbia Encyclopedia'' * Richard Ballantine, ''Richard's Bicycle Book'', Pan, 1975. * Caunter C. F. ''The History and Development of Cycles'' Science Museum London 1972. * Daniel Kirshner. ''Some nonexplanations of bicycle stability''. American Journal of Physics, 48(1), 1980. The abstract reads "In this paper we attempt to verify a nongyroscopic theory of bicycle stability, and fail". * David B. Perry, ''Bike Cult: the Ultimate Guide to Human-powered Vehicles'', Four Walls Eight Windows, 1995. * Roni Sarig, ''The Everything Bicycle Book'', Adams Media Corporation, 1997 * {{cite web | title=Randonneurs USA | work=PBP: Paris-Brest-Paris | url=http://www.rusa.org/pbp.html | date=March 31 | year=2005}} *US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. "America's Highways 1776-1976", pp. 42-43. Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office. * David Gordon Wilson, ''Bicycling Science'', MIT press, ISBN 0-262-73154-1 * David V. Herlihy, ''Bicycle: The History'', Yale University Press, 2004 * Frank Berto, ''The Dancing Chain: History and Development of the Derailleur Bicycle'', San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2005, ISBN 1-892495-41-4. * ''The Data Book: 100 Years of Bicycle Component and Accessory Design'', San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2005, ISBN 1-892495-01-5.--> ==Rujukan== <references/> == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Category:Bicycle}} * The World's Bicycle Conference: [http://www.velomondial.net Velo Mondial] * BikeForums.net (2005). [http://www.bikeforums.net/ BikeForums]. Retrieved March 30, 2005. * [http://sheldonbrown.com/ Brown, Sheldon] (2005). Extensive online [http://sheldonbrown.com/glossary.html bicycle glossary]. * eHow, Inc. (2005). [http://www.ehow.com/how_228_make-bike-fit.html How to Make Your Bike the Perfect Fit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427145821/http://www.ehow.com/how_228_make-bike-fit.html |date=2006-04-27 }}. Retrieved March 30, 2005. * [http://www.ecf.com/ European Cyclists' Federation] * Exploratorium (2004). [http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/humanpower1.html Science of Cycling: Human Power] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014132730/http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/humanpower1.html |date=2008-10-14 }}. Retrieved March 30, 2005. * Bicycle Conference Asia: Sport Bike * Freerideforums.net (2006).[http://www.freerideforums.com/ Freerideforums] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210113529/http://www.freerideforums.com/ |date=2006-02-10 }} * Hudson, William (2003). [http://www.jimlangley.net/ride/bicyclehistorywh.html Myths and Milestones in Bicycle Evolution]. Retrieved March 30, 2005. * Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd. (2005). [http://www.cyclingforum.org/forums/ CyclingForum.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061214084922/http://www.cyclingforum.org/forums/ |date=2006-12-14 }}. Retrieved March 30, 2005. * Jones, David E. H. (1970). [http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~fajans/Teaching/MoreBikeFiles/JonesBikeBW.pdf The Stability of the Bicycle]. Scanned in copy for download for personal use. * Townsend, Andy (2005). [http://www.rider-ed.com/tips/motorcyclestability.htm Motorcycle Stability and Steering] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901235911/http://www.rider-ed.com/tips/motorcyclestability.htm |date=2006-09-01 }}. Rider Education of New Jersey, Inc. Retrieved March 30, 2005. {{pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sapedah}} [[Kategori:Angkutan darat]] [[Kategori:Angkutan teu maké mesin]] 3by9jzp5993bnt2kqiulf0ynkk2shv7 0 4435 711647 654671 2026-08-07T00:54:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711647 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Japanese writing}} Artikel ieu ngajelaskeun '''sistem nulis dina Basa Jepang''' kiwari jeung sajarahna. Artikel ngeunaan basa Jepang bisa ditempo leuwih jelas di [[Basa Jepang]]. Basa Jepang kiwari ngagunakeun tilu skrip utama nyaéta: *'''[[Kanji]]''', [[Chinese character|aslina tina karakter Basa Cina]], *'''[[Hiragana]]''', ''[[syllabary]]'', jeung *'''[[Katakana]]''', ''[[syllabary]]''. Basa Jepang bisa ogé ditulis maké [[Roman letters|tulisan Latin]] nu dina Basa Jepang disebutna [[rōmaji]]. Basa Jepang jarang ngagunakeun tulisan lain, iwal ti singgetan (ilahar dina istilah tehnik) nu jadi istilah umum (saperti CD jeung DVD). Di handap ieu ''headline'' surat kabar nu ngagunakeun sakabéh skrip (tina ''[[Asahi Shimbun]]'' [[19 April]] [[2004]]) (<FONT COLOR="red">kanji beureum</FONT>, <FONT COLOR="blue">hiragana biru</FONT>, <FONT COLOR="green">katakana hejo</FONT>, rōmaji jeung angka Arab hideung): :<FONT COLOR="green">ラドクリフ</FONT>、<FONT COLOR="green">マラソン</FONT><FONT COLOR="red">五輪代表</FONT><FONT COLOR="blue">に</FONT>１<FONT COLOR="red">万</FONT><FONT COLOR="black">ｍ</FONT><FONT COLOR="red">出場</FONT><FONT COLOR="blue">にも</FONT><FONT COLOR="red">含</FONT><FONT COLOR="blue">み</FONT> :''RADOKURIFU, MARASON gorin daihyō ni ichi-man mētoru shutsujō ni mo fukumi'' :"Radcliffe, Olympic marathon contestant, will also appear in the 10,000 m" Di handap sababaraha conto kecap nu ditulis dina Basa Jepang: {| class="wikitable" | !Kanji !Hiragana !Katakana !Rōmaji !Sunda |- |私 |わたし |ワタシ |''watashi'' |kuring |- |金魚 |きんぎょ |キンギョ |''kingyo'' |lauk emas |- |煙草 |たばこ |タバコ |''tabako'' |rokok |} [[kana#Collation|Gabungan]] (susunan kecap) dina Basa Jepang leuwih dumasar kana [[kana]] tinimbang kanji, nu nunjukkeun cara maca éta kecap. Kana disusun maké dua cara susunan nyaéta, susunan anyar [[gojūon]] (lima puluh - sora), atawa susunan-heubeul [[iroha]]. [[Japanese dictionaries|Kamus karakter Basa Cina]] ogé dipaké keur gabungan sistim [[Radical (Chinese character)|radikal]]. ==Cara make skrip== Lolobana teks Basa Jepang ditulis dina ''kanji'' atawa ''hiragana'', sababaraha maké ''katakana''. ''[[Kanji]]'' (漢字) dipaké keur nuliskeun, *[[noun|kecap barang]], *tambahan [[adjective|kecap sipat]] jeung [[verb|kecap gawe]], tur *[[ngaran Jepang]]. Tempo artikel [[kanji]] keur leuwih jelasna. ''[[Hiragana]]'' (平仮名) dipaké keur nuliskeun, *[[inflection|infleksi]] ahiran keur [[adjective|kecap sipat]] jeung [[verb|kecap benda]] ([[okurigana]] 送り仮名), *[[grammatical particle|partikel gramatikal]] (''joshi'' 助詞), *Kecap Basa Jepang nu teu mibanda ''kanji'', mun ''kanji'' hésé dibacana, tur *nunjukkeun kumaha cara maca kanji ([[furigana]] 振り仮名). Tempo artikel [[hiragana]] keur leuwih jelasna. <!-- ''[[Katakana]]'' (片仮名) are used to write, for example, *foreign words and names, *[[onomatopoeia]], *emphasized words, much like italicized words in English text, and *technical and scientific words, such as plant, animal, and mineral names. See the article [[katakana]] for full details. ''[[romaji|Rōmaji]]'' (ローマ字) are Roman characters, used to write *[[acronym]]s and [[initialism]]s, for example [[NATO]]; *Japanese names or other words intended for use outside of Japan (for example, Japanese names on business cards, in passports, etc.); *company names, brand names or product names, etc. used both inside and outside of Japan; and *foreign words and phrases that appear in an otherwise Japanese context, such as words that appear in advertising, on consumer goods intended for Japanese consumption, etc. See the article [[rōmaji]] for details. However, there are many exceptions to the above rules. For example, [[Japanese name]]s may be written in ''kanji'', ''hiragana'' or ''katakana''. For full details, see the respective articles. In addition, [[Arabic numeral]]s are commonly used to write numbers in [[Yokogaki and tategaki|horizontal text]]. ===Choice of script=== All words in Japanese can be written in either ''katakana'', ''hiragana'', or ''rōmaji''. Most words also have a ''kanji'' form. The choice of which type of writing to use depends on a number of factors, including standard conventions, readability, and stylistic choices. Some Japanese words are written with different kanji depending on the specific usage of the word -- for instance, the word "naosu" (to fix, or to cure) is written 治す when it refers to curing a person, and 直す when it refers to fixing something. In some cases (such as the preceding one) the distinction is simple, whereas in some cases the distinction in nuance is difficult enough that an author will write the word in hiragana to avoid the possible error of choosing the wrong kanji. --> == Tulisan langsung== {{utama|Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts}} Sacara tradisional, Basa Jepang ditulis dina format nu disebut ''tategaki''. Dina format ieu, karakter ditulis di katuhu ke kénca. Sanggeus nepi ka panghandapna dina unggal kolom, nu maca neruskeun deui ka luhur beulah kéncana. Sistim kolom ieu nuturkeun sistim dina Basa Cina. Basa Jepang modérn ogé ngagunakeun sistem nulis séjénna nu disebut ''yokogaki''. Sistim nulis ieu saperti dina nulis Basa Eropa upamana Basa Inggrism nu karakterna disusun unggal baris, dibaca ti kénca ka katuhu, tur diteruskeun ka baris saterusna ka arah handap. == Sistim nulis kiwari == Sistim tulisan Basa Jepang kiwari bisa dituturkeun balik ka abad ka-4 AD, mangsa tulisan Basa Jepang mimiti dipaké di Jepang. Taya bukti nu pasti yén sistim tulisan Jepang asli leuwih tiheula tinimbang pangwanoh kana Basa Cina. Sanajan aya sababaraha bukti ngeunaan tulisan saméméhna nu disebut ''[[jindai moji]]'' (oge ''kamiyo moji'', [[:ja:神代文字|神代文字]], hartina "tulisan umur tuhan") kapanggih dina tulisan modérn, sababaraha [[pictographic]], sababaraha [[Runic alphabet|runic]], sarta sabababaraha deukeut kana [[Korean language|Basa Korea]] [[Hangul]], ieu dianggap salaku promosi "hoax" [[Japanese nationalism|nasionalisme Jepang]] dina taun 1930-an. Contona bisa kapanggih di [http://www.langmaker.com/db/alp_jindaimoji.htm here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212012434/http://www.langmaker.com/db/Alp_jindaimoji.htm |date=2007-02-12 }}. Mimitina, karakter Basa Cina teu dipaké keur nulis Basa Jepang; sacara literatur hartina kamampu keu maca jeung nulis [[Classical Chinese|Basa Cina Klasik]]. Sistim ieu disebutna [[kanbun]] ([[:ja:漢文|漢文]]) nu geus dimekarkeun, nu maké boh karakter Cina ([[kanji]]) jeung kadang-kadang nu ampir sarua jeung grammar Basa Cina, tapi remen tanda diacritik diteundeun deukeut teks Basa Cina keur méré tanda nu sarua dina Basa Jepang. Sajarah tulisan mimiti Jepang, [[Kojiki]] ([[:ja:古事記|古事記]]), dipercaya geus dipaké saméméh 712, saperti tulisan dina kanbun. Ayeuna sakabéh SMA di Jepang jeung sababaraha SMP ngajarkeun kanbun salaku bagéan tina kurikulum Basa Jepang. Taya sistim tulisan nu dipaké dina Basa Jepang nepi ka mimiti diwangunna [[manyogana|man'yōgana]] ([[:ja:万葉仮名|万葉仮名]]), nu maké karakter Cina keur sora fonétikna (diturunkeun keu maca Basa Cina) tinimbang semantikna. Man'yōgana mimiti dipaké keur nulis sajak, saperti dina [[Manyoshu|Man'yōshū]] ([[:ja:万葉集|万葉集]]), nu mimiti dipaké samameh taun 759, sarta ti dinya diturunkeun sistim tulisan nu aya ayeuna. [[Hiragana]] jeung [[katakana]] duanana tumuwuh tina man'yōgana. Sabab loba kecap jeung konsép nu asup ka Jepang ti Cina teu sarua jeung pamake aslina, loba kecap nu asup kana Basa Jepang sacara langsung nu cara ngucapkeunna sarua jeung [[Chinese language|Basa Cina]] asli. Cara maca Basa Cina ieu disebutna ''[[onyomi|on-yomi]]'' ([[:ja:音読み|音読み]]), sarta kosa kata sakabéhna dumasar kana [[Sino-Japanese]]. Dina waktu nu sarua, pamake Basa Jepang asli mibanda kecap ku pakait jeung kanji injeuman. Pangaran loba maké kanji jeung ngagambarkeun ieu kecap. Cara maca Basa ieu disebutna ''[[kunyomi|kun-yomi]]'' ([[:ja:訓読み|訓読み]]). Hiji kanji bisa teu mibanda, hiji atawa sababaraha ''on-yomi'' jeung ''kun-yomi''. [[Okurigana]] cara nulis sanggeus ''kanji'' mimiti keur kecap gawe jeung sipat tur keur ngabantu sangkan teu bingung dina maca sababaraha kanji. Karakter nu sarua bisa dibacara ku sababaraha cara gumunatung kana kecapna. Contona, karakter keur 行 dibaca ''i'' keur suku kata mimiti ''iku'' (行く) 'indit', ''okona'' keur mimiti tilu suku kata ''okonau'' (行う, "nyokot"), ''gyō'' dina susunan kecap ''gyōretsu'' (行列, "garis" atawa "prosesi"), ''kō'' dina kecap ''ginkō'' ([[:ja:銀行|銀行]], "bank"), jeung ''an'' dina kecap ''andon'' (行灯, "lentera"). [[Linguistics|Ahli basa]] kadangkala ngabandingkan kecap injeuman Basa Jepang jeung adaptasi tina Basa Cina kana Basa Jepang saperti pangaruhna [[Norman conquest]] [[England]] kana [[English language|Basa Inggris]]. Saperti dina Basa Inggris, [[synonym|sinonim]] Basa Jepang béda ti aslina, keur kecap boh tina Basa Cina atawa Basa Jepang Asli. Kasaruaan séjénna, kecap asli Basa Cina ilahar dipaké leuwih resmi atawa intelek dina kontek ku pamake Basa Jepang, saperti pamake Basa Inggris leuwih sering maké kecap [[latin]] keur nandakeun leuwih luhur [[Register (linguistics)|kamampu]]na. == Reformasi basa tulisan == === Periode Meiji === Parobahan nu nyata dina abad ka-19 [[Meiji era]] teu nyababkan akibat langusng kana sistim tulis Jepang, sanajan basa sorangan robah ku sabab lobana literatur tina reformasi pendidikan, lobana asupan kecap anyar; boh kecap injeuman tina basa séjén atawa jieunan anyar sarta hasilna gerakan saperti pangaruh 言文一致 ''(genbun'itchi)'' nu dihasilkeun dina Basa Jepang dina tulisan "colloquial" keur ngagantikeun gaya tulisan klasik nu dipaké saméméhna. Hesena nulis Basa Jepang jadi topik nu loba didiskusikeun, sababaraha usulan sanggeus taun 1800-an sangka jumlah ''[[kanji]]'' nu dipaké diwatesan. Usulan séjénna, keur ngaganti sakabéh tulisan nu lain Basa Jepang (usulan ieu kurang hasil) dina ''[[kana]]'' atawa ''[[romaji]]''. périodeu ieu nembongkeun tanda baca gaya tulis kulon mimiti dipikawanoh dina tulisan Jepang (Twine, 1991). Dina taun 1900, Kementrian Pendidikan mimiti ngawanohkeun tilu reformasi keur naekeun pendidikan dina Basa Jepang: * standarisasi ''[[hiragana]]'' skrip, ngurangan ''[[hentaigana]]'' (変体仮名); * nangtukeun jumlah ''kanji'' nu diajarkuen di sakola dasar kita-kira 1,200; * reformasi bentuk ''kana'' teu teratur, dijelaskeun dina Sino-Japanese cara maca ''kanji'' sangkan leuwih pas dina cara ngucapkeunna. Dua mimti ilahar ditarima, tapi nu katilu masih kénéh aya ganjelan, sarta loba nu nolak dina taun (Seeley, 1991). === Samemeh PDII === Sabagéan kagagalan reformasi taun 1900 ditambah ku naekna rasa nasionalisme di Jepang sacara éféktifnahan reformasi dina sistim tulisan. périodeu saméméh [[World War II|Perang Dunya II]] nembongkeun usulan keur teges kana pamakéan sajumlah ''kanji'', sarta sababaraha koran sacara sukarela teges kana pamakéan ''kanji'' tur leuwih loba maké ''[[furigana]]'', tapi taya dukungan resmi tur loba tangtangan oge. === Sanggeus PDII === périodeu sanggeus [[Perang Dunya II]] nembongkeun parobahan nu gancang tur nyata dina reformasi sistim tulisan. Hal ieu sabagéan tina pangaruh kawijakan pamaréntah, tapi sacara nyata ngaleungitkeun konservatif tina kontrol sistim pendidikan, nu hartina ngoméan nu geus aya saméméhna. Reformasi utama nyaéta: * kawijakan maké sakabéh ''kana'' nu cara ngucap modérn (現代仮名遣い ''gendaikanazukai''), ngagantikeun [[historical kana usage|pamakean kana heubeul]] (1946); * mimiti ngagunakeun ''[[tōyō kanji]]'' (当用漢字), nu jumlah ''kanji'' diwatesan dipaké di sakola, teksbook jeung sajabana, tina 1,850 (1946), jeung nyederhanakeun bentuk kanji (tempo [[Shinjitai]]); * mimiti ngagunakeun kanji nu susunan ''kanji'' disatujuan keur dipaké di sakola (1949); * mimiti nambahkeun ''[[jinmeiyō kanji]]'' (人名用漢字) nu mangrupa kombinasi jeung ''tōyō kanji'' keur dipaké dina ngaran (1951). (Salah sahiji usulan ti administrasi pamaréntahan nyaéta keur ngarobah sistim tulisan kana rōmaji, tapi teu didukung ku para ahli tur teu diteruskeun.) (Unger, 1996) séjénna, sistim nulis [[Yokogaki and tategaki|sistim tulisan datar ti katuhu ka kénca]] ilaharna diganti ku sistim tulis di kénca ka katuhu. Susunan katuhu ka kénca dipaké keur kasus husus tulisan nangtung, nu mana kolom karakter ti luhur, diteruskeun sistim datar per se; ieu dipaké keur sistim tulis sagaris dina tanad, jst. (contona tanda stasion di Tokyo dibaca 駅京東). Tulisan ieu masih dipaké dina sisi katuhu (atawa papan iklan) sababaraha kandaraan, kapal, jst, nu mana dipaké keur runtuyan teks ti hareup ka tukang dina kandaraan dina dua sisina. Reformasi sanggeus perang masih kénéh nyesakeun sababaraha hal, sanajan sababaraha kategesan geus dikurangan. Ngagantikeun ''tōyō kanji'' dina 1981 ku 1,945 ''jōyō kanji'' (常用漢字) geus dihijikeun ku ngarobah tina "kategesan" ka "rekomendasi", sarta dina kapimilikan pangajaran jadi kurang aktif keur neruskeun reformasi sistim tulisan (Gottlieb, 1996). Dina taun 2004, loba tambahan dijieun dina sajumlah kanji ''jinmeiyō kanji''. Daftarna ngarujuk ka Kementrian Kehakiman. ==Nuansa sistim nulis== Sistim tulis Basa Jepang ngidinan keur nepikeun informasi dina komunaksi jeung basa séjén ngagunakeun kecap nu béda atawa ku nambahkeun katerangan ngeunaan éta kecap. Contona, kanji ''watashi'' atawa ''watakushi'' 私 "kuring" ilahar dipaké dina tulisan formal boh ku lalaki atawa awewe. Hiragana ''watashi'' わたし leuwih ilahar dipaké ku awewe dina tulisan informal saperti catetan harian atau surat ka bababaturan. Katakana ''watashi'' ワタシ jarang dipaké. Rōmaji ''watashi'' teu pernah dipaké, iwal ti dina kontek sakabéh-rōmaji. Susunan Kanji ogé méré kateupastian dina cara maca keur kaperluan gaya. Contona dia [[Natsume Soseki]] carita pondok ''The Fifth Night'', pangarang maké 接続って keur ''tsunagatte'', [[gerund]]ive [[Japanese grammar#Verbs|bentuk ''-te'']] tina kecap ''tsunagaru'' ('ngahubungkeun'), nu ilahar ditulis nyaéta 繋がって atawa つながって. Tempo ogé [[furigana]] keur leuwih jelasna. ==Romanisasi== {{utama|Romaji}} Aya sababaraha cara pikeun alih aksara Jepang ka Romawi. Métode [[Romanisasi Hepburn|Hepburn]] nu ditujukeun pikeun pamaké [[basa Inggris]] sacara ''de facto'' baku dipaké, boh di luar atawa di Jepang sorangan (ogé dipaké di [[:en:|Wikipédia basa Inggris]]). Sistim [[Kunrei-shiki]] leuwih hadé dipaké pikeun kana, antukna leuwih ngagampangkeun pikeun urang Jepang; disahkeun ku Kamentrian Atikan Jepang, tapi jarang dipaké di luar. Sistim lianna di antarana [[Nihon-shiki]], [[JSL]], jeung [[Wapuro romaji|Wāpuro]]. ==Tempo oge== *[[Iteration mark]] ngeunaan tanda ulang dina Basa Jepang. *[[Japanese typographic symbols]] ngeunaan simbol non-kana, non-kanji. *[[Jindai moji]] ===Gaya tulisan=== *[[Shodo]] *[[Edomoji]] *[[Mincho]] *[[Japanese gothic typeface]] ===Variasi sistim tulisan=== *[[Gyaru moji]] *[[Hentaigana]] *[[Manyogana]] ==Rujukan== *{{cite book | author=Gottlieb, Nanette | title=Kanji Politics - Language Policy and Japanese Script | publisher=Kegan Paul | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-7103-0512-5}} *{{cite book | author=Twine, Nanette | title=Language and the Modern State - The Reform of Written Japanese | url=https://archive.org/details/languagemodernst0000nane | publisher=Routledge | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-4150-0990-1}} *{{cite journal | author=Seeley, Christopher | title=The Japanese Script since 1900 | journal=Visible Language | year=1984 | volume=XVIII 3 | pages=267-302}} *{{cite book | author=Seeley, Christopher | title=A History of Writing in Japan | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-8248-2217-X}} *{{cite book | author=Habein, Yaeko Sato | title=The History of the Japanese Written Language | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjapanes0000habe | publisher=University of Tokyo Press | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-86008-347-0}} *{{cite book | author=Unger, J. Marshall | title=Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading Between the Lines | publisher=OUP | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-1951-0166-9}} *[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_writing_system wikipedia basa Inggris], Agustus 2006. ==Tumbu kaluar== * [http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/unger2_introduction.html#modern_japanese The Modern Japanese Writing System]: an excerpt from ''Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan'', by J. Marshall Unger. * [http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j19/japanese.php ''The 20th Century Japanese Writing System: Reform and Change'' by Christopher Seeley] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060716005927/http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j19/japanese.php |date=2006-07-16 }} [[Kategori:Sistim tulis Jepang]] rzwk2b74mds9yd6gegtvgfx4r4op93p 0 4498 711700 705486 2026-08-07T01:59:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711700 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Japanese writing}} '''[[Romanization|Romanisasi]] kecap [[Basa Jepang]]''', nyaéta nuliskeun karakter nu asalna tina tulisan ([[kanji]]) Basa Cina jeung skrip [[syllabary|suku kata]] ([[kana]]) kana hurup Latin, keur kaperluan nuliskeun tanda jalan, ngaran sarta dina kamus jeung teks book keur urang luar nu hayang diajar Basa Jepang. Aya sababaraha sistem romanisasi, tilu sistim nu penting nyaéta [[Hepburn romanization]], [[Kunrei-shiki]] (ISO 3602), jeung [[Nihon-shiki]] (ISO 3602 Strict). Variasi Hepburn nu leuwih remen dipaké. Masyarakat Jepang nu sakola dasar ti mimiti Perang Dunya Kadua diajar maca jeung nulis [[roman letters|tulisan latin]], disebutna {{nihongo|rōmaji|ローマ字|}} dina Basa Jepang. Romanisasi ogé ilahar dipaké keur kecap Basa Jepang dina ''pengolah kata'' jeung komputer. ku sabab kitu, ngan sabagéan leutik ti generasi kolot, nu bisa maca jeung nulis make, sanajan sabagéan tina buku teks jeung nu diajar Basa Jepang jarang ditulis dina tulisan latin sacara lengkep. Loba kecap dina Basa Jepang mun dituliskeun kana romaji malah jadi ngabingungkeun nu maca. == Sajarah == Sistim romanisasi Basa Jepang mimiti dumasar kana [[Orthography of Portuguese|ortografi Basa Portugis]]. Mimiti dimekarkeun kira-kira taun 1548 ku urang Jepang Katolik nyaéta Yajiro. Penerbit [[Society of Jesus|Yesus]] maké sistim ieu dina runtuyan buku [[Roman Catholicism|Katolik]] keur kaperluan misionaris dina hotbah jeung pangajaran Kristen sangkan teu kudu diajar maca tulisan Basa Jepang. Pamakéan buku ieu loba gunana keur diajar cara ngucapkeun Basa Jepang modérn sarta keur kaperluan romanisasi mimiti dina ''[[Nippo jisho]]'', kamus Basa Jepang-Portugis nu ditulis dina tau 1603. Sacara ilahar, sistim [[Portuguese|Basa Portugis]] mimiti ampir sarua jeung Nihon-shiki dina ngagunakeun ''vowel''. Sababaraha konsonan ditranslasi beda-beda: contona, konsonan /k/ dijieun "c", sarta konsonan /ɸ/ (ayeuna diucapkeun /h/) dijieun "f", mangka ''Nihon no kotoba'' ("Basa Jepang") diejana "Nifon no cotoba". Penerbit Yesus ogé ngaluarkeun sababaraha buku sekuler di romanisasi Basa Jepang, nyaéta buku nu mimiti terbit dina Basa Jepang Klasik ''[[The Tale of the Heike]]'', diromanisasi jadi ''Feiqe no monogatari'', sarta koleksi ''[[Aesop's Fables]]'' (diromanisasi jadi ''Esopo no fabvlas''). Nu kadua terus dicetak sarta dibaca sanggeus éra Kristenisasi (Chibbett, 1977). Nuturkeun pangusiran Kristen ti Jepang dina ahir taun 1590-an sarta awal taun 1600, ''rōmaji'' jadi jarang dipaké sarta dipaké sacara sporadis keur teks basa asing sanggeus pertengahan taun 1800-an, waktu Jepang terbuka deui. Sistim nu dipaké ayeuna dimekarkeun dina pertengahan [[19th century|abad ka-19]]. Sistim nu mimiti dimekarkeun nyaéta sistim Hepburn, dimimitian ku kamus [[James Curtis Hepburn]]sarta loba dipaké keur kaperluan urang asing. Dina [[Meiji era]], sababaraha sarjana Basa Jepang ngusulkeun keur ngaleungitkeun sistim tulisan Jepang jeung maké ''rōmaji'' keur gagantina. Romanisasi ''Nihon shiki'' tumuwuh ku ayana gerakan ieu. Sababaraha teks Basa Jepang diterbitkeun dina ''rōmaji'' dina periode ieu, tapi gagal ditarima, sabab sabagian gedé [[homophone]] dina Basa Jepang, nu diucapkeun sarua tapi beda dina karakter tulisan. Saterusna, mimiti [[20th century|abad ka-20]], sababaraha sarjana mikirkeun sistim [[syllabary|suku kata]] keur karakter nu asalna tina Basa Latin; tapi ieu ogé henteu populer, sabab teu didasarkeun kana sajarah pamakéan alpabet Latin. == Sistim Kiwari == === Hepburn === {{utama|Hepburn romanization}} Romanisasi sistim '''Hepburn Revisi''' maké [[macron]] keur nembongkeun sababaraha [[long vowel|vowel panjang]], jeung ''apostrophe'' keur misahkeun fonem nu ngabingungkeun. Contona, ngaran じゅんいちろう, ditulis dina karakter [[kana]] ''ju''-''n''-''i''-''chi''-''ro''-''u'', sarta diromanisasi jadi ''Jun'ichirō'' dina Hepburn Revisi. Sistim ieu loba dipaké di Jepang, di antara mahasiswa asing jeung akademik. Romanisasi Hepburn ilaharna nuturkeun fonologi Basa Inggris ku '' vowel'' [[Romance languages|Roman]], sarta métodeu inituisi nembongkeun cara ngucapkeun [[Anglophone]] kecap Basa Jepang. Sistim ieu geus dibakukeun di Amérika nyaéta ''American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese (Modified Hepburn)'', tapi status ieu dileungitkeun dina [[October 6|6 Oktober]], [[1994]]. Hepburn mangrupa sistim romanisasi nu pangilaharna dipaké, hususna keur obrolan maké Basa Inggris. Sistim Hepburn dikritik sabab aya distorsi dina fonologi Basa Jepang nyabab hésé keur ngaharkeun Basa Jepang ka urang asing. === Nihon-shiki === {{utama|Nihon-shiki}} '''Nihon-shiki''' sistim nu pangjarangna dipaké di antara tilu sistim nu aya. Aslina métodeu ieu dipaké keur nuliskeun Basa Jepang kana basana sorangan. Sistim ieu nuturkeun fonologi jeung suku kata sacara disiplin, sarta hiji-hijina sistim romanisasi utama nu ngidinan keur metakeun ti jeung ka [[kana]]. Sistim ieu dibakukeun dina ISO 3602. === Kunrei-shiki === {{utama|Kunrei-shiki}} '''Kunrei-shiki''' nyaéta modifikasi saeutik tina versi Nihon-shiki nu ngaleungitkeun beda antara suku kata [[kana]] jeung cara ngucapkeun modérn. Contona, lamun kecap ''kana'' かな jeung ''tsukai'' つかい dihijikeun, hasilna ditulis dina [[kana]] nyaéta かなづかい maké ''[[dakuten]]'' (tanda sora) ゛dina [[kana]] つ (tsu) keur nembongkeun yén つ sora ayeuna. [[Kana]] づ diucapkeun ku cara nu sarua jeung [[kana]], す (su), nu maké dakuten ''dakuten'', ず. Kunrei-shiki jeung Hepburn ngaleungitkeun beda dina "kana" jeung maké sora nu sarua, nyaéta, ''kanazukai'', maké hurup nu sarua "zu" saperti nu dipaké keur nga-romanisasi ず. Nihon-shiki angger maké beda sarta dina romanisasina jadi ''kanadukai'', ngabedakeun antara "kana" づ jeung ず, nu dina romanisasi jadi ''zu'', sanajan duanana diucapkeun sarua. Ampir sarua jeung pasangan じ jeung ぢ, duanana ''zi'' dina romanisasi Kunrei-shiki jeung ''ji'' Hepburn, tapi jadi ''zi'' jeung ''di'' dina Nihon-shiki. Keur leuwih jentre tempo tabel di handap. Kunrei-shiki geus daibakukeun ku Pamaréntah Jepang jeungISO (ISO 3602). Kunrei-shiki diajarkeun di sakola dasar Jepang nepi ka taun kaopat. === Variasi sejen === Masih mungkin keur ngaromanisasi ngucapkeun Basa Jepang keur urang asing kalayan leuwih bener. Tipikal tambahan saperti tanda [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] keur catetan [[Japanese pitch accent|aksen Basa Jepang]] jeung tanda diacritik keur ngabedakeun robahna folologi, saperti asimilasi nasal /n/ (tempo [[Japanese phonology|fonologi Basa Jepang]]). === JSL === {{utama|JSL}} '''JSL''' nyaéta sistim romanisasi dumasar kana [[Japanese phonology|fonologi Basa Jepang]], dirancang maké prinsip kabasaan dipaké ku ahli basa dina nyieun sistim tulisan keur basa nu jarang dipaké. Sistim ieu dumasar kana [[phoneme|fonem]] murni, dipaké hiji simbol unggal fone sarta ditandaan maké [[diacritic|diakritik]]. Sistim ieu diciptakeun ku [[Eleanor Harz Jorden]] keur ngajar Basa Jepang. Prinsipna saperti sistim nu ngidinan pelajar keur leuwih jero diajar fonologi Basa Jepeng. Sabab sistim ieu teu pati gedé pangaruhna keur obrolan urang asing tinimbang sistem séjénna, sarta Basa Jepang geus mibanda sistem tulisan sorangan, JSL teu loba dipaké di luar dunya pendidikan. == Romanisasi nu teu-baku == salian ti sistim baku di luhur, aya variasi dina romanisasi, dipaké keur nyederhanakeun, kasalahan atawa nu ngabingungkeun atawa ngan sakadar alesan gaya. Catetan, variasi metakeun [[Japanese input methods|metoda asupan Basa Jepang]] keur konversi ''keystrokes'' dina papan ketik Roman keyboard kana [[kana]] sok dikombinasikeun jeung sakabéh sistim; waktu maké ''plain text'' tinimbang konversi, ilaharna disebut ''[[wāpuro rōmaji]]''. (''Wāpuro'' nyaéta [[Japanese abbreviated and contracted words|singgetan]] tina '''''wā'''do '''puro'''sessā'' [word processor].) Teu saperti tina sistim baku, wāpuro rōmaji teu merlukeun karakter ti luar runtuyan karakter [[ASCII]]. Aya sababaraha alesan dina variasi romanisasi di konteks husus, utamana lamun dipakena pacampur, ngajadikeun bingung lamun romanisasi kecap Basa Jepang dijieun indeksna. Variasi romanisasi nu umum nyaéta: * Ngaran jeung kecap Basa Jepang nu aya dina ejaan Basa Inggris saperti [[kudzu]] jeung [[jiu jitsu]], atawa kecapan injeuman saperti ''kyatto'' keur "cat", kadangkala ditulis saperti dina Basa Inggris, teu nuturkeun aturan romanisasi. * ''Jya'' keur じゃ, nu dina Hepburn nyaéta ''ja'' jeung ''zya'' dina Nihon-shiki jeung Kunrei-shiki, sarta ampir sarua jeung ''jyu'' keur じゅ jeung ''jyo'' keur じょ. Nu teu make tambahan ''y'' katempona hasil tina kabingungan dina sistim romanisasi. * ''Cchi'' keur っち (Hepburn ''tchi'') jeung nu sejenna. Ieu ''wāpuro rōmaji'', tapi remen dipake ku sabab alesan gaya lamun dipake keur nulis ngaran pondok (contona, あきこ ''Akiko'' jadi あっちゃん ''Acchan'' tinimbang ''Atchan''). * ''La'' keur ら (Hepburn ''ra'') jeung saterusna. Konsonan Basa Jepang /r/ ngabogaan sora (IPA {{IPA|[ɽ]}}) nu deukeut tapi teu sarua, boh dina Basa Inggris "r" jeung "l". "R" jeung "l" duanana [[Transcribing English to Japanese|ditranskripsi kana Basa Jepang]] make Basa Jepang /r/. Contona "l" dina romanisasi Basa Jepang boneka budak リカ, diromanisasi jadi ''Licca''. * ''Na'' keur んあ (Hepburn ''n'a'') jeung saterusna. Bentuk ieu romanisasi Basa Jepang dipake dina inpormasi publik saperi rambu-rambu jalan jeung kareta di Jepang. * ''Nn'' keur ん (Hepburn ''n''). Contona ''wāpuro rōmaji'' (sanajan loba [[Japanese input methods|metoda asupan Basa Jepang]] ditarima dina Hepburn ''<nowiki>n'</nowiki>''). Ieu nyababkeun dualisme leuwih lega dina sistim Hepburn. Contona, kluster ''nna'', numana んな dina Hepburn, digambarkeun jadi んあ dina sistim ieu. n ganda kadangkala katempo dinga ngaran, contona ngaran nu remen katempo [[Usenet]] poster ''Junn Ohta''. === Vowel panjang === Variasi nu leuwih umum nyaéta ngidinan makron atawa ''circumflexes'' dipake keur nembongkeun vowel panjang. Ieu kacida remenna dina romanisasi versi kecap Basa Jepang nu dipake dina Basa Inggris. Contona ngaran ibu kota Jepang, cara nulis nu bener nyaéta Tōkyō dina romanisasi Basa Jepang, sacara universal ditulis Tokyo. Di Jepang, romanisasi Basa Jepang katempona leuwih loba mangpaatna keur urang asing pikeun bisa maca sacara gampang, ''macrons'' jeung ''circumflexes'' ilahar dipake keur penyederhanaan. Loba [[typewriter|mesin ketik]], [[word processor|pangolah kecap]], jeung sistim komputerisasi teu gampang nyaruakeun jeung "macron" dipake dina romanisasi. Nihon-shiki jeung Kunrei-shiki make aksen [[circumflex]] (saperti, Tôkyô). Ieu gampang keur asupan, saperti â, î, û, ê, jeung ô dina runtuyan karakter [[ISO-8859-1]], sarta gampang diasupkeun kana variasi sistim. Metoda saterusna nu ilahar dipake keur "vowel" panjang: * ''Oh'' keur おお atawa おう (Hepburn ''ō''). Ieu kadang-kadang disebut "passport Hepburn", saperti Kamenterian Luar Negeri Jepang nu ngaluarkeun paspor (tapi teu diperlukeun) pamakean ieu paspor [http://www.seikatubunka.metro.tokyo.jp/hebon/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205110946/http://www.seikatubunka.metro.tokyo.jp/hebon/ |date=2011-12-05 }} * ''Ou'' keur おう (oge Hepburn ''ō''). Contona ''wāpuro rōmaji''. * ''Ô'' keur おお atawa おう (Hepburn ''ō''). Ieu bener keur Nihon-shiki jeung Kunrei-shiki, tapi kakdangkala aya dina romanisasi kecap Hepburn sejenna (saperti dijelaskeun di luhur). === Variasi kuno === {{Main|Historical kana usage}} Dina teks heubeul, variasi romanisasi sejen nu ayeuna jarang dipake. Sababaraha diantarana masih dipake nepi ka kiwari sanajan ngan saeutik. Contona: * Vowel ''i'' plus ''o'' kadang kala dipake keur nuliskeun sora Basa Jepang [[yōon]]: saperti [[Tokyo]] jadi "Tokio" sarta [[Kyoto]] jadi "Kioto". Romanisasi ieu masih kapanggih dina ngaran spesies "mioga", sayuran Jepang ''[[myoga|myōga]]''. * [[Kana]] ゑ dianggap ''ye''. Ucapan nu sabenerna keur "kana" ieu nyaéta ''we'', tapi ''w'' geus leungit ku waktu nyaéta (upamana) ゑど "''[[Edo|Wedo]]''" mimiti diromanisasi jadi ''Yedo''. * [[Kana]] づ (Nihon-shiki ''du'') diromanisasi jadi ''dzu'', saperti dina ngaran tutuwuhan ''adzuki'' jeung ''[[kudzu]]''. Ieu saperti Hepburn ''wāpuro rōmaji'' keur mata uang. === Romanisasi ngaran Jepang === [[Japanese names|Ngaran]] bisa jadi loba variasi, nu gumantung kana cara ngeja nu dipikaresep. Contona, artis ''[[manga]]'' [[Yasuhiro Nightow]] ngaran kulawargana sacara konvensional ditulis dina sistim romanisasi Hepburn nyaéta ''Naitō''. Variasi sejen dina ngaran nyaéta ngaganti K ku C, saperti ngaran artis tipi Ricaco atawa [[Japanese snack food|dahareun ringan]] [[Jagarico]], atawa miceun ''vowel'' tanpa sora, saperti dina ngaran sutradara pilem ''Macoto Tezka'' (putra artis ''manga'' [[Osamu Tezuka]]). Catean miceun vowel ''u''. == Conto kecap nu ditulis dina unggal sistim romanisasi == {| class=wikitable !rowspan="2"|Basa Sunda !rowspan="2"|Basa Jepang !rowspan="2"|Ngeja kana !colspan="3"|Romanisasi |- !Revised Hepburn !Kunrei-shiki !Nihon-shiki |- valign="top" align="center" |Roman characters |ローマ字 |ローマじ |''rōmaji'' |''rômazi'' |''rômazi'' |- valign="top" align="center" |[[Gunung Fuji]] |富士山 |ふじさん |''Fujisan'' |''Huzisan'' |''Huzisan'' |- valign="top" align="center" |[[tea|teh]] |お茶 |おちゃ |''ocha'' |''otya'' |''otya'' |- valign="top" align="center" |[[governor|gubernur]] |知事 |ちじ |''chiji'' |''tizi'' |''tizi'' |- valign="top" align="center" |surut |縮む |ちぢむ |''chijimu'' |''tizimu'' |''tidimu'' |- valign="top" align="center" |saterusna |続く |つづく |''tsuzuku'' |''tuzuku'' |''tuduku'' |} == ''Chart'' romanisasi == ''Chart'' nembongkeun beda nu jelas dina sistim romanisasi utama. {| class=wikitable !Kana !! Revised Hepburn !! Kunrei-shiki !! Nihon-shiki |- valign="top" align="center" |うう||''ū''||''û'' ||''û'' |- valign="top" align="center" |おう, おお||''ō''||''ô''||''ô'' |- valign="top" align="center" |し ||''shi''||''si'' ||''si'' |- valign="top" align="center" |しゃ||''sha''||''sya'' ||''sya'' |- valign="top" align="center" |しゅ||''shu''||''syu'' ||''syu'' |- valign="top" align="center" |しょ||''sho''||''syo'' ||''syo'' |- valign="top" align="center" |じ ||''ji'' ||''zi'' ||''zi'' |- valign="top" align="center" |じゃ||''ja'' ||''zya'' ||''zya'' |- valign="top" align="center" |じゅ||''ju'' ||''zyu'' ||''zyu'' |- valign="top" align="center" |じょ||''jo'' ||''zyo'' ||''zyo'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ち ||''chi''||''ti'' ||''ti'' |- valign="top" align="center" |つ ||''tsu''||''tu'' ||''tu'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ちゃ||''cha''||''tya'' ||''tya'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ちゅ||''chu''||''tyu'' ||''tyu'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ちょ||''cho''||''tyo'' ||''tyo'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ぢ ||''ji'' ||''zi'' ||''di'' |- valign="top" align="center" |づ ||''zu'' ||''zu'' ||''du'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ぢゃ||''ja'' ||''zya'' ||''dya'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ぢゅ||''ju'' ||''zyu'' ||''dyu'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ぢょ||''jo'' ||''zyo'' ||''dyo'' |- valign="top" align="center" |ふ ||''fu'' ||''hu'' ||''hu'' |} == Huruf alpabet dina Basa Jepang == Di handap nembongkeun cuma ngeja Latin unggal karatker atawa akronim dina Basa Jepang. Contona, [[NHK]] dieja ''enu-eichi-kei'', (エヌエイチケイ). * A; ''ē'' or ''ei'' (エー or エイ) * B; ''bī'' (ビー, cara maca sejenna ''bē'', ベー) * C; ''shī'' (シー or シィー, kadangkala dibaca ''sī'', スィー) * D; ''dī'' (ディー, cara maca sejenna ''dē'', デー) * E; ''ī'' (イー) * F; ''efu'' (エフ) * G; ''jī'' (ジー) * H; ''eichi'' (エイチ) * I; ''ai'' (アイ) * J; ''jē'' or ''jei'' (ジェー or ジェイ) * K; ''kē'' or ''kei'' (ケー or ケイ) * L; ''eru'' (エル) * M; ''emu'' (エム) * N; ''enu'' (エヌ) * O; ''ō'' (オー) * P; ''pī'' (ピー, cara maca sejenna ''pē'', ペー) * Q; ''kyū'' (キュー) * R; ''āru'' (アール) * S; ''esu'' (エス) * T; ''tī'' (ティー, cara maca sejenna ''chī'', チー, jeung cara maca sejenna ''tē'', テー) * U; ''yū'' (ユー) * V; ''vi'' (ヴィ, cara maca sejenna ''bui'', ブイ) * W; ''daburyū'' (ダブリュー) * X; ''ekkusu'' (エックス) * Y; ''wai'' (ワイ) * Z; ''zeddo'' or ''zī'' (ゼッド or ズィー, cara maca sejenna ''jī'', ジー) == Kana tanpa bentuk romaji == Taya bentuk romanisasi umum nu ditarima keur sakabeh bentuk [[kana]]. Sabagean, taya bentuk romanisasi keur sakabeh ukuran [[kana]] nu leuwih leutik tina "vowel" [[kana]], "ぁ", "ぃ", "ぅ", "ぇ" jeung "ぉ", versi nu leuwih leutik keur [[kana]] ''y'', "ゃ", "ゅ", jeung "ょ", sarta [[sokuon]] atawa [[kana]] ''tsu'' "っ" leutik. Sanajan ilaharna make tanda ponetik atawa [[diacritic|diakritik]] keur ngadeukeutanana, saperti dina tungtung kalimah atawa sababaraha ngaran. Taya umum ditarima keur kombinasi romanisasi saperti katakana "トゥ" dibaca ''to'' jeung ''u'' leutik, dipake keur ngagambarkeun sora dina kecap Basa Inggris "too". Sababaraha urang nulisna jadi ''tu'', tapi ieu ngabingungkeun jeung ''tu'' dina romanisasi Nihon-shiki jeung Kunrei-shiki keur [[kana]] ツ, dina Hepburn romanisasi jadi ''tsu''. Dina komputer atawa pangolah kalimah, kana leutik bisa dihasilkeun tina sababaraha cara. Contona, ku cara mencet "x" atawa "l" samemeh romanisasi ukuran pinuh bakal ngahasilkeun kana versi leutik dina sababaraha sistim, saperti ''xtu'' bakal jadi "っ" dina komputer Microsoft. Sanajan ieu teu baku sarta bentukna ngan dipaké dina [[Japanese input methods|sistim asupan]]; teu dipaké keur ngagambarkeun [[kana]] leutik dina romanisasi Basa Jepang. == Rujukan == # {{cite book | author=Chibbett, David | title=The History of Japanese Printing and Book Illustration | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjapanes0000chib | publisher=Kodansha International Ltd. | year=1977 | id=ISBN 0-87011-288-0}} # {{cite book | title={{nihongo|Nihongo Daihakubutsukan|日本語大博物館|}} | Author = {{nihongo|Jun'ichirō Kida|紀田順一郎|Kida Jun'ichirō}} |Publisher={{nihongo|Just System|ジャストシステム|Jasuto Shisutem}} |ID= ISBN 4-88309-046-9}} (Dina Basa Jepang). == Tempo ogé == * [[Cyrillization of Japanese]] * [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style for Japan-related articles]] explains the Wikipedia conventions for romanization of Japanese. * [[Transcribing English to Japanese]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.j-talk.com/nihongo/ Convert Kanji to Romaji and Hiragana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102121031/http://www.j-talk.com/nihongo/ |date=2007-01-02 }} * [http://www.halcat.com/ Rōmaji sōdan shitsu] (in Japanese) contains an extremely extensive and accurate collection of materials relating to romaji, including standards documents and even HTML versions of Hepburn's original dictionaries. * [http://www.cic.sfu.ca/tqj/JapaneseStudy/romaji.html The romaji conundrum] from Andrew Horvat's [http://www.cic.sfu.ca/tqj/index.html Total Quality Japanese] contains a discussion of the problems caused by the variety of confusing romanization systems in use in Japan today. * [http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=108 All free Japanese romaji dictionaries] * [http://spencer.blackmarket.net/japanese_helper.asp Romaji to Kana translator] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060604090915/http://spencer.blackmarket.net/japanese_helper.asp |date=2006-06-04 }} * [http://intrebari.lx.ro/ Converts Romaji to Kana, Hepburn System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127144533/http://intrebari.lx.ro/ |date=2013-01-27 }} * [http://intrebari.lx.ro/cnv.htm Converts Romaji to Kana, Hepburn System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060701154717/http://intrebari.lx.ro/cnv.htm |date=2006-07-01 }} Same link with Frames disabled [[Kategori:Romanisasi aksara Jepang|Romanisasi aksara Jepang]] [[de:Japanische Schrift#Rōmaji]] 4aty8atm0ft59qzoxri16857d8e8wzh 0 5399 711732 655011 2026-08-07T02:53:07Z ~2026-43460-49 37210 711732 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo perguruantinggi |nama=Universitas Widyatama |logo= |tahun= taun 1973, minangka universitas taun 2001 |jenis=Paguron Luhur Swasta |rektor= Prof. Dr. H. Dadang Suganda, M.Hum. |lokasi=[[Bandung]], [[Jawa Barat]] |alamat=Jalan Cikutra 204A Bandung 40125 |situs=[http://www.widyatama.ac.id http://www.widyatama.ac.id] }} '''Universitas Widyatama''' atawa disingkat '''Utama''' nyaéta salah sahiji paguron swasta nu kasohor di [[Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon]], [[Indonésia]]. Alamatna di [[Jalan Cikutra]] 204A [[Bandung]] 40125.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.widyatama.ac.id/tentang-kami/universitas/sejarah/|title=Sejarah - Universitas Widyatama|website=www.widyatama.ac.id|language=en-US|accessdate=2017-11-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115215435/http://www.widyatama.ac.id/tentang-kami/universitas/sejarah/ |date=2017-11-15 }}</ref> == Sajarah == Universitas Widyatama resmi ngadeg kaping 2 [[Agustus]] [[2001]], numutkeun SK Menteri Pendidikan Nasional No. 137/D/0/2001.<ref name=":0" /> Universitas Widyatama mangrupa gabungan ti Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi Bandung '''(STIEB'''), Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Bahasa Bandung ('''STIBB'''), Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Bandung ('''STTB'''), jeung Sekolah Tinggi Desain Komunikasi Visual ('''STDKV''') sarta Magister Manajemen anu kabéhanana aya dina papayung [[Yayasan Widyatama]].<ref name=":0" /> Panggabungan sakola-sakola luhur ieu ka Universitas Widyatama miboga tujuan supaya lulusan-lulusana miboga daya saing nu luhur.<ref name=":0" /> Lengkah ka hareupna nu dilakukeun ku Universitas Widyatama nyaéta ngupayakeun sacara serius jeung konsisten ngawujudkeun sistem pangatikan nu saluyu jeung standar ISO-9001: 2008.<ref name=":0" /> Kiwari '''Utama''' miboga 5 fakultas nyaéta: 1. Fakultas [[Ekonomi]] 2. Fakultas [[Bisnis]] jeung [[Manajemen]] 3. Fakultas [[Teknik]] 4. Fakultas [[Bahasa]] 5. Fakultas [[Désain Grafis]] jeung [[Komunikasi Visual]] == Daptar fakultas == === Fakultas Ekonomi === Fakultas ékonomi ngawengku sababaraha jurusan, di antarana nyaéta:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.widyatama.ac.id/fakultas/ekonomi/|title=Fakultas Ekonomi - Universitas Widyatama|website=www.widyatama.ac.id|language=en-US|accessdate=2017-11-02}}</ref> # Program Studi Strata 1 [[Akuntansi]] # Program Studi Diploma 3 Akuntansi # Program Studi Magister Akuntansi # Program [[Profesi Akuntansi]] (PPAk) === Fakultas Bisnis jeung Manajemen === Fakultas Bisnis jeung Manajemen ngawengku sababaraha jurusan, di antarana:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.widyatama.ac.id/fakultas/bisnis-manajemen/|title=Fakultas Bisnis & Manajemen - Universitas Widyatama|website=www.widyatama.ac.id|language=en-US|accessdate=2017-11-02}}</ref> # Program Studi Strata 1 [[Manajemen]] # Program Studi Diploma 3 Manajemen # Program Studi Strata 1 Internasional (Joint Degree) # Program Studi Magister Manajemen === Fakultas Téknik === Fakultas Téknik ngawengku sababaraha jurusan, di antarana nyaéta:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.widyatama.ac.id/fakultas/teknik/|title=Fakultas Teknik - Universitas Widyatama|website=www.widyatama.ac.id|language=en-US|accessdate=2017-11-02}}</ref> # Program Studi Strata 1 [[Teknik Informatika]] # Program Studi Strata 1 [[Teknik Industri]] # Program Studi Strata 1 [[Sistem Informasi]] === Fakultas Bahasa === Fakultas Bahasa ngawengku sababaraha jurusan, di antarana nyaéta:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.widyatama.ac.id/fakultas/bahasa/|title=Fakultas Bahasa - Universitas Widyatama|website=www.widyatama.ac.id|language=en-US|accessdate=2017-11-02}}</ref> # Program Studi Strata 1 [[Bahasa Jepang]] # Program Studi Diploma 3 Bahasa Jepang # Program Studi Srata 1 [[Bahasa Inggris]] == Fakultas Désain Grafis jeung Komunikasi Visual == Fakultas Désain Grafis jeung Komunikasi Visual atawa nu sok disingkat DKV, miboga sababaraha jurusan, di antarana nyaéta:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.widyatama.ac.id/fakultas/dkv/|title=Fakultas Desain Komunikasi dan Visual - Universitas Widyatama|website=www.widyatama.ac.id|language=en-US|accessdate=2017-11-02}}</ref> # Program Studi Diploma 4 [[Grafis]] # Program Studi Diploma 3 [[Multimedia]] == Rujukan == <references />{{pondok}} [[Kategori:Daptar paguron jeung universitas]] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur swasta di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Paguron luur swasta di Bandung]] 8y9gq4kobknugu63mgmuvk393rt1p6b 0 6203 711796 710061 2026-08-07T04:34:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711796 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} [[Image:LocationBritishIsles.png|right|thumb|300px|[[British Isles|Kapuloan Inggris]]]] [[Image:British Isles Venn Diagram-en (2).png|right|thumb|300px|[[Diagram Euler]] keur negeskeun istilah. Lokasi géografis diwarnaan beureum, sedengkeun éntitas politik dibiruan.]] Rupa-rupa istilah digunakeun keur ngajelaskeun wewengkon géografis jeung pulitis nu béda (kadang-kadang patumpang tindih) ngeunaan [[kapuloan]] nu sacara tradisional ngarujuk ka wewengkon "Kapuloan Britania", nu kadang-kadang ngabingungkeun singsaha waé ti bagian dunya séjén, malahan mah keur urang dinyana sorangan. Kagunaan artikel ieu nyaéta keur ngébréhkeun harti tina sarta patula-patalina di antara istilah-istilah éta. Ringkesna, istilah utama jeung penjelasan basajanna nyaéta: *Istilah géografis **[[Kapuloan Britania]] ngawengku [[Britania Raya]], [[Irlandia]] jeung pulo-pulo sabudeureunnana. **[[Britania Raya]] mangrupa [[pulo]] panggedéna di antara sakabéh [[kapuloan]]. (kadang-kadang sacara teu resmi dirujuk minangka [[Britania]]) **[[Irlandia]] mangrupa pulo panggedéna kadua di antara sakabéh kapuloan. *Istilah Pulitis **[[Karajaan Ngahiji Bitania Raya jeung Irlandia Kalér]] ( mangrupa [[wewengkon nu berdaulat]] nu ngawengku lolobana kapuloan Britania. Sering disingket 'Karajaan Ngahiji' (basa Inggris:'United Kingdom', 'UK' atawa [[Britania]]). **[[Inggris]], [[Skotlandia]], [[Wales]] jeung [[Irlandia Kalér]] mangrupa [[nagara nu diwengku]] ku UK. **[[Républik Irlandia|Irlandia / Républik Irlandia]] mangrupa wewengkon berdaulat merdika nu ngawengku bagian leuwih gedé tina pulo Irlandia. Istilah-istilah nu rupa-rupa ieu bisa ngabingungkeun henteu ukur ngeunaan hal éta (sabagiannana ku sabab saruana antara kecap-kecap aktual nu dipaké), tapi ogé ku sabab maranéhannana sering digunakeun kalayan henteu lengkep atawa henteu akurat. ==Detil istilah== *'''[[Britania]]''' mangrupa wangun singketan tina [[Britania Raya]]. Ogé ampir umum dipigunakeun keur United Kingdom. *'''[[Britania Raya]]''' ('''Gréat Britain''', singketan: '''GB''') mangrupa kapuloan Britania [[Daptar kapuloan nurutkeun ukuran|panggedéna]] sarta mangrupa [[gabungan pulitis]] tina tilu nagara, nyaéta: ::*'''[[Inggris jeung Wales]]''' Mangrupakeun istilah pulitis jeung administratif keur ngarujuk dua [[nagara]] nyaéta Inggris (England) jeung Wales, nu ngabagi sistim hukum nu sarua. Antara [[Wales and Berwick Act 1746|1746]] jeung [[Welsh Language Act 1967|1967]] itilah "Inggris" sacara hukum kaasup Wales. :::*'''[[Inggris]]''' (tempo ogé sajarah [[Karajaan Inggris]] = Inggris (satuluyna, Wales) saméméh 1707). :::*'''[[Wales]]''' ::*'''[[Skotlandia]]''' (tempo ogé sajarah [[Karajaan Skotlandia]]) :*'''[[Karajaan Britania Raya]]''' nyaéta Britania keur période 1707-1801. :*'''Britania''' nyaéta [[Roman Britania|propinsi Roman Britania]], atawa rujukan keur Britania satuluyna, atawa [[Britania|personifikasi Britania]]. :Keur sajarah ngaran, tempo [[Britania]]. *'''[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]''', biasana disingget '''United Kingdom''' (singgetannana deui '''UK''') nyaéta Britania Raya ditambahan ku '''Irlandia Kalér''' ti saprak taun 1927. (The Partition of Ireland took place in 1922, but the consequent change in the official title of the UK was only made by Act of Parliament five yéars later.) :*The historical '''[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]''' is Great Britain plus Ireland, for the period 1801-1927. :N.B.: While "United Kingdom" is normally abbreviated '''UK''', the official [[ISO 3166]] two-letter country code is '''GB''' and the three letter code is '''GBR'''. The UK's [[Country code top-level domain|internet top-level domain]] is '''[[.uk]]''', a break from the normal practice of following ISO 3166. :See also [[United Kingdom (disambiguation)]] for other united kingdoms and [[UK (disambiguation)]] for other meanings of the abbreviation. *'''[[Ireland]]''' (in [[Irish language|Irish]], '''''Éire''''') refers, géographically, to the island of Ireland, or to any of the following: <!-- on this line, the only valid wikilink for Éire is to the page on ga:wiki. But see the political context below. --> :''Historically:'' :*The '''[[Kingdom of Ireland]]''' was Ireland for the period 1541-1801. :*The '''[[Irish Republic]]''' was a [[Irish Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared]] 32-county republic encompassing the entire island, during the period 1919-22. During this period, Ireland legally remained part of the UK and its independence was not recognised internationally except by [[Russia]]. :*'''[[Southern Ireland]]''' was a proposed [[Home Rule]] 26-county state under the [[Government of Ireland Act 1920]]. It never came into practical existence, being superseded by: :*The '''[[Irish Free State]]''' is Ireland excepting Northern Ireland during the period 1922-37. :''Kiwari'': :*'''Ireland''' (in [[Irish language|Irish]], ''[[Éire]]'') is the political entity consisting of the island of Ireland excepting Northern Ireland, 1937-present. This is the name of the state according to the [[Constitution of Ireland|Irish Constitution]]. :*The '''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' a legal "description" of Ireland excepting Northern Ireland, 1949-present. This form is used where tact or disambiguity demands. It is also the name used by the international [[football (soccer)|football]] team. :*'''[[Northern Ireland]]''' 1922-present. That part of the island of Ireland north of the line of partition of 1922, and which is still part of the United Kingdom. It is sometimes referred to as "the North of Ireland", "the [[six counties]]" or the "occupied six counties," especially by [[Irish Nationalism|Irish Nationalists]]. :*'''[[Ulster]]''' The name of one of Ireland's four traditional [[Provinces of Ireland|provinces]]. It contains nine counties, six of which make up [[Northern Ireland]], three of which are part of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. It is now primarily used in sporting and cultural contexts by both communities. However, the six counties which form [[Northern Ireland]] are sometimes also referred 'Ulster'. See [[Ulster (disambiguation)]]. :''In sport'' :*In [[rugby union]], [[rugby league]], [[field hockey]] , [[cricket]] and others the ''Ireland'' team is drawn from the whole island (ie. both the Republic and Northern Ireland). *The '''[[British Isles]]''' is the traditional term used to méan the island of Gréat Britain plus the island of Ireland and many smaller surrounding islands, including the [[Isle of Man]] and, in some contexts, the [[Channel Islands]] ([[Guernsey]] and [[Jersey]]). Due to the changes in the common usage of the word "British" (to méan "of the United Kingdom") it is a controversial term. *'''[[Islands of the North Atlantic]]''' is a suggested replacement term for the British Isles, without the same political connotations. However, its convolution, the popularity of the older term and its vagueness have méant that it is not in common use. (Its acronym, IONA, is also the name of the small but historically important island of [[Iona]] off the coast of Scotland.) *[[British Islands]] (a political term not in common usage) is the UK, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey (which in turn includes the smaller islands of [[Alderney]], [[Herm]] and [[Sark]]). *'''[[Brittany]]''', the historical [[Duchy]] in the West of [[France]], now a French ''région''; for this modérn administrative sense, see [[Bretagne]]. ==[[physical geography|Geographical]] distinctions== ===The British Isles=== The [[British Isles]] is an archipelago in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] off the coast of [[Continental Europe]]. It includes [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain]], and the [[Isle of Man]], but usually excludes the [[Channel Islands]]. Also included are the thousands of small islands off the coast of both the larger islands such as [[Shetland]] and [[Orkney]]. The éarliest known usage of this term is in a [[Greek language|Greek]] text of 325 BC in the form ''Pretanikai nesoi'' (Pretanic isles). ===Britania Raya=== Gréat Britain refers to the largest of the British Isles. The word "Great" simply méans "larger" (no connection with "greatness" in other senses is intended) in contrast to [[Brittany]], a historical term for a [[peninsula]] in modérn France that largely corresponds with the present day French province of [[Bretagne]]. That region was settled by many British immigrants during the period of [[Anglo-Saxon]] migration into Britain, and named "Little Britain" by them. The [[French language|French]] term "Bretagne" now refers to the French "Little Britain", not to the British "Great Britain", which in French is called ''Grande-Bretagne''. ===Irlandia=== The second largest island in the archipelago is Ireland. That Ireland is a part of the géographical "British Isles" in no way implies that all of the island is politically British. ===Channel Islands=== Although the [[Channel Islands]] are associated with the United Kingdom politically, they are cléarly an outcrop of the néarby [[French geology]], and historically they are the last remaining parts of the former [[Duchy of Normandy]] still under the crown of the [[United Kingdom]]. ==[[political geography|Political]] distinctions== ===The United Kingdom=== "United Kingdom" is short for ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'', which makes it self-explanatory. ''Great Britain'' is also widely, but incorrectly, used as a synonym for the UK. Both ''Great Britain'' and ''The United Kingdom'' are often shortened to ''Britain''. The '''United Kingdom''' is a sovereign [[state]]. Its four [[constituent countries]], whilst having equal rights to elect [[Members of Parliament]] on (nominally) the same terms, are sometimes considered to be of different status. This view may be supported by the existence of [[Devolution|devolved]] governments with different levels of power in Scotland and Wales (see [[Asymmetrical federalism]]). Due to historical precedent, [[England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Wales]] are [[countries]] and [[nations]] in their own right (although none of these is sovereign today). Wales is also a [[principality]] of the United Kingdom ([[Prince of Wales]] is a title usually given to the [[heir apparent]] to the [[British throne]]). [[Northern Ireland]] is sometimes described by [[United Kingdom]] citizens as a [[province]] of the United Kingdom, which derives from the Irish [[Provinces of Ireland|province]] of [[Ulster]], which [[Northern Ireland]] is part of. This epithet is also applied because it originally was part of the [[UK]] as part of the country of Ireland rather than as a constituent country or nation in its own right. Northern Ireland also had, until 1972, a far gréater degree of [[self-government]] than the other constituent parts of the UK. In contrast to the British unionist usage, Irish nationalists consider all of [[Ulster]] to be the province of [[Ulster]], and organise their sporting and cultural institutions accordingly. The four constituent parts of the UK are also known to some as ''[[Home Nations]]'' or the "Four Nations"; sporting contests between them are known as "Home internationals" (for example in [[football (soccer)|football]], see the [[British Home Championship]]). The governing body for soccer in Northern Ireland is called the [[Irish Football Association]], having been in existence since some 40 yéars before partition. Its counterpart in the Republic (plus [[Derry City]]) is the [[Football Association of Ireland]]. The Northern national téam retained the name "Ireland" for some 50 yéars after partition. It is only since around 1970 that the two téams have been consistently referred to as "Northern Ireland" and "Republic of Ireland" respectively. However, in [[Rugby Union]], the four ''Home Nations'' are England, Ireland (the whole island, i.e. the Republic of Ireland plus Northern Ireland), Scotland and Wales. Culturally, some consider the [[Cornish people|Cornish]] to be distinct from the English, but, politically, [[Cornwall]] is considered by the UK government to have the same status as any other [[county in England]]. However some have raised questions concerning the [[constitutional status of Cornwall]]. Thus, ''Great Britain'' is both a géographical and a political entity. Géographically, it is one island, but politically it also contains the islands that belong to its constituent nations - England, Wales and Scotland (most notably England's [[Isle of Wight]], Wales' [[Anglesey]] and Scotland's [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Outer Hebrides]], [[Orkney Islands]] and [[Shetland Islands]]). However, the abbreviation ''GB'' is sometimes officially used for the UK, for example in the [[Olympic Games|Olympics]] - where athletes from Northern Ireland may choose whether to represent the UK or the Republic of Ireland - and as the [[vehicle registration plate#International codes|vehicle registration plate]] [[List of international license plate codes|country identification code]], however the [[internet code]] ''"[[.gb]]",'' although allocated to the UK, is unused (the UK uses ''"[[.uk]]"''). UK téams in the Olympics have competed under several different names - most recently in Athens the athletes were presented at the Opening Ceremony under a banner which said simply Gréat Britain, rather than the full Gréat Britain and Northern Ireland. Since the [[Good Friday Agreement]], and the subsequent implementation legislation, sporting organisation (and several other organisations, e.g. [[Tourism in Ireland|tourism]], and [[Irish Gaelic]] and [[Ulster Scots]] language boards) on the island of Ireland has incréasingly been cross-border. Citizens of the UK are called ''British'' or ''Britons''. The term ''Brits'' may also be used, sometimes [[pejoratively]], for example by supporters of [[Scottish independence]] when referring to supporters of the [[Acts of Union 1707|Union]]. Some rather dated slang names for Britons are ''Tommy'' (for British soldiers), ''Pom'', ''Anglo'' and ''Limey''. [[Anglo]] properly refers only to England, but it is sometimes (incorrectly) used as a broader reference as an element in compound adjectives: for example, ''"Anglo-French relations"'' may be used in newspaper articles when referring to relations between the political entities [[France]] and the United Kingdom (the correct term in this case is ''"British-French relations"''). ''Anglo-Saxon'' may be used when referring to the whole English-spéaking world, the (correctly named, as it refers to the [[English language]], not a ''"British language"'') [[Anglosphere]], although ethnically very few of the world's one billion English-spéakers are of [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] origin. Interestingly while the rest of the world refers to the 'English', derived from 'Angles', spéakers of the [[Celtic languages]] refer to them as 'Saxons' (''Sassannach'' in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], ''Saesneg'' in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]). ===Ireland=== '''Ireland''' is the name since 1937 of the independent state which covers the island of Ireland apart from Northern Ireland. Since 1949, the "description" "Republic of Ireland" has been widely used, but the official name in the [[Irish constitution]] is ''Ireland'', or, in the Irish language, ''Éire''. This is also the géographical term for the entire island. The Republic of Ireland gained full recognised independence from the United Kingdom in 1921. Northern Ireland is sovereign British territory, and a majority of the population of [[Northern Ireland]] consider themselves British. Traditionally Ireland is divided into four [[Provinces of Ireland|province]]s - [[Leinster]], [[Connacht]], [[Munster]] and [[Ulster]]. The Republic of Ireland takes up 83% of the island, while Northern Ireland takes up six of the nine counties of Ulster. On the [[island of Ireland]] (as everywhere), the naming of places often raises political issues. The usage of "Ireland" as the official name of the state in the constitution of the [[Republic of Ireland]] causes offence to some [[unionists (Ireland)|Unionists]] in [[Northern Ireland]] as it implies that the Republic of Ireland still has a territorial claim to the whole island - the terminology of "Republic of Ireland" or "Éire" is much preferred by Northern unionists when referring to that political state. Similarly, some [[Nationalists (Ireland)|Nationalists]] in Northern Ireland also prefer to reserve to usage of "Ireland" to refer to the whole island. The Republic of Ireland is often referred to by [[Irish republican]]s by the term "the Twenty-six Counties", with the connotation that the state constituted as such forms only a portion of the idéal political unit, which would consist of all of the [[Counties of Ireland|thirty-two counties]] into which the island is divided. From 1922 to 1937, the state comprising those 26 counties was officially known by the term "The [[Irish Free State]]". Many péople object to these latter two terms, as they are seen to imply that the Republic of Ireland is not a fully independent country. Conversely, some republicans and others refer to Northern Ireland as "the Six Counties" (in reference to Northern Ireland's six counties), a name that avoids the disputed link with Gréat Britain. Some even call it "the occupied six counties". Some [[Irish nationalism|nationalist]]s use the terms, "the North of Ireland" and, "the North", instéad of Northern Ireland; these are terms also used by the Irish national broadcaster [[RTÉ]]. Many péople, especially some [[unionist (Ireland)|unionist]]s, sometimes refer to [[Northern Ireland]] as ''Ulster'' - this is inaccurate as the [[Provinces of Ireland|Irish province]] of Ulster traditionally includes an additional three counties, which are in the Republic of Ireland. The term ''Ulster'' (and "''the Province''") are sometimes preferred by Unionists, sometimes because it can suggest an origin of the polity of Northern Ireland that pre-dates 1922, referring back to the [[Act of Union 1800]], the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1689, the [[Plantation of Ulster]] in 1610, the ancient migrations between Ulster and Scotland, and even to [[biblical]] tradition. So, it is understandable that certain local place names should still be in dispute: see [[Derry/Londonderry name dispute]]. ===British Islands=== Since 1978, the term '''[[British Islands]]''' (as opposed to ''British Isles'') has been used by the UK's governments and assemblies to define the United Kingdom, together with the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Under the Interpretation Act [[1978]] of the United Kingdom, the term '''''British Islands''''' refers to the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], together with the [[Crown Dependencies]]: the [[Bailiwick]]s of [[Jersey]] and of [[Guernsey]] (which in turn includes the smaller islands of [[Alderney]], [[Herm]] and [[Sark]]) in the [[Channel Islands]]; and the [[Isle of Man]]. ==Historical aspects== ===Origins of terms=== The éarliest known names for the islands come from the [[Massaliote Periplus]] of the [[6th century BC]], fragments of which survived in the writings of [[Avienus]] around [[AD]] [[400]]. Ireland was referred to as ''Ierne'' (''Insula sacra'', the ''sacred island'', as the Greeks interpreted it) "inhabited by the race of ''Hiberni''" (''gens hiernorum''), and Britain as ''insula Albionum'', "island of the Albions".<ref name=snyder>{{cite book | last = Snyder | first = Christopher A. | title = The Britons | url = https://archive.org/details/britons00snyd | publisher = [[Blackwell Publishing]] | date = 2003 | id = ISBN 063122260X }}</ref> éarlier sources preserve fragments of the travel writings of the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[Pytheas]] around [[320 BC]], and describe the British isles, including Ireland, as the αι Βρεττανιαι, the ''Brittanic Isles''.<ref name=snyder/><ref name=ohi>{{cite book | last = Foster (editor) | first = R F | authorlink = | coauthors = Donnchadh O Corrain, Professor of Irish History at University College Cork: (Chapter 1: ''Prehistoric and Early Christian Ireland'') | title = The Oxford History of Ireland | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = [[1 November]] [[2001]] | location = | url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00rffo | doi = | id = ISBN 019280202X }}</ref> The péoples of these islands of ''Prettanike'' were called the Ρρεττανοι, ''Priteni'' or ''Pretani''.<ref name=snyder/> These names derived from a "[[Celtic languages|Celtic language]]" term which is likely to have réached Pythéas from the [[Gaul]]s<ref name=ohi/> who may have used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands.<ref>[http://www.celticgrounds.com/chapters/encyclopedia/p.html Encyclopedia of the Celts]: Pretani</ref> The Romans called the inhabitants of Gaul (modérn [[France]]) ''Galli'' or ''Celtae''. The latter term came from the Greek name Κελτοι for a central Européan péople, and [[17th century]] antiquarians who found language connections developed the idéa of a race of [[Celt]]s inhabiting the aréa, but this term was not used by the Greeks or Romans for the inhabitants of Britain or Ireland.<ref name=ece>[http://www.walespast.com/article.shtml?id=36 The earliest Celts in Europe | WalesPast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041011133701/http://www.walespast.com/article.shtml?id=36 |date=2004-10-11 }}</ref> ''Priteni'' is the source of the [[Welsh language]] term [[Prydain]], ''Britain'',<ref name=ohi/> and has the same source as the [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] term [[Cruithne (people)|Cruithne]]. The latter referred to the éarly [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] spéaking inhabitants of Ireland, the [[Scottish highlands]] and the north of Scotland,<ref name=ohi/> who are known as the Cruithne in [[Scottish Gaelic]], and who the [[Romans]] called [[Picts]] or [[Caledonians]]. ===Romans=== [[Caesar's invasions of Britain]] brought descriptions of the péoples of what he called ''Britannia pars interior'', "inland Britain", in [[55 BC]]. Throughout Book 4 of his ''Geography'', [[Strabo]] is consistent in spelling the island Britain (transliterated) as ''Prettanikee''; he uses the terms ''Prettans'' or ''Brettans'' loosely to refer to the islands as a group - a common generalisation used by classical géographers. For example, in Géography 2.1.18, ''…οι νοτιωτατοι των Βρηττανων βορηιοτηροι τουτον ηισιν'' (…the most southern of the Brettans are further north than this)<ref name="Roseman">Translation by Roseman, ''op.cit.''</ref>. He was writing around AD 10, although the éarliest surviving copy of his work dates from the 6th century. [[Pliny the Elder]] writing around AD 70 uses a Latin version of the same terminology in section 4.102 of his ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Naturalis Historia]]''. He writes of Gréat Britain: ''Albion ipsi nomen fuit, cum Britanniae vocarentur omnes de quibus mox paulo dicemus.'' (Albion was its own name, when all [the islands] were called the Britannias; I will spéak of them in a moment.). In the following section, 4.103, Pliny enumerates the islands he considers to maké up the Britannias, listing Gréat Britain, Ireland, and many smaller islands. In his ''Geography'' written in the mid [[2nd century]] and probably describing the position around AD [[100]],<ref name=ohi/> [[Ptolemy]] includes both Britain and Ireland – he calls it ''Hibernia'' – in the island group he calls ''Britannia''. He entitles Book II, Chapter 1 of as ''Hibernia, Island of Britannia'', and Chapter 2 as ''Albion Island of Britannia''.<ref>[http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/classical-references/the-geography-of-ptolemy/ Ptolemy's Geography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016202449/http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/classical-references/the-geography-of-ptolemy/ |date=2021-10-16 }}</ref> The name ''Albion'' for [[Great Britain]] fell from favour, and the island was described in Greek as Ρρεττανια or Βρεττανια, in [[Latin]] ''Britannia'', an inhabitant as Βρεττανοζ, ''Britannus'', with the adjective Βρεττανικοζ, ''Brittanicus'', equating to "British".<ref name=snyder/> With the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] the name [[Britannia]] was used for the province of [[Roman Britain]]. The Emperor [[Claudius]] was honoured with the [[Roman naming convention|agnomen]] ''Britannicus'' as if he were the conqueror, and coins were struck from AD [[46]] inscribed <small>DE BRITAN, DE BRITANN, DE BRITANNI,</small> or <small>DE BRITANNIS</small>. With the visit of [[Hadrian]] in AD [[121]] coins introduced a female figure with the label <small>BRITANNIA</small> as a personification or goddess of the place. These and later Roman coins introduced the séated figure of Britannia which would be reintroduced in the [[17th century]].<ref>[http://www.24carat.co.uk/britanniaframe.html Britannia on Roman Coins], [http://www.predecimal.com/p2roman.htm Roman coins in Britain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113213001/http://www.predecimal.com/p2roman.htm |date=2006-11-13 }}</ref> In the later yéars of Roman rule Britons who left Latin inscriptions, both at home and elsewhere in the Empire, often described themselves as ''Brittanus'' or ''Britto'', and where describing their citizenship gave it as ''cives'' of a British tribe or of a ''patria'' (homeland) of ''Britannia'', not ''Roma''.<ref name=snyder/> From the 4th century, many Britons migrated from Roman Britain across the [[English Channel]] and founded [[Brittany]]. ===Medieval period=== While Latin remained the language of léarning, from the éarly [[medieval]] period records begin to appéar in native languages. The éarliest [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] source to use a collective term for the archipelago is the ''[[Life of Saint Columba]]'', a [[hagiography]] recording the [[missionary]] activities of the [[sixth century]] Irish monk [[Saint Columba]] among the péoples of modérn Scotland. It was written in the late seventh century by [[Adomnán of Iona|Adomnán]] of [[Iona]], an Irish monk living on the [[Inner Hebridean]] island. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is '''Océani Insulae''' méaning ''"Islands of the Ocean"'' (Book 2, 46 in the Sharpe edition = Book 2, 47 in Reeves edition), it is used sparingly and no ''Priteni''-derived collective reference is made. Another éarly native source to use a collective term is the ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' of [[Bede]] written in the éarly eighth century. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is ''insularum'' méaning "islands" (Book 1, 8) and it too is used sparingly. He stated that Britain "studies and confesses one and the same knowledge of the highest truth in the tongues of five nations, namely the Angles, the Britons, the Scots, the Picts, and the Latins", distinguishing between the [[Brythonic languages]] of the "ancient Britons" or [[Old Welsh]] spéakers and other language groups.<ref>[http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/watsloth.htm General survey of Lothian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925082819/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/watsloth.htm |date=2006-09-25 }}</ref> éarly [[Celt]]ic, [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] and [[Viking]] kingdoms such as [[Rheged]], [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]] and [[Wessex]] amalgamated, léading to the formation of [[Scotland]], [[England]] and [[Wales]]. In [[Norman Ireland]], local lords gained considerable autonomy from the [[Lordship of Ireland]] until it became the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] under direct English rule. ===Renaissance mapmakers=== Continental mapmakers [[Gerardus Mercator]] ([[1512]]), [[Balthasar Moretus]] ([[1624]]), [[Giovanni Magini]] ([[1596]]), [[Abraham Ortelius]] ([[1570]]) and [[Sebastian Munster]] ([[1550]]) produced maps béaring the term "British Isles". Ortelius makes cléar his understanding that England, Scotland and Ireland were politically nominally at léast separate in [[1570]] by the full title of his map: "Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio" which translates as "a description of England, Scotland and Ireland, or the British Isles", additionally many maps from this period show Wales and Cornwall as separate nations, most notably those of Mercator. ===Evolution of kingdoms and states=== [[Image:Nations of the UK.jpg|400px|thumb|right|A timeline of [[state]]s in the British Isles. (Formally, ''Ireland'' (''Éire'' is correctly used only when speaking Irish) continues to exist, but the term "Republic of Ireland" is more widely used).]] The diagram on the right gives an indication of the further evolution of kingdoms and states. In [[1603]] the [[Scottish King]] [[James I of England|James VI]] inherited the [[English throne]] as "James I of England". He styled himself as ''James I of Great Britain'', although both states retained their sovereignty and independent parliaments, the [[Parliament of Scotland]] and the [[Parliament of England]]. The [[1707]] [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] united England and Scotland in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] under the [[Parliament of Great Britain]], then in [[1800]] Ireland was brought under British government control by the [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]] créating the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Irish unrest culminated in the [[Anglo-Irish War|Irish War of Independence]] and the [[1922]] separation of the [[Irish Free State]] which later became the [[Republic of Ireland]]. The mostly Protestant [[Northern Ireland|northeast]] continued to be part of what was now the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]. [[British overseas territories]] such as [[Bermuda]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Hong Kong]], the [[Falkland Islands]], and the [[British Antarctic Territory]] have (or have had) various relationships with the UK. The [[Commonwealth of Nations]] (formerly the British Commonwéalth) is a loose confederation of nations roughly corresponding to the former [[British Empire]], mostly for economic co-operation, formalised in [[1931]]. (This has no connection with the [[Commonwealth of England]] and [[The Protectorate]] which were short-lived [[republic]]s replacing the previous kingdoms during the [[Interregnum]] ([[1649]] - [[1660]]).) ==Adjectives== The [[adjectives]] used to describe the contents and attributes of the various constituent parts of the British Isles also cause confusion. ''British'' is generally used to refer to the [[United Kingdom]]. However, in a specifically physical géographical sense, ''British'' is used to refer to the island of [[Great Britain]]. The cumbersome adjective ''Great British'' is very rarely used to refer to [[Great Britain]], other than to contrive a [[pun]] on the word ''great'', as in "Great British Food". ''Irish'', in a political sense, is used to refer to the [[Republic of Ireland]]. [[Northern Ireland]], as a constituent part of the [[United Kingdom]], would be included within the umbrella of the political term ''British'', though many unionists in Northern Ireland would also consider themselves Irish in a géographical sense. In order to be more specific, ''Northern Irish'' is therefore in common usage. The term ''Ulster'' can also be used as an adjective (e.g. "[[Royal Ulster Constabulary]]"), but this is more likely to be used by [[Unionists (Ireland)|Unionists]] and has political connotations in the same fashion as its use as a proper noun (because only six of the traditional nine counties of [[Ulster]], namely [[County Antrim|Antrim]], [[County Armagh|Armagh]], [[County Down|Down]], [[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]], [[County Londonderry|Londonderry]] and [[County Tyrone|Tyrone]], are included in Northern Ireland with the remaining three counties [[County Cavan|Cavan]], [[County Donegal|Donegal]] and [[County Monaghan|Monaghan]] forming part of the Republic). Likewise, [[Irish Nationalism|Nationalists]] might describe, say, a lake in Northern Ireland as ''Irish''. However, some [[Irish Nationalism|Nationalists]] might attribute what they see as less attractive aspects of [[Northern Ireland]] to Britain or even to England (e.g. "The Northern Ireland squad is an English football team"). The "Northern" in "Northern Ireland" is not completely accurate. A large portion of Northern Ireland lies to the south of [[County Donegal]], which is in the Republic. The northern tip of the island, [[Malin Head]], is on Donegal's [[Inishowen]] Peninsula. ''Scottish'', ''English'' and ''Welsh'' are self-explanatory. The term ''English'' is, however, commonly used to méan ''British'' by many Anglophones, both within and without the archipelago. ==Problems with use of terms== {{utama|British Isles}} There is considerable sensitivity about some of the terms, particularly in relation to [[Ireland]]. The term ''[[British Isles]]'' itself can be considered irritating or offensive by those who find that the association of the term ''[[British]]'' with the [[United Kingdom]] léads to a mistaken presumption that the [[Republic of Ireland]] is still in some way under British rule, or think that it implies that the UK has continuing territorial claims to that country. No branch of the Irish government, including the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Irish Embassy in London, uses the term,<ref>"[http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0606/D.0606.200509280360.html Written Answers - Official Terms"], [[Dáil Éireann]] - Volume 606 - 28 September, 2005. In his response, the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs added that "Our officials in the Embassy of Ireland, London, continue to monitor the media in Britain for any abuse of the official terms as set out in the Constitution of Ireland and in legislation. These include the name of the State, the President, Taoiseach and others."</ref> though it is on occasion used in a géographical sense in Irish parliamentary debates. In [[Northern Ireland]] [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] reject the term and use ''these islands'' as an alternative, wheréas [[Unionism (Ireland)|unionists]], when countering nationalist insistence on the territorial integrity of the island of Ireland, change the géographical frame of reference to that of the whole archipelago of what they call the ''British Isles''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guelke| first=Adrian |chapter=Northern Ireland and Island Status |title=Northern Ireland and the Divided World: The Northern Ireland Conflict and the Good Friday Agreement in Comparative Perspective |editor=John Mcgarry ed. |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |pages=p. 231}}</ref> There have been several suggestions for replacements for the term ''British Isles'' but no single one has won any wide acceptance. The term ''Ireland'' is also a matter of sensitivity. It is the official name of the Republic of Ireland as well as being a géographical term for the whole island. In Northern Ireland, Irishness is a highly contested identity, with fundamentally different perceptions between unionists who perceive themselves as being both British and Irish, and nationalists who consider both communities to be part of the Irish nation.<ref>[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/dd/report7/report7c.htm CAIN: Democratic Dialogue: With all due respect - pluralism and parity of esteem (Report No. 7)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608072220/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/dd/report7/report7c.htm |date=2011-06-08 }} by Tom Hennessey and Robin Wilson, Democratic Dialogue (1997)</ref> ==Further information== ===Isle of Man and Channel Islands=== The Isle of Man and the two [[bailiwick]]s of the Channel Islands are [[Crown Dependency|Crown Dependencies]]; that is, non-sovereign [[nation]]s, self-governing but whose sovereignty is held by the British [[The Crown|Crown]]. They control their own politics, but not their defence. They are not part of the United Kingdom nor part of the [[European Union]]. *The [[Isle of Man]] is part of the British Isles, situated in the [[Irish Sea]] between Gréat Britain and Ireland. *The [[Channel Islands]] consist politically of two self-governing [[bailiwick]]s: the [[Bailiwick of Guernsey]] and the [[Bailiwick of Jersey]]. They are the remnants of the [[Duchy of Normandy]], which was once in [[personal union]] with the Kingdom of England. They are sometimes, despite their location next to mainland [[France]], considered part of the British Isles. ===Celtic names=== The [[Celtic languages]] in the region — [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]— éach have names for the various countries and subdivisions of the British Isles. Some of the above are: </div> {|cellpadding=0 cellspacing=4 border=0 || ; England :Cornish: ''Pow Sows'' :Irish: ''Sasana'' ('Saxony') :Manx: ''Sostyn'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Sasainn'' ('Saxony') :Welsh: ''Lloegr'' ; Scotland :Cornish: ''Alban'' :Irish: ''Albain'', ''Alba'' :Manx: ''Nalbin'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Alba'' :Welsh: ''Yr Alban'' || ; Wales :Cornish: ''Kembra'' :Irish: ''An Bhreatain Bheag'' ('Little Britain') :Manx: ''Bretin'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''a' Chuimrigh'' :Welsh: ''Cymru'' ; Cornwall :Cornish: ''Kernow'' :Irish: ''Corn na Breataine'', ''an Chorn'' :Manx: ''Yn Chorn'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''a' Chòrn'' :Welsh: ''Cernyw'' || ; Ireland :Cornish: ''Ynys Iwerdhon'' :Irish: ''Éire'', ''Éirinn'' :Manx: ''Nerin'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Èirinn'' :Welsh: ''Iwerddon'' ; Republic of Ireland :Cornish: ''Repoblek Iwerdhon'' :Irish: ''Poblacht na hÉireann'' :Manx: ''Pobblaght Nerin'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Poblachd na h-Èirinn'' :Welsh: ''Gweriniaeth Iwerddon'' || ; Northern Ireland :Cornish: ''Kledhbarth Iwerdhon'' :Irish: ''Tuaisceart Éireann'', ''Tuaisceart na hÉireann'' :Manx: ''Nerin Twoaie'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Èirinn a Tuath'' :Welsh: ''Gogledd Iwerddon'' |} Note: In Irish there are actually several terms for Northern Ireland: ''An Tuaisceart'', méaning "the North", is usually used, but a more recent term for official use is ''Tuaisceart Éireann''. ''Ulaidh'', the Irish word for Ulster, is also sometimes used, though the traditional region of Ulster also includes 3 counties which are not included in the political region of Northern Ireland. Ironically the most northern point in Ireland is 'down South', that is ruled from Dublin, not London. The English word ''Welsh'' is from a common [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] root méaning "foreigner" ([[cognate]] with [[Wallonia]] and [[Wallachia]], and also cognate with the word used in Mediaeval German to refer to the French and [[Italy|Italian]]s). The English names ''[[Albion]]'' and ''[[Albany]]'' are related to ''Alba'' and used poetically for either England or Scotland, or the whole island of Gréat Britain. English ''[[Erin]]'' is a poetic name for Ireland derived from ''Éire'' (or rather, from its dative form ''Éirinn'') ===Rockall=== The island of [[Rockall]] is a disputed territory in the Atlantic Océan. It is a small, uninhabited island lying some 301.4&nbsp;km (187.3 miles) west of [[St Kilda, Scotland|St Kilda]] ([[Outer Hebrides]]) and 424&nbsp;km (229.1 miles) north-west of Ireland. It is claimed by the [[United Kingdom]] (as part of the [[Isle of Harris]]), whilst its surrounding [[continental shelf]] (but not the island itself) is claimed by the Republic of Ireland, [[Iceland]] and [[Denmark]] (through the [[Faroe Islands]]). Its remote position, however, méans that it is open to question whether or not, géographically, it belongs to the British Isles. In any event The [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]], states ''Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf''. ==Slang== [[Blighty]] is a slang word for Britain derived from the [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] word ''bilāyatī'' ("foreign"). Depending on the user, it is méant either affectionately or archly. It was often used by British soldiers abroad in the First World War to refer to home. ===Europe=== The term "[[Europe]]" may be used in one of several different contexts by British péople; either to refer to the whole of the Européan continent, to refer to only to [[Mainland Europe]], sometimes called ''"continental Europe"'' or simply ''"the Continent"'' by some péople in the archipelago — as in the apocryphal newspaper héadlining "Fog shrouds Channel, continent cut off." Europe and the adjective Européan may also be used in reference to the [[European Union]], particularly in a derogative context such as "The new regulations handed out by Europe". ==Notes== <references/> ==See also== *[[Alternative words for British]] *[[British-Irish Council]] *[[British Overseas Territory]] ==External links== *[http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ "The British Isles and all that..."] *[http://ned.ucam.org/~sdh31/misc/uk.html "The Great British Venn Diagram"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051215081954/http://ned.ucam.org/~sdh31/misc/uk.html |date=2005-12-15 }} <!--Please do not alter. Without the B this appears above the United Kingdom article, which is not appropriate--> [[Kategori:British Isles| ]] [[Kategori:United Kingdom| B]]<!--[[Category:Geography (terminology)]] [[Category:Geographical naming disputes]] [[Category:Articles with invalid ISBNs]]--> nrcgbxnk75ao8mv9xj66hwdp702ll41 0 6452 711615 666742 2026-08-07T00:21:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711615 wikitext text/x-wiki :'' Keur game arcad, tempo [[Asteroids (game komputer)]]''. [[Gambar:(253) mathilde crop.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[253 Mathilde]], [[Astéroid tipe C]].]] '''Astéroid''', planét leutik, jeung planétoid mangrupa sinonim, sarta digunakeun keur nandaan golongan sagala rupa banda angkasa leutik nu kumalayang dina [[Surya Mandala|sistim suryamandala]] sarta [[orbit|ngorbit]] ka [[panonpoé]]. ''Astéroid'' ([[basa Yunani]] keur "siga-béntang") mangrupa kecap nu sering dipaké dina literatur [[basa Inggris]] keur [[planét leutik]], mangrupa istilah nu dipilih ku [[International Astronomical Union]]; nu séjénna leuwih milih ''planétoid'' (basa Yunani: "siga-planét"). Dina [[définisi ulang planét 2006|Agustus 2006]] ahir, IAU ngawanohkeun istilah ''banda-banda leutik dina sistim suryamandala'' ("[[small solar system body|small solar system bodies]]", SSSBs), nu ngawengku lolobana objék nu satuluyna diklasifikasikeun minangka planét leutik, saperti [[komét]]; aranjeunna ogé ngawanohkeun "planet katé" ("[[dwarf planet]]") keur planét leutik panggedéna. Artikel Wikipedia ieu tetep nyebut planét leutik nu ngorbit dina sistim suryamandala beulah jero (kasarannana nepi ka orbit [[Yupiter (planét)|Yupiter]]). Keur tipe objék séjén, saperti komét, [[objék Trans-Neptunian]], jeung [[Centaur (planétoid)|Centaur]], tempo [[Small solar system body]]. Astéroid nu munggaran kanyahoan, [[1 Ceres|Ceres]] mangrupa asteroid panggedéna nu kiwari diklasifikasikeun minangka [[planét dwarf]], sedengkeun kabéh sésana kiwari diklasifikasikeun minangka SSSBs. lolobana astéroid kaasup kana [[beubeur astéroid]] utama, kalayan orbit [[élips|éliptisna]] aya di antara [[Mars (planét)|Mars]] jeung [[Jupiter]]. Astéroid dianggap minangka sésa ''[[protoplanetary disc]]'', sarta dina wewengkon ieu kumpulan sésa ''protoplanetary'' nu jadi planét dilingkung ku kacona [[gravitasi]] nu gedé alatan pangaruh [[Jupiter]] salila période diwangunna sistim suryamandala. Sababaraha astéroid miboga [[bulan astéroid|bulan]] atawa kapanggih minangka pasangan nu disebut sistim binér. == Astéroid dina sistim suryamandala == [[Gambar:4 Vesta 1 Ceres Moon at 20 km per px.png|thumb|right|Ti kénca ka katuhu: [[4 Vesta]], [[1 Ceres]], [[Bulan]]na Bumi.]] Ratusan tina rébuan astéroid geus katimu dina sajeroeun sistim suryamandala sarta rata-rata panimuan kiwari nyaéta 5000 per bulan. Dina [[27 Agustus]], [[2006]], tina total 339.376 <!--- itungan rékaman astorb.dat ---> planét leutik nu kadaptar, 136.563 di antarana miboga orbit nu cukup dipikawanoh antukna bisa dibéré [[perjangjian pangaranan astronomis|nomer resmi nu permanén]]. Ti antara éta, 13.350<ref>{{cite web|title=Minor Planet Names|accessdate=2006-09-14|url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPNames.html}}</ref> miboga ngaran resmi (trivia: kira-kira 650<!--- Give or take two or so, as the Schmadel and IPA lists disagree a little ---> di antara ngaran ieu merlukeun [[tanda pangwanoh]]). Nomer nu panghandapna tapi mangrupa planét leutik nu teu dingaranan nyaéta [[(3360) 1981 VA]]; planét leutik nu dingaranan kalayan nomer pangluhurna (salian ti [[planét dwarf]] '''[[136199 Eris]]''' jeung '''[[Pluto|134340 Pluto]]''') nyaéta [[129342 Ependes]] <ref>{{cite web|title=Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (125001)-(130000) |accessdate=2006-07-12|url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/NumberedMPs125001.html}}</ref>. Kiwari diperkirakeun yén astéroid nu diaméterna leuwih ti 1&nbsp;km dina sistim suryamandala jumlah totalna aya antara 1.1 nepi ka 1.9 yuta<ref>{{cite web|title=New study reveals twice as many asteroids as previously believed|accessdate=2006-03-28|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=7925}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306222828/https://spaceref.com/press-release/new-study-reveals-twice-as-many-asteroids-as-previously-believed/ |date=2023-03-06 }}</ref>. Astéroid panggedéna dina sistim suryamandala beulah jero nyaéta [[1 Ceres]], kalayan diaméter 900–1000&nbsp;km. Dua astéroid beubeur sistim suryamandala beulah jero nyaéta [[2 Pallas]] jeung [[4 Vesta]]; duanana miboga diaméter ~500&nbsp;km. Vesta mangrupa astéroid beubeur pangutamana nu kadang-kadnag katempo ku mata taranjang (dina sababaraha kajadian nu kacida jarangna, astéroid nu deukeuteun bumi bisa katempo tanpa bantuan téhnis; tempo [[99942 Apophis]]). Massa sakabéh astéroid Beubeur Utama diperkirakeun kurang leuwih 3.0-3.6{{e|21}}&nbsp;kg<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt|author=[[Georgij A. Krasinsky|Krasinsky, G. A.]]; Pitjeva, E. V.; Vasilyev, M. V.; Yagudina, E. I.|journal=Icarus|volume=158|number=1|pages=98-105|year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Pitjeva, E. V.|title=High-Precision Ephemerides of Planets - EPM and Determination of Some Astronomical Constants|journal=Solar System Research|volume=39|pages=176|year=2005}}</ref>, atawa kurang leuwih 4% tina massa bulan. Tina ieu, [[1 Ceres]] ngawengku 0.95{{e|21}}&nbsp;kg, 32% tina totalna. Satuluyna nyaéta astéroid pangpadetna, [[4 Vesta]] (9%), [[2 Pallas]] (7%), jeung [[10 Hygiea]] (3%), mawa gambaran ieu jadi 51%; tilu deui sanggeusna éta, [[511 Davida]] (1.2%), [[704 Interamnia]] (1.0%), jeung [[3 Juno]] (0.9%), ukur nambah 3% kana massa totalna. Jumlah astéroid satuluyna nambah sacara [[Distribusi éksponénsial|éksponénsial]] sanajan massa masing-masingna turun ogé. ''Tempo ogé [[Daptar astéroid nu kasohor]] dina Sistim Suryamandala urang, atawa [[Daptar astéroid]] dumasar runtuyannana.'' == Klasifikasi astéroid == Astéroid ilaharna digolongkeun jadi grup dumasar kana sipat orbitna sarta detil [[spéktrum nu katempo|spéktrum]] sinar panonpoé anu di''pantul''keunnana. === Kelompok orbit jeung kulawarga === {{utama|kulawarga astéroid|planét leutik}} Loba astéroid geus digolongkeun kana kelompok jeung kulawarga dumasar kana karakteristik orbitna. Geus ilahar pikeun ngaranan hiji kelompok astéroid dumasar kana anggota grup nu munggaran kapanggih. Kelompok rélatif miboga kakaitan nu leuwih longgar, sedengkeun kulawarga leuwih "raket" sarta mangrupa hasil tina rundayan astéroid indungna nu ancur jaman baheula. Keur daptar lengkep ngeunaan kelompok jeung kulawarga astéroid nu kanyahoan, tempo [[planét leutik]] jeung [[kulawarga astéroid]]. === Klasifikasi spéktral === [[Gambar:433eros.jpg|thumb|right|Gambar [[433 Eros]] ieu nunjukkeun panempoan ti salasahiji tungtung astéroid ''across the gouge on its underside and toward the opposite end''. Gambar nu leutikna 35 m ngalintang bisa katempo.]] Dina taun 1975, sistim [[taksonomi]] astéroid dumasar kana [[warna]], [[albedo]], jeung [[garis spéktral|wangun spéktral]] diwangun ku [[Clark R. Chapman]], [[David Morrison]], jeung [[Ben Zellner]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=Chapman, C. R., Morrison, D., & Zellner, B.|title=Surface properties of asteroids: A synthesis of polarimetry, radiometry, and spectrophotometry|journal=Icarus|volume=25|pages=104-130|year=1975}}</ref>. Sipat ieu ngarujuk kana komposisi bahan pabeungeutan astéroid. Asalna, aranjeunna ukur ngagolongkeun astéroid jadi tilu rupa: * [[Astéroid tipe C]] - ngandung [[karbon]], 75% tina astéroid nu dipikawanoh * [[Astéroid tipe S]] - ngandung [[silika]], 17% tina astéroid nu dipikawanoh * [[Astéroid tipe M]] - ngandung [[logam]], lolobana astéroid sésana Daptar ieu geus ngagedéan jadi ngawengku tipe-tipe astéroid séjénna. Jumlah tipena terus tumuwuh alatan leuwih lobana deui astéroid nu kaulik. Tempo [[Tipe spéktral astéroid]] keur leuwih detil atawa [[:Kategori:Kelas spéktral astéroid]] pikeun daptarna. Perlu dicatet yén perbandingan astéroid nu kanyahoan nu kabagi jadi mangrupa-rupa tipe spéktral henteu ngaréfléksikeun perbandingan sakabéh astéroid tipe nu kitu; sababaraha tipe leuwih gampang kanyahoan ti batan tipe lianna, nu akibatna ngabiaskeun total astéoid nu aya. ==== Masalah nu patali jeung klasifikasi spéktral ==== Satadina, rancangan spéktral dumasar kana kasimpulan-kasimpulan komposisi astéroid:<ref>{{cite book|last=McSween Jr., Harry Y.|title=Meteorites and Their Parent Planets|year=1987|url=https://archive.org/details/meteoritestheirp0000mcsw|id=ISBN 0-521-58751-4}}</ref> * C - [[karbonat|ngandung karbon]] * S - [[silikat|ngandung silikat]] * M - [[Métalik]] Tapi, hubungan antara kelas spéktral jeung komposisi téh henteu salawasna alus, katambah deui réa pisan ragem klasifikasi nu dipaké. Hal ieu geus nyababkeun kabingungan nu cukup serius. ku sabab astéroid dina klasifikasi spéktral nu béda téh sigana dijieun tina bahan nu béda ogé, jadina téh taya jaminan yén astéroid nu kelas taksonomina sarua dijieun tina bahan nu sarua ogé. Kiwari mah, klasifikasi spéktral nu dumasar kana sababaraha survéy spéktroskopis résolusi garis badag dina taun [[1990-an]] masih kénéh dijadikeun standar. Élmuwan henteu bisa nyaluyuan sistim taksonomi nu leuwih alus, alatan héséna manggihan pangukuran detil nu panceg keur sampel astéroid nu loba (contona spéktra résolusi nu leuwih alus, atawa data non-spéktral saperti kapadetan bakal kacida kapakéna). == Pamanggihan astéroid == [[Gambar:243 ida.jpg|thumb|right|[[243 Ida]] jeung bulanna, Dactyl, satelit astéroid munggaran nu kapanggih.]] === Métode pamanggihan historis === Métoda manggihan astéroid geus dimekarkeun sacara drastis salila dua abad katukang. Dina taun-taun terahir [[abad ka-18]], Baron [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] ngorganisir 24 urang [[astronom]] pikeun maluruh "planét nu leungit" di langit nu diperkirakeun 2.8 [[Unit Astronomis|AU]] ti [[Panonpoé]] dumasar kana [[aturan Titius-Bode]], sabagéannana minangka balukar tina pamanggihan planét [[Uranus (planét)|Uranus]], ku Sir [[William Herschel]] taun [[1781]], dina jarak nu "diperkirakeun" ku hukum kasebut. Tugas ieu merlukeun disayagakeunnana peta langit nu digambar ku leungeun keur sakabéh béntang dina pita [[zodiac]] nepikeun ka wates kapusing nu disatujuan. Dina peuting nu patuturut, langit digambar deui sarta objék-objék nu pindah bakal ditandaan ku titik. Gerakan planét leungit nu diharepkeun harita mah 30 detik arc per jam, kakara bisa katempo ku panalungtik. Ironisna, astéroid munggaran, [[1 Ceres]], henteu katimu ku anggota grup, tapi sacara henteu ngahaja dina taun [[1801]] ku [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] diréktur observatorium [[Palermo]], di [[Sicilia]]. Anjeunna manggihan hiji objék siga béntang dina [[Taurus (gugus béntang)|Taurus]] sarta anjeunna nuturkeun parobahan tempat objék ieu salila sababaraha peuting. Babaturannana, [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], ngagunakeun observasi ieu keur nangtukeun jarak pasti ti objék nu teu kanyahoan ieu nepi ka Bumi. Itungan Gauss nempatkeun objék ieu antara planét [[Mars (planét)|Mars]] jeung [[Yupiter (planét)|Yupiter]]. Piazzi ngaranan [[Ceres (mitologi)|Ceres]], déwa tatanén Romawi. Tilu astéroid séjénna ([[2 Pallas]], [[3 Juno]], [[4 Vesta]]) kapanggih ngan sakeudeung, sababaraha taun sanggeusna, Vesta mah kapanggihna taun 1807. Sanggeus dalapan taun deui maluruh tanpa hasil, lolobana astronom nganggep yén geus taya deui astéroid lianna. Ku kituna, pamaluruhan satuluyna dibolaykeun. Sanajan kitu, [[Karl Ludwig Hencke]] mah tetep maluruh astéroid séjénna, nu dimimitian dina taun 1830. Lima belas taun sanggeusna, anjeunna manggihan [[5 Astraea]], astéroid anyar munggaran nu kapanggih deui salila 38 taun. Anjeunna ogé manggih [[6 Hebe]] kurang tina dua taun satuluyna. Sanggeus ieu, astronom séjén milu nalungtik deui antukna satuluyna mah saeutikna hiji astéroid anyar kapanggih sanggeus waktu harita (kajaba wanci perang taun 1945). Nu seneng moro astéroid nu kasohor dina jaman kiwari nyaéta [[John Russell Hind|J. R. Hind]], [[Annibale de Gasparis]], [[Karl Theodor Robert Luther|Robert Luther]], [[Hermann Mayer Salomon Goldschmidt|H. M. S. Goldschmidt]], [[Jean Chacornac]], [[James Ferguson (astronomer)|James Ferguson]], [[Norman Robert Pogson]], [[Ernst Wilhelm Leberecht Tempel|E. W. Tempel]], [[James Craig Watson|J. C. Watson]], [[Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters|C. H. F. Peters]], [[Alphonse Louis Nicolas Borrelly|A. Borrelly]], [[Johann Palisa|J. Palisa]], [[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry]] jeung [[Auguste Charlois]]. Dina taun 1891, [[Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius Wolf|Max Wolf]] naratas dipigunakeunnana [[astrofotografi]] keur ngadetéksi asteroid, nu katémbong minangka corétan pondok dina pelat fotografis pencahayaan panjang ''(long-exposure)''. Hal ieu sacara drastis nambah rata-rata detéksi lamun dibandingkeun jeung métode visual saméméhna: Wolf sorangan manggih 248 asteroid, nu dimimitian ku [[323 Brucia]], padahal ukur saeutik leuwih ti 300 nu kapanggih nepi ka wanci digunakeunnana métodena Wolf. Deui, saabad sanggeusna, ukur sababaraha ratus asteroid nu kaidéntifikasi, dinomeran jeung dingaranan. Harita ogé sabenerna kanyahoan yén loba kénéh asteroid, tapi lolobana astronom henteu ngawaro, nyebutna ogé "bentang leutik di langit". === Métode pamanggihan modéren === Nepi ka 1998, astéroid pinanggih dina prosés opat léngkah. Kahiji, hiji wewengkon langit [[fotografi|difoto]] ku [[teleskop]] widang lega. Pasangan-pasangan foto dicokot, ilaharna béda sajam. Kumpulan pasangan-pasangan bisa dicokot ngaruntuy sababaraha poé. Kadua, duanana [[film]] dina wewengkon nu sarua ditempo maké [[stéréoskop]]. Sababaraha banda dina orbit sabudeureun Sarangenge bakal pindah saeutik-saeutik antara pasangan film. Dina steréoskop, gambar banda bakal katempo ngambang saeutik dina saluhureun latar tukang béntang-béntang. Katilu, sakali waé hiji banda nu pindah téh kanyahoan, lokasina bisa diukur sacara présisi ngagunakeun mikroskop nu didigitalkeun. Lokasina bakal diukur rélatif kana lokasi béntang nu geus dipikanyaho<ref>{{cite web|title=Carolyn Shoemaker|accessdate=2003-06-23|url=http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/About/People/CarolynShoemaker/}}</ref>. Katilu léngkah tacan mangrupa pamanggihan astéroid: panalungtik ukur nimu kaahéngan, nu ukur meunang [[panangtuan samentara dina astronomi|panangtuan samentara]], nyieun taun pamanggihan, surat nu nunjukkeun minggu pamanggihan, sarta ahirna surat jeung nomer nu nunjukkeun nomer runtuy pamanggihan (conto: {{mp|1998 FJ|74}}). Léngkah pamungkas dina pamanggihan nyaéta ngirim lokasi jeung wanci observasi ka [[Brian Marsden]] di [[Puseur Planét Leutik]]. Dr. Marsden mibanda program komputer nu ngitung yén hiji kaahéngan sarua patalina jeung kaahéngan saméméhna jadi hiji orbit nu sarua. Panalungtik munggaran kalayan orbit nu geus diitung nu dianggep jadi pamanggihna, sarta manéhna meunang kahormatan pikeun ngaranan astéroid nu kapanggih téa (poko keur idin ti [[International Astronomical Union]]) sanggeus dinomeran. === Téhnologi panganyarna: ngadetéksi astéroid nu ngabahyakeun === [[Gambar:Asteroid 2004 FH.gif|thumb|right|[[2004 FH]] nyaéta titik puseur nu diturutan sacara ruruntuyan; objék nu reup bray dina klip nyaéta satelit.]] Aya kahayang nu beuki gedé pikeun ngidéntifikasi astéroid nu orbitna meuntasan orbit [[Bumi]], sarta bisa, tinggal nunggu wanci nu mustari, bisa tabrakan jeung Bumi (tempo [[astéroid nu meuntasan Bumi]]). Tilu grup [[astéroid nu deukeuteun Bumi]] pangpentingna nyaéta [[astéroid Apollo|Apollo]], [[astéroid Amor|Amor]], jeung [[astéroid Aten|Aten]]. Rupa-rupa [[siasat pikeun méngkolkeun astéroid]] geus diusulkeun. Astéroid [[objék deukeuteun Bumi|deukeuteun Bumi]] [[433 Eros]] geus kapanggih ti saprak 1898, sarta dina [[1930-an]] kungsi diributkeun deui ku ayana objék nu sarua. Runtuyan pamanggihannana, nyaéta: [[1221 Amor]], [[1862 Apollo]], [[2101 Adonis]], tur ahirna [[69230 Hermes]], nu jauhna ampir 0.005 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] ka [[Bumi]] dina taun 1937. Ti harita astronom mimiti sadar ngeunaan tubrukan astéroid jeung Bumi. Dua kajadian dina dasawarsa-dasawarsa terahir nambah tingkat pangéling: beuki ditarimana téori [[Walter Alvarez]] ngeunaan [[lastarina K-T|lastarina dinosaurus]] boa-boa alatan [[kajadian tubrukan]], katambah ku observasi [[Komet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] taun 1994 nu nabrak [[Jupiter (planét)|Jupiter]]. Militér AS ogé nyebutkeun informasi yén satelit militérna, nu diwangun keur ngadetéksi ngabeledugna nuklir, geus ngadetéksi ratusan tubrukan di saluhureun atmosfir ku objék nu bentangannana hiji nepi ka sapuluh méter. Sakabéh pertimbangan-pertimbangan ieu geus ngarojong digunakeunnana sistim otomatis nu kacida éfisiénna nu ngandung kaméra Charge-Coupled Device ([[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]) jeung komputer nu langsung dihubungkeun jeung teleskop. Ti 1998, lolobana astéroid geus kapanggih ngagunakeun sistim otomatis siga kieu. Daptar tim nu ngagunakeun sistim otomatis siga kieu nyaéta:<ref>{{cite web|title=Near Earth Object Program|accessdate=2004-06-23|url=http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/programs}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040513160616/http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/programs/ |date=2004-05-13 }}</ref> * Tim [[Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] (LINéaR) * Tim [[Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking]] (NéaT) * [[Spacewatch]] * Tim [[LONEOS|Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search]] (LONéoS) * Tim [[Catalina Sky Survey]] (CSS) * Tim [[Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Objects Survey]] (CINéoS) * Tim [[Japanese Spaceguard Association]] * Tim [[Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey]] (ADAS) Sistim LINéaR nyorangan geus manggihan 67,820 astéroid nepi ka [[13 Juni]], [[2006]] <ref>{{cite web|title=Minor Planet Discover Sites|accessdate=2006-07-12|url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPDiscSites.html}}</ref>. Di antara sakabéh sistim otomatis, 4076 astéroid nu deukeuteun Bumi geus kapanggih <ref>{{cite web|title=Unusual Minor Planets|accessdate=2006-07-14|url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/Unusual.html}}</ref> kaasup 600 leuwih nu diaméterna leuwih ti 1&nbsp;km. == Ngaranan astéroid == === Sawangan: format pangaranan === Astéroid nu kapanggih kiwari-kiwari ieu [[Panandaan samentara dina astronmi|dingaranan samentara]] kalayan ngandung taun pamanggihan jeung kode alfanumeris (kawas [[2002 AT4]]). Lamun hiji orbit geus dikonfirmasi, karék dibéré nomer, sarta saterusna dingaranan (contona [[433 Eros]]). Konvénsi pangaranan resmi maké tanda kurung keur nomerna (contona ''(433) Eros''), tapi miceun tanda kurung ogé mangrupa hal nu ilahar. Sacara teu resmi, ilahar ogé miceun nomer nu marengannana, atawa miceun nomer sanggeus disebutkeun sakali nalika ngaran ieu dibalikan sababaraha kali dina téks. Astéroid nu geus dinomeran tapi tacan dingaranan bakal tetep maké panangtuan samentarana, ''contona''. [[(29075) 1950 DA]]. ku sabab téhnik pamanggihan modéren kacida lobana manggihan astéroid anyar, beuki loba waé astéroid nu teu dingaranan. Astéroid munggaran tanpa ngaran nyaéta [[(3360) 1981 VA]]. Dina sababaraha kajadian, [[Panetepan samentara dina astronomi|panetepan samentara]] hiji astéroid bisa dipaké minangka ngaranna sorangan: [[(15760) 1992 QB₁]] mikeun ngaranna keur kelompok astéroid nu disebut [[cubewano]]. === Nganomeran astéroid === Astéroid dibéré nomer resmi nalika munggaran orbitna ditetepkeun. Marengan gancang nambahanana pamanggihan astéroid, astéroid kiwari dibéré nomer genep angka. Gantina tina lima angka jadi genep angka nyaéta nalika publikasi ''[[Minor Planet Circular]]'' (MPC) [[19 Oktober]], [[2005]], nu nunjukkeun astéroid nu dinomeran pangluhurna luncat ti 99947 jadi 118161. Parobahan ieu nyababkeun krisis leutik saperti "[[Y2k]]" keur sababaraha layanan data otomatis, sabab ukur lima digit nu diidinan dina lolobana format data keur nomer astéroid. lolobana layanan kiwari geus ngalegaan widang nomer astéroid. Keur nu teu bisa dibenerkeun, masalah ieu diréngsékeun ku jalan ngaganti digit pangkéncana (tempatna puluh rébuan) ku [[alfabét]] minangka éksténsi digitna. A=10, B=11,…, Z=35, a=36,…, z=61. Nomer nu luhur saperti 120437 diganti jadi C0437 dina sababaraha daptar. === Sumber keur ngaran === {{utama|Harti ngaran astéroid}} Asteroid-asteroid munggaran nu jumlahna saeutik kénéh dingarananana siga ngaran inohong-inohong tina [[mitologi Graeco-Romawi]], tapi ku sabab ngaran-ngaran ieu kurang kénéh, lianna mah satuluyna maké ngaran jalma nu kasohor, karakter nu patali jeung sastra, ngaran pamajikan nu manggihan, anak-anakna, sarta malahan mah karakter-karaktr dina [[tipi]]. Asteroid munggaran nu dingaranan ku ngaran non-mitologis nyaéta [[20 Massalia]], siga ngaran kota [[Marseille]]. Keur sababaraha waktu, dipaké ukur ngaran awéwé (atawa nu diawéwékeun); [[Alexander von Humboldt]] mangrupa ngaran lalaki munggaran nu miboga ngaran asteroid siga ngaranna, tapi ngaranna diawéwékeun jadi [[54 Alexandra]]. Tradisi nu teu dikecapkeun ieu dipilampah nepi ka ahirna dingaranannana [[334 Chicago]]; malahan mah, ngaran nu diawéwékeun téh jadi ahéng lamun aya dina daptar taun-taun satuluyna. Alatan jumlah asteroid mimiti nepi ka ratusan, malahan mah jadi rébuan, para pamanggih mimiti beuki loba nu méré ngaran sacara sagawayah. Isarat munggaran ngeunaan ieu nyaéta ti mimiti [[482 Petrina]] jeung [[483 Seppina]], nu mana ngaran ieu mangrupa anjing piaraan nu manggihan. Aya saeutik kontrovérsi ngeunaan ieu nepi ka taun 1971, ku dingarananana [[2309 Mr. Spock]] (nu mana lain dingaranan siga karakter dina ''[[Star Trek]]'', tapi siga [[ucing]]na nu nimukeun anu dianggap siga manéhna). Sanajan [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] satuluyna ngalarang ngaran sato piaraan minangka sumber, ngaran asteroid nu arahéng masih kénéh diajukeun jeung ditarima, saperti [[6042 Cheshirecat]], [[9007 James Bond]], atawa [[26858 Misterrogers]]. === Aturan pangaranan husus === Kangaranan astéroid henteu malulu bébas keur sakabéhna: aya sababaraha rupa astéroid nu aturan-aturannana geus dimekarkeun ngeunaan sumber ngaranna. Contona [[Centaur (planétoid)|Centaur]] (astéroid nu ngorbit antara Saturnus jeung Néptunus) dingaranan dumasar [[centaur]] mitologis, [[astéroid Trojan|Trojan]] dumasar kana pahlawan ti [[Perang Trojan]], sarta [[objék trans-Néptunian]] dumasar sumanget di dunya. Aturan nu geus matuh lianna nyaéta réhna komét dingaranan siga nu nimukeunana, sedengkeun asteroid henteu. salah sahiji cara keur "ngagilekkeun" aturan ieu geus aya keur astronom pikeun silih tukeuran kahormatan ngaranan pamanggihannana jeung astronom lianna. Pangecualian husus keur aturan ieu nyaéta [[96747 Crespodasilva]], nu dingaranan dumasar pamanggihna, [[Lucy d'Escoffier Crespo da Silva]], sabab kacida pikasediheunnana anjeunna pupus sanggeus nimukeun asteroid, dina umur 22 taun<ref>{{cite web|title=Citation from MPC 55988|accessdate=2006-06-05|url=http://scully.cfa.harvard.edu/~cgi/ShowCitation.COM?num=96747}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=MIT News Office: Lucy Crespo da Silva, 22, a senior, dies in fall|accessdate=2006-06-05|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2000/dasilva.html}}</ref>. === Lambang astéroid === Sacara tradisional, asteroid munggaran dilambangan siga carana ngalambangan Bumi, Bulan, Panonpoé jeung planét. Lambang-lambang ieu lila-lila mah henteu nguntungkeun, hésé digambar tur hésé dipikawanohna. Nepi ka ahir taun 1851 aya 15 asteroid nu dipikanyaho, masing-masing (kajaba hiji) miboga lambang sorangan. {| class="wikitable" |- align="center" style="align:center; background:#ffc0c0" ! Astéroid || Lambang |- | [[1 Ceres]] || [[Gambar:Ceres symbol (fixed width).svg|24px|Lambang planét Ceres heubeul]] |- | [[2 Pallas]] || [[Gambar:Pallas symbol (fixed width).svg|24px|Lambang Pallas heubeul]] |- | [[3 Juno]] || [[Gambar:Juno symbol (fixed width).svg|24px|Lambang heubeul Juno]] |- | [[4 Vesta]] || [[Gambar:Vesta symbol (original, fixed width).svg|24px|Lambang Vesta nu heubeul]] [[Gambar:Vesta symbol (fixed width).svg|24px|Lambang astrologis moderen Vesta]] |- | [[5 Astraea]] || [[Gambar:Astraea symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[6 Hebe]] || [[Gambar:Hebe symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[7 Iris]] || [[Gambar:Iris symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[8 Flora]] || [[Gambar:Flora symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[9 Metis]] || [[Gambar:Metis symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[10 Hygiea]] || [[Gambar:Hygiea symbol (original, fixed width).svg|24px]] [[Gambar:Hygiea symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[11 Parthenope]] || [[Gambar:Parthenope symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[12 Victoria]] || [[Gambar:Victoria symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[13 Egeria]] || [[Gambar:Egeria symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[14 Irene]] || [[Gambar:Irene symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[15 Eunomia]] || [[Gambar:Eunomia symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[16 Psyche]] || [[Gambar:Psyche symbol (elaborate, fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[28 Bellona]] || [[Gambar:Bellona symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[35 Leukothea]] || [[Gambar:Leukothea symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |- | [[37 Fides]] || [[Gambar:Fides symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]] |} [[Johann Franz Encke]] nyieun parobahan gedé dina ''Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch'' (BAJ, "Berlin Astronomical Yearbook") salila taun 1854. Anjeunna ngawanohkeun nomer-nomer nu nguriling ti batan lambang, sanajan nomerna dimimitian ku [[5 Astraea|Astraea]] ogé, da opat nomer munggaran mah terus maké lambang tradisional. Inovasi simbolis ieu diadopsi kacida gancangna ku komunitas astronomis. Taun satuluyna (1855), nomer Astraéa diisedkeun ka 5, tapi Ceres nepi ka Vesta didaptarkeun dumasar nomerna ukur dina édisi 1867. Asteroid lianna ([[28 Bellona]], [[35 Leukothea]], jeung [[37 Fides]]) dilambangan ogé lian ti maké skéma panomeran téh. Kumpulan ngaran ieu ditulis dina jero kurung, sarta tanda kurung ieu kadang-kadang dipiceun dina dasawarsa-dasawarsa satuluyna mah.<ref>{{cite web|title=When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets|work=[[James L. Hilton]]|accessdate=2006-03-26|url=http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060520185324/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html |date=2006-05-20 }}</ref> == Éksplorasi astéroid == Nepi ka jaman [[perjalanan angkasa]], astéroid ukur mangrupa titik cahya leutik sanajan ngagunakeun teleskop panggedéna ogé sarta wangun jeung daérahna tetep jadi misteri. Foto [[close-up]] objék nu siga astéroid munggaran dicokot dina taun 1971 nalika [[Mariner 9]] mariksa [[Phobos (bulan)|Phobos]] jeung [[Deimos (bulan)|Deimos]] nu kagambarkeun, nyaéta dua bulan leutik bogana [[Mars (planét)|Mars]], nu meureun nangkep astéroid. Gambar ieu muka wangun astéroid nu teu tangtu tur siga kentang, saperti gambar satuluyna tina pamariksaan [[program Voyager|Voyager]] kana bulan leutik tina [[raksasa gas]]. <!-- [[Image:951 Gaspra.jpg|thumb|right|[[951 Gaspra]], the first asteroid to be imaged in close up.]]--> Asteroid sajati munggaran nu dipoto close-up nyaéta [[951 Gaspra]] taun 1991, dituluykeun taun 1993 ku [[243 Ida]] jeung bulanna [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]], nu mana sakabéhna digambarkeun ku [[pesawat angkasa Galileo|panyilidikan Galileo]] ''en route'' ka [[Jupiter (planét)|Jupiter]]. Panyilidikan asteroid resmi munggaran nyaéta [[NEAR Shoemaker]], nu moto [[253 Mathilde]] taun 1997, saméméh asup kana orbit di sabudeureun [[433 Eros]], ahirna badarat dina pabeungeutannana taun 2001. Asteroid lianna dilongok sacara singget ku pesawat angkasa ''en route'' ka tujuan lianna kaasup [[9969 Braille]] (ku [[Deep Space 1]] taun 1999), jeung [[5535 Annefrank]] (ku [[Stardust (pesawat angkasa)|Stardust]] taun 2002). Dina September 2005, panyalidikan urang Jepang [[Hayabusa]] mulai ngulik [[25143 Itokawa]] sacara jéntré tur bakal malikkeun sampel pabeungeutannana ka bumi. Sanggeus ieu, asteroid satuluyna diulik ku urang Éropa [[panyilidikan angkasa Rosetta|panyilidikan Rosetta]] (diayakeun taun 2004), nu bakal ngulik [[2867 Šteins]] jeung [[21 Lutetia]] taun 2008 jeung 2010. [[NASA]] ngarencanakeun ngayakeun [[Misi Fajar]] taun 2007, nu bakal ngorbit [[1 Ceres]] jeung [[4 Vesta]] taun 2011-2015, nu mana misi ieu meureun diteruskeun ka [[2 Pallas]]. Geus diusulkeun yén asteroid keur ka hareupna bisa dipaké minangka sumber bahan nu boa-boa geus langka atawa béak ([[pertambangan asteroid]]). == Astéroid dina fiksi == :''Artikel utama:'' [[Astéroid dina fiksi]] Gambaran umum astéroid (jeung henteu sering, [[Komét]]) dina fiksi nyaéta minangka anceman, nu tabrakannana jeung bumi bisa nyababkeun karusakan nu teu bisa diitung sarta leungitna kahirupan<ref>{{cite book|first=Arthur C.|last=Clarke|title=The Hammer of God|url=https://archive.org/details/hammerofgod0000clar_k9o9|year=1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Larry|last=Niven|title=Lucifer's Hammer|url=https://archive.org/details/lucifershammer0000larr|year=1977}}</ref>. Geus jadi dasar dina hipotésis saintifik ngeunaan tabrakan kawas kieu dina mangsa jauh ka tukang nu nyababkeun punahna [[Dinosaurus]] jeung raksasa baheula lianna; sanajan, sabab katingalina mah unggal-unggal tabrakan téh kajadianana dina mangsa sapersauluh juta taun, taya alesan husus (lian ti jadi alur sajarah nu dramatis) pikeun merkirakeun tabrakan anyar kawas kieu dina milénium pangdeukeutna. Cara séjén nu mana astéroid bisa dianggep minangka sumber bahya nyaéta ku jalan ngagambarkeunana minangka bahya keur navigasi, hususna anceman keur kapal nu lumaku ti Bumi ka bagian séjén di saluareun Sistim Suryamandala sarta saterusna perlu ngaliwatan Beubeur Astéroid (atawa nyieun jalan muter di sabudeureunnana nu méakkeun waktu jeung bahan bakar ). Asteroid dina konteks ieu nyadiakeun rohangan keur carita perjalanan angkasa nu sarua jeung batu sarta karang jero cai dina aliran kolot carita pangumbaraan perjalanan di laut<ref>{{cite book|first=Isaac|last=Asimov|title=Lucky Starr and the Pirates of the Asteroids|url=https://archive.org/details/luckystarrpirate0000asim|year=1953}}</ref>. Sarta siga batu jeung karang di sagara, asteroid minangka bahya navigasi bisa dipaké ku nu ngalanggar hukum pikeun nyingkahan udagan. Gambaran Beubeur Asteroid dina film cenderung dikacokeun ku karang nu ngabahyakeun sacara teu réalistis. Dina asteroid nyata, malah sanajan dina beubeur utama, misah kacida jauhna. Saméméh kolonisasi asteroid jadi kamungkinan nu menarik, katertarikan utamana nyaéta tiori-tiori saperti asal-usulna - hususna, tiori yén asteroid mangrupa sésa planét nu bitu. Hal ieu sacara alamiah nungtun urang kana jalan carita SF nu patali jeung kamungkinan yén planét geus ditempatan, sarta lamun enya téa mah - yén pangeusina nyababkeun karuksakanana sorangan, ku cara perang atawa henteu benerna dina ngokolakeun lingkungan sakumna. Satuluyna, bisa jadi tina asteroid nu aya saméméhna nyababkeun karuksakan Bumi atawa planét liana dina mangsa nu bakal datang, sarta bisa jadi parobahanana jadi asteroid anyar.<ref>{{cite book|first=James P.|last=Hogan|title=Inherit the Stars|url=https://archive.org/details/inheritstars00jame|year=1977}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Robert|last=Heinlein|title=Space Cadet|url=https://archive.org/details/spacecadet00hein|year=1948}}</ref> Nalika jejer kolonisasi antarplanét munggaran asup kana SF, Beubeur Asteroid nempatan urutan nu rada handap dina daptar ''real estate'' nu dipikarep, jauh di satukangeun planét-planét siga [[Mars]] jeung [[Vénus]] (sering dibayangkeun minangka sarupaning planét sawarga, nepi ka panyilidikan dina taun [[1960-an]] nu nerangkeun hawa jeung kondisi nu pihariwangeun nalika mendung). ku sabab kitu, dina lolobana carita jeung buku, Beubeur Asetroid, lamun henteu mangrupa bahya nu positif, masih kénéh mangrupa tempat nu mencil dina Sistim Suryamandala nu ditempatan.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Isaac Asimov|title=Marooned off Vesta|journal=Amazing Stories|year=March 1939}}</ref> Prospék keur nempatan planét-planét dina Sistim Suryamandala beuki harieum sajalan jeung pamanggihan nu nambah ngeunaan kaayaannana. Sabalikna, ajén poténsial asteroid nambah, minangka akumulasi nu kacida tina kasajahtraan mineral, bisa diakses dina kondisi gravitasi minimal, sarta ngalengkepan sumberdaya di Bumi nu beuki ngurangan. Carita ngeunaan pertambangan asteroid beuki loba ti saprak ahir [[1940-an]], kalayan léngkah logis satuluyna jadi gambaran ngeunaan masarakat di asteroid— dina sababaraha kaayaan ngali di pabeungeutan, lianna miboga tempat cicing nu wangunna momolo sarta lianna deui dikulibeng ku atmosfir nu tetep di tempatna alatan ayana gravitasi jieunan. Hiji gambaran nu diwangun sarta dibawa ti panulis ka panulis, ngeunaan "Belters" atawa "Rock Rats" minangka individu nu kasar jeung nu mikir bébas, nu mikangewa sakabéh nu berwenang (dina sababaraha buku jeung carita ngeunaan kakawasaan militér jeung pulitis ngeunaan kaayaan nagara di sabudeureun Bumi, lian ti kakawasaan badan hukum tina pausahaan gedé)<;ref>{{cite book|first=Jack|last=Williamson|title=Seetee Ship|year=1950}}</ref>. Saperti kitu, sub-aliran ieu ngabuktikeun dayatarik alamiah keur panulis nu miboga kacenderungan [[Libertarian]] tendencies<ref>{{cite book|first=L. Neil|last=Smith|title=Pallas|url=https://archive.org/details/pallas0000smit_z2r4|year=1993}}</ref>. Leuwih-leuwih, gambaran Beubeur Asteroid minangka Wates Anyar sacara jelas digambarkeun (kadang-kadang kacida eksplisit) dina literatur nu bisa dianggep, Nineteenth-Century [[Frontier]] jeung [[Wild West]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Beubeur astéroid]] * [[:Kategori:Kelompok jeung kulawarga astéroid|Kategori:Kelompok jeung kulawarga astéroid]] * [[:Kategori:Astéroid|Kategori:Astéroid]] * [[Daptar astéroid]] * [[Daptar astéroid nu dingaranan jalma penting]] * [[Daptar astéroid nu dingaranan tempat]] * [[Daptar astéroid penting]] * [[Harti ngaran astéroid]] * [[Planét leutik]] * [[Puseur planét leutik]] * [[Objék deukeuteun bumi]] * [[Kajadian tabrakan]] * [[Pangecapan ngaran astéroid]] == Référénsi == <references/> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commonscat|Astéroid}} * [http://www.armageddononline.org/asteroid.php Known Asteroid Impacts & Their Effects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051208010040/http://www.armageddononline.org/asteroid.php |date=2005-12-08 }} * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPNames.html Alphabetical list of minor planet names (ASCII)] (Minor Planet Center) * [http://www.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/englenam.htm Alphabetical and numerical lists of minor planet names (Unicode)] (Institute of Applied Astronomy) * [http://newton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/neodys/neoibo Near Earth Objects Dynamic Site] * [http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/astdys/astibo Asteroids Dynamic Site] Up-to date [[osculating orbit|osculating]] [[orbital elements]] and [[proper orbital elements]] * [http://quasar.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/statmpn.htm Asteroid naming statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311151738/http://quasar.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/statmpn.htm |date=2013-03-11 }} * [http://neat.jpl.nasa.gov/ Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024002715/http://neat.jpl.nasa.gov/ |date=2015-10-24 }} * [http://www.newscientistspace.com/channel/solar-system/comets-asteroids Everything you wanted to know about comets and asteroids] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''. * [http://www.spaceguarduk.com/ Spaceguard UK] * [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060520185324/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html |date=2006-05-20 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041105100522/http://www.astrosurf.com/aude/map/us/AstFamilies2004-05-20.htm Large amount of information on asteroid groups collected by Gérard Faure], translation Richard Miles. * [http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/satellites.html Asteroid Simulator with Moon and Earth] {{clear}} <center>''(navigator astéroid) | [[1 Ceres|Astéroid munggaran]] | ...''</center> {{PlanetLeutik}} {{Suryamandala}} [[Kategori:Astéroid|*]] [[Kategori:Planét leutik]] atkczuahawfgtj5f4vtxlet8nqqufnx 0 8729 711740 711391 2026-08-07T03:08:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711740 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dablink|Transistor ogé mangrupa ngaran nu ilahar keun [[radio transistor]] taun 1960-an.}} [[Gambar:Transistors.agr.jpg|thumb|200px|Rupa-rupa transistor]] '''Transistor''' nyaéta [[parangkat sémikonduktor]] nu miboga tilu terminal, bisa digunakeun keur [[panguat éléktronik amplifier|nguatkeun]], [[nyaklar]], nytabilkeun voltase, [[modulasi]] sinyal, sarta loba deui kagunaan séjénna. Transistor mangrupa blok wangunan dasar tina [[integrated circuit]] (IC) analog atawa digital -- [[sirkuit]] nu dipaké ngoperasikeun [[komputer]], [[telepon sélulér]], jeung [[éléktronika]] modéren séjénna. == Pangwanoh == Kecap ''transistor'' mangrupa kecap pondokna tina ''transfer varistor''. Dingaranan kitu sabab hiji sinyal asupan digunakeun keur ngarobah [[résistansi]] dina jalur sinyal kaluaran ([[varistor]] nyaéta ''variable [[resistor]]''). Transistor kabagi jadi dua kategori utama: [[bipolar junction transistor]] (BJT) jeung [[field effect transistor]] (FET). Panerapan arus dina BJT jeung tegangan dina FET antara asupan jeung terminal ''common'' bakal nambah [[konduktivitas listrik|konduktivitas]] antara terminal ''common'' jeung kaluaran, antukna arus pangaturannana ngalir di antarana. Keur leuwih jéntré ngeunaan operasi dua tipe transistor ieu, tempo [[field effect transistor]] jeung [[bipolar junction transistor]]. Dina [[sirkuit analog]], transistor dipaké dina [[Panguat elektronik|panguat]], (panguat arus saarah, panguat sora, panguat frékuénsiradio), jeung [[Regulator linier|Sumber daya nu diregulasi]] linier. Transistor ogé dipaké dina [[sirkuit digital]] nu mana fungsina minangka sakelar. Sirkuit digital ngawengku [[lawang logika]], [[random access memory]] (RAM), [[mikroprosesor]], jeung [[pamroses sinyal digital]] ''(digital signal processors)'' (DSP). {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} == Pentingna transistor == The transistor is considered by many to be one of the gréatest inventions in modérn history, ranking in importance with the [[printing press]], [[automobile]] and [[telephone]]. It is the key active component in practically all modérn [[electronics]]. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be [[mass production|mass produced]] using a highly automated process ([[Semiconductor fabrication|fabrication]]) that achieves vanishingly low per-transistor costs. Although millions of individual (known as ''discrete'') transistors are still used, the vast majority of transistors are fabricated into [[integrated circuits]] (also called ''microchips'' or simply ''chips'') along with [[diodes]], [[resistors]], [[capacitors]] and other [[electronic components]] to produce complete electronic circuits. A [[logic gate]] comprises about twenty transistors wheréas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2006, can use as many as 1.7 billion transistors (MOSFETs) [http://www3.intel.com/cd/ids/developer/asmo-na/eng/201969.htm?page=6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025133936/http://www3.intel.com/cd/ids/developer/asmo-na/eng/201969.htm?page=6 |date=2006-10-25 }}. The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it a universal device for non-mechanical tasks, such as digital computing. Transistorized circuits have replaced [[electromechanical]] devices for the control of appliances and machinery as well. It is often less expensive and more effective to use a standard [[microcontroller]] and write a [[computer program]] to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function. Because of the low cost of transistors and hence digital computers, there is a trend to [[Digitizing|digitize]] information. With digital computers offering the ability to quickly find, sort and process [[digital]] information, more and more effort has been put into making information digital. As a result, today, much media data is delivered in digital form, finally being converted and presented in analog form by computers. Aréas influenced by the [[Digital Revolution]] include [[television]], [[radio]], and [[newspaper]]s. == Sajarah == {{dablink|Tempo [[Parangkat sémikonduktor#Sajarah perkembangan parangkat sémikonduktor|parangkat sémikonduktor]] keur sajarah nu leuwih écés.}} The first patents for the transistor principle were registered in Germany in [[1928]] by [[Julius Edgar Lilienfeld]]. In [[1934]] German physicist Dr. [[Oskar Heil]] patented the field-effect transistor. It is not cléar whether either design was ever built, and this is generally considered unlikely. On [[22 December]] [[1947]] [[William Shockley]], [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] succeeded in building the first practical [[point-contact transistor]] at [[Bell Labs]]. This work followed from their war-time efforts to produce extremely pure [[germanium]] "crystal" mixer diodes, used in [[radar]] units as a [[frequency mixer]] element in [[microwave]] radar receivers. éarly tube-based technology did not switch fast enough for this role, léading the Bell téam to use solid state [[diode]]s instéad. With this knowledge in hand they turned to the design of a [[triode]], but found this was not at all éasy. Bardeen eventually developed a new branch of [[surface physics]] to account for the "odd" behaviour they saw, and Bardeen and Brattain eventually succeeded in building a working device. [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] needed a generic name for the new invention: "Semiconductor Triode", "Solid Triode", "Surface States Triode", "Crystal Triode" and "Iotatron" were all considered, but "transistor," coined by [[John R. Pierce]], won an internal ballot. The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memoranda calling for votes: {{quotation|Transistor. This is an abbreviated combination of the words "[[transconductance]]" or "transfer", and "[[varistor]]". The device logically belongs in the varistor family, and has the transconductance or transfer impedance of a device having gain, so that this combination is descriptive.|Bell Telephone Laboratories — [http://users.arczip.com/rmcgarra2/namememo.gif Technical Memorandum (May 28, 1948)]}} Bell put the transistor into production at [[Western Electric]] in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]]. They also licensed it to a number of other electronics companies, including [[Texas Instruments]], who produced a limited run of [[transistor radio]]s as a sales tool. Another company liked the idéa and also decided to take out a license, introducing their own radio under the brand name [[Sony]]. éarly transistors were "unstable" and only suitable for low-power, low-frequency applications, but as transistor design developed, these problems were slowly overcome. Over the next two decades, transistors gradually replaced the éarlier [[vacuum tube]]s in most applications and later made possible many new devices such as [[integrated circuit]]s and [[personal computer]]s. Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain were honored with the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect". Bardeen would go on to win a second Nobel in physics, one of only two péople to receive more than one in the same discipline, for his work on the exploration of [[superconductivity]]. In August 1948 German physicists Herbert F. Mataré (1912– ) and Heinrich Walker (ca. 1912–1981), working at [[Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse]] in [[Paris]], [[France]] applied for a patent on an amplifier based on the minority carrier injection process which they called the "transistron." Since Bell Labs did not maké a public announcement of the transistor until June 1948, the transistron was considered to be independently developed. Mataré had first observed transconductance effects during the manufacture of germanium duodiodes for German radar equipment during [[World War II|WWII]]. Transistrons were commercially manufactured for the French telephone company and military, and in 1953 a solid-state radio receiver with four transistrons was demonstrated at the [[Düsseldorf]] Radio Fair. <gallery> Image:Transistor curve tracer.jpg|''Transistor-curve tracer'' Image:Transistor curve tracer detail1.jpg|''Transistor-curve tracer'' (detail 1) Image:Transistor curve tracer detail2.jpg|''Transistor-curve tracer'' (detail 2) Image:Transistor curve tracer parts.jpg|''Transistor-curve tracer'' (parts) </gallery> == Tipe == {{float_begin|side=right}} |- align = "center" | [[Gambar:BJT symbol PNP.svg|50px]] || PNP || [[Gambar:JFET P-Channel Labelled.svg|80px]] || P-channel |- align = "center" | [[Gambar:BJT symbol NPN.svg|50px]] || NPN || [[Gambar:JFET N-Channel Labelled.svg|80px]] || N-channel |- align = "center" | BJT || || JFET || {{float_end|caption=BJT and JFET symbols}} Transistors are categorized by: * Semiconductor material: germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide * Structure: [[Bipolar junction transistor|BJT]], [[JFET]], IGFET ([[MOSFET]]), [[IGBT]], "other types" * Polarity: [[NPN]], [[PNP (transistor polarity)|PNP]], N-channel, P-channel * Maximum power rating: low, medium, high * Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, [[radio frequency]] (RF), [[microwave]] (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term <math>f_\mathrm{T}</math>, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition." The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain). * Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair * Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array Thus, a particular transistor may be described as: ''silicon, surface mount, BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch''. === Bipolar junction transistor === The '''[[bipolar junction transistor]]''' (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be mass-produced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The three terminals are named ''emitter'', ''base'' and ''collector''. Two [[p-n junction]]s exist inside a BJT: the ''base/collector junction'' and ''base/emitter junction''. The BJT is commonly described as a current-operated device because the emitter/collector current is controlled by the current flowing between base and emitter terminals. Unlike the FET, the BJT is a low input-impedance device. The BJT has a higher [[transconductance]] than the FET. Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct with light (photons) as well as current. Devices designed for this purpose are called [[phototransistor]]s. === Field-effect transistor === The '''[[field-effect transistor]]''' (FET), sometimes called a ''unipolar transistor'', uses either electrons (N-channel FET) or holes (P-channel FET) for conduction. The three main terminals of the FET are named ''source'', ''gate'' and ''drain''. On some FETs a fourth connection to the body (substrate) is provided, but normally the body is connected internally to the source. A [[voltage]] applied between the gate and source controls the current flowing between the source and drain. In FETs the source/ drain current flows through a conducting channel néar the ''gate''. This channel connects the ''source'' region to the ''drain'' region. The channel conductivity is varied by the electric field generated by the voltage applied between the gate/source terminals. In this way the current flowing between the source and drain is controlled. Like bipolar transistors, FETs can be made to conduct with light (photons) as well as voltage. Devices designed for this purpose are called phototransistors. FETs are divided into two families: '''junction FET''' ([[JFET]]) and '''insulated gate FET''' (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as '''metal-oxide-semiconductor FET''' ([[MOSFET]]), from their original construction as a layer of metal (the gate), a layer of oxide (the insulation), and a layer of semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a PN [[diode]] with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the N-channel JFET the solid state equivalent of the vacuum tube [[triode]] which, similarly, forms a diode between its [[grid]] and [[cathode]]. Also, both devices operate in the ''depletion mode'', they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage. MESFETs are JFETs, in which the [[p-n junction#Reverse-bias|reverse biased]] PN junction is replaced by a semiconductor-metal [[Walter H. Schottky|Schottky]]-junction. These, and the HEMFETs (high electron mobility FETs), in which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies (microwave frequencies; several GHz). FETs are further divided into '''depletion-mode''' and '''enhancement-mode''' types. Mode refers to the polarity of the gate voltage with respect to the source at the threshold of conduction. For N-channel depletion-mode FETs the gate is negative with respect to the source while for N-channel enhancement-mode FETs the gate is positive, at the threshold of conduction. For both modes, if the gate voltage is made more positive the source/drain current will incréase. For P-channel devices the polarities are reversed. Néarly all JFETs are depletion-mode types and most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types. === Tipe transistor séjénna === * [[Unijunction transistor]]s can be used as simple pulse generators. They comprise a main body of either P-type or N-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at éach end (terminals ''Base1'' and ''Base2''). A junction with the opposite semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length of the body for the third terminal (''Emitter''). * '''Dual gate FETs''' have a single channel with two gates in [[cascode]]; a configuration that is optimized for '''high frequency amplifiers''', '''mixers''', and [[oscillators]]. * '''Transistor arrays''' are used for general purpose applications, '''function generation''' and low-level, '''low-noise amplifiers'''. They include two or more transistors on a common '''substrate''' to ensure close paraméter matching and thermal tracking, characteristics that are especially important for '''long tailed pair''' amplifiers. * [[Darlington transistor]]s comprise a medium power BJT connected to a power BJT. This provides a high current gain equal to the product of the current gains of the two transistors. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. * [[IGBT transistor|Insulated gate bipolar transistors]] ([[IGBT transistor|IGBTs]]) use a medium power IGFET, similarly connected to a power BJT, to give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs are particularly suitable for héavy-duty industrial applications. The [[Asea Brown Boveri]] (ABB) '''5SNA2400E170100''' [https://web.archive.org/web/20051022052727/http://library.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/scot256.nsf/VerityDisplay/71B8625C035676C2C1256F9000471D3C/$File/5SNA%202400E170100_5SYA%201555-02Aug%2004.pdf] illustrates just how far power semiconductor technology has advanced. Intended for three-phase power supplies, this device houses three NPN IGBTs in a case méasuring 38 by 140 by 190&nbsp;mm and weighing 1.5&nbsp;kg. éach IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can handle 2,400 amperes. * [[Single-electron transistor]]s (SET) consist of a gate island between two tunnelling junctions. The tunnelling current is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor. [http://www.mitre.org/tech/nanotech/single_electron_transistor.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924050715/http://www.mitre.org/tech/nanotech/single_electron_transistor.html |date=2006-09-24 }}[http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/11/9/7/1.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060831021019/http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/11/9/7/1. |date=2006-08-31 }} * Complete list of transistor types [http://t-transistor.com T-Transistor.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312035950/http://t-transistor.com/ |date=2007-03-12 }} === Bahan sémikonduktor === The first BJTs were made from [[germanium]] (Ge) and some high power types still are. [[Silicon]] ([[Si]]) types currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and high performance versions now employ the '''compound semiconductor''' material [[gallium arsenide]] ([[GaAs]]) and the '''semiconductor alloy''' [[silicon germanium]] ([[SiGe]]). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as '''elemental'''. Characteristics of the most common semiconductor materials used to maké transistors are given in the table below: {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" |+Semiconductor material characteristics !Semiconductor <br /> material !Junction forward <br /> voltage <br /> V @ 25&nbsp;°C !Electron mobility <br /> m/s @ 25&nbsp;°C !Hole mobility <br /> m/s @ 25&nbsp;°C !Max. junction temp. <br /> °C |- !Ge |0.27 || 0.39 || 0.19 || 70 to 100 |- !Si | 0.71 || 0.14 || 0.05 || 150 to 200 |- !GaAs | 1.03 || 0.85 || 0.05 || 150 to 200 |- !Al-Si junction | 0.3 || — || — || 150 to 200 |} The ''junction forward voltage'' is the voltage applied to the emitter-base junction of a BJT in order to maké the base conduct a specified current. The current incréases exponentialally as the junction forward voltage is incréased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this méans that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decréases with temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is approximately −2.1 mV/°C. The ''[[electron mobility]]'' and ''[[hole mobility]]'' columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the semiconductor material with an [[electric field]] of 1 volt per méter applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide: its maximum temperature is limited, it has relatively high [[Reverse leakage current|leakage current]], it cannot withstand high voltages and it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits. Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar [[NPN]] transistor tends to be faster than an equivalent [[PNP (transistor polarity)|PNP]] transistor type. GaAs has the fastest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this réason that GaAs is used in high frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the '''high electron mobility transistor''' ([[HEMT]]), has a [[Heterojunction|heterostructure]] (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has double the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12&nbsp;GHz. '''Max. junction temperature''' values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged. '''Al-Si junction''' refers to the high-speed (aluminum-silicon) semiconductor-metal barrier diode, commonly known as a [[Schottky diode]]. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a '''parasitic''' reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication process. === Kemasan === [[Gambar:Transistor-photo.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Through-hole transistors (tape measure marked in [[centimetre]]s)]] Transistors come in many different packages ([[:Category:Chip carriers|chip carriers]]) (see images). The two main categories are ''[[Through-hole technology|through-hole]]'' (or ''leaded''), and ''surface-mount'', also known as '''surface mount device''' ([[Surface-mount technology|SMD]]). The '''ball grid array''' ([[Ball grid array|BGA]]) is the latest surface mount package (currently only for large '''transistor arrays'''). It has solder "balls" on the underside in place of léads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high frequency characteristics but lower power rating. Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic or plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and frequency characteristics. Power transistors have large packages that can be clamped to [[heat sink]]s for enhanced cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected to the metal can/metal plate. At the other extreme, some surface-mount '''microwave''' transistors are as small as grains of sand. Often a given transistor type is available in different packages. Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but the assignment of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: different transistor types can assign different functions to the package's terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicated by a suffix letter to the part number- i.e. BC212L and BC212K). == Panggunaan == In the éarly days of transistor circuit design, the [[bipolar junction transistor]], or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor. Even after MOSFETs became available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for digital and analog circuits because of their éase of manufacture and speed. However, the [[MOSFET]] has several desirable properties for digital circuits, and since major advancements in digital circuits have pushed MOSFET design to state-of-the-art. MOSFETs are now commonly used for both analog and digital functions. [[Gambar:BJT_Switch.png|thumb|100px|BJT Transistor used as an electronic switch]] [[Gambar:BJT_Amplifier.png|thumb|100px|Amplifier-Circuit Diagram]] <!-- [[Image:BJT_Amplifier_Waveform.png|thumb|100px|Amplifier-Waveforms]] --> === Saklar === Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including [[Switched-mode power supply|switched-mode power supplies]] and low power applications such as [[logic gates]]. === Panguat === From [[mobile phone]]s to [[television]]s, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for [[sound reproduction]], [[Transmitter|radio transmission]], and [[signal processing]]. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually incréased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Transistors are commonly used in modérn musical instrument amplifiers, where circuits up to a few hundred [[watt]]s are common and relatively chéap. Transistors have largely replaced valves in instrument amplifiers. Some musical instrument amplifier manufacturers mix transistors and vacuum tubes in the same circuit, to utilize the inherent benefits of both devices. === Komputer === The "first generation" of electronic computers used vacuum tubes, which generated large amounts of héat and were bulky, and unreliable. The development of the transistor was key to computer miniaturization and reliability. The "second generation" of computers, through the late [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] féatured boards filled with individual transistors and magnetic memory cores. Subsequently, transistors, other components, and their necessary wiring were integrated into a single, mass-manufactured component: the [[integrated circuit]]. Transistors incorporated into integrated circuits have replaced most discrete transistors in modérn [[digital]] computers. == Kauntungan transistor dibandingkeun jeung solobong vakum == Before the development of transistors, [[vacuum tube]]s (or in the UK '''thermionic valves''' or just '''valves''') were the main active components in electronic equipment. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are: * Smaller size (despite continuing miniaturization of vacuum tubes) * Highly automated manufacture * Lower cost (in volume production) * Lower possible operating voltages (but vacuum tubes can operate at higher voltages) * No warm-up period (most vacuum tubes need 10 to 60 seconds to function correctly) * Lower power dissipation (no héater power, very low saturation voltage) * Higher reliability and gréater physical ruggedness (although vacuum tubes are electrically more rugged. Also the vacuum tube is much more resistant to '''nucléar electromagnetic pulses''' ([[EMP|NEMP]]) and '''electrostatic discharge''' ([[Electrostatic discharge|ESD]])) * Much longer life (vacuum tube cathodes are eventually exhausted and the vacuum can become contaminated) * Complementary devices available (allowing circuits with '''complementary-symmetry''': vacuum tubes with a polarity equivalent to PNP BJTs or P type FETs are not available) * Ability to control large currents (power transistors are available to control hundreds of amperes, vacuum tubes to control even one ampere are large and costly) * Much less [[microphonic]] (vibration can modulate vacuum tube characteristics, though this may contribute to the sound of [[guitar amplifiers]]) " ''Nature abhors a vacuum tube'' " Myron Glass (see [[John R. Pierce]]), [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]], circa 1948. == Gallery == A wide range of transistors has been available since the [[1960s]] and manufacturers continually introduce improved types. A few examples from the main families are noted below. Unless otherwise stated, all types are made from silicon semiconductor. Complementary pairs are shown as NPN/PNP or N/P channel. Links go to manufacturer datasheets, which are in [[PDF]] format. (On some datasheets the accuracy of the stated transistor category is a matter of debate.) * [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3903-D.PDF 2N3904]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3906-D.PDF 2N3906], [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC182-D.PDF BC182] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723095810/http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC182-D.PDF |date=2008-07-23 }}/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC212-D.PDF BC212] and [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC546-D.PDF BC546]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC556B-D.PDF BC556]: Ubiquitous, BJT, general-purpose, low-power, complementary pairs. They have plastic cases and cost roughly ten cents U.S. in small quantities, making them popular with hobbyists. * [[AF107]]: Germanium, 0.5 watt, 250&nbsp;MHz PNP BJT. * BFP183: Low power, 8&nbsp;GHz microwave NPN BJT. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080528164459/http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM194.pdf LM394]: "supermatch pair", with two NPN BJTs on a single substrate. * [http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9288.pdf 2N2219A]/[http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9037.pdf 2N2905A]: BJT, general purpose, medium power, complementary pair. With metal cases they are rated at about one watt. * [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055-D.PDF 2N3055]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055-D.PDF MJ2955]: For yéars, the venerable NPN 2N3055 has been the "standard" power transistor. Its complement, the PNP MJ2955 arrived later. These 1&nbsp;MHz, 15 A, 60 V, 115 W BJTs are used in audio power amplifiers, power supplies, and control. * 2SC3281/2SA1302: Made by [[Toshiba]], these BJTs have low-distortion characteristics and are used in high-power audio amplifiers. They have been widely counterfeited [http://sound.westhost.com/counterfeit.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218091102/http://sound.westhost.com/counterfeit.htm |date=2008-12-18 }}. * [http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/4491.pdf BU508]: NPN, 1500 V power BJT. Designed for [[television]] horizontal deflection, its high voltage capability also makes it suitable for use in ignition systems. * [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/MJ11012-D.PDF MJ11012/MJ11015]: 30 A, 120 V, 200 W, high power Darlington complementary pair BJTs. Used in audio amplifiers, control, and power switching. * [http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5457.pdf 2N5457]/[http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5460.pdf 2N5460]: [[JFET]] (depletion mode), general purpose, low power, complementary pair. * BSP296/BSP171: [[IGFET]] (enhancement mode), medium power, néar complementary pair. Used for logic level conversion and driving power transistors in amplifiers. * [http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf3710.pdf IRF3710] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012014719/http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf3710.pdf |date=2006-10-12 }}/[http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf5210.pdf IRF5210] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218131500/http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf5210.pdf |date=2008-12-18 }}: [[IGFET]] (enhancement mode), 40 A, 100 V, 200 W, néar complementary pair. For high-power amplifiers and power switches, especially in automobiles. == Pabrik transistor == * [http://www.advancedpower.com/ APT] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024753/http://www.advancedpower.com/ |date=2006-10-16 }} * [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] * [[Infineon Technologies]] * [http://www.irf.com/ IRF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108221347/http://www.irf.com/ |date=2015-01-08 }} * [http://www.ixys.com/ IXYS Corporation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724180930/http://www.ixys.com/ |date=2013-07-24 }} * [http://www.onsemi.com/ ON Semiconductor] * [http://www.panasonic.com/industrial/semi/ Panasonic Semiconductors] * [[Powerex]] * [http://www.rohm.com/products/index.html Rohm] * [http://www.sanyo.com/semiconductors/transistors/ Sanyo Transistors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015193244/http://www.sanyo.com/semiconductors/transistors/ |date=2006-10-15 }} * [http://www.semikron.com/ Semikron] * [[STMicroelectronics]] * [http://www.semicon.toshiba.co.jp/eng/index.html Toshiba Semiconductor] * [http://www.zetex.com/ Zetex Semiconductors] == Tempo ogé == * [[Transistor avalans]] * [[Band gap]] * [[Bipolar junction transistor]] * [[Compound transistor]] * [[Transistor Darlington]] * [[Field effect transistor]] * [[FREDFET]] * [[IGBT]] * [[NPN]] * [[PNP (polaritas transistor)|PNP]] * [[Sémikonduktor]] * [[Transkonduktansi]] * [[Transrésistansi]] * [[Transistor count]] * [[Modél transistor]] * [[Transistor tilu lawang]] * [[Solobong vakum]] * [[Hukum Moore]] * [[Very-large-scale integration]] == Référénsi == === Patén === * {{US patent|2524035}} — J. Bardeen et. al. * {{US patent|2569347}} — W. Shockley === Buku === * {{cite book | author = Amos S W & James M R | title = Principles of Transistor Circuits | publisher = Butterworth-Heinemann | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-7506-4427-3 }} * {{cite book | author = [[Paul Horowitz|Horowitz, Paul]] & Hill, Winfield | title = The Art of Electronics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 0-521-37095-7 }} * {{cite book | author = Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian | title = Crystal Fire | publisher = W.W Norton & Company Limited | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-393-31851-6 }} The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age * {{cite book | author = Warnes, Lionel | title = Analogue and Digital Electronics | url = https://archive.org/details/analoguedigitale0000warn | publisher = Macmillan Press Ltd | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-333-65820-5 }} * {{cite book | author = Williams, Tim | title = EMC for Product Designers | edition = 3rd edition | publisher = Butterworth Heinemann | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-7506-4930-5 }} === Séjénna === * {{cite conference | author = Armand Van Dormael | title = The French Transistor | booktitle = Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE Conference on the History of Electronics, Bletchley Park, June 2004 | url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/Che2004/VanDormael.pdf }} * {{cite news | title = Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor has his moment | date = [[24 February]] [[2003]] | publisher = The New York Times | url = http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb03.htm }} * {{cite journal | author = Michael Riordan | year = 2005 | month = November | title = How Europe Missed the Transistor | journal = IEEE Spectrum | volume = 42 | issue = 11 | pages = 52–57 | id = {{ISSN|0018-9235}} }} * {{cite book | author = C. D. Renmore | year = 1980 | title = Silicon Chips and You | url = https://archive.org/details/siliconchipsyoum00renm }} == Tumbu luar == {{Wikibook|Transistors}} * [http://www.audiouk.com/info/transistor.htm ''AudioUK's Milestones]''. Photograph of first working transistor * [http://www.pbs.org/transistor/ ''Transistorized]''. Historical and technical information from the [[Public Broadcasting Service]] * [http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/exhibit/exhibit.php?id=159270&lid=1 ''IEEE Virtual Museum, Let's Get Small: The Shrinking World of Microelectronics'']. All about the history of transistors and integrated circuits. * [http://www.lucent.com/minds/transistor/ ''The Transistor Legacy Then and Now] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061013151451/http://www.lucent.com/minds/transistor/ |date=2006-10-13 }}''. From [[Lucent Technologies]] ([[Bell Telephone Laboratories]]/[[AT&T]]) * [http://www.aps.org/apsnews/1100/110004.cfm ''This Month in Physics History: [[November 17]] to [[December 23]] [[1947]]: Invention of the First Transistor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060422095529/http://www.aps.org/apsnews/1100/110004.cfm |date=2006-04-22 }}''. From the [[American Physical Society]] * [http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html ''50 Years of the Transistor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714010051/http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html |date=2007-07-14 }}''. From [[Science Friday]], [[December 12]] [[1997]] * [http://www.ck722museum.com/ ''The CK722 Museum]''. Website devoted to the "classic" hobbyist germanium transistor * [http://users.arczip.com/rmcgarra2/index.html ''Bob's Virtual Transistor Museum & History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121085317/http://users.arczip.com/rmcgarra2/index.html |date=2008-01-21 }}''. Treasure trove of transistor history * [http://people.msoe.edu/~reyer/regency/ ''1954 to 2004, the TR-1's Golden Anniversary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616144326/http://people.msoe.edu/~reyer/regency/index5.html |date=2009-06-16 }}''. In depth coverage of the Regency radio. * [http://www.bellsystemmemorial.com/belllabs_transistor.html The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors]. * [http://www.ee.washington.edu/circuit_archive/parts/cross.html ''Jerry Russell's Transistor Cross Reference Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216152926/http://www.ee.washington.edu/circuit_archive/parts/cross.html |date=2007-02-16 }}''. * [http://home.wanadoo.nl/electro1/avr/outlines.htm Pictures of TO and SOT packages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060915003200/http://home.wanadoo.nl/electro1/avr/outlines.htm |date=2006-09-15 }} * [http://amasci.com/amateur/transis.html How transistors work] * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=000D5D9F-A849-1330-A54583414B7F0000 Transistor Flow Control] - Scientific American Magazine (October 2005) [[Kategori:Transistor]] [[Kategori:Éléktronika]] 5suwwb69obwykt1nc97ztokfxwfe8zw 0 9146 711526 659394 2026-08-06T22:17:13Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711526 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:WeldingTransformer-1.63.png|thumb|300px|Trafo]] [[Gambar:PoleMountTransformer02.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Trafo ''step-down'' tilu ''phase'' nu geus dipaké.]] '''Trafo''' nyaéta hiji alat listrik nu kagunaannana pikeun mindahkeun [[Listrik|énérgi listrik]] ti hiji [[jaringan listrik|sirkuit]] ka sirkuit séjénna ngaliwatan gulungan-gulungan kawat anu [[kopling induktif|babarengan diinduksi]] ku hiji médan magnét.<ref name=Peralatan/> Hiji trafo diwangun ku hiji inti (biasana tina beusi silikon) sarta dua [[Koil#Éléktromagnétik|gulungan]] [[tambaga]] atawa leuwih nu dibeulitkeun kana inti.<ref name=Peralatan>{{Citation | last =L. Tobing| first = Bonggas| coauthors =Agus Purwanta| year = 2003| title = Peralatan Tegangan Tinggi| publisher =Gramedia Pustaka Utama| isbn =9789792206739}}</ref> [[Arus listrik|Arus]] bulak-balik dina salah sahiji gulungan ngabangkitkeun;ngawangun [[médan magnét]] nu robah-robah dina jero intina, nu mana ahirna ngainduksi (ngarangsang ngabangkitkeun) [[tegangan]] dina gulungan liana.<ref name=IPA /> Trafo dipaké keur naékkeun atawa nurunkeun ''tegangan'' atawa ''arus'' [[listrik]], keur ngarobah [[impedansi]], sarta keur nyadiakeun ''isolasi'' listrik hiji rangkéan jeung rangkéan nu séjén.<ref name=Peralatan/> == Sawangan == Trafo nyaéta salah sahiji parabot listrik nu pangbasajana.<ref name=“Agung”>{{Cite book | title =IPA Terpadu SMP/MTs Kls IX B| first =Wijaya| last =Budi Suryatin| publisher =Grasindo| location =University of Minnesota| year =2019| pages =47|ISBN=9789790252639|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=5S3vf_zNR4wC&pg=RA3-PA7&dq=trafo&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwigz6PEq6bmAhUHT30KHfKfBsYQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=trafo&f=false|accessdate=7 Desember 2019}}</ref> Rarancang dasarna tacan kungsi ganti leuwih ti saratus [[taun]], sok sanajan kitu rarancang katut bahan trafona mah terus dibebenah ogé. Trafo kacida pentingna pikeun [[transmisi daya]], nu ngajadikeun praktisna ''transmisi'' jarak jauh. Ieu kauntungan téh teu leupas tina prinsip dina dipilihna daya [[arus bulak-balik]] nalika "[[Perang Arus]]" dina ahir 1880-an. Trafo [[frékuénsi sora]] (harita disebut [[repeating coil|''repeating coils'']]) Dimangpaatkeun ku juru taluntik mangsa keur mitembeyan ngamekarkeun tehnologi [[telepon]], ka dieunakeun trafo téh teu pati dimangpaatkeun alatan geus loba pakakas éléktronik séjéna nu mibanda kagunaan saru sarta leuwih hadé. .<ref name=IPA >{{Citation | last =IPA Terpadu SMP/MTs Kls IX B| first = Wijaya| coauthors =Agung Wijaya| year = 2008| title = Peralatan Tegangan Tinggi| publisher = Grasindo| isbn =9789790252639}}</ref> Ditempo tina ukuranna trafo dijieun dumasar kabutuhan, aya trafo nu kacida leutik nepikeun kabisa di sumputkeun di jero mikropon.<ref name=“Löbner”>{{Cite book | title =Semantik: Eine Einführung| first =Sebastian | last =Löbner| publisher =Walter de Gruyter| location =Jakarta2012|ISBN=9783110904260|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1VEgAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117&dq=trafo+mikro&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwju-LP8sv_lAhVGyzgGHVl8C5kQ6AEITzAF#v=onepage&q=trafo%20mikro&f=false|accessdate=23 Nopember 2019}}</ref> Nepika trafo nu ukuran gedé naker pikeun ngahubungkeun [[listrik]] hiji nagara, nu mibanda kamampuan nepika ''gigawatt''.<ref name=“Sastro”>{{Cite book | title =Gelombang Revolusi Energi| first =M.S.A| last =Sastromidjojo| publisher =Yayasan Obor Indonesia| location =Jakarta2012|ISBN=9789794612224|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=uGpYhUNcOEgC&pg=PA84&dq=trafo+gigawatt&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjO0Lbvs__lAhVbzTgGHaQMBMYQ6AEILDAA#v=onepage&q=trafo%20gigawatt&f=false|accessdate=23 Nopember 2019}}</ref> [[Gambar:Polemount-singlephase-closeup.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Single phase pole-mounted step-down transformer]] # Trafo teubisa dipaké ngarobah ''arus'' [[AC]] jadi ''arus'' [[DC]], kitu deui sabalikna <ref name=“Matius”>{{Cite book | title =Transmisi Daya Elektrik: dilengkapi dengan Contoh Soal Matlab| first =Matius Sau| last =Matius Sau| publisher =Andi| location =Makasar2015|ISBN=9789797419936|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=qrWACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=trafo+konfersi+ac+ke+dc&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1n8iCnoDmAhVNxjgGHbAiBeUQ6AEIODAC#v=onepage&q=trafo%20konfersi%20ac%20ke%20dc&f=false|accessdate=23 Nopember 2019}}</ref> # Ngarobah tegangan jeung gedéna arus listrik DC <ref name=“Matius”/> # Ngarobah [[frekuensi]] arus listrik AC nu ditarima.<ref name=“Matius”/> Tapi, trafo mangrupa hiji bagian tina hiji sistim anu ngajalankeun éta kabéh. === ''Analogi'' === Trafo bisa diibaratkeun kawas "''géarbox''" roda dua anu sederhana pikeun ngagambarkeun ''tegangan'' ''jeung'' ''arus'' [[listrik]]. Gulungan primér diumpamakeun jeung tempat asupna sarta gulungan skundér diumpamakeun tempat kaluarna. Dina ieu gambaran, arus téh sarua jeung gancangna muter éta roda ari ''tegangan'' tayalian gedéna tanaga anu dipaké pikeun muterkeun éta roda. Dina hiji "géarbox" tanaga mékanis téh (torsi/kakuatan muter dikalikeun jeung gancangna puteran) hasilna ''konstan'' (angger) saruan dina tanaga listrik ogé (Tegangan dikalikeun jeung arus) oge hasilan ''konstan''. Rasio roda gigi ibaratna jeung rasio stép-up atawa stép-down ''transformator''. ''Transformator'' stép-up lumaku sacara analog contona ngalaunana ''roda gigi'' (anu mana tanaga mékanik dipindahkeun/ditransfer tina ''roda gigi'' anu leutik nyaéta nu muterna gancang kana roda gigi gedé anu muterna laun): didieu aya kaayaan nukeurkeun arus (gancangna muter) sedengkeun ''voltase'' sarua jeung (torsi), ku ayana ieu kajadian ngatransfer daya tina gulungan primér ka gulungan sekundér anu mibanda leuwih loba leuwih loba jumlah gulunganna. Transformator stép-down digambarkeun sacara analog kujalan pindahna roda gigi (di mana tanaga mékanik ditransfer tina roda gigi gedé ka roda gigi leutik): ieu nukeurkeun tegangan (torsi) pikeun arus (gancangna muter), kujalan ngatransfer daya tina gulungan primer ka gulungan sekundér. Gulungan mibanda puteran anu leuwih saeutik. == Prinsip dasar == === ''' Silih ngainduksi''' === Trafo basajan ilaharna diwangun ku dua konduktor listrik disebut gulungan primér jeung gulungan sekundér. Énergi dihijikeun antara gulungan ku fluks magnét anu béda-béda waktos anu ngalangkungan (tumbu) boh gulungan primér sareng gulungan sekundér. Dimana arus dina coil robah atawa pareum, tegangan anu ngainduksi dina coil tatangga. Pangaruh ieu, disebut mutual induktansi, ieu mangrupa conto induksi éléktromagnétik. <!--:''Artikel ieu ngeunaan trafo anu dipaké dina panerapan listrik jeung [[éléktronika]]. Keur harti trafo séjénna, tempo [[Transformator]]''.--> {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} === Analisis dasar === [[Gambar:Transformer3d col3.svg|right|thumb|350px|Practical transformer showing magnetising flux in the core]] If a time-varying voltage <math>{v_P}\, </math> is applied to the primary winding of <math>N_P\, </math> turns, a current will flow in it producing a [[magnetomotive force]] (MMF). Just as an [[electromotive force]] (EMF) drives current around an electric circuit, so MMF tries to drive magnetic flux through a [[magnetic circuit]]. The primary MMF produces a varying [[magnetic flux]] <math>\Phi_P\, </math> in the core, and, with an open circuit secondary winding, induces a back [[electromotive force]] (EMF) in opposition to <math>{v_P}\, </math>. In accordance with [[Faraday's law of induction]], the voltage induced across the primary winding is proportional to the rate of change of flux: :<math>{v_P} = {N_P} \frac {d \Phi_P}{dt}</math>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; and &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<math>{v_S} = {N_S} \frac {d \Phi_S}{dt}</math> where * <math>v_P</math> and <math>v_S</math> are the voltages across the primary winding and secondary winding, * <math>N_P</math> and <math>N_S</math> are the numbers of turns in the primary winding and secondary winding, * <math>d \Phi_P / dt</math> and <math>d \Phi_S / dt</math> are the derivatives of the flux with respect to time of the primary and secondary windings. Saying that the primary and secondary windings are perfectly coupled is equivalent to saying that <math>\Phi_P = \Phi_S\, </math>. Substituting and solving for the voltages shows that: :<math>\frac{v_P}{v_S}=\frac{N_P}{N_S}</math>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; where * <math>v_p </math> and <math>v_s</math> are voltages across primary and secondary, * <math>N_p </math> and <math>N_s</math> are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary , respectively. Hence in an idéal transformer, the [[ratio]] of the primary and secondary voltages is equal to the ratio of the [[coil|number of turns]] in their windings, or alternatively, the voltage per turn is the same for both windings. The ratio of the currents in the primary and secondary circuits is inversely proportional to the turns ratio. This léads to the most common use of the transformer: to convert electrical energy at one voltage to energy at a different voltage by méans of windings with different numbers of turns. In a practical transformer, the higher-voltage winding will have more turns, of smaller conductor cross-section, than the lower-voltage windings. The EMF in the secondary winding, if connected to an electrical circuit, will cause current to flow in the secondary circuit. The MMF produced by current in the secondary opposes the MMF of the primary and so tends to cancel the flux in the core. Since the reduced flux reduces the EMF induced in the primary winding, incréased current flows in the primary circuit. The resulting incréase in MMF due to the primary current offsets the effect of the opposing secondary MMF. In this way, the [[Electric power|electrical energy]] fed into the primary winding is delivered to the secondary winding. Also because of this, the flux density will always stay the same as long as the primary voltage is stéady. For example, suppose a [[Ac power|power]] of 50 watts is supplied to a resistive load from a transformer with a turns ratio of 25:2. * ''P'' = ''EI'' (power = electromotive force × current) :: 50 W = 2 V × 25 A in the primary circuit if the load is a resistive load. (See note 1) * Now with transformer change: :: 50 W = 25 V × 2 A in the secondary circuit. === Analisis trafo bulak-balik === This tréats the [[winding]]s as a pair of mutually coupled coils with both [[primary]] and secondary windings passing [[current]]s. In an ''ideal'' transformer the primary MMF must equal the secondary MMF, and since these are in opposite directions, they oppose so that there is no overall resultant flux in the core. That this is so can be seen by réalising that any unopposed primary [[emf]] would créate a large primary current and therefore a large [[flux]] in the core due to the primary winding. However, this large flux would necessarily cause a large current to flow in the secondary circuit and this current must créate an opposing flux that effectively cancels the initiating primary flux. In a non-idéal transformer, the [[resultant]] flux in the core is that needed to magnetise the core. This is called the magnetising flux. === Arus saarah === Transformers should not be driven with DC nor, generally, have any DC component present at the input. Relatively small amounts of direct current can cause core [[Saturation (magnetic)|saturation]] and thus prevent proper operation. Also, since a DC voltage source would not give a time-varying flux in the core, no induced counter-EMF would be generated and so current flow into the transformer would be limited only by the series resistance of the windings. In this situation, the transformer would héat until the transformer either réaches thermal equilibrium or is destroyed. This principle is actually exploited when large power transformers must be dried (have condensation and other water removed from their windings) — they are simply héated using DC. For the same réason, transformers should generally not have DC components present in their output windings. A notable violation of this rule occurs with [[Rectifier#Half-wave rectification|half-wave rectifiers]], where the transformer winding must also carry the DC load current; these circuits are usually used in low-power applications because of this. [[Rectifier#Full-wave rectification|Full-wave rectifiers]], by comparison, do not require direct current to flow through the transformer and so are capable of much higher power levels. === Persamaan emf unifersal === If the flux in the core is [[sinusoidal]], the relationship for either winding between its number of turns, voltage, [[magnetic flux density]] and core cross-sectional aréa is given by the universal emf equation (from Faraday's law): :<math> E={\frac {2 \pi f N a B} {\sqrt{2}}} \!=4.44 f N a B</math> where * <math>E</math> is the sinusoidal rms or [[root mean square]] voltage of the winding, * <math>f</math> is the [[frequency]] in [[hertz]], * <math>N</math> is the number of turns of wire on the winding, * <math>a</math> is the cross-sectional aréa of the core in square metres * <math>B</math> is the péak magnetic flux density in [[Tesla (unit)|teslas]] * <math>P</math> is the [[power]] in [[volt amperes]] or [[watts]], Other consistent systems of units can be used with the appropriate conversions in the equation. == Panimuan == Those credited with the invention of the transformer include: * [[Michael Faraday]], who invented an 'induction ring' on [[August 29]] [[1831]]. This was the first transformer, although Faraday used it only to demonstrate the principle of [[electromagnetic induction]] and did not foresee the use to which it would eventually be put. * [[Lucien Gaulard]] and [[John Dixon Gibbs]], who first exhibited a device called a 'secondary generator' in London in 1881 and then sold the idéa to American company [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]]. This may have been the first practical power transformer. They also exhibited the invention in [[Turin]] in 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system. Their éarly devices used an open iron core, which was soon abandoned in favour of a more efficient circular core with a closed magnetic path. [[Gambar:StanleyTransformer.png|none|right]] * [[William Stanley (physicist)|William Stanley]], an engineer for Westinghouse, who built the first practical device in 1885 after Géorge Westinghouse bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents. The core was made from interlocking E-shaped iron plates. This design was first used commercially in 1886. * [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[engineer]]s [[Károly Zipernowsky]], [[Ottó Bláthy]] and [[Miksa Déri]] at the [[Ganz company]] in [[Budapest]] in 1885, who créated the efficient "ZBD" modél based on the design by Gaulard and Gibbs. * [[Nikola Tesla]] in 1891 invented the [[Tesla coil]], which is a high-voltage, air-core, dual-tuned resonant transformer for generating very high voltages at high frequency. Many others have [[List of transformer patents|patents on transformers]]. == Pertimbangan parktis == === Klasifikasi === Transformers are adapted to numerous engineering applications and may be classified in many ways: * By power level (from fraction of a volt-ampere(VA) to over a thousand MVA), * By application (power supply, impedance matching, circuit isolation), * By frequency range (power, audio, radio frequency(RF)) * By voltage class (a few volts to about 750 kilovolts) * By cooling type (air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, water cooled, etc.) * By purpose (distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.). * By ratio of the number of turns in the coils :* '''Step-up''' :: The secondary has more turns than the primary. :* '''Step-down''' :: The secondary has fewer turns than the primary. :* '''Isolating''' :: Intended to transform from one voltage to the same voltage. The two coils have approximately equal numbers of turns, although often there is a slight difference in the number of turns, in order to compensate for losses (otherwise the output voltage would be a little less than, rather than the same as, the input voltage). :* '''Variable''' :: The primary and secondary have an adjustable number of turns which can be selected without reconnecting the transformer. === Lambang sirkuit === ''Standard symbols'' <table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> <tr> <td></td> <td>Transformer with two windings and iron core.</td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>Transformer with three windings.<br /> The dots show the relative winding configuration of the windings.</td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>Step-down or step-up transformer.<br /> The symbol shows which winding has more turns,<br /> but does not usually show the exact ratio.</td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>Transformer with electrostatic screen,<br /> which prevents [[capacitive coupling]] between the windings.</td> </tr> </table> === Karugian === An idéal transformer would have no losses, and would therefore be 100% efficient. In practice, energy is dissipated due both to the [[electrical resistance|resistance]] of the windings known as [[copper loss]] or I² R loss, and to magnetic effects primarily attributable to the core (known as ''[[iron loss]]'' méasured in watts per pound). Transformers are, in general, highly efficient. Large power transformers (over 50 MVA) may attain an efficiency as high as 99.75%. Small transformers, such as a plug-in "power brick" used to power small consumer electronics, may be less than 85% efficient. Transformer losses arise from: * '''Winding resistance''' Current flowing through the windings causes resistive héating of the conductors (I² R loss). At higher frequencies, [[skin effect]] and [[proximity effect]] créate additional winding resistance and losses. * '''Eddy currents''' Induced [[eddy currents]] circulate within the core, causing resistive héating. Silicon is added to the steel to help in controlling eddy currents. Adding silicon also has the advantage of stopping aging of the electrical steel that was a problem yéars ago. * '''Hysteresis losses''' éach time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost to [[hysteresis]] within the magnetic core. The amount of hysteresis is a function of the particular core material. * '''Magnetostriction''' Magnetic flux in the core causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with the alternating magnetic field, an effect known as [[magnetostriction]]. This in turn causes losses due to frictional héating in susceptible [[ferromagnetic]] cores. * '''Mechanical losses''' In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within néarby metalwork, créating a familiar humming or buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power. * '''Stray losses''' Not all the magnetic field produced by the primary is intercepted by the secondary. A portion of the [[leakage flux]] may induce eddy currents within néarby conductive objects, such as the transformer's support structure, and be converted to héat. * '''Cooling system''' Large power transformers may be equipped with cooling fans, oil pumps or water-cooled héat exchangers designed to remove the héat caused by copper and iron losses. The power used to operate the cooling system is typically considered part of the losses of the transformer. === Operasi dina frékuénsi nu béda === The equation shows that the EMF of a transformer at a given flux density incréases with frequency. By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact without réaching [[saturation (magnetic)|saturation]], and a given core is able to transfer more power. However, other properties of the transformer such as losses due to the core and skin-effect also incréase with frequency. Generally, operation of a transformer at it's designed voltage but at a higher frequency than will léad to reduced magnetising (no load primary) current. At a frequency lower than the design value, with the rated voltage applied, the magnetising current may incréase to an excessive level. Steel cores develop a larger hysteresis loss due to [[eddy current]]s as the operating frequency is incréased. Ferrite, or thinner steel laminations for the core are typically used for frequencies above 1&nbsp;kHz. The thinner steel laminations serve to reduce the eddy currents. Some types of very thin steel laminations can be ran up to 10&nbsp;kHz or more. Ferrite is used in higher frequencies up to the VHF band and beyond. Aircraft traditionally use 400&nbsp;Hz power systems since the slight incréase in thermal losses is more than offset by reduced weight. Military géar includes 400&nbsp;Hz (and other frequencies) to supply power for [[radar]] or [[servomechanism]]s. [[Flyback transformer]]s are built using ferrite cores. They supply high voltage to the [[cathode ray tube|CRTs]] at the frequency of the horizontal oscillator. In the case of television sets, this is about 15.7&nbsp;kHz. It may be as high as 75 – 120&nbsp;kHz for high-resolution computer monitors. [[Switched-mode power supply|Switching power supply]] transformers usually operate between 50–1000&nbsp;kHz. The tiny cores found in wristwatch [[backlight]] power supplies produce audible sound (about 1&nbsp;kHz). Operation of a power transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers at [[hydroelectric]] generating stations may be equipped with over-excitation protection, so-called "volts per hertz" protection [[relay]]s, to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher-than-rated frequency which may occur if a generator loses its connected load. == Construksi == === Inti === ==== Inti waja ==== [[Gambar:Transformer.filament.agr.jpg|thumb|300px|Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of unit.]] Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies have cores made of many thin laminations of [[silicon steel]]. By concentrating the magnetic flux, more of it is usefully linked by both primary and secondary windings. Since the steel core is conductive, it, too, has currents induced in it by the changing magnetic flux. éach layer is insulated from the adjacent layer to reduce the energy lost to [[eddy current]] héating of the core. The thin laminations are used to reduce the eddy currents, and the insulation is used to keep the laminations from acting as a solid piece of steel. The thinner the laminations, the lower the eddy currents, and the lower the losses. Very thin laminations are generally used on high frequency transformers. The cost goes up when using thinner laminations mainly over the labor in stacking them. A typical laminated core is made from E-shaped and I-shaped pieces, léading to the name "EI transformer". There is other types such as the C-core or "cut core" transformer. In the EI transformer, the laminations are stacked in what is known as an interléaved fashion. This is where the E and I pieces are staggered while stacking to reduce any gap. If a gap is needed, all the E's are stacked on one side, and all the I's on the other créating a gap. The cut core or C-core is made by winding a silicon steel strip around a rectangular form. After the required thickness is achieved, it is removed from the form and the laminations are bonded together. It is then cut in two forming two C shapes. The faces of the cuts are then ground smooth so they fit very tight with a very small gap to reduce losses. To use a C-core, a coil is wound which is then placed over a leg of one half of the core. The core is then assembled by placing the two C halves together, and holding them closed by a steel strap. In this type of core, the coil will be on one leg, and the other is bare. There is shell type cores available which are similar to the EI cores. A steel core's [[remanence]] méans that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then réapplied, the residual field will cause a high [[inrush current]] until the effect of the remanent magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied alternating current. Overcurrent protection devices such as [[fuse (electrical)|fuses]] must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long overhéad power transmission lines, induced currents due to géomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core, and false operation of transformer [[relay|protection devices]]. Distribution transformers can achieve low off-load losses by using cores made with low loss high perméability [[silicon steel]] and amorphous (non-crystalline) steel, so-called "[[Amorphous#Metallic glass|metal glasses]]" — the high cost of the core material is offset by the lower losses incurred at light load, over the life of the transformer. In order to maintain good voltage regulation, distribution transformers are designed to have very low [[leakage inductance]]. Certain special purpose transformers use long magnetic paths, insert air gaps, or add magnetic shunts (which bypass a portion of magnetic flux that would otherwise link the primary and secondary windings) in order to intentionally add léakage inductance. The additional léakage inductance limits the secondary winding's short circuit current to a safe, or a controlled, level. This technique is used to stabilize the output current for loads that exhibit [[negative resistance]] such as [[electric arc]]s, [[mercury vapor lamp]]s, and [[neon sign]]s, or safely handle loads that may become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders. Gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio transformers which have a DC component added. ==== Inti padet ==== Powdered [[iron]] cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power supplies) that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilo[[hertz]]. These materials combine high magnetic [[permeability]] with high bulk electrical [[resistivity]]. At even higher, [[radio]]-frequencies (RF), other types of cores made from non-conductive magnetic [[ceramic]] materials, called ''[[ferrite (magnet)|ferrites]]'', are common. Some RF transformers also have movéable cores (sometimes called slugs) which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits. ==== Inti udara ==== High-frequency transformers may also use air cores. These eliminate the loss due to [[hysteresis]] in the core material. Such transformers maintain high coupling efficiency (low stray field loss) by overlapping the primary and secondary windings. ==== Inti toroid ==== [[Gambar:Transformers.jpg|thumb|left|Various transformers. The top right is toroidal. The bottom right is from a 12 VAC [[w:wall wart|wall wart]] supply.]] Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which is made from a long strip of silicon [[steel]] or [[permalloy]] wound into a coil, from powdered iron, or [[ferrite (magnet)|ferrite]], depending on operating frequency. The strip construction ensures that the [[grain boundary|grain boundaries]] are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's [[reluctance]]. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an EI core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimises the length of wire needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating [[electromagnetic interference]]. Ferrite toroid cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to a megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of [[Switched-mode power supply|switch-mode power supplies]]. Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the chéaper laminated EI types of similar power level. Other advantages, compared to EI types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and more choice of shapes. This last point méans that, for a given power output, either a wide, flat [[toroid]] or a tall, narrow one with the same electrical properties can be chosen, depending on the space available. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited size. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher cost of windings. As a consequence, toroidal transformers are uncommon above ratings of a few kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings. When fitting a toroidal transformer, it is important to avoid making an unintentional [[short-circuit]] through the core. This can happen if the steel mounting bolt in the middle of the core is allowed to touch metalwork at both ends, making a loop of conductive material which passes through the hole in the toroid. Such a loop could result in a dangerously large current flowing in the bolt. === Beulitan === The wire of the adjacent turns in a coil, and in the different windings, must be electrically insulated from éach other. The wire used is generally [[Enameled wire|magnet wire]]. Magnet wire is a copper wire with a coating of varnish or some other synthetic coating. Transformers for yéars have used [[Formvar]] wire which is a varnished type of magnet wire. The conducting material used for the winding depends upon the application. Small power and signal transformers are wound with solid copper wire, insulated usually with [[Enameled wire|enamel]], and sometimes additional insulation. Larger power transformers may be wound with wire, copper, or aluminum rectangular conductors. Strip conductors are used for very héavy currents. High frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz will have windings made of [[Skin effect#Mitigation|Litz wire]] to minimize the skin effect losses in the conductors. Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings. éach strand is insulated from the other, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, éach portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. This "transposition" equalizes the current flowing in éach strand of the conductor, and reduces [[eddy current]] losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size. (see reference (1) below) For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way to minimise léakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. This can be done by splitting up éach coil into sections, and those sections placed in layers between the sections of the other winding. This is known as a stacked type or interléaved winding. Windings on both the primary and secondary of power transformers may have external connections (called taps) to intermediate points on the winding to allow adjustment of the voltage ratio. Taps may be connected to an automatic, on-load [[tap changer]] type of [[switchgear]] for [[Voltage regulator|voltage regulation]] of [[Power distribution|distribution]] circuits. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspéakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to éach spéaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power [[amplifier]] in a [[push-pull]] type circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar. Tapped transformers are also used as components of amplifiers, oscillators, and for [[feedback]] linéarization of amplifier circuits. === Isolasi === The turns of the windings must be insulated from éach other to ensure that the current travels through the entire winding. The potential difference between adjacent turns is usually small, so that enamel insulation is usually sufficient for small power transformers. In larger transformers additional layers of insulation are used. The transformer may also be immersed in [[transformer oil]] that provides further to the insulation. The oil is primarily used to cool the transformer. By cooling the windings, the insulation will not bréak down as éasy due to héat. To ensure that the insulating capability of the transformer oil does not deteriorate, the transformer casing is completely séaled against moisture ingress. Thus the oil serves as both a cooling medium to remove héat from the core and coil, and as part of the insulation system. Certain power transformers have the windings protected by a layer of epoxy resin. This produces transformers suitable for damp or dirty environments, but at incréased manufacturing cost. === ''Shielding'' === Where transformers are intended for minimum electrostatic coupling between primary and secondary circuits, an electrostatic shield can be placed between windings to reduce the capacitance between primary and secondary windings. The shield may be a single layer of metal foil, insulated where it overlaps to prevent it acting as a shorted turn, or a single layer winding between primary and secondary. The shield is connected to éarth ground. Transformers may also be enclosed by magnetic shields, electrostatic shields, or both to prevent outside interference from affecting the operation of the transformer, or to prevent the transformer from affecting the operation of other devices (such as [[Cathode ray tube|CRTs]] néar the transformer). === Paniis === [[Gambar:Transformer 01.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Three phase dry-type transformer with cover removed; rated about 200 KVA, 480 V.]] Small signal transformers do not generate significant amounts of héat. Power transformers rated up to a few kilowatts rely on natural convective air cooling. Specific provision must be made for cooling of high-power transformers. Transformers handling higher power, or having a high duty cycle can be fan-cooled. Some dry transformers are enclosed in pressurized tanks and are cooled by [[nitrogen]] or [[sulfur hexafluoride]] gas. The windings of high-power or high-voltage transformers are immersed in [[transformer oil]] — a highly-refined [[mineral oil]], that is stable at high temperatures. Large transformers to be used indoors must use a non-flammable liquid. Formerly, [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] (PCB) was used as it was not a fire hazard in indoor power transformers and it is highly stable. Due to the stability and toxic effects of PCB byproducts, and its environmental accumulation, it is no longer permitted in new equipment. Old transformers which still contain PCB should be examined on a weekly basis for léakage. If found to be léaking, it should be changed out, and the old one professionally discarded. Today, nontoxic, stable [[silicone]]-based oils, or [[fluorocarbon|fluorinated hydrocarbons]] may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. Other less-flammable fluids such as [[canola oil]] may be used but all fire resistant fluids have some drawbacks in performance, cost, or toxicity compared with mineral oil. The oil cools the transformer, and provides part of the electrical insulation between internal live parts. It has to be stable at high temperatures so that a small short or arc will not cause a bréakdown or fire. The oil-filled tank may have radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection. Very large or high-power transformers (with capacities of millions of [[watt]]s) may have cooling fans, oil pumps and even oil to water [[heat exchangers]]. Oil-filled transformers undergo prolonged drying processes, using vapor-phase héat transfer, electrical self-héating, the application of a [[vacuum]], or combinations of these, to ensure that the transformer is completely free of [[water vapor]] before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical bréakdown under load. Oil-filled power transformers may be equipped with [[Buchholz relays]] which are safety devices that sense gas build-up inside the transformer (a side effect of an [[electric arc]] inside the windings), and thus switches off the transformer. Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range have been built with [[superconductivity|superconducting]] windings which eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss. These are cooled by liquid [[nitrogen]] or [[helium]]. === Terminal === Very small transformers will have wire léads connected directly to the ends of the coils, and brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may have héavy bolted terminals, bus bars or high-voltage insulated [[Bushing (electrical)|bushings]] made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide electrical insulation without letting the transformer léak oil. === Lampiran === Small transformers often have no enclosure. Transformers may have a shield enclosure, as described above. Larger units may be enclosed to prevent contact with live parts, and to contain the cooling medium (oil or pressurized gas). == Tipe trafo == === Autotrafo === {{utama|Autotrafo}} An [[autotransformer]] has only a single winding, which is tapped at some point along the winding. AC or pulsed voltage is applied across a portion of the winding, and a higher (or lower) voltage is produced across another portion of the same winding. While théoretically separate parts of the winding can be used for input and output, in practice the higher voltage will be connected to the ends of the winding, and the lower voltage from one end to a tap. For example, a transformer with a tap at the center of the winding can be used with 230 volts across the entire winding, and 115 volts between one end and the tap. It can be connected to a 230 volt supply to drive 115 volt equipment, or reversed to drive 230 volt equipment from 115 volts. As the same winding is used for input and output, the flux in the core is partially cancelled, and a smaller core can be used. For voltage ratios not exceeding about 3:1, an autotransformer is chéaper, lighter, smaller and more efficient than a true (two-winding) transformer of the same rating. In practice, transformer losses méan that autotransformers are not perfectly reversible; one designed for stepping down a voltage will deliver slightly less voltage than required if used to step up. The difference is usually slight enough to allow reversal where the actual voltage level is not critical. By exposing part of the winding coils and making the secondary connection through a sliding [[brush (electric)|brush]], an autotransformer with a néar-continuously variable turns ratio can be obtained, allowing for very small increments of voltage. === Trafo polifase === For [[Three-phase electric power|three-phase power]], three separate single-phase transformers can be used, or all three phases can be connected to a single polyphase transformer. The three primary windings are connected together and the three secondary windings are connected together. The most common connections are Y-Δ, Δ-Y, Δ-Δ and Y-Y. A [[vector group]] indicates the configuration of the windings and the [[phase angle]] difference between them. If a winding is connected to éarth ([[Ground (electricity)|grounded]]), the éarth connection point is usually the center point of a Y winding. If the secondary is a Δ winding, the ground may be connected to a center tap on one winding (high leg delta) or one phase may be grounded (corner grounded delta). There are many possible configurations that may involve more or fewer than six windings and various tap connections. === Trafo résonansi === A [[resonance|resonant]] transformer is one that operates at the [[resonant frequency]] of one or more of its coils and, usually, an external [[capacitor]]. The resonant coil, usually the secondary, acts as an [[inductor]], and is connected in series with a [[capacitor]]. If the primary coil is driven by a periodic source of [[alternating current]], such as a [[Square wave|square]] or [[Sawtooth wave]] , éach pulse of current helps to build up an oscillation in the secondary coil. Due to resonance, a very high voltage can develop across the secondary, until it is limited by some process such as [[electrical breakdown]]. These devices are therefore used to generate high alternating voltages. The current available from this type of coil can be much larger than that from electrostatic machines such as the [[Van de Graaff generator]] and [[Wimshurst machine]]. They also run at a higher operating temperature than standard units. Examples: * [[Tesla coil]] * [[Oudin coil]] (or Oudin resonator; named after its inventor [[Paul Oudin]]) * [[Jacques Arsene d'Arsonval|D'Arsonval]] apparatus * [[Ignition coil]] or [[induction coil]] used in the [[ignition system]] of a [[petrol engine]] * [[Flyback transformer]] of a [[Cathode ray tube|CRT]] [[television]] set or vidéo monitor. * [[Electrical breakdown]] and insulation testing of high voltage equipment and cables Other applications of resonant transformers are as coupling between stages of a [[superheterodyne receiver]], where the selectivity of the receiver is provided by the tuned transformers of the intermediate-frequency amplifiers. A voltage regulating transformer uses a resonant winding and allows part of the core to go into saturation on éach cycle of the alternating current. This effect stabilizes the output of the regulating transformer, which can be used for equipment that is sensitive to variations of the supply voltage. Saturating transformers provide a simple rugged method to stabilize an ac power supply. However, due to the hysteresis losses accompanying this type of operation, efficiency is low. === Trafo instrumén === ==== Trafo arus ==== [[Gambar:CurrentTransformers.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Current transformers used in [[electricity meter|metering equipment]] for [[three-phase]] 400 ampere electricity supply]]A '''current transformer''' is a type of "''instrument transformer''" that is designed to provide a current in its secondary which is '''accurately''' proportional to the current flowing in its primary. Current transformers are commonly used in métering and protective relaying to facilitate the méasurement of large currents and isolation of high voltage systems which would be difficult to méasure more directly. Current transformers are often constructed by passing a single primary turn (either an insulated cable or an uninsulated conductor (copper or aluminum are typical in electric utility applications) through a well-insulated toroidal core wrapped with many turns of wire. Current transformers (CTs) are used extensively in the electrical power industry for monitoring of the [[power grid]]. The CT is described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Common secondaries are 1 or 5 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. Typically, the secondary connection points are labeled as X1, X2 and so on. The multi ratio CTs are typically used for current matching in current differential protective relaying applications. Often, multiple CTs will be installed as a "stack" for various uses (for example, protection devices and revenue métering may use separate CTs). For a three-stacked CT application, the secondary winding connection points are typically labeled Xn, Yn, Zn. Specially constructed ''[[wideband]] current transformers'' are also used (usually with an [[oscilloscope]]) to méasure [[waveform]]s of [[high frequency]] or pulsed currents. One type of specially constructed wideband transformer provides a voltage output that is proportional to the méasured current. Another type (called a [[Rogowski coil]]) requires an external [[integrator]] in order to provide a voltage output that is proportional to the méasured current. Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as this will produce a dangerously high voltage across the open secondary. ==== Trafo tegangan ==== Voltage transformers (or potential transformers) are another type of instrument transformer, used for métering and protection in high-voltage circuits. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being méasured and to have a precise voltage ratio to accurately step down high voltages so that métering and protective relay equipment can be operated at a lower potential. Typically the secondary of a voltage transformer is rated for 69 or 120 Volts at rated primary voltage, to match the input ratings of protection [[relay]]s. The transformer winding high-voltage connection points are typically labelled as H1, H2 (sometimes H0 if it is internally grounded) and X1, X2, and sometimes an X3 tap may be present. Sometimes a second isolated winding (Y1, Y2, Y3) may also be available on the same voltage transformer. The high side (primary) may be connected phase to ground or phase to phase. The low side (secondary) is usually phase to ground. The terminal identifications (H1, X1, Y1, etc.) are often referred to as polarity. This applies to current transformers as well. At any instant terminals with the same suffix numeral have the same polarity and phase. Correct identification of terminals and wiring is important for proper operation of métering and protection relays. === Trafo ''pulse'' === A '''pulse transformer''' is a transformer that is optimised for transmitting rectangular electrical pulses (that is, pulses with fast rise and fall times and a constant [[amplitude]]). Small versions called ''signal'' types are used in [[digital logic]] and [[telecommunications]] circuits, often for matching logic drivers to [[transmission line]]s. Medium-sized ''power'' versions are used in power-control circuits such as [[camera flash]] controllers. Larger ''power'' versions are used in the [[electrical power distribution]] industry to interface low-voltage control circuitry to the high-voltage gates of [[Power semiconductor device|power semiconductors]]. Special [[high voltage]] pulse transformers are also used to generate high power pulses for [[radar]], [[particle accelerators]], or other [[pulsed power]] applications. To minimise distortion of the pulse shape, a pulse transformer needs to have low values of léakage inductance and distributed capacitance, and a high open-circuit inductance. In power-type pulse transformers, a low coupling capacitance (between the primary and secondary) is important to protect the circuitry on the primary side from high-powered transients créated by the load. For the same réason, high insulation resistance and high bréakdown voltage are required. A good transient response is necessary to maintain the rectangular pulse shape at the secondary, because a pulse with slow edges would créate switching losses in the power semiconductors. The product of the péak pulse voltage and the duration of the pulse (or more accurately, the voltage-time integral) is often used to characterise pulse transformers. Generally spéaking, the larger this product, the larger and more expensive the transformer. === Trafo RF (trafo jalur transmisi) === For [[radio frequency]] use, transformers are sometimes made from configurations of transmission line, sometimes [[bifilar]] or [[coaxial]] cable, wound around [[ferrite]] or other types of core. This style of transformer gives an extremely wide [[bandwidth]] but only a limited number of ratios (such as 1:9, 1:4 or 1:2) can be achieved with this technique. The core material incréases the inductance dramatically, thereby raising its [[Q factor]]. The cores of such transformers help improve performance at the lower frequency end of the band. RF transformers sometimes used a third coil (called a tickler winding) to inject [[feedback]] into an éarlier ([[Detector (radio)|detector]]) stage in antique [[Regenerative circuit|regenerative]] radio receivers. ==== Baluns ==== Baluns are transformers designed specifially to connect between [[balanced]] and [[unbalanced]] circuits. These are sometimes made from configurations of transmission line and sometimes [[bifilar]] or [[coaxial]] cable and are similar to transmission line transformers in construction and operation. == Trafo audio == [[Gambar:Audion-sterling-transformers.jpg|left|thumb|Transformers in a tube amplifier. Output transformers are on the left. The power supply toroidal transformer is on right.]] Audio transformers are usually the factor which limit sound quality; electronic circuits with wide [[frequency response]] and low [[distortion]] are relatively simple to design. Transformers are also used in [[DI box]]es to convert impedance from high-impedance instruments (for example, [[bass guitar]]s) to enable them to be connected to a microphone input on the [[mixing console]]. A particularly critical component is the output transformer of an [[sound|audio]] [[power amplifier]]. Valve circuits for quality reproduction have long been produced with no other (inter-stage) audio transformers, but an output transformer is needed to [[Coupling (electronics)|couple]] the relatively high impedance (up to a few hundred ohms depending upon configutation) of the output valve(s) to the low impedance of a [[loudspeaker]]. (The valves can deliver a low current at a high voltage; the spéakers require high current at low voltage.) Solid-state power amplifiers may need no output transformer at all. For good low-frequency response a relatively large iron [[Magnetic core|core]] is required; high power handling incréases the required core size. Good high-frequency response requires carefully designed and implemented [[Wikt:winding|windings]] without excessive [[leakage inductance]] or [[stray capacitance]]. All this makes for an expensive component. Output transformerless audio power valve amplifiers are possible, but were rarely used due to other disadvantages. éarly [[transistor]] audio power amplifiers often had output transformers, but they were eliminated as designers discovered how to design amplifiers without them. === Trafo ''speaker'' === In the same way that transformers are used to créate high voltage power transmission circuits that minimize transmission losses, spéaker transformers allow many individual [[loudspeaker]]s to be powered from a single audio circuit operated at higher-than normal spéaker voltages. This application is common in [[public address]] (e.g., [[Tannoy]]) applications. Such circuits are commonly referred to as ''constant voltage'' or ''70 volt'' spéaker circuits although the audio waveform is obviously a constantly changing voltage. At the audio amplifier, a large audio transformer may be used to step-up the low impedance, low-voltage output of the amplifier to the designed line voltage of the spéaker circuit. Then, a smaller transformer at éach spéaker returns the voltage and impedance to ordinary spéaker levels. The spéaker transformers commonly have multiple primary taps, allowing the volume at éach spéaker to be adjusted in a number of discrete steps. Use of a constant-voltage spéaker circuit méans that there is no need to worry about the impedance presented to the amplifier output (which would cléarly be too low if all of the spéakers were arranged in [[Series and parallel circuits|parallel]] and would be too complex a design problem if the spéakers were arranged in series-parallel). The use of higher transmission voltage and impedance méans that power lost in the connecting wire is minimized, even with the use of [[wire gauge|small-gauge]] conductors (and léads to the term ''constant voltage'' as the line voltage doesn't change much as additional spéakers are added to the system). Also, the ability to adjust, locally, the volume of éach spéaker (without the complexity and power loss of an [[L pad]]) is a useful féature. == Kagunaan trafo == * For supplying power from an alternating current power grid to equipment which uses a different voltage. * [[Electric power transmission]] over long distances. * Large, specially constructed power transformers are used for [[electric arc furnace]]s used in [[steelmaking]]. * Rotating transformers are designed so that one winding turns while the other remains stationary. A common use was the vidéo héad system as used in VHS and Beta vidéo tape players. These can pass power or radio signals from a stationary mounting to a rotating mechanism, or [[radar]] [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. * Sliding transformers can pass power or signals from a stationary mounting to a moving part such as a machine tool héad. * A transformer-like device is used for position méasurement. See [[linear variable differential transformer]]. * Some [[rotary transformer]]s are used to couple signals between two parts which rotate in relation to éach other. * Other rotary transformers are precisely constructed in order to méasure distances or angles. Usually they have a single primary and two or more secondaries, and electronic circuits méasure the different amplitudes of the currents in the secondaries. See [[synchro]] and [[Resolver (electrical)|resolver]]. * Small transformers are often used internally to couple different stages of [[radio receiver]]s and [[audio amplifier]]s. * Transformers may be used as external accessories for impedance matching; for example to match a microphone to an amplifier. * Balanced-to-unbalanced conversion. A special type of transformer called a [[balun]] is used in radio and audio circuits to convert between [[balanced line]]circuits and unbalanced [[transmission line]]s such as antenna downléads. == Tempo ogé == {{wikibookspar||School science/How to make a transformer}} * ''Main'' : [[Distributed generation]], [[Electronic power supply]], [[Electronics]], [[Inductor]], [[Pickup]], [[Electrical network]], [[Electricity distribution]], [[Wet transformer]], [[List of electronics topics]], [[Electronic transformer]], [[Load profile]], [[Transformer effect]] * ''Circuits'': [[Clamp meter]], [[Repeating coil]], [[Inverter (electrical)]], [[Ignition system]], [[Electricity generation]], [[Linear variable differential transformer]], [[Neon signage]], [[Regulator]], [[Electrical substation]], [[Switched-mode power supply]], [[Technological applications of superconductivity]], [[Tesla coil]], [[Transducer]] * ''Electromagnetism'': [[Alternating current]], [[Electric power]], [[Electric power transmission]], [[Electromagnetic induction]], [[Equivalent series resistance]], [[High-voltage direct current]], [[Impedance matching]], [[Inductive coupling]], [[Potential difference]], [[Skin effect]], [[Leakage inductance]], [[Superconductivity]] * ''People'': [[Ottó Bláthy]], [[Miksa Déri]], [[John Ambrose Fleming]], [[Otto A. Knopp]], [[William Stanley (physicist)|William Stanley]], [[Nikola Tesla]], [[Milan Vidmar]], [[George Westinghouse]], [[Károly Zipernowsky]] * ''Other'': [[DI unit]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl]], [[Stafford]], [[Timeline of invention]], [[War of Currents]], [[World's Columbian Exposition]] == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.btbplaza.com/web2/content/view/13/14/lang,en/ ''Transformer Learning Centre'' Learn more about Transformers and how they work] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071125084211/http://www.btbplaza.com/web2/content/view/13/14/lang,en/ |date=2007-11-25 }} * [http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/transfor.htm ''Inside Transformers'' from Denver University] * [http://www.conformity.com/0509/0509understanding.html ''Understanding Transformers: Characteristics and Limitations'' from Conformity Magazine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018185528/http://www.conformity.com/0509/0509understanding.html |date=2006-10-18 }} * [http://www.3phasepower.org/3phasetransformers.htm 3 Phase Transformer Information and Construction — The 3 Phase Power Resource Site] * [[DMOZ]]: Business: Electronics and Electrical: [http://dmoz.org/Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Substation_and_Transmission/ Substation and Transmission] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207201330/http://dmoz.org/Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Substation_and_Transmission/ |date=2006-12-07 }} Transformers for the Utility sector * [http://www.butlerwinding.com/elelectronic-transformer/index.html Electronic Transformers types and structures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061110012508/http://www.butlerwinding.com/elelectronic-transformer/index.html |date=2006-11-10 }} * [http://www.itee.uq.edu.au/~aupec/aupec00/edwards00.pdf J.Edwards and T.K Saha, ''Power flow in transformers via the Poynting vector'' (PDF)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228195129/http://www.itee.uq.edu.au/~aupec/aupec00/edwards00.pdf |date=2013-12-28 }} * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BH5UudSEMQw A transformer explodes] == Référénsi == * {{cite book | author=Central Electricity Generating Board | title=Modern Power Station Practice |publisher=Pergamon | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0-08-016436-6}} * {{cite book | author=Daniels, A.R. | title=Introduction to Electrical Machines|publisher=Macmillan | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0-333-19627-9}} * {{cite book | first=A. E. | last=Fitzgerald | authorlink= | coauthors=Kingsley, Charles Jr. and Umans, Stephen D. | year=1983 | title=Electric Machinery | url=https://archive.org/details/electricmachifitz00fitz | edition=4th ed. | publisher=Mc-Graw-Hill, Inc. | location= | id=ISBN 0-07-021145-0 }} * {{cite book | author=Heathcote, MJ | title=J&P Transformer Book, 12th ed. | publisher=Newnes| year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-7506-1158-8}} * {{cite book | author=Hindmarsh, J. | title=Electrical Machines and their Applications, 4th ed. | publisher=Pergamon | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-08-030572-5}} * {{cite book | author=Shepherd,J; Moreton, A.H; Spence, L.F. | title=Higher Electrical Engineering | publisher=Pitman Publishing| year=1970 | id=ISBN 0-273-40025-8}} * [http://www.gass-transformatoren.de/en/frame_wissenswert.htm Kinds of Transformers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116080856/http://www.gass-transformatoren.de/en/frame_wissenswert.htm |date=2006-11-16 }} * Electrical Engineering Fundamentals by J P Néal dept of Elec Eng, University of illinois. publ McGraw Hill 1960 Library of Congress No 59-13210. Sect 7-9 on mutual inductance , p301, ==Dicutat tina== <references/> {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Éléktronika]] mq03qdpbzp8ia0ynaa3dnbf2or2xbun 0 11267 711554 709373 2026-08-06T23:01:05Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711554 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} [[Gambar:NGC 4414 (NASA-med).jpg|right|thumb|280px|'''[[NGC 4414]]''', galaksi spiral tipikal dina [[konstélasi]] [[Coma Berenices]], diaméterna kurang leuwih 56,000 taun cahaya sarta jarakna kurang leuwih 60 yuta taun cahaya.]] '''Galaksi''' nyaéta hiji sistem nu kabeungkeut ku [[gravitasi]] nu kacida gedéna, diwangun ku [[béntang|perbéntangan]], [[média antarbéntang|gas jeung kekebul antarbéntang]], [[plasma (fisika)|plasma]], sarta (meureun) [[bahan poék]] anu teu katingali (''unseen dark matter'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Galaxy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/galaxy |access-date=2026-05-04}}</ref> Galaksi umumna ngandung sapuluh juta nepi ka samiliar ($10^7$ nepi ka $10^{12}$) béntang, anu sakabéhna ngorbit kana hiji [[puseur gravitasi]] anu sarua. Salian ti béntang tunggal jeung média antarbéntang anu ipis, sabagian badag galaksi ogé ngandung réa [[Sistem béntang#Sistem béntang ganda|sistem béntang ganda]] sarta [[gugus béntang]] (''star clusters''), kitu ogé rupa-rupa jenis [[nebula]]. Lolobana galaksi miboga diaméter ti sababaraha rébu nepi ka ratusan rébu [[taun cahaya]], sarta biasana papisah antara hiji jeung nu lianna ku jarak anu jauhna nepi ka jutaan taun cahaya.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Galaxy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/galaxy |access-date=2026-05-04}}</ref> == Étimologi == Kecap ''galaxy'' asalna tina istilah basa [[Basa Yunani|Yunani]] pikeun galaksi urang sorangan, nyaéta '''galaxias''' (''γαλαξίας'') atawa ''kyklos galaktikos'' anu hartina "lingkaran susu", dumasar kana rupa éta sistem dina langit peuting. Dina [[Mitologi Yunani]], Déwa [[Zeus]] neundeun anakna ti saurang awéwé manusa biasa, nyaéta orok [[Hércules]], dina dada Déwi [[Hera]] nalika anjeunna nuju kulem, supados éta orok tiasa ngaleueut cisusu déwa sarta janten mahluk abadi. Nalika keur nyusuan, Hera nyaring sarta sadar yén anjeunna nuju nyusuan orok anu teu dipikawanoh: anjeunna tuluy nyuntrungkeun éta orok, nepi ka ciritan cisusuna nyemprot sarta ngabentuk gugusan cahaya di langit peuting.<ref>{{cite book |last=Waller |first=W.H. |title=The Milky Way: An Insider's Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/milkywayinsiders0000wall |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780691122243}}</ref> Nalika para astronom boga spekulasi yén sawatara objék anu saméméhna digolongkeun salaku nebula spiral téh sabenerna mangrupa kumpulan béntang anu kacida legana, hal ieu disebut "[[téori alam semesta pulo]]" (''island universe theory''). Nanging, istilah ieu téh tétéla kurang merenah (''misnomer''), jalaran istilah [[alam semesta]] mah hartina téh ngawengku sagala rupa anu aya. Ku kituna, istilah ieu lila-lila ditinggalkeun, sarta diganti ku istilah galaksi anu dilarapkeun sacara umum pikeun sakabéh éta kumpulan béntang.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/cosmology/ideas/island.htm |title=The Island Universe Theory |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=2026-05-04}}</ref> == Sajarah observasi == Ieu pedaran ngeunaan sajarah panalungtikan galaksi urang sorangan sarta galaksi séjénna téh sawaréh badag dicutat tina buku karya James Binney jeung Michael Merrifield anu judulna: ''Galactic astronomy''.<ref>James Binney and Michael Merrifield: ''Galactic astronomy'', Princeton University Press, 1998</ref> Dina taun 1610, [[Galileo Galilei]] ngagunakeun teleskop pikeun nalungtik jalur caang di langit peuting anu katelah [[Bima Sakti]] (''Milky Way''), sarta manggihan yén éta téh tétéla diwangun ku sajumlah badag béntang anu remeng-remeng.<ref>{{cite book |last=Galilei |first=Galileo |title=Sidereus Nuncius (The Sidereal Messenger) |year=1610 |publisher=University of Chicago Press (1989 translation)}}</ref> Dina hiji risalah taun 1755, [[Immanuel Kant]], dumasar kana karya saméméhna ti [[Thomas Wright]], miboga spékulasi (anu tétéla bener) yén Galaksi téh mangrupa hiji sistem anu muter sarta diwangun ku sajumlah badag béntang, anu kabeungkeut ku [[Gaya gravitasi|gaya gravitasi]] sarupa jeung [[tata surya]] tapi dina skala anu jauh leuwih badag.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens) |year=1755}}</ref> Piringan béntang anu dihasilkeun bakal katémbong salaku jalur caang di langit tina jihat sawangan urang anu aya di jero éta piringan. Kant ogé nyieun duga-duga yén sawatara [[nebula]] anu katémbong di langit peuting téh bisa jadi mangrupa galaksi anu kapisah. [[Gambar:M51Sketch.jpg|thumb|right|Sketch of the [[Whirlpool Galaxy]] by [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] in 1845]] Towards Dina ahir abad ka-18, [[Charles Messier]] nyusun hiji [[Objék Messier|katalog]] anu ngandung 109 nebula anu pangcaangna, anu saterusna dituluykeun ku katalog anu leuwih badag ngawengku lima rébu nebula ku [[William Herschel]]. Dina taun 1845, [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] ngawangun hiji [[teleskop]] anyar sarta mampuh ngabédakeun antara nebula elips jeung nebula spiral. Anjeunna ogé hasil ngaidentipikasi sumber titik individu (béntang) dina sawatara ieu nebula, anu nguatkeun duga-duga Kant saméméhna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.messier.seds.org/xtra/history/rosse.html |title=William Parsons, Lord Rosse |publisher=Students for the Exploration and Development of Space |access-date=2026-05-04 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Nanging, nebula-nebula éta téh can sapinuhna ditarima salaku galaksi anu kapisah nepi ka tuntasna pasualan ieu ku [[Edwin Hubble]] dina awal taun 1920-an ngagunakeun [[teleskop]] anyar. Anjeunna mampuh nétélakeun yén bagian luar sawatara nebula spiral téh mangrupa kumpulan béntang individu sarta ngaidentipikasi sawatara [[Variabel Cepheid]], anu ngamungkinkeun anjeunna naksir jarakna: tétéla éta nebula téh jauh pisan sarta lain bagian tina Bima Sakti.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hubble |first=E. P. |title=A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |year=1929 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=168–173}}</ref> Dina taun 1936, Hubble nyusun sistem klasifikasi pikeun galaksi anu masih dipaké nepi ka kiwari, nyaéta [[Klasifikasi galaksi|Urutan Hubble]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hubble |first=E. P. |title=The Realm of the Nebulae |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1936}}</ref>. Usaha munggaran pikeun ngajelaskeun rupa Bima Sakti sarta posisi [[Panonpoé|Sol]] di jerona dilakukeun ku [[William Herschel]] dina taun 1785 ku cara ngetang kalayan taliti jumlah béntang di rupa-rupa wewengkon langit. Ngagunakeun pamarekan anu leuwih rapih, [[Jacobus Kapteyn|Kapteyn]] dina taun 1920 ngahasilkeun gambaran galaksi nu mangrupa elipsoid leutik (diaméter ~15 kiloparsec) kalayan Sol aya di deukeut puseurna. Métode séjén anu dilakukeun ku [[Harlow Shapley]] dumasar kana katalog [[gugus bal]] (''globular clusters'') ngahasilkeun gambaran anu kacida bédana: piringan datar kalayan diaméter ~70 kiloparsec sarta Sol jauh ti puseur galaksi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shapley |first=H. |title=Studies based on the colors and magnitudes in stellar clusters. Twelfth paper: Remarks on the arrangement of the sidereal system |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=1919 |volume=49 |pages=311–336}}</ref> Duanana analisis éta téh gagal margi teu merhatikeun [[Ekstingsi (astronomi)|nyerepna cahaya]] ku kekebul antarbéntang anu aya dina [[widang galaksi]]. Sanggeus [[Robert Julius Trumpler]] hasil ngukur pangaruh ieu dina taun 1930 ku cara nalungtik [[gugus muka]] (''open clusters''), kakara mecenghul gambaran galaksi urang anu ayeuna sakumaha anu parantos dijelaskeun di luhur.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Trumpler |first=R. J. |title=Absorption of Light in the Galactic System |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |year=1930 |volume=42 |issue=248 |pages=214–227}}</ref>emerged. Dina taun 1944, [[Hendrik van de Hulst]] mangkirakeun ayana radiasi [[gelombang mikro]] dina [[garis hidrogén|panjang gelombang 21 cm]], anu dihasilkeun tina gas [[hidrogén]] atomik antarbéntang; ieu radiasi kakara bisa ditalungtik dina taun 1951. Ieu radiasi téh kacida ngabantuna pikeun nalungtik Galaksi urang kalayan leuwih jero, jalaran henteu kapangaruhan ku panyerepan kekebul sarta [[panyimpangan Doppler]]-na bisa dipaké pikeun méréta gerak gas dina Galaksi. Ieu observasi ngabalukarkeun mecenghulna duga-duga ngeunaan ayana struktur [[galaksi spiral miboga palang|palang (bar)]] anu muter di puseur Galaksi. Kalayan bantuan téleskop radio anu leuwih canggih, gas hidrogén ogé bisa dipaluruh di galaksi séjén. Dina taun 1970-an, tina panalungtikan [[Vera Rubin]] ngeunaan [[kurva rotasi|laju rotasi]] gas dina galaksi, kapanggih yén sakabéh massa anu kaciri (tina béntang jeung gas) tétéla teu saluyu jeung laju muterna gas. Ieu [[masalah rotasi galaksi]] téh dianggap bisa dipedar ku ayana sajumlah badag [[bahan poék]] (''dark matter'') anu teu katingali.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rubin |first=V. C. |last2=Ford |first2=W. K. J. |title=Rotation of the Andromeda Nebula from a Spectroscopic Survey of Emission Regions |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=1970 |volume=159 |pages=379}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200808/history.cfm |title=Vera Rubin and Dark Matter |publisher=American Physical Society |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref>. Ti mimiti taun 1990-an, [[Teleskop Luar Angkasa Hubble]] ngahasilkeun observasi anu jauh leuwih hadé. Di antarana, Hubble hasil mastikeun yén bahan poék anu leungit dina galaksi urang téh tétéla lain ngan saukur diwangun ku béntang-béntang leutik anu remeng-remeng. ''[[Hubble Deep Field]]'', hiji paparan cahaya anu kacida lilana dina bagian langit anu kaciri kosong, méré bukti yén aya kira-kira saratus tujuh puluh lima miliar galaksi di alam semesta.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/1996/news-1996-01.html |title=Hubble's Deepest View of the Universe Unveils Bewildering Galaxies across Billions of Years |publisher=Space Telescope Science Institute |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref> Kamajuan téknologi dina néwak spéktrum anu teu kaciri ku mata manusa ([[téleskop radio]], kaméra infra-beureum, [[téleskop sinar-X]]), ngamungkinkeun dipaluruhna galaksi-galaksi séjén anu teu kaciri ku Hubble. Utamana, survéy galaksi dina [[zona pamiceunan]] (''zone of avoidance'', nyaéta wewengkon langit anu kahalangan ku Bima Sakti) parantos némbongkeun sajumlah galaksi anyar.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kraan-Korteweg |first=R. C. |last2=Lahav |first2=O. |title=The Universe behind the Milky Way |journal=Scientific American |year=1998 |volume=279 |issue=4 |pages=50–57}}</ref>. == Rupa-rupa galaksi == {{utama|Klasifikasi galaksi}} [[Gambar:Hubble sequence photo.png|thumb|300px|Rupa-rupa galaxi]] Galaksi sacara umum kabagi kana tilu jenis utama: [[Galaksi elips|elips]], [[Galaksi spiral|spiral]], sarta [[Galaksi teu miboga aturan|teu miboga aturan (irregular)]]. Pedaran anu leuwih jangkep ngeunaan rupa-rupa galaksi dumasar kana wangunna dijébréngkeun dina [[Klasifikasi galaksi|Urutan Hubble]]. Jalaran Urutan Hubble mah sagemblengna dumasar kana rupa fisik (morfologi), ieu klasifikasi téh bisa jadi teu némbongkeun sawatara ciri penting séjénna, sapertos laju [[pembentukan béntang]] (dina [[Galaksi starburst]]) atanapi aktivitas dina puseur galaksi (dina [[Galaksi aktif]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Hubble |first=E. P. |title=The Realm of the Nebulae |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1936}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/galaxies1.html |title=Galaxies |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref>. Galaksi urang sorangan, [[Bima Sakti]], anu sakapeung mah ngan saukur disebut ''Galaksi'' (ngagunakeun aksara badag), mangrupa hiji galaksi [[galaksi spiral miboga palang|spiral miboga palang]] anu bentukna siga piringan badag, diaméterna kira-kira [[1 E20 m|30 kiloparsec]] atawa saratus rébu taun cahaya, sarta kandelna tilu rébu taun cahaya. Ieu galaksi ngandung kira-kira $3 \times 10^{11}$ (tilu ratus miliar) béntang sarta miboga total massa kira-kira $6 \times 10^{11}$ (genep ratus miliar) kali lipat tina massa [[Panonpoé|Sol]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/milky-way/faq/ |title=The Milky Way Galaxy |publisher=NASA Science |access-date=2026-05-05 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dina galaksi spiral, leungeun-leungeun spiralna miboga wangun anu ampir sarua jeung [[spiral logaritmik]], hiji pola anu sacara téori mangrupa hasil tina ayana gangguan dina massa béntang anu muter sacara sagemblengna. Siga béntang-béntangna, leungeun spiral ogé muter ngurilingan puseur galaksi, nanging muterna téh kalayan [[laju sudut]] (''angular velocity'') anu tetep. Hal ieu hartina béntang-béntang téh bisa asup jeung kaluar tina éta leungeun spiral. Leungeun spiral dianggap salaku wewengkon anu miboga kapadetan luhur atawa disebut [[gelombang kapadetan]] (''density waves''). Nalika béntang-béntang asup ka jero hiji leungeun spiral, gerakna jadi laun, sahingga nyieun kapadetan anu leuwih luhur; hal ieu sarupa jeung "gelombang" kamacétan dina jalan tol anu pinuh ku mobil. Éta leungeun spiral téh katémbong pisan margi kapadetan anu luhur ngagampangkeun [[pembentukan béntang]], sahingga di dinya loba béntang-béntang ngora anu kacida caangna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hosting.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro201/diff_rot.htm |title=Spiral Structure |publisher=Cornell University |access-date=2026-05-05 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sanajan galaksi elips jeung spiral anu badag téh katémbongna dominan, sabagian badag galaksi di alam semesta tétéla mangrupa [[galaksi kerdil]]. Ieu galaksi-galaksi leutik téh ukuranana kira-kira saratus kali leuwih leutik batan Bima Sakti, sarta ngan ngandung sababaraha miliar béntang. Réa galaksi kerdil anu ngorbit ka hiji galaksi anu leuwih badag; Bima Sakti sorangan miboga sahenteuna dua belas galaksi satelit saperti kitu. Galaksi kerdil ogé bisa digolongkeun salaku elips, spiral, atawa teu miboga aturan (''irregular''). Jalaran galaksi kerdil elips miboga rupa anu rada béda jeung galaksi elips badag, maranéhna mindeng disebut ogé salaku [[galaksi sferoidal kerdil]] (''dwarf spheroidal galaxies'').<ref>{{cite web |url=https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/galaxies2.html |title=Types of Galaxies |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=2026-05-05 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> === Galaksi aktif === {{utama|Nukleus galaksi aktif}} Sabagian galaksi anu tiasa ditalungtik ku urang téh digolongkeun salaku galaksi aktif. Hartina, sabagian badag énergi anu dikaluarkeun ku éta galaksi téh asalna tina sumber séjén, lain tina béntang, kekebul, atawa [[média antarbéntang]]. Modél standar pikeun [[nukleus galaksi aktif]] kawas kieu téh dumasar kana énergi anu dihasilkeun tina ayana matéri anu ragrag kana [[liang hideung supermasif]] di wewengkon puseurna.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/active_galaxies1.html |title=Active Galaxies |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref> Galaksi anu ngaluarkeun radiasi énergi luhur dina wangun [[sinar-X]] digolongkeun salaku [[Galaksi Seyfert]], [[kuasar]], sarta [[blazar]]. Galaksi aktif anu ngaluarkeun frékuénsi radio tina [[jét rélativistik]] anu muncrat tina puseurna digolongkeun salaku [[Galaksi radio]]. Hiji modél hasil ngahijikeun (''unified model'') tina rupa-rupa galaksi aktif ieu ngécéskeun yén bédana téh sabenerna mah ngan saukur dumasar kana jihat sawangan (sudut pandang) urang anu niténanana.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Urry |first=C. M. |last2=Padovani |first2=P. |title=Unified Schemes for Radio-Loud Active Galactic Nuclei |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |year=1995 |volume=107 |pages=803}}</ref> == Struktur skala gedé == Kacida saeutikna galaksi anu hirup nyalira; galaksi kawas kitu téh katelah salaku ''galaksi lapangan'' (''field galaxies''). Kalolobaan galaksi mah kabeungkeut ku gaya gravitasi ka sajumlah galaksi séjénna. Struktur anu ngandung nepi ka 50 galaksi disebut [[Gugus jeung kelompok galaksi|kelompok galaksi]] (''groups of galaxies''), sarta struktur anu leuwih badag anu ngandung mangrébu-rébu galaksi dina wewengkon anu legana sababaraha [[megaparsec]] disebut [[Gugus jeung kelompok galaksi|gugus galaksi]] (''clusters''). Gugus galaksi mindeng didominasi ku hiji galaksi [[galaksi elips|elips]] raksasa tunggal, anu lila-kalila sacara gravitasi ngancurkeun galaksi-galaksi satelitna sarta nambahan massa éta galaksi kana dirina sorangan. [[Supergugus]] (''superclusters'') mangrupa kumpulan raksasa anu ngandung puluhan rébu galaksi, anu aya dina wangun gugus, kelompok, atawa sakapeung mah nyalira; dina skala supergugus, galaksi-galaksi téh disusun janten [[Tembok Gedé (astronomi)|lambaran]] sarta [[filamén (astronomi)|filamén]] anu ngurilingan [[lowong (astronomi)|lowongan]] (''voids'') kosong anu kacida legana. Di luhureun skala ieu, alam semesta téh katémbong [[isotropi|isotropik]] sarta [[homogén (astronomi)|homogén]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/clusters1.html |title=Galaxy Groups and Clusters |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=2026-05-05 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Galaksi urang téh mangrupa anggota tina [[Kelompok Lokal]], anu didominasi ku Bima Sakti babarengan jeung [[Galaksi Andromeda]]; sacara gembleng, Kelompok Lokal téh ngandung kira-kira tilu puluh galaksi dina rohangan anu legana kira-kira [[1 E22 m|hiji megaparsec]]. Kelompok Lokal ieu mangrupa bagian tina [[Supergugus Virgo]], anu didominasi ku [[Gugus Virgo]] (anu mana galaksi urang mah lain mangrupa anggotana).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/universe/galaxies/ |title=Galaxies |publisher=NASA Science |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref> == Formasi jeung évolusi galaksi == {{utama|Formasi jeung évolusi galaksi}} Panalungtikan ngeunaan formasi jeung évolusi galaksi téh mangrupa usaha pikeun ngajawab patarosan ngeunaan kumaha galaksi kawangun sarta kumaha jalanna évolusi éta galaksi sapanjang sajarah alam semesta. Sababaraha tiori dina widang ieu ayeuna parantos ditarima sacara lega ku para ahli, nanging ieu widang téh masih kénéh janten widang panalungtikan anu kacida aktifna dina dunya astrofisika. === Formasi === Prosés kawangunna galaksi mangrupa salasahiji patarosan utama dina widang astronomi. Tiori-tiori anu aya bisa dibagi kana dua kategori: ''top-down'' (ti luhur ka handap) jeung ''bottom-up'' (ti handap ka luhur). Dina tiori ''top-down'', saperti modél Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage (ELS), [[protogalaksi]] kawangun tina runtuhna matéri skala badag sacara babarengan anu lilana kira-kira saratus juta taun.<ref>Eggen, O. J.; Lynden-Bell, D.; Sandage, A. R. Evidence from the motions of old stars that the Galaxy collapsed. Astrophysical Journal, vol. 136, p. 748, 1962</ref> Dina tiori ''bottom-up'', saperti modél Searle-Zinn (SZ), [[gugus bal]] (''globular clusters'') kawangun ti heula, saterusna sajumlah objék ieu ngahiji (akresi) pikeun ngawangun galaksi anu leuwih badag. Tiori modéren ayeuna kudu diropéa pikeun ngasupkeun pangaruh tina ayana halo [[bahan poék]] anu kacida badagna. Ieu di handap mangrupa gambaran ringkes ngeunaan modél formasi galaksi: Teu lila sanggeus mangsa rékombinasi, matéri [[baryon]] mimiti ngumpul sarta mengket di sabudeureun halo bahan poék anu tiis. Béntang-béntang halo anu miboga laju luhur sarta enol [[Logam (astronomi)|kandungan logam]] (disebut [[Béntang Populasi III]]) mangrupa béntang anu pangheulana kawangun nalika protogalaksi mimiti mengker. Ieu béntang-béntang raksasa téh gancang pisan jadi [[supernova]], anu saterusna ngaleupaskeun unsur-unsur beurat ka [[média antarbéntang]]. Dina jero samiliar taun saterusna, [[gugus bal]], [[liang hideung supermasif]] di puseur galaksi, sarta [[puseur galaksi]] (''bulge'') anu diwangun ku [[Béntang Populasi II]] nu miskin logam mimiti kawangun. Dina waktu dua miliar taun, sésa matéri séjénna mimiti matuh sarta ngabentuk [[piringan galaksi]]. Galaksi bakal terus nyerep matéri anu asup tina [[awan laju luhur]] sarta [[galaksi kerdil]] sapanjang hirupna; siklus lahir jeung paéhna béntang bakal nambahan jumlah unsur beurat, anu tungtungna ngamungkinkeun kawangunna [[planét]]. [[Gambar:Pr3 400galaxypix.jpg|225px|thumb|Galaxy Abell 1835 IR1916 is seen as a tiny dot in this photo of distant galaxies. Image courtesy of [[European Southern Observatory|ESO]].|pra=Special:FilePath/Pr3_400galaxypix.jpg]] Galaksi pangkolotna anu kungsi kapanggih nepi ka ayeuna, nyaéta [[IOK-1]], dipaluruh dina Séptémber 2006 ku Masanori Iye ti Observatorium Astronomi Nasional Jepang ngagunakeun Téleskop Subaru di Hawaii. Pancaran radiasi Lyman-alpha ti ieu galaksi miboga [[géséran beureum]] (''redshift'') 6,96, anu hartina umurna geus tilu belas miliar taun. Sanajan sawatara élmuwan kungsi ngaklaim ayana objék séjén (saperti Abell 1835 IR1916) anu dianggap leuwih kolot, umur jeung komposisi IOK-1 mah geus bisa dibuktikeun kalayan leuwih kapercaya.<ref>McMahon, R. (2006). ''Journey to the birth of the Universe''. [[NATURE]]: vol. 443, issue of September 14, 2006.</ref> Ayana protogalaksi anu kacida kolotna kieu méré gambaran yén éta galaksi téh pastina tumuwuh dina mangsa anu disebut "Zaman Kadalapan" (''Dark Ages'', saméméh generasi béntang munggaran aya) tina kateupapakan [[anisotropi]] anu aya dina éra [[rékombinasi]], kira-kira tilu ratus rébu taun sanggeus [[Big Bang]]. Kateupapakan dina skala anu merenah kieu hasil ditalungtik ngagunakeun [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]] (WMAP) dina taun 2003. Bukti séjén pikeun modél formasi galaksi ieu asalna tina kapanggihna [[Béntang Populasi III]] anu kacida kunona. Béntang raksasa, [[HE0107-5240]], anu kapanggih dina taun 2002 ku para panalungtik di [[Universitas Hamburg]], dipercaya salaku béntang pangkolotna anu kungsi dipaluruh di Bima Sakti, jalaran béda jeung béntang anu leuwih ngora, ieu béntang téh bener-bener beresih tina kandungan logam (''metal-free''). Sanggeus éta, béntang-béntang séjén anu sarua kolotna (saperti HE 1327) ogé parantos hasil dipaluruh. === Évolusi === Sajumlah panalungtikan némbongkeun yén [[Galaksi Bima Sakti]] nuju usik ngadeukeutan [[Galaksi Andromeda]] kalayan laju kira-kira 130 km/s, sarta dumasar kana gerak gurat sisi (lateral), duanana bisa waé tabrakan dina jangka waktu lima nepi ka genep miliar taun ka hareup. Tabrakan galaksi saperti kitu téh mangrupa hal anu lumrah lumangsung. Jalaran jarak antar béntang anu kacida jauhna, sabagian badag sistem béntang dina galaksi anu tabrakan moal loba kapangaruhan. Nanging, tarikan gravitasi kana [[gas antarbéntang]] sarta kekebul anu ngabentuk leungeun spiral bakal ngahasilkeun untuyan béntang anu panjang, sarupa jeung anu katémbong dina NGC 250 atawa [[Galaksi Anténa]]. Sanajan Bima Sakti tacan kungsi tabrakan jeung galaksi anu sagedé Andromeda, bukti-bukti ngeunaan tabrakan Bima Sakti jeung [[galaksi kerdil]] anu leuwih leutik di mangsa katukang téh beuki loba kapanggih. [[Galaksi spiral]], saperti Bima Sakti, ngan bisa ngahasilkeun generasi béntang anyar salila maranéhna miboga [[awan molekul]] [[hidrogén]] antarbéntang anu padet dina leungeun spiralna. [[Galaksi elips]] mah tétéla geus teu miboga ieu gas, sahingga teu bisa deui ngabentuk béntang anyar. Nanging, pasokan bahan pikeun ngabentuk béntang téh aya watesna; nalika béntang-béntang ngarobah hidrogén jadi unsur anu leuwih beurat, mangka jumlah béntang anu kawangun bakal beuki saeutik. Saatos lekasanana mangsa pembentukan béntang dina waktu kurang ti saratus miliar taun, "zaman béntang" bakal bérés dina waktu sakitar sapuluh triliun nepi ka saratus triliun taun ($10^{13}$–$10^{14}$ taun), nalika béntang pangleutikna anu umurna pangpanjangna, nyaéta [[katai beureum]], mimiti pareum. Dina tungtung zaman béntang, galaksi-galaksi ngan bakal diwangun ku [[objék kompak]]: [[katai cokelat]], [[katai hideung]], [[katai bodas]] anu mendingan, [[béntang neutron]], sarta [[liang hideung]]. Ahirna, balukar tina [[waktu rélaksasi|rélaksasi gravitasi]], sakabéh béntang bakal ragrag kana [[liang hideung supermasif]] di puseur galaksi, atawa dialungkeun ka jero rohangan antargalaksi anu kacida jerona balukar tina tabrakan-tabrakan. == Biologi galaktik == {{utama|Kahirupan di saluareun bumi}} [[Biologi]] sakumaha anu dipikanyaho ku urang ayeuna, dianggap ngan bisa aya di sabudeureun béntang [[Klasifikasi béntang|tipe-G]] generasi katilu anu aya di wewengkon tengah leungeun spiral [[galaksi spiral]], saperti [[Panonpoé]]. [[Galaksi elips]], anu dihasilkeun tina loba pisan [[tabrakan galaksi]], gancang pisan kaleungitan awan [[média antarbéntang|gas hidrogén antarbéntangna]], sahingga teu bisa deui ngabentuk generasi béntang anyar. [[Galaksi teu miboga aturan]] miboga saeutik pisan béntang kolot, sahingga katingalna miboga konséntrasi unsur beurat anu saeutik, padahal éta unsur téh kacida diperlukeunana pikeun biologi kawas di Bumi. Malah di jero galaksi spiral ogé, biologi téh sigana diwatesanan ngan di wewengkon tengah leungeun spiral hungkul; jalaran dina [[sferoid galaksi]] (halo) atawa bagian luar leungeun spiral mah unsur beurat téh kacida saeutikna. Sabalikna, dina awan gas di sabudeureun puseur galaksi, konséntrasi unsur beuratna luhur teuing, sarta interaksi antarbéntang mindeng teuing kajadian, sahingga hésé pikeun planét sagedé Bumi kawangun dina orbit bunder anu stabil di sabudeureun béntangna.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lineweaver |first=C. H. |last2=Fenner |first2=Y. |last3=Gibson |first3=B. K. |title=The Galactic Habitable Zone and the Age of Distribution of Complex Life in the Milky Way |journal=Science |year=2004 |volume=303 |issue=5654 |pages=59–62}}</ref> == Tempo ogé == * [[Active galaxy]] * [[Barred spiral galaxy]] * [[Dwarf galaxy]] * [[Dwarf elliptical galaxy]] * [[Dwarf spheroidal galaxy]] * [[Elliptical galaxy]] * [[Galaxy classification]] * [[Galaxy formation and evolution]] * [[Groups and clusters of galaxies]] * [[Interacting galaxy]] * [[Irregular galaxy]] * [[Lenticular galaxy]] * [[List of galaxies]] * [[List of nearest galaxies]] * [[Radio galaxy]] * [[Ring galaxy]] * [[Spiral galaxy]] * [[Starburst galaxy]] * [[Seyfert galaxy]] * [[Timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large scale structure]] == Référénsi == <references /> * Terence Dickinson: ''The Universe and Beyond (Fourth Edition)'', Firefly Books Ltd. 2004, 2004 {{commons|Category:Galaksi}} == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.seds.org/messier/galaxy.html Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages] * [http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/ An Atlas of The Universe] * [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies Galaxies - Information and amateur observations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912191650/http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies/ |date=2015-09-12 }} * [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm The Oldest Galaxy Yet Found] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060411094750/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm |date=2006-04-11 }} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2381935.stm The Oldest Star found in the Galaxy] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20060629.shtml Galaxies - discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme] [[Kategori:Galaksi| ]] [[Kategori:Struktur kosmos skala gedé]] mhz8ck11tdibp9muo7c6csq6obubt7s 0 14648 711600 681080 2026-08-07T00:03:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711600 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997_hires_adj.jpg|thumb|250px|Komét Hale-Bopp]] '''Komét''' (simbol: [[File:Comet symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|☄]]) nyaéta banda leutik dina [[Surya Mandala|sistim suryamandala]] nu ngorbit kana [[panonpoé]] sarta (kadang-kadang) mintonkeun [[koma (komét)|koma]] (atawa atmosfir) jeung/atawa buntut&nbsp;— duanana utamana disababkeun ku ayana pangaruh radiasi panonpoé kana [[inti komét|inti]] komét, nu mana manéna sorangan mangrupa banda leutik nu diwangun ku [[batu]], [[kebul]], jeung [[és]]. Orbit komét robah kalayan konstan: asalna di saluareun [[Surya Mandala|sistim suryamandala]], sarta miboga kacenderungan kacida dipangaruhannana (atawa dikacokeun) ku planét gedé nu rélatif deukeut. Sababaraha di antarana pindah kana orbit ''sungrazing'' nu ngaruksak komét nalika manéhna deukeuteun paponpoé, sedengkeun lianna mah kapiceun ka saluareun [[Surya Mandala|sistim suryamandala]] salilalana. lolobana komét dipercaya asalana tina halimun (''[[Oort cloud]]'') dina jarak nu jauh ti Srangéngé nu ngandung ''debris'' <!--(ruruntuk, talawéngkar?--> nu tinggaleun tina [[kondénsasi]] [[solar nebula|nébula srangéngé]]; sisi luar nébula ieu cukup [[suhu|tiis]] sahingga [[cai]] ogé aya dina [[fase (bahan)|kaayaan]] nu mangrupa [[padetan]] (lain [[gas]]). [[Asteroid]] asalna ngaliwatan prosés nu béda, tapi komét nu geus kacida kolotna, nu geus leungiteun sakabéh bahan ''[[volatile]]''-na, bisa ogé jadi sarupaning asteroid. Kecap ''komét'' asalna tina [[basa Inggris]] nu ngaliwatan [[basa Latén]] ''cometes''. Tina kecap [[basa Yunani]] ''komē'' mah, hartina téh "buuk na hulu," [[Aristotélés]] mimiti maké kecap turunan ''komētēs'' keur ngagambarkeun komét miangka "béntang buukan." == Pasipatan fisik == {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Long-period comets are believed to originate in a distant cloud known as the [[Oort cloud]] (after the astronomer [[Jan Hendrik Oort]] who hypothesised its existence).<ref>{{cite web| publisher= NASA Astrophysics Data System| title= Oort, J. H. ''The structure of the cloud of comets surrounding the Solar System and a hypothesis concerning its origin''. Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands, Vol XI, No. 408, pg 91-110. 1950. |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1950BAN....11...91O | accessdate=2006-07-05}}</ref> They are sometimes perturbed from their distant orbits by gravitational interactions, falling into extremely elliptical orbits that can bring them very close to the [[Sun]]. One théory says that as a comet approaches the [[inner solar system]], [[solar radiation]] causes part of its outer layers, composed of ice and other materials, to melt and evaporate, but this has not been proven. The stréams of [[Cosmic dust|dust]] and gas this reléases form a very large, extremely tenuous atmosphere around the comet called the ''[[coma (cometary)|coma]]'', and the force exerted on the coma by the Sun's [[radiation pressure]] and [[solar wind]] cause an enormous ''tail'' to form, which points away from the sun. The stréams of dust and gas éach form their own distinct tail, éach pointed in slightly different directions. The tail made of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail. At the same time, the ion tail, made of gases, always pointing directly away from the Sun, as this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than dust is, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. While the solid body of comets (called the ''[[Comet nucleus|nucleus]]'') is generally less than 50&nbsp;km across, the coma may be larger than the Sun, and the ion tails have been observed to extend 150 million km (1 [[Astronomical unit]]) or more. Both the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible from the [[Earth]] when a comet passes through the inner solar system, the dust reflecting sunlight directly, and the gases glowing from [[ion]]isation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a [[telescope]], but a few éach decade become bright enough to be visible with the naked eye. Before the invention of the telescope, comets seemed to appéar out of nowhere in the sky and gradually vanish out of sight. They were usually considered bad omens of déaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes. From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that their appéarances have been noticed by humans for millennia. One very famous old recording of a comet is the appéarance of Halley's Comet on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], which records the [[Norman conquest]] of [[England]] in AD 1066.<ref>{{cite web| publisher=Reading Museum Service| year=2004| title=Britain's Bayeux Tapestry, scene 1| url=http://www.bayeuxtapestry.org.uk/| accessdate=2005-03-22}}</ref> Surprisingly, cometary nuclei are among the [[dark]]est objects known to exist in the solar system. The [[Giotto mission|Giotto]] probe found that [[Comet Halley]]'s nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the light that falls on it, and [[Deep Space 1]] discovered that [[Comet Borrelly]]'s surface reflects only 2.4% to 3% of the light that falls on it; by comparison, [[asphalt]] reflects 7% of the light that falls on it. It is thought that complex [[organic compound]]s are the dark surface material. Solar héating drives off volatile compounds léaving behind héavy long-chain organics that tend to be very dark, like [[tar]] or crude [[Petroleum|oil]]. The very darkness of cometary surfaces allows them to absorb the héat necessary to drive their outgassing. In 1996, comets were found to emit [[X-rays]].<ref>{{cite web| title=First X-Rays from a Comet Discovered| url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/rosat/hyakutake.html| accessdate=2006-03-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725040521/http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/rosat/hyakutake.html |date=2012-07-25 }}</ref> These X-rays surprised reséarchers, because their emission by comets had not previously been predicted. The X-rays are thought to be generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged [[ions]] fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules. In these collisions, the ions will capture one or more electrons léading to emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.kvi.nl/~bodewits| title=Probing space weather with comets| accessdate=2006-03-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060213232726/http://www.kvi.nl/~bodewits |date=2006-02-13 }}</ref> == Sipat orbit == [[Gambar:Comet_Kohoutek_orbit_p391.jpg|thumb|376px|right|Orbits of [[Comet Kohoutek]] and [[Earth]], illustrating the high [[Eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the orbit and more rapid motion when closer to the [[Sun]].]] [[Gambar:Comets_by_aphelion.png|thumb|200px|right|Histogram of the aphelia of the 2005 comets, showing the giant planet comet families. The abscissa is the natural logarithm of the aphelion expressed in AUs.]] Comets are classified according to their [[orbital period]]s. ''Short period comets'' have orbits of less than 200 yéars, while ''Long period comets'' have longer orbits but remain gravitationally bound to the Sun, and [[main-belt comets]] orbit within the [[asteroid belt]]. ''Single-apparition comets'' have [[parabolic]] or [[hyperbolic]] orbits which will cause them to permanently exit the solar system after one pass by the Sun. modérn observations have revéaled a few genuinely hyperbolic orbits, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter. If comets pervaded interstellar space, they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars néar the Sun (a few tens of kilometres per second). If such objects entered the solar system, they would have positive total énérgies, and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic orbits. A rough calculation shows that there might be 4 hyperbolic comets per century, within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude. On the other extreme, the short period [[Comet Encke]] has an orbit which never places it farther from the Sun than [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the [[Kuiper belt]], wheréas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the [[Oort cloud]]. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed to explain why comets get perturbed into highly elliptical orbits, including close approaches to other [[star]]s as the Sun follows its orbit through the [[Milky Way]] [[Galaxy]]; the Sun's hypothetical companion star [[Nemesis (star)|Nemesis]]; or an unknown [[Planet X]]{{citation needed}}<!-- This is a controversial topic. -->. Because of their low masses, and their elliptical orbits which frequently take them close to the giant planets, cometary orbits are often perturbed. Short period comets display a strong tendency for their [[Apsis|aphelia]] to coincide with a [[giant planet]]'s orbital radius, with the Jupiter family of comets being the largest, as the [[histogram]] shows. It is cléar that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter. Jupiter is the source of the gréatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined, in addition to being the swiftest of the giant planets. A number of periodic comets discovered in éarlier decades or previous centuries are now "lost." Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appéarances. However, occasionally a "new" comet will be discovered and upon calculation of its orbit it turns out to be an old "lost" comet. An example is Comet [[11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR]], discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter. It was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by [[LINEAR]] in 2001.<ref>{{cite web| first=Gary W.| last=Kronk| year=2001–2005| title=Cometography| url=http://cometography.com| accessdate=2006-03-05}}, '11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR'</ref> == Comet nomenclature == The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Before any systematic naming convention was adopted, comets were named in a variety of ways. Prior to the éarly 20th century, most comets were simply referred to by the yéar in which they appéared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the "[[C/1680 V1|Great Comet of 1680]]" (Kirch's Comet), the "[[C/1882 R1|Great September Comet of 1882]]," and the "[[Great Daylight Comet of 1910|Daylight Comet of 1910]]" ("Great January Comet of 1910"). After [[Edmund Halley]] demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759, that comet became known as [[Comet Halley]]. Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, [[Comet Encke]]<ref name="Kronk, '2P/Encke'">Kronk, '2P/Encke'</ref> and [[Comet Biela]],<ref name="Kronk, '3D/Biela'">Kronk, '3D/Biela'</ref> were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers. Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appéared only once continued to be referred to by the yéar of their apparition. In the éarly 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today. A comet is named after up to three independent discoverers. In recent yéars, many comets have been discovered by instruments operated by large téams of astronomers, and in this case, comets may be named for the instrument. For example, [[C/1983 H1|Comet IRAS-Araki-Alcock]] was discovered independently by the [[IRAS]] satellite and amateur astronomers [[Genichi Araki]] and [[George Alcock]]. In the past, when multiple comets were discovered by the same individual, group of individuals, or téam, the comets' names were distinguished by adding a numeral to the discoverers' names; thus Comets [[P/1990 V1|Shoemaker-Levy 1]]–[[D/1993 F2|9]]. Today, the large numbers of comets discovered by some instruments (in August 2005, [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] discovered its 1000th comet<ref>{{cite web| publisher=Solar and Heliospheric Observatory| year=2005| title=The SOHO 1000th Comet Contest| url=http://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/comet1000/| accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref>) has rendered this system impractical, and no attempt is made to ensure that éach comet has a unique name. Instéad, the comets' systematic designations are used to avoid confusion. Until 1994, comets were first given a [[provisional designation]] consisting of the yéar of their discovery followed by a lowercase letter indicating its order of discovery in that yéar (for example, [[C/1969 Y1|Comet Bennett 1969i]] was the 9th comet discovered in 1969). Once the comet had been observed through perihelion and its orbit had been established, the comet was given a permanent designation of the yéar of its [[perihelion]], followed by a [[Roman numeral]] indicating its order of perihelion passage in that yéar, so that Comet Bennett 1969i became [[C/1969 Y1|Comet Bennett 1970 II]] (it was the second comet to pass perihelion in 1970)<ref name="arnett">{{cite web| first=Bill| last=Arnett| year=2000| title=Astronomical Names| url=http://www.nineplanets.org/names.html| accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref> Incréasing numbers of comet discoveries made this procedure awkward, and in 1994 the [[International Astronomical Union]] approved a new naming system. Comets are now designated by the yéar of their discovery followed by a letter indicating the half-month of the discovery and a number indicating the order of discovery (a system similar to that alréady used for [[asteroid]]s), so that the fourth comet discovered in the second half of February 2006 would be designated 2006&nbsp;D4. Prefixes are also added to indicate the nature of the comet, with P/ indicating a periodic comet, C/ indicating a non-periodic comet, X/ indicating a comet for which no reliable orbit could be calculated, D/ indicating a comet which has broken up or been lost, and A/ indicating an object that was mistakenly identified as a comet, but is actually a [[minor planet]]. After their second observed perihelion passage, periodic comets are also assigned a number indicating the order of their discovery.<ref name="CSBN">{{cite web| publisher=Committee on Small Body Nomenclature| year=1994| title=Cometary Designation System| url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/CometResolution.html| accessdate=2006-03-05|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/19990117090623/cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/CometResolution.html|archivedate=1999-01-17}}</ref> So Halley's Comet, the first comet to be identified as periodic, has the systematic designation [[1P/1682 Q1]]. [[Comet Hale-Bopp]]'s designation is C/1995 O1. There are only four objects that are cross-listed as both comets and asteroids: [[2060 Chiron]] ([[95P/Chiron]]), [[133P/Elst-Pizarro]] ([[7968 Elst-Pizarro]]), [[60558 Echeclus]] ([[174P/Echeclus]]) and [[4015 Wilson-Harrington]] ([[107P/Wilson-Harrington]]). == History of comet study == === Early observations and thought === Historically, comets were thought to be unlucky, or even interpreted as attacks by héavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants. Some authorities interpret references to "falling stars" in [[Gilgamesh]], [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] and the Book of [[Enoch]] as references to comets, or possibly [[bolide]]s. In the first book of his ''[[Meteorology]]'', [[Aristotle]] propounded the view of comets that would hold sway in Western thought for néarly two thousand yéars. He rejected the idéas of several éarlier philosophers that comets were [[planet]]s, or at léast a phenomenon related to the planets, on the grounds that while the planets confined their motion to the circle of the [[Zodiac]], comets could appéar in any part of the sky.<ref>{{cite book| last=Aristotle| year=350 B.C.| title=Meteorologia| url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629061102/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html |date=2011-06-29 }}, l. 1. c. 6.</ref> Instéad, he described comets as a phenomenon of the upper [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], where hot, dry exhalations gathered and occasionally burst into flame. Aristotle held this mechanism responsible for not only comets, but also [[meteor]]s, the [[aurora borealis]], and even the [[Milky Way]].<ref>Aristotle, l. 1. c. 7.</ref> A few later classical philosophers did dispute this view of comets. [[Seneca the Younger]], in his ''[[Natural Questions]]'', observed that comets moved regularly through the sky and were undisturbed by the [[wind]], behavior more typical of celestial than atmospheric phenomena. While he conceded that the other planets do not appéar outside the Zodiac, he saw no réason that a planet-like object could not move through any part of the sky, humanity's knowledge of celestial things being very limited.<ref>{{cite book | author=Carl Sagan & Ann Druyan | title=Comet | url=https://archive.org/details/cometsaga00saga | location=New York | publisher=Random House | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0-394-54908-2| pages= [https://archive.org/details/cometsaga00saga/page/25 23]–24}}</ref> However, the Aristoteléan viewpoint proved more influential, and it was not until the 16th century that it was demonstrated that comets must exist outside the éarth's atmosphere. In 1577, a bright comet was visible for several months. The [[Denmark|Danish]] astronomer [[Tycho Brahe]] used méasurements of the comet's position taken by himself and other, géographically separated, observers to determine that the comet had no méasuréable [[parallax]]. Within the precision of the méasurements, this implied the comet must be at léast four times more distant from the éarth than the moon.<ref name="ESO part I">{{cite book| publisher=European Southern Observatory| year=2003| title=A Brief History of Comets, part I| url=http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305084811/http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html |date=2005-03-05 }}</ref> === Orbital studies === [[Gambar:Newton_Comet1680.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The orbit of the comet of 1680, fit to a [[parabola]], as shown in [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]''.]] Although comets had now been demonstrated to be in the héavens, the question of how they moved through the héavens would be debated for most of the next century. Even after [[Johannes Kepler]] had determined in 1609 that the planets moved about the sun in [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits, he was reluctant to believe that the [[Kepler's laws|laws that governed the motions of the planets]] should also influence the motion of other bodies—he believed that comets travel among the planets along straight lines. [[Galileo Galilei]], although a staunch [[Copernicus|Copernicanist]], rejected Tycho's parallax méasurements and held to the Aristoteléan notion of comets moving on straight lines through the upper atmosphere.<ref name="Prasar part II">{{cite book| first=Vigyan| last=Prasar| year=2001| title=Development of Cometary Thought, Part II| url=http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414162435/http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm |date=2005-04-14 }}</ref> The first suggestion that Kepler's laws of planetary motion should also apply to the comets was made by [[William Lower]] in 1610.<ref name="ESO part I"/> In the following decades, other astronomers, including [[Pierre Petit]], [[Giovanni Borelli]], [[Adrien Auzout]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Johann Baptist Cysat]], and [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]], all argued for comets curving about the sun on elliptical or parabolic paths, while others, such as [[Christian Huygens]] and [[Johannes Hevelius]], supported comets' linéar motion.<ref name="Prasar part II"/> The matter was resolved by the [[C/1680 V1|bright comet]] that was discovered by [[Gottfried Kirch]] on [[November 14]], [[1680]]. Astronomers throughout Europe tracked its position for several months. In 1681, the [[Saxony|Saxon]] pastor [[Georg Samuel Doerfel]] set forth his proofs that comets are héavenly bodies moving in [[parabola]]s of which the sun is the focus. Then [[Isaac Newton]], in his ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'' of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of his [[inverse square law]] of [[gravity|universal gravitation]] must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the [[conic section]]s, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example.<ref>{{cite book| first=I.S.| last=Newton| year=1687| title=Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| location=London | publisher=Josephi Streater}}, Lib. 3, Prop. 41.</ref> In 1705, [[Edmond Halley]] applied Newton's method to twenty-four cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698. He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar [[orbital element]]s, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation by [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]. Confident that these three apparitions had been three appéarances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appéar again in 1758-9.<ref name="Halley">{{cite journal | author=Edmundo Halleio | title=Astronomiæ Cometicæ Synopsis | journal=Philosophical Transactions | year=1705 | volume=24 | pages=1882–1899 }}</ref> (éarlier, Robert Hooke had identified the comet of 1664 with that of 1618,<ref>{{cite book| first=Samuel| last=Pepys| year=1893| title=The Diary of Samuel Pepys, M.A., F.R.S.| location=London|publisher=George Bell & Sons}}, 1 March 1664/5</ref> while Jéan-Dominique Cassini had suspected the identity of the comets of 1577, 1665, and 1680.<ref>Sagan, pp. 42–43</ref> Both were incorrect.) Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a téam of three [[France|French]] mathematicians: [[Alexis Clairaut]], [[Joseph Lalande]], and [[Nicole-Reine Lepaute]], who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy.<ref>Sagan, p. 83</ref> When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as [[Comet Halley]] or Halley's Comet (its official designation is '''1P/Halley'''). Its next appéarance is due in 2061. Among the comets with short enough periods to have been observed several times in the historical record, Comet Halley is unique in consistently being bright enough to be visible to the naked eye. Since the confirmation of Comet Halley's periodicity, many other periodic comets have been discovered through the [[telescope]]. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit was [[Comet Encke]] (official designation '''2P/Encke'''). Over the period 1819-1821 the [[Germany|German]] mathematician and physicist [[Johann Franz Encke]] computed orbits for a series of cometary apparitions observed in 1786, 1795, 1805, and 1818, concluded they were same comet, and successfully predicted its return in 1822.<ref name="Kronk, '2P/Encke'"/> By 1900, seventeen comets had been observed at more than one perihelion passage and recognized as periodic comets. As of April 2006, 175 comets have achieved this distinction, though several have since been destroyed or lost. In [[ephemerides]], comets are often denoted by the symbol {{unicode|☄}}. {{Cleanup-date|June 2006}} === Studies of physical characteristics === [[Gambar:Cometorbit.png|thumb|300px|Comets have highly [[elliptical orbits]]. Note the two distinct tails.]][[Isaac Newton]] described comets as compact, solid, fixed, and durable bodies: in other words, a kind of planet, which move in very oblique orbits, every way, with the gréatest freedom, persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of the planets; and their tail as a very thin, slender vapour, emitted by the héad, or [[Comet nucleus|nucleus]] of the comet, ignited or héated by the sun. Comets also seemed to Newton absolutely requisite for the conservation of the water and moisture of the planets; from their condensed vapours and exhalations all that moisture which is spent on vegetations and putrefactions, and turned into dry éarth, might be resupplied and recruited; for all vegetables were thought to incréase wholly from fluids, and turn by putrefaction into éarth. Hence the quantity of dry éarth must continually incréase, and the moisture of the globe decréase, and at last be quite evaporated, if it have not a continual supply. Newton suspected that the spirit which makes the finest, subtilest, and best part of our air, and which is absolutely requisite for the life and being of all things, came principally from the comets. Another use which he conjectured comets might be designed to serve, is that of recruiting the sun with fresh fuel, and repairing the consumption of his light by the stréams continually sent forth in every direction from that luminary — :"From his huge vapouring train perhaps to shake :Reviving moisture on the numerous orbs, :Thro' which his long ellipsis winds; perhaps :To lend new fuel to declining suns, :To light up worlds, and feed th' ethereal fire." ::: —[[James Thomson (Seasons)|James Thomson]], "The Seasons" (1730; 1748). As éarly as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, [[Immanuel Kant]] hypothesized that comets are composed of some volatile substance, whose vaporization gives rise to their brilliant displays néar perihelion.<ref>Sagan, p. 77</ref> In 1836, the German mathematician [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]], after observing stréams of vapor in the 1835 apparition of Comet Halley, proposed that the [[jet force]]s of evaporating material could be gréat enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit and argued that the non-gravitational movements of [[Comet Encke]] resulted from this mechanism.<ref>Sagan, p. 117</ref> However, another comet-related discovery overshadowed these idéas for néarly a century. Over the period 1864–1866 the [[Italy|Italian]] astronomer [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]] computed the orbit of the [[Perseids|Perseid]] [[meteor]]s, and based on orbital similarities, correctly hypothesized that the Perseids were fragments of [[Comet Swift-Tuttle]]. The link between comets and metéor showers was dramatically underscored when in 1872, a major metéor shower occurred from the orbit of [[Comet Biela]], which had been observed to split into two pieces during its 1846 apparition, and never seen again after 1852.<ref name="Kronk, '3D/Biela'"/> A "gravel bank" modél of comet structure arose, according to which comets consist of loose piles of small rocky objects, coated with an icy layer. By the middle of the twentieth century, this modél suffered from a number of shortcomings: in particular, it failed to explain how a body that contained only a little ice could continue to put on a brilliant display of evaporating vapor after several perihelion passages. In 1950, [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]] proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock.<ref name=Whipple>{{cite journal | author=F.L. Whipple | title=A Comet Model I. The Acceleration of Comet Encke | journal=Astrophysical Journal | year=1950 | volume=111|pages=375–394 }}</ref> This "dirty snowball" modél soon became accepted. It was confirmed when an armada of [[spacecraft]] (including the [[European Space Agency]]'s ''[[Giotto mission|Giotto]]'' probe and the [[Soviet Union]]'s ''[[Vega 1]]'' and ''[[Vega 2]]'') flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 to photograph the nucleus and observed the jets of evaporating material. The American probe ''[[Deep Space 1]]'' flew past the nucleus of [[Comet Borrelly]] on [[September 21]] [[2001]] and confirmed that the characteristics of Comet Halley are common on other comets as well. [[Gambar:Comet_wild_2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Comet Wild 2]] exhibits jets on lit side and dark side, stark relief, and is dry.]] The [[Stardust (spacecraft)|''Stardust'']] spacecraft, launched in February 1999, collected particles from the coma of [[81P/Wild|Comet Wild 2]] in January 2004, and returned the samples to éarth in a capsule in January 2006. Claudia Alexander, a program scientist for Rosetta from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory who has modéled comets for yéars, reported to space.com about her astonishment at the number of jets, their appéarance on the dark side of the comet as well as on the light side, their ability to lift large chunks of rock from the surface of the comet and the fact that comet Wild 2 is not a loosely-cemented rubble pile.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/stardust_results_040617.html| title=Strange Comet Unlike Anything Known| first=Robert Roy| last=Britt| publisher=Space.com| accessdate=2006-03-05|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040622054240/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/stardust_results_040617.html|archivedate=2004-06-22}}</ref> Forthcoming space missions will add gréater detail to our understanding of what comets are made of. In July 2005, the [[Deep Impact (space mission)|''Deep Impact'']] probe blasted a crater on [[9P/Tempel|Comet Tempel 1]] to study its interior. And in 2014, the Européan [[Rosetta space probe|''Rosetta'']] probe will orbit comet [[67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko|Comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko]] and place a small lander on its surface. Rosetta observed the Deep Impact event, and with its set of very sensitive instruments for cometary investigations, it used its capabilities to observe Tempel 1 before, during and after the impact. At a distance of about 80 million kilometres from the comet, Rosetta was the only spacecraft other then Deep Impact itself to view the comet. === Debat ngeunaan kandungan komét === <!--[[Image:Comet_borrelly.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Comet Borrelly]] exhibits jets, yet is hot and dry.]]--> As late as 2002, there is conflict on how much ice is in a comet. NASA's Deep Space 1 téam, working at NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab, obtained high-resolution images of the surface of comet Borrelly. They announced that comet Borrelly exhibits distinct jets, yet has a hot, dry surface. The assumption that comets contain water and other ices led Dr. Laurence Soderblom of the U.S. Géological Survey to say, "The spectrum suggests that the surface is hot and dry. It is surprising that we saw no traces of water ice." However, he goes on to suggest that the ice is probably hidden below the crust as "either the surface has been dried out by solar heating and maturation or perhaps the very dark soot-like material that covers Borrelly's surface masks any trace of surface ice".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html| title=NASA Spacecraft Finds Comet Has Hot, Dry Surface| year=2002| publisher=JPL| accessdate=2006-03-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012140123/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html |date=2012-10-12 }}</ref> The recent [[Deep Impact (space mission)|Deep Impact]] probe has also yielded results suggesting that the majority of a comet's water ice is below the surface, and that these resevoirs feed the jets of vaporised water that form the coma of Tempel 1.[http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2005-06/05-072.html] == Komét nu kasohor == === Komét gedé === While hundreds of tiny comets pass through the inner solar system every yéar, only a very few comets are noticed by the general public. About every decade or so, a comet will become bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer — such comets are often designated [[Great Comet]]s. In times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens. More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, the éarth passed through the comet's tail, and erronéous newspaper reports inspired a féar that [[cyanogen]] in the tail might poison millions, while the appéarance of [[Comet Hale-Bopp]] in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] cult. To most péople, however, a gréat comet is simply a béautiful spectacle. See images of Hale-Bopp at the [http://www.kopernik.org/images/archive/halebopp.htm Comet Hale-Bopp Images webpage]. Predicting whether a comet will become a gréat comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions. Broadly spéaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from the éarth when at its brightest, it will have a chance of becoming a gréat comet. However, [[Comet Kohoutek]] in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular, but failed to do so. [[Comet West]], which appéared three yéars later, had much lower expectations (perhaps because scientists were much warier of glowing predictions after the Kohoutek fiasco), but became an extremely impressive comet.<ref>Kronk, 'C/1975 V1 (West)'</ref> The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appéarance of any gréat comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession — [[Comet Hyakutake]] in 1996, followed by Hale-Bopp, which réached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two yéars éarlier. As yet, the 21st century has not seen the arrival of any gréat comets. === Komét nu teu ilahar === Of the thousands of known comets, some are very unusual. Comet Encke orbits from inside the orbit of Jupiter to inside the orbit of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] while Comet [[29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann]] orbits in a néarly circular orbit entirely between Jupiter and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].<ref>Kronk, '29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 1'</ref> [[2060 Chiron]], whose unstable orbit keeps it between Saturn and [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed.<ref>Kronk, '95P/Chiron'</ref> Similarly, [[137P/Shoemaker-Levy|Comet Shoemaker-Levy 2]] was originally designated asteroid [[1990 UL3|1990 UL₃]].<ref>Kronk, '137P/Shoemaker-Levy 2'</ref> Some [[near-earth asteroid]]s are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets which no longer experience outgassing. Some comets have been observed to bréak up. [[3D/Biela|Comet Biela]] was one significant example, bréaking into two during its 1846 perihelion passage. The two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again after that. Instéad, spectacular metéor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible. A lesser metéor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and is caused by the éarth crossing Biela's orbit.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://comets.amsmeteors.org/meteors/showers/andromedids.html| title=The Andromedids ("Bielids")| publisher=Gary W. Kronk's Comets & Meteor Showers| accessdate=2006-03-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051218182304/http://comets.amsmeteors.org/meteors/showers/andromedids.html |date=2005-12-18 }}</ref> Several other comets have been seen to bréak up during their perihelion passage, including gréat comets West and [[Comet Ikeya-Seki]]. Some comets, such as the [[Kreutz Sungrazers]], orbit in groups and are thought to be pieces of a single object that has previously broken apart. Another very significant cometary disruption was that of [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]], which was discovered in 1993. At the time of its discovery, the comet was in orbit around Jupiter, having been captured by the planet during a very close approach in 1992. This close approach had alréady broken the comet into hundreds of pieces, and over a period of 6 days in July 1994, these pieces slammed into Jupiter's atmosphere — the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the solar system.<ref>Kronk, 'D/1993 F2 Shoemaker-Levy 9'</ref> However, it has been suggested that the likely object responsible for the [[Tunguska event]] in 1908 was a fragment of Comet Encke. Less likely is the attribution to an Encke fragment of having caused the formation of the [[Giordano Bruno (crater)]] on the Moon in 1178. === Komét nu kiwari bisa ditempo === [[Komét SWAN]], nu ditandaan ogé minangka C/2006M4, kapanggih ku [[solar and heliospheric observatory|SWAN/SOHO]] tanggal 20 Juni 2006, [http://cometography.com/lcomets/2006m4.html as of October 6] katempo maké toropong di langit wanci janari leutik dina konstélasi [[Canes Venatici]]. Périhéliumna mah 28 Séptémber. Komét ieu meta kacida gancangna ka [[Aquila]] tur jadi targé nu gampang pikeun ditoropong di langit wanci munggaran peuting salila bulan Oktober. Kiwari mah geus ''pudar'' alatan nambahna jarak ti Bumi ka Srangéngé. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar komét périodis]] * [[Daptar komét non-périodis]] * [[Kajadian tubrukan]] * [[Skala Torino]] keur ngagolongkeun bahya tubrukan * [[Komét dina fiksi]] == Référénsi == <div class="references-small"> <references/> # Européan Southern Observatory. (2003). "A Brief History of Comets." Available online: [http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html Part I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305084811/http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html |date=2005-03-05 }}, [http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-2.html Part II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303052804/http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-2.html |date=2007-03-03 }}. # Vigyan Prasar (2001). "Development of Cometary Thought." Available online: [http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/mar2001/comets.htm Part I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050416165441/http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/mar2001/comets.htm |date=2005-04-16 }}, [http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm Part II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414162435/http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm |date=2005-04-14 }}. </div> == Tumbu luar == {{Commons2|Comets}} * [http://www.cometography.com/ Cometography.com] * [http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/comet.html David Jewitt overview of the comets] * [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/ ESSAY ON COMETS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050402090716/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/ |date=2005-04-02 }}, which gained the first of Dr. Fellowes's prizes, proposed to those who had attended the University of Edinburgh within the last twelve yéars. By David Milne. Publisher: Edinburgh, Printed for A. Black; 1828. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/1f/essay_on_comets.pdf layered PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409074551/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/1f/essay_on_comets.pdf |date=2008-04-09 }} format)'' * [http://www.newscientistspace.com/channel/solar-system/comets-asteroids Everything you wanted to know about comets and asteroids] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''. * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/Headlines.html Listing of newly discovered comets] * {{dmoz|Science/Astronomy/Solar_System/Asteroids,_Comets_and_Meteors/Comets/|Comets}} * [http://www.aerith.net/index.html Seiichi Yoshida's Comet Information website] * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/icq/icq.html Source of useful comet-related material on the Web] {{PlanetLeutik}} {{Tatasurya}} [[Kategori:Komét|*]] [[Kategori:Planét leutik]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> tnrglysccbb3pi5ixjnxpmy2ee4bbjl 0 18119 711753 703854 2026-08-07T03:26:05Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711753 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Orang utan<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=183-184}}</ref> | image = Pongo_pygmaeus_(orangutang).jpg | image_width = 200px | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia|Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Primata]] | familia = [[Hominidae]] | subfamilia = '''Ponginae''' | subfamilia_authority = [[Daniel Giraud Elliot|Elliot]], 1912 | genus = '''''Pongo''''' | genus_authority = [[Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, Comte de Lacépéde|Lacépéde]], 1799 | type_species = ''[[Orang utan Bornéo|Simia pygmaeus]]'' | type_species_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1760 | subdivision_ranks = [[Spésiés]] | subdivision = ''[[Orang utan Bornéo|Pongo pygmaeus]]''<br /> ''[[Orang utan Sumatra|Pongo abelii]]''<br /> ''[[Pongo tapanuliensis]]'' | range_map = Mapa distribuicao pongo.png | range_map_width = 200px | range_map_caption = Sebaran orang utan }} '''Mayas'''/'''mawas''' (Dayak), atawa '''Orang utan''' (''urang leuweung'') nujul ka tilu [[spésiés]] [[Hominidae|kera gedé]] ku kawentar ku kapinteranana, panjang leungeun jeung bulu coklat semu beureum. Ieu sato pituin ti [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Malaysia]], hirupna ngan di [[leuweung hujan]] di pulo [[Kalimantan]] jeung [[Sumatra]], najan aya ogé fosilna nu kapanggih di [[Jawa]], [[Viétnam]], jeung [[Cina]]. Tilu spésiés ieu mangrupa sésa ti genus ''Pongo'' jeung subfamili ''Ponginae'' (nu ogé ngawengku genera ''[[Gigantopithecus]]'' jeung ''[[Sivapithecus]]'' nu geus lastari). Sebutan 'orang utan' asalna tina [[basa Malayu]].<ref name=“Gebang”>{{Cite book | title =Melestarikan alam Indonesia| first =Jatna | last =Supriatna| publisher =Yayasan Obor Indonesia| location =Jakarta| year =2008| pages =24|ISBN=9789794616963|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=VX0crY5PkFYC&pg=PA18&dq=vegetasi+jawa+barat,+sunda&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiogsCTztbuAhWMT30KHV-ZCzoQ6AEwBnoECAYQAg#v=onepage&q=vegetasi%20jawa%20barat%2C%20sunda&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 7 Peb 2021)}}</ref> Orang utan mangrupa kera gedé nu paling [[arboréal]], sapanjang hirupna ampir salawasna cicing dina tatangkalan. Unggal peuting maranéhna nyieun sayang tina catang jeung dangdaunnan pikeun saré. Hirupna [[nyorangan]] leuwih ti kera lianna, jalu jeung bikangna ukur panggih dina mangsa kawin. Anak orang utan diasuh terus ku indungna nepi ka disapih umur 6-7 taun. Tina dedeganana, jalu jeung bikang [[dimorfismeu baga-purusa|bisa dibédakeun]]. Nu jalu jangkungna bisa nepi ka 1,8 m kalawan beurat 100&nbsp;kg, sedengkeun nu bikang leuwih leutik: jangkungna 1,3 m, beuratna 45&nbsp;kg<ref>{{cite web | title=Sumatran Orangutan Society | url=http://www.orangutans-sos.org/faq.php | accessdate=2007-04-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114233340/http://www.orangutans-sos.org/faq.php |date=2006-11-14 }}</ref>. Jalu nu geus kolot bisa kaciri tina pipina nu mébér jeung buluna nu leuwih paranjang. == Paripolah jeung basa == Teu béda ti kera gedé lianna, orang utan téh pinter. Nuturkeun [[simpanseu]] nu kungsi karékam maké pakakas ku [[Jane Goodall]] taun [[1960-an]], tengah taun [[1990-an]] kapanggih hiji populasi orang utan nu ilahar ngagunakeun pakakas pikeun dahar. Hiji makalah taun [[2003]] di jurnal ''Science'' medarkeun 'kabudayaan' orang utan<ref name=Merrill2003>{{cite web | first = Michelle last = Merrill | year = 2003 | url = http://www.duke.edu/%7Emym1/ouculturesPR.htm | title = Roads through rainforest threaten our cultured cousins}}</ref>. Dina ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' disebutkeun yén program ulikan basa orang utan munggaran dipingpin ku Dr. Francine Néago taun [[1988]]. Proyék basa orang utan di [[Smithsonian National Zoological Park|Smithsonian National Zoo]] di [[Washington, D.C.]] ngagunakeun sistem komputer nu asalna dimekarkeun di [[Universitas California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] ku Néago dibantu ku IBM<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ThinkTank/ResearchProjects/OLP/default.cfm |title=Orangutan Language Project |work=Think Tank Research Projects |publisher=[[Smithsonian National Zoological Park]] |accessdate=2006-12-20 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318005138/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ThinkTank/ResearchProjects/OLP/default.cfm |date=2009-03-18 }}</ref>. Najan umumna mah pasif, orang utan sok ogé ganggu ka nu lianna. Jalu nu can sawawa bakal nyoba jalangan jeung bikang mana waé, nu biasana bisa hasil mun jeung bikang nu sarua can sawawa. Bikang nu geus sawawa mah biasana ngusir jalu nu can sawawa, sabab leuwih suka jalangan jeung jalu nu geus sawawa. Orang utan liar kanyahoan sok ngadatangan patempatan nu dieusi manusa pikeun nyiar anak orang utan nunggelis nu dileupaskeun tina inguan, sigana mah pikeun ngaping sangkan bisa balik deui hirup di alam liar. Orang utan sigana mah kagolongkeun sato nu sok ngilu mencarkeun sababaraha spésiés tutuwuhan, kaasup ''Strychnos ignatii'' nu ngandung [[alkaloid]] [[strihnina]] nu toksik<ref>{{cite journal | last = Rijksen | first = H. D.| title = A Field Study on Sumatran Orang Utans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii, Lesson 1827): Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation | journal = The Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | month = Désémber | year = 1978 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0033-5770(197812)53%3A4%3C493%3AAFSOSO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4}}</ref>. Racunna teu mangaruhan orang utan, iwal ukur nambahan produksi [[ciduh]]na. == Spésiés == * '''Genus ''Pongo'' '''<ref name=MSW3/> ** [[Orang utan Kalimantan]] (''Pongo pygmaeus'') *** ''[[Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus]]'' - populasi kalér-ngulon *** ''[[Pongo pygmaeus morio]]'' - populasi kalér-ngétan jeung wétan *** ''[[Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii]]'' - populasi kidul-ngulon ** [[Orang utan Sumatra]] (''P. abelii'') ** ''[[Pongo tapanuliensis]]'' Orang utan téh tadina mah digolongkeun kana dua subspésiés Kalimantan jeung Sumatra, tapi ayeuna mah kanyahoan yén di Sumatra waé aya tilu subspésiés. Aya ogé nu boga pamanggih yén subspésiés ''wurmbii'' téh sarua jeung nu di Sumatra (''P. abelii''). Mun enya, spésiés nu dihasilkeun téh bakal disebut ''Pongo wurmbii'', luyu jeung ngaran heubeulna{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Fosil nu kapanggih di Viétnam asup kana spésiés ''[[Pongo hooijeri|P. hooijeri]]'', sedengkeun nu lianna nu kapanggih di sababaraha wewengkon di Asia kidul-ngétan mah masih diadurényomkeun, naha asup ka ''P. pygmaeus'', ''P. abeli'', atawa spésiés anu béda deui. == Status konservasi == [[Gambar:Orangutan.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Orang utan Sumatra]] nu kaancam lastari, kera gedé éndemik Indonésia.]] Numutkeun [[Daptar Beureum IUCN]] mamalia, spésiés orang utan di Kalimantan geus [[spésiés nu kaancam lastari|kaancam lastari]]<ref name=IUCN1>{{IUCN2006 | assessors = Eudey, A. & Members of the Primate Specialist Group | year = 2000 | title = Pongo pygmaeus | id = 17975 | downloaded = [[2006-08-25]]}}</ref>, komo deui nu di Sumatra geus kritis pisan<ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN2006 | assessors = Eudey, A. & Members of the Primate Specialist Group | year = 2000 | id = 39780 | title = Pongo abelii | downloaded = [[2006-05-11]]}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is critically endangered</ref>, sarta kadaptar dina Appendix I [[CITES]]. Populasi Kalimantan di alam liar kiwari aya 50 rébuan, sedengkeun di Sumatra kira ukur 7000-7500. Orang utan dijadikeun sato nagara resmi di [[Sabah]], Malaysia. [[Habitat]] orang utan loba diruksak ku kagiatan pertambangan, nuaran kai jeung kahuruan leuweung nu beuki ngagalaksak<ref>{{cite book | author = Rijksen, H.D. and Meijaard, E. | year = 1999 | title = Our Vanishing Relative: The Status of Wild Orang-utans at the Close of the Twentieth Century | url = https://archive.org/details/ourvanishingrela0000rijk | Dordrecht | location = Boston | publisher = Kluwer Academic Publishers}}</ref>, utamana mah alatan dirobahna [[leuweung tropis]] jadi kebon [[kalapa sawit]]<ref>http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/reports/oil_for_ape_summary.pdf</ref>. Sababaraha élmuwan [[PBB]] manghariwangkeun yén kagiatan kebon sawit ieu bisa ngabalukarkeun lastarina orang utan taun [[2012]]<ref>http://observer.guardian.co.uk/world/story/0,,2042243,00.html</ref>. <!--Much of this activity is illegal, occurring in national parks that are officially off limits to loggers, miners and plantation development.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} There is also a major problem with the poaching of baby orangutans for sale into the pet trade; the trappers usually kill the mother to steal the baby.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}--> Puseur konservasi nu utama di Indonésia di antarana aya di [[Tanjung Puting]] di [[Kalimantan Tengah]], [[Kutai]] di [[Kalimantan Wétan]], [[Gunung Palung]] di [[Kalimantan Kulon]], jeung [[Bukit Lawang]] di [[Taman Nasional Gunung Leuser]] (wates antara [[Acéh]] jeung [[Sumatra Kalér]]. Di Malaysia, wilayah konservasina nyaéta [[Semenggok]] di [[Sarawak]] jeung [[Suaka Orang Utan Sepilok]] deukeut [[Sandakan]] di [[Sabah]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Pongo|Pongo}} {{Wikispecies|Ponginae}} {{Wikispecies|Pongo}} <div class="External links-small"> '''Émbaran umum''' <div class="references-small"> * [http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/orangutan Primate Info Net ''Pongo'' Factsheet] * [http://www.grungyape.com/old/orangutan.html# Information from Grungy Ape on the difference between the two Orang-utan species] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105222502/http://www.grungyape.com/old/orangutan.html |date=2010-01-05 }} * [http://www.orionsociety.org/pages/om/05-2om/Antonetta.html OrionSociety.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208155020/http://www.orionsociety.org/pages/om/05-2om/Antonetta.html |date=2007-02-08 }} - 'Does an orangutan find Freedom in the Gift of Words? Do We?' * [http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ThinkTank/ResearchProjects/OLP/default.cfm Orang utan language project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318005138/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ThinkTank/ResearchProjects/OLP/default.cfm |date=2009-03-18 }} * [http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/groups/research/chimpanzee-cognition/CCL/ethogram/spec_laugh.jpg&imgrefurl=http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/groups/research/chimpanzee-cognition/CCL/ethogram.htm&h=382&w=784&sz=94&hl=en&start=6&tbnid=SzTd6o7BvU2mUM:&tbnh=70&tbnw=143&prev=/images%3Fq%3DChimpanzee%2Blaughter%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26rls%3DHPIA,HPIA:2006-24,HPIA:en%26sa%3DN Facial Expression & Vocalizations] * [http://www.uturatpublishing.com/francine-neago-biography.htm Dr. Francine Neago] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203222251/http://www.uturatpublishing.com/francine-neago-biography.htm |date=2016-02-03 }} Directed world's first orangutan language study. '''Panyalindungan orang utan''' * [http://www.orangutan.org/ Orangutan Foundation International] non-profit organization dedicated to "''support the conservation and understanding of the orangutan and its rain forest habitat while caring for ex-captive individuals as they make their way back to the forest.''" * [http://www.orangutannetwork.net/ The Orangutan Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060402215228/http://orangutannetwork.net/ |date=2006-04-02 }} - Documents Orangutan cultural variation / traditions and also conservation efforts * [http://www.orangutanrepublik.org/ Orang Utan Republik Education Initiative] non-profit organization whose mission is to secure the future of the orangutan through programs of education and outréach in Indonésia. * [http://www.orangutanlanguage.com/ Preserving orangutans and their habitat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011236/http://www.orangutanlanguage.com/ |date=2007-09-28 }}. Orangutan Language. '''Di Kalimantan''' * [http://www.orangutan.or.id/ The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation] * [http://www.orangutans.com.au/ The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS)] - Australia * [http://savetheorangutan.co.uk Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation UK] Part of a worldwide group dedicated to saving and preserving Orangutans in Bornéo * [http://www.panda.org/heart-of-borneo/ WWF Heart of Borneo conservation initiative] - The [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]]'s information about the Héart of Bornéo - 220,000&nbsp;km² of upland montane tropical rainforest, where endangered species such as the orang-utan, rhinoceros and pygmy elephant cling for survival * [http://www.orangutantrop.com Orangutan Tropical Peatland Research Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505070454/http://www.orangutantrop.com/ |date=2007-05-05 }} non-profit organization dedicated to studying and conserving orangutans in the Sebangau National Park,. Kalimantan." '''Di Sumatra''' * [http://www.orangutans-sos.org/ Sumatran Orangutan Society] International non-profit organization dedicated to the protection of Sumatran orangutans * [http://www.sumatranorangutan.org/ Sumatra Orangutan Conservation Program] A program under PanEco which reintroduces captured orangutans in the wilds among many other projects in Sumatra. '''Poto jeung vidéo''' * [http://ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/ThailandMalaysia/Malaysia/Sandakan/slideshow2.htm Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Center Photos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816130629/http://www.ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/ThailandMalaysia/Malaysia/Sandakan/slideshow2.htm |date=2007-08-16 }} - Photos from a rehabilitation center in Bornéo, Malaysia * ARKive - [http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Pongo_pygmaeus/ images and movies of the Bornean orang-utan ''(Pongo pygmaeus)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910055610/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Pongo_pygmaeus/ |date=2007-09-10 }} * ARKive - [http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Pongo_abelii/ images and movies of the Sumatran orang-utan ''(Pongo abelii)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060414123544/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Pongo_abelii/ |date=2006-04-14 }} * [http://www.mysabah.com/sepilok/ Orangutan Rehabilitation Center in Sepilok, Sandakan] - Photos and vidéos of the oldest Orangutan Rehabilitation Center in the world </div> {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Mamalia Asia]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Malaysia]] [[Kategori:Hominidae]] gz8d2bfpw8xv7msf4239b4oish87vzm 0 23287 711549 655562 2026-08-06T22:55:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711549 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | native_name = গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ<br/>''Gônoprojatontri Bangladesh'' | conventional_long_name = Républik Rahayat Bangladés | common_name = Bangladés | image_flag = Flag of Bangladesh.svg | image_coat = National emblem of Bangladesh.svg | symbol_type = Lambang | national_motto = | national_anthem = ''[[Amar Shonar Bangla]]''<small><br/>''Bangla Emas Kuring''</small><br/><center>[[File:Amar Sonar Bangla vocal music.oga]]</center> | image_map = Bangladesh (orthographic projection).svg | official_languages = [[Basa Benggala|Benggala]] | ethnic_groups = 97,2% [[urang Benggala|Benggala]]<br/>2,8% nu lian | ethnic_groups_year = 1998<ref name=CIA>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |title=Bangladesh |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |location=Langley, Virginia |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html |year=2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101182840/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html |date=2021-01-01 }}</ref> | capital = [[Dhaka]] | latd=23 |latm=42 |latNS=N |longd=90 |longm=21 |longEW=E | largest_city = [[Dhaka]] | legislature = ''[[Jatiyo Sangshad]]'' | government_type = [[Sistim parleméntér|Démokrasi parleméntér]] [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]]<ref name="constitution-V-1-66">[http://www.parliament.gov.bd/Constitution_English/index.htm Undang-Undang Dasar Bangladés] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306083926/http://www.parliament.gov.bd/Constitution_English/index.htm |date=2012-03-06 }}, Part V, Chapter 1, Article 66; University of Minnesota. 28 Agustus 2010</ref> | leader_title1 = [[Présidén Bangladés|Présidén]] | leader_name1 = [[Abdul Hamid (pulitikus)|Abdul Hamid]] | leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Bangladés|Perdana Mentri]] | leader_name2 = [[Sheikh Hasina]] | sovereignty_type = [[sajarah Bangladés|Kamerdikaan]] |sovereignty_note = Ti [[Pakistan]] | established_event1 = [[Poé Kamerdikaan Bangladés|Déklarasi]] | established_date1 = 26 Maret 1971 | established_date2 = Undang-Undang Dasar nu ayeuna | established_date3 = 4 Nopémber 1972<ref name=CIA/> | area = 147.570 | areami² = 56.977 <!--Don't remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | area_rank = ka-94 | area_magnitude = | percent_water = ? | population_census_year = 2011 | population_estimate = 161.083.804<ref name=CIA /> | population_estimate_year = 2012 | population_estimate_rank = ka-8 | population_density = 1.033,5 | population_densitymi² = 2.676,8 | population_density_rank = ka-9 | GDP_PPP_year = 2011 | GDP_PPP = $282,229 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=513&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=54&pr.y=9 |title=Bangladesh |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=17 April 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224014314/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=513&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=54&pr.y=9 |date=24 December 2012 }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 44 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1.790,26<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 193 | GDP_nominal = $113,032 milyar<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_rank = | GDP_nominal_year = 2011 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $700,59<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = | Gini = 33,2<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |title=Distribution of family income – Gini index |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |accessdate=1 September 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513124910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=13 May 2009 }}</ref> | Gini_year = 2005 | Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;white-space:nowrap;">medium</span> | HDI_year = 2011 <!-- Please use the year in which the HDI data refers to and not the publication year --> | HDI_rank = ka-146 | HDI = {{nowrap|{{increase}} 0,500<ref name="UN">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20101205181756/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete.pdf |archivedate=5 December 2010 |title=Human Development Report 2010. Human development index trends: Table G |publisher=The United Nations |accessdate=14 July 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108160356/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete.pdf |date=8 November 2010 }}</ref>}} | HDI_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;white-space:nowrap;">handap</span> | FSI = {{nowrap|95,9 {{decrease}} 0,4}} | FSI_year = 2007 | FSI_rank = ka-16 | FSI_category = <span style="color:red;white-space:nowrap;">Alert</span> | currency = [[Taka Bangladés|Taka]] | currency_code = BDT | time_zone = [[Wanci Standar Bangladés|BST]] | utc_offset = +6 | drives_on = kénca | cctld = [[.bd]] | calling_code = [[Nomer telepon di Bangladés|880]] }} '''Bangladés''' ({{lang-bn|<!--The following spelling is correct. If you see anything odd, your browser isn't Unicode compliant-->[[:bn:বাংলাদেশ|<big>বাংলাদেশ</big>]]}}), resmina '''Républik Rahayat Bangladés''' ({{lang-bn|<big>গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ</big>}} ''Gônoprojatontri Bangladesh''), nyaéta hiji [[nagara]] di [[Asia Kidul]]. Aya di [[Délta Gangga-Brahmaputra]] nu subur, Bangladés minangka bagian tina wewengkon étnis jeung basa [[Benggala]]. Ngaran ''Bangladesh'' hartina "Nagara Benggala" di Basa Benggala nu resmi. Bangladés wawatesan jeung [[Teluk Benggala]] di kidul, [[India]] di kalér, kulon, jeung wétan, sarta [[Myanmar]] di tenggara. Bangladés kapisah ti [[Nepal]] jeung [[Bhutan]] ku [[Sela Siliguri]]. Wates Bangladés ayeuna disusun tina [[pamisahan India|pamisahan]] Benggala Britania dina 1947, nalika wewengkonna mangrupa [[Pakistan Wétan]], bagian ti [[Pakistan]] nu karak ngadeg. Pakistan Wétan kapisah ti [[Pakistan Kulon]] ku kirang langkungna 1.500&nbsp;km wewengkon [[India]]. Ku sabab alesan pulitik, étnis, basa, jeung ékonomi ku wewengkon kulon, pamikiran umum tumuwuh nu teras janten pergerakan nasionalis kultural jeung sékulér, nu ngarah kana déklarasi kamerdikaan sarta [[Perang Kamerdikaan Bangladés]] dina 1971. Sanggeus perang jeung kamerdikaan, nagara Bangladés nu anyar éta ngalaman raloba masalah kamiskinan, kalaparan, karusuhan pulitik, jeung [[Kudéta militér di Bangladés|kudéta-kudéta militér]]. Pamulihan démokrasi taun 1991 ngahasilkeun kaayaan nu rélatif tengtrem sarta kamajuan ékonomi. Bangladés mangrupa nagara [[démokrasi parleméntér|républik parleméntér]] [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]] [[sékulérisme|sékulér]], kalawan hiji parlemén nu ngaranna [[Jatiyo Sangshad]]. Bangladés mangrupa nagara nu [[daptar nagara dumasar populasi|panglobana populasina ka-8 sadunya]] sarta mangrupa salah sahiji ti nagara nu [[daptar nagara daulat jeung wewengkon depéndensi dumasar kapadetan populasi|pangpadetna sadunya]]. Numutkeun géografina, Bangladés aya di wewengkon [[Délta Gangga-Brahmaputra]] jeung mangrupa wewengkon banjir jeung siklon taunan. Nagara ieu ngalaman sababaraha masalah saperti kamiskinan, korupsi, kaleuwihan populasi, sarta sababaraha masalah tina parobahan iklim. Sanajan kitu, Bangladés miboga kamajuan dina ajén Angka Pertumbuhan Manusa.<ref>United Nations Development Programme in Bangladesh: ''[http://www.undp.org.bd/info/events.php?newsid=734 HDR 2010 recognises Bangladesh's great progress over time] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170804/http://www.undp.org.bd/info/events.php?newsid=734 |date=2013-01-15 }}''. 5 Nopémber 2010. Diaksés: 25 Oktober 2012.</ref> Bangladés enggeus ningkatkeun angka harepan hirupna 23 taun, miboga kasaruaan jenis kelamin dina pangatikan, pangurangan pertumbuhan populasi, sarta paningkatan dina kaséhatan ibu jeung anak.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meeting Millennium Development Goals |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8548923.stm |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=2012-10-25 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006213618/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8548923.stm |date=2014-10-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ban lauds Bangladesh’s progress on women’s and children’s health |url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=40399&Cr=maternal&Cr1#.UIK6m2_MjEU |work=UN News Center |publisher=United Nations |date=15 November 2011 |accessdate=2012-10-25 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020141532/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=40399&Cr=maternal&Cr1#.UIK6m2_MjEU |date=2014-10-20 }}</ref> ==Babagian== {{utama|Divisi di Bangladés|Distrik di Bangladés|Upazila di Bangladés}} {{stack|{{Bangladesh Divisions Image Map}}}} Bangladés dibagi kana 7 divisi administratif,<ref name=CIA /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bdnews24.com/details.php?cid=2&amp;id=151976&amp;hb=top |title=Rangpur becomes a division |publisher=bdnews24.com |date=25 January 2010 |accessdate=6 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516152654/http://www.bdnews24.com/details.php?cid=2&id=151976&hb=top |date=16 May 2011 }}</ref> nu mana ngaranna dumasar kana ibu kotana: [[Divisi Barisal|Barisal]], [[Divisi Chittagong|Chittagong]], [[Divisi Dhaka|Dhaka]], [[Divisi Khulna|Khulna]], [[Divisi Rajshahi|Rajshahi]], [[Divisi Sylhet|Sylhet]], jeung [[Divisi Rangpur|Rangpur]]. Divisi dibagi deui kana distrik (''zila''). Aya 66 distrik di Bangladés, unggalna dibagi deui kana ''upazila'' (sub-distrik) atanapi ''thana''. Wewengkon kantor pulisi, kajaba nu di aréa metropolitan, dibagi kana sababaraha [[Déwan Union di Bangladés|''union'']], nu mana unggal union ngawengku sababaraha désa. Di wewengkon metropolitan, wewengkon kantor pulisi dibagi kana distrik kota, nu teras dibagi deui kana ''mahallas''. euweuh pamilihan pajabat dina tingkat divisi jeung distrik. Pamilihan langsung aya dina tingkat union jeung distrik kota. Taun 1997, hiji undang-undang disahkeun pikeun nangtukeun 3 korsi (ti 12 korsi) dina unggal union pikeun kandidat wanoja.<ref>''Local Government Act'', No. 20, 1997</ref> [[Dhaka]] nyaéta ibu kota sarta kota panggedéna di Bangladés. Kota kalawan [[pamaréntahan daérah]] nyaéta: [[Dhaka|Dhaka Kidul]], [[Dhaka|Dhaka Kalér]], [[Chittagong]], [[Khulna]], [[Rajshahi]], [[Sylhet]], [[Barisal]], [[Rangpur, Bangladés|Rangpur]], [[Comilla]], jeung [[Gazipur, Divisi Dhaka|Gazipur]]. Kota-kota ieu miboga pamilihan umum walikota. Kota-kota utama lianna saperti [[Mymensingh]], [[Gopalganj, Bangladés|Gopalganj]], [[Jessore]], [[Bogra]], [[Dinajpur Sadar|Dinajpur]], [[Saidpur, Divisi Rangpur|Saidapur]], [[Narayanganj]], jeung [[Rangamati]]. Kota-kota ieu jeung kotamadya lianna miboga pamilihan umum diréktur. Walikota jeung diréktur dipilih pikeun masa jabatan 5 taun. {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !| Divisi !! Bangla !! Populasi (2011)<ref name=bbs>{{cite web |title=2011 Population & Housing Census: Preliminary Results |url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/BBS/PHC2011Preliminary%20Result.pdf |publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics |accessdate=12 January 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170757/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/BBS/PHC2011Preliminary%20Result.pdf |date=15 January 2013 }}</ref>!! Aréa (km²)<ref name=bbs/> !! Kapadetan populasi<br/>(2011; jiwa/km²)<ref name=bbs/> |- |[[Divisi Barisal]] || <big>বরিশাল</big> || 8.147.000 || 13.297 || 613 |- |[[Divisi Chittagong]] || <big>চট্টগ্রাম</big> || 28.079.000 || 33.771 || 831 |- |[[Divisi Dhaka]] || <big>ঢাকা</big> || 46.729.000 || 31.120 || 1.502 |- |[[Divisi Khulna]] || <big>খুলনা</big> || 15.563.000 || 22.272 || 699 |- |[[Divisi Rajshahi]] || <big>রাজশাহী</big> || 18.329.000 || 18.197 || 1.007 |- |[[Divisi Rangpur]] || <big>রংপুর</big> || 15.665.000 || 16.317 || 960 |- |[[Divisi Sylhet]] || <big>সিলেট</big> || 9.807.000 || 12.596 || 779 |- ! Bangladés || || 142.319.000 || 147.570 || 964 |} ==Tingali ogé== *[[Ihtisar Bangladés]] *[[Daptar artikel ngeunaan Bangladés]] *[[Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] *[[Hubungan luar nagri Bangladés]] *[[Basa Chittagong]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Pustaka== *{{cite book |last=Baxter |first=C |year=1997 |title=Bangladesh, from a Nation to a State |url=https://archive.org/details/bangladeshfromna0000unse |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=0-8133-3632-5 |oclc=47885632}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{IndicText}} *[http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/ Portal Wéb Nasional Bangladés] *{{CIA World Factbook link|bg|Bangladesh}} *{{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Bangladesh|Bangladés}} *{{Wikiatlas|Bangladesh|Bangladés}} *{{Wikivoyage}} {{Bangladesh topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Géografi lokal |list = {{Countries and territories of South Asia}} {{Countries of Asia}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Kaangotaan internasional |list = {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|state=collapsed}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{Like Minded Group}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Banglades}} [[Kategori:Bangladés| ]] [[Kategori:Benggala]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu kabagi]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Britania]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Anggota OSI]] [[Kategori:Anggota Asosiasi Asia Kidul pikeun Sabilulungan Wewengkon]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nagara sosialis]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Kidul]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu ngadeg taun 1971]] [[Kategori:Républik pasamakmuran]] 5m2jjkjarxxkjytuhqbndxfpgzudizw 0 23707 711640 703163 2026-08-07T00:45:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711640 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''Estados Unidos Mexicanos'' |conventional_long_name = Nagara Méksiko Ngahiji |common_name = Méksiko |image_flag = Flag_of_Mexico.svg |image_coat = |symbol_type = |image_map = LocationMexico.svg |national_anthem = ''[[Himno Nacional Mexicano]]'' |national_motto = |official_languages = [[Basa Méksiko|Teu aya dina hambalan federal]]<br />[[Basa Spanyol|Spanyol]] (''[[de fakto]]'')¹ |capital = [[Mexico City]] |latd=19 |latm=03 |latNS=N |longd=99 |longm=22 |longEW=W |government_type = [[Républik Féderal]] [[Sistim présidénsial|Présidénsial]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Méksiko|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]] |largest_city = Ibu kota |area = 1,972,550 |areami² = 758,249 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = ka-14 |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |percent_water = 2.5 |population_estimate = 123,675,325 |population_estimate_year = 2017 |population_estimate_rank = ka-11 |population_census = 103,263,388 |population_census_year = 2005 |population_density = 55 |population_densitymi² = 142 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-142 |GDP_PPP_year = 2006 |GDP_PPP = $1.134 [[1000000000000 (nomer)|triliun]] |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-13 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11,249 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-63 |GDP_nominal = $840.012 [[1000000000 (nomer)|miliar]] |GDP_nominal_rank = ka-13 |GDP_nominal_year = 2005 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $8,066 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ka-55 |HDI_year = 2004 |HDI = {{increase}}0.821 |HDI_rank = ka-53 |HDI_category = <font color="#009900">luhur</font> |Gini = 49.5 |Gini_year = 2002 |Gini_category = <font color="#e0584e">luhur</font> |sovereignty_type = [[Perang Kamerdikaan Méksiko|Merdika]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[Spanyol]] |established_event1 = Didéklarasikeun |established_event2 = Diaku |established_date1 = [[16 Séptémber]] [[1810]] |established_date2 = [[27 Séptémber]] [[1821]] |currency = [[Péso Méksiko|Péso]] |currency_code = MXN |time_zone = |utc_offset = -8 nepi ka -6 |time_zone_DST = béda-béda |utc_offset_DST = |cctld = [[.mx]] |calling_code = [[Nomer telepon di Amérika#Méksiko|52]] |footnotes =¹Teu aya basa resmi dina undang-undang. Tapi sok sanajan kitu, ''General Law of Linguistic Rights for the Indigenous Peoples'' ngaku basa minoritas Amerindian dipake di ditu, sarua jeung Basa Spanyol, minangka "basa nasional" jeung basa nu "sah sadarajat" di wewengkon nu make basa eta. }} '''Nagara Méksiko Ngahiji''' ({{Audio-es|Estados Unidos Mexicanos|Es-mx-Estados Unidos Mexicanos.ogg}}), atawa basajanna mah '''Méksiko''' ([[IPA]]: /[[Grafik IPA keur Basa Inggris|mɛks.ɪ.koʊ]]/) ({{Audio-es|México|Es-mx-México.ogg}}), nyaeeta hiji nagara nu perenahna di [[Amérika Kalér]], wawatesan di béh kaler jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]]; di kidul jeung kulon jeung [[Samudra Pasifik|Samudra Pasifik Kalér]]; di wetan kidul jeung [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], sarta [[Sagara Karibia]]; jeung di béh wetanna ku [[Teluk Méksiko]].<ref>''Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary'', 3rd ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.; p. 733</ref><ref>"[http://www.bartleby.com/65/me/Mexico.html Mexico]". ''[http://www.bartleby.com/65/ The Columbia Encyclopedia]'', 6th ed. 2001–6. New York: Columbia University Press.</ref> Nagara Méksiko Ngahiji ngawengku [[Babagian pulitis Méksiko|féderasi tilu puluh hiji nagara bagean]] républik konstitusional sarta hiji distrik féderal, [[Mexico City]], salah sahiji kota pangpadetna di dunya. Ku kaayaannana nu ngawengku ampir 2 yuta [[kilométer pasagi]],<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/mx.html The CIA World Fact Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417062301/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/mx.html |date=2009-04-17 }} "Area: total: 1,972,550 km²"</ref> Meksiko mangrupa nagara panglegana kalima di [[Amérika]] dumasar kana aréa totalna sarta [[Daptar nagara sarta wewengkon singkur dumasar lega total|ka-14 panglegana di dunya]]. Kalayan populasi ampir 109 yuta,<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html The CIA World Fact Book - Mexican Population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129161335/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html |date=2018-01-29 }}</ref> Meksiko ogé mangrupa [[Daptar nagara dumasar populasi|nagara pangpadetna ka-11]] sarta nagara nu pamake [[Basa Spanyol]]na pangpadetna di dunya. == Bibliografi == {{Commons|México}} * {{cite book |first = Enrique |last = Krauze |title = Mexico: Biography of Power: A history of Modern Mexico 1810–1996 |url = https://archive.org/details/mexico00enri |pages = 896 p |publisher = Perennial |year = 1998 |id = ISBN 0-06-092917-0 }}<br />Standard work by a renowned Mexican author. * {{cite book |first = Michael C. |last = Meyer |coauthors = William H. Beezley, editors |title = The Oxford History of Mexico |url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195112283 |pages = 736 p |publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 2000 |id = ISBN 0-19-511228-8 }}<br />Twenty essays on Mexican history, including cultural history. * {{cite book |author = [[Henry Bamford Parkes|Parkes, Henry Bamford]] |title = A History of Mexico |id = ISBN 0-395-08410-5 |publisher = Houghton Mifflin |location = Boston |year = 1972 |edition = 3rd edition }} == Tempo ogé == === Daptar === * [[Daptar kota di Méksiko]] * [[Daptar jejer perdagangan internasional]] * [[Daptar urang Méksiko]] * [[Daptar artis Méksiko]] * [[Daptar universitas di Méksiko]] == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu luar == ; Jalan-jalan {{wikivoyage|Mexico}} ; Pamaréntah * [http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/ Presidencia]: présidéncy of the Republic * {{es icon}} [http://www.gob.mx Gob.mx]: Governmental portal * {{es icon}} [http://www.directorio.gob.mx Directorio.gob.mx] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321025155/http://www.directorio.gob.mx/ |date=2007-03-21 }}: Official web directory of the Mexican présidéncy * {{es icon}} [http://www.diputados.gob.mx Cámara de Diputados]: Chamber of Deputies * {{es icon}} [http://www.senado.gob.mx Cámara de Senadores]: Senate ; Informasi umum * {{es icon}} [http://www.inegi.gob.mx INEGI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019165533/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/ |date=2010-10-19 }}: National Institute of Statistics, Géography and Information * {{es icon}} [http://www.consejomexicano.org.mx/ Mexican Council for Economic and Social Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051201092200/http://www.consejomexicano.org.mx/ |date=2005-12-01 }} * {{es icon}} [http://www.cenam.mx/husos-horarios.htm Time zones in Mexico] * {{es icon}} [http://www.portaldeldesarrollo.org/ Mexico Development Gateway] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051027104710/http://www.portaldeldesarrollo.org/ |date=2005-10-27 }} * [http://www.elbalero.gob.mx/index_kids.html Mexico for kids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815211946/http://www.elbalero.gob.mx/index_kids.html |date=2007-08-15 }} * [http://www.pbase.com/perrona/faces_of_central_america Photos of Mexico] ; Lingkungan * [http://www.vivanatura.org/index.html Biodiversity of Mexico] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819174537/http://www.vivanatura.org/index.html |date=2007-08-19 }} <!--Is this necessary for an encyclpedic article? Isn't this publicity? ; Koran jeung agen warta * Basa Spanyol *{{es}} [http://www.am.com.mx ''AM Bajío''] *{{es}} [http://www.biznews.com.mx ''Biznews''] *{{es}} [http://www.diariomonitor.com.mx ''Diario Monitor''] *{{es}} [http://www.debate.com.mx ''El Debate''] *{{es}} [http://www.eleconomista.com.mx ''El Economista''] *{{es}} [http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx ''El Financiero''] *{{es}} [http://www.informador.com.mx ''El Informador''] *{{es}} [http://www.elimparcial.com ''El Imparcial''] *{{es}} [http://www.elnorte.com ''El Norte''] *{{es}} [http://www.eluniversal.com.mx ''El Universal''] *{{es}} [http://www.frontera.info ''Frontera''] *{{es}} [http://www.imagen.com.mx ''Imagen Informativa''] *{{es}} [http://mexico.indymedia.org/ ''IMC Mexico''] *{{es}} [http://www.cronica.com.mx ''La Crónica''] *{{es}} [http://www.jornada.unam.mx ''La Jornada''] *{{es}} [http://www.enmexico.com/noticias.htm''Mexican Newspapers''] *{{es}} [http://www.milenio.com ''Milenio''] *{{es}} [http://www.mural.com ''Mural''] *{{es}} [http://www.notimex.com.mx ''Notimex''] *{{es}} [http://www.proceso.com.mx/ ''Proceso''] *{{es}} [http://www.reforma.com ''Reforma''] * Basa Inggris *{{en}} [http://www.mexiconews.com.mx/ ''Herald''] --> {{Template group |title = Geografi lokal |list = {{States of Mexico}} {{Countries of North America}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{OECD}} {{OAS}} {{G8+5}} {{Latinunion}} {{G15}} }} <!--Categories--> [[Kategori:Méksiko| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara G15]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu basana Basa Spanyol]] <!--Interwiki--> fzl9uzlw8chnndlm2uad95anz7k8nfc 0 23935 711629 664136 2026-08-07T00:32:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711629 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}{{Otheruses4|sasatoan}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Kangguru<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves | pages= 64 & 66}}</ref> | image = Kangaroo and joey03.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = Indung [[Kangguru Hawuk Wétan]] jeung anakna | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia|Mammalia]] | subclassis = [[Marsupialia]] | ordo = [[Diprotodontia]] | subordo = [[Macropodiformes]] | familia = [[Macropodidae]] | genus = ''[[Macropus]]'' | genus_authority = in part | subdivision_ranks = Spésiés | subdivision = [[Kangguru Beureum|''Macropus rufus'']]<br /> [[Kangguru Hawuk Wétan|''Macropus giganteus'']]<br /> [[Kangguru Hawuk Kulon|''Macropus fuliginosus'']]<br /> [[Kangguru Antilopina|''Macropus antilopinus'']] }} '''Kangguru''' téh [[marsupial]] ti kulawarga [[Macropodidae]] (makropoda, hartina 'gedé suku'). Sacara umum, ieu istilah dipaké pikeun nuduhkeun [[spésiés]] panggedéna di ieu kulawarga, [[Kangguru Beureum]], [[Kangguru Antilopina]], sarta [[Kangguru Hawuk Wétan]] jeung [[Kangguru Hawuk Kulon|Kulon]] ti genus ''[[Macropus]]''. Ieu kulawarga ogé ngawengku sababaraha spésiés leutik, kaasup [[walabi]], [[kangguru tangkal]], [[walaru]], [[pademelon]], jeung [[Kuoka]], nu kabéhanana aya 63 spésiés.<ref name=MSW3/> Kangguru téh sato [[éndemik (ékologi)|éndemik]] [[buana]] [[Australia]] jeung [[Papua]] (baheula ngahiji minangka Australasia). Ku Australia, kangguru téh dijadikeun ikonna: gambarna aya dina [[Lambang nagara Australia|lambang nagara]],<ref>[http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/coat_of_arms.html Australia's coat of arms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928075301/http://dfat.gov.au/facts/coat_of_arms.html |date=2011-09-28 }} Dicutat [[6 Januari]] [[2007]].</ref> dina duit koin,<ref>[http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/currency.html The Australian currency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523201355/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/currency.html |date=2012-05-23 }} Dicutat [[6 Januari]] [[2007]].</ref> sarta lembaga-lembaga di Australia, di antarana [[Qantas]].<ref>[http://www.qantas.com.au/info/about/history/details19 The Kangaroo symbol] Dicutat [[6 Januari]] [[2007]].</ref><!-- == Overview == [[Image:Kangaroo-in-flight.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A [[Tasmania]]n Forester ([[Eastern Grey Kangaroo|Eastern Grey]]) Kangaroo in motion.]] There are four species that are commonly referred to as kangaroos: * The Red Kangaroo (''Macropus rufus'') is the largest surviving [[marsupial]] anywhere in the world. Fewer in numbers, the Red Kangaroo occupies the arid and semi-arid centre of the continent. A large male can be 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) tall and weigh 90 kg (200 lb).<ref name="reds">{{cite web | url = http://www.red-kangaroos.com/ | title = Red Kangaroos | accessdate = 2007-01-07}}</ref> * The Eastern Grey Kangaroo (''Macropus giganteus'') is less well-known than the red (outside of Australia), but the most often seen, as its range covers the fertile eastern part of the continent. * The Western Grey Kangaroo (''Macropus fuliginosus'') is slightly smaller again at about 54&nbsp;kg (119 lb) for a large male. It is found in the southern part of [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]] near the coast, and the [[Darling River]] basin. * The Antilopine Kangaroo (''Macropus antilopinus'') is, essentially, the far-northern equivalent of the Eastern and Western Grey Kangaroos. Like them, it is a creature of the grassy plains and woodlands, and gregarious. In addition, there are about 50 smaller macropods closely related to the kangaroo in the family [[Macropodidae]]. ==Description== [[Image:Kangur.rudy.drs.jpg|thumbnail|right|240px|[[Red Kangaroo]] (''Macropus rufus'')]] Europeans have long regarded Kangaroos as strange animals. Early explorers described them as creatures that had heads like deer (without antlers), stood upright like men, and hopped like frogs. Combined with the two-headed appearance of a mother kangaroo, this led many back home to dismiss them as travellers' tales for quite some time.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Kangaroos have large, powerful hind legs, large feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular [[tail]] for balance, and a small head. Like all [[marsupial]]s, female kangaroos have a [[pouch (marsupial)|pouch]] called a marsupium in which joeys complete [[postnatal]] development. ==Behaviour== Kangaroos are the only large animals to use hopping as a means of [[locomotion]]. The comfortable hopping speed for Red Kangaroo is about 20–25 [[km/h]] (13–16 mph), but speeds of up to 70 km/h (44 mph) can be attained, over short distances, while it can sustain a speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) for nearly two kilometres.<ref name="secret">{{cite book | last = Penny | first = Malcolm | title = The Secret Life of Kangaroos | url = https://archive.org/details/kangaroos0000penn | publisher = Raintree Steck-Vaughn Puiblishers | date = 2002 | location = Austin, Texas | isbn = 0-7398-4986-7 }}</ref> This fast and energy-efficient method of travel has evolved because of the need to regularly cover large distances in search of food and water, rather than the need to escape predators. Because of its long feet, it cannot walk normally. To move at slow speeds, it uses its tail to form a tripod with its two [[forelimb]]s. It then raises its hind feet forward, in a form of locomotion called "crawl-walking."<ref name="secret" /> The average [[life expectancy]] of a kangaroo is about 4–6 years, with some living until they are about 23.<ref>{{cite web | title = Gestation, Incubation, and Longevity of Selected Animals | publisher = infoplease.com | url = http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0004723.html | accessdate = 2006-12-31}}</ref> ===Diet=== Different species of kangaroos eat different diets. Eastern grey kangaroos are predominantly grazers eating a wide variety of grasses whereas some other species (e.g. red kangaroos and swamp wallabies) include significant amounts of shrubs in the diet. The smaller species of kangaroos also consume hypogeal fungi. Many species are [[nocturnal]]<ref name="archive">[http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/dec96/845059250.Zo.r.html Archives] URL accessed [[January 7]], [[2007]].</ref> and [[crepuscular]],<ref name="colzoo">[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/austral/kangfact.html Columbus Zoo article] URL accessed [[January 7]], [[2007]].</ref> usually spending the days resting in shade and the cool evenings, nights and mornings moving about and feeding.<ref name="kangafacts" /> Because of its grazing, kangaroos have developed specialized teeth. Its incisors are able to crop grass close to the ground, and its molars chop and grind the grass. Since the two sides of the lower jaw are not joined together, the lower incisors are farther apart, giving the kangaroo a wider bite. The [[silica]] in grass is abrasive, so kangaroo molars move forward as they are ground down, and eventually fall out, replaced by new teeth that grow in the back.<ref name="secret" /> ===Absence of digestive methane release=== Despite having a herbivorous diet similar to [[ruminant]]s such as cattle which release large quantities of [[methane]] through [[breathing|exhaling]] and [[eructation]], kangaroos release virtually none. The hydrogen byproduct of fermentation is instead converted into acetate, which is then used to provide further energy. Scientists are interested in the possibility of transferring the bacteria responsible from kangaroos to cattle, since the [[greenhouse gas]] effect of methane is 23 times greater than that of [[carbon dioxide]].<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/ra/innovations/stories/s1159618.htm ''Radio Australia'' - Innovations:] "Methane In Agriculture." 15 August 2004. Retrieved 28 August 2007.</ref> ===Adaptations=== [[Image:Joey in pouch.jpg|thumb|240px|Newborn joey sucking on a teat in the pouch]] Kangaroos have developed a number of adaptations to a dry, infertile continent and highly variable climate. As with all [[marsupial]]s, the young are born at a very early stage of development – after a [[gestation]] of 31–36 days. At this stage, only the forelimbs are somewhat developed, to allow the newborn to climb to the [[Pouch (marsupial)|pouch]] and attach to a [[teat]]. In comparison, a human [[embryo]] at a similar stage of development would be about seven weeks old, and [[premature birth|premature babies]] born at less than 23 weeks are usually not mature enough to survive. The joey will usually stay in the pouch for about nine months (180–320 days for the Western Grey) before starting to leave the pouch for small periods of time. It is usually fed by its mother until reaching 18 months. The female kangaroo is usually [[pregnant]] in permanence, except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous [[Joey (marsupial)|joey]] is able to leave the pouch. This is known as [[embryonic diapause|diapause]], and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the [[milk]] produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, the mother is able to produce two different kinds of milk simultaneously for the newborn and the older joey still in the pouch. Unusually, during a dry period, males will not produce sperm, and females will only conceive if there has been enough rain to produce a large quantity of green vegetation.<ref name="animal">{{cite book | last = Burnie | first = David | coauthors = Don E. Wilson | title = Animal | url = https://archive.org/details/animal0000unse_m2z3 | publisher = DK Publishing, Inc. | date = 2001 | location = New York, New York | pages = 99-101 | id = ISBN 0-7894-7764-5}}</ref> [[Image:Kaenguru Hinterfuss-drawing.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Hindleg of a kangaroo]] Kangaroos and wallabies have large, stretchy tendons in their hind legs. They store elastic strain energy in the [[tendon]]s of their large hind legs, providing most of the energy required for each hop by the spring action of the tendons rather than by any muscular effort. This is true in all animal species which have muscles connected to their skeleton through elastic elements such as tendons, but the effect is more pronounced in kangaroos. There is also a link between the hopping action and breathing: as the feet leave the ground, air is expelled from the lungs; bringing the feet forward ready for landing refills the lungs, providing further energy efficiency. Studies of kangaroos and wallabies have demonstrated that, beyond the minimum energy expenditure required to hop at all, increased speed requires very little extra effort (much less than the same speed increase in, say, a horse, dog or human), and that the extra energy is required to carry extra weight. For kangaroos, the key benefit of hopping is not speed to escape predators—the top speed of a kangaroo is no higher than that of a similarly-sized quadruped, and the Australian native predators are in any case less fearsome than those of other continents—but economy: in an infertile continent with highly variable weather patterns, the ability of a kangaroo to travel long distances at moderately high speed in search of food sources is crucial to survival. A [[sequencing]] project of the Kangaroo [[genome]] was started in [[2004]] as a collaboration between [[Australia]] (mainly funded by the [[Victoria (Australia)|state of Victoria]]) and the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the [[United States|US]].<ref name="genome">[http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jun2004/nhgri-08.htm Kangaroo hops in line for genome sequencing] URL accessed [[January 6]], [[2007]].</ref> The genome of a marsupial such as the kangaroo is of great interest to scientists studying [[comparative genomics]] because marsupials are at an ideal degree of evolutionary divergence from humans: [[mouse|mice]] are too close and haven't developed many different functions, while [[bird]]s are genetically too remote. The dairy industry has also expressed some interest in this project.{{Specify|date=January 2007}}{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ==Interaction with humans== Unlike many of the smaller macropods, kangaroos have fared well since [[History of Australia|European settlement]]. European settlers cut down forests to create vast grasslands for [[Domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[cattle]] grazing, added stock watering points in arid areas, and have substantially reduced the number of [[dingo]]es. Kangaroos are shy and retiring by nature, and in normal circumstances present no threat to humans. Male kangaroos often "box" amongst each other, playfully, for dominance, or in competition for mates. The dexterity of their forepaws is utilised in both punching and grappling with the foe, but the real danger lies in a serious kick with the hindleg. The sharpened [[toenail]]s can disembowel an opponent. There are very few records of kangaroos attacking humans without provocation, however several such unprovoked attacks in [[2004]] spurred fears of a [[rabies]]-like disease possibly affecting the marsupials. The only reliably documented case of a fatality from a kangaroo attack occurred in New South Wales, in [[1936]]. A hunter was killed when he tried to rescue his two dogs from a heated fray. Other suggested causes for erratic and dangerous kangaroo behaviour include extreme thirst and hunger. In 2003, Lulu, an Eastern Grey, saved a farmer's life. She received the [[RSPCA]] National Animal Valor Award on May 19 of the next year.<ref>{{cite news | title =Blind kangaroo jumps in to rescue farmer | publisher = [[The Scotsman]] |date= [[2003-09-22]]| url = http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=1053612003| accessdate = 2006-12-31 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Morse | first =Sherry | title = Half-Blind Kangaroo Saves Life Of Unconscious Man | publisher =Buzzle.com |date=[[2003-04-10]] | url = http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/10-4-2003-46148.asp | accessdate = 2006-12-31 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Lulu the Kangaroo" receives the RSPCA "National Animal Valor Award | publisher = luluthekangaroo.com.au |date | url = http://www.luluthekangaroo.com.au/ | accessdate = 2006-12-31 }}</ref>--> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Macropus}} * [http://kango.anu.edu.au/ The Kangaroo Genome Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201220130/http://kango.anu.edu.au/ |date=2008-12-01 }} at [[Australian National University]] * [http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/kangaroos/court-mate.html Courtship and Mating] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040906203142/http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/kangaroos/court-mate.html |date=2004-09-06 }} * [http://www.abc.net.au/ozfossil/megafauna/fauna/fauna.htm Prehistoric mammals] * [http://www.furry.org.au/kangaroos/ Roophilia - photographs of kangaroos and wallabies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304235856/http://www.furry.org.au/kangaroos/ |date=2021-03-04 }} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Mamalia Australia]] [[Kategori:Makropoda]] swbcimbt1l3tjoq1p8j66wkxgsrv1ur 0 24270 711638 704823 2026-08-07T00:42:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711638 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Téléphone Gower Bell CNAM-IMG 0564.jpg|thumb|Salinan gambar telepon asli jieunan [[Alexander Graham Bell]] di ''[[Musée des Arts et Métiers]]'' di Paris]] '''Telekomunikasi''' nyaéta [[pangiriman (telekomunikasi)|pangiriman]] [[sinyal (teknik listrik)|sinyal]] dina sahiji jarak pikeun tujuan [[komunikasi]]. Dina jaman baheula, telekomunikasi bisa ngalibetkeun digunakeunnana [[sinyal haseup]], [[kendang]], [[semafor]] atawa [[héliograf]]. Dina jaman modéren, prosés ieu ngalibatkeun pangiriman [[radiasi éléktromagnétik|gelombang éléktromagnétik]] ku cara ku jalan pamancar éléktronik. Kiwari, telekomunikasi sumebar sarta alat-alat anu ngabantuna, saperti [[télévisi]], [[radio]] [[siaran]] jeung [[telepon]], geus mangrupa hal anu lumrah di sakuliah dunya. Aya ogé jaringan anu ngahubungkeun alat-alat ieu, kaasup [[jaringan komputer]], [[jaringan telepon umum]], [[jaringan radio]] jeung [[télévisi]]. Komunikasi komputer dina [[Internet]] mangrupa salah sahiji conto telekomunikasi. Sistim telekomunikasi umumna didesain ku '''insinyur telekomunikasi'''. Para panimu dina widang ieu kaasup [[Aléxander Graham Béll]], [[Gugliélmo Marconi]] jeung [[John Logie Baird]]. Telekomunikasi mangrupa bagian penting ékonomi dunya. == Konsep utama == {| style="float:right; margin:1em 1em 1em 1em; width:25em; border: 1px solid #a0a0a0; padding: 10px; background-color: #F5F5F5; text-align:left;" |- style="text-align:center;" |'''Étimologi''' |- style="text-align:left; font-size:x-small;" |Kecap ''telekomunikasi'' diadaptasi tina bahasa Perancis ''télécommunication''. Ieu mangrupa kecap majemuk tina prefiks Yunani ''tele-'' (τηλε-), nu ngandung harti 'jauh', jeung kecap bahasa Laten ''communicare'', nu hartina 'méré atawa ngabagi'. |} === Unsur-unsur dasar === Tiap sistem telekomunikasi ngandung tilu unsur dasar: * [[pamancar]] anu mawa [[informasi]] jeung ngarobahna kana sahiji [[sinyal (téknik listrik)|sinyal]]; * [[médiyum rambatan]] tempat di mana sinyal dirambatkeun; * [[(radio) panarima|panarima]] anu narima sinyal jeung ngarobahna deui jadi informasi anu bisa digunakeun. Minangka conto, titénan sahiji siaran radio! [[Tihang jeung munara|munara siaran]] mangrupa pamancar, [[radio]] mangrupa panarima ari midiyeum rambatannana nyaéta [[rohangan bébas]]. Sistem telekomunikasi mindeng ogé mangrupa sistem saarah. Bisa ogé sahiji alat tunggal mangrupa sahiji pamancar sakaligus panarima, alat kasebut katelah ''transceiver''. Contona, sahiji [[telepon sélulér]] mangrupa sahiji alat [[transceiver]].<ref name="stallings-intro">{{cite book | last = Haykin | first = Simon | edition= 4th edition | title = Communication Systems | url = https://archive.org/details/communicationssy00simo | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year = 2001 | pages = pp 1-3 | id = ISBN 0-471-17869-1 }}</ref> Telekomunikasi ku jalan sambungan kawat disebut [[komunikasi titik-ka-titik (telekomunikasi)|komunikasi titik-ka-titik]] lantaran kajadiannana antara hiji pamancar jeung hiji panarima. Telekomunikasi ku jalan pamancaran gelombang radio disebut [[broadcasting|siaran]] atawa komunikasi [[komunikasi hiji titik-ka-loba titik (telekomunikasi)|hiji titik-ka-loba titik)]] lantaran kajadiannana antara sahiji pamancar anu gedé dayana jeung panarima anu leuwih ti hiji.<ref name="stallings-intro" /> ==== Analog atawa digital ==== Sinyal bisa ngawujud sinyal [[Sinyal analog|analog]] atawa [[digital]]. Dina sahiji sinyal analog, sinyal téh terus robah-robah gumantung kana informasi anu dibawana. Dina sahiji sinyal digital, informasi dirobah kana kode nyaéta kumpulan niléy-niléy anu diskrit (contona niléy 1 jeung niléy 0). Salila ngarambat, informasi anu dikandung dina sinyal analog bakal karuksak / kaganggu ku nois / gangguan. Sabalikna, lamun gangguan henteu ku jalan sahiji ambang wates, informasi anu dikandung dina sinyal digital bakal tetep henteu ruksak. Hal ieu ngagambarkeun kaleuwihan utama sinyal digital dibanding sinyal analog.<ref>{{cite book | last = Ambardar | first = Ashok | edition= 2nd edition | title = Analog and Digital Signal Processing | url = https://archive.org/details/analogdigitalsig00amba | publisher = Brooks/Cole Publishing Company | year = 1999 | pages = pp 1-2 | id = ISBN 0-534-95409-X }}</ref> ==== Jaringan ==== Sakumpulan pamancar, panarima atawa transcéiver anu saling ngalakukeun komunikasi katelah minangka [[jaringan telekomunikasi|jaringan]]. Jaringan digital bisa ngandung hiji atawa leuwih [[ruter]] anu nganteurkeun data ka pangguna anu sabenerna kudu dituju. Sahiji jaringan analog bisa ngandung hiji atawa leuwih [[suwits telepon|suwits]] anu ngawangun sahiji sambungan antara dua pangguna atawa leuwih. Pikeun kadua jinis jaringan kasebut, [[ripiter]] bisa waé diperlukeun pikeun ngagedékeun atawa nyiptakeun deui sinyal waktu keur dirambatkeun dina jarak anu jauh. Hal ieu pikeun ngalawan [[aténuasi]] atawa pelemahan nu bisa ngajadikeun sinyal ngalelep teu bisa dibédakeun tina [[nois]] atawa gangguan. ==== ''Channel'' ==== Sahiji ''[[channel (komunikasi)|channel]]'' mangrupa bagian tina midiyeum rambatan. Pambagian midiyeum kana sababaraha ''channel'' ngajadikeun midiyeum kasebut bisa digunakeun pikeun ngirim leuwih ti hiji aliran informasi. Minangka conto, hiji stasiun pamancar gelombang radio bisa mancarkeun gelombang radio dina 96&nbsp;MHz samentara stasiun pamancar radio liana bisa mancar dina frékuensi 94.5&nbsp;MHz. Dina ha lieu, midiyeum kasebut geus dibagi kana dua ''channel'' sarta tiap ''channel'' narima frékuensi anu béda. ==== Modulasi ==== {{utama|Modulasi}} Dina téknik telekomunikasi, kecap [[modulasi]] boga harti anu cukup panjang pikeun ngajelaskeunnana. Sacara saderhana kecap "modulasi" bisa ditarjamahkeun "numpang". Gambaran ngeunaan modulasi bisa dianalogikeun jeung kajadian jiga kieu: lamun urang hayang indit ka sahiji tempat anu jauh, urang kudu numpang kandaraan. Sinyal informasi, mangrupa [[sora]], [[gambar]] jeung [[data]], ogé sarua; sangkan bisa dikirim ka tempat anu jauh, sinyal informasi kudu ditumpangkeun kana sahiji sinyal lianna. Dina kontéks radio siaran, sinyal informasi anu numpang nyaéta sora, ari kandaraannana disebut sinyal pangangkut ([[carrier]]). Ku cara kitu, sora manusa (anu ngan bisa kadenge dina rohangan anu ngandung hawa atawa matrial lanna tur jarakna kawates) bisa nepi ka stasiun angkasa luar ku jalan [[rohangan bébas]]. [[Gambar:amfm3.gif|thumb|right|200px|Conto sinyal sora (gambar luhur) ngarobah amplitudo sahiji gelombang radio (tengah/disebut gelombang AM) atawa ngarobah frekuensi (handap/disebut gelombang FM.]]Ditilik tina sinyal informasi anu diangkut, aya loba cara pikeun numpangkeun téh. Cara numpangkeun manusa pasti béda jeung cara numpangkeun pakét barang atawa surat (layang). Hal sarupa ogé lumaku pikeun cara numpangkeun informasi; cara numpangkeun sora bakal béda jeung cara numpangkeun gambar, [[film]] atawa informasi séjénna. Cara numpangkeun sinyal analog ogé béda jeung cara numpangkeun sinyal digital. Ditilik tina kandaran pangangkut, cara ngangkut kapal udara bakal béda jeung cara ngangkut mobil, beus, treuk, kapal laut, parahu atawa kuda. Hal sarupa lumaku pikeun sinyal pangangkut (carrier). Aya carrier anu robah-robah [[amplitudo]]na waktu ngangkut sinyal informasi (disebut modulasi amplitudo / AM), aya ogé carrier anu robah-robah [[frékuénsi]]na waktu ngangkut sinyal informasi (disebut modulasi frékuénsi/ FM). Ngeunaan carrir, carrier nyaéta gelombang radio anu miboga frékuensi leuwih gancang ti batan sinyal informasi. Béda jeung sinyal sora anu miboga frékuénsi ngaragam / variable (bisa robah-robah) dina kisaran 20&nbsp;Hz tepi ka 20&nbsp;kHz, sinyal carrier mah ditetepkeun dina sahiji frékuénsi baé lantaran frékuénsi mangrupa sumber daya alam anu kawates. == Sajarah Telekomunikasi == === Sajarah Telekomunikasi di Dunya === ==== Telekomunikasi baheula ==== [[Gambar:OptischerTelegraf.jpg|160px|thumb|Sahiji replika tina munara-munara semafor boga Chappe.]] Wangun-wangun awal telekomunikasi di antarana [[sinyal haseup]] jeung [[drum (communication)|bedug]]. Bedug digunakeun ku bangsa-bangsa asli di [[Afrika]], [[Gini Anyar]] jeung [[Amerika Kidul]] ari sinyal-sinyal haseup digunakeun ku bangsa-bangsa asli [[Amerika Kaler]] sarta [[Cina]]. Sistim telekomunikasi ieu sering digunakeun leuwih ti sakadar ngumumkeun ayana kemah.<ref>[http://www.inquiry.net/outdoor/native/sign/smoke-signal.htm Native American Smoke Signals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729192037/http://www.inquiry.net/outdoor/native/sign/smoke-signal.htm |date=2019-07-29 }}, William Tomkins, 2005.</ref><ref>[http://www.si.umich.edu/chico/instrument/pages/tlkdrum_gnrl.html Talking Drums] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060910172613/http://www.si.umich.edu/chico/instrument/pages/tlkdrum_gnrl.html |date=2006-09-10 }}, Instrument Encyclopedia, Cultural Heritage for Community Outreach, 1996.</ref> Dina abad-abad pertengahan, jajaran-jajaran [[beacon|munara cahaya]] umum digunakeun di puncak-puncak pasir (bukit) minangka alat pikeun ngarambatkeun sahiji sinyal. Jajaran-jajaran munara cahaya boga kakurangan nyaéta munara-munara kasebut ngan ngarambatkeun sa siki informasi, sahingga harti pesen saperti "Musuh geus katingali" kudu dimupakatan heula. Hiji conto kagunaanna anu kasohor nyaéta dina jaman [[Armada Spanyol]], mangsa sajajaran munara cahaya ngarambatkeun sahiji sinyal ti [[Plymouth]] ka [[London]].<ref>David Ross, [http://www.britainexpress.com/History/tudor/armada.htm The Spanish Armada], Britain Express, accessed October 2007.</ref> Dina taun 1792, [[Claude Chappe]], saurang insinyur Perancis, telegrafi gambar munggaran sistem telegraf visual (atawa [[semafor]]) antara [[Lille]] jeung [[Paris]].<ref>[http://chappe.ec-lyon.fr/ Les Télégraphes Chappe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317051817/http://chappe.ec-lyon.fr/ |date=2011-03-17 }}, Cédrick Chatenet, l'Ecole Centrale de Lyon, 2003.</ref> Sanajan kitu, semafor ngabogaan kakurangan nyeta dibutuhkeunna para operator ahli sarta munara anu mahal tiap interval 10 tepi ka 30 kilometer. minangka akibat silih sihung (paunggul-unggul) di antara pausahaan-pausahaan telegraf listrik, ieu usaha lekasan dina taun 1880.<ref>[http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=19&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fitudoc%2Fgs%2Fpromo%2Ftsb%2F88192.pdf&ei=WmQKRc6wEqL4ggP_6bHTDQ&sig=__RpZ0L0hbqjtzZfVWEAMZVhduDBw=&sig2=dzK2J3-3WNRc0o63DXwciQ#search=%22semaphore%201880%20Sweden%22 CCIT/ITU-T 50 Years of Excellence], Internation Telecommunication Union, 2006.</ref> ==== Telegraf jeung telepon ==== [[Telegraf listrik]] komersil munggaran diwangun ku Sir [[Charles Wheatstone]] katut Sir [[William Fothergill Cooke]] sarta dibuka dina tanggal [[9 April]] [[1839]]. Boh Whéatstone jeung Cooke nganggap alat maranéhannana the minangka "hasil ngaalusan telegraf elektromagnetik anu aya harita " lain minangka alat anu anyar.<ref>[http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tel/morse/morse.htm The Electromagnetic Telegraph], J. B. Calvert, 19 May 2004.</ref> [[Samuel Morse]] di tempat lain ngamekarkeun sakaol telegraf listrik anu kungsi gagal dipintonkeun ku manéhna dina tanggal [[2 September]] [[1837]]. [[Morse code|Kodena]] mangrupa hal anu leuwih maju dibandingkeun métodeu pangsinyalan boga Whéatstone. [[Kabel telegraf transatlantik]] munggaran hasil direngsekeun dina tanggal [[27 Juli]] [[1866]], anu ngamungkinkeun telekomunikasi transatlantic munggaran.<ref>[http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/hst/atlantic-cable/ The Atlantic Cable], Bern Dibner, Burndy Library Inc., 1959</ref> Telepon konvensional ditimukeun di tempat lain ku [[Alexander Graham Bell|Alexander Bell]] katut [[Elisha Gray]] dina taun 1876.<ref>[http://www.oberlin.edu/external/EOG/OYTT-images/ElishaGray.html Elisha Gray], Oberlin College Archives, Electronic Oberlin Group, 2006.</ref> [[Antonio Meucci]] nimukeun alat munggaran anu ngamungkinkeun rambatan listrik anu ditumpangan sora ku jalan sahiji sambungan kabel dina taun 1849. Sanajan kitu, alat boga Meucci boga ajen praktis anu leutik lantaran éta alat gumantung kana [[efek electrofonik]] sahingga ngawajibkeun pangguna pikeun nempatkeun panarima dina sungutna pikeun ngadenge anu diucapkeun.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060424055029/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html Antonio Santi Giuseppe Meucci], Eugenii Katz. (Retrieved May, 2006 from [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html])</ref> Layanan telepon komersial munggaran diwangun dina taun 1878 jeung 1879 di kadua sisi lautan Atlantik di kota-kota [[New Haven]] katut [[London]].<ref>[http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelephone/index.htm Connected Earth: The telephone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221151108/http://www.connected-earth.com/Galleries/Telecommunicationsage/Thetelephone/index.htm |date=2008-12-21 }}, BT, 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.att.com/history/milestones.html History of AT&T] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906003711/http://www.att.com/history/milestones.html |date=2008-09-06 }}, AT&T, 2006.</ref> ==== Radio jeung télévisi ==== Dina taun 1832, [[James Bowman Lindsay|James Lindsay]] mintonkeun [[telegrafi tanpa kabel]] ka murid-muridna di kelas. Tepi ka taun 1854, manéhna mampuh mintonkeun rambatan ku jalan [[Firth of Tay]] ti [[Dundee, Skotlanida]] ka [[Woodhaven, Fife|Woodhaven]], sajauh dua mil, ngagunakeun cai minangka midiyeum rambatan.<ref>[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/centlib/jbl/jblchron.htm James Bowman Lindsay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224053803/http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/centlib/jbl/jblchron.htm |date=2009-02-24 }}, Macdonald Black, Dundee City Council, 1999.</ref> Dina bukan Desember 1901, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] ngawangun komunikasi tanpa kabel antara [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]] (Kanada) jeung [[Poldhu|Poldhu, Cornwall]] (Inggris), anu ngabalukarkeun manéhna meunang [[Nobel Prize in physics|Pangajén Nobel taun 1909 dina widang Fisika]] (babarengan jeung [[Karl Ferdinand Braun|Karl Braun]]).<ref>[http://www.teslasociety.com/biography.htm Tesla Biography], Ljubo Vujovic, Tesla Memorial Society of New York, 1998.</ref> Sanajan kitu, komunikasi skala leutik enggeus dipintonkeun dina taun 1893 ku [[Nikola Tesla]] dina sahiji presentasi hareupeun National Electric Light Association.<ref>[http://www.tfcbooks.com/teslafaq/q&a_025.htm Tesla's Radio Controlled Boat], Twenty First Century Books, 2007.</ref> Dina tanggal [[25 Maret]] [[1925]], [[John Logie Baird]] mampuh mintonkeun rambatan gambar hirup di [[Selfridges]], puseur tempat balanja London. Alat boga Baird kasebut gumantung kana [[piringan Nipkow]] sahingga katelah minangka [[televise mekanik]]. Hal ieu ngawangun dadasar pikeun siaran eksperimen anu dilakukeun ku [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] mimiti [[30 September]], [[1929]].<ref>[http://www.mztv.com/newframe.asp?content=http://www.mztv.com/pioneers.html The Pioneers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514070220/http://www.mztv.com/newframe.asp?content=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mztv.com%2Fpioneers.html |date=2013-05-14 }}, MZTV Museum of Television, 2006.</ref> Ngan, pikeun lolobana televise abad ka duapuluh gumantung kana bungbung sinar katoda (cathode ray tube) anu ditimukeun ku invented by [[Karl Ferdinand Braun|Karl Braun]]. Kaol munggaran televise saperti kitu anu nongtonkeun iklan dihasilkeun ku [[Philo Farnsworth]] sarta dipintonkeun ka kulawargana dina tanggal [[7 September]], [[1927]].<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html Philo Farnsworth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930214902/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html |date=2009-09-30 }}, Neil Postman, [[TIME Magazine]], 29 Maret 1999</ref> ==== Jaringan Komputer jeung Internét ==== Dina tanggal [[11 Séptémber]], [[1940]], [[George Stibitz]] mampuh ngirimkeun sual ngagunakeun ''[[teletype]]'' ka “Complex Number Calculator” boga manéhna di [[New York]] sarta narima balik hasil itunganna di [[Dartmouth College]] di [[New Hampshire]].<ref>[http://www.kerryr.net/pioneers/stibitz.htm George Stlibetz], Kerry Redshaw, 1996.</ref> Konfigurasi komputer terpusat atawa ''[[Mainframe computer|mainframe]]'' ieu sarta terminal-terminalna tetep populér dina taun 1950an. Tapi, acan nepi ka taun 1960-an, para panalungtik mimiti nalungtik ''[[packet switching]]'' — hiji téhnologi anu ngamungkinkeun sakumpulan data pikeun dikirim ka komputer-komputer anu béda tanpa kudu ku jalan heula hiji mainframe anu ''terpusat''. ''Four-node network'' muncul dina tanggal [[5 Désémber]], [[1969]]; jaringan ieu mangrupa cikal-bakal [[ARPANET]], anu dina taun 1981 bisa ngawengku tepi ka 213 ''node''.<ref>{{cite book | last = Hafner | first = Katie | title = Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet | publisher = Simon & Schuster | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-684-83267-4 }}</ref> Kamajuan [[ARPANET]] museur dina prosés ''[[Request for Comment]]'' sarta dina tanggal [[7 April]], [[1969]], RFC 1 medal. Prosés ieu penting lantaran ARPANET ahirna ngagabung jeung jaringan-jairngan lianna pikeun ngawangun [[Internét]] sarta rupa-rupa protokol Internét anu dipaké kiwari diwincik ku jalan prosés ''Request for Comment'' kasebut. Dina bulan Séptémber 1981, RFC 791 ngenalkeun ''[[Internet Protocol]]'' v4 (IPv4) sarta RFC 793 ngawanohkeun ''[[Transmission Control Protocol]]'' (TCP) — sahingga nyiptakeun protokol TCP/IP anu digunakeun dina [[Internét]] kiwari. Sanajan kitu, henteu kabéh kamajuan penting beunang prosés ''Request for Comment''. Dua protokol ''link'' anu populér pikeun ''[[local area network]]'' (LAN) ogé mucunghul dina taun 1970-an. Contona, patén pikeun protokol ''[[token ring]]'' diajukeun ku [[Olof Soderblom]] dina tanggal [[29 Oktober]], [[1974]] sarta hiji makalah ngeunaan protokol [[Ethernet]] diterbitkeun ku [[Robert Metcalfe]] jeung [[David Boggs]] dina bulan Juli 1976.<ref>[http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PTXT&s1=4293948.PN.&OS=PN/4293948&RS=PN/4293948 Data transmission system] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231092423/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PTXT&s1=4293948.PN.&OS=PN%2F4293948&RS=PN%2F4293948 |date=2016-12-31 }}, Olof Solderblom, PN 4,293,948, October 1974.</ref><ref>[http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/ Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807213308/http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/ |date=2007-08-07 }}, Robert M. Metcalfe and David R. Boggs, Communications of the ACM (pp 395-404, Vol. 19, No. 5), July 1976.</ref> === Sajarah Telekomunikasi di Indonesia === Sajarah telekomunikasi di [[Indonésia]] dimimitian saprak ''channel'' telegraf munggaran dibuka dina tanggal [[23 Oktober]] [[1855]] ku Pamaréntah [[Hindia Walanda]]. éta ''channel'' mangrupa telegraf elektromagnétik anu nyambungkeun [[Batavia]] ([[Jakarta]] kiwari) jeung [[Buitenzorg]] ([[Bogor]] kiwari). Dua taun saterusna dibuka ''channel'' Jakarta-[[Surabaya]] jeung cabang [[Semarang]]-Ambarawa. Saprak harita jasa telegraf bisa dimangpaatkeun ku balaréa. Dua taun saterusna panjang ''channel'' telegraf mekar terus tepi ka ngahontal 2.700 kilométer, dilayanan ku 28 kantor telegraf. Di sapanjang rel karéta api diadegkeun tihang-tihang telegraf. Samentara éta, kabel laut geus dipasang antara Jakarta jeung [[Singapura]], satuluyna ti [[Jawa]] ([[Banyuwangi]]) ka [[Australia]] ([[Darwin]]). Salengkepna bisa dibaca dina [[Sajarah Telekomunikasi di Indonesia]]. == Telekomunikasi Modéren == ==== Telepon ==== [[Gambar:Fibreoptic.jpg|thumb|right|120px|[[Serat optik]] nawarkeun rubakpita leuwih murah pikeun komunikasi dina jarak jauh]] Dina hiji jaringan telepon analog, [[calling party|Panelepon]] anu aya di ujung jaringan disambungkeun ka jelema anu dituju dina ujung lian éta jaringan ku ''switch'' anu aya dina [[séntral telepon]]. Switch éta ngawangun sambungan éléktrik antara dua pamaké jaringan sarta setélan atawa ''setting'' switch-switch ditetepkeun sacara éléktronik mangsa panelepon [[pulse dialling|muter]] nomer. Sakali sambungan dijieun, sora si panelepon dirobah jadi sinyal éléktrik ku hiji [[mikropon]] leutik dina [[gagang telepon]] si panelepon. Sinyal éléktrik ieu terus dikirim ku jalan jaringan ka pamaké dina ujung lianna di mana sinyal kesebut dirobah balik kana wangunan sora ku [[loudspeaker|speaker]] leutik dina jero gagang telepon éta jelema. Aya sambungan éléktrik anu séjén anu jalan dina arah sabalikna, anu ngamungkinkeun para pamaké pikeun ngawangkong.<ref>[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/telephone1.htm How Telephone Works], HowStuffWorks.com, 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.epanorama.net/links/telephone.html Telephone technology page], ePanorama, 2006.</ref> Telepon [[sambungan tanah|sambungan tetep]] di sabagian gedé pamukiman mangrupa telepon analog — nyaéta, sora nu ngomomg sacara langsung ngarobah-robah voltase sinyal. Sanajan wangkongan jarak deukeut bisa dilaksanakeun ti ujung-ka-ujung ngagunakeun sinyal analog, ka dieukeun beuki loba panyadia jasa telepon sacara transparan ngarobah sistem teleponna tina analog ka digital. Kauntungannana nyaéta data sora anu didigitalkeun bisa ngarambat babarengan jeung data tina Internet sarta bisa sacara sampurna dihasilkeun deui (direproduksi) dina komunikasi jarak jauh (béda jeung sinyal analog anu teu bisa nyingkahan nois). Ayana telepon sambungan nu bisa gerak (mobil) boga pangaruh anu gedé kana kurang tumuwuhna jaringan telepon. Langgan telepon mobil kiwari jumlahna ngaleuwihan langgan telepon sambungan tetep. Langgan telepon mobil dina taun 2005 ngahontal 816 juta urang. Telepon mobil ieu disadiakeun ku sistem-sistem di mana eusi sora dirambatkeun sacara digital saperti sistem [[GSM]] atawa sistem [[W-CDMA]]. Sistem-sistem kasebut ngagantikeun sistem analog saperti [[AMPS]] di loba nagara. Parobahan dramatis dina kamekaran jaringan telepon ogé kajadian dina médiyeum transmisi anu digunakeun. Parobahan ieu dimimitian ku digunakeunnana sistem rambatan anu dumasar kana [[serat optik]] dina taun 1988. Kauntungan komunikasi ngagunakeun serat optik nyaéta serat optik nawarkeun paningkatan kapasitas data anu drastis. Paningkatan kapasitas data ieu disababkeun ku sababaraha faktor: kahiji, sacara fisik, serat optik jauh leuwih leutik batan téhnologi-téhnologi pasaingna. Kadua, serat optik henteu ngalaman ''[[crosstalk (electronics)|crosstalk]]'' anu hartina sababaraha ratus kabel bisa kalayan gampang dibuntel dihijikeun dina hiji kabel tunggal.<ref>[http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/S.Bhatti/D51-notes/node21.html Optical fibre waveguide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524033058/http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/S.Bhatti/D51-notes/node21.html |date=2006-05-24 }}, Saleem Bhatti, 1995.</ref> Anu pamungkas, kamajuan dina ''multiplexing'' geus ngarah kana ningkatna kapasitas data hiji serat optik tunggal sacara éksponénsial.<ref>[http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/mels/cm1500/dwdm/dwdm_ovr.pdf Fundamentals of DWDM Technology], CISCO Systems, 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.lightreading.com/document.asp?doc_id=31358 Report: DWDM No Match for Sonet], Mary Jander, Light Reading, 2006.</ref> Standar anu ngabantu komunikasi dina jaringan serat optik modéren nyaéta protokol anu dipikanyaho minangka [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode]] (ATM). Protokol ATM ngamungkinkeun parambatan sora katut data sacara babarengan. Hal ieu cocog pikeun jaringan telepon umum lantaran serat optik ngawangun hiji jalur pikeun data ku jalan jaringan kasebut. ==== Radio jeung télévisi ==== [[Gambar:digital television.png|thumb|260px|Standar-standar télévisi digital katut panerapanna sadunya.|pra=Special:FilePath/Digital_television.png]] Dina hiji sistem pamancar, hiji [[radio masts and towers|munara siaran]] séntral anu dibéré daya listrik anu gedé ngarambatkeun [[gelombang éléktromagnétik]] anu frékuénsina luhur ka sajumlah panarima (atawa ''receiver'') anu dibéré daya listrik leutik. Gelombang frékuénsi luhur anu dikirim ku éta munara ditumpangan atawa [[modulation|dimodulasi]] ku hiji sinyal anu ngandung informasi visual atawa audio. [[Antenna (radio)|Anténeu]] dina receiver satuluyna disetél (atawa [[antenna tuner|ditala]]) sangkan bisa nangkep gelombang frékuénsi luhur kasebut sarta hiji [[demodulator]] digunakeun pikeun meunangkeun deui sinyal anu ngandung informasi visual atawa audio. Sinyal siaran bisa analog (sinyal dirobah-robah sacara sinambung gumantung informasi) atawa digital (informasi dikodekeun minangka sakumpulan harga-harga diskrit).<ref name="stallings-intro"/><ref>[http://www.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm How Radio Works], HowStuffWorks.com, 2006.</ref> Industri média siaran kiwari keur aya dina titik balik dina kamajuan usahana lantaran loba nagara anu pindah ti siaran analog ka siaran digital. Kapindahan ieu dimungkinkeun ku ayana ''produksi'' ''[[integrated circuit]]'' atawa ''IC'' anu leuwih murah, leuwih gancang dina ngolah sinyal, sarta leuwih ampuh. Kauntungan utama siaran digital nyaéta bisa nyegah sajumlah masalah anu muncul dina siaran analog tradisional. Conto dina télévisi, hal ieu kaasup ilangna masalah-masalah saperti [[noise (video)|gambar saperti sireum]], [[television interference (ghosting)|gambar ngalangkang]] katut gangguan lianna. Gangguan-gangguan kasebut lumangsung dina siaran analog lantaran sifat pangiriman sinyal analog, nyaéta ayana gangguan akibat ''[[nois]]''. Pangiriman sinyal sacara digital bisa ngajawab masalah-masalah ieu lantaran sinyal digital dikodekeun kana harga-harga diskrit sahingga gangguan-gangguan leutik henteu mangaruhan kaluaran ahir hiji alat panarima siaran. Dina conto saderhana, lamun hiji pesen binér 1011 dikirimkeun dina amplitudo-amplitudo sinyal [1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0] sarta ditarima ku alat panarima kalayan amplitudo-amplitudo [0.9 0.2 1.1 0.9] mangka amplitudo-amplitudo kasebut masih dikodekeun kana pesen binér 1011 — mangrupa réproduksi sampurna tina sinyal anu dikirim. Pangiriman sacara digital ogé bisa nganyahokeun gangguan dina harti yén lamun nois cukup gedé sahingga ngarobah pesen anu dikirim. Ku ngagunakeun ''[[forward error correction]]'' hiji alat panarima bisa ngabenerkeun sakumpulan kasalahan bit dina pesen anu dihasilkeun. Kakurangan pangiriman digital nyéta lamun loba teuing nois mangka hal ieu bakal ngahasilkeun kaluaran anu henteu bisa kabaca sahingga muegatkeun pangiriman.<ref>[http://www.digitaltv.com.au/ Digital Television in Australia], Digital Television News Australia, 2001.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Stallings | first = William | edition= 7th edition (intl) | title = Data and Computer Communications | url = https://archive.org/details/datacomputercomm00stal_1 | publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-13-183311-1 }}</ref> Dina siaran télévisi digital, aya tilu standar anu silih adu kaunggulan, anu bisa dipilih di sakuliah dunya. Standar-standar ieu nyéta [[ATSC Standards|ATSC]], [[DVB]] sarta [[ISDB]]. Katilu standar ieu ngagunakeun [[MPEG-2]] pikeun madetkeun (''komprési'') gambar (''vidéo''). ATSC ngagunakeun ''[[Dolby Digital|Dolby Digital AC-3]]'' pikeun komprési sora (''audio''), ISDB ngagunakeun [[Advanced Audio Coding]] (MPEG-2 Bagian 7) ari DVB, anu teu boga standar husus pikeun komprési audio, ngagunakeun [[MPEG-1|MPEG-1 Bagian 3 Lapisan 2]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040922025847/http://www.dynamix.ca/doc/HDVhandbook1.pdf HDV Technology Handbook], [[Sony]], 2004.</ref><ref>[http://www.dvb.org/technology/standards_specifications/audio/ Audio], [[DVB|Digital Video Broadcasting Project]], 2003.</ref> Pilihan modulasi ogé henteu sarua di antara tilu standar ieu.<!--DVB katut ISDB ngagunakeun ''[[orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]]'' (OFDM) pikeun siaran ''térésterial'' (jaringan telekomunikasi dina beungeut taneuh, lain ku jalan satelit) ari ATSC ngagunakeun ''[[8VSB|vestigial sideband modulation]]'' (VSB). OFDM nawarkeun ''résistansi'' kana interférensi multijalur sarta [[éfék Doppler]] (anu baris mangaruhan panarimaan dina alat panarima anu obah henteu cicing dina hiji tempat).<ref>[http://www.mrcbroadcast.com/tech_services/COFDM%20vs%20VSB.html COFDM versus VSB in ENG/HD-ENG], Microwave Radio Communications, 2006.</ref> Sanajan kitu, uji coba kontrovérsial anu dilakukeun ku [[National Association of Broadcasters]] Amérika Serikat geus ngabuktikeun yén aya saeutik béda antara dua standar ieu pikeun alat panarima nu cicing (''stationary'').<ref>[http://www.hdtvmagazine.com/archives/mstvtestsum.html 8VSB/COFDM Comparison Report], VSB/COFDM Project, December 2000 (preface by Dale Cripps of HDTV Magazine).</ref>--> Dina siaran audio digital, standar-standarna jauh leuwih padeukeut; hal ieu ngagampangkeun hususna pikeun nagara anu milih ngalaksanakeun standar éta standar pikeun [[siaran audio digital]] (katelah ogé standar [[Eureka 147]]). Anu mahiwal ngan Amerika Serikat, anu geus milih ngalaksanakeun standar ''[[HD Radio]]''. Sanajan kitu, alat panarima sinyal digital tetep sumebar. Télévisi analog masih dipancarkeun di sakabéh nagara di dunya. Amerika Sarikat geus ngaharepkeun pikeun mungkas siaran analog dina tanggal [[31 Désémber]] [[2006]]; sanajan kitu, ieu rancana ditunda nepi ka tanggal [[17 Pébruari]], [[2009]].<ref>[http://www.dtv.gov/consumercorner.html Consumer Corner FAQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424195927/http://www.dtv.gov/consumercorner.html |date=2008-04-24 }}, dtv.gov, 2006.</ref> Pikeun télévisi analog, aya tilu standar anu digunakeun nyaéta [[PAL]], [[NTSC]] katut [[SECAM]]. <!--Prinsip dasar PAL jeung NTSC sarupa pisan; hiji ''[[subcarrier]]'' anu [[quadrature amplitude modulation|dimodulasi ku opat amplitudo]] nu mawa informasi ditambahkeun kana sinyal vidéo pikeun ngawangun hiji sinyal pitadasar vidéo komposit atawa [[composite video|composite video baseband signal]] (CVBS). Di pihak lain, sistem [[SECAM]] nerapkeun cara modulasi frékuénsi kana ''subcarrier'' warnana.--> Pikeun radio analog, pindah ka digital leuwih susah dilaksanakeun lantaran harga alat panarima analog jauh leuwih murah batan biaya alat panarima digital.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00000J060 GE 72664 Portable AM/FM Radio], Amazon.com, June 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.worlddab.org/dabprod.aspx DAB Products] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060621082027/http://www.worlddab.org/dabprod.aspx |date=2006-06-21 }}, World DAB Forum, 2006.</ref> Cara modulasi pikeun radio analog anu dipilih biasana di antara [[modulasi amplitudo]] (AM) atawa [[modulasi frekuensi]] (FM). Pikeun ngahontal [[stereophonic sound|stereo playback]], hiji subcarrier anu dimodulasi amplitudo digunakeun pikeun [[FM stéréo]]<!-- jeung modulasi opat amplitudo digunakeun pikeun AM stéréo atawa [[C-QUAM]] -->. ==== Internét ==== [[Gambar:OSI Model v1.svg|250px|thumb|right|The [[OSI reference model]]]] Internét mangrupa jaringan lingkup sadunya anu diwangun ku komputer-komputer anu bisa saling komunikasi ngagunakeun ''[[Internet Protocol]]''.<ref>Robert E. Kahn and Vinton G. Cerf, [http://www.cnri.reston.va.us/what_is_internet.html What Is The Internet (And What Makes It Work)], December 1999. (specifically see footnote xv)</ref> Unggal komputer dina Internét boga hiji ''[[IP address]]'' atawa alamat ''IP'' anu mandiri anu bisa digunakeun ku komputer lianna pikeun nungtun informasi ka komputer dimaksud. Ku kituna, satiap komputer dina Internét bisa ngirim hiji pesen ka komputer lianna kalayan ngagunakeun alamat ''IP''-na. Pesen-pesen ieu sakaligus mawa alamat ''IP'' komputer asalna anu ngamungkinkeun komunikasi dua arah. Ku cara kieu, Internét bisa dianggap salaku patukeuran pesen di antara komputer-komputer.<ref>[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm How Internet Infrastructure Works], HowStuffWorks.com, 2007.</ref> Kira-kira 16.9% tina populasi dunya boga aksés kana Internét. Pamaké Internét (diukur dina perséntase populasi) di benua Amerika bagin kalér 69.7%, di kapuloan Oséania katut benua Australia 53.5% sarta Éropah 38.9%.<ref>[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm World Internet Users and Population Stats] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522094328/https://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm |date=2020-05-22 }}, internetworldstats.com, March 19 2007.</ref> Dina hal Internét [[Broadband Internet access|aksés pitarubak]], pamaké di [[Inggris]] 89%, [[Islandia]] 26.7%, [[Koréa Kidul]] 25.4% sarta [[Walanda]] 25.3%.<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/document/39/0,2340,en_2649_34225_36459431_1_1_1_1,00.html OECD Broadband Statistics], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]], December 2005.</ref> Dina 2018, loba jalma nu jadi kasohor tur bisa hirup dina panghasilan tina internet.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://ruanglaptop.com/berapa-penghasilan-youtuber/|title=Berapa Penghasilan Youtuber Sebenarnya?|last=|first=|date=2018-08-18|work=|newspaper=RuangLaptop|language=Indonesia|access-date=2018-11-01|via=}}</ref> Internét bisa jalan di antarana lantaran [[communications protocol|protokol]] anu ngatur komputer-komputer katut ''router-router'' bisa saling komunikasi. Sifat komunikasi komputer nyaéta boga protokol anu lalapisan di mana hiji lapisan ''indepénden'' tina lapisan séjénna. Hal ieu ngamungkinkeun protokol tingkatan nu leuwih handap bisa ''di-customized'' (dirobah luyu jeung kabutuhan pamaké) bari henteu ngarobah jalanna protokol-protokol dina tingkatan anu leuwih luhur. Hiji conto ''praktis'' kunaon hal ieu penting nyaéta hal ieu ngamungkinkeun ''software'' pikeun maca Internét ([[Internet browser]]) bisa ngalaksanakeun kode anu sarua henteu paduli naha komputerna nyambung kana [[Ethernet]] atawa [[Wi-Fi]]. Protokol-protokol mindeng dikaitkeun kana tempat dina [[OSI reference model]] (gambar di beulah katuhu), anu mecenghul dina taun 1983 minangka léngkah munggaran dina upaya ngawangun protokol jaringan anu bisa diterapkeun sacara universal (babarengan / sadunya).<ref>[http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_HistoryoftheOSIReferenceModel.htm History of the OSI Reference Model], The TCP/IP Guide v3.0, Charles M. Kozierok, 2005.</ref> Pikeun Internét, médiyeum fisik sarta protokol hubungan data bisa robah sababaraha kali mangsa ''pakét-pakét data'' ku jalan tempat-tempat di bumi. Hal ieu lumangsung lantaran Internét henteu maksakeun protokol médiyeum fisik atawa hubungan data naon anu kudu digunakeun. Hal ieu jadi marga pikeun digunakeunana média sarta protokol anu paling cocog pikeun kaayaan dina hiji jaringan lokal. Dina prakték, lolobana komunikasi antar benua ngagunakeun protokol [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode]] (ATM) (atawa anu sabanding) dina jero [[serat optik]]. Hal ieu dikaranakeun lolobana komunikasi antar benua bareng-bareng ngagunakeun infrastruktur anu sarua saperti [[jaringan telepon umum]]. Dina Internét, sagala hal distandardisasi sangkan nohonan standar (protokol). Protokol-protokol Internét anu mindeng digunakeun di antarana Protokol Internét atawa [[Internet Protocol]] ([[IP]]), TCP, UDP, DNS, PPP, SLIP, ICMP, POP3, IMAP, SMTP, HTTP, HTTPS, SSH, Télnét, FTP, LDAP, jeung SSL. Kiwari, kaol (vérsi) IP anu paling loba digunakeun nyaéta vérsi opat. Tapi, vérsi genep bakal datang dina waktu anu moal lila deui.<ref>[http://www.microsoft.com/technet/itsolutions/network/ipv6/introipv6.mspx Introduction to IPv6], Microsoft Corporation, February 2006.</ref> <!—Kauntungan utama tina vérsi genep nyaéta versi ieu ngarojong 3.40 × 10³⁸ alamat, jauh leuwih loba batan vérsi opat anu ngan ngarojong 4.29 × 10⁹ alamat. Vérsi anu leuwih anyar ogé nambahkeun dukungan pikeun paningkatan kaamanan ku jalan [[IPSec]] ogé ngadukung [[quality of service|Kualitas Layanan]].--> ==== LAN / WLAN ==== {{utama|LAN jeung Wireless LAN}} Local Aréa Nétwork anu disingket LAN mangrupa jaringan komputer anu legana ngan ngalingkung wewengkon nu leutik; saperti jaringan komputer kampus, gedong, kantor, jero imah, sakola atawa anu leuwih leutik deui. salah sahiji komputer dina éta jaringan dijadikeun sérver anu ngatur sakabéh sistem dina éta jaringan. LAN dibédakeun ti jaringan anu leuwih lega lantaran cirina boga laju data anu leuwih gancang sarta wewengkon anu leuwih heureut. Kiwari lolobana LAN ngagunakeun standar téknologi IEEE 802.3 (Éthernét) anu ngagunakeun alat switch anu boga laju pangiriman data 10, 100, atawa 1000 Mbit/s. Sagigireun téknologi Éthernet, kiwari standar téknologi 802.11b (anu biasa disebut Wi-fi) ogé mindeng digunakeun pikeun ngawangun LAN. Tempat-tempat anu nyadiakeun sambungan LAN kalayan téknologi Wi-fi biasa disebut hotspot. == Tempo ogé == : ''Daptar utama: [[Daptar jejer ngeunaan telekomunikasi dasar]]'' * [[Téori informasi]] * [[Radio]] * [[Telepon]] * [[Télévisi]] * [[Radio dua arah]] (Two-way radio) == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} <!-- # "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4475394.stm Wiring up the 'Victorian internet']" at [[BBC News]], [[29 November]] [[2005]] --> == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.itu.int/home/ International Telecommunication Union] * [http://www.fcc.gov/ Federal Communications Commission] * [http://www.comsoc.org/ IEEE Communications Society] * [http://www.atis.org/tg2k/ ATIS Telecom Glossary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302071329/http://www.atis.org/tg2k/ |date=2008-03-02 }} [[Kategori:Telekomunikasi|*]] [[Kategori:Révolusi digital]] [[Kategori:Komunikasi]] cr08zryf9hco4i6qd649hurszhd0qn0 0 24290 711694 674104 2026-08-07T01:42:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711694 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Map_Indonésia_volcanoes.gif|thumb|400px|Gunung seuneuan utama di Indonésia]] Kaca ieu mangrupa '''daptar [[gunung seuneuan]] di [[Indonésia]]'''. [[Géografi Indonésia]] didominasi ku [[gunung seuneuan]] nu kawangun alatan [[zona subduksi]] antara [[lempengan Érasia]] jeung [[lempengan Australia|lempengan Indo-Australia]]. Aya sababaraha gunung seuneuan anu kasohor bituna, contona, [[Rakata]] nu ngabalukarkeun pangaruh global taun 1883,<ref name="winchester2003">{{cite book|last=Winchester|first=Simon|title=Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883|url=https://archive.org/details/krakatoadaywo00winc|publisher=HarperCollins|date=2003|id=ISBN 0-06-621285-5}}</ref> [[Dano Toba]] kasohor ku bitu [[supervolcano]]na nu diperkirakeun kajadian 74.000 taun [[Saméméh Kiwari]] nu ngabalukarkeun genep taun [[usum tiis gunung seuneuan]],<ref name="Oppenheimer2002">{{cite journal|title=Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?|last=Oppenheimer|first=C.|date=2002|journal=Quarternary Science Reviews|pages=1593&ndash;1609|volume=21|issue=14&ndash;15|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8}}</ref> sarta [[Gunung Tambora]] nu karekam dina sajarah taun 1815 bituna kacida ngaruksakna.<ref name="Stothers1984">{{cite journal|last=Stothers|first=Richard B.|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|title=The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath|volume=224|issue=4654|date=1984|pages=1191-1198|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.224.4654.1191}}</ref> Gunung seuneuan di Indonésia mangrupa bagéan tina [[Cingcin Seuneu Pasifik]] ''(Pacific Ring of Fire)''. 150 entri dina daptar ieu digolongkeun kana genep wewengkon regional, opat di antarana mangrupa gunung seuneuan dina ''sistem kanal [[Cekungan Sunda]]''. Dua golongan sesana mangrupa gunung seuneuan [[Halmahera]], kaasup sabudeureun [[pulo gunung seuneuan]], sarta gunung seuneuan di [[Sulawesi]] jeung [[Pulo Sangihe]]. Golongan pangpandeurina nyaéta dina hiji ''[[cekungan vulkanik]]'' nu ngahiji jeung gunung seuneuan [[Pilipina]]. Gunung seuneuan anu pangaktipna nyaéta [[Kelut]] jeung [[Gunung Merapi|Merapi]] di pulo [[Jawa]] anu geus ngabalukarkeun leungitna rebuan nyawa di sabudeureunnan. Saprak taun 1000, Kelut geus bitu leuwih ti 30 kali, bitu pangrongkahna kajadian dina skala 5 [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (VEI),<ref name="kelut">{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-28=&volpage=erupt|title=Sajarah Letusan Kelut|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2006-12-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302071919/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-28=&volpage=erupt |date=2009-03-02 }}</ref> sedengkeun Merapi geus bitu leuwih ti 80 kali.<ref name="merapi">{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-25=&volpage=erupt|title=Sajarah Letusan Merapi|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2006-12-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820155139/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-25=&volpage=erupt |date=2007-08-20 }}</ref> The [[International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior]] geus nyebutkeun Merapi minangka [[Decade Volcano]] saprak 1995 alatan aktivitas letusanna anu remen. == Lingkup == Acan aya hiji definisi anu baku ngeunaan gunung seuneuan. Hiji gunung bisa ditetepkeun minangka seuneuan tina ayana kawah, volcanic edificies atawa medan vulkanik. Bagian jero rohangan gunung seuneuan purba bisa waé urug atawa kakikis, antukna nyiptakeun kamar-kamar magma anyar minangka gunung-gunung seuneuan anyar. Loba gunung seuneuan anu kiwari aktif mucunghul minangka anak congcot tina sisi kawah atawa tengah kawah. Salah sahiji conto nyaéta [[gunung Tangkubanparahu]] anu mucunghul dina kaldera [[gunung Sunda]]. Sababaraha congcot vulkanik dikolompokkeun jadi hiji ngaran, contona kompleks kaldera Tenger, sanajan padumuk lokal geus méré ngaran kana tiap kawahna. Status gunung seuneuan, arek [[aktif]] atawa [[henteu aktif]] henteu bisa didefinisikeun kalayan pasti. Ciri sahiji gunung minangka seuneuan ditetepkeun ku cutatan sajarahna, pananggalan radiocarbon, atawa aktivitas géotermalna. Di handap ieu aya daftar gunung seuneuan anu dicokot tina sumber utama buku "Volcanoes of the World", anu dikumpulkeun ku dua [[ahli gunung seuneu]] Tom Simkin jeung Lee Siebert,{{ref label|SimkinSiebert1994|a|a}} anu eusina mangrupa daftar gunung seuneu aktif dina sajero 10,000 taun ka tukang ([[Holocene]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/globallists.cfm?listpage=summdesc|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|work=Global Volcanism Program|title=Summary Data Criteria|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref> Husus keur Indonésia, Simkin jeung Siebert ngagunakeun sahiji katalog ngeunaan gunung seuneu tina runtuyan publikasi [[International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior]].{{ref label|Padang1951|b|a}} Daftar Simkin jeung Siebert mangrupa daftar gunung seuneuan di Indonésia anu paling lengkep, tapi katalitian cutatanna béda-béda ti hiji wilayah jeung wilayah lianna dina hal jumlah kajadian jeung rongkahna letusan ka dieunakeun. ==Kolompok geografis== ===Sumatra=== Tanah [[Sumatera]] sabagian gedé dipinuhan ku rangkéan gunung atawa [[pagunungan]] anu disebut [[Bukit Barisan]]. Pagunungan éta ngawengku ampir 1,700&nbsp;km (1,050&nbsp;mi) ti kalér nunjang ngidul. Pagunungan éta kawangun akibat gerak [[lémpeéng téktonik Australia]].<ref name="Simoes2004">{{cite journal|title=The Sumatra subduction zone: A case for a locked fault zone extending into the mantle|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|date=2004|author=Simoes, M., Avouac, J.P., Cattin, R., Henry, P.|volume=109|doi=10.1029/2003JB002958|url=http://tectonics.caltech.edu/publications/pdf/simoes_JGR2004.pdf}}</ref> Lémpéng kasebut maju 5,5&nbsp;cm/taun nu ngabalukarkeun [[lini]] anu rongkah di sisi beulah kulon Sumatera kaasup lini Sumatera-Andaman dina taun 2004.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Plate-boundary deformation associated with the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake|author=Subarya, C., Chlieh, M., Prawirodirdjo, L., Avouac, J.P., Bock, Y., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A., Natawidjaja, D.H., McCaffrey, R.|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|url=http://tectonics.caltech.edu/publications/pdf/Subarya_Nature2006.pdf|doi=10.1038/nature04522|volume=440|date=2006|pages=46&ndash;51}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004|author=Lay, T., Kanamori, H., Ammon, C., Nettles, M., Ward, S., Aster, R., Beck, S., Bilek, S., Brudzinski, M., Butler, R., DeShon, H., Ekstrom, G.|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|url=http://tectonics.caltech.edu/publications/pdf/Lay_Science2005.pdf|doi=10.1126/science.1112250|volume=308|issue=5725|date=2005|pages=1127&ndash;1133}}</ref> Gerak téktonik lain waé ngabalukarkeun lini, tapi ogé ngwangun [[kamar magma]] dina handapeun pulo.<ref name="Simoes2004"/> Ti 35 [[gunung seuneu aktif]], ngan aya hiji anu misah ti daratan utama Sumatera, nyaéta gunung Weh. Pisahna ieu gunung disababkeun ku letusan gedé anu ngakibatkeun kawangunna daratan anu handap antukna kaeusi ku cai laut dina mangsa [[Pleistocene]]. Gunung seuneuan anu paling gedé di Sumatera nyaéta gunung Toba, anu kaasup [[gunung seuneuan super]], di tengah dano Toba anu boga ukuran 100&nbsp;km (62&nbsp;miles) &times; 30&nbsp;km (19&nbsp;miles), anu kawangun saenggeus [[caldera|runtuhna kaldéra]] (kira-kira 74,000 taun [[Samemeh Kiwari]]).<ref name="Oppenheimer2002"/> Letusanna ditaksir nepi ka level dalapan dina skala [[VEI]], level pangluhurna anu mungkin dina éta skala. Puncak anu paling luhur dina éta pagunungan nyaéta [[Gunung Kerinci]] anu luhurna 3,800&nbsp;m (12,467&nbsp;ft). <onlyinclude> {| align="left" class="prettytable" |- ! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Ngaran !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Wangun !! colspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Jangkung !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Bitu pangpandeurina ([[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]]) !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Lokasi di bumi |- ! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (m) !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (ft) |- | [[Pulo Wéh|Wéh]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|617 || align="right"|2,024 || [[Pleistocene]] || {{coor d|5.82|N|95.28|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Seulawah Agam]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,810 || align="right"|5,938 || 1839 (2) || {{coor d|5.448|N|95.658|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Peuet Sague]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|2,801 || align="right"|9,190 || [[25 Desember]] [[2000]] (2) || {{coor d|4.914|N|96.329|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Geureudong]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,885 || align="right"|9,465 || 1937 || {{coor d|4.813|N|96.82|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Kembar|Kembar]] || [[shield volcano]] || align="right"|2,245 || align="right"|7,365 || [[Pleistocene]] || {{coor d|3.850|N|97.664|E|type:mountain}}<includeonly> |}</includeonly></onlyinclude> |- | [[Sibayak]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,212 || align="right"|7,257 || 1881 || {{coor d|3.23|N|98.52|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Sinabung]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,460 || align="right"|8,071 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|3.17|N|98.392|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Situ Toba|Toba]] || [[supervolcano]] || align="right"|2,157 || align="right"|7,077 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|2.58|N|98.83|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Helatoba-Tarutung]] || [[fumarole]] field || align="right"|1,100 || align="right"|3,609 || [[Pleistocene]] || {{coor d|2.03|N|98.93|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Imun]] || teu kanyahoan || align="right"|1,505 || align="right"|4,938 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|2.158|N|98.93|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Sibualbuali]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,819 || align="right"|5,968 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|1.556|N|99.255|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Lubukraya]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,862 || align="right"|6,109 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|1.478|N|99.209|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Sorikmarapi]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,145 || align="right"|7,037 || 1986 (1) || {{coor d|0.686|N|99.539|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Talakmau]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|2,919 || align="right"|9,577 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.079|N|99.98|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Sarik-Gajah]] || [[volcanic cone]] || align="right"|teu kanyahoan || align="right"|teu kanyahoan || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.008|N|100.20|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Marapi]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|2,891 || align="right"|9,485 || [[5 Agustus]] [[2004]] (2) || {{coor d|0.381|S|100.473|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Tandikat]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,438 || align="right"|7 999 || 1924 (1) || {{coor d|0.433|S|100.317|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Talang|Talang]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,597 || align="right"|8,520 || [[12 April]] [[2005]] (2) || {{coor d|0.978|S|100.679|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Kerinci|Kerinci]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,800 || align="right"|12,467 || [[22 Juni]] [[2004]] (2) || {{coor d|1.697|S|101.264|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Hutapanjang|Hutapanjang]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,021 || align="right"|6,631 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|2.33|S|101.60|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Sumbing (Sumatra)|Sumbing]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,507 || align="right"|8,225 || [[23 Mei]] [[1921]] (2) || {{coor d|2.414|S|101.728|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Kunyit|Kunyit]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,151 || align="right"|7,057 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|2.592|S|101.63|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Pendan|Pendan]] || teu kanyahoan || align="right"|teu kanyahoan || align="right"|teu kanyahoan || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|2.82|S|102.02|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Belirang-Beriti]] || compound || align="right"|1,958 || align="right"|6,424 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|2.82|S|102.18|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Bukit Daun]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,467 || align="right"|8,094 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|3.38|S|102.37|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Kaba|Kaba]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,952 || align="right"|6,404 || [[22 Agustus]] [[2000]] (1) || {{coor d|3.52|S|102.62|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Dempo|Dempo]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,173 || align="right"|10,410 || Oktober 1994 (1) || {{coor d|4.03|S|103.13|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Patah|Patah]] || teu kanyahoan || align="right"|2,817 || align="right"|9,242 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|4.27|S|103.30|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Bukit Lumut Balai]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,055 || align="right"|6,742 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|4.23|S|103.62|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Besar|Besar]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,899 || align="right"|6,230 || April 1940 (1) || {{coor d|4.43|S|103.67|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Situ Ranau|Ranau]] || [[caldera]] || align="right"|1,881 || align="right"|6,171 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|4.83|S|103.92|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Sekincau Belirang]] || [[caldera]] || align="right"|1,719 || align="right"|5,640 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|5.12|S|104.32|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Suoh]] || [[caldera]] || align="right"|1,000 || align="right"|3,281 || [[10 Juli]] [[1933]] (4) || {{coor d|5.25|S|104.27|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Hulubelu]] || [[caldera]] || align="right"|1,040 || align="right"|3,412 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|5.35|S|104.60|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Rajabasa]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,281 || align="right"|4,202 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|5.78|S|105.625|E|type:mountain}} |} [[Image:Sumatra_Volcanoes.png|right|thumb|190px|Peta anu ningalikeun lokasi gunung-gunung seuneuan jeung jalur patahan geologis di Sumatra.]] [[Image:Toba_zoom.jpg|thumb|right|190px| Gambar [[Dano Toba]] beunang satelit [[Landsat]].]] [[Image:Monte Marapi.JPG|thumb|right|190px|[[Marapi]].]] <div width=100% style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="references-small">Sumber: Global Volcanism Program.<ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0601|title=Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sumatra|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref></div> === Selat Sunda jeung Jawa === [[Selat Sunda]] misahkeun pulo Sumatera jeung pulo Jawa ku pulo seuneun [[Rakata]]. Rakata bitu rongkah dina taun 1883, ngaruksak dua per tilu éta pulo sarta ninggalkeun hiji[[kaldera]] gedé handapeun beungeut laut. Letusan cataclysmic ieu kadenge nepi ka pulo [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]] deukeut [[Mauritius]] (kira-kira 3000 mile atawa 4800&nbsp;km jauhna).<ref name="winchester2003"/> Hiji [[congcot parasit]] anyar, anu disebut Anak Rakata, mucunghul tina jero laut dina puseur kaldera dina taun 1930.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Anak Krakatau and old Krakatau: a reply|journal=[[GeoJournal]]|last=Whittaker|first=R. J.|coauthors=Bush, M. B.|volume=29|issue=4|date=1993|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00807545|pages=417&ndash;420}}</ref> Pulo-pulo Rakata lainna anu dihasilekun tina letusan taun 1883 dibéré ngaran Sertung, Panjang jeung Rakata. Jawa mangrupa pulo nu relatif leutik lamun dibandingkeun jeung Sumatra mah, tapi [[Gunung seuneuan di Jawa|boga konsentrasi gunung seuneuan katip nu leuwih loba]]. Aya 45 gunung seuneuan aktip di Pulo Jawa, henteu kaasup 20 [[kawah vulkanik|kawah]] jeung [[congcot vulkanik|congcot]] leutik di [[komplék vulkanik Diéng]] katut congcot ngora di [[Kaldéra Tengger|komplék kaldéra Tengger]]. Sababaraha gunung seuneuan digolongkeun babarengan dina daptar di handap alatan perenahna nu padeudeukeut. [[Gunung Merapi]], [[Semeru]] jeung [[Kelud]] mangrupa gunung seuneuan pangaktipna di Jawa. Gunung Semeru terus-terusan bitu ti taun 1967.<ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-30=&volpage=weekly|title=Semeru Weekly Reports|accessdate=2006-12-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820043133/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-30=&volpage=weekly |date=2007-08-20 }}</ref> Gunung Merapi disebut salah sahiji ''[[Decade Volcanoes]]'' ti taun 1995.<ref>{{cite journal|author=International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior|authorlink=IAVCEI|title=Decade Volcano Update|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00298711|pages=82&ndash;83|date=1995|volume=57|issue=1}}</ref> [[Ijen]] boga situ [[kaldera]] nu boga rupa-rupa kelir nu unik mangrupa reservoir alam nu kacida asamna ([[pH]]<0.3).<ref>{{cite journal|title=Natural Pollution Caused by the Extremely Acid Crater Lake Kawah Ijen, East Java, Indonésia|author=Ansje Löhr, Thom Bogaard, Alex Heikens, Martin Hendriks, Sri Sumarti, Manfred van Bergen, Kees C.A.M. van Gestel, Nico van Straalen, Pieter Vroonand, and Budi Widianarko|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=12|issue=2|date=2005|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/espr2004.09.118|pages=89&ndash;95}}</ref> Aya tambang walirang di Ijen, panambang ngumpulkeun batu walirang nua sam maké leungeun. {| align="left" class="prettytable" |- ! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Ngaran !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Wangun !! colspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Jangkung !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Bitu pangpandeurina ([[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]]) !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Lokasi di bumi |- ! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (m) !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (ft) |- | [[Krakatau]] || [[kaldera]] || align="right"|813 || align="right"|2,667 || [[21 Juli]] [[2001]] (1) || {{coor d|6.102|S|105.423|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Pulosari]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,346 || align="right"|4,416 || teu katangén || {{coor d|6.342|S|105.975|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Karang|Karang]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,778 || align="right"|5,833 || teu katangén || {{coor d|6.27|S|106.042|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Kiaraberes-Gagak]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,511 || align="right"|4,957 || [[6 April]] [[1939]] (1) || {{coor d|6.73|S|106.65|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Perbakti]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,699 || align="right"|5,574 || teu katangén || {{coor d|6.75|S|106.68|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Salak|Salak]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,211 || align="right"|7,254 || [[31 Januari]] [[1938]] (2) || {{coor d|6.72|S|106.73|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Gedé|Gedé]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,958 || align="right"|9,705 || [[13 Maret]] [[1957]] (2) || {{coor d|6.78|S|106.98|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Patuha|Patuha]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,434 || align="right"|7,986 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.160|S|107.40|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Wayang-Windu]] || [[lava dome]] || align="right"|2,182 || align="right"|7,159 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.208|S|107.63|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Malabar|Malabar]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,343 || align="right"|7,687 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.13|S|107.65|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Tangkubanparahu|Tangkubanparahu]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,084 || align="right"|6,837 || [[14 Séptémber]] [[1983]] (1) || {{coor d|6.77|S|107.60|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Papandayan|Papandayan]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,665 || align="right"|8,743 || [[11 Nopémber]] [[2002]] (2) || {{coor d|7.32|S|107.73|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Kendang|Kendang]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,608 || align="right"|8,556 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.23|S|107.72|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Kamojang]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,730 || align="right"|5,676 || [[Pleistocene]] || {{coor d|7.125|S|107.80|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Guntur|Guntur]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|2,249 || align="right"|7,379 || [[16 Oktober]] [[1847]] (2) || {{coor d|7.143|S|107.840|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Tampomas|Tampomas]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,684 || align="right"|5,525 || teu katangén || {{coor d|6.77|S|107.95|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Galunggung|Galunggung]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,168 || align="right"|7,113 || [[9 Januari]] [[1984]] (1) || {{coor d|7.25|S|108.058|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Talagabodas]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,201 || align="right"|7,221 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.208|S|108.07|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Kawah Karaha|Karaha]] || [[fumarole]] || align="right"|1,155 || align="right"|3,789 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.12|S|108.08|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Ceremé|Ceremé]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,078 || align="right"|10,098 || teu katangén || {{coor d|6.892|S|108.40|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Slamet|Slamet]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,428 || align="right"|11,247 || [[1 Méi]] [[1999]] (1) || {{coor d|7.242|S|109.208|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Komplék Gunung Seuneuan Diéng|Diéng]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|2,565 || align="right"|8,415 || [[31 Désémber]] [[1996]] (1) || {{coor d|7.20|S|109.92|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Sindoro|Sindoro]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,136 || align="right"|10,289 || [[29 Oktober]] [[1971]] (2) || {{coor d|7.30|S|109.992|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Sumbing|Sumbing]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,371 || align="right"|11,060 || 1730 (1) || {{coor d|7.384|S|110.070|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Ungaran|Ungaran]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,050 || align="right"|6,726 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.18|S|110.33|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Telomoyo|Telomoyo]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,894 || align="right"|6,214 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.37|S|110.40|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Merbabu]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,145 || align="right"|10,318 || 1797 (2) || {{coor d|7.45|S|110.43|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Merapi|Merapi]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,968 || align="right"|9,738 | [[15 Méi]] [[2006]]<ref>{{cite news|publisher=[[ANTARA]]|url=http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=12683|title=Mount Merapi Erupts|date=15 May 2006|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref> | {{coor d|7.542|S|110.442|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Muria|Muria]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,625 || align="right"|5,331 || 160&nbsp;BC ± 30 yéars || {{coor d|6.62|S|110.88|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Lawu|Lawu]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,265 || align="right"|10,712 || [[28 Nopémber]] [[1885]] (1) || {{coor d|7.625|S|111.192|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Wilis|Wilis]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,563 || align="right"|8,409 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.808|S|111.758|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Kelud]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,731 || align="right"|5,679 || [[10 Pébruari]] [[1990]] (4) || {{coor d|7.93|S|112.308|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Kawi|Kawi]]-[[Gunung Butak|Butak]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,651 || align="right"|8,698 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.92|S|112.45|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Arjuno|Arjuno]]-[[Gunung Welirang|Welirang]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,339 || align="right"|10,955 || [[15 Agustus]] [[1952]] (0) || {{coor d|7.725|S|112.58|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Penanggungan|Penanggungan]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,653 || align="right"|5,423 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.62|S|112.63|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Malang Plain]] || [[maar]] || align="right"|680 || align="right"|2,231 || teu katangén || {{coor d|8.02|S|112.68|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Seméru]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,676 || align="right"|12,060 || 1967&ndash;2006 continuing (3) || {{coor d|8.108|S|112.92|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Kaldéra Tengger|Tengger]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,329 || align="right"|7,641 || [[8 Juni]] [[2004]] (2) || {{coor d|7.942|S|112.95|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Lamongan|Lamongan]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,651 || align="right"|5,417 || [[5 Pébruari]] [[1898]] (2) || {{coor d|7.979|S|113.342|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Lurus|Lurus]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|539 || align="right"|1,768 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.73|S|113.58|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Iyang-Argapura]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|3,088 || align="right"|10,131 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.97|S|113.57|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Raung]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,332 || align="right"|10,932 || [[2 Juni]] [[2002]] (2) || {{coor d|8.125|S|114.042|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Ijén]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,799 || align="right"|9,183 || [[28 Juni]] [[1999]] (1) || {{coor d|8.058|S|114.242|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Baluran]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,247 || align="right"|4,091 || teu katangén || {{coor d|7.85|S|114.37|E|type:mountain}} |} [[Image:TangkubanPerahu.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Tangkubanparahu]], dipoto ti kota [[Bandung]].]] [[Image:Galunggung.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Lightning]] strikes during the 1982 [[Galunggung]] eruption.]] [[Image:Blethrow_merapi1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Gunung Merapi]], the most active volcano in Indonésia.]] [[Image:Mahameru-volcano.jpeg|thumb|200px|right|[[Semeru]], [[Jawa]]'s highest volcano, which has been erupting since 1967.]] [[Image:Ijen_volcano.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The turquoise colored [[sulfuric]] lake on the [[Ijen]] caldera.]] <div width=100% style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="references-small">Source: Global Volcanism Program.<ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0602|title=Volcanoes of Indonésia - Krakatau|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0603|title=Volcanoes of Indonésia - Java|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref></div> === Kapuloan Sunda Leutik === [[Kapuloan Sunda Leutik]] nyaéta hiji [[kapuloan]] nu ti kulon tepi ka wetanna, ngawengku pulo-pulo [[Bali]], [[Lombok]], [[Sumbawa]], [[Flores]], [[Sumba]] jeung [[Timor]]; sakabéhna aya dina tungtung [[landasan buana|landasan buana Australia]]. Gunung seuneuan di wewengkon ieu kawangun ku ayana [[kulit samudra]] sarta gerakan landasannana sorangan.<ref>{{cite journal|author=H. A. Brouwer|title=Exploration in the Lesser Sunda Islands|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0016-7398%28193907%2994%3A1%3C1%3AEITLSI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4|journal=The Geographical Journal|date=1939|volume=94|issue=1|pages=1&ndash;10}}</ref> Sababaraha gunung seuneuan sacara lengkep ngawangun pulo, upamana, pulo [[Sangeang Api]]. [[Gunung Tambora]], di Pulo Sumbawa, bitu tanggal [[5 April]] [[1815]], kalayan skala 7 [[VEI]] sarta dianggep bitu pangngaruksakna dina sajarah nu kacatet.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> {| align="left" class="prettytable" |- ! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Ngaran !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Wangun !! colspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Jangkung !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Last eruption ([[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]]) !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Lokasi di bumi |- ! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (m) !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (ft) |- | [[Gunung Merbuk|Merbuk]] || tba || align="right"|1,386 || align="right"|4,547 || teu katangen || |- |- | [[Bratan]] || [[kaldera]] || align="right"|2,276 || align="right"|7,467 || teu katangén || {{coor d|8.28|S|115.13|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Batur|Batur]] || [[kaldera]] || align="right"|1,717 || align="right"|5,633 || [[15 Maret]] [[1999]] (1) || {{coor d|8.242|S|115.375|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Agung|Agung]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,142 || align="right"|10,308 || [[18 Pébruari]] [[1963]] (5) || {{coor d|8.342|S|115.508|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Rinjani]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|3,726 || align="right"|12,224 || [[1 Oktober]] [[2004]] (2) || {{coor d|8.42|S|116.47|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Tambora|Tambora]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,850 || align="right"|9,350 || 1967 ± 20 taun (0) || {{coor d|8.25|S|118.00|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Sangeang Api]] || [[gunung seuneuan komplék]] || align="right"|1,949 || align="right"|6,394 || [[30 Juli]] [[1985]] (3) || {{coor d|8.20|S|119.07|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Wai Sano]] || [[kaldera]] || align="right"|903 || align="right"|2,963 || teu katangén || {{coor d|8.72|S|120.02|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Poco Leok]] || teu katangen || align="right"|1,675 || align="right"|5,495 || teu katangén || {{coor d|8.68|S|120.48|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Ranakah]] || [[momolo lava]] || align="right"|2,100 || align="right"|6,890 || Maret 1991 (1) || {{coor d|8.62|S|120.52|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Inierie]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,245 || align="right"|7,365 || [[8050 SM]]|| {{coor d|8.875|S|120.95|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Inielika]] || [[gunung seuneuan komplék]] || align="right"|1,559 || align="right"|5,115 || [[11 Januari]] [[2001]] (2) || {{coor d|8.73|S|120.98|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Ebulobo]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|2,124 || align="right"|6,969 || [[27 Pebruari]] [[1969]] (2) || {{coor d|8.82|S|121.18|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Iya|Iya]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|637 || align="right"|2,090 || [[27 Januari]] [[1969]] (3) || {{coor d|8.897|S|121.645|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Sukaria|Sukaria]] || [[kaldera]] || align="right"|1,500 || align="right"|4,921 || teu katangen || {{coor d|8.792|S|121.77|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Ndete Napu]] || [[fumarol]] || align="right"|750 || align="right"|2,461 || teu katangen || {{coor d|8.72|S|121.78|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Kelimutu]] || [[gunung seuneuan komplék]] || align="right"|1,639 || align="right"|5,377 || [[3 Juni]] [[1968]] (1) || {{coor d|8.77|S|121.82|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Paluweh]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|875 || align="right"|2,871 || [[3 Pebruari]] [[1985]] (1) || {{coor d|8.32|S|121.708|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Egon|Egon]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,703 || align="right"|5,587 || [[6 Pebruari]] [[2005]] (1) || {{coor d|8.67|S|122.45|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Ilimuda]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,100 || align="right"|3,609 || teu katangen || {{coor d|8.478|S|122.671|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Lewotobi]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,703 || align="right"|5,587 || [[30 Mei]] [[2003]] (2) || {{coor d|8.542|S|122.775|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Leroboleng]] || [[gunung seuneuan komplék]] || align="right"|1,117 || align="right"|3,665 || [[26 Juni]] [[2003]] (3) || {{coor d|8.358|S|122.842|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Riang Kotang]] || [[fumarol]] || align="right"|200 || align="right"|656 || teu katangen || {{coor d|8.30|S|122.892|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Iliboleng]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,659 || align="right"|5,443 || Juni 1993 (1) || {{coor d|8.342|S|123.258|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Lewotolo]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,423 || align="right"|4,669 || [[15 Desember]] [[1951]] (2) || {{coor d|8.272|S|123.505|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Ililabalekan]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,018 || align="right"|3,340 || teu katangen || {{coor d|8.55|S|123.38|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Iliwerung]] || [[gunung seuneuan komplék]] || align="right"|1,018 || align="right"|3,340 || [[22 Mei]] [[1999]] (0) || {{coor d|8.53|S|123.57|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Batu Tara]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|748 || align="right"|2,454 || 1847 (2) || {{coor d|7.792|S|123.579|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Sirung|Sirung]] || [[gunung seuneuan komplék]] || align="right"|862 || align="right"|2,828 || 1970 (2) || {{coor d|8.508|S|124.13|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Yersey]] || [[gunung seuneuan dasar sagara|dasar sagara]] || align="right"|-3,800 || align="right"|-12,467 || teu katangen || {{coor d|7.53|S|123.95|E|type:mountain}} |} [[Image:Agung_usgs.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Gunung Agung]] di [[Bali]].]] [[Image:Rinjani_1994.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Bituna [[Rinjani]] taun 1984.]] [[Image:Flores_Moni_Kelimutu.jpg|thumb|200px|Salasahiji tina tilu situ [[Kelimutu]] nu kelirna bareda.]] <div width=100% style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="references-small">Source: Global Volcanism Program.<ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0604|title=Volcanoes of Indonésia - Lesser Sunda Islands|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref></div> === Laut Banda === [[Laut Banda]] di kiduleun [[Pulo Maluku|Kapuloan Maluku]] ngawengku [[Kapuloan Banda|kelompok kapuloan]] nu leutik. Tilu [[lempengan tektonik]] utama di sahandapeun laut, lempengan [[lempengan Érasia|Érasia]], [[lempengan Pasifik|Pasifik]] jeung [[Lempengan Indo-Australia|Indo-Australia]], geus kawangun ti mangsa [[Mesozoik]] mula.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A Neogene back-arc origin for the Banda Sea basins: geochemical and geochronological constraints from the Banda ridges (East Indonésia)|journal=Tectonophysics|volume=298|issue=4|date=1998|pages=297&ndash;317|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/els/00401951/1998/00000298/00000004/art00190|doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(98)00190-5|author=Christian Honthaasa, Jean-Pierre Réhaulta, René C. Maurya, Hervé Bellona, Christophe Hémonda, Jacques-André Maloda, Jean-Jacques Cornéeb, Michel Villeneuveb, Joseph Cottena, Safri Burhanuddinc, Hervé Guilloud and Nicolas Arnaud}}</ref> Gunung seuneuan di Laut Banda Séa utamana mangrupa [[pulo vulcanik|pulo]], tapi sababaraha di antarana mangrupa [[gunung seuneuan di jeroeun sagara]]. {| align="left" class="prettytable" |- ! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Name !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Shape !! colspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Elevation !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Last eruption ([[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]]) !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Géolocation |- ! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (m) !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (ft) |- | [[Emperor of China (volcano)|Emperor of China]] || [[submarine volcano|submarine]] || align="right"|-2,850 || align="right"|-9,350 || teu katangen || {{coor d|6.62|S|124.22|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Nieuwerkerk (volcano)|Nieuwerkerk]] || [[submarine volcano|submarine]] || align="right"|-2,285 || align="right"|-7,500 || teu katangen || {{coor d|6.60|S|124.675|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunungapi Wetar]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|282 || align="right"|925 || 1699 (3) || {{coor d|6.642|S|126.65|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Wurlali|Wurlali]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|868 || align="right"|2,850 || [[3 Juni]] [[1892]] (2) || {{coor d|7.125|S|128.675|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Teon|Teon]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|655 || align="right"|2,150 || [[3 Juni]] [[1904]] (2) || {{coor d|6.92|S|129.125|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Nila|Nila]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|781 || align="right"|2,500 || [[7 Mei]] [[1968]] (1) || {{coor d|6.73|S|129.50|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Serua|Serua]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|641 || align="right"|2,100 || [[18 September]] [[1921]] (2) || {{coor d|6.30|S|130.00|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Manuk|Manuk]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|282 || align="right"|925 || teu katangen || {{coor d|5.53|S|130.292|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Banda Api]] || [[caldera]] || align="right"|640 || align="right"|2,100 || [[9 Mei]] [[1988]] (3) || {{coor d|4.525|S|129.871|E|type:mountain}} |} <div width=100% style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="references-small">Source: Global Volcanism Program.<ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0605|title=Volcanoes of Indonésia - Banda Sea|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref></div> === Sulawesi jeung Kapuloan Sangihe === Opat [[bojong]] ngadominasi wangun pulo [[Sulawesi]]. Bagéan tengah mangrupa wewenkon pagunungan, tapi lolobananana henteu lain gunung seuneuan (non-vulkanik). Gunung seuneuan aktip pinanggih di bojong kaler sarta terus manjang tepi ka kalereun [[Kapuloan Sangihe]]. Kapuloan Sangihe nandaan wates jeung [[Pilipina]]. {| align="left" class="prettytable" |- ! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Ngaran !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Wangun !! colspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Jangkung !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Bitu pangpandeurina ([[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]]) !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Lokasi di bumi |- ! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (m) !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (ft) |- | [[Colo (volcano)|Colo]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|507 || align="right"|1,663 || [[18 Juli]] [[1983]] (4) || {{coor d|0.17|S|121.608|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Ambang]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|1,795 || align="right"|5,890 || 1845 ± 5 yéars || {{coor d|0.75|N|124.42|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Soputan]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,784 || align="right"|5,853 || [[26 Desember]] [[2006]] (1) || {{coor d|1.108|N|124.73|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Sempu|Sempu]] || [[kaldera]] || align="right"|1,549 || align="right"|5,082 || teu katangén || {{coor d|1.13|N|124.758|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Tondano|Tondano]] || [[kaldera]] || align="right"|1,202 || align="right"|3,944 || teu katangén || {{coor d|1.23|N|124.83|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Lokon|Lokon]]-[[Mount Empung|Empung]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,580 || align="right"|5,184 || [[23 September]] [[2003]] (3) || {{coor d|1.358|N|124.792|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Mahawu|Mahawu]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,324 || align="right"|4,344 || [[16 Nopember]] [[1977]] (0) || {{coor d|1.358|N|124.858|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Klabat|Klabat]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,995 || align="right"|6,545 || teu katangén || {{coor d|1.47|N|125.03|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Tongkoko|Tongkoko]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,149 || align="right"|3,770 || 1880 (1) || {{coor d|1.52|N|125.20|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Ruang]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|725 || align="right"|2,379 || [[25 September]] [[2002]] (4) || {{coor d|2.30|N|125.37|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Karangetang]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,784 || align="right"|5,853|| [[2 April]] [[2005]] (2) || {{coor d|2.78|N|125.40|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Banua Wuhu]] || [[submarine volcano|submarine]] || align="right"|-5 || align="right"|-16.5 || [[18 Juli]] [[1919]] (3) || {{coor d|3.138|N|125.491|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunungt Awu|Awu]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,320 || align="right"|4,331 || [[2 Juni]] [[2004]] (2) || {{coor d|3.67|N|125.50|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Jero laut 1922]] || [[gunung seuneuan jero laut|jero laut]] || align="right"|-5,000 || align="right"|-16,404 || teu katangén || {{coor d|3.97|N|125.17|E|type:mountain}} |} <div width=100% style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="references-small">Source: Global Volcanism Program.<ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0606|title=Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sulawesi|accessdate=2006-11-17}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230201539/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0606 |date=2006-12-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0607|title=Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sangihe Islands|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref></div> === Halmahera === Pulo [[Halmahera]] di béh kaler [[Kapuloan Maluku]] diwangun ku gerakan tilu [[lempengan tektonik]] nu ngahasilkeun dua jangkah pagunungan nu pasilang-silang, nu ngawangun opat semenanjung karangan nu dipisahkeun ku tilu teluk jero. Hiji [[volcanic arc]] manjang ti kaler ka kidul di sisi béh kulon Halmahera, nu sababaraha di antarana mangrupa [[kapuloan vulkanik]], contona, [[Gamalama]] jeung [[Tidore]]. Ngaran pulo nu aya Gamalamaan nyaéta [[Ternate]] nu geus jadi puseur [[perdagangan rempah-rempah]] ti jaman [[Karajaan Portugis]] mula nu muka hiji [[fort]] taun 1512. Alatan lokasina nu mangrupa puseur perdagangan rempah-rempah salila ''[[Age of Discovery]]'', rekaman sajarah bituna gunung seuneuan di Halmahera geus aya ti saprak awal abad ka-16. {| align="left" class="prettytable" |- ! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Ngaran !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Shape !! colspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Jangkung !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Bitu pangpandeurina ([[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]]) !! rowspan=2 style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"|Géolokasi |- ! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (m) !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| (ft) |- | [[Tarakan (gunung seuneuan)|Tarakan]] || [[pyroclastic cone]] || align="right"|318 || align="right"|1,043 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|1.83|N|127.83|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Dukono]] || [[complex volcano]] || align="right"|1,335 || align="right"|4,380 || [[13 Agustus]] [[1933]] (3) || {{coor d|1.68|N|127.88|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Tobaru]] || teu kanyahoan || align="right"|1,035 || align="right"|3,396 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|1.63|N|127.67|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Ibu|Ibu]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,325 || align="right"|4,347 || Mei 2005 (0) || {{coor d|1.488|N|127.63|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Gamkonora|Gamkonora]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,635 || align="right"|5,364 || [[9 Juli]] [[2007]] (?) || {{coor d|1.38|N|127.53|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Todoko-Ranu]] || [[kaldera]] || align="right"|979 || align="right"|3,212 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|1.25|N|127.47|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Jailolo]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,130 || align="right"|3,707 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|1.08|N|127.42|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Hiri|Hiri]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|630 || align="right"|2,067 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.90|N|127.32|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gamalama]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,715 || align="right"|5,627 || [[31 Juli]] [[2003]] (2) || {{coor d|0.80|N|127.33|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Tidore]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,730 || align="right"|5,676 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.658|N|127.40|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Mare|Mare]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|308 || align="right"|1,010 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.57|N|127.40|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Moti|Moti]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|950 || align="right"|3,117 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.45|N|127.40|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Makian]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,357 || align="right"|4,452 || [[29 Juli]] [[1988]] (3) || {{coor d|0.32|N|127.40|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Gunung Tigalalu|Tigalalu]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|422 || align="right"|1,385 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.07|N|127.42|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Amasing Hill|Amasing]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|1,030 || align="right"|3,379 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.53|S|127.48|E|type:mountain}} |- | [[Bibinoi Hill|Bibinoi]] || [[stratovolcano]] || align="right"|900 || align="right"|2,953 || teu kanyahoan || {{coor d|0.77|S|127.72|E|type:mountain}} |} [[Image:Ternate.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Gambar [[Gamalama]] nu bitu munggaran dekade 1700-an, katembong fort Portugis.]] <div width=100% style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="references-small">Sumber: Global Volcanism Program.<ref>{{cite web|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=0608|title=Volcanoes of Indonésia - Halmahera|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref></div> == Bitu gedé == Di handap ieu daptar bitu gedé pinilih tina gunung seuneuan di Indonésia, disortir sacara kronologis dumasar kana tanggal. Ukur bitu nu skalana 3 [[VEI]] atawa leuwih anu dipidangkeun di dieu dibarengan jeung jeung sumber sarta karuksakannana, kajaba lamun aya bitu nu skalana leutik tapi ngabalukarkeun karuksakan nu gedé. {| align=center style="background: #ffffff; margin-top:0.5em;" class="prettytable sortable" |- ! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Tgl bitu !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Gunung seuneuan !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Tgl eureun !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| [[VEI]] !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Pasipatan !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| [[Tsunami]] !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Volumeu [[tephra]] !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Karuksakan !! style="background-color:#e7dcc3;"| Sumber |- bgcolor=#ddffdd | align="right"|[[20 Jan]] [[1992]] || [[Gunung Merapi|Merapi]] ||align="right"| [[19 Okt]] [[2002]] || align=center|2 || cv,pf,ld,lm ||henteu ||align="right"| N/A ||align="right"| 66 | <ref name="merapi"/> |- bgcolor=#ffffee | align="right"|[[10 Péb]] [[1990]] || [[Kelut]] ||align="right"| Mar 1990 || align=center|4 || cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lm || henteu ||align="right"| 0.13&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 35 | <ref name="gvpholocene">{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm|title=Large Holocene Eruptions|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2006-12-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117212357/http://volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm |date=2012-01-17 }}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffee | align="right"|[[18 Jul]] [[1983]] || [[Colo (volcano)|Colo]] ||align="right"| Des 1983 || align=center|4 || cv,pf,ph || henteu ||align="right"| N/A ||align="right"| 0 | <ref name="gvpholocene"/> |- bgcolor=#ffffee | align="right"|[[5 Apr]] [[1982]] || [[Galunggung]] ||align="right"| [[8 Jan]] [[1983]] || align=center|4 || cv,pf,lf,lm || henteu ||align="right"| > 0.37&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 68 | <ref>{{cite journal|author=Katili, J.A. and Sudradjat, A.|date=1984|title=Galunggung: the 1982-1983 eruption|journal=Volcanology Survei Indonésia|pages=102}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Galunggung, Java, Indonésia|url=http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/Indonésia/galunggung.html|accessdate=2006-12-30|work=Volcano World|publisher=Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ddffdd | align="right"|[[6 Okt]] [[1972]] || [[Gunung Merapi|Merapi]] ||align="right"| Mar 1985 || align=center|2 || cv,pf,lf,ld,lm ||henteu ||align="right"| 0.021&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 29 | <ref name="merapi"/> |- bgcolor=#ffffcc | align="right"|[[26 Apr]] [[1966]] || [[Kelut]] ||align="right"| [[27 Apr]] [[1966]] || align=center|4 || cv,cl,pf,lm || henteu ||align="right"| 0.089&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 212 | <ref name="gvpholocene"/> |- bgcolor=#ffddff | align="right"|[[17 Mar]] [[1963]] || [[Gunung Agung|Agung]] ||align="right"| [[27 Jan]] [[1964]] || align=center|5 || cv,pf,lf,lm || henteu ||align="right"| 1&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 1,148 |<ref name="Rampino">{{cite journal|author=Michael R. Rampino and Stephen Self|title=Historic eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883), and Agung (1963), their stratospheric aerosols, and climatic impact|journal=Quaternary Research|volume=18|issue=2|date=1982|pages=127&ndash;143|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(82)90065-5}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffee | align="right"|[[31 Agt]] [[1951]] || [[Kelut]] ||align="right"| [[31 Agt]] [[1951]] || align=center|4 || cv,cl,pf,lm || henteu ||align="right"| 0.2&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 7 | <ref name="gvpholocene"/> |- bgcolor=#ccffff | align="right"|[[25 Nop]] [[1930]] || [[Gunung Merapi|Merapi]] ||align="right"| Sep 1931 || align=center|3 || cv,rf,pf,lf,ld,lm || henteu ||align="right"| 0.0017&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 1,369 | <ref name="merapi"/> |- bgcolor=#ffffee | align="right"|[[19 Méi]] [[1919]] || [[Kelut]] ||align="right"| [[20 Mei]] [[1919]] || align=center|4 || cv,cl,pf,lm || henteu ||align="right"| 0.19&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 5,110 | <ref name="gvpholocene"/> |- bgcolor=#ccffff | align="right"|[[7 Jun]] [[1892]] || [[Gunung Awu|Awu]] ||align="right"| [[12 Jun]] [[1892]] || align=center|3 || cv,pf,lm || enya ||align="right"| N/A ||align="right"| 1,532 | <ref name="awu">{{cite web|title=Awu's Eruptive History|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0607-04=&volpage=erupt|accessdate=2006-12-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707110803/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0607-04=&volpage=erupt |date=2007-07-07 }}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ddddff | align="right"|[[26 Agt]] [[1883]] || [[Krakatau]] ||align="right"| Feb 1884 || align=center|6 || cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc || 15&ndash;42&nbsp;m ||align="right"| 5&ndash;8.5&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 36,600 | <ref name="winchester2003"/><ref name="Rampino"/><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences|title=Simulation of the trans-oceanic tsunami propagation due to the 1883 Krakatau volcanic eruption|author=B.H. Choi, E. Pelinovsky, K.O. Kim and J.S. Lee|url=http://iri.ldeo.columbia.edu/~lareef/tsunami/nhs-3-321.pdf|date=2003|pages=321&ndash;332|volume=3}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060912023833/http://iri.ldeo.columbia.edu/~lareef/tsunami/nhs-3-321.pdf |date=2006-09-12 }}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffee | align="right"|[[15 Apr]] [[1872]] || [[Gunung Merapi|Merapi]] ||align="right"| [[21 Apr]] [[1872]] || align=center|4 || cv,pf || henteu ||align="right"| 0.33&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 200 | <ref name="merapi"/> |- bgcolor=#ccffff | align="right"|[[2 Mar]] [[1856]] || [[Gunung Awu|Awu]] ||align="right"| [[17 Mar]] [[1856]] || align=center|3 || cv,pf,lm || enya ||align="right"| 0.51±0.50&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 2,806 | <ref name="awu"/> |- bgcolor=#ffddff | align="right"|[[8 Okt]] [[1822]] || [[Galunggung]] ||align="right"| Des 1822 || align=center|5 || cv,pf,ld,lm || henteu ||align="right"| > 1&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 4,011 | <ref name="gvpholocene"/> |- bgcolor=#ffffcc | align="right"|[[10 Apr]] [[1815]] || [[Gunung Tambora]] ||align="right"| [[15 Jul]] [[1815]] || align=center|7 || cv,pf,cc || 1&ndash;2&nbsp;m ||align="right"| 160&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| >&nbsp;71,000 | <ref name="Stothers1984"/><ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonésia) 1815|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|date=2003|pages=230-259|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/0309133303pp379ra}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffee | align="right"|[[6 Agt]] [[1812]] || [[Gunung Awu|Awu]] ||align="right"| [[8 Agt]] [[1812]] || align=center|4 || cv,pf,lm || henteu ||align="right"| 0.55±0.50&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 963 | <ref name="awu"/> |- bgcolor=#ccffff | align="right"|[[12 Agt]] [[1772]] || [[Gunung Papandayan|Papandayan]] ||align="right"| [[12 Agt]] [[1772]] || align=center|3 || cv,ph || henteu ||align="right"| N/A ||align="right"| 2,957 | <ref>{{cite web|title=The Deadliest Eruptions|url=http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vw_hyperexchange/deadly_volcs.html|work=Volcano World|accessdate=2006-12-31|publisher=Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709022514/http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vw_hyperexchange/deadly_volcs.html |date=2008-07-09 }}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ccffff | align="right"|[[4 Agt]] [[1672]] || [[Gunung Merapi|Merapi]] ||align="right"| teu katangen || align=center|3 || cv,pf,lm || henteu ||align="right"| N/A ||align="right"| 3,000 | <ref name="merapi"/> |- bgcolor=#ffddff | align="right"|1586 || [[Kelut]] ||align="right"| teu katangen || align=center|5 || cf,cl,lm || henteu ||align="right"| > 1&nbsp;km³ ||align="right"| 10,000 | <ref name="gvpholocene"/> |- bgcolor=#eeeeee | align="right"|≈ 74,000 [[Samemeh Kiwari|SK]] || [[Dano Toba|Toba]] ||align="right"| teu katangen || align=center|8 || pf,lf,cc || jigana ||align="right"| 2,800&nbsp;km³ || deukeut populasi<br>padumukan manusa | <ref name="Oppenheimer2002"/> |} <div class="references-small">Jumlah karuksakan lolobananana dicokot ti Survey Vulkanologis Indonésia,<ref name="vsi"/> jeung Tanguy et al (1998).<ref>{{cite journal|title=Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database|date=1998|author=J.-C. Tanguy, Ch. Ribiére, A. Scarth and W.S. Tjetjep|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|volume=60|pages=137&ndash;144|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/8bn1re4crce6yr8r/|doi=10.1007/s004450050222}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><br>Catetan: cv=''central vent eruption'', pf=''pyroclastic flow'' ([[aliran piroklastik]]), lf=''lava flow'' ([[aliran lava]]), lm=''lahar mudflow'' ([[aliran leutak]] [[lahar]]), cl=crater lake eruption (bitu [[situ kawah]]), ph=''phreatic eruption'' ([[bitu préatik]]), ld=''lava dome extrusion'' (ekstrusi [[momolo lava]]), cc=caldera collapse (ambrugna [[kaldéra]]), se=''submarine volcano eruption'' (bitu [[gunung seuneuan jero laut]], fa=''[[fumarol|fumarole activity]]'' (aktivitas [[fumarol]]), rf=''radial fissure eruption'' (bitu rengatan radial).</div> == Tempo ogé == {{portal|Indonésia}} * [[Indonésia]] * [[Daptar gunung seuneuan]] * [[Daptar lini di Indonésia]] == Rujukan == <div class="references-small"> === Rujukan umum === # ^ {{note label|Padang1951||a}}{{cite conference|author=M. Neumann van Padang|date=1951|title=Indonésia|booktitle=Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World and Solfatara Fields|location=Rome|publisher=IAVCEI|edition=1|pages=1&ndash;271}} # ^ {{note label|SimkinSiebert1994||a}}{{cite book|title=Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years|author=Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert|date=1994|publisher=Geoscience Press|edition=2nd ed.|id=ISBN 0945005121}} === Catetan === <references/> </div> == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/ Volcanological Survey Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615045156/http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/ |date=2006-06-15 }} * [http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/Indonésia/tectonics.html Tektonik di Indonésia]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Kategori:Daptar gunung seuneuan|Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Gunung seuneuan di Indonésia| ]] hfy4lkaudcfch7e3gdgmsxrolm6vfn2 0 24347 711599 665564 2026-08-06T23:59:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711599 wikitext text/x-wiki {{electromagnetism3|edyn=true}} '''Radiasi éléktromagnétik (ÉM)''' nyaéta [[gelombang|gelombang éléktromagnétik]] anu [[ngarambat sorangan]] dina rohangan. Gelombang éléktromagnétik kawangun ku komponén listrik atawa [[éléktrik]] jeung komponén [[magnétik]]. Dua komponén ieu ngayun bulak-balik (''osilasi'') dina arah anu sudtna 90^o tina arah rambatan. Arah ''osilasi'' dua komponén ieu ogé dipisahkeun ku sudut 90^o tapi fase gelombangna sarua. [[Gambar:Light-wave.svg|thumb|left|350px|Gelombang éléktromagnétik bisa dibayangkeun salaku gelombang médan listrik katut médan magnét anu ''osilasi'' sacara tranversal sarta ngrarambat sorangan. Gambar ieu mintonkeun hiji gelombang anu ngarambat ti kénca ka katuhu.]] Lamun ditingali tina arah rambatan gelombang éléktromagnétik, médan listrik mungkin bulak-balik naék jeung turun, samentara médan magnét ngayun bulak-balik ka katuhu jeung ka kénca; tapi gambar éta bisa diputer antukna médan listrik bulak-balik ka katuhu jeung ka kénca samentara médan magnét bulak-balik turun jeung naék. Kasambarangan ''oriéntasi'' ditingali ti arah rambatan disebut [[polarisasi]]. Radiasi éléktromagnétik digolongkeun dumasar kana [[frékuénsi]]gelombangna. Macem-mecem gelombang, lamun diantaykeun ti mimiti frékuénsi laun nepi ka frékuénsi gancang, kaasup di antarana: [[gelombang radio]], [[gelombang mikro]], [[radiasi térahertz]], [[radiasi infra beureum]], [[cahaya katémbong]], [[radiasi ultraviolét]], [[sinar-X]] sarta [[sinar gamma]]. Radiasi ÉM mawa [[énergi]] jeung [[moméntum]], anu bisa dipisahkeun mangsa radiasi kasebut ba-''interaksi'' jeung zat atawa [[materi]]. == Fisika == === Téori === '''Gelombang éléktromagnétik''' munggaran ditorah ku [[James Clerk Maxwell]] sarta satuluyna ditegeskeun ku [[Heinrich Hertz]]. Maxwell nurunkeun hiji [[Electromagnetic wave equation|rumus wangun gelombang listrik katut gelombang magnét]], némbongkeun yén médan listrik jeung médan magnét boga sifat sabagé gelombang, sarta aya kasimétrian di antara éta dua médan. Lantaran laju gelombang ÉM anu ditorah ku rumus gelombang sarupa jeung [[laju cahaya]] anu kaukur, Maxwell nyindekkeun yén [[cahaya]] sorangan mangrupa hiji gelombang ÉM. Nurutkeun [[rumus Maxwell]], hiji [[médan listrik]] anu robah-robah nurutkeun waktu ngabangkitkeun hiji [[médan magnét]] sarta ''sabalikna''. Ku lantaran kitu, mangsa hiji médan listrik anu ''osilasi'' ngabangkitkeun hiji médan magnét anu ogé ''osilasi'', médan magnét anu ''osilasi'' éta ogé saterusna ngahasilkeun médan listrik anu ''osilasi'', kitu saterusna. Dua médan anu ''osilasi'' ieu babarengan ngawangun hiji gelombang éléktromagnétik. Téori quantum ngeunaan ''interaksi'' antara radiasi éléktromagnétik jeung materi saperti éléktron dijelaskeun ku téori [[éléktrodinamika quantum]]. === Sifat === Médan listrik katut médan magnét boga sifat [[superposition principle|superposisi]]. Sifat ieu ngalantarankeun rupa-rupa fénoména kaasup méngkolna cahaya (atawa [[réfraksi]]) sarta sumebarna cahaya (atawa [[difraksi]]). Contona, gelombang ÉM anu nabrak kana struktur atom nularkeun (ngainduksi) ''osilasi'' dina jero [[atom]]-''atom'', antukna nyababkeun ''atom''-''atom'' kasebut mancarkeun (ngaémisi) gelombang ÉM bogana sorangan. [[Emission (electromagnetic radiation)|Émisi]] ieu satuluyna ngarobah gelombang anu nabrak ku cara interférensi. Waktu ngarambat dina hiji médiyeum liniér saperti hiji rohangan hapa, cahaya henteu kapangaruhan ku médan listrik atawa médan magnét anu statis (tetep, henteu robah). Tapi, dina médiyeum non-liniér, saperti sababaraha [[kristal]], interaksi bisa lumangsung antara cahaya jeung médan listrik katut médan magnét anu statis – interaksi ieu kaasup [[éfék Faraday]] jeung [[éfék Kerr]]. Dina réfraksi, hiji gelombang anu ngaliwat ti hiji médiyeum ka médiyeum liana, anu boga [[karapetan]] nu béda, robah laju sarta arahna waktu asup ka médiyeum anyar. Babandingan indeks [[réfraksi]] mediyeum nangtukeun darajat réfraksi (darajat béngkokna cahaya) sarta bisa dijelaskeun ku [[hukum Snell]]. Cahaya ultraviolét kabagi kana hiji [[spéktrum éléktromagnétik|spéktrum]] nu katémbong mangsa cahaya ngaliwatan hiji prisma lantaran sifat réfraksi ieu. Élmu [[fisika]] ngeunaan radiasi éléktromagnétik disebut [[éléktrodinamika]], salah sahiji bagian tina [[éléktromagnétisme]]. Radiasi ÉM ngagambarkeun sifat-sifat gelombang ogé sifat [[Partikel subatomik|partikel]] dina waktu nu bareng (tempo [[dualitas gelombang-partikel]]). Sifat gelombang leuwih jelas katiténan mangsa radiasi ÉM diukur dina skala waktu anu rélatif lila sarta dina jarak anu jauh, sedengkeun sifat partikel leuwih jelas mangsa ngukur dina jarak sarta skala waktu nu pondok. Dua sifat ieu geus ditegeskeun dina sajumlah percobaan. Aya percobaan anu mintonkeun sifat partikel jeung sifat gelombang radiasi ÉM mecenghul babarengan dina percobaan kasebut, saperti difraksi sahiji [[foton]]. Mangsa sahiji foton dikirimkeun ngaliwatan dua sela, éta hiji foton téh ngaliwatan dua sesela kasebut sarta ngalaman interférensi jeung dirina sorangan, persis saperti gelombang. Interférensi diri anu sarupa katitén mangsa sahiji foton dikirimkeun kana hiji [[interferometer Michelson]] atawa [[interferometer]] lianna. === Modél gelombang === === Modél gelombang === Hiji aspék nu penting tina sifat cahaya nyaéta [[frékuénsi]]. Frékuénsi hiji gelombang nyaéta laju osilasi éta gelombang sarta diukur dina [[hijian]] [[Hertz]], nyaéta [[hijian]] [[SI]] pikeun frékuénsi, hargana sarua jeung hiji osilasi per [[detik]]. Cahaya biasana boga hiji spéktrum frékuénsi. Gelombang atawa frékuénsi nu béda-béda ngalaman réfraksi kalayan sudut nu béda-béda ogé. Hiji gelombang ngandung puncak-puncak jeung lengkob-lengkob anu paréndéng, sarta jarak antara dua puncak anu padeukeut atawa dua lengkob anu padeukeut disebut [[panjang gelombang]]. Gelombang dina spéktrum éléktromagnétik rupa-rupa ukuranna ti gelombang radio nu panjang pisan nu saukuran gedong-gedong luhur nepi ka sinar gama anu kacida pondokna, leuwih pondok manan inti atom. Frékuénsi mangrupa kabalikan panjang gelombang nurutkeun rumus: :<math>v=f\lambda</math> di mana ''v'' nyaéta laju gelombang (''[[laju cahaya|c]]'' dina jero rohangan hapa, atawa kurang ti c lamun dina jero médiyeum lianna), ''f'' nyaéta frékuénsi sarta λ nyaéta panjang gelombang. Mangsa gelombang meuntasan wates-wates antara médiyeum anu béda, laju cahayana robah tapi frékuénsina tetap konstan. [[Interférensi]] nyaéta superposisi (tumpang tindih) antara dua atawa leuwih gelombang anu ngahasilekun hiji pola gelombang anu anyar. Énergi gelombang éléktromagnétik témpo-témpo disebut [[énergi radiasi]]. === Modél partikel === Lantaran énergi gelombang ÉM dikuantisasi, mangka dina modél partikel radiasi ÉM, hiji gelombang kasusun ku pakét-pakét énergi anu ''diskrit'', atawa [[quanta]], anu disebut [[foton]]. Frékuénsi gelombang sabanding jeung gedéna énergi partikel. Sajaba ti éta, lantaran ''foton'' dipancarkeun jeung diserep ku partikel anu dibéré muatan, mangka ''foton'' nindak salaku pangangkut [[énergi]]. Énergi per [[foton]] bisa diitung ku rumus [[Max Planck|Planck]]: :<math>E=hf</math> di mana ''E'' nyaéta énergi, ''h'' nyaéta [[konstanta Planck]], sarta ''f'' nyaéta frékuénsi. Mangsa hiji ''foton'' diserep ku hiji atom, ''foton'' kasebut manaskeun sarta naékkeun hiji [[éléktron]] kana [[tingkatan énergi]] anu leuwih luhur. Lamun énergina cukup gedé, antukna éléktron lumpat ka tingkatan énergi anu cukup gedé, éléktron bisa ngaleupaskeun diri tina tarikan inti atom positif sarta leupas tina atom dina prosés anu disebut [[fotonisasi]]. Sabalikna, hiji éléktron anu turun ka tingkat énergi anu leuwih handap mancarkeun hiji foton cahaya anu énergina sarua jeung béda énergi antara tingkat énergi asal jeung tingkat énergi anu leuwih handap. Lantaran tingkatan-tingkatan énergi éléktron dina atom téh ''diskrit'', tiap ''élemén'' mancarkeun sarta nyerep gelombang atawa frékuénsi karakteristikna. ''Éfék''-''éfék'' ieu babarangan bisa ngajelaskeun sual spéktrum serep [[cahaya]]. Pita-pita anu poék dina éta spéktrum diakibatkeun ku atom nu aya dina médiyeum nyerep frékuénsi-frékuénsi cahaya anu béda. Susunan mediyeum anu diliwatan ku cahaya nangtukeun sifat tina spektrum serap. Contona, pita-pita poek dina cahaya anu dipancarkeun ku béntang anu jarakna jauh diakibatkeun ku atom-atom dina atmosfir éta béntang. Pita-pita ieu patali jeung tingkatan-tingkatan énergi anu dimungkinkeun dina jero atom-atom kasebut. Fénoména anu sarupa lumangsung pikeun [[Emisi (radiasi elektromagnetik)|émisi]]. Mangsa éléktron turun kana tingkatan énergi anu leuwih handap, mangka dipancarkeun hiji spéktrum anu ngagambarkeun lumpatan antara tingkatan-tingkatan énergi. Hal ieu diwujudkeun dina spéktrum [[Emisi (radiasi elektromagnetik)|émisi]] [[nébula]]. Kiwari, para élmuwan ngagunakeun fénoména ieu pikeun niténan élemén naon anu dikandung ku nébula. Cara ieu ogé dipaké dina nangtukeun jarak hiji béntang ti dunya, ngagunakeun anu disebut géséran warna beureum atawa [[red shift]]. === Laju rambatan === {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Any electric charge which accelerates, or any changing magnetic field, produces electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic information about the charge travels at the speed of light. Accurate tréatment thus incorporates a concept known as [[retarded time]] (as opposed to advanced time, which is unphysical in light of [[causality]]), which adds to the expressions for the electrodynamic [[electric field]] and [[magnetic field]]. These extra terms are responsible for electromagnetic radiation. When any wire (or other conducting object such as an [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]) conducts [[alternating current]], electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the electric current. Depending on the circumstances, it may behave as a [[wave]] or as [[photon|particles]]. As a wave, it is characterized by a velocity (the [[speed of light]]), [[wavelength]], and [[frequency]]. When considered as particles, they are known as [[photon]]s, and éach has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by [[Max Planck|Planck's]] relation ''E = hν'', where ''E'' is the energy of the photon, ''h'' = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s is [[Planck's constant]], and ''ν'' is the frequency of the wave. One rule is always obeyed regardless of the circumstances: EM radiation in a vacuum always travels at the [[speed of light]], ''relative to the observer'', regardless of the observer's velocity. (This observation led to [[Albert Einstein]]'s development of the théory of [[special relativity]].) In a medium (other than vacuum), [[velocity of propagation]] or [[refractive index]] are considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum. == Spéktrum éléktromagnétik == [[Gambar:EM spectrum.svg|thumb|490px|right|Electromagnetic spectrum with light highlighted]] [[Image:spectrum.png|right|frame|'''Legend:'''<br /> γ = [[Gamma ray]]s<br /> HX = Hard [[X-ray]]s<br /> SX = Soft X-Rays<br /> EUV = Extreme [[ultraviolet]]<br /> NUV = Néar ultraviolet<br /> [[Visible light]]<br /> NIR = Néar [[infrared]]<br /> MIR = Moderate infrared<br /> FIR = Far infrared<br /> <br /> '''[[Radio waves]]:'''<br /> EHF = [[Extremely high frequency]] (Microwaves)<br /> SHF = [[Super high frequency]] (Microwaves)<br /> UHF = [[Ultrahigh frequency]]<br /> VHF = [[Very high frequency]]<br /> HF = [[High frequency]]<br /> MF = [[Medium frequency]]<br /> LF = [[Low frequency]]<br /> VLF = [[Very low frequency]]<br /> VF = [[Voice frequency]]<br /> ELF = [[Extremely low frequency]]]] Dumasar kana panjang gelombangna, umumna radiasi éléktromagnétik (ÉM) digolongkeun kana gelombang-gelombang [[energi listrik]], [[radio]], [[gelombang mikri|mikro]], [[beureum infra]], [[wilayah katémbong]] anu karasa ku urang sabagé cahaya, [[ultraviolét]], [[sinar-X]] jeung [[sinar gamma]]. === Cahaya === {{utama|cahaya}} Gelombang ÉM dina panjang gelombang antara kira-kira 400 [[nanométer|nm]] jeung 700&nbsp;nm katangkep ku [[mata]] [[manusa]] sarta karasa sabagé [[cahaya]] nu katémbong. Panjang gelombang lianna, husuna anu deukeut ka gelombang beureum infra (nu leuwih panjang ti 700&nbsp;nm) jeung ultraviolét (nu leuwih pondok to 400&nbsp;nm) ogé kadang-kadang disebut sabagé cahaya. [[Serat optik]] ngarambatkeun cahaya anu bisa ditumpangan data sora atawa gambar. Prosésna sarupa jeung anu digunakeun dina ngarambatkeun gelombang radio. === Gelombang radio === {{utama|frékuénsi radio}} Gelombang radio bisa dimangfaatkeun pikeun mawa informasi ku cara ngarobah-robah [[amplitudo]], [[frékuénsi]] jeung [[fase]] dina sahiji [[pita frékuénsi]]. Mangsa rambatan gelombang ÉM asup kana [[Konduktor listrik|konduktor]], rambatan ÉM ngaraksuk kana konduktor, ngaliwatan, jeung [[ngabangkitkeun frékuénsi radio|ngabangkitkeun]] arus listrik dina beungeut konduktor ku cara ngagerakkeun éléktron-éléktron material konduktor. Éfék ieu (éfék kulit atawa [[skin effect]]) digunakeun dina anteneu. Pancaran gelombang ÉM ogé bisa ngabalukarkeun molékul-molékul nyerep énérgi jeung saterusna jadi panas; cara ieu digunakeun dina [[oven microwave]]. == Rumus-rumus Gelombang Éléktromagnétik == Gelombang éléktromagnétik salaku hiji fénomena umum ditorah ku hukum-hukum klasik ngeunaan [[listrik]] jeung ''magnétisme'', anu katelah sabagé [[rumus-rumus Maxwell]]. Lamun urang mariksa rumus-rumus Maxwell tanpa sumber (muatan listrik atawa arus listrik) mangka urang bakal meunangkeun jawaban ''nontrivial'' tina médan listrik jeung médan magnét anu robah-robah. Dimimitian ku rumus Maxwell pikeun hiji rohangan hapa: ::<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = 0 \qquad \qquad \qquad \ \ (1)</math> ::<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{B} \qquad \qquad (2)</math> ::<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0 \qquad \qquad \qquad \ \ (3)</math> ::<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{E} \qquad \ \ \ (4)</math> :di mana ::<math>\nabla</math> mangrupa hiji operator ''diférensial'' ''véktor'' (tempo [[Del]]). Hiji jawaban, ::<math>\mathbf{E}=\mathbf{B}=\mathbf{0}</math>, nyaéta ''trivial''. Pikeun nempo hiji deui jawaban anu leuwih narik haté, urang ngagunakeun [[List of vector identities|identitas véktor]], anu lumaku pikeun satiap ''véktor'', saperti kieu: ::<math>\nabla \times \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{A} \right) = \nabla \left( \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} \right) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{A}</math> Pikeun nempo kumaha urang bisa ngagunakeun ieu, paké ''curl'' tina rumus (2): ::<math>\nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf{E} \right) = \nabla \times \left(-\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} \right) \qquad \qquad \qquad \quad \ \ \ (5) \,</math> Ku cara ngitung sisi kénca: ::<math> \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf{E} \right) = \nabla\left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} \right) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = - \nabla^2 \mathbf{E} \qquad \quad \ (6) \,</math> :di mana urang nyaderhanakeun anu di luhur ku cara ngagunakeun rumus (1). Itung sisi katuhu: ::<math>\nabla \times \left(-\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} \right) = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{B} \right) = -\mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial^2 t} \mathbf{E} \qquad (7)</math> Rumus (6) jeung (7) sarua, antukna ieu ngahasilkeun hiji [[rumus diferensial]] nu miboga harga ''vektor'' pikeun médan listrik, nyaéta: ::{|cellpadding="2" style="border:2px solid #ccccff" |<math>\nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \mathbf{E}</math> |} Ku cara nerapkeun pola anu sarupa ngahasilkeun rumus ''diférensial'' pikeun médan magnét: ::{|cellpadding="2" style="border:2px solid #ccccff" |<math>\nabla^2 \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \mathbf{B}</math>. |} Rumus-rumus ''diférensial'' ieu sapadan jeung [[rumus gelombang]]: ::<math>\nabla^2 f = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial t^2} \,</math> :di mana ::''c'' mangrupa laju gelombang sarta ::''f'' ngagambarkeun pamindahan tempat Atawa sacara leuwih saderhana: ::<math>\Box^2 f = 0</math> :di mana <math>\Box^2</math> mangrupa [[d'Alembert operator|d'Alembertian]]: ::<math>\Box^2 = \nabla^2 - \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} = \frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{\partial z^2} - \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \ </math> Perhatikeun yén dina kasus médan listrik katut médan magnét, lajuna: ::<math>c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}}</math> di mana, saperti katempo, mangrupa [[laju cahaya]]. Rumus Maxwell geus ngahijikeun permitivitas rohangan bébas <math>\epsilon_0</math>, perméabilitas rohangan bébas <math>\mu_0</math>, sarta laju cahaya, c. Saméméh katimuna rumus ieu teu kanyahoan yén aya hiji [[Electromagnetic wave equation|hubungan]] kuat antara cahaya jeung listrik sarta ''magnétisme'' (gaya magnét). Tapi masih aya dua rumus Maxwell deui. Coba tempo hiji gelombang ''véktor'' umum pikeun médan listrik. :<math>\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{E}_0 f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math> Di dieu <math>\mathbf{E}_0</math> mangrupa amplitudo konstan, <math>f</math> mangrupa satiap fungsi anu bisa ''didiférensiasi'', <math> \hat{\mathbf{k}}</math> mangrupa hiji ''véktor'' unit dina arah rambatan, sarta <math> {\mathbf{x}} </math>mangrupa hiji ''véktor'' posisi. Urang nempo yén <math>f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math> mangrupa hiji jawaban umum kana rumus gelombang. Dina kalimah lain :<math>\nabla^2 f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial^2 t} f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math>, pikeun gelombang anu ngarambat dina arah <math>\hat{\mathbf{k}}</math>. Wangun ieu bakal ngajawab rumus gelombang, tapi naha ieu bakal ngajawab sakabéh rumus Maxwell, sarta médan magnét naon anu pakait? :<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{E}_0 f'\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = 0</math> :<math>\mathbf{E} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{k}} = 0</math> Rumus Maxwell nu kahiji nuduhkeun yén médan listrik ''ortogonal'' kana arah rambatan gelombang. :<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}_0 f'\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{B}</math> :<math>\mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c} \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}</math> Rumus Maxwell kadua ngahasilkeun médan magnét. Rumus-rumus anu nyésa bakal dijawab ku pilihan <math>\mathbf{E},\mathbf{B}</math>. Médan listrik jeung médan magnét sajaba ngarambat dina laju cahaya, ogé boga oriéntasi sarta gedé anu proporsional anu kawates, <math>E_0 = c B_0</math>, anu bisa ditempo langsung tina [[Poynting vector]]. Médan listrik, médan magnét, sarta arah rambatan gelombang kabéhanana ''ortogonal'', sarta gelombang ngarambat dina arah anu sarua saperti <math>\mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}</math>. Lamun ditingali tina arah rambatan gelombang éléktromagnétik, médan listrik mungkin ngayunambing naék jeung turun, samentara médan magnét ngayunambing ka katuhu jeung ka kénca; tapi gambar éta bisa diputer antukna médan listrik ngayunambing ka katuhu jeung ka kénca samentara médan magnét ngayunambing turun jeung naék. Hal ieu mangrupa jawaban lian pikeun gelombang anu ngarambat ka arah anu sarua. Kasambarangan ''oriéntasi'' ditingali ti arah rambatan disebut [[polarisasi]]. == Tempo ogé == <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Control of electromagnetic radiation]] * [[Electromagnetic pulse]] * [[Electromagnetic spectrum]] * [[Bioelectromagnetism]] * [[Electromagnetic radiation and health]] * [[Electromagnetic wave equation]] * [[Finite-difference time-domain method]] * [[Helicon (physics)|Helicon]] * [[Klystron]] * [[Light]] * [[Maxwell's equations]] * [[Photon polarization]] * [[Radiant energy]] * [[Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation]] * [[Radiation reaction]] </div> == Rujukan == <div class="references-small"> <!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> <references/> </div> * {{cite book | last = Hecht | first = Eugene | title = Optics | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = Pearson Education | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-8053-8566-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Serway | first = Raymond A. | coauthors = Jewett, John W. | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers | url = https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000serw_b7w2 | edition = 6th ed. | publisher = Brooks/Cole | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-534-40842-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Tipler | first = Paul | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics | url = https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000tipl_y7c5 | edition = 5th ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-7167-0810-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Reitz | first = John | coauthors = Milford, Frederick; Christy, Robert | title = Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = Addison Wesley | year = 1992 | id = ISBN 0-201-52624-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Jackson | first = John David | title = Classical Electrodynamics | url = https://archive.org/details/classicalelectro00jack_0 | edition = 2nd ed | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year = 1975 | id = ISBN 0-471-43132-X }} * {{cite book | author=Allen Taflove and Susan C. Hagness | title=Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, 3rd ed. | publisher=Artech House Publishers | year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-58053-832-0 | url=http://www.artechhouse.com/default.asp?Frame=Book.asp&Book=1-58053-832-0&Country=US&Continent=NO&State=}} == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html Electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603233123/http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html |date=2011-06-03 }} - a chapter from an online textbook * [http://physnet.org/home/modules/pdf_modules/m210.pdf '' Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell's Equations ''] on [http://www.physnet.org Project PHYSNET]. * [http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm Conversion of frequency to wavelength and back - electromagnetic, radio and sound waves] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311050010/http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm |date=2012-03-11 }} * [http://www.rfzone.org/free-rf-ebooks/ eBooks on Electromagnetic radiation and RF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218171119/http://www.rfzone.org/free-rf-ebooks/ |date=2007-12-18 }} * [http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323134512/http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info/ |date=2019-03-23 }} - supported by NASA. Spectroscopy education wiki and films - introduction to light, its uses in NASA, space science, astronomy, medicine & héalth, environmental reséarch, and consumer products. [[Kategori:Electromagnetic radiation| ]] gelwbo4ksd64ums7os475hx0685arxr 0 24348 711791 665568 2026-08-07T04:27:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{electromagnetism3|edyn=true}} [[Image:Light-wave.svg|thumb|left|350px|Gelombang éléktromagnétik bisa dibayangkeun salaku gelombang médan listrik katut médan magnét anu ''osilasi'' sacara tranversal sarta ngrarambat sorangan. Gambar ieu mintonkeun hiji gelombang anu ngarambat ti kénca ka katuhu.]] '''Radiasi éléktromagnétik (ÉM)''' nyaéta [[gelombang|gelombang éléktromagnétik]] anu [[ngarambat sorangan]] dina rohangan. Gelombang éléktromagnétik kawangun ku komponén listrik atawa [[éléktrik]] jeung komponén [[magnétik]]. Dua komponén ieu ngayun bulak-balik (''osilasi'') dina arah anu juruna (sudutna) 90^o tina arah rambatan. Arah ''osilasi'' dua komponén ieu ogé dipisahkeun ku sudut 90^o tapi fase gelombangna sarua. Lamun ditingali tina arah rambatan gelombang éléktromagnétik, médan listrik mungkin bulak-balik naék jeung turun, samentara médan magnét ngayun bulak-balik ka katuhu jeung ka kénca; tapi gambar éta bisa diputer antukna médan listrik bulak-balik ka katuhu jeung ka kénca samentara médan magnét bulak-balik turun jeung naék. Kasambarangan ''oriéntasi'' ditingali ti arah rambatan disebut [[polarisasi]]. Radiasi éléktromagnétik digolongkeun dumasar kana [[Gelombang#Périoda jeung frékuénsi|frékuénsi]] gelombangna. Macem-mecem gelombang, lamun diantaykeun ti mimiti frékuénsi laun nepi ka frékuénsi gancang, kaasup di antarana: [[gelombang radio]], [[gelombang mikro]], [[radiasi térahertz]], radiasi [[infrabeureum]], [[cahaya katémbong]], [[Ultraviolét|radiasi ultraviolét]], [[sinar-X]] sarta [[sinar gamma]] baris ngahasilkeun spéktrum anu disebut spéktrum éléktromagnétik. Radiasi ÉM mawa [[énergi]] jeung [[moméntum]], anu bisa dipisahkeun mangsa radiasi kasebut ''interaksi'' jeung zat atawa [[materi]]. == Fisika == === Téori === '''Gelombang éléktromagnétik''' munggaran ditorah ku [[James Clerk Maxwell]] sarta satuluyna ditegeskeun ku [[Heinrich Hertz]]. Maxwell nurunkeun hiji [[Electromagnetic wave equation|rumus wangun gelombang listrik katut gelombang magnét]], némbongkeun yén médan listrik jeung médan magnét boga sifat sabagé gelombang, sarta aya kasimétrian di antara éta dua médan. Lantaran laju gelombang ÉM anu ditorah ku rumus gelombang sarupa jeung [[laju cahaya]] anu kaukur, Maxwell nyindekkeun yén [[cahaya]] sorangan mangrupa hiji gelombang ÉM. Nurutkeun [[rumus Maxwell]], hiji [[médan listrik]] anu robah-robah nurutkeun waktu ngabangkitkeun hiji [[médan magnét]] sarta ''sabalikna''. Ku lantaran kitu, mangsa hiji médan listrik anu ''osilasi'' ngabangkitkeun hiji médan magnét anu ogé ''osilasi'', médan magnét anu ''osilasi'' éta ogé saterusna ngahasilkeun médan listrik anu ''osilasi'', kitu saterusna. Dua médan anu ''osilasi'' ieu babarengan ngawangun hiji gelombang éléktromagnétik. Téori quantum ngeunaan ''interaksi'' antara radiasi éléktromagnétik jeung materi saperti éléktron dijelaskeun ku téori [[éléktrodinamika quantum]]. === Sifat === Médan listrik katut médan magnét boga sifat [[superposition principle|superposisi]]. Sifat ieu ngalantarankeun rupa-rupa fénoména kaasup méngkolna cahaya (atawa [[réfraksi]]) sarta sumebarna cahaya (atawa [[difraksi]]). Contona, gelombang ÉM anu nabrak kana struktur atom nularkeun (ngainduksi) ''osilasi'' dina jero [[atom]]-''atom'', antukna nyababkeun ''atom''-''atom'' kasebut mancarkeun (ngaémisi) gelombang ÉM bogana sorangan. [[Emission (electromagnetic radiation)|Émisi]] ieu satuluyna ngarobah gelombang anu nabrak ku cara interférensi. Waktu ngarambat dina hiji médiyeum liniér saperti hiji rohangan hapa, cahaya henteu kapangaruhan ku médan listrik atawa médan magnét anu statis (tetep, henteu robah). Tapi, dina médiyeum non-liniér, saperti sababaraha [[kristal]], interaksi bisa lumangsung antara cahaya jeung médan listrik katut médan magnét anu statis – interaksi ieu kaasup [[éfék Faraday]] jeung [[éfék Kerr]]. Dina réfraksi, hiji gelombang anu ngaliwat ti hiji médiyeum ka médiyeum liana, anu boga [[karapetan]] nu béda, robah laju sarta arahna waktu asup ka médiyeum anyar. Babandingan indeks [[réfraksi]] mediyeum nangtukeun darajat réfraksi (darajat béngkokna cahaya) sarta bisa dijelaskeun ku [[hukum Snell]]. Cahaya ultraviolét kabagi kana hiji [[spéktrum éléktromagnétik|spéktrum]] nu katénjo mangsa cahaya ngaliwatan hiji prisma lantaran sifat réfraksi ieu. Élmu [[fisika]] ngeunaan radiasi éléktromagnétik disebut [[éléktrodinamika]], salah sahiji bagian tina [[éléktromagnétisme]]. Radiasi ÉM ngagambarkeun sifat-sifat gelombang ogé sifat [[Partikel subatomik|partikel]] dina waktu nu bareng (tempo [[dualitas gelombang-partikel]]). Sifat gelombang leuwih jelas katiténan mangsa radiasi ÉM diukur dina skala waktu anu rélatif lila sarta dina jarak anu jauh, sedengkeun sifat partikel leuwih jelas mangsa ngukur dina jarak sarta skala waktu nu pondok. Dua sifat ieu geus ditegeskeun dina sajumlah percobaan. Aya percobaan anu mintonkeun sifat partikel jeung sifat gelombang radiasi ÉM mecenghul babarengan dina percobaan kasebut, saperti difraksi sahiji [[foton]]. Mangsa sahiji foton dikirimkeun ngaliwatan dua sela, éta hiji foton téh ngaliwatan dua sesela kasebut sarta ngalaman interférensi jeung dirina sorangan, persis saperti gelombang. Interférensi diri anu sarupa katitén mangsa sahiji foton dikirimkeun kana hiji [[interferometer Michelson]] atawa [[interferometer]] lianna. ===Modél gelombang=== Hiji aspék nu penting tina sifat cahaya nyaéta [[frékuénsi]]. Frékuénsi hiji gelombang nyaéta laju osilasi éta gelombang sarta diukur dina [[hijian]] [[Hertz]], nyaéta [[hijian]] [[SI]] pikeun frékuénsi, hargana sarua jeung hiji osilasi per [[detik]]. Cahaya biasana boga hiji spéktrum frékuénsi. Gelombang atawa frékuénsi nu béda-béda ngalaman réfraksi kalayan sudut nu béda-béda ogé. Hiji gelombang ngandung puncak-puncak jeung lengkob-lengkob anu paréndéng, sarta jarak antara dua puncak anu padeukeut atawa dua lengkob anu padeukeut disebut [[panjang gelombang]]. Gelombang dina spéktrum éléktromagnétik rupa-rupa ukuranna ti gelombang radio nu panjang pisan nu saukuran gedong-gedong luhur nepi ka sinar gama anu kacida pondokna, leuwih pondok manan inti atom. Frékuénsi mangrupa kabalikan panjang gelombang nurutkeun rumus: :<math>v=f\lambda</math> di mana ''v'' nyaéta laju gelombang (''[[laju cahaya|c]]'' dina jero rohangan hapa, atawa kurang ti c lamun dina jero médiyeum lianna), ''f'' nyaéta frékuénsi sarta λ nyaéta panjang gelombang. Mangsa gelombang meuntasan wates-wates antara médiyeum anu béda, laju cahayana robah tapi frékuénsina tetap konstan. [[Interférensi]] nyaéta superposisi (tumpang tindih) antara dua atawa leuwih gelombang anu ngahasilekun hiji pola gelombang anu anyar. Énergi gelombang éléktromagnétik témpo-témpo disebut [[énergi radiasi]]. === Modél partikel=== Lantaran énergi gelombang ÉM dikuantisasi, mangka dina modél partikel radiasi ÉM, hiji gelombang kasusun ku pakét-pakét énergi anu ''diskrit'', atawa [[quanta]], anu disebut [[foton]]. Frékuénsi gelombang sabanding jeung gedéna énergi partikel. Sajaba ti éta, lantaran ''foton'' dipancarkeun jeung diserep ku partikel anu dibéré muatan, mangka ''foton'' nindak salaku pangangkut [[énergi]]. Énergi per [[foton]] bisa diitung ku rumus [[Max Planck|Planck]]: :<math>E=hf</math> di mana ''E'' nyaéta énergi, ''h'' nyaéta [[konstanta Planck]], sarta ''f'' nyaéta frékuénsi. Mangsa hiji ''foton'' diserep ku hiji atom, ''foton'' kasebut manaskeun sarta naékkeun hiji [[éléktron]] kana [[tingkatan énergi]] anu leuwih luhur. Lamun énergina cukup gedé, antukna éléktron lumpat ka tingkatan énergi anu cukup gedé, éléktron bisa ngaleupaskeun diri tina tarikan inti atom positif sarta leupas tina atom dina prosés anu disebut [[fotonisasi]]. Sabalikna, hiji éléktron anu turun ka tingkat énergi anu leuwih handap mancarkeun hiji foton cahaya anu énergina sarua jeung béda énergi antara tingkat énergi asal jeung tingkat énergi anu leuwih handap. Lantaran tingkatan-tingkatan énergi éléktron dina atom téh ''diskrit'', tiap ''élemén'' mancarkeun sarta nyerep gelombang atawa frékuénsi karakteristikna. ''Éfék''-''éfék'' ieu babarengan bisa ngajelaskeun sual spéktrum serep [[cahaya]]. Pita-pita anu poék dina éta spéktrum diakibatkeun ku atom nu aya dina médiyeum nyerep frékuénsi-frékuénsi cahaya anu béda. Susunan mediyeum anu diliwatan ku cahaya nangtukeun sifat tina spektrum serap. Contona, pita-pita poek dina cahaya anu dipancarkeun ku béntang anu jarakna jauh diakibatkeun ku atom-atom dina atmosfir éta béntang. Pita-pita ieu patali jeung tingkatan-tingkatan énergi anu dimungkinkeun dina jero atom-atom kasebut. Fénoména anu sarupa lumangsung pikeun [[Emisi (radiasi elektromagnetik)|émisi]]. Mangsa éléktron turun kana tingkatan énergi anu leuwih handap, mangka dipancarkeun hiji spéktrum anu ngagambarkeun lumpatan antara tingkatan-tingkatan énergi. Hal ieu diwujudkeun dina spéktrum [[Emisi (radiasi elektromagnetik)|émisi]] [[nébula]]. Kiwari, para élmuwan ngagunakeun fénoména ieu pikeun niténan élemén naon anu dikandung ku nébula. Cara ieu ogé dipaké dina nangtukeun jarak hiji béntang ti dunya, ngagunakeun anu disebut géséran warna beureum atawa [[red shift]]. ===Laju rambatan=== Lamun kawat (atawa objék nu boga sifat konduksi saperti [[anteneu]]) ngalirkeun [[arus bulak-balik]] ([[AC]], mangka radiasi éléktromagnétik dirambatkeun dina frékuénsi anu sarua jeung arus listrik kasebut. Gumantung kana kaayaan, radiasi éléktromagnétik bisa nindak salaku [[gelombang]] atawa salaku [[foton|partikel]]. Salaku gelombang, radiasi éléktromagnétik boga ciri mibanda ([[laju cahaya]]), [[panjang gelombang]], jeung [[frékuénsi]]. Waktu dianggap sabagé partikel, radiasi éléktromagnétik dipikawanoh salaku [[foton]], anu boga énergi anu sabanding jeung frékuénsi gelombang sakumaha anu digambarkeun ku rumus [[Max Planck|Planck]] ''E = hν'', di mana ''E'' nyaéta énergi foton, ''h'' = 6.626 &times; 10⁻³⁴ J• nyaéta [[konstanta Planck]], sarta ''ν'' nyaéta frékuénsi gelombang. Radiasi éléktromagnétik patuh kana hiji aturan nyaéta, henteu paduli kana lingkunganana, radiasi EM dina rohangan hapa salawasna ngarambat dina laju anu sarua jeung [[laju cahaya]], ''rélatif ka panitén'', henteu paduli kana laju si panitén. (Sifat radiasi éléktromagnétik ieu nungtun [[Albert Einstein]] nyieun téori [[rélativitas husus]].) == Spéktrum éléktromagnétik == [[Gambar:EM spectrum.svg|thumb|490px|right|Spektrum éléktromagnétik]] [[Image:spectrum.png|right|frame|'''Legend:'''<br /> γ = [[Gamma ray]]s<br /> HX = Hard [[X-ray]]s<br /> SX = Soft X-Rays<br /> EUV = Extreme [[ultraviolet]]<br /> NUV = Néar ultraviolet<br /> [[Visible light]]<br /> NIR = Néar [[infrared]]<br /> MIR = Moderate infrared<br /> FIR = Far infrared<br /> <br /> '''[[Radio waves]]:'''<br /> EHF = [[Extremely high frequency]] (Microwaves)<br /> SHF = [[Super high frequency]] (Microwaves)<br /> UHF = [[Ultrahigh frequency]]<br /> VHF = [[Very high frequency]]<br /> HF = [[High frequency]]<br /> MF = [[Medium frequency]]<br /> LF = [[Low frequency]]<br /> VLF = [[Very low frequency]]<br /> VF = [[Voice frequency]]<br /> ELF = [[Extremely low frequency]]]] Dumasar kana panjang gelombangna, umumna radiasi éléktromagnétik (ÉM) digolongkeun kana gelombang-gelombang [[énergi listrik]], [[radio]], [[gelombang mikro]], [[infrabeureum]], [[cahaya katémbong]] anu karasa ku urang sabagé cahaya, [[ultraviolét]], [[sinar-X]] jeung [[sinar gamma]]. === Cahaya === {{utama|cahaya}} Gelombang ÉM dina panjang gelombang antara kira-kira 400 [[nanométer|nm]] jeung 700&nbsp;nm katangkep ku [[panon]] [[manusa]] sarta karasa sabagé [[cahaya katémbong|cahaya]] nu katénjo. Panjang gelombang lianna, husuna anu deukeut ka gelombang [[infrabeureum]] (nu leuwih panjang ti 700&nbsp;nm) jeung ultraviolét (nu leuwih pondok to 400&nbsp;nm) ogé kadang-kadang disebut sabagé cahaya. [[Serat optik]] ngarambatkeun cahaya anu bisa ditumpangan data sora atawa gambar. Prosésna sarupa jeung anu digunakeun dina ngarambatkeun gelombang radio. === Gelombang radio === {{utama|frékuénsi radio}} Gelombang radio bisa dimangfaatkeun pikeun mawa informasi ku cara ngarobah-robah [[amplitudo]], [[frékuénsi]] jeung [[fase]] dina sahiji [[pita frékuénsi]]. Mangsa rambatan gelombang ÉM asup kana [[Konduktor listrik|konduktor]], rambatan ÉM ngaraksuk kana konduktor, ngaliwatan, jeung [[ngabangkitkeun frékuénsi radio|ngabangkitkeun]] arus listrik dina beungeut konduktor ku cara ngagerakkeun éléktron-éléktron material konduktor. Éfék ieu (éfék kulit atawa [[skin effect]]) digunakeun dina anteneu. Pancaran gelombang ÉM ogé bisa ngabalukarkeun molékul-molékul nyerep énérgi jeung saterusna jadi panas; cara ieu digunakeun dina [[oven microwave]]. ==Rumus-rumus Gelombang Éléktromagnétik== Gelombang éléktromagnétik salaku hiji fénomena umum ditorah ku hukum-hukum klasik ngeunaan [[listrik]] jeung ''magnétisme'', anu katelah sabagé [[rumus-rumus Maxwell]]. Lamun urang mariksa rumus-rumus Maxwell tanpa sumber (muatan listrik atawa arus listrik) mangka urang bakal meunangkeun jawaban ''nontrivial'' tina médan listrik jeung médan magnét anu robah-robah. Dimimitian ku rumus Maxwell pikeun hiji rohangan hapa: ::<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = 0 \qquad \qquad \qquad \ \ (1)</math> ::<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{B} \qquad \qquad (2)</math> ::<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0 \qquad \qquad \qquad \ \ (3)</math> ::<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{E} \qquad \ \ \ (4)</math> :di mana ::<math>\nabla</math> mangrupa hiji operator ''diférensial'' ''véktor'' (tempo [[Del]]). Hiji jawaban, ::<math>\mathbf{E}=\mathbf{B}=\mathbf{0}</math>, nyaéta ''trivial''. Pikeun nempo hiji deui jawaban anu leuwih narik haté, urang ngagunakeun [[List of vector identities|identitas véktor]], anu lumaku pikeun satiap ''véktor'', saperti kieu: ::<math>\nabla \times \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{A} \right) = \nabla \left( \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} \right) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{A}</math> Pikeun nempo kumaha urang bisa ngagunakeun ieu, paké ''curl'' tina rumus (2): ::<math>\nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf{E} \right) = \nabla \times \left(-\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} \right) \qquad \qquad \qquad \quad \ \ \ (5) \,</math> Ku cara ngitung sisi kénca: ::<math> \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf{E} \right) = \nabla\left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} \right) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = - \nabla^2 \mathbf{E} \qquad \quad \ (6) \,</math> :di mana urang nyaderhanakeun anu di luhur ku cara ngagunakeun rumus (1). Itung sisi katuhu: ::<math>\nabla \times \left(-\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} \right) = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{B} \right) = -\mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial^2 t} \mathbf{E} \qquad (7)</math> Rumus (6) jeung (7) sarua, antukna ieu ngahasilkeun hiji [[rumus diferensial]] nu miboga harga ''vektor'' pikeun médan listrik, nyaéta: ::{|cellpadding="2" style="border:2px solid #ccccff" |<math>\nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \mathbf{E}</math> |} Ku cara nerapkeun pola anu sarupa ngahasilkeun rumus ''diférensial'' pikeun médan magnét: ::{|cellpadding="2" style="border:2px solid #ccccff" |<math>\nabla^2 \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \mathbf{B}</math>. |} Rumus-rumus ''diférensial'' ieu sapadan jeung [[rumus gelombang]]: ::<math>\nabla^2 f = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial t^2} \,</math> :di mana ::''c'' mangrupa laju gelombang sarta ::''f'' ngagambarkeun pamindahan tempat Atawa sacara leuwih saderhana: ::<math>\Box^2 f = 0</math> :di mana <math>\Box^2</math> mangrupa [[d'Alembert operator|d'Alembertian]]: ::<math>\Box^2 = \nabla^2 - \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} = \frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{\partial z^2} - \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \ </math> Perhatikeun yén dina kasus médan listrik katut médan magnét, lajuna: ::<math>c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}}</math> di mana, saperti katempo, mangrupa [[laju cahaya]]. Rumus Maxwell geus ngahijikeun permitivitas rohangan bébas <math>\epsilon_0</math>, perméabilitas rohangan bébas <math>\mu_0</math>, sarta laju cahaya, c. Saméméh katimuna rumus ieu teu kanyahoan yén aya hiji [[Electromagnetic wave equation|hubungan]] kuat antara cahaya jeung listrik sarta ''magnétisme'' (gaya magnét). Tapi masih aya dua rumus Maxwell deui. Coba tempo hiji gelombang ''véktor'' umum pikeun médan listrik. :<math>\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{E}_0 f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math> Di dieu <math>\mathbf{E}_0</math> mangrupa amplitudo konstan, <math>f</math> mangrupa satiap fungsi anu bisa ''didiférensiasi'', <math> \hat{\mathbf{k}}</math> mangrupa hiji ''véktor'' unit dina arah rambatan, sarta <math> {\mathbf{x}} </math>mangrupa hiji ''véktor'' posisi. Urang nempo yén <math>f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math> mangrupa hiji jawaban umum kana rumus gelombang. Dina kalimah lain :<math>\nabla^2 f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial^2 t} f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math>, pikeun gelombang anu ngarambat dina arah <math>\hat{\mathbf{k}}</math>. Wangun ieu bakal ngajawab rumus gelombang, tapi naha ieu bakal ngajawab sakabéh rumus Maxwell, sarta médan magnét naon anu pakait? :<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{E}_0 f'\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = 0</math> :<math>\mathbf{E} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{k}} = 0</math> Rumus Maxwell nu kahiji nuduhkeun yén médan listrik ''ortogonal'' kana arah rambatan gelombang. :<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}_0 f'\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{B}</math> :<math>\mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c} \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}</math> Rumus Maxwell kadua ngahasilkeun médan magnét. Rumus-rumus anu nyésa bakal dijawab ku pilihan <math>\mathbf{E},\mathbf{B}</math>. Médan listrik jeung médan magnét sajaba ngarambat dina laju cahaya, ogé boga oriéntasi sarta gedé anu proporsional anu kawates, <math>E_0 = c B_0</math>, anu bisa ditempo langsung tina [[Poynting vector]]. Médan listrik, médan magnét, sarta arah rambatan gelombang kabéhanana ''ortogonal'', sarta gelombang ngarambat dina arah anu sarua saperti <math>\mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}</math>. Lamun ditingali tina arah rambatan gelombang éléktromagnétik, médan listrik mungkin ngayunambing naék jeung turun, samentara médan magnét ngayunambing ka katuhu jeung ka kénca; tapi gambar éta bisa diputer antukna médan listrik ngayunambing ka katuhu jeung ka kénca samentara médan magnét ngayunambing turun jeung naék. Hal ieu mangrupa jawaban lian pikeun gelombang anu ngarambat ka arah anu sarua. Kasambarangan ''oriéntasi'' ditingali ti arah rambatan disebut [[polarisasi]]. ==Tempo ogé== <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> *[[Control of electromagnetic radiation]] *[[Electromagnetic pulse]] *[[Electromagnetic spectrum]] *[[Bioelectromagnetism]] *[[Electromagnetic radiation and health]] *[[Electromagnetic wave equation]] *[[Finite-difference time-domain method]] *[[Helicon (physics)|Helicon]] *[[Klystron]] *[[Light]] *[[Maxwell's equations]] *[[Photon polarization]] *[[Radiant energy]] *[[Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation]] *[[Radiation reaction]] </div> ==Rujukan== <div class="references-small"> <!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> <references/> </div> * {{cite book | last = Hecht | first = Eugene | title = Optics | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = Pearson Education | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-8053-8566-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Serway | first = Raymond A. | coauthors = Jewett, John W. | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers | url = https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000serw_b7w2 | edition = 6th ed. | publisher = Brooks/Cole | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-534-40842-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Tipler | first = Paul | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics | url = https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000tipl_y7c5 | edition = 5th ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-7167-0810-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Reitz | first = John | coauthors = Milford, Frederick; Christy, Robert | title = Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = Addison Wesley | year = 1992 | id = ISBN 0-201-52624-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Jackson | first = John David | title = Classical Electrodynamics | url = https://archive.org/details/classicalelectro00jack_0 | edition = 2nd ed | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year = 1975 | id = ISBN 0-471-43132-X }} *{{cite book | author=Allen Taflove and Susan C. Hagness | title=Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, 3rd ed. | publisher=Artech House Publishers | year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-58053-832-0 | url=http://www.artechhouse.com/default.asp?Frame=Book.asp&Book=1-58053-832-0&Country=US&Continent=NO&State=}} ==Tumbu luar== * [http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html Electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603233123/http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html |date=2011-06-03 }} - a chapter from an online textbook *[http://physnet.org/home/modules/pdf_modules/m210.pdf '' Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell's Equations ''] on [http://www.physnet.org Project PHYSNET]. *[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm Conversion of frequency to wavelength and back - electromagnetic, radio and sound waves] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311050010/http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm |date=2012-03-11 }} *[http://www.rfzone.org/free-rf-ebooks/ eBooks on Electromagnetic radiation and RF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218171119/http://www.rfzone.org/free-rf-ebooks/ |date=2007-12-18 }} *[http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323134512/http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info/ |date=2019-03-23 }} - supported by NASA. Spectroscopy education wiki and films - introduction to light, its uses in NASA, space science, astronomy, medicine & héalth, environmental reséarch, and consumer products. [[Kategori:Éléktromagnétisme]] [[Kategori:Éléktrodinamika]] c2cw5jydud38b3zoim9tdii6c7huu2b 0 24553 711846 710613 2026-08-07T05:44:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711846 wikitext text/x-wiki {{wiktionary}} {{otheruses}} Rohangan hapa atawa '''vacuum''' nyaéta [[volume]] [[rohangan]] anu pada dasarna kosong ku [[materi]], saperti [[tekanan]] gas éta rohangan kurang ti [[tekanan atmosfir]] baku. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} The Latin term '''in vacuo''' is used to describe an object as being in what would otherwise be a vacuum. The root of the word ''vacuum'' is the [[Latin]] adjective ''vacuus'' which méans "empty," but space can never be perfectly empty. A '''perfect vacuum''' with a gaséous pressure of absolute zero is a philosophical concept that is never observed in practice, not léast because [[Quantum mechanics|quantum theory]] predicts that no volume of space can be perfectly empty in this way. [[Physicist]]s often use the term "vacuum" slightly differently. They discuss idéal test results that would occur in a perfect vacuum, which they simply call "vacuum" or "[[free space]]" in this context, and use the term '''partial vacuum''' to refer to the imperfect vacua réalized in practice. The quality of a vacuum is méasured in relation to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. The residual gas [[pressure]] is the primary indicator of quality, and is most commonly méasured in units called [[torr]], even in [[SI|metric]] contexts. Lower pressures indicate higher quality, although other variables must also be taken into account. [[Quantum mechanics]] sets limits on the best possible quality of vacuum. [[Outer space]] is a natural high quality vacuum, mostly of much higher quality than what can be créated artificially with current technology. Low quality artificial vacuums have been used for [[suction]] for millennia. Vacuum has been a frequent topic of [[philosophical]] debate since [[Ancient Greek]] times, but was not studied empirically until the [[17th century]]. [[Evangelista Torricelli]] produced the first artifical vacuum in [[1643]], and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his théories of [[atmospheric pressure]]. Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the [[20th century]] with the introduction of [[incandescent light bulb]]s and [[vacuum tube]]s, and a wide array of vacuum technology has since become available. The recent development of [[human spaceflight]] has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human héalth, and on life forms in general. [[Gambar:Vacuum chamber-being opened by engineer.jpeg|thumb|300px|right|A large [[vacuum chamber]]]] == Uses == [[Gambar:Gluehlampe 01 KMJ.jpg|thumb|right|[[incandescent light bulb|Light bulbs]] contain a partial vacuum because the tungsten reaches such high temperatures that it would combust any oxygen molecules, usually backfilled with [[argon]], which protects the [[tungsten]] filament]] Vacuum is useful in a variety of processes and devices. Its first common use was in [[incandescent light bulb]]s to protect the [[tungsten]] filament from chemical degradation. Its chemical inertness is also useful for [[electron beam welding]], [[chemical vapor deposition]] and [[dry etching]] in the fabrication of [[semiconductor fabrication|semiconductors]] and [[optical coating]]s, [[cold welding]], [[vacuum packing]] and [[Vacuum fryer|vacuum frying]]. The reduction of convection improves the thermal insulation of [[thermos bottle]]s and [[insulated glass|double-paned windows]]. Deep vacuum promotes [[outgassing]] which is used in [[freeze drying]], [[adhesive]] preparation, [[vacuum distillation|distillation]], [[metallurgy]], and process purging. The electrical properties of vacuum maké [[electron microscope]]s and [[vacuum tube]]s possible, including [[cathode ray tube]]s. The elimination of air [[friction]] is useful for [[flywheel energy storage]] and [[ultracentrifuge]]s. High to ultra-high vacuum is used in [[thin film deposition]] and [[surface science]]. High vacuum allows for contamination-free material deposition. [[Ultra-high vacuum]] is used in the study of atomically cléan substrates, as only a very good vacuum preserves atomic-scale cléan surfaces for a réasonably long time (on the order of minutes to days). [[Suction]] is used in a wide variety of applications. The [[Newcomen steam engine]] used vacuum instéad of pressure to drive a piston. In the [[19th century]], vacuum was used for traction on [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]'s experimental [[atmospheric railway]]. == Outer space == {{utama|Outer space}} [[Gambar:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Outer space is not a perfect vacuum, but a tenuous [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] awash with charged particles, [[electromagnetic field]]s, and the occasional [[star]].]] Much of [[outer space]] has the density and pressure of an almost perfect vacuum. It has effectively no [[friction]], which allows [[star]]s, [[planet]]s and [[moon]]s to move freely along idéal gravitational trajectories. But no vacuum is perfect, not even in interstellar space, where there are only a few hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter at 10 fPa (10⁻¹⁶ [[Torr]]). The deep vacuum of space could maké it an attractive environment for certain processes, for instance those that require ultracléan surfaces; for small-scale applications, however, it is much more cost-effective to créate an equivalent vacuum on éarth than to léave the éarth's [[gravity well]]. Stars, planets and moons keep their [[atmosphere]]s by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no cléarly delinéated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decréases with distance from the object. In [[Low Earth orbit|low earth orbit]] (about 300&nbsp;km or 185 miles altitude) the atmospheric density is about 100 nPa (10⁻⁹ Torr), still sufficient to produce significant [[drag]] on [[satellite]]s. Most artificial satellites operate in this region, and must fire their engines every few days to maintain orbit. Beyond planetary atmospheres, the pressure of photons and other particles from the [[sun]] becomes significant. [[Spacecraft]] can be buffeted by [[solar wind]]s, but planets are too massive to be affected. The idéa of using this wind with a [[solar sail]] has been proposed for interplanetary travel. All of the observable [[universe]] is filled with large numbers of [[photon]]s, the so-called [[cosmic background radiation]], and quite likely a correspondingly large number of [[neutrino]]s. The current [[temperature]] of this radiation is about 3 [[Kelvin|K]], or -270 degrees Celsius or -454 degrees Fahrenheit. == Effects on humans and animals == {{see also|Human adaptation to space}} [[Gambar:An Experiment on a Bird in an Air Pump by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1768.jpg|thumb|This painting, [[An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump]] by [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], 1768, depicts an experiment performed by [[Robert Boyle]] in 1660.]] Vacuum is primarily an [[asphyxiant]]. Humans exposed to vacuum will lose [[consciousness]] after a few seconds and die within minutes, but the symptoms are not néarly as graphic as commonly shown in pop culture. [[Robert Boyle]] was the first to show that vacuum is lethal to small animals. [[Blood]] and other body fluids do boil (the medical term for this condition is [[ebullism]]), and the [[vapour pressure]] may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid.<ref>{{cite book | first=Charles E. | last=Billings | authorlink= | editor=edited by James F. Parker and Vita R. West | year=1973 | title=Bioastronautics Data Book | edition=Second Edition | publisher=NASA | location= | id=NASA SP-3006 | chapter=Barometric Pressure }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Human Exposure to Vacuum | work= | url=http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/vacuum.html | accessdate=2006-03-25}}</ref> Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a [[flight suit]]. [[Space Shuttle program|Shuttle]] astronauts wéar a fitted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 15 Torr (2 kPa).<ref>{{cite journal | author=Webb P. | title= The Space Activity Suit: An Elastic Leotard for Extravehicular Activity | journal=Aerospace Medicine | year=1968 | volume=39 | issue= | pages= 376–383 | url= }}</ref> However, even if ebullism is prevented, simple [[evaporation]] of blood can cause [[decompression sickness]] and [[air embolism|gas embolisms]]. Rapid evaporative cooling of the skin will créate frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard. Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is the norm for exposures of fewer than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Cooke JP, RW Bancroft | title= Some Cardiovascular Responses in Anesthetized Dogs During Repeated Decompressions to a Near-Vacuum | journal=Aerospace Medicine | year=1966 | volume=37 | issue= | pages= 1148–1152 | url= }}</ref> There is only a limited amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal data. Limbs may be exposed for much longer if bréathing is not impaired. Rapid [[decompression]] can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself. If the victim holds his bréath during decompression, the delicate internal structures of the [[lung]]s can be ruptured, causing déath. [[Eardrum]]s may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption léading to asphyxiation.<ref>{{cite web | author=Czarnik, Tamarack R.| year=| title=EBULLISM AT 1 MILLION FEET: Surviving Rapid/Explosive Decompression | work= | url=http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/ebullism.html | accessdate=2006-03-25}}</ref> In [[1942]], in one of a series of [[Nazi human experimentation|experiments on human subjects]] for the [[Luftwaffe]], the [[Nazism|Nazi regime]] tortured [[Dachau concentration camp]] prisoners by exposing them to vacuum in order to determine the human body's capacity to survive high-altitude conditions. Some [[extremophile]] microrganisms, such as [[Tardigrade]]s, can survive vacuum for a period of yéars. == Historical interpretation == Historically, there has been much dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist. [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] [[philosophy|philosophers]] did not like to admit the existence of a vacuum, asking themselves "how can 'nothing' be something?". [[Plato]] found the idéa of a vacuum inconceivable. He believed that all physical things were instantiations of an abstract [[Platonic ideal]], and he could not conceive of an "ideal" form of a vacuum. Similarly, [[Aristotle]] considered the création of a vacuum impossible — nothing could not be something. Later Greek philosophers thought that a vacuum could exist outside the [[cosmos]], but not within it. The [[philosopher]] [[Al-Farabi]] (850 - 970 [[Common Era|CE]]) appéars to have carried out the first recorded experiments concerning the existence of vacuum, in which he investigated handheld plungers in water.<ref>{{cite book | last=Zahoor | title=Muslim History}}</ref> He concluded that air's volume can expand to fill available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent.<ref>http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-natural/</ref> [[Gambar:Baro 0.png|thumb|100px|left|[[Torricelli]]'s [[mercury (element)|mercury]] [[barometer]] produced the first sustained vacuum in a laboratory.]] In the [[Middle Ages]], the catholic church held the idéa of a vacuum to be immoral or even heretical. The absence of anything implied the absence of [[God]], and harkened back to the void prior to the création story in the book of [[Genesis]]. Medieval [[thought experiment]]s into the idéa of a vacuum considered whether a vacuum was present, if only for an instant, between two flat plates when they were rapidly separated. There was much discussion of whether the air moved in quickly enough as the plates were separated, or, as [[Walter Burley]] postulated, whether a 'celestial agent' prevented the vacuum arising — that is, whether nature abhorred a vacuum. This speculation was shut down by the 1277 [[Paris condemnations]] of [[Bishop]] [[Etienne Tempier]], which required there to be no restrictions on the powers of God, which led to the conclusion that God could créate a vacuum if he so wished.<ref name=Barrow>{{cite book | first=John D. | last=Barrow | authorlink=John D. Barrow | year=2000 | title=The book of nothing : vacuums, voids, and the latest ideas about the origins of the universe | url=https://archive.org/details/liang.bookofnothing0001barr | edition=1st American Ed. | publisher=Pantheon Books | location=New York | id=ISBN 0-09-928845-1 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Crookes tube.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Crookes tube]], used to discover and study [[cathode rays]], was an evolution of the [[Geissler tube]].]] Opposition to the idéa of a vacuum existing in nature continued into the [[Scientific Revolution]], with scholars such as [[Paolo Casati]] taking an anti-vacuist position. Building upon work by [[Galileo]], [[Evangelista Torricelli]] argued in 1643 that there was a vacuum at the top of a [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] [[barometer]]. Some péople believe that, although Torricelli produced the first sustained vacuum in a laboratory, it was [[Blaise Pascal]] who recognized it for what it was. In [[1654]], [[Otto von Guericke]] invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous [[Magdeburg hemispheres]] experiment, showing that téams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been evacuated. [[Robert Boyle]] improved Guericke's design and conducted experiments on the properties of vacuum. [[Robert Hooke]] also helped Boyle produce an air pump which helped to produce the vacuum. The study of vacuum then lapsed until [[1855]], when [[Heinrich Geissler]] invented the mercury displacement pump and achieved a record vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 [[Torr]]). A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, and this renewed interest in vacuum. This, in turn, led to the development of the [[vacuum tube]]. In the 17th century, théories of the nature of [[light]] relied upon the existence of an [[aether|aethereal medium]] which would be the medium to convey waves of light ([[Newton]] relied on this idéa to explain [[refraction]] and radiated héat). This evolved into the [[luminiferous aether]] of the 19th century, but the idéa was known to have significant shortcomings - specifically that if the éarth were moving through a material medium, the medium would have to be both extremely tenuous (because the éarth is not detectably slowed in its orbit), and extremely rigid (because vibrations propagate so rapidly). While outer space has been likened to a vacuum, éarly physicists postulated that an invisible [[luminiferous aether]] existed as a medium to carry light waves, or an "[[Aether|ether]] which fills the interstellar space".<ref>R. H. Patterson, ''Ess. Hist. & Art 10'' 1862</ref> An [[1891]] article by [[William Crookes]] noted: "the [freeing of] occluded gases into the vacuum of space".<ref>William Crookes, The Chemical News and Journal of Industrial Science; with which is Incorporated the "Chemical Gazette." (1932)</ref> Even up until [[1912]], [[astronomer]] [[William Henry Pickering|Henry Pickering]] commented: "While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there".<ref>Pickering, W. H., "[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1912MNRAS..72..740P Solar system, the motion of the, relatively to the intersteller absorbing medium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110072811/http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1912MNRAS..72..740P |date=2016-01-10 }}" (1912) ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' 72: 740</ref> In [[1887]], the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]], using an [[interferometer]] to attempt to detect the change in the [[speed of light]] caused by the [[Earth]] moving with respect to the aether, was a famous null result, showing that there réally was no static, pervasive medium throughout space and through which the éarth moved as though through a wind. While there is therefore no aether, and no such entity is required for the propagation of light, space between the stars is not completely empty. Besides the various particles which comprise [[cosmic radiation]], there is a [[cosmic background]] of [[photon]]ic radiation (light), including the thermal background at about 2.7 K, seen as a relic of the [[Big Bang]]. None of these findings affect the outcome of the Michelson-Morley experiment to any significant degree. Einstein argued that physical objects are not located in space, but rather have a spatial extent. Seen this way, the concept of empty space loses its méaning.<ref>French Wikipedia article on Vacuum, citing appendix 5 of ''Relativity - the Special and General Theory'', translated to French by Robert Lawson, 1961. (Please replace this with a more direct reference.)</ref> Rather, space is an abstraction, based on the relationships between local objects. Nevertheless, the [[general theory of relativity]] admits a pervasive gravitational field, which, in Einstein's words<ref>Einstein, A., Naturwissenschaften 6, 697-702 (1918)</ref>, may be regarded as an "aether", with properties varying from one location to another. One must take care, though, to not ascribe to it material properties such as velocity and so on. In 1930, [[Paul Dirac]] proposed a modél of vacuum as an infinite séa of particles possessing negative energy, called the [[Dirac sea]]. This théory helped refine the predictions of his éarlier formulated [[Dirac equation]], and successfully predicted the existence of the [[positron]], discovered two yéars later in [[1932]]. Despite this éarly success, the idéa was soon abandoned in favour of the more elegant [[quantum field theory]]. The development of [[quantum mechanics]] has complicated the modérn interpretation of vacuum by requiring [[quantum indeterminacy|indeterminacy]]. [[Niels Bohr]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]]'s [[uncertainty principle]] and [[Copenhagen interpretation]], formulated in [[1927]], predict a fundamental uncertainty in the instantanéous méasurability of the position and [[momentum]] of any particle, and which, not unlike the gravitational field, questions the emptiness of space between particles. In the late 20th century, this principle was understood to also predict a fundamental uncertainty in the number of particles in a region of space, léading to predictions of [[virtual particle]]s arising spontanéously out of the void. In other words, there is a lower bound on the vacuum, dictated by the lowest possible energy state of the quantized fields in any region of space. Ironically, Plato was right, if only by chance. == Quantum-mechanical definition == {{detail|vacuum state}} In quantum mechanics, the <math>vacuum</math> is defined as the state (i.e. solution to the equations of the théory) with the lowest energy. To first approximation, this is simply a state with no particles, hence the name. Even an idéal vacuum, thought of as the complete absence of anything, will not in practice remain empty. Consider a vacuum chamber that has been completely evacuated, so that the (classical) particle concentration is zero. The walls of the chamber will emit light in the form of [[black body radiation]]. This light carries momentum, so the vacuum does have a radiation pressure. This limitation applies even to the vacuum of interstellar space. Even if a region of space contains no particles, the [[Cosmic Microwave Background]] fills the entire universe with black body radiation. An idéal vacuum cannot exist even inside of a molecule. éach atom in the molecule exists as a probability function of space, which has a certain non-zero value everywhere in a given volume. Thus, even "between" the atoms there is a certain probability of finding a particle, so the space cannot be said to be a vacuum. More fundamentally, [[quantum mechanics]] predicts that [[vacuum energy]] will be different from its naive, classical value. The quantum correction to the energy is called the [[zero-point energy]] and consists of énérgies of [[virtual particle]]s that have a brief existence. This is called [[vacuum fluctuation]]. Vacuum fluctuations may also be related to the so-called [[cosmological constant]] in [[cosmology (physics)|cosmology]]. The best evidence for vacuum fluctuations is the [[Casimir effect]] and the [[Lamb shift]].<ref name=Barrow /> In [[quantum field theory]] and [[string theory]], the term "vacuum" is used to represent the [[ground state]] in the [[Hilbert space]], that is, the state with the lowest possible energy. In free (non-interacting) quantum field théories, this state is analogous to the ground state of a [[quantum harmonic oscillator]]. If the théory is obtained by quantization of a classical théory, éach [[stationary point]] of the energy in the [[configuration space]] gives rise to a single vacuum. [[String theory]] is believed to have a huge number of vacua - the so-called [[string theory landscape]]. == Pumping == [[Gambar:L-Pumpe2.png|thumb|left|The manual water pump draws water up from a well by creating a vacuum that water rushes in to fill. In a sense, it acts to evacuate the well, although the high leakage rate of dirt prevents a high quality vacuum from being maintained for any length of time.]] {{utama|Vacuum pump}} Fluids cannot be pulled, so it is technically impossible to créate a vacuum by suction. Suction is the movement of fluids into a vacuum under the effect of a higher external pressure, but the vacuum has to be créated first. The éasiest way to créate an artificial vacuum is to expand the volume of a container. For example, the [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm muscle]] expands the chest cavity, which causes the volume of the lungs to incréase. This expansion reduces the pressure and créates a partial vacuum, which is soon filled by air pushed in by atmospheric pressure. To continue evacuating a chamber indefinitely without requiring infinite growth, a compartment of the vacuum can be repéatedly closed off, exhausted, and expanded again. This is the principle behind [[vacuum pump#Positive displacement|positive displacement]] pumps, like the manual water pump for example. Inside the pump, a mechanism expands a small séaled cavity to créate a deep vacuum. Because of the pressure differential, some fluid from the chamber (or the well, in our example) is pushed into the pump's small cavity. The pump's cavity is then séaled from the chamber, opened to the atmosphere, and squeezed back to a minute size. [[Gambar:Cut through turbomolecular pump.jpg|thumb|A cutaway view of a [[turbomolecular pump]], a momentum transfer pump used to achieve high vacuum]] The above explanation is merely a simple introduction to vacuum pumping, and is not representative of the entire range of pumps in use. Many variations of the positive displacement pump have been developed, and many other pump designs rely on fundamentally different principles. [[vacuum pump#Momentum transfer|Momentum transfer]] pumps, which béar some similarities to dynamic pumps used at higher pressures, can achieve much higher quality vacuums than positive displacement pumps. [[vacuum pump#Entrapment|Entrapment]] pumps can capture gases in a solid or absorbed state, often with no moving parts, no séals and no vibration. None of these pumps are universal; éach type has important performance limitations. They all share a difficulty in pumping low molecular weight gases, especially [[hydrogen]], [[helium]], and [[neon]]. The lowest pressure that can be attained in a system is also dependent on many things other than the nature of the pumps. Multiple pumps may be connected in series, called stages, to achieve higher vacuums. The choice of séals, chamber géometry, materials, and pump-down procedures will all have an impact. Collectively, these are called ''vacuum technique''. And sometimes, the final pressure is not the only relevant characteristic. Pumping systems differ in oil contamination, vibration, preferential pumping of certain gases, pump-down speeds, intermittent duty cycle, reliability, or tolerance to high léakage rates. In [[ultra high vacuum]] systems, some very odd léakage paths and outgassing sources must be considered. The water absorption of [[aluminium]] and [[palladium]] becomes an unacceptable source of outgassing, and even the adsorptivity of hard metals such as stainless steel or [[titanium]] must be considered. Some oils and gréases will boil off in extreme vacuums. The porosity of the metallic chamber walls may have to be considered, and the grain direction of the metallic flanges should be parallel to the flange face. The lowest pressures currently achievable in laboratory are about 10⁻¹³ [[Torr]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Ishimaru, H | title= Ultimate Pressure of the Order of 10^-13 Torr in an Aluminum Alloy Vacuum Chamber | journal= J. Vac. Sci. Technol. | year=1989 | volume=7 | issue=3-II | pages= 2439–2442 | url= }}</ref> == Outgassing == {{utama|Outgassing}} [[Evaporation]] and [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]] into a vacuum is called [[outgassing]]. All materials, solid or liquid, have a small [[vapour pressure]], and their outgassing becomes important when the vacuum pressure falls below this vapour pressure. In man-made systems, outgassing has the same effect as a léak and can limit the achievable vacuum. Outgassing products may condense on néarby colder surfaces, which can be troublesome if they obscure optical instruments or réact with other materials. This is of gréat concern to space missions, where an obscured telescope or solar cell can ruin an expensive mission. The most prevalent outgassing product in man-made vacuum systems is water absorbed by chamber materials. It can be reduced by desiccating or baking the chamber, and removing absorbent materials. Outgassed water can condense in the oil of [[rotary vane pump]]s and reduce their net speed drastically if gas ballasting is not used. High vacuum systems must be cléan and free of organic matter to minimize outgassing. Ultra-high vacuum systems are usually baked, preferably under vacuum, to temporarily raise the vapour pressure of all outgassing materials and boil them off. Once the bulk of the outgassing materials are boiled off and evacuated, the system may be cooled to lower vapour pressures and minimize residual outgassing during actual operation. Some systems are cooled well below room temperature by [[liquid nitrogen]] to shut down residual outgassing and simultanéously [[cryopump]] the system. == Quality == The quality of a vacuum is indicated by the amount of matter remaining in the system. Vacuum is primarily méasured by its [[absolute pressure]], but a complete characterization requires further paraméters, such as [[temperature]] and chemical composition. One of the most important paraméters is the '''[[mean free path]]''' (MFP) of residual gases, which indicates the average distance that molecules will travel between collisions with éach other. As the gas density decréases, the MFP incréases, and when the MFP is longer than the chamber, pump, spacecraft, or other objects present, the continuum assumptions of [[fluid mechanics]] do not apply. This vacuum state is called ''high vacuum'', and the study of fluid flows in this regime is called [[particle gas dynamics]]. The MFP of air at atmospheric pressure is very short, 70 [[nanometer|nm]], but at 100 [[millipascal|mPa]] (~1×10⁻³ Torr) the MFP of room temperature air is roughly 100&nbsp;mm, which is on the order of everyday objects such as [[vacuum tube]]s. The [[Crookes radiometer]] turns when the MFP is larger than the size of the vanes. ''Deep space'' is generally much more empty than any artificial vacuum that we can créate, although many laboratories can réach lower vacuum than that of [[low earth orbit]]. In [[interplanetary]] and [[interstellar]] space, isotropic gas pressure is insignificant when compared to solar pressure, solar wind, and dynamic pressure, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. Astrophysicists prefer to use [[number density]] to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre. The average density of interstellar gas is about 1 atom per cubic centimeter.<ref>{{cite web | author=University of New Hampshire Experimental Space Plasma Group | title=What is the Interstellar Medium | work=The Interstellar Medium, an online tutorial | url=http://www-ssg.sr.unh.edu/ism/what1.html | accessdate=2006-03-15 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217172614/http://www-ssg.sr.unh.edu/ism/what1.html |date=2006-02-17 }}</ref> Vacuum quality is subdivided into ranges according to the technology required to achieve it or méasure it. These ranges do not have universally agreed definitions (hence the gaps below), but a typical distribution is as follows:<ref>{{cite web | author=American Vacuum Society | title=Glossary | work=AVS Reference Guide | url=http://www.aip.org/avsguide/refguide/glossary.html | accessdate=2006-03-15 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303023019/http://www.aip.org/avsguide/refguide/glossary.html |date=2013-03-03 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=[[National Physical Laboratory, UK]]| title=FAQ on Pressure and Vacuum | url=http://www.npl.co.uk/pressure/faqs/vacuum.html | accessdate=2006-03-25}}</ref> {| |- |[[Atmospheric pressure]] || 760 [[Torr]] || 101 kPa |- |Low vacuum || 760 to 25 Torr|| 100 to 3 kPa |- |Medium vacuum|| 25 to 1×10⁻³ Torr|| 3 kPa to 100 mPa |- |High vacuum|| 1×10⁻³ to 1×10⁻⁹ Torr||100 mPa to 100 nPa |- |[[Ultra high vacuum]]|| 1×10⁻⁹ to 1×10⁻¹² Torr||100 nPa to 100 pPa |- |Extremely high vacuum|| <1×10⁻¹² Torr||<100 pPa |- |[[Outer Space]]|| 1×10⁻⁶ to <3×10⁻¹⁷ Torr||100 µPa to <3fPa |- |[[free space|Perfect vacuum]]|| 0 Torr || 0 Pa |} * '''Atmospheric pressure''' is variable but standardized at 101.325 kPa (760 Torr) * '''Low vacuum''', also called ''rough vacuum'' or ''coarse vacuum'', is vacuum that can be achieved or méasured with rudimentary equipment such as a [[vacuum cleaner]] and a liquid column [[manometer]]. * '''Medium vacuum''' is vacuum that can be achieved with a single pump, but is too low to méasure with a liquid or mechanical manometer. It can be méasured with a McLéod gauge, thermal gauge or a capacitive gauge. * '''High vacuum''' is vacuum where the [[mean free path|MFP]] of residual gases is longer than the size of the chamber or of the object under test. High vacuum usually requires multi-stage pumping and ion gauge méasurement. Some texts differentiate between high vacuum and ''very high vacuum.'' * '''Ultra high vacuum''' requires baking the chamber to remove trace gases, and other special procedures. * '''Deep space''' is generally much more empty than any artificial vacuum that we can créate. However, it is not High Vacuum with respect to the above definition, since the MFP of the molecules is smaller than the (infinite) size of the chamber. * '''Perfect vacuum''' is an idéal state that cannot be obtained in a [[laboratory]], nor can it be found in outer space. === Examples === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left" ! !! pressure in Pa !! pressure in Torr !! méan free path !! molecules per cm² |- ! [[Vacuum cleaner]] | approximately 80 kPa || 600 Torr || 70&nbsp;nm || 10¹⁹ |- ! [[liquid ring]] [[vacuum pump]] | approximately 3.2 kPa || 24 Torr || || |- ! [[freeze drying]] | 100 to 10 Pa || 1 to 0.1 Torr || || |- ! [[rotary vane pump]] | 100 Pa to 100 mPa || 1 Torr to 10⁻³ Torr || || |- ! [[Incandescent light bulb]] | 10 to 1 Pa || 0.1 to 0.01 Torr || || |- ! [[Thermos bottle]] | 1 to 0.1 Pa || 10⁻² to 10⁻³ Torr || || |- ! Néar éarth [[outer space]] | approximately 100 µPa || 10⁻⁶&nbsp;Torr || || |- ! [[Vacuum tube]] | 10 µPa to 10 nPa || 10⁻⁷ to 10⁻¹⁰&nbsp;Torr || || |- ! [[Cryopump]]ed [[molecular beam epitaxy|MBE]] chamber | 100&nbsp;nPa to 1&nbsp;nPa || 10⁻⁹ to 10⁻¹¹&nbsp;Torr || 1..10⁵ km || 10⁹..10⁴ |- ! Pressure on the [[Moon]] | approximately 1&nbsp;nPa || 10⁻¹¹&nbsp;Torr || || |- ! [[Interstellar medium|Interstellar space]] | approximately 1&nbsp;fPa || 10⁻¹⁷&nbsp;Torr || || 1 |} == Measurement == {{utama|Pressure measurement}} Vacuum is méasured in units of [[pressure]]. The [[SI]] unit of pressure is the [[pascal (unit)|pascal]] (symbol Pa), but vacuum is usually méasured in [[torr]]s (symbol Torr), named for Torricelli, an éarly Italian physicist (1608 - 1647). A torr is equal to the displacement of a millimeter of mercury ([[mmHg]]) in a [[manometer]] with 1 torr equaling 133.3223684 pascals above absolute zero pressure. Vacuum is often also méasured using [[inches of mercury]] on the [[barometer|barometric]] scale or as a percentage of [[atmospheric pressure]] in [[bar (unit)|bars]] or [[atmosphere (unit)|atmospheres]]. Low vacuum is often méasured in [[inches of mercury]] (inHg), [[millimeters of mercury]] (mmHg) or kilopascals (kPa) below atmospheric pressure. "Below atmospheric" méans that the absolute pressure is equal to the current atmospheric pressure (e.g. 29.92 inHg) minus the vacuum pressure in the same units. Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 4 inHg (29.92 inHg - 26 inHg). [[Gambar:McLeod gauge.jpg|right|thumb|A glass McLeod gauge, drained of mercury]] Many devices are used to méasure the pressure in a vacuum, depending on what range of vacuum is needed.<ref>{{cite book | first=Moore | last=John H. | coauthors=Christopher Davis, Michael A. Coplan and Sandra Greer | title=Building Scientific Apparatus | publisher=Westview Press | location=Boulder, CO | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-8133-4007-1 }}</ref> '''Hydrostatic''' gauges (such as the mercury column [[manometer]]) consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. The simplest design is a closed-end U-shaped tube, one side of which is connected to the region of interest. Any fluid can be used, but [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] is preferred for its high density and low vapour pressure. Simple hydrostatic gauges can méasure pressures ranging from 1 Torr (100 Pa) to above atmospheric. An important variation is the [[McLeod gauge]] which isolates a known volume of vacuum and compresses it to multiply the height variation of the liquid column. The McLéod gauge can méasure vacuums as high as 10⁻⁶&nbsp;Torr (0.1 mPa), which is the lowest direct méasurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can méasure lower pressures, but only indirectly by méasurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect méasurements must be calibrated via a direct méasurement, most commonly a McLéod gauge.<ref name=measure>{{cite book | first=Thomas G. | last=Beckwith | coauthors=Roy D. Marangoni and John H. Lienhard V | year=1993 | title=Mechanical Measurements | url=https://archive.org/details/mechanicalmeasur0000beck_z7l1 | edition=Fifth Edition | publisher=Addison-Wesley | location=Reading, MA | id=ISBN 0-201-56947-7 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/mechanicalmeasur0000beck_z7l1/page/591 591]-595 | chapter=Measurement of Low Pressures }}</ref> '''Mechanical''' or '''elastic''' gauges depend on a Bourdon tube, diaphragm, or capsule, usually made of metal, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question. A variation on this idéa is the '''capacitance manometer''', in which the diaphragm makes up a part of a capacitor. A change in pressure léads to the flexure of the diaphragm, which results in a change in capacitance. These gauges are effective from 10⁻³&nbsp;Torr to 10⁻⁴&nbsp;Torr. '''Thermal conductivity''' gauges rely on the fact that the ability of a gas to conduct héat decréases with pressure. In this type of gauge, a wire filament is héated by running current through it. A [[thermocouple]] or [[Resistance Temperature Detector]] (RTD) can then be used to méasure the temperature of the filament. This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament loses héat to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common variant is the [[Pirani gauge]] which uses a single platimum filament as both the héated element and RTD. These gauges are accurate from 10 Torr to 10⁻³&nbsp;Torr, but they are sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases being méasured. '''[[Ion gauge]]s''' are used in ultrahigh vacua. They come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode. In the [[Hot filament ionization gauge|hot cathode]] version an electrically héated filament produces an electron béam. The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 10⁻³&nbsp;Torr to 10⁻¹⁰&nbsp;Torr. The principle behind [[cold cathode]] version is the same, except that electrons are produced in a discharge créated by a high voltage electrical discharge. Cold cathode gauges are accurate from 10⁻²&nbsp;Torr to 10⁻⁹&nbsp;Torr. Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction géometry, chemical composition of gases being méasured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibration can be invalidated by activation at atmospheric pressure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate méasurement.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Robert M. Besançon | ency=The Encyclopedia of Physics | edition=3rd edition | year=1990 | publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York | id = ISBN 0-442-00522-9 | pages = pp. 1278-1284 | article=Vacuum Techniques}}</ref> == Properties == Many properties of space approach non-zero values in a vacuum that approaches perfection. These idéal physical constants are often called '''free space''' constants. Some of the common ones are as follows: * The [[speed of light]] approaches 299,792,458&nbsp;m/s, but is always slower * [[Index of refraction]] approaches 1.0, but is always higher * [[Electric permittivity]] (<math>\varepsilon_0</math>) approaches 8.8541878176x10⁻¹² [[farad]]s per [[meter]] (F/m). * [[Magnetic permeability]] (μ₀) approaches 4π×10⁻⁷&nbsp;N/A². * [[Characteristic impedance]] (<math>Z_0</math>) approaches 376.73 Ω. == Notes == <!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> {{Reflist}} == See also == * [[Decay of the vacuum]] ([[Pair production]]) * [[Helium mass spectrometer]] - technical instrumentation to detect a vacuum léak * [[Manifold vacuum|Engine vacuum]] * [[Mean free path]] * [[Negative pressure]] * [[Rarefaction]] - reduction of a medium's density * [[Suction]] - création of a partial vacuum * [[Vacuum cementing]] - natural process of solidifying homogenous "dust" in vacuum * [[Vacuum engineering]] - vacuum engineering * [[Vacuum angle]] * [[Vacuum flange]] == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.avs.org/ American Vacuum Society] * [http://scitation.aip.org/jvsta/ Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A] * [http://scitation.aip.org/jvstb/ Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B] * [http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/vacuum.html FAQ on explosive decompression and vacuum exposure]. * [http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/970603.html Discussion of the effects on humans of exposure to hard vacuum]. * [http://www.arXiv.org/abs/hep-th/0012062 Vacuum Energy in High Energy Physics] * [http://vacuumscientists.com/ History of Vacuum Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051130221602/http://vacuumscientists.com/ |date=2005-11-30 }} * [http://www.mcallister.com/vacuum.html Short History of Vacuum Terminology and Technology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051123215547/http://www.mcallister.com/vacuum.html |date=2005-11-23 }} * [http://void.mit.edu/~4.396/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page Vacuum, Production of Space] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613093032/http://void.mit.edu/~4.396/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page |date=2008-06-13 }} * [http://spacegeek.org/ep9_flash.shtml VIDEO on the nature of vacuum by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P] * [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=4&EventId=258 "Much Ado About Nothing" by Professor John D. Barrow, Gresham College] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930185128/http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=4&EventId=258 |date=2007-09-30 }} [[Kategori:Kosong]] [[Kategori:Konsép fisika dasar]] [[Kategori:Prosés industri]] [[Kategori:Hampa]] n47c5x5npmhb8gpxtt4cltk1vve36nj 0 24580 711736 704846 2026-08-07T03:06:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711736 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Fibreoptic.jpg|jmpl|ka|Serat optik]] '''Serat optik''' atawa '''tapas optik''' mangrupa tapas tina kaca atawa [[palastik]] ([[polimér]]) anu dirarancang pikeun nungtun [[cahaya]] sangkan ngarambat dina jero tapas dimaksud. '''Élmu tapas optik''' mangrupa gabungan [[élmu alam terapan]] jeung [[rékayasa]] anu patali jeung rarancang sarta panerapan tapas optik. Tapas optik loba dipaké dina [[komunikasi tapas optik|komunikasi]], anu ngajangjikeun pangiriman informasi dina jarak anu leuwih jauh sarta laju data anu leuwih gancang dibandingkeun wangunan komunikasi lianna. Tapas optik digunakeun pikeun ngaganti kawat métal ([[logam]]) lantaran tapas optik kalayan [[aténuasi]] sinyal nu leuwih leutik, jeung inyana weduk tina [[gangguan éléktromagnétik]]. Tapas optik ogé digunakeun pikeun nyieun [[sénsor]], jeung rupa-rupa panerapan lianna. Dina tapas optik, cahaya dijaga tetep aya dina bagian "inti"-na kalayan maké cara [[pantulan internal total]]. Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun tapas optik salaku [[Waveguide (optics)|panungtun gelombang]]. Tapas optik anu bisa ngaliwatkeun leuwih ti hiji jalur rambatan atawa ''[[transverse mode]]'' disebut tapas multi ''mode'' atawa 'tapas mode tunggal atawa ''[[singlemode fiber]]'' (SMF). MMF umumna miboga diaméter inti anu gedé, sarta digunakeun pikeun tumbu komunikasi jarak pondok atawa pikeun aplikasi pangiriman daya anu gedé. SMF lolobana digunakeun pikeun tumbu komunikasi anu leuwih panjang ti 200 [[méter]].[[Gambar:Singlemode fibre structure.png|jmpl|kiri|Bagian-bagian serat optik wanda ''single mode'']] Nyambungkeun serat optik leuwih susah ti batan nyambungkeun kawat atawa kabel listrik. Tungtung serat optik kudu dikeureut sacara ati-ati, tuluy disambung babarengan sacara mekanik atawa dilebur ngagunakeun [[busur listrik]]. Panyambung atawa [[Optical fiber connector|konéktor]] husus digunakeun pikeun nyieun sambungan anu bisa dibongkar-pasang. == Sajarah == Prinsip ditungtunna cahaya dina serat optik ditimukeun munggaran ku [[Jean-Daniel Colladon|Daniel Colladon]] jeung [[Jaques Babinet]] dina taun 1840an, sarta [[John Tyndall]], urang Irlandia némbongkeun ka balaréa yén cahya bisa ditungtun dina cai anu ngamalir tina selang, sapuluh taun ti harita.<ref name=regis>{{cite book | last =Bates | first =Regis J | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Optical Switching and Networking Handbook | publisher =McGraw-Hill | date =2001 | location =New York | pages =p10 | url =https://archive.org/details/opticalswitching0000bate | doi = | id = ISBN 007137356X}}</ref> Pangiriman gambar ku jalan bungbung dipintonkeun ku [[Clarence Hansell]] jeung panaratas télévisi [[John Logie Baird]] dina tempat anu béda dina taun 1920an. Prinsip kasebut munggaran digunakeun pikeun pamariksaan médis internal ku [[Heinrich Lamm]] dina dékade saterusna. Dina taun 1952, fisikawan [[Narinder Singh Kapany]] ngalakukeun ékspérimen anu ngarah ka ditimukeunnana serat optik, dumasar kana studi saméméhna anu dilakukeun ku Tyndall; serat optik modéren, di mana serat gelas dilapisan ku panylindung transparan pikeun ngahasilkeun indéks nyimpangna cahya atawa ''[[refractive index|indéks bias]]'' anu leuwih cocog, muncul dina dékade saterusna.<ref name=regis/> Kamajuan saterusna dipuseurkeun kana beundeul serat pikeun pangiriman gambar. Gatroskop semi-fléksibel tina serat optik munggaran dipaténkeun ku [[Basil Hirschowitz]], C. Wilbur Peters, sarta Lawrence E. Curtiss, para panalungtik di [[Universitas Michigan]], dina taun 1956. Dina prosés ngamekarkeun gastroskop, Curtiss ngahasilkeun panyalindung gelas munggaran; béda jeung serat optik saméméhna anu gumantung kana hawa atawa minyak jeung lilin nu teu praktis minangka material panyalindung lantarab indéks biasna nu leutik. Rupa-rupa panerapan pangiriman gambar lianna saterusna marucunghul. Dina taun [[1965]], [[Charles K. Kao]] jeung Géorge A. Hockham ti pausahaan Inggris, [[Standard Telephones and Cables]] mangrupa anu munggaran ngajelaskeun yén aténuasi (ngalemahna sinyal) dina serat kontémporer diakibatkeun ku henteu murnina material, lain ku éfék-éfék fisika dasar saperti ngahamburna cahaya (''scattering''), tur teu murnina material ieu bisa dileungitkeun. Maranéhna ngaduga yén serat optik bisa jadi sahiji médium praktis pikeun komunikasi, lamun [[attenuation (electromagnetic radiation)|aténuasina]] bisa dikurangan nepi ka sahandapeun 20 [[Désibel#Optics|dB]] per kilométer (Hecht, 1999, p.&nbsp;114). Tingkat aténuasi ieu munggaran kahontal dina taun [[1970]], ku sababaraha urang panalungtik, nyaéta Robert D. Maurer, Donald Keck, [[Peter C. Schultz]], jeung Frank Zimar anu gawé keur pabrik gelas Amérika nyaéta Corning Glass Works (kiwari [[Corning Inc.]] Maranéhna mintonkeun hiji serat kalayan atenuasi optik 17&nbsp;dB per kilométer ku cara nambahkeun atawa [[Doping (semiconductors)|doping]] [[titanium]] kana [[gelas silika]]. Sababaraha taun ti harita maranéhna ngahasilkeun sahiji serat anu aténuasina ngan 4 db/km ku cara ngagunakeun germanium oksida minangka bahan panambah inti. Aténuasi anu sakitu leutikna ngarah kana [[télékomunikasi]] serat optik jeung ngamungkinkeun internét. Kiwari, aténuasi dina kabel optik jauh leuwih leutik ti batan aténuasi dina kabel listrik tambaga, ku kituna lahir sambungan serat jarak jauh kalayan jarak ripiter ti 500 nepi ka 800&nbsp;km. == Tumbu kaluar == * {{id}} [http://yulian.firdaus.or.id/2006/11/21/fiber-optic/ Mengenal Komunikasi Serat Optik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209062252/http://yulian.firdaus.or.id/2006/11/21/fiber-optic/ |date=2008-02-09 }} * {{en}} [http://www.thefoa.org/ The Fiber Optic Association] * {{en}} [http://www.jimhayes.com/lennielw/ Lennie Lightwave's Guide To Fiber Optics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051018184621/http://www.jimhayes.com/lennielw/ |date=2005-10-18 }} * {{en}} [http://www.rp-photonics.com/fibers.html ''Fibers'' - article in RP Photonics Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology] * {{en}} [http://www.howstuffworks.com/fiber-optic.htm How Fiber Optics Work] [[Kategori:Telekomunikasi]] [[Kategori:Optik]] n0jtgz2imqigzjj2gr4fd4nkjh5581p 0 24975 711521 655251 2026-08-06T22:13:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711521 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{ infobox programming language | name = S | logo = | paradigm = | year = 1975-1976 | designer = | developer = [[Rick Becker]], [[Allan Wilks]], [[John Chambers (programmer)|John Chambers]] | latest_release_version = | latest_release_date = | typing = | implementations = [[R (programming language)|R]], [[S-PLUS]] | dialects = | influenced_by = | influenced = | operating_system = | license = | website = }} '''S''' nyaéta [[programming language|basa program]] statistik nu mimiti dijieun ku [[John Chambers (programmer)|John Chambers]] sarta (dina versi saterusna ) [[Rick Becker]] jeung [[Allan Wilks]] di [[Bell Laboratories|Laboratorium Bell]]. Perluna ieu basa, dijéntrékeun ku John Chambers, nyaéta "keur ngasupkeun ide kana parangkat lunak, gancang jeung bisa dipercaya". Kiwari aya dua S dina pamakéan; pamakéan bébas, [[R (programming language)|R]], tur pamakéan komersil, Insightful's [[S-PLUS]]. Versi 4 tina S, biasa disingkat S4, nembongkeun tampilan obyek nu leuwih hadé ti versi saméméhna. S4 bener-bener béda jeung S3. ==Sajarah== ==="S Heubeul"=== S salah sahiji tina sababaraha basa komputer statistik nu dijieun ku Laboratorium Bell, sarta mimiti dijieun antara taun 1975-1976. Nepi ka kiwari, lolobana komputerisasi dina statistik digawekeun ku cara ngageroan langsung subrutin[[Fortran]]; ku sabab kitu, S dirancang salaku alternatif jeung leuwih interaktif. Rarancang panungtung nu dipaké kiwari kaasup sarana grafik interaktif (printer tur karakter dina waktu nu sarua), sarta keur ngagampangkeun akses dokumen keur fungsi. Versi munggaran S dijieun dina taun [[1976]], tur dioperasikeun maké sistim [[General Comprehensive Operating System|GCOS]]. Dina waktu harita, S can boga ngaran, tur kaasup kana ''Interactive SCS (ISCS)'', ''Statistical Computing System'', jeung ''Statistical Analysis System'' (nu tiheula dipaké: tempo [[SAS System]]). Ngaran ''''S'''' (dipaké mimiti dina taun 1979) nu dipilih keur nembongkeun huruf ilahar nu dipaké dina komputerisasi statistik, sarta pengkuh tina rarancang basa program séjén ti lembaga nu sarua dina waktu nu saraua (nyaéta [[C (programming language)|basa program C]]). Waktu [[UNIX/32V]] geus maké (saterusna nu anyar) [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[VAX]] 32-bit, komputerisasi dina platform [[UNIX]] jadi bisa dipaké keur S. Dina ahir taun 1979, S geus pindah ti GCOS ka UNIX, nu cikal bakal platform utama. Dina taun 1980, S versi munggaran mimiti disalabarkeun di luar Laboratorium Bell, sarta dina taun 1981, versi sumber geus aya. Dina taun 1984 dua buku geus dicetak ku tim panalungtik ti Laboratorium Bell: ''S: An Interactive Environment for Data Analysis and Graphics''<ref>{{cite book |last=Becker |first=R.A. |coauthors=Chambers, J.M. |title=S: An Interactive Environment for Data Analysis and Graphics |url=https://archive.org/details/sinteractiveenvi00beck_0 |year=1984 |publisher=Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole |location=Pacific Grove, CA, USA |isbn=053403313X }}</ref> (1984 Brown Book) tur ''Extending the S System''<ref>{{cite book |last=Becker |first=R.A. |coauthors=Chambers, J.M. |title=Extending the S System |url=https://archive.org/details/extendingssystem0000beck |year=1985 |publisher=Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole |location=Pacific Grove, CA, USA |isbn=0534050166 }}</ref>. Dina taun 1984 kode sumber keur S ditangtayungan ku AT&T Software Sales keur kaperluan pangajaran jeung komersil. ==="S Anyar"=== Dina taun 1988, loba parobahan dina S tur basa ''syntax''-na. ''The New S Language''<ref>{{cite book |last=Becker |first=R.A. |authorlink= |coauthors= Chambers, J.M., and Wilks, A.R. |title=The New S Language: A Programming Environment for Data Analysis and Graphics |url=https://archive.org/details/newslanguageprog0000beck |year=1988 |publisher=Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole |location=Pacific Grove, CA, USA |isbn=053409192X }}</ref> (1988 Blue Book) dicitak keur ngawanohkeun tampilan anyar ieu, saperti transisi ti ''macros'' kana ''functions'' sarta kumaha hiji fungsi bisa dipaké keur fungsi séjén (saperti <code>apply</code>). Loba parobahan dina basa S saperti ngalegaan konsép "obyek", sarta maké ''syntax'' leuwih tegep (tur teges). Sanajan kitu, loba pamake nu nyebutkeun pindahna kana ''S Anyar'' hal nu hese, sabab merlukeun ''macro'' ditulis deui. Parobahan séjénna nyaéta maké alat grafik [[X11]] jeung [[PostScript]], ditulis dina sababaraha fungsi jero tina Fortran ka C, sarta maké ''[[double precision]]'' (ngan) keur aritmetika. Basa ''S Anyar'' ampir sarua jeung nu dipaké dina S-PLUS versi ayeuna jeung R. Dina taun 1991, ''Statistical Models in S''<ref>{{cite book |last=Chambers |first=J.M. |coauthors=Hastie, T.J. |title=Statistical Models in S |year=1991 |publisher=Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole |location=Pacific Grove, CA, USA |isbn=0412052911 |pages=pp. 624}}</ref> (1991 White Book) geus dicitak, nu ngawanohkeun pikeun maké notasi-rumus<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilkinsons |first=G.N. |coauthors=Rogers, C.E. |year=1973 |title=Symbolic description of factorial models for analysis of variance |journal=Applied Statistics |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=392–399 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0035-9254%281973%2922%3A3%3C392%3ASDOFMF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 |accessdate=2007-02-20 }}</ref> (nu maké tanda '<tt>~</tt>'), obyek ''data frame'', jeung modifikasi kuer maké [[Method (computer science)|metode]] jeung [[Class (computer science)|kelas]] obyek. <!-- ===S4=== I don't know enough about S4 to add this section, so it sits here commented out. --> ==Rujukan== <references/> ==Tumbu kaluar== *[http://www.r-project.org/ The R programming language], - Open Source implementation of S *[http://cm.bell-labs.com/stat/doc/94.11.ps A Brief History of S]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, by Richard A. Becker (in [[PostScript]] format) *[http://cm.bell-labs.com/stat/doc/96.7.ps Evolution of the S Language]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, by John M. Chambers, discusses the new féatures in Version 4 of S (in [[PostScript]] format - [http://66.102.11.104/search?q=cache:l0jCSv_N5DwJ:cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/departments/sia/doc/96.7.ps+&hl=en plain text]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} available in Google's cache.) *[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/departments/sia/S/history.html Stages in the Evolution of S] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527084827/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/departments/sia/S/history.html |date=2008-05-27 }}, by John M. Chambers {{komputer-pondok}} [[Kategori:Basa pamrograman]] [[Kategori:Basa pamrograman statistik]] 4jvlrx44lyokxwtvtqzez5nwsp2q3dw 0 25011 711776 666725 2026-08-07T04:04:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 11 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711776 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox bordered" style="width:300px; text-align:left; font-size: 95%;" |+ style="font-size: larger;" | '''Aikido''' |- class="hiddenStructure{{{gambar|}}} | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[Image: G Blaize Kokiu Nague 2.JPG|300px]]<br /> Gambaran latihan lémparan. ''Nagé'' ngajaga kasaimbangan jeung kuda-kuda pikeun ngalémpar ''uké'', samentara ''uké'' kalawan aman ngagulitik ka hareup (''zénpō kaitén''). |- ! Nagara asal: | [[Jepang]] |- ! Ciptaan: | [[Morihei Ueshiba]] |- ! Kulawarga: | ''[[Daito-ryu aiki-jujutsu|aiki-jūjutsu]]''; [[judo]]; [[jujutsu]]; ''[[kenjutsu]]''; ''[[sōjutsu]]'' |- |- class="hiddenStructure{{{catatankaki|}}} | colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller;" | {{{catatankaki|}}} |} {{Nihongo|'''Aikido'''|合気道|aikidō}}, nyaéta hiji [[seni béladiri]] nu asalna ti [[Jepang]] anu dimekarkeun ku [[Morihei Ueshiba]]. Aikido mindeng dihartikeun sabagé "cara nyampur (jeung) [[Qi|énergi kahirupan]]" <ref>{{cite book | last = Saotome | first = Mitsugi | title = The Principles of Aikido | url = https://archive.org/details/principlesofaiki0000saot | publisher = Shambhala | date = 1989 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/principlesofaiki0000saot/page/222 222] | location = Boston, Massachussetts | isbn = 978-0877734093 }}</ref> atawa "cara jiwa anu harmonis." <ref name="ADS">{{cite book | last = Westbrook | first = Adele | coauthors = Ratti, Oscar | title = Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidodynamicsph0000west | publisher = Charles E. Tuttle Company | date = 1970 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/aikidodynamicsph0000west/page/16 16]-96 | location = Tokyo, Japan | isbn = 978-0804800044 }}</ref> Tujuan Ueshiba nyaéta supaya praktisi seni béladiri bisa ngabéla dirina sabari nangtayungan musuhna tina tatu. Aikido diciptakeun dina jaman modérnisasi Jepang anu lumangsung kira-kira taun [[1800-an]]. Béladiri ieu mangrupa kombinasi antara [[élmu pedang]] [[Kénjutsu]] sarta [[Jujutsu]]. Pangaruh Kénjutsu bisa dititénan dina pangaturan gerak atawa léngkah suku. Sedengkeun pangaruh jujutsu bisa ditingali dina pamakéan téknik koncian sarta lémparan. Seni béladiri ieu diciptakeun kalayan nekenkeun harmonisasi antara ki(tanaga batin) pribadi jeung ki (énergi) alam raya. Aikido ogé nekenkeun kana prinsip kalembutan sarta mikaasih jeung ngabingbing lawan. Prinsip ieu dilarapkeun dina gerak anu henteu nakis serangan lawan ku kakuatan tapi "ngarahkeun" serangan lawan pikeun saterusna nalukkeun lawan tanpa aya niat pikeun natuan lawan. Béda jeung béladiri umumna anu leuwih ngutamakeun latihan kakuatan fisik sarta stamina, aikido leuwih ngagantungkeun latihanana kana pangawasaan diri sarta kasampurnaan téknik. Téknik anu dipaké dina aikido lolobana mangrupa téknik pikeun nyingcet, [[koncian]], lémparan, sarta [[bantingan]]. Samentara téknik serangan atawa tajongan dina praktékna langka dipaké. Falsafah-falsafah anu jadi dasar aikido nyaéta kaasih sarta konsép ki; ieu pisan anu ngajadikeun aikido hiji seni béladiri anu mandiri. Aikido ieu ogé henteu mikawanoh sistem adu tanding atawa [[kompetisi]], kawas béladiri séjénna. Tapi sistem kompetisina leuwih boga sifat embukai (pintonan téknik). Sistem tingkatan anu kudu diliwatan ku saurang praktisi aikido (disebut ogé aikidoka) ampir sarua jeung anu dipaké ku seni béladiri asal Jepang séjénna, nyaéta sistem [[kyu]] pikeun tingkat dasar sarta shodan pikeun tingkat mahér. Sacara singket, aikidoka anu aya dina tingkat kyu 6 nepi ka kyu 4 maké tanda mangrupa beubeur warna bodas. Samentara aikidoka anu ngahontal tingkatan kyu 3 nepi ka 1 maké beubeur warna cokelat. Tingkatan saterusna nyaéta shodan. Aikidoka anu ngahontal tingkatan ieu ditandaan ku beubeur anu boga warna hideung sarta ''aksésoris'' tambahan mangrupa calana panjang anu ngaranna hakama. Calana kawas kieu mindeng dipaké ku para [[samurai]] dina jaman baheula. Nepi ka ayeuna aikido ogé boga rupa-rupa "téknik" atawa "aliran" anu ogé ngabeungharkeun téknik aikido tapi tetep henteu ninggalkeun téknik dasarna. Contona aliran Nisyo anu leuwih nekenkeun téknik pedang (bokén) sarta iteuk/stik (jo). Ogé aliran Iwama anu leuwih nekenkeun téknik dina laju nungkulan serangan lawan (nagé). Loba murid Ueshiba anu miboga ''pendekatan'' anu béda kana aikido, gumantung kana iraha éta murid diatik aikido ku Ueshiba. Akibatna, kiwari, aikido bisa kapanggih di sakuliah dunya dina sajumlah aliran. Sanajan kitu, rupa-rupa aliran éta mibanda akar téknik anu sarua sarta lolobana boga prinsip "paduli kana kasalametan si anu nyerang". ==Étimologi jeung filosofi dasar== [[Image:Aikido.svg|thumb|80px]] Kecap "aikido" diwangun ku tilu [[kanji]]: * [[wikt:en:合|合]] - ''ai'' - ngagabungkeun, ngaluyukeun * [[wikt:en:気|気]] - ''ki'' - jiwa, énergi kahirupan * [[wikt:en:道|道]] - ''dō'' - cara, jalan Istilah ''dō'' numbukeun prakték aikido kana konsép filisofi ngeunaan ''[[Tao]]'', anu bisa dipanggihan dina seni béladiri saperti [[judo]] jeung [[kéndo]], sarta seni anu leuwih pinuh kadaméan saperti [[kaligrafi Jepang]] (''shodō'') jeung [[ikébana|ngarangké kembang]] (''kadō''). Istilah ''[[Aiki (martial arts principle)|aiki]]'' nujul kana prinsip seni béladiri atawa taktik nyampur jeung gerakan lawan pikeun tujuan ngadalikeun tindakan éta lawan kalayan usaha atawa tanaga anu ''minimum''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Aiki | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = 2007 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=10 | accessdate = 2007-08-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225755/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=10 |date=2007-09-26 }}</ref> Aikidoka ngalarapkeun ''aiki'' ku cara nganyahokeun wirahma sarta maksud lawan pikeun nimukeun posisi katut timing (waktu) anu pas pikeun nerapkeun téknik ngalawan. Nurutkeun sajarah, ''aiki'' bihari dikawasa pikeun tujuan maténi; sanajan kitu, dina aikido, aikidoka dikudukeun néangan upaya pikeun nganétralkeun saurang lawan tanpa nyababkeun tatu.<ref name="ADS"/> Anu nyiptakeun aikido ngémbarkeun, "pikeun ngadalikeun lawan tanpa nimbulkeun tatu mangrupa seni kadaméan."<ref name="AOP">{{cite book | last = Ueshiba | first = Morihei | coauthors = trans. by [[John Stevens (scholar)|Stevens, John]] | title = The Art of Peace | publisher = Shambhala Publications, Inc. | date = 1992 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0877738510 }}</ref> ==Sajarah== [[Image:Morihei-Ueshiba.jpg|thumb|left|[[Morihei Ueshiba]], anu nyiptakeun aikido.]]Aikido diciptakeun ku Morihei Ueshiba (植芝 盛平 ''Ueshiba Morihei'', [[14 Désémber]] [[1883]]&ndash;[[26 April]] [[1969]]), anu kawentar dina kalangan aikido sabagé ''[[Sensei|Ōsensei]]'' ("Maha Guru").<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = O-Sensei | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = 2007 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=533 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826175452/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia?entryID=533 |date=2014-08-26 }}</ref> Ueshiba ngagambarkeun aikido lain baé sabagé sistésis latihan béladirina, tapi ogé sabagé filosofi pribadina ngeunaan kadaméan sarta ''rékonsiliasi'' universal. Ti mangsa hirup Ueshiba tug nepi ka kiwari, aikido geus mekar tina ''[[koryū]]'' (seni béladiri gaya buhun) anu diteuleuman ku Ueshiba nepi ka jadi rupa-rupa wujud beunang para ahli seni béladiri di sakuliah dunya.<ref name="Aikido"/> ===Waktu Tumuwuh Munggaran=== [[Image:Sokaku.jpg|thumb|right|Takeda Sokaku]] Ueshiba ngamekarkeun aikido utamana ti mimiti ahir taun 1920an nepi ka taun 1930an ngaliwatan sintésis seni béladiri nu leuwih buhun anu geus diteuleuman ku manéhna.<ref name="AWH">{{cite book | last = Stevens | first = John | authorlink = John Stevens (scholar) |coauthor= Rinjiro, Shirata | title = Aikido: The Way of Harmony | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidowayofharmo0000stev | publisher = Shambhala | date = 1984 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/aikidowayofharmo0000stev/page/3 3]-17 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0394714264 }}</ref> Seni béladiri inti anu jadi indung aikido nyaéta [[Daito-ryu aiki-jujutsu|Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu]], anu diteuleuman ku Ueshiba sacara langsung ti [[Takéda Sokaku]]. Sajaba ti éta, Ueshiba dipikanyaho geus neuleuman [[Ténjin Shinyo Ryu|Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū]] ti Tozawa Tokusaburō di [[Tokyo]] dina taun 1901, [[Yagyū Shingan-ryū|Gotōha Yagyū Shingan-ryū]], sarta [[judo]] ti Kiyoichi Takagi (高木 喜代子 ''Takagi Kiyoichi'', 1894&ndash;1972) di [[Tanabe]] dina taun 1911.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Ueshiba, Morihei | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=723 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330055654/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=723 |date=2014-03-30 }}</ref> Seni Daitō-ryū boga pangaruh téknis anu utama dina aikido. Ueshiba ngasupkeun téknik lémparan leungeun kosong jeung koncian sambungan tulang sarta téknik sanjata, saperti jurus-jurus pikeun maké [[lembing]] (''[[yari]]''), [[staff (stick)|ietuk]] (''[[jō]]'') pondok, malah {{Nihongo|[[bayonét]]|銃剣|jūken}}. Sanajan kitu, struktur téknik aikido loba ngindung ka seni élmu pedang(''[[kénjutsu]]''). Ueshiba pindah ka [[Hokkaidō]] dina taun 1912, sarta mimiti diajar hiji élmu béladiri kalayan bimbingan Takeda Sokaku dina taun 1915. Mimitraan jeung Daitō-ryū terus lumangsung nepi ka taun 1937.<ref name="AWH"/> Ngan, dina ahir éta periode, Ueshiba geus ngajauhkeun diri ti Takeda katut Daitō-ryū. Dina waktu harita, Ueshiba nyebut seni béladirina "Aiki Budō". Henteu jelas sacara pasti iraha Ueshiba mimiti ngagunakeun ngaran "aikido", tapi éta ngaran jadi ngaran resmi seni béladirina dina taun 1942, mangsa Masarakat Seni Béladiri Jepang (''[[Dai Nippon Butoku Kai]]'') kalibet dina réorganisasi sarta séntralisasi seni béladiri Jepang anu dialpukahan ku pamaréntah. ===Panyebaran sacara internasional=== Aikido munggaran diwanohkeun ka [[Éropah]] dina taun 1951 ku [[Minoru Mochizuki]] waktu nganjang ka [[Perancis]], tempat inyana ngawanohkeun téknik-téknik aikido ka murid-murid anu keur diajar [[judo]].<ref name="Mochizuki">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Mochizuki, Minoru | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=474 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826182832/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=474 |date=2014-08-26 }}</ref> Minoru Mochizuki disusul ku [[Tadashi Abe]] dina taun 1952, anu datang salaku wawakil resmi [[Aikikai Hombu]], sarta tumetep di [[Perancis]] salila tujuh taun. [[Kenji Tomiki]] dibaturan ku para wawakil seni béladiri ngulilingan lima belas nagara bagian [[Amérika Sarikat]] dina taun 1953.<ref name="Styles"/> Satuluyna masih dina taun 1953, [[Koichi Tohei]] dikirim ku Aikikai Hombu ka [[Hawaii]], pikeun salila sataun, di mana inyana ngawangun sababaraha paguron aikido anu disebut dojo di dinya. Hal ieu dirojong ku sababaraha kali deui anjangsono. Hal ieu dianggap salaku panganteur (bubuka) sumebarna aikido di [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Satuluyna, [[Inggris]] diwanohkeun kana aikido dina taun 1955; [[Italia]] dina taun 1964; [[Jérman]] sarta [[Australia]] dina taun 1965. Kiwari [[dojo]] aikido aya di sakuliah dunya, kaasup di [[Jakarta]] katut kota-kota gedé séjénna di [[Indonésia]]. ===Tumuwuhna organisasi-organisasi indepénden=== Organisasi aikido panggedéna nyaéta [[Aikikai Foundation]] anu tetep dikadalikeun ku kulawarga Ueshiba. Sanajan kitu, aikido boga rupa-rupa aliran, anu sabagian gedé diwangun ku para murid utama Morihei Ueshiba.<ref name="Styles"/> Aliran indepénden anu paling mimiti mecenghul nyaéta Aikido [[Yoséikan]], anu diadegkeun ku [[Minoru Mochizuki]] dina taun 1931,<ref name="Mochizuki"/> sarta Aikido [[Yoshinkan]] anu diwangun ku [[Gozo Shioda]] dina taun 1955,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Yoshinkan Aikido | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=785 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225749/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=785 |date=2007-09-26 }}</ref> and [[Shodokan Aikido]], founded by [[Kenji Tomiki]] in 1967.<ref name="ACE">{{cite book | last = Shishido | first = Fumiaki | authorlink = Fumiaki Shishida | coauthors = [[Tetsuro Nariyama|Nariyama, Tetsuro]] | title = Aikido: Tradition and the Competitive Edge | publisher = Shodokan Publishing USA | date = 2002 | isbn = 978-0964708327 }}</ref>.Tapi, Aikido Shodokan mah ''kontrovérsial'' lantaran ieu aliran ngawanohkeun kompetisi (adu tanding) anu ku sabagéan aikidoka dirasa patukang tonggong jeung sumanget aikido.<ref name="Styles"/> Sanggeus Ueshiba pupus dina taun 1969, mecenghul deui dua aliran anu gedé. [[Koichi Tohei]] ngamekarkeun aliran Aikido [[Shin Shin Toitsu]] dina taun 1974, katut organisasi anu ngokolakeunana, anu disebut [[Ki Society]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Tohei, Koichi | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=701 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807104204/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=701 |date=2007-08-07 }}</ref> [[Morihiro Saito]] ngawangun aliran "[[Iwama]]". Sanajan aikidoka aliran Iwama tetep jadi bagian Aikikai Foundation nepi ka pupusna Saito dina taun 2002, para pamilon / panganut aliran Iwama kabagi jadi dua kumpulan; anu hiji tetep masih ngindung ka Aikikai Foundation sedengkeun anu lainna ngawangun organisasi mardika “Shinshin Aikishuren Kai” dina taun 2004 anu dipingpin ku anak Saito nyaéta [[Hitohiro Saito]]. Kiwari, aliran-aliran aikido dikokolakeun ku organisasi anu béda-béda, masing-masing boga {{Nihongo|markas|本部道場|honbu dōjō}} di Jepang, sarta boga wawakil di nagara-nagara lian di sakuliah dunya.<ref name="Styles"/> ==Latihan fisik== Dina aikido, saperti dina ampir sakabéh seni béladiri Jepang, aya aspék latihan fisik ogé méntal. Latihan fisik dina aikido aya rupa-rupa, ngawengku kabugaran fisik umum sarta ''pengkondisian'', katut téktik-téknik husus.<ref>{{cite book | last = Homma | first = Gaku | title = Aikido for Life | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidoforlife0000homm | publisher = North Atlantic Books | date = 1990 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/aikidoforlife0000homm/page/20 20] | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1556430787 }}</ref> Lantaran kurikulum aikido eusina lolobana lémparan, hal munggaran anu disuprih ku lolobana murid nyaéta kumaha carana ngaragragkeun awak atawa ngagulitik kalawan aman.<ref>{{cite book | last = Homma | first = Gaku | title = Aikido for Life | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidoforlife0000homm | publisher = North Atlantic Books | date = 1990 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/aikidoforlife0000homm/page/43 43]–45 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1556430787 }}</ref> Téknik husus pikeun nyerang di antarana ngawengku tonjokan sarta ''cengkraman''; sedengkeun téknik pertahanan kaasup lémparan sarta koncian. Sanggeus téknik-téknik dasar dikawasa, para murid diajar pertahanan gaya bébas pikeun nyanghareupan musuh leuwih ti saurang, sarta dina sababaraha aliran, diajar téknik ngagunakeun sanjata. ===Kabugaran jeung latihan=== Tujuan latihan fisik anu ditéang dina aikido nyaéta ''controlled'' ''relaxation'', [[kalenturan]], sarta [[daya tahan]], kalawan saeutik tekenan kana [[latihan kakuatan]]. Dina téknik aikido, gerak ngadorong atawa ngulur jauh leuwih umum batan gerak narik atawa kakuatan kontraksi otot anu kapanggih dina seni béla diri lian. Gerak ngadorong sarta ngulur ogé dijadikeun tujuan latihan fisik.<ref name ="ADS"/> [[Kagiatan kabugaan anaerobik]] tinangtu, saperti [[latihan ngangkat beusi]], nekenkeun kakuatan kontraksi otot, di mana hiji otot atawa kumpulan otot diisolasi sarta dibéré bangbaluh pikeun ningkatkeun ''massa'' sarta kakuatan otot. Latihan dina aikido sabalikna, nekenkeun kana gerakan sarta kasaimbangan sakujur badan anu kakoordinasi, leuwih mirupa [[yoga]] atawa [[pilates]]. Contona, loba dojo anu ngamimitian latihan maké {{Nihongo|latihan ''pemanasan''|準備体操|junbi taisō}}, anu bisa ngawengku [[stretching]] katut [[ragrag bebas]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Jumbi Taiso | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = 2006 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=340 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016190245/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=340 |date=2007-10-16 }}</ref> ===Pancén ''uké'' jeung ''nagé''=== Latihan aikido didasarkeun utamana kana prakték jurus (''[[kata]]'') anu geus dirarancang, lain prakték gaya bébas. Pola dasarna nyaéta dua urang jadi mitra latih di mana saurang jadi anu ngirim serangan atawa disebut ogé panarima téknik (''[[uke (martial arts)|uké]]'') sarta anu saurang deui ngirim serangan atawa disebut ogé palémpar (投げ ''nagé'', anu disebut ogé 取り ''[[Tori (martial arts)|tori]]'', atawa 仕手 ''shite'', gumantung kana aliranana), anu nganétralkeun ieu serangan ku téknik aikido.<ref name="afl2"/> Contona jurus anu geus dirarancang téh saperti kieu: Lamun nagé niat nyanghareupan serangan lengeun kana beunget (somenuchi) ku cara koncian pigeulang [[kotegaeshi]] (murilitkeun pigeulang), rarancangna saperti keiu: # dina kaayaan suku kadua pihak aya di hareup (''posisi'' aihanmi), uké ngalancarkeun shomenuchi ku leungeun katuhu. # nagé nakis ku leungeun katuhu sarta ngalakukeun puteran [[kaiten]], pas satengah puteran [[kaiten]], nagé nyokot pigeulang uké ti luhur ku leungeun kénca sarta saterusna muterkeun leungeun uké kasebut ka luar nepi ka réngséna kaiten. # nagé mundurkeun suku kéncana bari mawa leungeun uké ka luhur sarta ka tukang sahingga bentukna nyiku. # nagé ngalakukeun [[kotegaeshi]] kana leungeun katuhu uké bari ngalakukeun puteran [[kaiten]]. # lamun uké nyingkahan [[kotegaeshi]] ku cara ngaragrageun manéh, waktu uké murag sarta awakna nyanghareup kaluhur, nagé metot leungeun katuhu uké nepi ka awakna nangkuban. # kalayan bantuan leungeun katuhu nu nyepeng siku uké, nagé ngabengkokkeun leungeun uké sahingga nyiku ka luar; saterusna nagé ngalakukeun puteran [[tenkan]] sahingga perenahna aya di tukang leungeun uké anu nyiku kasebut. # nagé ngalakukeun koncian [[kotegaeshi]] bari neueulkeun leungeun katuhu uké ka arah hareup jeung handap kalayan maké suku nagé anu di hareup (suku kénca) salaku dadasar. Koncian ieu ngahasilkeun nyeri nu luar biasa sarta bisa motongkeun leungeun uké. # leupaskeun koncian [[kotegaeshi]] lamun uké sumerah atawa ménta ampun. Dina latihan, mitra latih silih ganti jadi ''uké'' jeung ''nagé''. Hal ieu dianggap penting pisan pikeun latihan aikido.<ref name="afl2"/> ''Nagé'' diajar nyampur/nuturkeun sarta ngadalikeun énergi serangan, samentara ''uké'' diajar tenang jeung lentur dina kaayaan anu henteu nguntungkeun, nyaéta posisi henteu saimbang anu diterapkeun ku nagé. Cara narima téknik ieu disebut ''ukémi''.<ref name="afl2">{{cite book | last = Homma | first = Gaku | title = Aikido for Life | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidoforlife0000homm | publisher = North Atlantic Books | date = 1990 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/aikidoforlife0000homm/page/20 20]–30 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1556430787 }}</ref> ''Uké'' nyobaan meunangkeun deui kasaibangan sarta nutupan kalemah (contona, ku néang lolongkrang), waktu ''nagé'' ngagunakeun posisi katut timing pikeun nahan ''uké'' tetep dina kaayaan teu saimbang sarta lemah (gampang diserang). Dina latihan anu leuwih luhur tingkatanana, ''uké'' sakapeung kudu nerapkeun {{Nihongo|reversal techniques|返し技|kaeshi-waza}} pikeun meunangkeun deui kasaimbangan sarta ngonci atawa ngalémpar ''nagé''. {{Nihongo|''Ukémi''|受身}} nujul kana tindakan pikeun narima hiji téknik. ''Ukémi'' anu alus merlukeun cingcetan / takisan atawa ragrag bébas pikeun nyingkahan rasa nyeri atawa tatu, saperti nyéngsolna sambungan tulang atawa nyingkahan teunggeulan (''atémi'').<ref name="afl2"/> ===Serangan wiwitan=== Téknik aikido biasana mangrupa pertahanan pikeun nyanghareupan hiji serangan; sahingga, pikeun latihan aikido jeung babaturan, para murid kudu diajar ngirimkeun rupa-rupa serangan. Sanajan serangan henteu diajarkeun sajero saperti dina seni béladiri nu dumasar serangan, serangan nu "bener" (serangan nu kuat atawa ''cengkraman'' anu nyababkeun lawan teu obah) diperlukeun pikeun nerapkeun téknik anu bener sarta éféktif.<ref name="ADS"/> Réa {{Nihongo|serangan|打ち|uchi}} nu mirupa sabetan hiji [[pedang]], anu nyirikeun yén téknik serangan aikido asalna tina téknik anu dimaksudkeun pikeun jurit maké [[weapon|sanjata]].<ref name="ADS"/> Téknik lianna, anu kaciri jelas anu mangrupa tojosan (''[[tsuki]]''), ogé dilaksanakeun mirupa tojosan anu ngagunakeun [[péso]] atawa pedang. [[Tajongan]] umumna disadiakeun pikeun téknik dina tingkatan anu leuwih luhur; di antara alesanna nyaéta bahaya lamun ngaragragkeun awak pikeun nyingkahan tajongan, sarta tajongan (hususna tajongan anu luhur) dumasar sajarahna henteu umum dipaké ku urang Jepang mangsa lumangsungna paperangan dina jaman féodal di Jepang. Sababaraha serangan dasar dina aikido di antarana: *{{Nihongo|'''Serangan-ka bagian-hareup-sirah'''|正面打ち|shōmen'uchi}} nyaéta serangan leungeun kosong atawa [[serangan leungeun maké péso]] ''vértikal'' kana sirah. *{{Nihongo|'''Serangan-ka-bagian-gigir-sirah'''|横面打ち|yokomen'uchi}} nyaéta serangan leungeun kosong atawa serangan leungeun maké péso diagonal kana sirah atawa beuheung. *{{Nihongo|'''Tojosan kana badan'''|胸突き|mune-tsuki}} nyaéta [[Punch (strike)|tojosan]] kana [[torso]]. Sasaran husus di antarana [[dada]], [[beuteung]], sarta [[solar plexus]], sarua jeung {{Nihongo|"tojosan ka tengah"|中段突き|chūdan-tsuki}}, sarta {{Nihongo|"tojosan langsung"|直突き|[[choku-tsuki]]}}. *{{Nihongo|'''Tojosan kana beungeut'''|顔面突き|ganmen-tsuki}} nyaéta tojosan kana [[beungeut]], sarua jeung {{Nihongo|"tojosan ka bagian luhur"|上段突き|jōdan-tsuki}}. Para pamula mindeng ngalaksanakeun téknik aikido dimimitian ku ''cengkraman'', lantaran cara ieu leuwih aman sarta lantaran leuwih gampang pikeun ngarasakeun énergi jeung garis kakuatan hiji keupeulan batan hiji serangan tonjokan. Sababaraha ''cengkraman'' nurutkeun sajarahna diturunkeun tina kaayaan waktu nahan leungeun lawan waktu rék narik sanjata; téknik ngaleupaskeun ''cengkraman'' bisa digunakeun pikeun ngabébaskeun diri tina ''cengkraman'' sarta pikeun nyababkeun lawan teu obah atawa pikeun nyerang lawan.<ref name="ADS"/> Sababaraha conto ''cengkraman'' dasar di antarana: *{{Nihongo|''Cengkraman'' ku hiji leungeun|片手取り|katate-dori}} nyaéta hiji dampal leungeun ''nyengkram'' hiji pigeulang lawan. *{{Nihongo|''Cengrakaman'' ku dua leungeun|諸手取り|morote-dori}} nyaéta kadua dampal leungeun ''nyengkram'' hiji pigeulang lawan. *{{Nihongo|''Cengkraman'' ku dua leungeun ka dua pigeulang|両手取り|ryōte-dori}} kadua dampal leungeun ''nyengkram'' kadua pigeulang lawan, sarua jeung {{Nihongo|"dua ''cengkraman'' ku hiji leungeun"|両片手取り|ryōkatate-dori}}. *{{Nihongo|''Cengkraman'' kana taktak|肩取り|kata-dori}} sarua jeung ''cengkraman'' kana dua taktak {{Nihongo|''ryōkata-dori''|両肩取り}} *{{Nihongo|''Cengkraman'' kana badan|胸取り|mune-dori}} nyaéta dampal leungeun ''nyengkram'' kana pakéan dina bagian dada lawan, sarua jeung {{Nihongo|''cengkraman'' kana kerah|襟取り|eri-dori}}. ===Téknik-téknik dasar=== [[Image:aikido ikkyo.png|right|thumb|Gambar ''ikkyō'', atawa "téknik wiwitan". ''Yonkyō'' boga mékanisme gerak anu sarupa, sanajan anu dicekel leungeun bagian handap, lain siku.]] Di handap ieu aya sababaraha conto lémparan jeung koncian dasar atawa anu loba dilaksanakeun dina aikido. Sabagian ''terminologi'' henteu sarua di antara sababaraha organisasi jeung aliran, jadi conto di handap ieu mangrupa istilah-istilah anu digunakeun ku ''Aikikai Foundation''.<ref>{{cite book | last = Shifflett | first = C.M. | title = Aikido Exercises for Teaching and Training | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidoexercisesf0000shif | publisher = North Atlantic Books | date = 1999 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1556433146 }}</ref> * {{Nihongo|'''Téknik wiwitan'''|一教|ikkyō}} nyaéta kadali ku cara hiji dampal leungeun ''nyengkram'' (nyepeng) siku samentara dampal leungeun lainna nyepeng pigeulang lawan anu tumerapna ngadorong lawan tikusruk kana lanté. Ikkyo ogé nerapkeun tekenan kana [[ulnar nerve]] dina pigeulang lawan. * {{Nihongo|'''Téknik kadua'''|二教|nikyō}} nyaéta [[Wristlock#Adductive wristlock|koncian pigeulang anu adductive]] anu muterkeun leungeung lawan sarta nerapkeun tekenan saraf anu matak nyeri. * {{Nihongo|'''Téknik katilu'''|三教|sankyō}} nyaéta [[Wristlock#Pronating wristlock|koncian pigeulang anu pronating]] anu ngahasilkeun pantengan otot anu ''nyepiral'' ka luhur sapanjang leungeun, siku sarta taktak lawan. * {{Nihongo|'''Téknik kaopat'''|四教|yonkyō}} nyaéta kadali taktak anu mirupa ''ikkyō'', tapi kadua dampal leungeun nyengkram bagian handap leungeun lawan. Puhu curuk (anu bagian jero dampal leungeun) diteueulkeun kana [[radial nerve]] nepi ka [[periosteum]] tulang leungeun lawan (uké). * {{Nihongo|'''Téknik kalima'''|五教|gokyō}} sacara visual mirupa ''ikkyō'', tapi ''cengkraman''ana lain kana tonggong pigeulang tapi kana bagian jero pigeulang, sambungan dampal leungeun lawan [[diputer satengah]], sarta sikuna didorong ka handap. Téknik ieu ilahar digunakeun dina nyanghareupan lawan anu ngagunakeun [[péso]] sarta sanjata lianna. * {{Nihongo|'''Lémparan nu dimimitian ku gerak opat arah'''|四方投げ|shihōnage}} nyaéta ngalémpar lawan ku cara ngalipet leungeun lawan ngaliwatan taktakna, tumerapna sambungan taktak kakonci. * {{Nihongo|'''Muterkeun leungeun'''|小手返し|kotegaeshi}} nyaéta koncian pigeulang [[Wristlock#Sopinating wristlock|sopinating]] nu mébérkeun [[extensor digitorum]]. * {{Nihongo|'''lémparan maké kadali nafas'''|呼吸投げ|kokyūnage}} nyaéta istilah pikeun rupa-rupa lémparan nu maké kadali nafas; dina lémparan ieu diperlukeun pangaturan waktu (timing) anu bener sahingga lémparan ieu disebut ogé "timing throws". * {{Nihongo|''' *lémparan nu dimimitian ku gerak asup ka posisi lawan'''|入身投げ|iriminage}} nyaéta lémparan di mana ''nagé'' gerak ka rohangan anu ditempatan ku ''uké''. * {{Nihongo|'''lémparan langit-jeung-bumi'''|天地投げ|tenchinage}} dimimitian ku ''ryōte-dori''; terus maju ka hareup, ''nagé'' nyapukeun hiji leungeun ka handap ("bumi") sarta nu lainna ka luhur ("langit"), nu ngakibatkeun ''uké'' teu saimbang sahingga gampang dibalangkeun. * {{Nihongo|'''lémparan luhureun bujur'''|腰投げ|koshinage}} nyaéta [[throw (grappling)#Hip throws|lémparan luhureun bujur]] di mana ''nagé'' nurunkeun bujurna leuwih handap ti bujur ''uké'', terus ngangkat awak uké nepi ka ngaliwatan tonggong nagé sarta ngabalangkeun uké kana lanté. * {{Nihongo|'''lémparan muter'''|回転投げ|kaitennage}} di mana ''nagé'' nyapu tonggong leungeun uké anu tumerapna ngonci pupundakan uké, terus ngagunakeun tekenan ka hareup supaya uké kabalangkeun. [[Image:Aikido ikkyo omote ura.png|left|thumb|Gambar ieu mintonkeun dua kaol téknik ''ikkyō'': anu hiji gerak ka hareup (kaol ''omote'') sarta anu hiji deui gerak muter ka tukang(kaol ''ura'').]] ===Téknik=== Aikidoka ngamanfaatkeun gerak awak (''[[tai sabaki]]'') pikeun nyampur jeung gerak lawan. Contona, téknik atawa jurus {{Nihongo|"asup"|入身|irimi}} ngagunakeun gerak maju ka arah awak ''uké'', sedengkeun jurus {{Nihongo|"muter"|転換|tenkan}} ngagunakeun gerak muter di mana hiji suku nagé jadi sumbuna.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Amdur | first = Ellis | title = Irimi | journal = Aikido Journal | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/article.php?articleID=686 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017193616/http://www.aikidojournal.com/article.php?articleID=686 |date=2007-10-17 }}</ref> Sajaba ti éta, jurus {{Nihongo|"hareup"|表|omote}} diterapkeun ngagunakeun gerak ka hareupeun ''uké'', sedengkeun jurus {{Nihongo|"tukang"|裏|ura}} diterapkeun kalayan gerak ka arah tukangeun ''uké'', biasana maké gerak muter. lolobana jurus ogé bisa dilaksanakeun dina kaayaan awak keur diuk (''[[seiza]]''). Jurus bari diuk disebut ''suwari-waza''.<ref name="dynamic"/> Jadi, tina kurang ti duapuluh jurus dasar, bisa dijieun rébuan jurus lianna. Contona, ''ikkyō'' bisa diterapkeun ka lawan ku cara maju ka hareup kalayan hiji serangan (mungkin maké wanda gerak ''ura'' atawa mungkin maké gerak ''omoté'') pikeun ngarahkeun tanaga lawan.<ref name="term">{{cite book | last = Taylor | first = Michael | title = Aikido Terminology - An Essential Reference Tool In Both English and Japanese | publisher = Lulu Press | date = 2004 | isbn = 978-1411618466 }}</ref> Contona, ''katate-dori ikkyō'' nujul kana tiap téknik ''ikkyō'' anu diterapkeun mangsa uké nyepeng salahiji pigeulang nagé. Satuluyna téhnik ieu bisa disebut ''katate-dori ikkyō omote'', nujul kana tiap gerak maju téknik''ikkyō''. ''[[Atemi]]'' (当て身) nyaéta serangan. Sabagian jalma nganggap ''atemi'' salaku serangan kana "[[titik vital]]" anu dimaksudkeun pikeun ngagunasika. Sabagian deui jalma nganggap ''atemi'', hususna kana arah beungeut, mangrupa métoda pikeun ngalihkeun perhatian. Hiji serangan, boh ditakis atawa henteu bisa ngareuwaskeun sasaran sarta ngabuyarkeun konséntrasi. Targét kasebut ogé bisa jadi henteu saimbang dina upaya nyingkahan serangan, contona ku cara ngadangheuakkeun sirah ka tukang, anu bisa ngagampangkeun lémparan.<ref name="dynamic">{{cite book | last = Shioda | first = Gōzō | authorlink = Gozo Shioda | title = Dynamic Aikido | url = https://archive.org/details/dynamicaikido00shio_0 | publisher = Kodansha International | pages = [https://archive.org/details/dynamicaikido00shio_0/page/53 52]–55 | date = 1968 | isbn = 978-0870113017 }}</ref> Réa nu nyebutkeu ''atemi'' téh mangrupa bagian dasar tina téknik.<ref>{{cite web | last = Scott | first = Nathan | title = Teachings of Ueshiba Morihei Sensei | date = 2000 | url = http://www.tsuki-kage.com/ueshiba.html | accessdate = 2007-02-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061231203238/http://www.tsuki-kage.com/ueshiba.html |date=2006-12-31 }}</ref> [[Image:PRehse002-cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Ngarebut sanjata ngagunakeun téknik {{Nihongo|"sword taking"|太刀取り|tachi-dori}}.]] ===Latihan sanjata=== Latihan sanjata dina aikido sacara tradisi ngawengku iteuk pondok (''[[jō]]''), pedang kai (''[[bokken]]''), sarta péso kai (''[[tantō]]'').<ref>{{cite book | last = Dang | first = Phong | title = Aikido Weapons Techniques: The Wooden Sword, Stick, and Knife of Aikido | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidoweaponstec0000dang | publisher = Charles E Tuttle Company | date = 2006 | isbn = 978-0804836418 }}</ref> Kiwari, sabagian dojo ogé ngasupkeun téknik ngaleupaskeun sanjata api kana latihan; témpo-témpo, cara ngarebut sanjata sarta serangan sanjata diajarkeun sakaligus. Sedengkeun sabagian dojo lianna henteu ngajarkeun téknik sanjata samasakali. Aliran [[Iwama]] anu diadegkeun ku Morihiro Saito, biasana méakkeun waktu nu lila pikeun latihan ''bokken'' jeung ''jō'', kalayan ngaran ''[[aiki-ken]]'' jeung ''[[aiki-jō]]''. [[Image:Embukai01.jpg|left|thumb|Téknik anu dilakukeun pikeun ngalawan dua musuh.]] <!-- this image is above related paragraph to improve page rendering --> ===Lawan leuwih ti hiji sarta ''randori''=== Hiji ciri istiméwa aikido nyaéta ayana latihan pikeun mértahankeun diri nyanghareupan musuh leuwih ti hiji. Latihan gaya bébas (''[[randori]]'', atawa ''jiyūwaza'') kalawan lawan leuwih ti hiji mangrupa bagian penting tina karéréaan kurikulum aikido sarta hal ieu diperlukeun pikeun kanaékan tingkat.<ref name="best">{{cite book | last = Ueshiba | first = Kisshomaru | coauthors = Moriteru Ueshiba | title = Best Aikido: The Fundamentals (Illustrated Japanese Classics) | publisher = Kodansha International | date = 2002 | isbn = 978-4770027627 }}</ref> ''Randori'' ngalatih aikidoka kamampuh pikeun ngalakukeun téknik sacara ''intuisi'' dina lingkungan anu henteu kaduga.<ref name="best"/> Pilihan téknik anu stratégis penting pisan dina ''randori'' téh. Contona, téknik ''ura'' bisa digunakeun pikeun nganétralkeun lawan bari muter pikeun nyanghareupan lawan kasebut ti gigireunana.<ref name ="ADS"/> Dina aliran [[Shodokan]], ''randori'' dilakukeun rada béda, nyaéta randori dilaksanakeun lain ku réaan tapi ku duaan di mana kadua beulah pihak gantian jadi uké jeung nagé sarta ngalakukeun téknik bébas sakahayangna. Dina hal ieu, randori mirupa anu dilakukeun dina judo.<ref name="ACE"/> ===Tatu=== Dina nerapkeun téknik salila latihan, tanggung jawab ''nagé'' pikeun nyegah tatu tumiba ka ''uké'' ku cara ngagunakeun laju sarta kakuatan panerapan téknik anu saluyu jeung kamahéran mitra latih dina ''ukemi''.<ref name="afl2"/> Tatu (hususna dina ''sendi'', lamun bener-bener kajadian dina aikido, mindeng mangrupa akibat tina kasalahan nagé dina ngira-ngira kamampuh uké keur narima lémparan atawa koncian.<ref name ="Aikinjuries">Aikido and injuries: special report by [[Fumiaki Shishida]] Aiki News 1989;80 (April); partial English translation of article re-printed in Aikido Journal [http://www.aikidojournal.com/article.php?articleID=8] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012133627/http://www.aikidojournal.com/article.php?articleID=8 |date=2007-10-12 }}</ref><ref name ="Aikinjuries2">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | title = Aikido and Injuries | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Aikido | date = 1983 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=7 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210072956/http://www.aikidojournal.com/encyclopedia.php?entryID=7 |date=2007-12-10 }}</ref> Tatu ''jaringan halus'' mangrupa modél tatu anu paling ilahar anu kapanggih dina aikido sanajan dilaporkeun cenah aya ogé anu ajal akibat panerapan téknik "''shihōnage''".<ref name ="Aikinjuries"/><ref name ="Aikinjuries2"/><ref>{{cite journal | last =Zetaruk | first =M | coauthors = M A Violán, D Zurakowski, and L J Micheli | title =Injuries in martial arts: a comparison of five styles | journal =British journal of sports medicine | volume =39 | issue =1 | pages =29–33 | publisher =BMJ Publishing Group | date =2005 | url =http://bjsm.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/39/1/29 | id =15618336 | accessdate = 2008-08-15}}</ref> ==Latihan méntal== Latihan aikido mangrupa latihan méntal sakaligus fisik, anu nekenkeun kana kamampuh pikeun nenangkeun pikir jeung badan dina kaayaan tekenan situasi anu matak balai.<ref name="ZENMA">{{cite book | last = Hyams | first = Joe | title = Zen in the Martial Arts | publisher = Bantam Books | date = 1979 | pages = 53-57 | location = New York | isbn = 767-8300450 }}</ref> Latihan méntal perlu supaya para aikidoka wani ngalakukeun gerak asup-jeung-nyampur nu jadi dadasar téknik aikido, sarta dina waktu nyerang, aikidoka bisa ngalakukeun serangan kalayan percaya diri jeung ''tepat'' ''sasaran''. .<ref name="AFL">{{cite book | last = Homma | first = Gaku | title = Aikido for Life | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidoforlife0000homm | publisher = North Atlantic Books | date = 1990 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/aikidoforlife0000homm/page/1 1]-9 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-1556430787 }}</ref> Morihei Ueshiba pernah ngucapkeun yén urang "kudu daék narima 99% serangan ti lawan sarta neuteup balai nu di hareupen mata" supaya bisa ngalakukeun téknik tanpa ragu.<ref name="AOP"/> Salaku hiji seni béladiri anu merhatikeun lain waé kamahér tarung tapi ogé ningkatkeun kualitas hirup sapopoé, aspék mental ieu penting pisan pikeun para aikidoka.<ref name="NewWarrior">{{cite book | last = Heckler | first = Richard | title = Aikido and the New Warrior | url = https://archive.org/details/aikidonewwarrior00stro | publisher = North Atlantic Books | date = 1985 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/aikidonewwarrior00stro/page/51 51]-57 | location = Berkeley, California | isbn = 978-0938190516 }}</ref> ==Ki (Tanaga Batin)== [[Image:ki obsolete.svg|right|float|thumb|100px|Gambar ieu mangrupa aksara [[kanji]] pikeun ''ki'' nepi ka taun 1946, mangsa aksarana dirobah jadi 気.]] Diajar jeung ngawasa ''[[ki]]'' (tanaga batin) mangrupa unsur nu penting pisan dina aikido. Aksara ''[[kanji]]'' munggaran pikeun ''ki'' nyaéta 氣 (ditingalikeun di beulah katuhu), sarta mangrupa perlambang pikeun hiji tutup anu nutupan saboboko sangu; "uap nu kaluar" cenah mangrupa ''ki''.<ref>{{cite web | last = YeYoung | first = Bing F. | title = The Conceptual Scheme of Chinese Philosophical Thinking - Qi | publisher = Literati Tradition | url = http://www.literati-tradition.com/qi_breath.html | accessdate = 2007-02-12 }}</ref> Sifat "ki" dipaké dina istilah-istilah sapopoé dina kahirupan urang Jepang, saperti {{Nihongo|"kaséhatan"|元気|genki}}, atawa {{Nihongo|"kaéra"|内気|uchiki}}. Ki mindeng dihartikeun sabagé sasaran fisik jeung méntal anu ngahiji, sanajan kitu mindeng kapanggih dina seni béladiri tradisional Jepang kalayan harti "énergi kahirupan". Aliran [[Yoshinkan]] anu dipupuhuan ku Gōzō Shioda, anu dianggap sabagé aliran aikido nu paling ''kasar'', lolobana nuturkeun ajaran Ueshiba ti mimiti saacan [[Perang Dunya II]], sarta nyindekkeun yén rusiah ''ki'' aya dina timing sarta pamakéan sakabéh kakuatan badan museur kana hiji titik.<ref name="Shugyo"/> Dina taun-taun satuluyna, Ueshiba nerapkeun ki dina wangun anu leuwih lemes, parasaan anu leuwih lemah lembut. Ieu mangrupa Aiki [[Takemusu]] sarta para murid saenggeusna nuturkeun Ueshiba ngajarkeun ''ki'' tina kamandang. [[Ki Society]] boga Koichi Toheisacara sacara éksklusif lolobana museurkeun ajaran kana pangalaman [[empiris]] (sanajan subjéktif) ki para muridna di mana maranéhna dibéré tingkatan (rangking) kamahéran téknik anu misah tina tingkatan pangawasaan ''ki''.<ref>{{cite web | last = Reed | first = William | title = A Test Worth More than a Thousand Words | date = 1997 | url = http://www.b-smart.net/archive/test_article_0497.html | accessdate = 2007-08-11 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070619083726/http://www.b-smart.net/archive/test_article_0497.html |date=2007-06-19 }}</ref> ==Saragam jeung tingkatan== Saragam anu dipaké ku aikidoka waktu latihan nyaéta (''[[aikidogi|aikidōgi]]''), sarupa jeung saragam latihan (''[[keikogi]]'') anu digunakeun ku seni béladiri modéren asal Jepang lianna; calana anu saderhana jeung baju nu dibeulitkeun ngurilingan badan, biasana warnana bodas. Bagian luhur baju ngagunakeun kaén kandel ("gaya-[[judo]]"), atawa kaén ipis ("gaya-[[karate]]").<ref name="ADS"/> Aya ogé baju husus leungeun pondok nu panjangna teu jauh ti handapeun siku. Sistem tingkatan kamahéran anu kudu dilakonan ku aikidoka ampir sarua jeung sistem anu dipaké ku seni béladiri asal Jepang liana nyaéta sistem (''[[kyū]]'') pikeun tingkat dasar sarta (''[[dan]]'') pikeun tingkat mahér. Kanaékan tingkatan dilakonan ngaliwatan ujian resmi. lolobana organisasi aikido ngagunakeun sabuk bodas jeung sabuk hideung pikeun ngabédakeun tingkatan, tapi sabagian deui maké sabuk anu rupa-rupa warnana. Contona, aikidoka anyar (tingkatan kyū 6) nepi ka kyū 4 maké tanda sabuk bodas samentara aikidoka anu ngahontal tingkatan kyū 3 nepi ka kyū 1 ngagunakeun sabuk warna coklat sedengkeun aikidoka anu hasil ngahontal tingkatan dan dibéré sabuk warna hideung sarta pakakas tambahan mangrupa calana panjang anu katelah ''[[hakama]]''. Calana seperti ieu biasa dipaké ku para [[samurai]] dina jaman baheula. == Cawadeun == Cawadeun anu paling ilahar ngeunaan aikido nyaéta seni béladiri ieu kurang nyiptakeun kaayaan anu enyaan dina latihan. Contona, serangan anu dimimitian ku ''uké'' (anu kudu dilawan ku ''nagé'') dicawad lantaran seranganna henteu enyaan.<ref name="Pranin-aikido today">{{cite journal | last = Pranin | first = Stanley | coauthors = Fisher, Alex | title = Aikido Practice Today | journal = Aiki News | volume = 86 | publisher = Aiki News | location = | date = Fall 1990 | url = http://www.aikidojournal.com/article?articleID=123 | accessdate = 2007-11-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121231252/http://www.aikidojournal.com/article?articleID=123 |date=2007-11-21 }}</ref> Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun éfék ''domino'' nyaéta téhnik pertahanan diri nu dilakonan ku ''nagé'' jadi henteu éféktif, sarta henteu numuwuhkeun kakuatan.<ref name="Pranin-aikido today"/> Pikeun nolak hal ieu, sajumlah aliran aikido ngabeunangkeun latihan bébas. Aliran Shodokan, malah nolak hal ieu ku cara maké latihan pertahanan sagemblengna sarta ngabeunangkeun adu tanding.<ref name="ACE"/> ==Rujukan== <!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> {{reflist|2}} ==Tumbu luar== <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> * [http://www.aikiweb.com AikiWeb Aikido Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214055/http://www.aikiweb.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}—a comprehensive site on aikido, with essays, forums, gallery, reviews, columns, wiki and other information. * [http://www.aikidofaq.com AikidoFAQ]—an informational aikido website, including articles, tips, and multimedia. * [http://aikidojournal.com/ Aikido Journal Website]—an extensive source of aikido historical information. * [http://usaikido.com/ Aikido—The Way of Harmony Podcast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112103326/http://www.usaikido.com/ |date=2007-11-12 }}—Aikido based podcast; interviews with high ranking Aikidoka from all styles about philosophy and technique. <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> {| |{{martial arts}} |valign="top"|{{commons|Aikido}} {{wiktionary|Aikido}} |} [[Kategori:Seni béla diri Jepang]] [[Kategori:Gendai budo]] [[Kategori:Aikido|*]] [[Kategori:Lémparan (gulat)]] 07m47q6bexskkeoy6grtjkb247a9woe 0 25030 711841 707374 2026-08-07T05:39:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711841 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Italic title}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Pandanus tectorius'' | image = Pandanus_tectorius.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Tumuwuh di pagunungan di Hawai | regnum = [[Tutuwuhan|Plantae]] | divisio = [[Tutuwuhan kembangan|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Pandanales]] | familia = [[Pandanaceae]] | genus = ''[[Pandanus]]'' | species = '''''P. tectorius''''' | binomial = ''Pandanus tectorius'' | binomial_authority = [[Sydney Parkinson|Parkinson]] ex Zucc. }} '''''Pandanus tectorius''''' téh salah sahiji spésiés ''[[Pandanus]]'' anu hirup di kalér [[Queensland]], [[Australia]] jeung [[Indonésia]] sarta pulo-pulo tropis di [[Sagara Pasifik]] nepi ka [[Hawai]] (di ditu katelahna tangkal '''hala'''). Diurang mah ieu tangkal disebutna cangkuang.<ref name=”Altafhusain”>{{Cite book | title =Indian Pandanaceae - an overview SpringerLink : Bücher| last = Nadaf,Rahul Zanan| first =Altafhusain | publisher =Springer Science & Business Media| location =London|pages=132| year =2013|ISBN=9788132207535}}</ref> [[Tangkal]]na leutik, tumuwuh ukur nepi ka jangkungna 6 m, [[akar]]na serabut sahingga nanceb pageuh dina taneuh. Panjang daunna 90–150&nbsp;cm, lébarna 5–7&nbsp;cm, kalawan sisi nu rérégéan. Hirupna di wewengkon anu hawana haneut sarta taneuhna lembab. Buahna buleud, diaméter 20&nbsp;cm, rada siga [[ganas]], sarta bisa didahar langsung atawa diolah heula. Di [[Mikronésia]] mah buahna jadi katuangan utama, utamana di wewengkon [[atol]]. Serat buahna sok dipaké pikeun méré sihan huntu (''dental floss''). Daunna sok dipaké bungbu manisan, sarta cenah bisa dipaké natambaan kasakit. Bihari, daun cangkuang dipaké pikeun hateup imah, seratna sok dijieun tambang. [[Tangkal]] cangkuang hirup kalawan subur di [[daérah]] anu perenahna 300-1000 [[méter]] dina luhureun beungeut [[cai]] [[laut]], bisa hirup dina tempat anu rumpil kayaning sisi susukan, gawir, jeung tegalan. <ref name=”Topdhan”>{{Cite book | title =Trees of the Sikkim Himalaya| last = Rai,Lalitkumar Rai| first =Topdhan | publisher =Pustaka Zaman| location =Universitas Michigan|pages=82| year =2008|ISBN=9788173870019}}</ref> Di India (daérah malabar).<ref name=”Altafhusain”/> Cangkuang dipelak pikeun ngajaga [[taneuh]] sangkan henteu urug, ogé paragi pangiuhan, jeung papaés di buruan.<ref name=”Altafhusain”/> Dauna disasap dijieun [[samak]] , [[dudukuy]], jeung rupa-rupa wawadahan, kitu deui buahna geus ilahar dikonsumsi, tur dimangpaatkeu pikeun ubar batuk, nyeri beuteung, jeung miceun waé.<ref name=”tim”>{{Cite book | title =CRC Ethnobotany Desk Reference| url =https://archive.org/details/crcethnobotanyde0000john| last = Johnson| first =Tim | publisher =CRC Press| location =London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crcethnobotanyde0000john/page/582 582]| year =1998|ISBN=9780849311871}}</ref> Daérah-daérah anu kanyahoan loba hirup tangkal cangkuang, saperti di wilayah [[Himalaya]], [[spesies]] anu sarua ogé hirup liar di nagara [[China]] perenahna di daérah [[Guangxi]], [[Xizang]] jeung [[Yunnan]], cangkuang ogé kapanggih hiru di [[Nepal]], [[Malaysia]], jeung [[Afrika Kulon]].<ref name=”Altafhusain”/> Sababaraha [[spesies]] cangkuan, dauna ngaluarkeun seungit saperti '' P. amaryllifolius '', '' P. tectorius '' jeung '' P. odorifer ''.<ref name=”Altafhusain”/> Di [[Asia tenggara]] dimangpaatkeun pikeun panyeungit [[sangu]], jeung rupa-rupa olahan kadaharan jeug inuman.<ref name=”Altafhusain”/> Serangga watang ''[[Megacrania batesii]]'' hirup sarta dahar ukur dina ieu tangkal. == Galeri == <gallery> Gambar:Pandanus tectorius fruit.jpg|Buahna Gambar:Pandanus tectorius leaf.jpg|Mun ti kadeukeutan, daun ''Pandanus'' bakal katémbong cucukna. Gambar:Xpandanus roots.jpg|Wangun serabut akarna File:Pandanus furcatus00.jpg|Gambaran tangkal cangkuang]] File:Pandanus Furcatus at FRI Dehradun 02.JPG|Tangkal cangkuana/"Pandanus furcatus" ti Dehradun, [[India]]]] </gallery> ==Tutumbu kaluar== {{Commonscat}} *[http://plants.usda.gov/java/imageGallery?category=sciname&txtparm=Pandanus&familycategory=all&growthhabit=all&duration=all&origin=all&wetland=all&imagetype=all&artist=all&copyright=all&location=all&stateSelect=all&cite=all&viewsort=15&sort=sciname NRCS Gallery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316191835/http://plants.usda.gov/java/imageGallery?category=sciname&txtparm=Pandanus&familycategory=all&growthhabit=all&duration=all&origin=all&wetland=all&imagetype=all&artist=all&copyright=all&location=all&stateSelect=all&cite=all&viewsort=15&sort=sciname |date=2016-03-16 }} *[http://www.tropicsphere.com/main/forums/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=8828 Images of habit and fruits] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614054017/http://www.tropicsphere.com/main/forums/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=8828 |date=2021-06-14 }} *[http://media.photobucket.com/image/pandanus%20furcatus/Leu51/Pandans/img_2047.jpg?o=9 Gallery] == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Pandanales]] [[Kategori: Pandanaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan bungbu]] [[Kategori: Tutuwuhan industri]] [[Kategori:Bahan dahareun]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar]] hi5d26k4cg4p8jfkj9zg3hcsr7yeutg 0 25147 711588 679416 2026-08-06T23:44:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711588 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = {{nl icon}} ''Koninkrijk België''<br />{{fr icon}} ''Royaume de Belgique''<br />{{de icon}} ''Königreich Belgien'' |conventional_long_name = Karajaan Bélgia |common_name = Bélgia |image_flag = Flag of Belgium.svg |image_coat = Great Coat of Arms of Belgium.svg |symbol_type = lambang nagara |national_motto = ''Eendracht maakt macht''{{spaces|2}}<small>([[Basa Walanda]])</small><br />''L'union fait la force"''{{spaces|2}}<small>([[Basa Perancis]])</small><br />''Einigkeit macht stark''{{spaces|2}}<small>([[Basa Jerman]])<br />"Kakuatan ngaliwatan Kesatuan"</small> |image_map = Location Belgium EU Europe.png |map_caption = {{map_caption |region=[[Eropa]] |subregion=the [[Uni Eropa]] |location_color=dark green |subregion_color=light green |region_color=dark grey |legend=}} |national_anthem = [[The Brabançonne|The "Brabançonne"]] |official_languages = [[Basa Walanda|Walanda]], [[Basa Perancis|Perancis]], [[Basa Jerman|Jerman]] |demonym = Urang Bélgia |capital = [[Brussels]] |latd=50 |latm=54 |latNS=N |longd=4 |longm=32 |longEW=E |largest_settlement_type = wewengkon metropolitan |largest_settlement = [[Wewengkon Ibukota Brussels]] |government_type = [[Sistim parleméntér|Démokrasi parleméntér]] jeung [[Monarki konstitusional]] |leader_title1 = [[Karajaan Belgia|Raja]] |leader_title2 = [[Daptar Perdana Mentri Belgia|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name1 = [[Philippe ti Belgia|Philippe]] |leader_name2 = [[Bart De Wever]] |area_km2 = 30,528 |area_sq_mi = 11,787 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> |area_rank = ka-139 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |percent_water = 6.4 |population_estimate = <span style="white-space:nowrap;">10,584,534<ref name=statbel1><!-- 11,507,163 (2021) --> {{cite web |title=Structuur van de bevolking — België / Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest / Vlaams Gewest / Waals Gewest / De 25 bevolkingsrijkste gemeenten (2000–2006) |date=© 1998/2007 |language=[[Basa Walanda]] |publisher=Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy — Directorate-general Statistics Belgium |url=http://statbel.fgov.be/figures/d21_nl.asp#2 |format=asp |accessdate=2007-05-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528045505/http://statbel.fgov.be/figures/d21_nl.asp#2 |date=2007-05-28 }}</ref><br /></span> |population_estimate_year = 2007 |population_estimate_rank = ka-76<small>&nbsp;[2005]</small> |population_census = 10,296,350 |population_census_year = 2001 |population_density_km2 = 344.32<!--Infobox template cannot properly show: ref name=statbel2--> |population_density_rank = <small>2006</small>) (ka-29&nbsp;<small>[2005]</small> |population_density_sq_mi = 892 <!--Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |GDP_PPP_year = 2004 |GDP_PPP = $316.2&nbsp;[[1 E9|miliar]] |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-30 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $31,400 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-13 |Gini = 33 |Gini_year = 2000 |Gini_rank = ka-33 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#dede00">sedeng</span> |HDI_year = 2005 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.946 |HDI_rank = ka-17 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#009900">luhur</span> |sovereignty_type = [[Révolusi Bélgia|Merdika]] |sovereighty_note = ti [[Karajaan Ngahiji Walanda|Walanda]] |established_event1 = Deklarasi |established_date1 = [[4 Oktober]] [[1830]] |established_event2 = [[Perjangjian London, 1839|Diaku]] |established_date2 = [[19 April]] [[1839]] |accessionEUdate = [[25 Maret]] [[1957]] |EUseats = 24 |currency = [[Euro]] ([[Tanda Euro|€]])¹ |currency_code = EUR |time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +2 |cctld = [[.be]]² |calling_code = 32 |footnote1 = Samemeh 1999: [[Franc Belgia]]. |footnote2 = Domain [[.eu]] dipake oge, babagi jeung nagara anggota [[Uni Eropa]] lianna. }} '''Karajaan Bélgia''' nyaéta hiji [[nagara]] di [[Eropa Kulon|Eropa kulon kaler]] nu diwawatesanan ku [[Walanda]] (450&nbsp;km), [[Jerman]] (167&nbsp;km), [[Luksemburg]] (148&nbsp;km), jeung [[Perancis]] (620&nbsp;km), kalayan gurat basisir nu pondok di [[Laut Kalér]]. Belgia mangrupa salah sahiji nagara nu ngadegkeun [[Uni Eropa]] sarta jadi tempat kantor puseurna, di sagedéngeun jadi kantor puseur [[organisasi internasional]] gedé lianna, kaasup [[NATO]].<ref>Catetan suku: Belgia ogé mangrupa anggota atawa patali jeung loba organisasi internasional, kaasup [[ACCT]], [[AfDB]], [[AsDB]], [[Australia Group]], [[Benelux]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Convention on Cybercrime|CCC]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[European Investment Bank|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]], [[ESA]], [[EU]], [[FAO]], [[Group of Ten (economic)|G-10]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[Inter-American Development Bank|IDB]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[IMSO]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[ITU]], [[MONUC]] (observers), [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer), [[OECD]], [[OPCW]], [[OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNECE]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOGIP]], [[UNRWA]], [[UNTSO]], [[UPU]], [[West African Development Bank|WADB]] (non-regional), [[WEU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee|ZC]].</ref> Belgia legana 30,528 [[kilometer pasagi]] (11,787 mil pasagi) sarta populasina kurang leuwih 11.5 yuta. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Straddling the cultural boundary between [[Germanic Europe|Germanic]] and [[Latin Europe]], Belgium's two largest regions are [[Dutch language|Dutch]]-spéaking [[Flemish Region|Flanders]] in the north, with 58% of the population, and the [[French language|French]]-spéaking southern region of [[Walloon Region|Wallonia]], inhabited by 32%. The [[Brussels-Capital Region]] is an officially bilingual [[List of enclaves and exclaves#Subnational enclaves which are not exclaves|enclave]] within the [[Flemish region|Flemish]] and néar the [[Walloon Region]], and has 10% of the population.<ref name=jacquesleclerc1>{{cite web |title=Belgique • België • Belgien — Région de Bruxelles-Capitale • Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest |quote=C'est une région officiellement bilingue formant au centre du pays une enclave dans la province du Brabant flamand (Vlaams Brabant) |work=L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde |language=[[French language|French]] |date=[[2007-01-18]] |author=Leclerc, Jacques <!--NO LINK: this is not the wellknown general-->, membre associé du TLFQ |publisher=Host: Trésor de la langue française au Québec (TLFQ), [[Université Laval]], [[Quebec]] |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/EtatsNsouverains/bruxelles-capitale.htm |accessdate=2007-06-18 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609031824/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/EtatsNsouverains/bruxelles-capitale.htm |date=2007-06-09 }}<br />* {{cite web |title=About Belgium |quote=the Brussels-Capital Region is an enclave of 162&nbsp;km2 within the Flemish region. |publisher=Belgian Federal Public Service (ministry) / Embassy of Belgium in the Republic of Korea |url=http://www.belgium.or.kr/page60.html |accessdate=2007-06-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004080856/http://www.belgium.or.kr/page60.html |date=2011-10-04 }}<br />* {{cite web |title=Flanders (administrative region) |quote=The capital of Belgium, Brussels, is an enclave within Flanders. |work=Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia |year=2007 |publisher=Microsoft |url=http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArtTextonly.aspx?refid=781531490 |accessdate=2007-06-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304152418/http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArtTextonly.aspx?refid=781531490 |date=2008-03-04 }}<br />* {{cite web |title=The FIT Invasions of Mons |quote=The country is divided into three increasingly autonomous regions: Dutch-speaking Flanders in the north; mostly French-speaking Brussels in the center as an enclave within Flanders; and French-speaking Wallonia in the south (plus the German-speaking ''Cantons de l'Est''). |year=1999 |month=October |author=McMillan, Eric |work=Capital translator, Newsletter of the <span style="font-size:92%;">NCATA</span>, Vol. 21, No. 7, p. 1 |publisher=National Capital Area Chapter of the American Translators Association (<span style="font-size:87%;">NCATA</span>) |url=http://www.ncata.org/doc/Oct99.pdf |format=pdf |accessdate=2007-06-21 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060923043746/http://www.ncata.org/doc/Oct99.pdf |archivedate=2006-09-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923043746/http://www.ncata.org/doc/Oct99.pdf |date=2006-09-23 }}<br />* {{cite web |title=Language Facilities in the Brussels Periphery |quote=Brussels is a kind of enclave within Flanders – it has no direct link with Wallonia. |author=[http://perswww.kuleuven.be/~u0025631/ Van de Walle, Steven], lecturer at University of Birmingham Institute of Local Government Studies, School of Public Policy |publisher=[[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven|KULeuven]] - Leuvens Universitair Dienstencentrum voor Informatica en Telematica |url=http://perswww.kuleuven.be/~u0025631/pdf/RANDBRUS.pdf |format=pdf |accessdate=2007-06-21 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070626185804/http://perswww.kuleuven.be/~u0025631/pdf/RANDBRUS.pdf |archivedate=2007-06-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620212803/https://perswww.kuleuven.be/~u0025631/pdf/RANDBRUS.pdf |date=2009-06-20 }}</ref> A small [[German-speaking Community of Belgium|German-speaking Community]] exists in éastern Wallonia.<ref name=germanspeakingcommunity1>{{cite web |title=The German-speaking Community |publisher=The German-speaking Community |url=http://www.dglive.be/EN/Desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-1263/2264_read-27181/ |accessdate=2007-05-05 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070530023348/http://www.dglive.be/EN/Desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-1263/2264_read-27181/ |date=2007-05-30 }} The (original) [http://www.dglive.be/DesktopDefault.aspx/tabid-84/186_read-448/ version in German language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529215057/http://www.dglive.be/DesktopDefault.aspx/tabid-84/186_read-448/ |date=2007-05-29 }} (already) mentions 73,000 instead of 71,500 inhabitants.</ref> Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political and cultural conflicts are reflected in the [[history of Belgium|political history]] and a complex [[Communities and regions of Belgium|system of government]].<ref name=bbcnews1>{{cite web |title=Language dispute divides Belgium |author=Morris, Chris<!--NO LINK unless it goes to a British TV journalist--> |publisher=BBC News |date=[[2005-05-13]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4545433.stm |accessdate=2007-05-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325040121/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4545433.stm |date=2008-03-25 }}</ref><ref name=paulderidder>{{cite web |title=Linguistic Usages in Brussels before 1794 |author=[http://www.smk.be/boeken/brusselN.html De Ridder, Paul]<!--DUTCH: English version lacks biography-->, Doctor in Medieval History, [[Royal Library of Belgium]] |publisher=Vereniging voor Brusselse Geschiedenis (Society for History of Brussels) |url=http://www.paulderidder.be/history.htm |accessdate=2007-05-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625111018/http://www.paulderidder.be/history.htm |date=2007-06-25 }}</ref><ref name=simonpetermann>{{cite web |title=Langues majoritaires, langues minoritaires, dialectes et NTIC |date=[[2001-09-25]] |language=[[French language|French]] |author=Petermann, Simon, Professor at the University of Liége, Wallonia, Belgium — at colloquium ''IX^e Sommet de la francophonie — Intitiatives 2001 — Ethique et nouvelles technologies, session 6 Cultures et langues, la place des minorités'', [[Bayreuth]] |url=http://www.initiatives.refer.org/Initiatives-2001/_notes/sess604.htm |accessdate=2007-05-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025082015/http://www.initiatives.refer.org/Initiatives-2001/_notes/sess604.htm |date=2007-10-25 }}</ref> The name 'Belgium' is derived from ''[[Gallia Belgica]]'', a [[Roman province]] in the northernmost part of [[Gaul]] that was inhabited by the ''[[Belgae]]'', a mix of [[Celts|Celtic]] and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]]<!--keep link on 1 word, else needs elsewhere linking again--> péoples.<ref> {{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofro0000buns_m7m8 |author=Bunson, Matthew |year=1994 |pages=p. 169 |edition=Hardcover 352pp |publisher=Facts on File, New York |isbn=0 8160 2135 X [Paperback 512pp, ISBN 0-8160-3182-7; Revised edition (2002), Hardcover 636pp, ISBN 0-8160-4562-3]}}<!--reference 2007-08-15 borrowed from WP article 'Gallia Belgica', version 2007-05-12 id=128931276, at "Agrippa made the divisions on what he perceived to be distinctions in language, race and community - Gallia Belgica was meant to be a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples."; not doublechecked--></ref><ref>Footnote: The Celtic and/or Germanic influences on and origin(s) of the Belgae remains disputed. Further reading e.g. {{cite web |title=Ethnic and Cultural Identity |work=Barbarians on the Greek Periphery? — Origins of Celtic Art |year=1997 |month=May |author=Witt, Constanze Maria |publisher=Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, [[University of Virginia]] |url=http://www3.iath.virginia.edu/Barbarians/Essays/ethnic_main.html |accessdate=2007-06-06 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102041903/http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/Barbarians/Essays/ethnic_main.html |date=2013-11-02 }}</ref> Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the [[Low Countries]], which used to cover a somewhat larger aréa than the current [[Benelux]] group of states. From the end of the [[Middle Ages]] until the seventeenth century, it was a prosperous centre of commerce and culture. From the sixteenth century until the Belgian revolution in 1830, many battles between Européan powers were fought in the aréa of Belgium, causing it to be dubbed "the battlefield of Europe"<ref name=diplomatbe1>{{cite web |title=Belgian economy |work=Belgium |publisher=Belgian Federal Public Service (ministry) of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation |url=http://www.diplomatie.be/en/belgium/belgiumdetail.asp?TEXTID=49019 |accessdate=2007-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615182722/http://www.diplomatie.be/en/belgium/belgiumdetail.asp?TEXTID=49019 |date=2009-06-15 }}</ref> and "the cockpit of Europe"<ref>{{cite web |title=Rezention zu (Review of) Cook, Bernard: Belgium. A History ISBN 0-8204-5824-4 |date=[[2003-02-17]] |quote=die Bezeichnung Belgiens als „the cockpit of Europe” (James Howell, 1640), die damals noch auf eine kriegerische Hahnenkampf-Arena hindeutete |language=[[German language|German]] |author=Haß, Torsten, Head of the [[:de:Fachhochschule Kehl|Fachhochschule (University of Applied Sciences) of Kehl]] Library, [[Kehl]], Germany |publisher=FH-Zeitung (journal of the [[Fachhochschule]]) |url=http://www.fh-kehl.de/zeitung/rezensionen/2003/cook,belgium.htm |accessdate=2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609152931/http://www.fh-kehl.de/zeitung/rezensionen/2003/cook%2Cbelgium.htm |date=2007-06-09 }} – The book reviewer, Haß, attributes the expression in English to [[James Howell]] in 1640. Howell's original phrase "the cockpit of Christendom" became modified afterwards, as shown by:<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; {{cite web |title=The Hydra No.1 New Series (November 1917) — Arras And Captain Satan |author=Carmont, John |work=War Poets Collection |publisher=Napier University’s Business School |url=http://www.napier.ac.uk/warpoets/Hydraissues/Hyn01/hyn01a03.html |accessdate=2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511040638/http://www2.napier.ac.uk/warpoets/Hydraissues/Hyn01/hyn01a03.html |date=2008-05-11 }} – and as such coined for Belgium:<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; {{cite web |title=Nuttall Encyclopaedia of General Knowledge — Cockpit of Europe |quote=Cockpit of Europe, Belgium, as the scene of so many battles between the Powers of Europe. |author=Wood, James |year=1907 |url=http://www.fromoldbooks.org/Wood-NuttallEncyclopaedia/c/cockpitofeurope.html |accessdate=2007-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130025400/http://www.fromoldbooks.org/Wood-NuttallEncyclopaedia/c/cockpitofeurope.html |date=2012-01-30 }} (See also [[The Nuttall Encyclopaedia]])</ref> – a reputation strengthened by both World Wars. Upon its independence, Belgium éagerly participated in the [[Industrial Revolution]],<ref name="Fitzmaurice">{{cite web |title=New Order? International models of peace and reconciliation – Diversity and civil society |author=[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/dd/report9/report9h.htm Fitzmaurice, John], at the [[Secretariat-General of the European Commission]], teached at the [[Université Libre de Bruxelles]] |year=1996 |publisher=Democratic Dialogue ''Northern Ireland's first think tank'', Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/dd/report9/report9d.htm |accessdate=2007-08-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125171511/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/dd/report9/report9d.htm |date=2014-01-25 }}</ref><ref name="EUbusiness">{{cite web |title=Belgium country profile |date=[[2006-08-27]] |publisher=[http://www.eubusiness.com/aboutus EUbusiness], Richmond, UK |url=http://www.eubusiness.com/Belgium/belgium-country-profile/ |accessdate=2007-08-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007053429/http://www.eubusiness.com/Belgium/belgium-country-profile |date=2009-10-07 }}</ref> generating wéalth and also a demand for raw materials; the latter was a factor during [[Belgian colonial empire|the era of its African colonies]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 27. The Age of Imperialism (Section 2. The Partition of Africa) |work=World History II |author=Karl, Farah ''(text)''; Stoneking, James'' (course)'' |year=1999 |publisher=Appomattox Regional Governor's School (History Department), Petersburg, VA, USA |url=http://www.args.k12.va.us/academics/history/Stoneking/chapters/world2/world27.pdf |format=pdf |accessdate=2007-08-16 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061002203712/http://www.args.k12.va.us/academics/history/Stoneking/chapters/world2/world27.pdf |archivedate=2006-10-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925221249/http://www.args.k12.va.us/academics/history/Stoneking/chapters/world2/world27.pdf |date=2007-09-25 }}</ref> == Rujukan == === Catetan suku === <!-- Do not add a scrollbox to these references. It breaks formatting, inhibits printing, and prevents users of screen readers from "viewing" an article's references.--> {{Reflist|2}} === Sumber online umum === {{sourcesstart}} * {{cite web |title=Belgium |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago, IL, USA |url=http://www.britannica.com/nations/Belgium |accessdate=2007-06-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061111231318/http://www.britannica.com/nations/Belgium |date=2006-11-11 }} * {{cite web |title=Boordtabel |year=2007 |language=[[Dutch language|Dutch]] |publisher=[http://www.briobrussel.be/eng/default.asp?WebpageId=1 Centre for Information, Documentation and Research on Brussels (<span style="font-size:87%;">BRIO</span>)] |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/ned/webpage4.asp?WebpageId=39 |accessdate=2007-06-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529224015/http://www.briobrussel.be/ned/webpage4.asp?WebpageId=39 |date=2007-05-29 }} (mentioning other original sources) * {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|be|Belgium}} Retrieved on [[2007-06-07]]. * {{cite web |title=The Constitution |date=[[1997-01-21]] |publisher=Federal Parliament Belgium |url=http://www.fed-parl.be/constitution_uk.html |accessdate=2007-06-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607094156/http://www.fed-parl.be/constitution_uk.html |date=2007-06-07 }} * {{cite web |title=Country Portal - Europe — Belgium |publisher=Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy — Directorate-general Statistics Belgium |url=http://statbel.fgov.be/port/cou_eu_en.asp#BE |accessdate=2007-06-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701233100/http://www.statbel.fgov.be/port/cou_eu_en.asp#BE |date=2007-07-01 }} * {{cite web |title=Die Stellung und Rolle der deutschsprachigen Minderheit in Ostbelgien innerhalb des belgischen Nationalstaats |author=Fischer, Kathrin |work=Kleiner Geländekurs in die <span style="font-size:87%;">EUREGIO</span> Maas-Rhein |language=[[German language|German]] |date=[[1999-07-21]] |publisher=Geographical Institute of the [[Georg-August University of Göttingen|Georg-August University]] (Department Culture and Social Geography), Göttingen, Germany |url=http://www.geogr.uni-goettingen.de/kus/personen/euregio/emr99-21.htm |accessdate=2007-06-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070720161347/http://www.geogr.uni-goettingen.de/kus/personen/euregio/emr99-21.htm |date=2007-07-20 }} * {{cite web |title=History of Belgium |date=Last revised [[2007-05-30]] |work=[http://www.zum.de/whkmla/index.html World History at KMLA] |publisher=[http://www.zum.de/whkmla/about.html Korean Minjok Leadership Academy (<span style="font-size:87%;">KMLA</span>)] |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/xbelgium.html |accessdate=2007-06-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706215841/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/xbelgium.html |date=2007-07-06 }} * {{cite web |title=Brusselse Thema's 8 — Taalgebruik in Brussel — Taalverhoudingen, taalverschuivingen en taalindentiteit in een meertalige stad |language=[[Dutch language|Dutch]], summary ''The Use of Languages in Brussels'' pp. 227–250 in English |date=[[2001-06-01]] |author=[http://www.briobrussel.be/ned/webpage3.asp?WebpageId=30 Janssens, Rudi], [[Vrije Universiteit Brussel]] |publisher=VUBPress, Brussels ISBN 90-5487-293-4 – republished on web site of Centre for Information, Documentation and Research on Brussels (<span style="font-size:87%;">[http://www.briobrussel.be/eng/default.asp?WebpageId=1 BRIO]</span>) |pages=312 pp |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/bt8download.pdf |format=pdf |accessdate=2007-06-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605012657/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/bt8download.pdf |date=2007-06-05 }} * {{cite web |title=Belgique • België • Belgien |work=[http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/index.shtml L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde] |language=[[French language|French]] |year=© 2006 |author=Leclerc, Jacques<!--NO LINK: this is not the wellknown general-->, membre associé du TLFQ |publisher=Host: Trésor de la langue française au Québec (TLFQ), [[Université Laval]], [[Quebec]] |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueacc.htm |accessdate=2007-06-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070608172452/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueacc.htm |date=2007-06-08 }} * {{cite web |title=Bye bye Belgium? |date=[[2006-12-20]] |author=Mnookin, Robert, Professor at [[Harvard Law School|HLS]] |coauthors=Verbeke, Alain |publisher=[[International Herald Tribune]], republished by [[Harvard Law School]] |url=http://www.law.harvard.edu/news/2006/12/20_mnookin.php |accessdate=2007-06-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321151959/http://www.law.harvard.edu/news/2006/12/20_mnookin.php |date=2007-03-21 }} – Reflections on nations and nation-state developments regarding Belgium {{sourcesend}} === Bibliograpi === {{sourcesstart}} * {{cite book |title=A History of the Low Countries |author=[http://www.arts.kuleuven.be/literary_studies/fiches/paularblaster.htm Arblaster, Paul] |edition=Hardcover 312pp |date=[[2005-12-23]] |series=Palgrave Essential Histories |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan, New York |isbn=1-4039-4827-5 [Also edition ([[2005-12-23]]), Paperback 312pp, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, ISBN 1-4039-4828-3]}} * {{cite book |title=History of the Low Countries |author=Blom, J. C. H., Dutch State Institute for War Documentation, ed.; Lamberts, Emiel, Professor in Modern History [[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven|KULeuven]], ed.; Kennedy, James C., translator |edition=Hardcover 503pp |year=1999 |month=May |publisher=Berghahn Books, Oxford/New York |isbn=1-5718-1084-6 [Also newer edition ([[2006-06-29]]), Paperback 516pp, Berghahn Books, New York, ISBN 1-84545-272-0]}} * {{cite book |title=A History of Belgium from the Roman Invasion to the Present Day |author=[http://www.famousbelgians.net/cammaerts.htm Cammaerts, Émile L.]<!--NO WIKILINK to poor stub--> |origyear=1913 |edition=357pp |year=1921 |publisher=D. Appleton and Co, New York |id={{OCLC|1525559}} {{ASIN|B00085PM0A}} [Also editions [1913], London, {{OCLC|29072911}}; (1921) D. Unwin and Co., New York {{OCLC|9625246}}; also published (1921) as ''Belgium from the Roman invasion to the present day'', The Story of the nations, 67, T. Fisher Unwin, London, {{OCLC|2986704}} {{ASIN|B00086AX3A}}]}} * {{cite book |title=Belgium: A History |url=http://www.netlibrary.com/Details.aspx |author=Cook, Bernard A., Professor of History at [[Loyola University New Orleans]], LA, USA |edition=Paperback 205pp |year=[http://isbndb.com/d/book/belgium_a02.html c2002] or [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0820458244 May 2004] |series=Studies in Modern European History, Vol. 50 |publisher=Peter Lang Pub, New York |isbn=0-8204-5824-4 Ib. e-book (2004) NetLibrary, Boulder, CO, USA, ISBN 0-8204-7283-2 [Also print edition ([http://isbndb.com/d/book/belgium_a_history.html 2004-06-30] or [http://www.peterlang.com/index.cfm?vID=67647&vLang=E&vHR=1&vUR=3&vUUR=4&vNoHB=True 2005]), ISBN 0-8204-7647-1] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060212092754/http://www.netlibrary.com/Details.aspx |date=2006-02-12 }} * {{cite book |title=The History of Belgium: Part 1. Cæsar to Waterloo |url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1402167148/ |author=de Kavanagh Boulger, Demetrius C. |edition=Paperback 493pp |origdate=1902 |date=[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1402167148 2001-06-28] or [http://isbndb.com/d/book/the_history_of_belgium.html 2006-03-30] |series=Elibron Classics |publisher=Adamant Media ([[Delaware corporation]]), Boston, MA, USA. |isbn=1-4021-6714-8 [Facsimile reprint of a 1902 edition by the author, London] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106050157/http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1402167148/ |date=2016-01-06 }} – {{cite book |title=Ib. Part 2. 1815-1865. Waterloo to the Death of Leopold I |author=Ib. |edition=Paperback 462pp |origyear=1909 |date=[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/140216713X 2001-06-28] or [http://isbndb.com/d/book/the_history_of_belgium_a01.html 2006-03-30] |series=Ib. |publisher=Ib |isbn=1-4021-6713-X [Facsimile reprint of a 1909 edition by the author, London]}} * {{cite book |title=The Politics of Belgium: A Unique Federalism |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofbelgiu0000fitz_r0v9 |author=Fitzmaurice, John |edition=Paperback 284pp |year=1996 |month=March |series=Nations of the modern world |publisher=Westview Press, Boulder, CO, USA |isbn=0-8133-2386-X |id={{OCLC|30112536}}}} * {{cite book |title=The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands |author=Kossmann-Putto, Johanna A.; Kossmann Ernst H.; Deleu Jozef H. M., ed.; Fenoulhet Jane, translator [of: (1987). ''De Lage Landen : geschiedenis van de Noordelijke en Zuidelijke Nederlanden''. Vlaams-Nederlandse Stichting Ons Erfdeel, Rekkem] |edition=3rd Rev. edition Paperback 64pp |origyear=1987<!--verified, though @libris (alibris.com) mentions 1987--> |year=1993 |month=January |publisher=Flemish-Netherlands [http://www.onserfdeel.be/en/info.asp Foundation "Stichting Ons Erfdeel"], Rekkem, Belgium |isbn=9-0708-3120-1 [several editions in English, incl. (1997) 7th ed.]}} {{sourcesend}} == Tempo ogé == <div style="font-size:90%;"> {{columns |width=33ex |col1width=34.5ex |col1 = * [[Daptar urang Bélgia]] * [[Daptar munisipalitas di Bélgia dumasar populasi|Daptar munisipalitas di Bélgia]] * [[Daptar jejer nu patali jeung Bélgia]]<br /><!--adjust till bottom of table--><br /><!--no bot fix--> * [[:Category:Daptar nu patali jeung Bélgia]] |col2 = * [[Militér Bélgia]] * [[Kriminal di Bélgia]] * [[Transportasi di Bélgia]] * [[Komunikasi di Bélgia]] * [[Olahraga di Bélgia]] |col3 = * [[Pelesir di Bélgia]] * [[Poé peré di Bélgia]] * [[Hukum kawarganagaraan Bélgia]] * [[Paspor Bélgia]] }} </div> == Tumbu luar == {{sisterlinks|Belgium}} :''Tempo oge: section References, subsection [[#General online sources|General online sources]]'' {{wikiatlas|Belgium}} {{wikivoyage|Belgium}} * [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_%281913%29/Belgium Belgium], entry on the [[Catholic Encyclopedia|Catholic Encyclopedia 1913]], republished on [[Wikisource]] * [http://www.monarchie.be Official site of Belgian monarchy] * [http://www.Belgium.be/ Official site of the Belgian federal government] * [http://www.visitbelgium.com/ Official Site of the Belgian Tourist Office in the Americas and GlobeScope],<br />- its [http://www.visitbelgium.com/links.htm#toursitofficeinbelgium links to sites of Belgian Tourist Offices in Belgium]<br />- its [http://www.visitbelgium.com/links.htm#globaloffices links to sites of Belgian Tourist Offices worldwide] * [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Belgium:_Primary_Documents History of Belgium: Primary Documents] ''EuroDocs: Online Sources for European History'' * [http://publicdiplomacy.wikia.com/wiki/Belgium Belgium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304012324/http://publicdiplomacy.wikia.com/wiki/Belgium |date=2010-03-04 }}, entry on the Public Diplomacy wiki monitored by the [[USC Center on Public Diplomacy]] * [http://www.expatica.be Expatica] portal with background information and news on Belgium {{Template group |title=[[Gambar:Nuvola_filesystems_www.png|25lpx]]&nbsp;Geograpi lokal |list= {{Countries of Europe}} }} {{Template group |title=Kaanggotaan internasional |list= {{Members of the European Union (EU)}} {{Council of Europe}} {{UN Security Council|state=collapsed}} {{North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)|state=collapsed}} {{Dutch Language Union (Nederlandse Taalunie)}} {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} }} {{Template group |title=Lianna |list= {{Romance-speaking nations of Europe|state=collapsed}} {{Germanic-speaking regions of Europe|state=collapsed}} {{Monarchies|state=collapsed}} }} <!--Categories--> [[Kategori:Bélgia| ]] [[Kategori:Karajaan konstitusional]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu basana Basa Walanda]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu basana Basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu basana Basa Jérman]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] <!--Other languages--> cs7pr24ssew1hh55hp4fq0ikj7kockq 0 25308 711804 661150 2026-08-07T04:42:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711804 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:L-Ascorbic acid.svg|thumb|2-okso-L-tréo-héksono-1,4- lakton-2,3-énédiol<br> atawa (''R'')-3,4-dihidroksi-5-((''S'')- 1,2-dihidroksiétil)furan-2(5''H'')-on atawa nu kawentar vitamin C]] '''Vitamin C''' atawa '''<small>L</small>-askorbat''' téh hiji [[zat gizi ésénsial]] pikeun [[simian|primata luhur]] jeung sababaraha [[spésiés]] lianna. Askorbat perlu pikeun sababaraha rupa [[métabolismeu|réaksi métabolismeu]] dina sakabéh awak [[sato]] jeung [[tutuwuhan]] sarta [[biosintésis|dihasilkeun ku awak]] ampir sakabéh organismeu, iwal manusa jeung sababaraha [[primata]]. Ieu vitamin kawentar ku balukar tina kakuranganana: [[barusuh]] (skorbut)<ref name="UKFSA">{{cite web |url=http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminc/ |title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-19 |publisher=Food Standards Agency (UK) }}</ref><ref name="UMM">{{cite web |url=http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/VitaminCAscorbicAcidcs.html |title=Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) |accessdate=2007-02-19 |date=April 2002 |author= |publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231142109/http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/VitaminCAscorbicAcidcs.html |date=2005-12-31 }}</ref><ref name="OSU">{{cite web |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminC/|title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-03-07 |date=2006-01-31 |first=Jane, Ph.D. |last= Higdon|publisher=Oregon State University, Micronutrient Information Center}}</ref>. [[Farmakofor]] vitamin C téh [[ion]] askorbatna. Pikeun mahluk hirup, askorbat téh [[antioksidan]] anu naméngan awak tina [[setrés oksidatif]]<ref name="Padayatty">{{cite journal |author=Padayatty S, Katz A, Wang Y, Eck P, Kwon O, Lee J, Chen S, Corpe C, Dutta A, Dutta S, Levine M |title=Vitamin C as an antioxidant: evaluation of its role in disease prevention |url=http://www.jacn.org/cgi/reprint/22/1/18.pdf |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=18-35 |year=2003 |pmid=12569111 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929003945/http://www.jacn.org/cgi/reprint/22/1/18.pdf |date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> sarta salaku [[kofaktor]] dina sababaraha réaksi [[énzim]]atik penting<ref name="UKFSA Risk" />. == Peran biologis == [[Gambar:L-ascorbic-acid-3D-balls.png|thumb|Modél 3D Vitamin C]] Vitamin C téh [[Énantiomér|<small>L</small>-énantiomér]] askorbat; énantiomér sabalikna, <small>D</small>-énantiomér, teu boga mangpaat fisiologis anu penting. Duanana mangrupa [[kiral (kimia)|kiral]] pikeun [[wangun molekul]] anu sarua. Nalika [[rédoks|ngaréduksi]], <small>L</small>-askorbat nu [[réduktor]] kuat téh bakal robah jadi bentuk kaoksidasi, [[asam dehidroaskorbat|<small>L</small>-dehidroaskorbat]]<ref name="UKFSA Risk">{{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/evm_c.pdf |title=Vitamin C – Risk Assessment |accessdate=2007-02-19 |publisher=UK Food Standards Agency }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071129082537/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/evm_c.pdf |date=2007-11-29 }}</ref>. <small>L</small>-dehidroaskorbat lajeng bisa diréduksi balik jadi <small>L</small>-askorbat aktif ku énzim jeung glutation<ref>{{cite journal |author=Meister A |title=Glutathione-ascorbic acid antioxidant system in animals |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/13/9397.pdf |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=269 |issue=13 |pages=9397-400 |year=1994 |pmid=8144521 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914171031/http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/13/9397.pdf |date=2009-09-14 }}</ref>. <small>L</small>-askorbat téh [[asam gula]] [[asam lemah|lemah]] anu wangunna patali jeung [[glukosa]] nu sacara alami diciptakeun ngahiji jeung [[ion hidrogén]] ngabentuk [[assam askorbat]], atawa ngahiji jeung ion [[logam]] ngabentuk [[askorbat mineral]]. === Mangpaat === Pikeun manusa, vitamin C jétu pisan salaku [[antioksidan]], ngurangan [[setrés oksidatif]], salaku substrat [[peroksidaseu askorbat]]<ref name="OSU" />, ogé salaku [[kofaktor]] énzim dina [[biosintésis]] bahan-bahan biokimia penting. Vitamin C boga peran salaku [[donor éléktron]] pikeun dalapan énzim<ref>Levine M, Rumsey SC, Wang Y, Park JB, Daruwala R. Vitamin C. In Stipanuk MH (ed): "Biochemical and Physiological Aspects of Human Nutrition." Philadelphia: W B Saunders, kc. 541–567, 2000.</ref>: * Tilu énzim dina [[hidroksilasi]] [[kolagén]]<ref>Prockop DJ, Kivirikko KI: Collagens: molecular biology, diseases, and potentials for therapy. Annu Rev Biochem 64:403–434, 1995.</ref><ref>Peterkofsky B: Ascorbate requirement for hydroxylation and secretion of procollagen: relationship to inhibition of collagen synthesis in scurvy. Am J Clin Nutr 54: 1135S–1140S, 1991.</ref><ref>Kivirikko KI, Myllyla R: Post-translational processing of procollagens. Ann N Y Acad Sci 460: 187–201, 1985.</ref>. Ieu réaksi nambahkeun [[Hidroksida|gugus hidroksil]] kana asam amino [[prolin]] atawa [[lisin]] dina molekul molekul (ngaliwatan [[hidroksilaseu prolil]] jeung [[hidroksilaseu lisil]]), antukna molekul kolagénna bisa ngabentuk wangun tripel héliks; ku kituna vitamin C jadi éséntial pikeun kamekarkeun jeung mulasara [[jaringan tatu]], [[saluran getih]], jeung kartilage<ref>McGee, William, M.D., M.H.A., Assistant Professor of Medicine and Surgery, Tufts University School of Medicine; [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002404.htm Medical Encyclopedia: Ascorbic acid]</ref>. * Dua énzim pikeun sintésis [[karnitin]]<ref>Rebouche CJ: Ascorbic acid and carnitine biosynthesis. Am J Clin Nutr 54:1147S–1152S, 1991.</ref><ref>Dunn WA, Rettura G, Seifter E, Englard S. Carnitine biosynthesis from gamma-butyrobetaine and from exogenous protein-bound 6-N-trimethyl-L-lysine by the perfused guinea pig liver. Effect of ascorbate deficiency on the in situ activity of gammabutyrobetaine hydroxylase. J Biol Chem 259:10764–10770, 1984.</ref>. Karnitin penting dina ngakut [[asam lemak]] ka [[mitokondria]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[Adenosin trifosfat|ATP]]. * Anu tilu sésana nyaéta ** [[hidroksilaseu béta dopamin]] dina biosintésis [[norépinéfrin]] tina [[dopamin]]<ref>Levine M, Dhariwal KR, Washko P, Welch R, Wang YH, Cantilena CC, Yu R: Ascorbic acid and reaction kinetics in situ: a new approach to vitamin requirements. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) Spec No:169–172, 1992.</ref><ref>Kaufman S: Dopamine-beta-hydroxylase. J Psychiatr Res 11: 303–316, 1974.</ref>. ** énzim nu nambahkeun gugus [[amida]] ka [[hormon péptida]], antukna leuwih stabil<ref>Eipper BA, Milgram SL, Husten EJ, Yun HY, Mains RE: Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase: a multifunctional protein with catalytic, processing, and routing domains. Protein Sci 2:489–497, 1993.</ref><ref>Eipper BA, Stoffers DA, Mains RE: The biosynthesis of neuropeptides: peptide alpha-amidation. Annu Rev Neurosci 15:57–85, 1992.</ref>. ** énzim nu ngamodulasi métabolismeu [[tirosin]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Englard S, Seifter S |title=The biochemical functions of ascorbic acid |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=6 |issue= |pages=365-406 |year=1986 |pmid=3015170 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nu.06.070186.002053}}</ref><ref>Lindblad B, Lindstedt G, Lindstedt S: The mechanism of enzymic formation of homogentisate from p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate. J Am Chem Soc 92:7446–7449, 1970.</ref>. [[Jaringan biologis]] anu ngagundukkeun vitamin C leuwih ti 100 kali kadarna dina plasma getih nyaéta [[kelenjar adrénal]], [[pituitari]], [[timus]], [[corpus luteum]], jeung [[rétina]]<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v8/n5/full/nm0502-445.html New view at C] Matthias A. Hediger , ''Nature Medicine'' 8, 445 - 446 (2002) doi:10.1038/nm0502-445 <blockquote>"''Plasma vitamin C concentrations are maintained between 10 and 160 μM, and any excess of the vitamin is excreted by the kidney. In contrast, the vitamin is concentrated to at least 100 times the plasma level in specific tissues such as the adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thymus, retina, corpus luteum, and a variety of neuronal cell types.''"</blockquote></ref>. Nu ngagundukkeun antara 10 n.k. 50 kalina nyaéta [[otak]], [[limpa]], [[bayah]], [[téstis]], [[kelenjar limfe]], [[ati]], [[tiroid]], [[mémbran mukosa|mukosa]] [[usus leutik]], [[leukosit]], [[pangkréas]], [[ginjal]], jeung [[kelenjar ciduh]].<!-- === Biosynthesis === [[Image:Ascorbic-acid-3D-vdW.png|thumb|200px|left|Model of a vitamin C [[molecule]]. Black is [[carbon]], red is [[oxygen]], and white is [[hydrogen]]]] The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize their own vitamin C, through a sequence of four [[enzyme]]-driven steps, which convert [[glucose]] to vitamin C.<ref name="UKFSA Risk" /> The glucose needed to produce ascorbate in the liver (in [[mammals]] and [[perching birds]]) is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bánhegyi G, Mándl J |title=The hepatic glycogenoreticular system |journal=Pathol Oncol Res |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=107-10 |year=2001 |pmid=11458272}}</ref> In [[reptiles]] and [[birds]] the biosynthesis is carried out in the [[kidney]]s. Among the animals that have lost the ability to synthesise vitamin C are [[simian]]s, [[guinea pig]]s, the [[red-vented bulbul]],and [[Megabat|fruit-eating bats]].<ref name=" UKFSA Risk"/> Most notably, humans have no capability to manufacture vitamin C. The cause of this phenomenon is that the last enzyme in the synthesis process, [[L-gulonolactone oxidase|<small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase]], cannot be made by the listed animals because the gene for this enzyme, [[Pseudogene]] ΨGULO, is defective.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ascorbic Acid: Subcellular Biochemistry | url = https://archive.org/details/subcellularbioch0025unse | author = Harris, J. Robin | publisher = Springer | isbn = 0306451484 | year = 1996 | pages = p. 35}}</ref> The [[mutation]] has not been lethal because vitamin C is abundant in their food sources, with many of these species' natural diets consisting largely of fruit. Most [[simian]]s consume the vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than that recommended by governments for humans.<ref>Milton, K. (1999) "Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: do the diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us?" Nutrition. 1999 Jun;15(6):488-98.</ref> This discrepancy constitutes the basis of the controversy on current recommended dietary allowances (see [[Vitamin C#Evolutionary_rationales|Vitamin C as a macronutrient - Evolutionary rationales]]). It has been noted that the loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the evolutionary loss of the ability to break down [[uric acid]]. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong [[reducing agent]]s. This has led to the suggestion that in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Proctor P |title=Similar functions of uric acid and ascorbate in man? |journal=Nature |volume=228 |issue=5274 |pages=868 |year=1970 |pmid=5477017|doi=10.1038/228868a0}}</ref> Ascorbic acid can be [[oxidised]] (broken down) in the human body by the enzyme [[ascorbic acid oxidase]]. An adult [[goat]], a typical example of a vitamin C-producing animal, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and the biosynthesis will increase "many fold under stress".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/197x/stone-i-orthomol_psych-1979-v8-n2-p58.htm |title=Eight Decades of Scurvy. The Case History of a Misleading Dietary Hypothesis |accessdate=2007-04-06 |last=Stone |first=Irwin |authorlink=Irwin Stone |coauthors= |date=July 16, 1978 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=''Biochemical research in the 1950’s showed that the lesion in scurvy is the absence of the enzyme, L-Gulonolactone oxidase (GLO) in the human liver (Burns, 1959). This enzyme is the last enzyme in a series of four which converts blood sugar, glucose, into ascorbate in the mammalian liver. This liver metabolite, ascorbate, is produced in an unstressed goat for instance, at the rate of about 13,000 mg per day per 150 pounds body weight (Chatterjee, 1973). A mammalian feedback mechanism increases this daily ascorbate production many fold under stress (Subramanian et al., 1973)}}</ref> Trauma or injury has also been demonstrated to also use up large quantities of vitamin C in humans.<ref>{{cite journal| author = C. Long, et al. | title = Ascorbic acid dynamics in the seriously ill and injured. | journal = Journal of Surgical Research | volume = 109 | issue = 2 | pages= 144–148| doi = 10.1016/S0022-4804(02)00083-5 }} <blockquote>"''Our results show that plasma ascorbic acid levels following trauma and during infection are extremely low and are not normalized with 300 or even 1000 mg/day supplemented TPN.''"</blockquote></ref> Some [[microorganism]]s such as the yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' have been shown to be able to synthesize vitamin C from [[Monosaccharide|simple sugars]].<ref name="yeastAA">{{cite web |url=http://www.scri.sari.ac.uk/publications/annualreports/02Indiv/20Ascorb.pdf |title=Ascorbic acid biosynthesis in higher plants and micro-organisms |accessdate=2007-02-20||author=R.D. Hancock & R. Viola |publisher=Scottish Crop Research Institute}} <blockquote>"''Our results demonstrate that yeast cells are capable of direct fermentation of <small>L</small>-galactose to <small>L</small>-AA. However, given that <small>L</small>-galactose is an extremely rare and expensive sugar a process using <small>L</small>-galactose as a starting material could never be economical. In order to overcome this problem, we are currently developing new yeast strains with extended metabolic competence for the synthesis of <small>L</small>-galactose directly from inexpensive substrates.''"</blockquote> </ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=|title=Biosynthesis of <small>L</small>-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae |accessdate=2007-02-19 |journal=FEMS Microbiol Lett.|volume=186|issue=2|pages=245-50|author=Hancock RD, Galpin JR, Viola R.|pmid=10802179}}</ref> === Deficiency === [[Scurvy]] is an [[avitaminosis]] resulting from lack of vitamin C, as without this vitamin, the synthesised [[collagen]] is too unstable to meet its function. Scurvy leads to the formation of liver spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all [[mucous membrane]]s. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, [[suppuration|suppurating wounds]] and loss of [[teeth]] and, eventually, death. The human body can store only a certain amount of vitamin C.,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002404.htm |title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-03-09 |date=[[2007-01-02]] |first=William |last =McGee |publisher=National Institutes of Health }}</ref> and so the body soon depletes itself if fresh supplies are not consumed. === Discovery of ascorbic acid === [[Image:GyorgyiNIH.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Albert Szent-Györgyi, pictured here in 1948, was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]] for the discovery of vitamin C]] In 1912, the [[Polish-American]] biochemist [[Casimir Funk]], while researching deficiency diseases, developed the concept of [[vitamins]] to refer to the nutrients which are essential to health. Then, from 1928 to 1933, the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] research team of [[Joseph L Svirbely]] and [[Albert Szent-Györgyi]] and, independently, the [[United States|American]] [[Charles Glen King]], first isolated vitamin C and showed it to be ascorbic acid. For this, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pitt.edu/history/1932.html |title=Pitt History - 1932: Charles Glen King |accessdate=2007-02-21 |quote=In recognition of this medical breakthrough, some scientists believe that King deserved a Nobel Prize. |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh]] }}</ref> In 1928 the Arctic anthropologist [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]] attempted to prove his theory of how the [[Eskimo]]s are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet, despite the disease striking European Arctic explorers living on similar high-meat diets. Stefansson theorised that the natives get their vitamin C from fresh meat that is minimally cooked. Starting in February 1928, for one year he and a colleague lived on an exclusively minimally-cooked meat diet while under medical supervision; they remained healthy. Between 1933 and 1934, the British chemists Sir [[Walter Norman Haworth]] and Sir [[Edmund Hirst]] and, independently, the Polish chemist [[Tadeus Reichstein]], succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, the first to be artificially produced. This made possible the cheap mass-production of vitamin C. Only Haworth was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for this work, but the process for vitamin C retained Reichstein's name. In 1934 [[Hoffmann–La Roche]] became the first pharmaceutical company to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of [[Redoxon]]. In 1957 the American [[J.J. Burns]] showed that the reason some mammals were susceptible to scurvy was the inability of their [[liver]] to produce the active [[enzyme]] [[L-gulonolactone oxidase|<small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase]], which is the last of the chain of four enzymes which synthesize vitamin C.<ref>Burns, J. J., and Evans, C., J. Biol. Chem., 200, 125 (1953).</ref><ref>Burns, J. J., Peyser, P., and Maltz, A., Science, 124, 1148 (1956).</ref> American biochemist [[Irwin Stone]] was the first to exploit vitamin C for its food preservative properties. He later developed the theory that humans possess a mutated form of the <small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase coding gene. == Daily requirements == The [[North America]]n [[Dietary Reference Intake]] recommends 90 [[orders of magnitude (mass)|milligram]]s per day and no more than 2 grams per day (2000 milligrams per day).<ref name="US RDA">{{cite web |url=http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/296/webtablevitamins.pdf |title=US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) |accessdate=2007-02-19 |date= |author= |publisher= }}</ref> Other related species sharing the same inability to produce vitamin C and requiring exogenous vitamin C consume 20 to 80 times this reference intake.<ref name="Primates"/><ref name="paulingevolution"/> There is continuing debate within the scientific community over the best dose schedule (the amount and frequency of intake) of vitamin C for maintaining optimal health in humans.<ref name="PR Newswire">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/07-06-2004/0002204911 |title=Linus Pauling Vindicated; Researchers Claim RDA For Vitamin C is Flawed |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=[[6 July]], [[2004]] |publisher=PR Newswire }}</ref> It is generally agreed that a balanced diet without supplementation contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy in an average healthy adult, while those who are pregnant, smoke tobacco, or are under stress require slightly more.<ref name="US RDA" /> High doses (thousands of milligrams) may result in [[diarrhea]]. Proponents of alternative medicine (specifically [[orthomolecular medicine]])<ref name="Cathcart">{{cite web |url=http://www.orthomed.com/titrate.htm |title=Vitamin C, Titrating To Bowel Tolerance, [[Anascorbemia]], and Acute Induced Scurvy |accessdate=2007-02-22 |date=1994 |first=Robert |last= Cathcart |authorlink=Robert Cathcart |publisher=Orthomed }}</ref> claim the onset of [[diarrhea]] to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies. Both Cathcart<ref name="Cathcart"/> and Cameron have hypothesized that very [[sick]] [[patients]] with [[cancer]] or [[influenza]] do not display any evidence of [[diarrhea]] at all until ascorbate intake reaches levels as high as 200 [[grams]] (nearly half a pound). == Vitamin C as a macronutrient == {{main|Vitamin C megadosage|Megavitamin therapy|Orthomolecular medicine}} There is a strong advocacy movement for large doses of vitamin C, promoting a great deal of added benefits. Drawing on a wide, <ref name="seanet">[http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/ Ascorbate web] An historical compendium of 20th-Century medical & scientific literature attesting to the efficacy of Ascorbate</ref> but still inconclusive, body of evidence as to the benefits beyond those dosages recommended in the Dietary Reference Intakes, many pro-vitamin C organizations promote usage levels well beyond the current [[Dietary Reference Intake]]. The movement is led by scientists and doctors such as Robert Cathcart, [[Ewan Cameron (Vitamin C)|Ewan Cameron]], [[Steve Hickey]], [[Irwin Stone]] and the twice [[Nobel Prize]] laureate [[Linus Pauling]] and the more controversial [[Matthias Rath]]. There is some scientific literature critical of governmental agency dose recommendations.<ref name="PR Newswire"/><ref>{{cite journal |author = Forman, Robert |year=1981 |title=Medical Resistance To Innovation |journal=Medical Hypotheses |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=1009-1017 |url=http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/198x/forman-r-med_hypotheses-1981-v7-n8-p1009.htm |accessdate=2007-02-23 }}</ref> The [[biological halflife]] for vitamin C is fairly short, about 30 minutes in blood plasma, a fact which high dose advocates say that mainstream researchers have failed to take into account. Researchers at the [[National Institutes of Health]] decided upon the current RDA based upon tests conducted 12 hours (24 half lives) after consumption. == Therapeutic uses == {{main|Vitamin C megadosage|Megavitamin therapy|Orthomolecular medicine}} Since its discovery vitamin C has been considered by some enthusiastic proponents a "[[panacea (medicine)|universal panacea]]", although this led to suspicions by others of it being over-hyped.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/laa/kansa/vk/hemila/dovitami.pdf |title=Do vitamins C and E affect respiratory infections? |accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=January 2006 |author=Hemilä, Harri |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] | format = PDF}}</ref> Other proponents of high dose vitamin C consider that if it is given "in the right form, with the proper technique, in frequent enough doses, in high enough doses, along with certain additional agents and for a long enough period of time,"<ref>{{cite book | last = Levy | first= Thomas E. | authorlink = Thomas E. Levy | title = Curing the Incurable: Vitamin C, Infectious Diseases, and Toxins | url = https://archive.org/details/curingincurablev0000levy_z9x7 | edition = | publisher = Livon Books | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 1-4010-6963-0 | pages = p. 36}}</ref> it can prevent and, in many cases, cure, a wide range of common and/or lethal diseases, notably the [[common cold]] and [[heart disease]],<ref>Rath MW, Pauling LC. {{US patent|5278189}} Prevention and treatment of occlusive cardiovascular disease with ascorbate and substances that inhibit the binding of lipoprotein(a). USPTO. 11 Jan 1994.</ref> although the NIH considers there to be "fair scientific evidence against this use."<ref>{{cite web | title = Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) | work = MedLine Plus | publisher = National Institute of Health | date = [[2006-08-01]] | url = http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-vitaminc.html | accessdate = 2007-08-03 }}</ref> Some proponents issued controversial statements involving it being a cure for [[AIDS]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200605220885.html |title=Nigeria: Vitamin C Can Suppress HIV/Aids Virus |accessdate=2006-06-16 |date=[[2006-05-22]] |author= |publisher=allAfrica.com }}</ref> [[H5N1|bird flu]], and [[SARS]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hemilä H |title=Vitamin C and SARS coronavirus |journal=J Antimicrob Chemother |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1049-50 |year=2003 |pmid=14613951 |url=http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/52/6/1049}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/aids/story/0,7369,1483821,00.html |title=Discredited doctor's 'cure' for Aids ignites life-and-death struggle in South Africa | accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=[[2005-05-14]] |author= Boseley, Sarah | publisher = [[The Guardian]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www4.dr-rath-foundation.org/THE_FOUNDATION/openletter_20060407.htm |title=Open letter from Dr. Matthias Rath MD to German Chancellor Merkel |accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=2005 |author=Rath, Matthias |publisher=Dr. Rath Health Foundation }}</ref> Probably the most controversial issue, the putative role of ascorbate in the management of AIDS, is still unresolved, more than 16 years after the landmark study published in the [[Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences]] (USA) showing that non toxic doses of ascorbate suppress [[HIV]] replication ''in vitro''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R, Pauling L |title=Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus replication by ascorbate in chronically and acutely infected cells |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=87 |issue=18 |pages=7245-9 |year=1990 |pmid=1698293}}</ref> Other studies expanded on those results, but still, no large scale trials have yet been conducted.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=Comparative study of the anti-HIV activities of ascorbate and thiol-containing reducing agents in chronically HIV-infected cells |journal=Am J Clin Nutr |volume=54 |issue=6 Suppl |pages=1231S-1235S |year=1991 |pmid=1720598}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=NF-kappa B-independent suppression of HIV expression by ascorbic acid |journal=AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=235-9 |year=1997 |pmid=9115810}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=Ascorbate effect on cytokine stimulation of HIV production |journal=Nutrition |volume=11 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=684-7 |year= |pmid=8748252}}</ref> In an animal model of lead intoxication, vitamin C demonstrated "protective effects" on lead-induced nerve and muscle abnormalities<ref name="pmid12818354">{{cite journal |author=Hasan MY, Alshuaib WB, Singh S, Fahim MA |title=Effects of ascorbic acid on lead induced alterations of synaptic transmission and contractile features in murine dorsiflexor muscle |journal=Life Sci. |volume=73 |issue=8 |pages=1017-25 |year=2003 |pmid=12818354 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> In smokers, blood lead levels declined by an average of 81% when supplemented with 1000 mg of vitamin C, while 200 mg were ineffective, suggesting that vitamin C [[Dietary supplement|supplement]]s may be an "economical and convenient" approach to reduce lead levels in the blood.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dawson E, Evans D, Harris W, Teter M, McGanity W |title=The effect of ascorbic acid supplementation on the blood lead levels of smokers |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=166-70 |year=1999 |pmid=10204833}}</ref> The [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] published a study which concluded, based on an analysis of blood lead levels in the subjects of the Third ''National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey'', that the independent, inverse relationship between lead levels and vitamin C in the blood, if causal, would "have public health implications for control of lead toxicity".<ref name="pmid10386552">{{cite journal |author=Simon JA, Hudes ES |title=Relationship of ascorbic acid to blood lead levels |journal=JAMA |volume=281 |issue=24 |pages=2289-93 |year=1999 |pmid=10386552 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> Vitamin C has limited popularity as a treatment for [[autism spectrum]] symptoms. A 1993 study of 18 children with ASD found some symptoms reduced after treatment with vitamin C,<ref name="pmid8255984">{{cite journal |author=Dolske MC, Spollen J, McKay S, Lancashire E, Tolbert L |title=A preliminary trial of ascorbic acid as supplemental therapy for autism |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=765-74 |year=1993 |pmid=8255984 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> but these results have not been replicated.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year= 2005 |volume= 11 |issue= 2 |pages= 131–42 |title= Novel treatments for autistic spectrum disorders |author= Levy SE, Hyman SL |doi= 10.1002/mrdd.20062 |pmid= 15977319}}</ref> Small clinical trials have found that vitamin C might improve the [[sperm count]], sperm motility, and sperm morphology in infertile men<ref>{{cite journal |author=Akmal M, Qadri J, Al-Waili N, Thangal S, Haq A, Saloom K |title=Improvement in human semen quality after oral supplementation of vitamin C |journal=J Med Food |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=440-2 |year=2006 |pmid=17004914}}</ref>, or improve immune function related to the prevention and treatment of [[Senescence-associated diseases|age-associated diseases]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=de la Fuente M, Ferrández M, Burgos M, Soler A, Prieto A, Miquel J |title=Immune function in aged women is improved by ingestion of vitamins C and E |journal=Can J Physiol Pharmacol |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=373-80 |year=1998 |pmid=9795745}}</ref> However, to date, no large clinical trials have verified these findings. A preliminary study published in the Annals of Surgery found that the early administration of antioxidant supplementation using α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid reduces the incidence of organ failure and shortens ICU length of stay in this cohort of critically ill surgical patients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nathens A, Neff M, Jurkovich G, Klotz P, Farver K, Ruzinski J, Radella F, Garcia I, Maier R |title=Randomized, prospective trial of antioxidant supplementation in critically ill surgical patients |journal=Ann Surg |volume=236 |issue=6 |pages=814-22 |year=2002 |pmid=12454520 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1422648}}</ref> More research on this topic is pending. Dehydroascorbic acid, the main form of oxidized Vitamin C in the body, was shown to reduce neurological deficits and mortality following [[stroke]], due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, while "the antioxidant ascorbic acid (AA) or vitamin C does not penetrate the blood-brain barrier".<ref name="ascorBBB"> {{cite journal |author=Huang J, Agus DB, Winfree CJ, Kiss S, Mack WJ, McTaggart RA, Choudhri TF, Kim LJ, Mocco J, Pinsky DJ, Fox WD, Israel RJ, Boyd TA, Golde DW, Connolly ES Jr. |title=Dehydroascorbic acid, a blood-brain barrier transportable form of vitamin C, mediates potent cerebroprotection in experimental stroke |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/20/11720 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=98 |issue=20 |pages=11720-11724 |year=2001 |pmid=11573006}}</ref> In this study published by the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] in 2001, the authors concluded that such "a pharmacological strategy to increase cerebral levels of ascorbate in stroke has tremendous potential to represent the timely translation of basic research into a relevant therapy for thromboembolic stroke in humans". No such "relevant therapies" are available yet and no clinical trials have been planned. In January 2007 the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved a Phase I toxicity trial to determine the safe dosage of intravenous vitamin C as a possible cancer treatment for "patients who have exhausted all other conventional treatment options."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news87833644.html |title=FDA OKs vitamin C trial for cancer |accessdate=2007-04-06 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=January 12, 2007 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=[[Physorg.com]] |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=Federal approval of a clinical trial on intravenous vitamin C as a cancer treatment lends credence to alternative cancer care, U.S. researchers said.}}</ref> Additional studies over several years would be needed to demonstrate whether it is effective.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00441207?order=1 |title=Study of High-Dose Intravenous (IV) Vitamin C Treatment in Patients With Solid Tumors |accessdate=August 2, 2007 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=The primary purpose of this study is to evaluate the safety and tolerability of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) given by injection into the vein. The second and third purpose of conducting this study is to observe any evidence of tumor response to the vitamin C and compare the level of fatigue (weakness), pain control, ability to do things, and quality of life, before and after vitamin C is given. (Phase I)|}}</ref> In February 2007, an uncontrolled study of 39 terminal cancer patients showed that, on subjective questionnaires, patients reported an improvement in health, cancer symptoms, and daily function after administration of high-dose intravenous vitamin C.<ref name="pmid17297243">{{cite journal |author=Yeom CH, Jung GC, Song KJ |title=Changes of terminal cancer patients' health-related quality of life after high dose vitamin C administration |journal=J. Korean Med. Sci. |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=7-11 |year=2007 |pmid=17297243 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> The authors concluded that "''Although there is still controversy regarding anticancer effects of vitamin C, the use of vitamin C is considered a safe and effective therapy to improve the quality of life of terminal cancer patients''". == Adverse effects == While being harmless in most typical quantities, as with all substances to which the human body is exposed, vitamin C can still cause harm under certain conditions. === Common side-effects === Relatively large doses of vitamin C may cause [[indigestion]], particularly when taken on an empty stomach. When taken in large doses, vitamin C causes [[diarrhea]]. In one trial, doses up to 6 grams of ascorbic acid were given to 29 infants, 93 children of preschool and school age, and 20 adults for more than 1400 days. With the higher doses, toxic manifestations were observed in five adults and four infants. The signs and symptoms in adults were nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flushing of the face, headache, fatigue and disturbed sleep. The main toxic reactions in the infants were skin rashes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v05je20.htm |title=Toxicological evaluation of some food additives including anticaking agents, antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers and thickening agents |accessdate=2007-04-13 |date=4 July 1973 |author= |publisher=World Health Organization }}</ref> === Possible side-effects === As vitamin C enhances iron absorption<ref name="pmid12450906">{{cite journal | author = Fleming DJ, Tucker KL, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Wilson PW, Wood RJ | title = Dietary factors associated with the risk of high iron stores in the elderly Framingham Heart Study cohort | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 76 | issue = 6 | pages = 1375-84 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12450906 | url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/76/6/1375?ijkey=6566b8c0d5c56a4d01b961794eb78aff12b1c135&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha}}</ref>, [[iron poisoning]] can become an issue to people with rare [[iron overload disorder]]s, such as [[haemochromatosis]]. A genetic condition that results in inadequate levels of the enzyme [[glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase]] (G6PD), can cause sufferers to develop [[hemolytic anemia]] after ingesting specific oxidizing substances, such as very large dosages of vitamin C.<ref name="pmid11124756">{{cite journal | author = Cook JD, Reddy MB | title = Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages = 93-8 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11124756 | url http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/1/93?ijkey=eecc6c6024033b1dedbf32dd717cc5e08fd61f93&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha= }}</ref> For decades, large doses of vitamin C have been speculated to trigger [[oxalate]] formation and increase absorption of dietary oxalate, possibly causing [[kidney stone]]s.<ref name="pmid15987848">{{cite journal | author = Massey LK, Liebman M, Kynast-Gales SA | title = Ascorbate increases human oxaluria and kidney stone risk | journal = J. Nutr. | volume = 135 | issue = 7 | pages = 1673-7 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15987848 | doi = }}</ref> However, this speculation may not be justified since there is no clear relationship between excess [[ascorbic acid]] intake and [[kidney stone]] formation. <ref name="pmid14498993">{{cite journal | author = Naidu KA | title = Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview. | journal = J. Nutr. | volume = 2 | issue 7 | year = 2003 | pages = | pmid = 14498993 | doi = }}</ref> During the first month of pregnancy, high doses of vitamin C may suppress the production of [[progesterone]] from the [[corpus luteum]].<ref name="pmid4467736">{{cite journal | author = Ovcharov R, Todorov S | title = [The effect of vitamin C on the estrus cycle and embryogenesis of rats] | language = Bulgarian | journal = Akusherstvo i ginekologii͡a | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 191-5 | year = 1974 | pmid = 4467736 | doi = }}</ref> Progesterone, necessary for the maintenance of a pregnancy, is produced by the corpus luteum for the first few weeks, until the placenta is developed enough to produce its own source. By blocking this function of the corpus luteum, high doses of vitamin C (1000+ mg) is theorized to induce an early miscarriage. In a group of spontaneously aborting women at the end of the first trimester, the mean values of vitamin C were significantly higher in the aborting group. However, the authors point out that this relationship may not necessarily be a causal one.<ref name="pmid988001">{{cite journal | author = Vobecky JS, Vobecky J, Shapcott D, Cloutier D, Lafond R, Blanchard R | title = Vitamins C and E in spontaneous abortion | journal = International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift für Vitamin- und Ernährungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition | volume = 46 | issue = 3 | pages = 291-6 | year = 1976 | pmid = 988001 | doi = }}</ref> === Chance of overdose === As discussed previously, vitamin C exhibits remarkably low toxicity. The [[LD50|LD₅₀]] (the dose that will kill 50% of a population) in rats is generally accepted to be 11.9 grams per kilogram when taken orally.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web |url=http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/AS/ascorbic_acid.html |title=Safety (MSDS) data for ascorbic acid |accessdate= 2007-02-21 |date= [[2005-10-09]] | publisher= [[Oxford University]] }}</ref> The LD₅₀ in humans remains unknown, owing to [[medical ethics]] that preclude experiments which would put patients at risk of harm. However, as with all substances tested in this way, the LD₅₀ is taken as a guide to its toxicity in humans and no data to contradict this has been found. == Natural and artificial dietary sources == [[Image:Rosa canina hips.jpg|right|thumb|[[Rose hips]] are a particularly rich source of vitamin C]] The richest natural sources are fruits and vegetables, and of those, the [[camu camu]] fruit and the [[Kakadu plum]] contain the highest concentration of the vitamin. It is also present in some cuts of meat, especially liver. Vitamin C is the most widely taken [[nutritional supplement]] and is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, drink mixes, crystals in capsules or naked crystals. Vitamin C is absorbed by the intestines using a sodium-ion dependent channel. It is transported through the intestine via both glucose-sensitive and glucose-insensitive mechanisms. The presence of large quantities of sugar either in the intestines or in the blood can slow absorption.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilson JX |title=Regulation of vitamin C transport |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=25 |issue= |pages=105-25 |year=2005 |pmid=16011461 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092647}}</ref> === Plant sources === While plants are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on: the precise variety of the plant, the soil condition, the climate in which it grew, the length of time since it was picked, the storage conditions, and the method of preparation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uk.foedevarestyrelsen.dk/Nutrition/Vitamin_mineral_content_is_stable/forside.htm |title=The vitamin and mineral content is stable |accessdate=2007-03-07 |publisher=Danish Veterinary and Food Administration }}</ref> === Animal sources === [[Image:Goat.jpg|thumb|300px|Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.]] The overwhelming majority of species of animals and plants synthesise their own vitamin C, making some, but not all, animal products, sources of dietary vitamin C. Vitamin C is most present in the liver and least present in the muscle. Since muscle provides the majority of meat consumed in the western human diet, animal products are not a reliable source of the vitamin. Vitamin C is present in [[Breastfeeding#Benefits|mother's milk]] and, in lower amounts, in [[Milk#Nutritional benefits|raw cow's milk]], with [[pasteurized milk]] containing only trace amounts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saanendoah.com/compare.html |title= Comparing Milk: Human, Cow, Goat & Commercial Infant Formula |accessdate=2007-02-28 |date=8 January 2007 |first=Stephanie, Ph. D | last= Clark |publisher=[[Washington State University]] }}</ref> All excess Vitamin C is disposed of through the urinary system. === Food preparation === Vitamin C [[chemical decomposition|chemically decomposes]] under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Normally, boiling water at 100°C is not hot enough to cause any significant destruction of the nutrient, which only decomposes at 190°C, <ref name="Oxford"/> despite popular opinion. However, [[pressure cooking]], roasting, frying and [[grilling]] food is more likely to reach the [[decomposition temperature]] of vitamin C. Longer cooking times also add to this effect, as will copper food vessels, which [[catalyse]] the decomposition.<ref name="Oxford"/> Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is [[leaching]], where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C doesn't leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows [[broccoli]] seems to retain more than any other.<ref name=Combs>Combs GF. The Vitamins, Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001:245–272</ref> Research has also shown that fresh-cut fruit don't lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webmd.com/content/article/123/115022.htm |title=Fresh-Cut Fruit May Keep Its Vitamins |accessdate=2007-02-25 |date=2 June 2006 |first=Miranda |last=Hitti |publisher=WebMD }}</ref> === Vitamin C supplements === [[Image:RedoxonVitaminC.jpg|thumb|right|Vitamin C is widely available in the form of tablets and powders. The [[Redoxon]] brand, launched in 1934 by [[Hoffmann-La Roche]], was the first mass-produced synthetic vitamin C.]] Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement.<ref> [http://www.thedietchannel.com/Vitamin-C.htm The Diet Channel] Vitamin C might be the most widely known and most popular vitamin purchased as a supplement.</ref> It is available in many forms including caplets, tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin formulations, in multiple antioxidant formulations, and crystalline powder. Timed release versions are available, as are formulations containing [[bioflavonoids]] such as quercetin, hesperidin and rutin. Tablet and capsule sizes range from 25 mg to 1500 mg. Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid) crystals are typically available in bottles containing 300 g to 1 kg of powder (a teaspoon of vitamin C crystals equals 5,000 mg). === Artificial modes of synthesis === Vitamin C is produced from [[glucose]] by two main routes. The [[Tadeusz Reichstein|Reichstein process]], developed in the 1930s, uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step [[Fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] process, originally developed in [[China]] in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/2001/fulltext/456a4.2.pdf |title=The production of vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=2001 |publisher=Competition Commission }}</ref> Research is underway at the [[Scottish Crop Research Institute]] in the interest of creating a strain of yeast that can synthesise vitamin C in a single fermentation step from [[galactose]], a technology expected to reduce manufacturing costs considerably.<ref name="yeastAA" /> World production of synthesised vitamin C is currently estimated at approximately 110,000 tonnes annually. Main producers today are [[BASF]]/[[Takeda Chemical Industries|Takeda]], [[DSM (company)|DSM]], [[Merck KGaA|Merck]] and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd. of the [[People's Republic of China]]. China is slowly becoming the major world supplier as its prices undercut those of the US and European manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?n=63349-dsm-vitamin-c |title=DSM makes last stand against Chinese vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=[[2005-10-20]] |first=Dominique |last=Patton |publisher=nutraingredients }}</ref> --> == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Vitamin C|Vitamin C]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris (5 Dés. 2007). {{Reflist|2}} == Bacaan salajengna == ;Jurnal * {{cite journal |author=Dolske, M.C., et al. |title=A preliminary trial of ascorbic acid as supplemental therapy for autism |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=765-74 |year=1993 |pmid=8255984 |doi=}} * {{cite journal |author=Green VA, Pituch KA, Itchon J, Choi A, O'Reilly M, Sigafoos J |title=Internet survey of treatments used by parents of children with autism |journal=Research in developmental disabilities |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=70-84 |year=2006 |pmid=15919178 |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2004.12.002}} ;Pustaka *{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |authorlink=Linus Pauling |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C and the Common Cold |year=1970 |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Company |location= |isbn=071670160X}} *{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |authorlink=Linus Pauling |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C, the Common Cold, and the Flu'' |url=https://archive.org/details/vitaminccommonco0000paul |year=1976 |publisher=W H Freeman & Co |location= |isbn=0716703610}} *{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Ewan |authorlink=Ewan Cameron (Vitamin C)|Ewan Cameron |coauthors=[[Linus Pauling]], |title=Cancer and Vitamin C |url=https://archive.org/details/cancervitaminc00came |year=1979|publisher=Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine|location= |isbn=0393500004}} *{{cite book |last=Kent |first=Saul |authorlink=Saul Kent |coauthors= |title=Life Extension Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeextensionrev00kent |year=1980 |publisher=Morrow |location= |isbn= }} *{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Durk |authorlink=Durk Pearson|coauthors=Sandy Shaw|title=[[Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach]] |year=1982 |publisher=Warner Books |location= |isbn=0446387355 }} see Part IV, Chapter 7: Vitamin C *{{cite book |last=Pelton |first=Ross |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Mind Food and Smart Pills: How to Increase Your Intelligence and Prevent Brain Aging |url=https://archive.org/details/mindfoodsmartpil0000pelt |year=1986 |publisher=T & R Pub |location= |isbn=0936809000 }} see Chapter 3: Vitamin C, The Champion Free Radical Scavenger *{{cite book |last=Clemetson |first=C.A.B |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C |url=https://archive.org/details/vitaminc0001clem |year=1989 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-4841-2 }} Monograph - Volumes I, II, III. *{{cite book |last=Levy |first=Thomas E. |authorlink=Thomas E. Levy |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C Infectious Diseases, & Toxins |year=2002 |publisher=Xlibris |location= |isbn=1401069630}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/ AscorbateWeb] — a collection of twentieth century medical & scientific literature on vitamin C in the tréatment and prevention of human diséase at séanet.com * [http://autism.healingthresholds.com/therapy/vitamin-c Healing Thresholds — Research on Vitamin C in the treatment of autism.] at héalingthresholds.com * {{US patent|5278189}} — "Prevention and treatment of occlusive [[cardiovascular disease]] with ascorbate and substances that inhibit the binding of lipoprotein (a)", Inventors: Matthias W. Rath and Linus C. Pauling * [http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminc/ vitamin C] at [[Food Standards Agency|United Kingdom Food Standards Agency]] * {{cite journal |author=Naidu KA |title=Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview |journal=Nutrition journal |volume=2 |issue= |pages=7 |year=2003 |pmid=14498993 |doi=10.1186/1475-2891-2-7 |url=http://www.nutritionj.com/content/2/1/7}} * [http://www.acu-cell.com/vitc.html Vitamin C Requirements: Optimal Health Benefits vs Overdose] — a moderate dose advocacy site * [http://www.doctoryourself.com/vitciv.html For Doctors: Preparation of Vitamin C IV's] — by Andrew W. Saul, PhD. at doctoryourself.com * [http://www.orthomed.com/bird.htm Information regarding treatment of the Bird Flu with massive doses of ascorbate.] — by Robert Cathcart, M.D. at orthomed.com {{Vitamin}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Antioksidan]] [[Kategori:Asam organik]] [[Kategori:Vitamin]] [[Kategori:Koénzim]] 5x46mh85zwh760km2f37wcd38gsf6g1 0 25760 711639 709402 2026-08-07T00:42:55Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711639 wikitext text/x-wiki {{islam}} '''Haji''' nyaéta [[rukun]] (tihang ageman) [[Islam]] anu kalima sanggeus [[sahadat]], solat, [[zakat]] sarta [[Saum|puasa]]. Ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji mangrupikeun ritual taunan [[kaum muslim]] sa-dunya anu mampuh (boh sacara matérial, fisik, sarta élmuna) ku cara nganjang sarta ngalaksanakeun runtuyan kagiatan di sababaraha tempat di [[Arab Saudi]] dina wanci anu ditangtoskeun nyaéta usum haji (bulan Dzulhijjah).<ref>{{cite web |title=Hajj |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/hajj |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=27 Maret 2026}}</ref> Hal ieu béda sareng [[Umroh|ibadah umroh]] anu bisa dilaksanakeun sawaktu-waktu. Kagiatan inti ibadah haji dimimitian dina tanggal 8 Dzulhijjah nalika umat Islam mondok atanapi mabit di [[Mina]], diteraskeun ku [[Wukuf]] (cicing) di [[Arafah|Padang Arafah]] dina tanggal 9 Dzulhijjah, sarta lekasan sanggeus ngabalangkeun [[jumrah]] (ngabalangkeun batu simbolisasi sétan) dina tanggal 10 Dzulhijjah. Masarakat [[Indonésia]] ilaharna ogé nyebutna lebaran Haji/ [[Idul Adha]] minangka Poé raya haji jalaran waktosna sareng puncak dilaksanakeunna ibadah Haji ieu.<ref>Al-Qurthubi. ''Al-Jami' li Ahkam al-Qur'an'', Tafsir Surah Al-Hajj.</ref> ==Harti== Sacara ''lughawi'', haji hartosna ngadon atawa nuju sarta ngadatangan. Nurutkeun étimologi [[basa Arab]], kecap haji miboga harti ''qashd'', nyaéta tujuan, maksud, sarta ngadon. Nurutkeun istilah syara', haji téh nuju ka [[Ka'bah|Baitullah]] sarta tempat-tempat nu tangtu pikeun ngalaksanakeun amalan-amalan [[ibadah]] nu tangtu ogé. Anu dimaksud kalawan temat-tempat nu tangtu dina définisi diluhur, sajaba [[Ka'bah]] sarta [[Sa'i|Mas'a]] (tempat sa'i), ogé [[Arafah]], [[Muzdalifah]], sarta [[Mina]]. Anu dimaksud jeung waktu nu tangtu tayalian bulan-bulan haji anu dimimitian ti [[Syawal]] nepi ka sapuluh poé kahiji bulan [[Dzulhijjah]]. Sedengkeun amal ibadah nu tangtu tayalian [[thawaf]], [[sa'i]], [[Wukuf]], [[Mabit|mazbit]] di [[Muzdalifah]], [[jumrah]], mabit di Mina, sarta séjén-séjén. == Hakékat Haji == Salaku ibadah anu jangkep, haji miboga hakékat batiniah anu kacida jerona salian ti runtuyan gerakan fisikna:<ref>Al-Ghazali. ''Ihya Ulumiddin'', Kitab al-Asrar al-Hajj. Dar al-Minhaj.</ref> * '''Simbol Mulang:''' Nganjang ka [[Kabah|Baitullah]] mangrupikeun hakékat "mulangna" hiji hamba ka "imah" asalna, nyaéta mulang ka Gusti Allah SWT (''simbolisasi'' maot sateuacan maot). * '''Kamanunggalan:''' Wukuf di [[Arafah|Padang Arafah]] nyaéta gambaran [[Padang Mahsyar]], di mana sakabéh manusa ngumpul dina derajat anu sarua, teu ditingal pangkatna, hartana, atanapi sukuna. * '''Ngalawan Nafsu:''' Ngabalangkeun [[jumrah]] hakékatna sanés mung malédog tugu, tapi simbol ngalawan sarta miceun hawa nafsu sétan anu aya dina diri manusa. * '''Ihram:''' Ngagunakeun lawon bodas (ihram) hakékatna nyaéta ngaleupaskeun sagala rupa ''atribut'' kadunyaan supados manusa sadar yén nalika maot, taya harta anu dibawa iwal ti amal ibadah. ==Filosofi == Ibadah haji sanés ngan saukur ritual fisik, tapi mangrupa perjalanan spiritual anu jero. Ali Syariati dina bukuna ''Makna Haji'' ngagambarkeun yén haji téh prosés manusa ngaleupaskeun "ego" nuju ka jati diri anu murni. Hiji cutatan anu kasohor ngeunaan beuratna ieu perjalanan ruhani nyaéta: {{Quote|text=''Kutanya dia bagaimana telah menempuh? Perjalanan yang sangat sulit dan menakutkan ini'".|person=[[Ali Syariati]]|source=''Makna Haji''}}<ref name="Syariati">{{cite book |last=Syariati |first=Ali |author-link=Ali Syariati |title=Makna Haji |translator=Anas Mahyuddin |publisher=Pustaka |location=Bandung |year=1984 |isbn= |language=id}}</ref> Sawatara éta, [[Imam al-Ghazali]] dina kitab ''[[Ihya Ulumuddin]]'' nekenkeun yén hakekat haji téh nyaéta "Ziarah ka Pangéran". Nurutkeun anjeunna, unggal tahapan haji (saperti Wukuf sarta Tawaf) mangrupa simbol tina kaayaan manusa di poé ahérat engké.<ref>Al-Ghazali. ''Ihya Ulumuddin''. Jilid 1, Bab Rahasia-rahasia Haji.</ref> ==Sajarah== Ibadah haji mangrupikeun syariat anu parantos aya ti jaman [[Nabi Ibrahim]] as. nalika anjeunna dipasihan paréntah ku [[Allah SWT]] pikeun ngawangun deui [[Ka'bah|Baitullah]].<ref>Dr. Muhammad Ilyas Abdul Ghani, Sejarah Haji & Manasik, (2004), kaca 15. ISBN 978-9960-944-40-1.</ref> Peristiwa penting anu janten dadasar manasik haji modéren di antarana nyaéta pangurbanan Nabi Ismail as. sareng perjuangan Siti Hajar nalika milarian cai antara pasir Shafa sareng Marwah.<ref>Syaikh Safiyurrahman Al-Mubarakfuri, Sirah Nabawiyah, (2012), kaca 450. ISBN 978-602-7635-39-5.</ref> Jalma-jalma [[Arab]] dina [[jaman jahiliah]] geus mikawanoh ibadah haji ieu anu diwariskeun ti karuhun maranéhanana warisi kalawan ngalakonan parobahan diditu-didieu. Tapi, wangun umum palaksanaanana masih tetep aya, kawas ''thawaf'', ''sa'i'', ''[[Wukuf]]'', sarta malédog jumrah. Ngan waé dina prakna réa anu henteu luyu deui jeung saréat anu sabenerna.<ref>Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqih Sunnah, Jilid 3, (2013), kaca 25. ISBN 978-979-3210-44-5.</ref> Syariat haji nembé disampurnakeun sacara gembleng dina taun ka-10 Hijriah nalika Rasulullah saw. ngalaksanakeun Haji Wada' salaku conto manasik anu sah dugi ka dinten kiamat.<ref>Syaikh Safiyurrahman Al-Mubarakfuri, Sirah Nabawiyah, (2012), kaca 458.</ref> Ku kituna, [[Islam]] datang sarta ngabenerkeun lebah-lebah anu salah sarta tetep ngajalankeun naon-naon anu geus luyu kalawan pituduh syara' (saréat), sakumaha anu diatur dina al-qur'an sarta [[sunnah]] [[Rasul|rosul]]. Kasang tukang ibadah haji ieu ogé didasarkan dina ibadah sarupa anu dilaksanakeun ku nabi-nabi dina ageman Islam, utamana [[Nabi Ibrahim]] (nabina ageman Tauhid). Ritual thawaf didasarkan dina ibadah sarupa anu dilaksanakeun ku umat-umat saméméh nabi Ibarahim. Ritual sa'i, nyaéta lumpat antara [[pasir]] Shafa sarta Marwah (wewengkon rada luhur di kira-kira Ka'bah anu geus jadi hiji kahijian [[Masjid al-Haram|Masjid Al Haram]], [[Makkah]]), ogé pikeun miéling ritual pamajikan kadua nabi Ibrahim sabot néangan susu pikeun anakna anu tayalian [[Nabi Ismail]. Samentara [[Wukuf]] di Arafah nyaéta ritual pikeun miéling tempat paamprokna nabi [[Adam]] sarta [[Siti Hawa]] di alam dunya, nyaéta asal mula ti gumelarna sakumna umat manusa di dunya. == Dasar Hukum == Paréntah haji dumasar kana dawuhan Allah SWT dina Al-Qur'an: <blockquote>وَلِلَّهِ عَلَى ٱلنَّاسِ حِجُّ ٱلْبَيْتِ مَنِ ٱسْتَطَاعَ إِلَيْهِ سَبِيلًا</blockquote> <blockquote>"Sarta (ngalaksanakeun) haji téh mangrupikeun kawajiban manusa ka Allah, nyaéta pikeun jalma anu mampuh ngayakeun perjalanan ka Baitullah..." ([[Surah Ali Imran|QS. Ali Imran]]: 97).<ref>{{cite web |title=Surah Ali 'Imran - 97 |url=https://quran.com/3/97 |website=Quran.com |access-date=27 Maret 2026}}</ref></blockquote> Sarta dumasar kana dawuhan Rasulullah SAW ngeunaan tatacara (manasik) haji: <div style="margin: 1em 0; padding: 0.5em 1.5em; border-left: 4px solid #006400; font-style: italic; line-height: 1.6;"> "Candak ku aranjeun tina conto manasik haji sim kuring (Rasulullah SAW), sabab sim kuring teu terang naha sim kuring bakal haji deui saatos taun ieu." <br>— '''[[Hadits]] Riwayat Muslim no. 1297'''<ref>{{cite web |title=Sahih Muslim - The Book of Hajj |url=https://sunnah.com/muslim/15/346 |website=Sunnah.com |access-date=27 Maret 2026}}</ref> </div> Salian ti ayat Al-Qur'an, kawajiban haji ogé dumasar kana hadits [[Nabi Muhammad]] SAW. Salah sahijina nyaéta hadits anu diriwayatkeun ku Imam Ahmad sarta Imam Muslim: {{quote|text="Ti Abu Hurairah r.a., anjeunna nyarios: Rasulullah SAW kantos khutbah di payuneun urang sadaya, dawuhna: 'Wahai manusa, saéstuna Allah parantos ngawajibkeun haji ka aranjeun, mangka pék geura maridamel haji!'. Aya saurang lalaki naros: 'Naha unggal taun, ya Rasulullah?'. Rasulullah SAW cicing sakedap, nepi ka éta lalaki nanya deui nepi ka tilu kali. Tuluy Rasulullah SAW dawuh: 'Upami sim kuring nyebat 'enya', mangka haji bakal janten wajib unggal taun, sarta aranjeun moal bakal sanggup...'"|sign=Hadits Riwayat Muslim (no. 1337) sarta Ahmad (no. 10636).<ref>An-Nawawi, Imam. ''Syarh Shahih Muslim''.</ref>}} Dina riwayat séjénna ti Imam Ahmad, ditegeskeun ogé yén haji téh ngan wajib sakali saumur hirup: {{quote|text="Haji téh sakali, sarta sing saha anu nambahan (leuwih ti sakali), mangka éta téh mangrupa (ibadah) sunnah."|sign=Hadits Riwayat Ahmad.<ref>Musnad Ahmad, no. 2239.</ref>}} == Syarat Haji (Istitha'ah) == Kecap ''Istitha'ah'' hartosna kamampuh. Jalma anu wajib haji téh nyaéta anu: * Mampuh sacara '''ékonomi''' pikeun bekel indit, mulang, sarta nafkah kulawarga anu ditinggalkeun. * Sehat sacara '''fisik''' sarta '''méntal''' pikeun ngalakukeun ''aktivitas'' ibadah anu beurat. * Aman dina perjalanan (''kaamanan''). ==Jenis ibadah haji== [[Gambar:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|300px|thumb|top|left|Ritual haji, rukun Islam anu pamungkas.]] Saban [[jamaah]] bébas pikeun milih jenis ibadah haji anu hayang dilaksanakeunana. [[Muhammad|Rasulullah SAW]] mikeun kabébasan dina hal éta, sakumaha katémbong dina [[hadis]] katut. [[Aisyah]] RA ngomong: Kami indit ibadah babarengan [[Muhammad|Rasulullah SAW]] dina taunhajjatul wada. di antara kami aya anu ihram, pikeun haji sarta [[umroh]] sarta aya ogé anu berihram pikeun haji. Jelema anu berihram pikeun umroh ber-[[Tahallul]] sabot geus aya di [[Kabah|Baitullah]]. Keur jelema anu berihram pikeun haji lamun manéhna ngumpulkeun haji sarta [[umroh]]. Mangka manéhna henteu ngalakonan [[Tahallul]] nepi ka kalawan réngsé ti nahar. Katut nyaéta jenis sarta pengertian haji anu dimaksud. * '''Haji ifrad''', hartosna nyorangan. Ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji disebut ifrad lamun salahsaurang boga maksud nyorangan, boh nyorangan haji boh nyorangan [[umroh]]. Dina hal ieu, anu diheulakeun nyaéta ibadah haji. Hartina, sabot maké pakéan ihram di miqat-na, jelema kasebut boga niat ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji heula. Lamun ibadah haji geus réngsé, mangka jelema kasebut maké ihram deui pikeun ngalaksanakeun [[umroh]]. * '''Haji tamattu''', miboga harti senang-senang atawa nyalsé kalawan ngalakonan umroh leuwih tiheula di bulan-bulah haji, tuluy [[Tahallul]]. Saterusna maké pakéan ihram deui pikeun ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji, ditaun anu sarua. Tamattu' bisa ogé hartosna ngalaksanakeun ibadah sajeroning bulan-bulan sarta dina taunanu sarua, henteu leuwih tiheula balik ka nagari asal. * '''Haji qiran''', ngandung harti ngagabungkeun, ngahijikeun atawa nyakaliguskeun. Anu dimaksud didieu nyaéta ngahijikeun atawa nyakaliguskeun ihramna pikeun ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji sarta umroh. Haji qiran dipigawé kalawan tetep maké ihram saprak miqat ''makani'' sarta ngalaksanakeun kabéh rukun sarta wajib haji nepi ka réngsé, sanajan meureun baris méakeun waktu lila. Nurutkeun [[Abu Hanifah]], ngalaksanakeun haji qiran, hartosna ngalakonan dua thawaf sarta dua sa'i. ==Kagiatan ibadah haji== Katut nyaéta kagiatan utama dina ibadah haji dumasar urutan waktu: * Saméméh 8 Dzulhijjah, [[umat Islam]] ti sakumna [[dunya]] mimiti ngaleut pikeun ngalaksanakeun [[Thawaf]] Haji di Masjid Al Haram, Makkah. * 8 Dzulhijjah, jamaah haji kudu meuting di [[Mina]]. Saméméhnana dina isuk-isuk 8 Dzulhijjah, kabéh umat Islam maké pakéan [[Ihram]] (dua lembar lawon bodas henteu aya kaputan minangka pakéan haji), saterusna boga niat haji, sarta maca bacaan Talbiyah. Isuk-isuk poé tanggal 8 Dzulhijjah, jamaah nuju Mina. Peuting poéna, kabéh jamaah haji kudu meuting di Mina. * 9 Dzulhijjah, isuk-isuk poéna kabéh jamaah haji indit ka [[Arafah]]. Saterusna jamaah ngalaksanakeun ibadah [[Wukuf]], nyaéta cicing sarta ngadua di padang lega ieu nepi ka cunduk Magrib. Saméméh peuting datang, jamaah geura-giru nuju sarta meuting di [[Muzdalifah]]. * 10 Dzulhijjah, sanggeus isuk-isuk di [[Muzdalifah]], jamaah geura-giru nuju [[Mina]] pikeun ngalaksanakeun ibadah [[Jumrah Aqabah]], nyaéta malédogkeun batu saloba tujuh kali ka tugu kahiji minangka perlambang ngusir sétan. Sanggeus mencukur buuk atawa sawaréh buuk, jamaah bisa Thawaf Haji (ngabéréskeun Haji), atawa bermalam di Mina sarta ngalaksanakeun jumrah sambungan (Ula sarta Wustha). * 11 Dzulhijjah, malédog jumrah sambungan (Ula) di tugu kahiji, tugu kadua, sarta tugu katilu. * 12 Dzulhijjah, maledohkeun jumrah sambungan (Ula) di tugu kahiji, tugu kadua, sarta tugu katilu. * Saméméh balik ka nagara séwang-séwangan, jamaah ngalaksanakeun [[Tawaf Wada']] (thawaf paturay tineung). ==Rukun Haji== [[File:Public Domain Mecca Maps 38.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Katerangan gambar di dieu (contona: Peta Mekah dina mangsa harita)]] Amalan- amalan anu teu meunang henteu kudu dilaksanakeun nalika ibadah haji, umpamana ieu amalan diliwat atawa henteu dipigawé tinangtu hajina henteu sah alias batal.<ref name=Guz>{{Cite book | title =Peta Perjalanan Haji Dan Umrah| first =Guz | last =Arifin| publisher =Elex Media Komputindo| location =Jakarta| year =2004| pages =25|ISBN=9789792776614|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=DsYqOKK3IdUC&pg=PA25&dq=rukun+haji&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj179jGj5mSAxX4zjgGHZ-SIk0Q6AF6BAgJEAE#v=onepage&q=rukun%20haji&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 20 Januari 2026)}}</ref>Numutkeun istilah fikih rukun hartina sagala anu baris nyieun hiji hal henteu bisa ngawujud mun henteu aya inyana. Kitu deui dina ibadah haji, rukun téh sagala rupa hal anu ngabalukarkeun ibadah haji jadi teu sah atawa batal lamun aya hal anu geus tangtu teu dipigawé.<ref name=Ahm/> # ''[[Ihram]]'': Nyaéta mimitina lumaku kaharama-kaharaman dina ibadah haji dimimitian, kayaning ngawinkeun kitu ogé kawin, sapatemon, maéhan sasatoan, neukteuk kuku jeung buuk, maké minyak seungit, maké baju anu dikaput pikeun lalaki, nutupan beungeut tur dampal leungeun pikeun awéwé.<ref name=Ahm/> Larangan atawa kaharaman ieu lumaku salila ngalaksanakeun haji kurang leuwih lima poé, lamun seug éta larangan dirumpak maka baris meunang denda (dam)/kudu mayar denada.<ref name=Ahm>{{Cite book | title =Ensiklopedia Fikih Indonesia: Haji & Umrah| first =Ahmad | last =Sarwat, Lc, M.A| publisher =Gramedia Pustaka| location =Jakarta| year =2019| pages =25|ISBN=9786020382975|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=P3yMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86&dq=rukun+haji&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj179jGj5mSAxX4zjgGHZ-SIk0Q6AF6BAgLEAE#v=onepage&q=rukun%20haji&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 20 Januari 2026)}}</ref> # ''[[Wukuf]] Di Arafah'' : Ieu téh rukun anu paling utama malahan bakat ku pentingna saupama ieu rukun teu dilaksanakeun tinangtu sakabéh rukun hajina baris batal atawa teu sah sarta hajina kudu dibalikan deui taun hareupna. [[Wukuf]] téh dipigawé ngan satuan sakali nyaéta tanggal 9 Zulhijah wungkul.<ref name=Ahm/> # ''[[Tawaf Ifadah|Thawaf Ifadhah]]'': Tayalian dilaksanakeun samulangna ti Arafah sarta meuting di Muzdalifah, jamaah haji leumpang ngurilingan kabah lobana tujuh kuriling dimimitian ti hajar aswad nepika tepung deui di hajar aswad éta disebut sakuriling. Ibadah ieu teumeunang diwakilkeun kanu séjén, lamun teu dipigawé tangtuna hajina teu sah atawa batal.<ref name=Ahm/> # ''[[Sa'i]] Antara Shafa Jeung Marwa'': Tayalian leumpang ti mimiti [[pasir]] Shafa nepi kan [[pasir]] Marwa diitung sakali/sabalik anu lobana nepika 7 balikan kudu noron dipigawena teumeunang kaselang ku amalan séjén, dilaksanakeunna sabada thawaf ifadhah.<ref name= KH>{{Cite book | title =Inti Fiqih Haji dan 'Umrah: Terjemah Kitab al-Manasik al-Shughra li Qashid Umm al-Qura karya KH. Hasyim Asy'ari| first = KH. Muhammad | last =Hasyim Asy'ari| publisher =Genius Media Malang| location =Malang| year =2004| pages =25|ISBN=9786021442111|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=C2zsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26&dq=rukun+haji&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj179jGj5mSAxX4zjgGHZ-SIk0Q6AF6BAgIEAE#v=onepage&q=rukun%20haji&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 20 Januari 2026)}}</ref><ref name=Ahm/> # ''[[Tahallul|Tahalul]]'': Nyaéta neukteuk buuk dina sirah urang sakurang-kurangna tilu lambar, teu meunang neukteuk buuk tina bagéan awak anu séjéna. Tahalul ogé sok disebut al-halqu wa at-taqshir anu pihartieuna ngadugulan buuk sirah atawa neukteuk [[buuk]] [[sirah]] sawaréh.<ref name= KH/><ref name=Ahm/> # Tartib : Maksudna migawé rukun Haji kudu luyu jeung katangtuanna teu meunang di aclogan tina rukun ka hiji tuluy migawé rukun ka lima atawa rukun séjéna salian ti rukun ka dua. Jadi dina prakna kudu merenah éntépanna kahiji, ka dua, ka tilu, jeung saterusna.<ref name= KH/><ref name=Ahm/> {{clear|left}} ==Wajib Haji== Jamaah haji kudu migawé katangtuan wajib haji, umpamana henteu kapigawé alatan aya halangan bisa diganti kujalan mayar denda (Dam) sanajan kitu hajina tetep sah.<ref name= H./> Tapi umpama teu migawé wajib haji ieu alatan ngahaja sok komo bari nyapirakeun, ieumah baris ngadatangkeun dosa sarta kudu meuncit kurban. Sakumaha anu diunggel dina hadist riwayat Malik '''"Singsaha waé anu ninggalkeun hiji ibadah wajib dina Haji atawa poho, mangka anjeuna kudu meuncit kurban"''.<ref name= H./> Wajib haji téh aya lima, kayaning: # ''[[Mabit]]'': Meuting di [[Muzdalifah]] dina peuting tangga 10 Dzulhijah # ''Mabit'': Maeting di Mina dina peuting tanggal 11-13 Dzulhijah # ''[[Jumrah Aqabah|Jumrah Aqobah]]'' : Maledogkeun batu kana patok anu geus disayagikeun lobana 7 kali dina poé 10 Dzulhijah # ''[[Jumrah Ula]], [[Jumrah Wustha|Wustha]], Aqabah : Malédogkeun batu kana unggal tihang éta anu lobana 7 kali dina unggal tihang # ''[[Tawaf Wada'|Thawaf Wada]]'' : Thawaf paturay tineung saméméh jamaah haji kaluar ti kota [[Mekah]]<ref name= H.>{{Cite book | title =The Journey To Arafah : Kisah Perjalanan Spiritual| first = H. Wahyudi| last =ST., M.Eng.| publisher =PT Adab Indonesia| location =Indramayu| year =2019| pages =32|ISBN=9786238776429|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=QcExEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Arafah&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiFl4Or75mSAxXI7jgGHQU4JzYQ6AF6BAgEEAE#v=onepage&q=Arafah&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 21 Januari 2026)}}</ref> ==Pantangan Dina Ibadah Haji== Aya genep perkara anu dipantang dina waktu ngajalankeun [[ibadah]] haji jeung [[umrah]] tayalian: # Maké [[kaméja]], [[calana]], '''muzah''' (sapatu kulit), jeung [[sorban]]. Pikeun kaum [[lalaki]] tambahan ku teu meunang nutupan [[sirah]]na, alatan ihramna lalaki nya dina sirah. Pikeun kaum [[awéwé]]mah meunang maké [[baju]] beunang [[ngaput]] tapi teumeunang nutupan [[beungeut]]na, alatan ihramna awéwémah dina beungeutna.<ref name=Al-/> # Teumeunang maké seuseungitan saperti minyak seungit jeung sajabana, sarta ngajauhan sagala rupa anu seungit-seungit. Umpama pantangan ieu dirumpak, hukumna kudu mayar dengda (dam) kujalan meuncit [[domba]]. # Neukteuk [[buuk]] ogé neukteuk kuku ieu téh dipantang pisan nalika ihram,lamun dirumpak hukumana sarua kudu meuncit domba.<ref name=Al-/> # [[Sapatemon]], ngupat batur, paréa-réa omong, ieu pagawéan baris ngaruksak haji lamun seug dipigawé saméméh tahalul. Lamun seug dirumpak ieu pantangan kudu mayar dam dina palebah dieu ku [[onta]] [[bikang]], [[sapi]], atawa 7 [[domba]]. Tapi lamun dibigawéna sabada [[[[Tahallul|tahalul]]]] wajib hukumna meuncit onta bikang sangkan hajina henteu ruksak.<ref name=Al-/> # Ngalakukeun pagawéan, omongan, atawa rindat anu matak ngadatangkeun napsu/birahi pikeun sapatemon ieu dipantang pisan, Lamun seug dirumpak baris meunang hukuman kudu mayar hiji domba. Kitu deui kawin atawa ngawinkeun ieu hukumna henteu sah, sagigireun ti éta kudu mayar dam ogé.<ref name=Al-/> # Teumeunang maéhan [[sato]] darat, [[moro]] jeung sajabana. Lamun dirumpak ieu pantangan, kudu ngaganti sato anu paéh éta ku sato anu sarua kalawan beurat jeung ukuran anu sarua.<ref name=Al->{{Cite book | title =Rahasia Haji dan Umrah| first =Al-Ghazali| last =Imam| publisher =Turos| location =Jakarta| year =2017| pages =69|ISBN=9786021583487|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/43449800-rahasia-haji-umrah|accessdate=(disungsi – 22 Januari 2026)}}</ref> ==Lokasi utama dina ibadah haji== ===Makkah Al Mukaromah=== Di dayeuh ieu pisan nangtung puseur ibadah umat Islam sadunya, [[Ka'bah]], anu aya di puseur [[Masjidil Haram]]. Dina ritual haji, [[Makkah]] jadi tempat bubuka sarta panutup ibadah ieu sabot jamaah diwajibkeun ngalaksanakeun niat sarta thawaf haji. ===Arafah=== Dayeuh di palebah wétan Makkah ieu ogé dipikawanoh minangka tempat puseurna haji, tayalian tempat [[Wukuf]] dilaksanakeun. Wewengkon ngawangun padang lega ieu téh tempat ngariungna kira-kira dua juta jamaah haji ti sakuliah dunya. Di luar usum haji, wewengkon ieu henteu dipaké. ===Mina=== Tempat nangtungna tugu [[jumrah]], nyaéta tempat palaksanaan kagiatan melontarkan batu ka tugu jumrah minangka simbolisasi tindakan [[Nabi Ibrahim]] sabot ngusir setan. Dimasing-maising tempat éta nangtung tugu anu dipaké pikeun palaksanaan: [[Jumrah Aqabah]], [[Jumrah Ula]], sarta [[Jumrah Wustha]]. Di tempat ieu jamaah ogé diwajibkeun pikeun menginap hiji peuting. ===Muzdalifah=== Tempat di deukeut Mina sarta Arafah, dipikawanoh minangka tempat jamaah haji ngalakonan Mabit (Bermalam) sarta ngumpulkeun batu-batu pikeun ngalaksanakeun ibadah jumrah di Mina. ===Madinah=== Nyaéta dayeuh suci kadua umat Islam. Di tempat ieu pisan panutan umat Islam, [[Muhammad|Nabi Muhammad SAW]] dimakamkan di [[Masjid Nabawi]]. Tempat ieu sabenerna henteu asup ka dina ritual ibadah haji, tapi jamaah haji ti sakumna dunya biasana menyempatkan diri nganjang ka dayeuh anu tempatna kurang leuwih 200&nbsp;km kalér [[Makkah]] ieu pikeun berziarah sarta ngalaksanakeun [[solat|sholat]] di masjid Nabi. ==Waktu Jeung Tempat Ibadah Haji== {| class="wikitable" style="width: 100%; border: 1px solid black; font-size: 95%;" |- style="background-color: #2e8b57; color: white; text-align: center;" ! Kaping !! Waktos !! Kagiatan & Tempat !! Detil Ritual !! Rujukan Arab & Hartosna |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''8'''<br><small>([[Tarwiyah]])</small> || 08.00 - Isya || '''Niat & Mabit'''<br>[[Mina]] || Nganggo [[ihram]] sarta nginep di Mina. || style="text-align: right;" | '''فَأَهَلُّوا بِالْحَجِّ'''<br><small>"...maka maranéhna ngamimitian ihram pikeun haji." (HR. Muslim 1218)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''9'''<br><small>(Arafah)</small> || 12.00 - 18.00 || '''[[Wukuf]]'''<br>[[Arafah]] || Puncak haji: Dzikir sarta ngadu'a. || style="text-align: right;" | '''فَإِذَا أَفَضْتُمْ مِنْ عَرَفَاتٍ'''<br><small>"Maka nalika aranjeun parantos angkat ti Arafat..." (QS. Al-Baqarah: 198)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''9-10''' || 19.00 - Subuh || '''Mabit'''<br>[[Muzdalifah]] || Nginep sakedap sarta mulung krikil. || style="text-align: right;" | '''فَاذْكُرُوا اللَّهَ عِنْدَ الْمَشْعَرِ الْحَرَامِ'''<br><small>"...kudu nyebut Allah di Masy'aril Haram." (QS. Al-Baqarah: 198)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''10'''<br><small>(Nahr)</small> || 06.00 - 11.00 || '''[[Jumrah Aqabah]]'''<br>[[Mina]] || Ngalémpar 7 krikil sarta '''Tahallul'''. || style="text-align: right;" | '''يَرْمِي الْجَمْرَةَ يَوْمَ النَّحْرِ'''<br><small>"Nabi ngalémpar jumrah dina dinten Nahr." (HR. Bukhari 1745)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''10''' || 12.00 - Isya || '''[[Tawaf Ifadah]]'''<br>[[Masjidil Haram]] || Muteran [[Kabah|Baitullah]] (Ka'bah) 7 kali. || style="text-align: right;" | '''وَلْيَطَّوَّفُوا بِالْبَيْتِ الْعَتِيقِ'''<br><small>"...sarta kudu tawaf maranéhna di Baitul Atiq." (QS. Al-Hajj: 29)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''11-12'''<br><small>(Tasyrik)</small> || Saatos Duhur || '''Lémpar 3 Jumrah'''<br>[[Mina]] || Ula, Wustha, Aqabah (@7 krikil). || style="text-align: right;" | '''وَاذْكُرُوا اللَّهَ فِي أَيَّامٍ مَعْدُودَاتٍ'''<br><small>"Sarta kudu dzikir ka Allah dina poé nu geus ditangtukeun." (QS. Al-Baqarah: 203)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''13'''<br><small>(Tasyrik)</small> || Saatos Duhur || '''Nafar Tsani'''<br>[[Mina]] || Husus pikeun anu netep sapeuting deui. || style="text-align: right;" | '''فَمَنْ تَعَجَّلَ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ فَلَا إِثْمَ عَلَيْهِ'''<br><small>"Sing saha nu gura-giru (mulang) dina dua poé, maka euweuh dosa." (QS. Al-Baqarah: 203)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''Ahir''' || Sateuacan Mulang || '''[[Tawaf Wada']]'''<br>[[Masjidil Haram]] || Tawaf pamitan (perpisahan). || style="text-align: right;" | '''يَكُونَ آخِرُ عَهْدِهِمْ بِالْبَيْتِ'''<br><small>"...sangkan (tawaf) jadi ahir lalampahan maranéhna." (HR. Muslim 1327)</small> |} ==Catetan kacilakaan ibadah haji== * [[Désémber]] [[1975]]: 200 jamaah palastra di deukeut dayeuh Makkah sanggeus hiji pipa gas ngajelegur sarta ngaduruk sapuluh tenda. * [[4 Désémber]] [[1979]]: 153 jamaah palastra sarta 560 séjénna tatu sanggeus patugas kaamanan Arab Saudi anu dibantuan patugas [[Perancis]] mecakan membébaskan Masjidil Haram anu disandera sajumplukan militan salila dua minggu. * [[31 Juli]] [[1987]]: 402 jamaah palastra, 275 di antarana ti Iran, sanggeus rébuan jamaah Iran anu ngalakonan demonstrasi meunang lalawanan fisik ti kaamanan Arab Saudi. Alatan ti insiden éta Arab Saudi megatkeun hubungan diplomatik jeung Iran, anu ahirna henteu ngirimkeun jamaahna ka Makkah nepi ka taun1991. * [[10 Juli]] [[1989]]: hiji jamaah palastra sarta 16 tatu alatan penembakan didalam Masjidil Haram. Balukarna 16 urang Kuwait anu ngalakonan penyerangan dihukum tembak mati. * [[15 Juli]] [[1989]]: lima jamaah asal Pakistan palastra sarta 34 séjénna tatu alatan insiden penembakan ku sajumplukan jelema nyekel pakarang di padumukan maranéhanana di Makkah. * [[2 Juli]] [[1990]]: 1.426 jamaah palastra lolobana ti Asia alatan terperangkap didalam torowongan Mina. * [[24 Méi]] [[1994]]: 270 jamaah palastra alatan silih dorong sarta injak di Mina. * [[7 Méi]] [[1995]]: tilu jamaah palastra alatan kebakaran di Mina. * 15 April [[1997]]: 343 jamaah palastra sarta 1.500 séjénna tatu alatan kehabisan nafas alatan terjebak didalam kebakaran tenda di Mina. * [[9 April]] [[1998]]: 118 jamaah palastra alatan berdésak–désakkan waktu palaksanaan lontar jumroh. * [[5 Maret]] [[2001]]: 35 jamaah palastra sarta puluhan séjénna tatu – tatu alatan berdésak – désakan di Jammarat. * [[11 Pebruari]] [[2003]]: 14 jamaah palastra di Jumrotul Mina – genep di antarana wanoja. * [[1 Pebruari]] [[2004]]: Saloba 251 jamaah palastra salila palaksanaan lontar jumrah. * [[23 Januari]] [[2005]]: 29 jamaah palastra alatan caah panggoréngna dina 20 taunpamungkas di Madinah. * [[5 Januari]] [[2006]]: Saloba 76 palastra alatan runtuhnya hiji penginapan al-rayahin di jalan Gaza, kira-kira 200 méter palebah kulon Masjidil Haram. * [[12 Jan]] [[2006]]: Saeutikna 345 jamaah palastra di Jammarat salila palaksanaan lontar jumrah. Insiden ieu lumangsung dina jam 15.30 waktu satempat réngsé solat dzuhur, sanggeus jutaan jamaah silih berdésak–désakkan di panto asup palebah kalér lanté dua Jammarat. == Rujukan == * {{cite book|last=Bianchi|first=Robert R.|year=2004|title=Guests of God: Pilgrimage and Politics in the Islamic World|url=https://archive.org/details/guestsofgodpilgr0000bian|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517107-5}} * {{cite book|last=Hammoudi|first=Abdellah|year=2006|title=A Season in Mecca: Narrative of a Pilgrimage|publisher=Hill and Wang|isbn=978-0-8090-7609-3|author-link=Abdellah Hammoudi|url=https://archive.org/details/seasoninmeccanar00hamm}} * Khan, Qaisra, "Hajj & 'Umra", in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol. I, pp.&nbsp;239–245. * {{cite book|last=Patler|first=Nicholas|title=From Mecca to Selma: Malcolm X, Islam, and the Journey tnto the American Civil Rights Movement|year=2017|publisher=The Islamic Monthly|url=http://theislamicmonthly.com/mecca-to-selma/}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230082856/https://www.theislamicmonthly.com/mecca-to-selma/ |date=2022-12-30 }} * {{cite book|last=Trojanow|first=Ilija|year=2007|title=Mumbai to Mecca: A Pilgrimage to the Holy Sites of Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/frommumbaitomecc0000troj|publisher=Haus Publishing|isbn=978-1-904950-29-5|author-link=Ilija Trojanow}} {{Islam-pondok}} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Haji]] [[Kategori:ibadah]] [[Kategori:Rukun islam]] {{Ibadah Haji}} qp6b6osdbtd6y931c90qj6p5kyoypzb 0 25789 711849 616755 2026-08-07T05:48:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711849 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Emblem of Jerusalem.svg|thumb|250px|left]] {{islam}} '''Yerusalem''' (basa Ibrani: ירושלים Yerushalayim, basa Arab: أورشليم القدس Urshalim-al-quds atawa ngan القدس Al-quds waé nyaéta dayeuh di [[Wétan Tengah]] anu mangrupa dayeuh suci pikeun ageman Islam, Kristen sarta Yahudi. Dayeuh ieu diklaim minangka ibukota Israél, sanajan henteu diaku sacara internasional, atawa bagian ti Paléstina. Sacara de facto dayeuh ieu dikawasa ku Israél. Para élit Israél nganggap dayeuh suci ieu téh bagian ti nagarana sarta éta téh wangun idéologi "[[Zionisme]]".Ti kabéh nagara anu ngabogaan hubungan diplomatik kalawan [[Israél]], ngan Kosta Rika sarta El Salvador waé anu nempatkeun kedutaan maranéhanana di Yerusalem. Séjénna di [[Tel Aviv]], alatan nurutkeun PBB, Yerusalem baris dijadikeun Dayeuh Internasional. Ku jalma-jalma Paléstina, Yerusalem ogé dianggap minangka puseur dayeuh [[Paléstina]]. [[Dayeuh]] historis Yerusalem nyaéta hiji warisan dunya anu ditangtayungan ku [[UNESCO]] mimiti taun1981. Dayeuh ieu ngabogaan nu nyicingan sagedé 724.000 jiwa sarta lega 123 km2. == Sajarah == Yerusalem geus dicicingan saprak abad ke-3 Saméméh Masehi. Minangka dayeuh anu tempatna strategis, Yerusalem remen ogé dijadikeun sasaran bangsa-bangsa badag kawas [[Babilonia]] sarta [[Romawi]]. Dina jaman Romawi, wewengkon Yerusalem dikawasa ku [[Pontius Pilatus]]. Saterusna dina ke-7 Masehi, dayeuh Yerusalem dikawasa ku khalifah [[Umar bin Khattab]]. Waktu éta, Yerusalem dikawasa ku Uskup Sophronius. Saterusna, Yerusalem dikawasa ku kekhalifahan Islam sarta dina ahirna taun[[1948]] dikawasa sacara henteu sah ku [[Israél]]. == Lokasi geografis == Yerusalem perenahna dina koordinat 31°47′N, 35°13′E di wewengkon plato [[Pegunungan Judean]]. Jerusalem perenahna 60 kilométer ti [[Tel Aviv]] sarta [[Laut Tengah]]. Iklim Jerusalem sorangan beriklim laut tengah, nyaéta haneut, tiis sarta panas. == Yerusalem sarta Islam == [[Gambar:Jerusalem Dome of the rock BW 14.JPG|thumb|250px|left|Masjid Qubah Ash-Sakrah di Jerusalem]] Pikeun kaum [[Muslim]], Yerusalem mangrupa tempat katilu pangsucina dina [[Islam]]. Lamun balik ka sajarah Yerusalem, urang bisa nempo yén dayeuh ieu ngalaman kesengsaraan saméméh kadatangan Islam. Di waktu Islam ngawasa dayeuh ieu barulah ngahontal ketenangan sarta kaamanan. Réa padagang-padagang Arab berdagang di dieu kaasup ti [[Makkah]] sarta [[Madinah]]. Dayeuh ieu ogé jadi [[kiblat]] kahiji umat Islam saméméh ahirna pindah ka Makkah. Disaat soldadu Salib ngawasa dayeuh ieu, kabéh nu nyicingan dayeuh, kaasup anu ngagem agama [[Kristen]] dibunuh kalawan telenges. Sanggeus [[Salahuddin Al-Ayubi]] ngawasa dayeuh ieu balik, jelema [[Islam]], [[Kristen]], sarta [[Yahudi]] bisa beribadah tanpa ayana gangguan == Dayeuh kembar == * [[New York]], [[Amérika Sarikat]] == Rujukan == '''Buku''' * {{Cite book|last=Armstrong|first=Karen|year=2000|title=The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/battleforgodfund0000arms_d0y8|location=New York|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-000-2555-23-4|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|last=Armstrong|first=Karen|year=2000|title=Islam: A Short History|url=https://archive.org/details/islamshorthistor0000arms_e1d6|location=New York|publisher=Modern Library Chronicles|isbn=978-081-2966-18-3|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book||last=Armstrong|first=Karen|year=2016|title=Fields of Blood: Mengurai Sejarah Hubungan Agama dan Kekerasan|location=Bandung|publisher=Mizan|isbn=978-979-4339-69-5|url-status=live}} == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=2 Loka Resmi Dayeuh Jerusalem] [[Kategori:Dayeuh suci]] ed7huh56os4me2nrvw5luph57hlgz0y 0 25793 711769 674278 2026-08-07T03:47:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} [[Gambar:Black Hole Milkyway.jpg|thumb|right|329px|Gambar hasil simulasi: liang hideung di hareupeun Galaksi Bima Sakti lamun ditempo tina jarak 600 km. Liang hideung ieu boga massa 10 kalieun massa panonpoé. Sangkan bisa mertahankan diri dina jarak 600 km (henteu katarik ka jero liang) diperlukeun laju reaksi (ka arah lawan) nu gancangna kurang leuwih 400 yuta [[g-force|g]].<ref>[http://www.spacetimetravel.org/expeditionsl/expeditionsl.html "Step by Step into a Black Hole"]</ref>]] {{General relativity}} '''Liang hideung''' ([[basa Inggris|Ing]]: '''''black hole''''') nyaéta hiji wewengkon di angkasa nu mangrupa tempat museurna [[massa]] anu pohara gedéna antukna ngahasilkeun [[gaya]] [[gravitasi]] anu kacida kuatna nu temahna moal aya naon waé ogé nu bakal bisa leupas lamun geus ancrub kana [[event horizon]]na kajaba ngaliwatan [[torowongan kuantum]]. Ngaran ieu mucunghul alatan kanyataan yén [[Radiasi Éléktromagnétik|radiasi éléktromagnétik]] (contona [[cahaya]]) nu geus asup kana ieu liang, teu bisa leupas deui, cahayana henteu nepi ka panon urang antukna urang henteu bisa nempo éta wewengkon, atawa ngageblég hideung. Liang hideung bisa kawénéhan lamun aya kajadian interaksi jeung bahan di ''saluareun'' sisina nu disebut ''event horizon'', contona ku cara narik gas tina béntang. Gas baris muter katarik ka jero liang, jadi panas nepi ka hawana kacida pisan panasna sarta ngaluarkeun sajumlah gedé [[radiasi]] dina prosésna; radiasi ieu nu nepi kana mata urang antukna urang bisa nempo ieu prosés<ref>{{cite web|url=http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/compact_binary.html|title=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center: "Gamma-rays from Black Holes and Neutron Stars"}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061027184105.htm|title=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft October 28, 2006, "Discovery Of Gamma Rays From The Edge Of A Black Hole"}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.physorg.com/news91731386.html|title=Milky Way Black Hole May Be a Colossal 'Particle Accelerator' }}</ref> {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} While the idéa of an object with [[gravity]] strong enough to prevent light from escaping was proposed in the 18th century, black holes, as presently understood, are described by [[Einstein]]'s théory of [[general relativity]], developed in [[1916]]. This théory predicts that when a large enough amount of [[mass]] is present within a [[hoop conjecture|sufficiently small region of space]], all [[world line|paths through space]] are warped inwards towards the center of the [[volume]], forcing all matter and radiation to fall inward. While general relativity describes a black hole as a region of empty space with a pointlike [[gravitational singularity|singularity]] at the center and an event horizon at the outer edge, the description changes when the effects of [[quantum mechanics]] are taken into account. Reséarch on this subject indicates that, rather than holding captured matter forever, black holes may slowly léak a form of thermal energy called [[Hawking radiation]].<ref name="Nature248 ">{{cite journal| journal = Nature | volume = 248| issue = | year = 1974| pages = pp. 30-31| title = Black Hole Explosions| last = Hawking| first = Stephen| url = | format = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="McDonald">{{cite journal| journal = Princeton University| volume = | issue = | year = 1998| pages = p. 1| title = Hawking-Unruh Radiation and Radiation of a Uniformly Accelerated Charge| last = McDonald| first = Kirk T.| url = | format = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="HawkingPenrose">{{cite book| title = The Nature of Space and Time | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780691050843 | edition = New Ed edition | last = Hawking | first = Stephen | coauthors = Penrose, Roger | year = 2000| publisher = Princeton University Press| id = ISBN 978-0-691-05084-3| pages = p. 44}}</ref> However, the final, correct description of black holes, requiring a théory of [[quantum gravity]], is unknown. == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Bacaan salajengna == === Bacaan kasohor === * {{cite book | author=Ferguson, Kitty | title=Black Holes in Space-Time | publisher=Watts Franklin | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-531-12524-6}} * {{cite book | author=Hawking, Stephen | title=[[A Brief History of Time]] | publisher=Bantam Books, Inc | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-553-38016-8}} * {{cite book | author=[[Fulvio Melia|Melia, Fulvio]] | title=The Black Hole at the Center of Our Galaxy | publisher=Princeton U Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0-691-09505-9}} * {{cite book | author=[[Fulvio Melia|Melia, Fulvio]] | title=The Edge of Infinity. Supermassive Black Holes in the Universe | publisher=Cambridge U Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0-521-81405-8}} * {{cite book | author=Pickover, Clifford | title=Black Holes: A Traveler's Guide | publisher=Wiley, John & Sons, Inc | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-471-19704-1}} * {{cite book | author=Thorne, Kip S. | title=[[Black Holes and Time Warps]] | publisher=Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc | year=1994 | id=ISBN 0-393-31276-3}} === Buku teks jeung monograp universitas === * Carter, B. (1973). Black hole equilibrium states, in ''Black Holes'', eds. DeWitt B. S. and DeWitt C. * {{cite book | author=Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan | title=Mathematical Theory of Black Holes | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-19-850370-9}} * Frolov, V. P. and Novikov, I. D. (1998), ''Black hole physics''. * Hawking, S. W. and Ellis, G. F. R. (1973), ''The large-scale structure of space-time'', Cambridge University Press. * {{cite book | author=[[Fulvio Melia|Melia, Fulvio]] | title=The Galactic Supermassive Black Hole | publisher=Princeton U Press | year=2007 | id=ISBN 978-0-691-13129-0}} * {{cite book | author=Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald | title=Exploring Black Holes | publisher=Addison Wesley Longman | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0-201-38423-X}} * {{cite book | author=Thorne, Kip S.; Misner, Charles; Wheeler, John | title=Gravitation | publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company | year=1973 | id=ISBN 0-7167-0344-0}} * {{cite book | author=Wald, Robert M. | title=Space, Time, and Gravity: The Theory of the Big Bang and Black Holes | publisher= University of Chicago Press| year=1992 | id=ISBN 0-226-87029-4}} === Paper riset === * Hawking, S. W. (July 2005), Information Loss in Black Holes, [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0507171 arxiv:hep-th/0507171]. Stephen Hawking's purported solution to the black hole [[unitarity]] paradox, first reported at a conference in July 2004. * Ghez, A.M. ''et al.'' Stellar orbits around the Galactic Center black hole, ''Astrophysics J.'' '''620''' (2005). [http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0306130 arXiv:astro-ph/0306130] More accurate mass and position for the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way. * Hughes, S. A. Trust but verify: the case for astrophysical black holes, [http://www.arxiv.org/hep-ph/0511217 arXiv:hep-ph/0511217]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Lecture notes from 2005 [[SLAC]] Summer Institute. == Tumbu luar == * [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6215434494081736769&hl=en Yale University Video Lecture: Introduction to Black Holes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115013325/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6215434494081736769&hl=en |date=2008-01-15 }} at Google Vidéo * [http://www.hubblesite.org/go/blackholes Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517091731/http://hubblesite.org/go/blackholes |date=2008-05-17 }} - Award-winning interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute * [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/bh_pub_faq.html FAQ on black holes] * [http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/schwp.html Schwarzschild Geometry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980118051503/http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/schwp.html |date=1998-01-18 }} on [http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/ Andrew Hamilton’s website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606131650/http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/ |date=2011-06-06 }} * Tufts University: [http://hepguru.com/blackholes/ Student Project (Great Kid's Section)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711163109/http://hepguru.com/blackholes/ |date=2011-07-11 }} * [http://www.mpe.mpg.de/ir/GC/index.php Movie of Black Hole Candidate from Max Planck Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040925044354/http://www.mpe.mpg.de/ir/GC/index.php |date=2004-09-25 }} * [https://blue.utb.edu/newsandinfo/2006%AD%AD_04_13BreakthroughBlackHoles.htm UT Brownsville Group Simulates Spinning Black-Hole Binaries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912142607/https://blue.utb.edu/newsandinfo/2006%AD%AD_04_13BreakthroughBlackHoles.htm |date=2015-09-12 }} [[13 April]] [[2006]] * [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/space_time/black_holes/ Black Hole Research News] on [http://www.sciencedaily.com/ ScienceDaily] * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=0004567B-11FB-1EDD-8E1C809EC588EF21 Scientific American Magazine (July 2003 Issue) The Galactic Odd Couple - giant black holes and stellar baby booms] * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000CCC72-2AED-1264-980683414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (May 2005 Issue) Quantum Black Holes] * [http://www.space.com/blackholes/ SPACE.com All About Black Holes] - News, Féatures and Interesting Original Vidéos * [http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/bh_intro.html Black Holes Intro] - Introduction to Black Holes * [http://science.howstuffworks.com/black-hole.htm HowStuffWorks: How Black Holes Work] - éasy to consume guide to Black Holes * [http://www.richmond.edu/~ebunn/ Ted Bunn's] [http://cosmology.berkeley.edu/Education/BHfaq.html Black Holes FAQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316072849/http://cosmology.berkeley.edu/Education/BHfaq.html |date=2006-03-16 }} explains in simple language some other consequences of the way in which black holes bend space-time. [[Category:Liang hideung| ]] [[Category:Bahan poék]] [[Category:Rélativitas]] 67gjxa74b4cj1xvn92rfzx8yovvkwmb 0 25805 711749 707049 2026-08-07T03:20:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711749 wikitext text/x-wiki {{artikel petingan}} {{Infobox Holiday {{Infobox Holiday |holiday_name = Idul Fitri |official_name = Eid ul-Fitr ({{lang|ar|عيد الفطر}}) |nickname = Lebaran, Boboran Siam |observedby = Umat [[Muslim]] |type = Kaagamaan |date = 1 [[Syawal]] |significance = Mungkasna bulan [[Romadon]] |celebrations = Salat Id, silaturahmi, mudik |relatedto = [[Romadon]] }}''Idul Fitri''' ({{lang-ar|عيد الفطر}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA-LC|ʻĪd al-Fiṭr}}'', {{IPA-ar|ʕiːd al fitˤr|IPA}})<ref>{{cite book |title=Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000elia |first=Jamal J. |last=Elias |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=0415211654 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islam0000elia/page/75 75]}}</ref> leuwih dipikawanoh ku istilah '''[[lebaran]]''' atawa '''boboran''' nyaéta [[poé raya kaagamaan]] umat [[Islam]] anu nandakeun yén bulan Romadon atawa bulan puasa geus lekasan. Idul Fitri ragrag dina tanggal 1 [[Syawal]] dina pananggalan [[Hijriyah]] anu mana umat Islam teu meunang puasa dina ieu poé téh. Poénan lebaran Idul Fitri ditangtukeun ku cara noong hilal sahingga ragragna 1 Syawal di saban tempat tangtu moal bareng. Lian ti kitu, ku sabab loba cara [[hisab jeung ru'yat]] téh nyumebabkeun varéatifna panangtuan tanggal 1 Syawal di unggal tempat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nu.or.id/post/read/90204/beda-pendapat-ulama-soal-penetapan-awal-ramadhan|title=Beda Pendapat Ulama soal Penetapan Awal Ramadhan|last=Online|first=N. U.|website=NU Online|language=en-us|accessdate=2019-06-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602061213/http://www.nu.or.id/post/read/90204/beda-pendapat-ulama-soal-penetapan-awal-ramadhan |date=2019-06-02 }}</ref> Dina tanggal 1 [[Syawal]], umat [[Islam]] ngariung isuk-isuk sarta milampah [[solat id]] bajamaah di masigit, ku sabab lobana jamaah sahingga teu kawadahan di masigit antukna mah dipilampah di taneuh lapang malah nepi ka jalan sagala. Umumna umat Islam di Indonésia ngajadikeun poé Idul Fitri minangka poé raya utama, tradisi pikeun ngariung balik babarengan kulawarga anu disebut [[mudik]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/gaya-hidup/20190524145348-284-398120/tradisi-mudik-bermula-dari-momen-pengakuan-kesuksesan-diri|title=Tradisi Mudik Bermula dari Momen Pengakuan Kesuksesan Diri|website=gaya hidup|language=en|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> Umat Muslim percaya yén puasa di bulan [[Romadon]] mangrupa paréntah langsung ti gusti Allah, sakumaha anu disebut dina Al-Quran, pikeun ngalakonan puasa Romadon sabulan campleng,<ref>{{cite quran|2|185|185|s=ns}}</ref> sarta di akhir milampah [[solat id]] jeung mayar [[zakat fitrah]]. == Sajarah == Ibadah Idul Fitri dicontoan ku [[Muhammad|Kangjeng nabi Muhammad SAW]]. Ieu perkara dititénan ti poé munggaran bulan Syawal atawa poé pamungkas bulan [[Romadon]], nu mana lalampahan puasa umat Islam rék lekasan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghamidi|first=Javed Ahmad|title=Mizan: A Comprehensive Introduction to Islam|publisher=Al-Mawrid|location=Lahore}}</ref> Ceuk sakaol mah, ieu poé raya téh dimimitian di Madinah satutasna [[Muhammad|Kangjeng Nabi]] hijrah ti [[Mekah]] ka [[Madinah]]. [[Anas bin Malik|Anas]] (RA) ngalaporkeun: Nalika Kangjeng Nabi dugi di Madinah, anjeunna mendakkan jalma-jalma nuju ngarayakeun dua dinten tinangtu nu mana aréta jalma téh biasa ngahibur diri ku rékréasi sarta kagumbiraan. Anjeunna tumaros ka aréta jalma ngeunaan watek ti ieu parayaan nu tuluy diwaler ku maranéhna téh yén ieu poé raya téh mangrupa kasempetan nu pikasenangeun sarta rékréasi. Ti harita, [[Muhammad|Kangjeng Nabi]] cumarios yén [[Allah|Gusti Allah]] parantos netepkeun dua dinten parayaan tinimbangan ieu pikeun aranjeun anu leuwih hadé batan ieu: Idul Fitri sareng [[Idul Adha]].<ref>Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, vol. 4, 141–142, (no. 13210).</ref> == Lampah ibadah == === Zakat fitrah === {{Utama|zakat fitrah}} Zakat fitrah saenyana mah bisa dipilampah ti saprak tangtu tanggal bulan Romadon, ngan kalolobaana mah sok di serentekkeun ka [[poé motong]], malah mah nikakeun saméméh solat id. Dalah waktu nu pangafdolna pikeun zakat fitrah téh nya nu tadi téa, saanggeus solat subuh nepi ka saméméh solat id.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://zakat.or.id/pengertian-zakat-fitrah/|title=Pengertian Zakat Fitrah dan Syarat-syaratnya|website=Lembaga Amil Zakat Dompet Dhuafa|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> Zakat fitrah diwajibkeun ka sakumna umat islam ti mimiti [[orok]] nepi ka kolot rémpo, iwal ka para mustahiq zakat.<ref name=":3" /> Zakat fitrah sifatna individual lantaran ieu mah zakat badan seja ngabersihan awak, sahingga nu dipaké pikeun zakat téh mangrupa [[kadaharan pokok]] urang sorangan, saupama di Sunda kiwari mah nyaéta mangrupa [[béas]], ari lobana nyaéta [[Kulak|sakulak]] atawa sarua jeung 3,5 [[léter]]. === Takbiran === {{utama|takbiran}} Takbir mimiti ditanjeurkeun sanggeus tangtu ragragna tanggal 1 Syawal.<ref>Weigers, Gerard."Ibadat". ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world'', hal. 327</ref> Takbiran pas idul fitri dimimitian ti samet [[magrib]] maleman tanggal 1 syawal nepi ka réngséna solat id. hal ieu dumasar kana dalil Al-Qur'an<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://muslim.or.id/1637-takbiran-hari-raya.html|title=Takbiran Hari Raya|website=Muslim.Or.Id|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> :<blockquote>''“…geura anjeun jejegkeun wilanganana (puasa) sarta geura anjeun agung-agungkeun asma Allah (takbiran) kalawan pituduh-Na anu (tas) ditepikeun ka anjeun.”'' (Qs. [[Al Baqoroh]]: 185)</blockquote> Ieu ayat ngadadarkeun yén nalika jalma geus réngsé milampah ibadah puasa di bulan [[Romadon]] mangka disaréatkeun pikeun ngagungkeun asma Allah ku cara takbiran<ref name=":0" />. <blockquote>''Ibn Abi Syaibah ngariwayatkeun yén Nabi shallallahu ‘alaihi wa sallam kaluar bumi angkat ka lapangan tuluy anjeunna takbiran nepi ka dugi di lapangan. Anjeunna tumetep takbir dugi ka réngsé solat. Saatos ngaréngsékeun solat, anjeunna mungkasan takbir.'' (HR. Ibn Abi Syaibah dina Al Mushannaf 5621)</blockquote> Tina hadits di luhur cindekna mah ieu takbiran idul fitri téh mangrupa ibadah nu bisa dipilampah di mana baé sarta iraha baé. Hartina teu kudu ulukutek takbiran di masigit waé. Kacida dianjurkeunana pikeun ngalobakeun takbir nalika leumpang ka lapangan. Lantaran ieu mangrupa kabiasaan [[Muhammad|Kangjeng Nabi]] jeung para [[sohabat]]. Ari lafad babacaan takbir dina poénan lebaran nyaéta saperti di handap ieu: {| class="wikitable" |''Allahu akbar, Allahu akbar, Allahu akbar'' |الله أكبر الله أكبر الله أكبر |- |''la ilaha illa Alloh'' |لا إله إلا الله |- |''Allahu akbar, Allahu akbar'' |الله أكبر الله أكبر |- |''wa li-illahi al-hamd'' |ولله الحمد |} Babacaan [[takbir]] antara Idul Fitri jeung [[Idul Adha]] sarua kawas nu di luhur, ngan aya nu ngabédakeunna nyaéta waktu lumangsung takbiranana. Idul Fitri takbiranna kawilang sakeudeung nyaéta ti mimiti ditangtukeunna tanggal 1 Syawal biasana ti surup panon poé dina ahir tanggal bulan [[Romadon]], nepi ka réngsé solat id di isuk poéna, paling lila gé nika soré méméh tanggal kadua.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://bincangsyariah.com/kalam/dua-hal-yang-membedakan-shalat-idul-fitri-dan-shalat-idul-adha/|title=Dua Hal yang Membedakan Shalat Idul Fitri dan Shalat Idul Adha - Bincang Syariah|last=Imron|first=Mawardi|website=BincangSyariah {{!}} Portal Islam Rahmatan lil Alamin|language=id-ID|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> Ari takbiran di lebaran Idul Adha éta kawilang lila, lantaran waktuna ti mimiti tanggal 10 bulan [[Rayagung]] nepi ka solat asar tanggal 13 Rayagung (poé tasrék).<ref name=":2" /> === Solat id === {{utama|solat id}} Hukum shalat id [[sunat muakad]], saprak disaréatkeun ti taun kadua [[hijriyah]], [[Muhammad|Kangjeng Rosul]] teu pernah ninggalkeunana tug dugi ka tilardunyana, satuluyna mah ieu gelaran ibadah téh diteruskeun ku para sohabatna.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nu.or.id/post/read/79070/tata-cara-shalat-idul-fitri|title=Tata Cara Shalat Idul Fitri|last=Online|first=N. U.|website=NU Online|language=en-us|accessdate=2019-06-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602073130/http://www.nu.or.id/post/read/79070/tata-cara-shalat-idul-fitri |date=2019-06-02 }}</ref> Ieu solat id téh umum baé siga solat-solat séjénna, nu ngabédakeunana mah nyaéta takbir, babacaan jeung waktuna. Waktu solat id di poé Idul Fitri ti mimiti moncorongna panonpoé nepi ka asup waktu [[lohor]].<ref name=":1" /> Solat id dipilampah sacara bajaamaah sarta aya khutbah sanggeusna solat téh. Solat id dimimitian ku niat mun diucapkeun mah saperti kieu <div style="font-size:20px; text-align:center;"> أُصَلِّي رَكْعَتَيْنِ سُنَّةً لعِيْدِ اْلفِطْرِ (مَأْمُوْمًا\إِمَامًا) لِلهِ تَعَــــالَى </div> <center>“seja kawula niat solat sunat Idul Fitri dua rokaat (jadi ma'mum/imam) karna Allah ta’ala.”</center> [[Gambar:EIDUL_FITRI_IN_BAIDOA_Eidul_Fitr_in_-1-9.jpg_(14587452130).jpg|jmpl|Solat id di lapang di Somalia.]] Prakték ibadah solat id boh Idul Fitri boh Idul Adha saéstuna teu pati béda, ngan aya sawatara hal anu ngabédakeun nyaéta waktu lumangsung solat sarta sisiapan saméméh solat. Demi solat Idul Adha dianjurkeun supaya diawalwaktukeun, tujuanna pikeun méré lolongkrang waktu nu laluasa ka masarakat nu mana sanggeus solat téh tangtu loba nu rék [[kurban|kalurban]].<ref name=":1" /> Sedengkeun demi solat Idul Fitri mah disunatkeunna supaya diperalkeun waktu mulaina. Ieu téh dimaksudkeun pikeun méré kasempetan jang jalma nu aracan [[zakat fitrah]].<ref name=":1" /> Lian ti waktu lumangsung [[solat]], nu ngabédakeun deui téh nyaéta sisiapan solat, nu mana [[Muhammad|Kangjeng Rasul]] téh nyontoan supaya [[mumuluk]] heula saprakna rék indit solat Idul Fitri, sok sanajan kur ngadahar sababaraha guruntul [[korma]].<ref name=":2" /> Sedengkeun mun rék solat Idul Adha mah [[Muhammad|Kangjeng Rosul]] teu mumuluk heula. === Nyawalan === Salah sahiji ibadah anu dianjurkeun saprak bérés lebaran Idul Fitri nyaéta puasa genep poé di bulan Syawal atawa disebut [[nyawalan]]. Nyawalan dipilampah sanggeus poénan lebaran Idul Fitri, ulah pas poénan lebaranna lantaran dina pas poénan Idul Fitrina mah teu meunangkeun ku [[Muhammad|Kangjeng Rosul]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://muslim.or.id/376-puasa-enam-hari-di-bulan-syawal.html|title=Puasa Enam Hari di Bulan Syawal|website=Muslim.Or.Id|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> Demi waktu puasana nu paling afdol nya sacara ngaruntut ti tanggal 2 Syawal nika tanggal 7. Tapi teu jadi patokan, bisa ogé selang seling, sarta bisa ogé di tengah atawa di ahir bulan Syawal. Saupama boga qodoaneun mah, mangka nu diutamakeun nyaéta puasa qodo heula, kakara mun réngsé ngodoan dituluykeun kana puasa nyawalan.<ref name=":4" /> === Silaturahmi === [[Gambar:Silaturahmi_2,_Wanita_di_Indonesia_p40_(Ministry_of_Information).jpg|jmpl|Silaturahmi di poénan lebaran geus jadi budaya ti baheulana.]] [[Silaturahmi]] dina poénan Idul Fitri geus jadi kabiasaan umat Islam, biasana samulangna solat id langsung silih pénta hampura ka papada [[kulawarga]] ogé ka tatangga boh deukeut boh jauhna. Utamana mah ka kolot indung bapa sarta kulawarga deukeut nu sagulung-sagalang. Mangrupa ibadah ''hablumminannas'', lantaran ti sataun saméméh lebaran jeung papada jalma bisi aya salah nu teu karasa, di poé éta jadi momen pikeun silih ngihlaskeun kasalahan-kasalahanna séwang-séwangan. Lantaran ari perkara ''hablumminallah'' na mah anggeus ditarékahan dina sabulan saméméhna, nyaéta dina bulan [[Romadon]] ku cara puasa nahan lapar, halabhab jeung [[Nafsu|nafsuna]]. Saupama jalma tara silaturahmi sumawona ménta hampura, mangka jalma kitu ngalelebar [[ganjaran]] ibadahna, lantaran moal ditampa ku [[Alloh|Gusti Allah]] sagala amal-amalanana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bincangsyariah.com/khazanah/anjuran-silaturahmi-setelah-idulfitri/|title=Anjuran Silaturahmi Setelah Idulfitri - Bincang Syariah|last=Adawiya|first=Silmi|website=BincangSyariah {{!}} Portal Islam Rahmatan lil Alamin|language=id-ID|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> Di mana urang silaturahmi sok diucapkeun dua ''[[Minal 'Aidin wal-Faizin]]'', nu sabenerna ieu téh [[tradisi]] masyarakat Asia Ngétan-ngidul. Mungguh lolobana [[ulama]] ngamandanan yén éta ucap-ucapan téh lain dumasar kana uucapan ti [[Muhammad|Kangjeng Nabi Muhammad]]. Ieu ucapan téh mulana mah ti saurang panyair di mangsa [[Al-Andalus]], nu ngaranna Shafiyuddin Al-Huli, nalika manéhna mawakeun [[Sair (disambiguasi)|sair]] nu kontéksna nyaritakeun haleuang awéwé di poé raya.<ref>''Dawawin Asy-Syi’ri Al-’Arabi ‘ala Marri Al-Ushur, 19:182.''</ref> Anapon uucapan nu disunahkeun mah nyaéta ''Taqabbalallahu minna wa minkum'' ("Mugia Allah nampi amal kami jeung aranjeun") atawa ''Taqabbalallahu minna waminkum wa ahalahullahu ‘alaik '' ("Mugia Allah nampi (amalan) ti kami jeung ti anjeun sakumna jeung muga Allah nyampurnakeunna ka anjeun" jeung samisilna.”).<ref>[[Muhammad bin Ziyad]], berkata: "Ketika itu aku bersama Abu Umamah Al-Bahili radhiallahu anhu dan sebagian sahabat Nabi shallallahu alaihi wasallam yang lain, lalu apabila mereka pulang sebagian mengucapkan kepada sebagian lainnya: (Taqabbalallahu minna waminkum) (Semoga Allah menerima amal kami dan kalian), Imam [[Ahmad bin Hanbal]] berkata: "Sanadnya baik." Dari [[Ibnu At-Turkimani]] dalam kitabnya ''Al-Jauhar An-Naqiy Hasyiah Al-Baihaqi'' (3/320-321).</ref><ref>Syeikh Al-Albani rahimahullah dalam kitab ''Tamamul Minnah'' (356).</ref><ref>Ibnu Qudamah dalam kitab ''Al-Mughni'' (2/259).</ref><ref>Al-Ashbahani dalam kitabnya ''At-Targhib Wa At-Tarhib'' (1/251).</ref> === Sodakoh === Dina poénan remen jalma nu kawilang mampuh babagi ka barudak leutik utamana mah ka nu kurang mampuh atawa ka [[yatim]]. Ari babagina biasana mah mangrupa [[duit]]. Jalma-jalma nu rék babagi sodakoh ngahaja ngadatangan ka [[bank]] pikeun nukeuran duitna kana duit nu alanyar. Sangkan barudak nu dibaréré duit téh aratoheun lantaran meunang duit anyar nu hareuras tur rarengkeng kénéh. Hukum babagi duit kieu aya nu nyebut teu meunang saupamana niat babagi duit téh ngan saukur hayang némbongkeun yén urang téh [[beunghar]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.merdeka.com/peristiwa/bagi-uang-saat-lebaran-dianjurkan-jika-tujuannya-sedekah.html|title=Bagi uang saat Lebaran dianjurkan jika tujuannya sedekah|last=Ningrum|first=Desi Aditia|website=merdeka.com|language=en|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> Tapi diheugbaékeun saupamana babagi téh niatna enggoning sodakoh ka jalma-jalma nu teu mampuh. Aya ogé nu babagi téh ngan ka dulur-dulur deukeutna hungkul, anu kieu kautamaanna teu siga nu [[sodakoh]] kanu teu mampuh atawa [[yatim]].<ref name=":5" /> == Tradisi masarakat == === THR === [[THR]] (dibaca: té-ha-ér) mangrupa singgetan tina [[basa Indonésia]] nyaéta ''Tunjangan Hari Raya''. Unggal taun ieu THR kacida dianti-antina ku para [[karyawan]] atawa ku para langganan balanja. Nu méré THR aya ti pausahaan ka para karyawanna, aya ti para padagang ka para langgananna jeung saterusna ti éta. Ieu THR téh loba rupana, kumadaékna nu méré wéh, aya nu mangrupa bahan-bahan piolaheun, aya ogé nu mangrupa [[duit]], aya ogé nu mangrupa kadaharan nu jaradi. Namung THR anu diatur ku pamaréntah mah nyaéta THR mangrupa duit, nu lumakuna pikeun PNS, TNI, pajabat Nagara jeung Pénsiunan.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://setkab.go.id/inilah-pp-no-362019-tentang-pemberian-thr-bagi-pns-tni-polri-pejabat-negara-dan-pensiunan/|title=Inilah PP No. 36/2019 tentang Pemberian THR Bagi PNS, TNI, Polri, Pejabat Negara, dan Pensiunan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> Taun 2019 mah diatur ku Palaturan Pamaréntah Nomer 36 Taun 2019 ngeunaan Paméréan THR Pikeun PNS, TNI, Polri, Pajabat Nagara, jeung Pénsiunan.<ref name=":6" /> === Mudik === {{Utama|mudik}} [[Gambar:Mudik.jpg|jmpl|Mararudik]] Saupama bulan Romadon geus tompér, tradisi mudik tangtuna lumaku di puseur dayeuh. Kagiatan mudik téh baralikna para pangumbara/pagawé migran ka lemburna séwang-séwangan. Mudik geus jadi tradisi saupamana geus deukeut ka poénan lebaran, salah sahijina nyaéta lebaran Idul Fitri. Sacara harfiah istilah mudik téh asalna tina kecap udik nu hartina méh sarua jeung girang, lantaran kalolobaanana nu daratang ka Batawi mangsa awal téh ti belahan Bogor, jadi nyebut ka Batawi téh ku istilah hilir, sarta nyebut lemburna ku istilah udik. Kecap udik dirarangkénan [[Rarangkén pi-|pi-]] jeung [[Rarangkén N-|N- (nasal)]] jadi piudik tuluy jadi miudik. Saterusna ieu kecap dipaké ku sakumna pangumbara di Batawi pikeun nyebut istilah balik ka lemburna sorangan, sangkan bijil ogé istilah milir-mudik (mihilir-miudik). [[Gambar:Indonesian_foods_during_lebaran.jpg|jmpl|Kaolahan disiapkeun ti poé motong]] Dina ieu kasempetan mudik para pangumbara anu baralik ngarumpul di imah kolotna, nepungan indung bapa, dulur deukeut, dulur salembur, malah nepungan babaturan nu lawas arang panggih. Intina mah pikeun silih hampura sarta manjangnkeun tali silaturahmi. Transportasi anu dipaké nalika mudik téh kiwari réa jinisna ayanu maké pasawat terbang, [[karéta api]], kapal laut, [[beus]], jeung kandaraan pribadi kayaning [[mobil]] jeung sapédah motor, malah mah aya nu maké treuk. Tradisi mudik kieu teu ngan di Indonésia wungkul, nagara séjén ogé aya nu mikawanoh kagiatan nu modél kieu kawas nagara [[Bangladés]]. === Poé motong === Poé motong téh mun ceuk ayeuna mah disebut H-1 lebaran atawa sapoé saméméh lebaran. Dina ieu poé masarakat muslim tatahar kaolahan jang bawaeun munjungan/nganteuran atawa jang suguhkeuneun engké dina poé lebaranana. Poé motong éstu dipaké jang olah wéh, ogé mun kaburu mah dipaké jang untar-anteur rantang munjungan ka dulur-dulur. Sanggeus poé motong, peutingna tangtu asup kana maleman takbiran. === Munjungan === {{Utama|munjungan}} [[Gambar:Rantang.jpg|jmpl|Rantang jang munjungan]] [[Munjungan]] atawa nganteuran mangrupa tradisi untar-anteur kaolahan jang lebaran ka sadérék nu dareukeut ogé nu jarauhna. Munjungan biasana lumangsung dina [[poé motong]] atawa H-1 lebaran. Saanggeusna olah kadaharan dina poénan motong, kaolahanna téh dihancenganan pikeun bagikeuneun ka dulur-dulur téa. Ari wawadahan jang ngabagikeunna biasana maké [[rantang]], dianteurkeun ka imah-imahna langsung sarta sok dipulang deui eusi rantangna ku kaolahan nu dianteuranana.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://food.detik.com/info-kuliner/d-2964284/munjung-dan-nganteuran-tradisi-menukar-makanan-di-hari-raya-khas-indonesia|title=Munjung dan Nganteuran, Tradisi Menukar Makanan di Hari Raya Khas Indonesia|last=Simanjuntak|first=Tania Natalin|website=detikfood|language=id|accessdate=2019-06-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602123240/https://food.detik.com/info-kuliner/d-2964284/munjung-dan-nganteuran-tradisi-menukar-makanan-di-hari-raya-khas-indonesia |date=2019-06-02 }}</ref> Tradisi kieu masih ramé dilakonan di suklak-sikluk pilemburan, da ari di wewengkon nu geus rada kota mah geus arang langka nu masih munjungan atawa nganteuran téh. Jalma paburisat jangjang-jingjing rantang ka ditu-ka dieu, eusi rantangna loba rupana, aya sangu, semur daging, rendang daging, bihun atawa emih, sambel goréng kentang, dééng, tumis buncis jeung sajabana.<ref name=":7" /> === Ngadulag === {{Utama|ngadulag}} [[Gambar:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Oproep_tot_het_gebed_op_vrijdag_via_de_trom_bij_de_moskee_Tulehu_TMnr_20018271.jpg|jmpl|Nabeuh bedug taun 1980]] Parabot [[bedug]] jadi ciri mandiri nu dipimilik ku umat Islam di Tatar Sunda, umumna di Tatar Nusantara, lantaran di nagara-nagara mayoritas Islam séjén mah (kocapkeun Wétan Tengah) teu miboga ieu parabot. Nalika surup panon poé nu satuluyna asup kana tanggal 1 Syawal, di masigit mimiti réang sora takbiran nu ngahandaru ti unggal [[sapéker]] masigit. Éta sora takbiran anu ngahandaru téh diigelan ku sora tabeuhan bedug, nu leuwih dipikawanoh ku istilah ngadulag. Tradisi ngadulag kieu téh geus jadi tradisi taunan dina poénan lebaran, utamana mah dina maleman takbiranana.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/25499/menabuh-bedug-bagian-dari-tradisi-malam-takbiran|title=Menabuh Bedug, Bagian dari Tradisi Malam Takbiran|last=Liputan6.com|website=liputan6.com|language=id|accessdate=2019-06-02}}</ref> Ilaharna mah ngadulag téh lumansung di lingkungan [[Masjid|masigit]], ngan kiwari mah aya ogé nu ngadulag sarta takbiran téh nguriling ka jalan-jalan.<ref name=":9" /> Meureun ku alatan gampangna transportasi kayaning mobil toring, treuk, sarta sapédah motor pikeun ngajalanana. Ngadulag dilakonan dina maleman takbiran sapeuting jeput, minangkana mah pangreuah-reuah pikeun ngigelan anu talakbiran. Ari anu ditabeuhna lain ngan bedug hungkul, aya [[Kohkol|kohkolna]] sarta sagala alat nu kirana bisa ngasilkeun sora nu ngawirahma saupamana ditabeuh bareng jeung bedug. === Pakéan anyar === [[Gambar:Ramayana_Department_Store,_Kota_Pematang_Siantar_(27).JPG|jmpl|Mareuli baju anyar.]] Teu budak teu kolot, heuleut sawatara poé méméh poénan [[lebaran]] téh biasana geus pada riweuh mikiran baju anyar jang lebaran. Ieu tradisi téh geus ngulit ngadaging, hartina lebaran teu bisa disebut lebaran lamun can boga baju anyar mah. Ieu lumaku pikeun sawatara jalma, da ari jalma nu ngarti kana bag-bagan [[agama]] mah teu pati mentingkeun teuing kana pasualan baju mah, sok sanajan tina ieu tradisi baju anyar lebaran téh ngandung siloka. Siloka anu dimaksud nandakeun yén dina poé Idul Fitri téh sakur jalma muslim geus diberesihkeun kabéh kaasup awakna ku dizakatfitrahan, kitu ogé pakéanna nu sarwa anyar téa. Ieu tradisi baju anyar téh geus lumangsung ti taun [[1950-an]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.boombastis.com/sejarah-baju-baru-lebaran/110686|title=Ternyata Seperti Ini Awal Mula Tradisi Baju Baru Saat Lebaran, Kamu Pasti Kaget|website=Boombastis.com {{!}} Portal Berita Unik {{!}} Viral {{!}} Aneh Terbaru Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2019-06-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602132922/https://www.boombastis.com/sejarah-baju-baru-lebaran/110686 |date=2019-06-02 }}</ref> Manahoréng ieu tradisi baju anyar nalika lebaran téh geus aya dina buku Sajarah Nasional Indonésia yasana Marwati Djoened Poesponegoro jeung Nugroho Notosusanto.<ref name=":8" /> Kacaturkeun yén ieu tradisi mimitina mah aya di wewengkon [[kasultanan Banten]], nu satuluyna sumebar ka Tatar [[Sunda]], saterusna sa-Nusantara. Geus teu bireuk deui yén Kasultanan Banten kasohor ku wawasan ka-Islamanna dina mangsa harita.<ref name=":8" /> Maksud awalna mah pikeun ngareuah-reuah poénan lebaran, sakumna warga masarakat nyiar baju alanyar. Ngan sacara umum ieu tradisi jadi kontrovérsi, lantaran ku ieu tradisi téh leuwih saeutik mangpaatna, utamana mun ngarandapan ka jalma nu kawilang kurang mampuh. Ngan mangsa harita diakalanna téh ku cara ngajait sorangan,<ref name=":8" /> mantak di unggal imah sok baroga mesin jait sorangan. == Kulinér lebaran == === Kupat === [[Gambar:Ketupat2.jpg|al=|kiri|jmpl|Kupat na luhur méja]] [[Kupat]] geus jadi susuguh has di poénan lebaran. Ieu kupat dijieun tina bahan utama [[béas]] nu dibungkus ku pamungkus nu dijieun tina anyaman daun [[kalapa]] ngora ([[janur]]). Kupat disayagakeun dina poénan lebaran minangka [[Deungeun sangu|batur dahar]] [[opor]] atawa kaolahan daging lianna. Aya dua jinis kupat, aya nu wangunna juru tujuh (pangilaharna) sarta jajaran génjang nu juru genep. Galur anyaman séwang-séwangan béda, mun upamana rék nyieun kupat kudu dipilah-pilah janur nu kualitas daunna hadé, nya nu panjang jeung rubak, teu pati kolot ogé teu pati ngora. [[Gambar:Uli.jpg|jmpl|Ulén beunang ngagarang]] Ieu kupat geus jadi kadaharan wajib pikeun lebaran, sabab kurang afdol mun di masing-masing imah teu euweuh kupat nu disuguhkeun téh. Malah mah ieu kupat téh geus jadi ikon has poénan lebaran di Nusantara, mun dina sagala gambar-gambar nu ngeunaan lebaran téh tangtuna nu digambarkeunana téh nyaéta gambar kupat téa. Di wewengkon saluareun Nusantara kawasna mah teu mikawanoh ieu kaolahan kupat. === Ulén === Bahan pikeun nyieun ulén nyaéta tina béas ketan. Ieu béas ketan digigihan tuluy ditutuan nikakeun lemes. Saupama geus lemes, tuluy dibentuk wangun lonyod ipis, saterusna mah dipoé sangkan garing jadi teu cepel. Di sawaréh wewengkon nyebutna ulén, aya ogé nu nyebutna oli. Nu pasti ieu kadaharan téh geus kawilang wajib aya mangsa deukeut ka poénan lebaran mah. Ieu ulén biasana didaharan bareng jeung deungeun séjénna, kayaning [[rendang]], [[semur]], [[opor]], sambel goréng kentang jeung mun geus rada lila mah sok dicocol kana [[bebeyé]] atawa beleketek. === Kaolahan daging === [[Gambar:Semur_Daging_Kentang.JPG|jmpl|Semur daging kentang]] Semur mangrupa kadaharan has Sunda mun geus asup ka lebaran. Dijieunna tina bahan utama daging sapi, samarana maro ku kécap nikakeun warnana jadi hideung. Lian ti semur aya ogé rendang, nu sarua tina bahan utama daging sapi samarana maro ku cabé sahingga jadi lada. Aya ogé kaolahan has Batawi nyaéta [[opor]], maro cai santenna ari opor mah, didaharna bareng jeung kupat téa. Opor mah bahan dasarna dijieun tina daging hayam lain daging sapi. Lian ti éta, aya ogé di poénan lebaran téh anu nyaté. === Kukuéhan === [[Gambar:Kue_Nastar.jpg|jmpl|Kue Nastar]] Poénan lebaran tangtu di unggal imah téh loba ku kuéhna, boh kuéh nu beunang nyieun sorangan atawa kadaharan beunang meuli. Kuéh lebaran nu sok nyieun sorangan biasana kayaning [[Katapang|siki katapang]], bidara, dodol, rangginang, ranggining, dapros, opak, nastar, putri salju jsté. === Bebeyé === Saupama kaolahan daging geus 2 ka 3 poéna téh teu béak biasana teterusan dihaneutkeun, tah ieu kaolahan daging jeung batur-baturna nu dihaneutkeun téh sok nyirorot cai kuahna. Geus kitu mah jadi ngaley, tapi ngeunah kénéh jang dahareun mah. Nu kieu disebut bebeyé atawa beleketek, nu tuluy ieu bebeyé téh dipaké jang cocol ulén atawa cocol kupat. Malah mah sok dihijikeun kaolahan daging jeung bihun atawa emih téh ngahaneutkeunana barengan. Atuh nikakeun hideungna éta nu beunang ngahaneutkeun téh, najan kitu teu weléh wé raresep nyocolanana. == Idul Fitri na Maséhi == Dina pananggalan [[Hijriyah]], nangtukeun poé Idul Fitri téh tangtuna bakal akur dina unggal taunna, ngan mun disurupkeun kana [[kalénder Masehi]] bakal moal akur, nu nyumebabkeun unggal taunna téh di Maséhi mah poénan lebaran téh béda-béda. Dina kalénder Islam, ganti bulan téh ditangtukeun dumasar kana faseu bulan ([[kalénder candra]]), nu mantak ayana sistem ru'yat téa. Ku sabab kitu, poénan Idul Fitri téh sok robah-robah unggal taunna di kalénder Maséhi mah, nyaéta kurang leuwih robah [[11 (angka)|11]] poé leuwih anggal ti unggal taunna. Di handap mangrupa runtuyan poénan Idul Fitri dina kalénder Maséhi ti taun 1928-2026: {| class="wikitable" align="center" |- ! [[Kalender Gregorian|Maséhi]] !![[Kalénder Islam|Hijriyah]]!! 1 Romadon !! 1 Syawal !! Lila (poé) |- | 1928 || 1346 || [[23 Pébruari]] || [[24 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1929 || 1347 || [[9 Pébruari]] || [[10 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1930 || 1348 || [[31 Januari]] || [[2 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1931 || 1349 || [[20 Januari]] || [[19 Pébruari]] || 30 |- | 1932 || 1350 || [[10 Januari]] || [[9 Pébruari]] || 30 |- | 1933 || 1351 || [[28 Désémber]] || [[28 Januari]] || 30 |- | 1934 || 1352 || [[17 Désémber]] || [[17 Januari]] || 30 |- | 1935 || 1353 || [[7 Désémber]] || [[7 Januari]] || 30 |- | 1935 || 1354 || [[27 Nopémber]] || [[27 Désémber]] || 30 |- | 1936 || 1355 || [[16 Nopémber]] || [[16 Désémber]] || 30 |- | 1937 || 1356 || [[5 Nopémber]] || [[5 Désémber]] || 30 |- | 1938 || 1357 || [[25 Oktober]] || [[24 Nopémber]] || 30 |- | 1939 || 1358 || [[15 Oktober]] || [[14 Nopémber]] || 30 |- | 1940 || 1359 || [[3 Oktober]] || [[2 Nopémber]] || 30 |- | 1941 || 1360 || [[22 Séptémber]] || [[21 Oktober]] || 30 |- | 1942 || 1361 || [[11 Séptémber]] || [[11 Oktober]] || 30 |- | 1943 || 1362 || [[1 Séptémber]] || [[1 Oktober]] || 30 |- | 1944 || 1363 || [[20 Agustus]] || [[19 Séptémber]] || 30 |- | 1945 || 1364 || [[10 Agustus]] || [[9 Séptémber]] || 30 |- | 1946 || 1365 || [[30 Juli]] || [[30 Agustus]] || 30 |- | 1947 || 1366 || [[20 Juli]] || [[19 Agustus]] || 30 |- | 1948 || 1367 || [[8 Juli]] || [[7 Agustus]] || 30 |- | 1949 || 1368 || [[27 Juni]] || [[27 Juli]] || 30 |- | 1950 || 1369 || [[17 Juni]] || [[17 Juli]] || 30 |- | 1951 || 1370 || [[6 Juni]] || [[6 Juli]] || 30 |- | 1952 || 1371 || [[25 Méi]] || [[24 Juni]] || 30 |- | 1953 || 1372 || [[15 Méi]] || [[14 Juni]] || 30 |- | 1954 || 1373 || [[4 Méi]] || [[3 Juni]] || 30 |- | 1955 || 1374 || [[24 April]] || [[24 Méi]] || 30 |- | 1956 || 1375 || [[12 April]] || [[12 Méi]] || 30 |- | 1957 || 1376 || [[1 April]] || [[1 Méi]] || 30 |- | 1958 || 1377 || [[22 Maret]] || [[21 April]] || 30 |- | 1959 || 1378 || [[11 Maret]] || [[10 April]] || 30 |- | 1960 || 1379 || [[28 Pébruari]] || [[29 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1961 || 1380 || [[16 Pébruari]] || [[18 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1962 || 1381 || [[6 Pébruari]] || [[8 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1963 || 1382 || [[27 Januari]] || [[26 Pébruari]] || 30 |- | 1964 || 1383 || [[16 Januari]] || [[15 Pébruari]] || 30 |- | 1965 || 1384 || [[4 Januari]] || [[3 Pébruari]] || 30 |- | 1966 || 1385 || [[23 Désémber]] || [[23 Januari]] || 30 |- | 1967 || 1386 || [[13 Désémber]] || [[13 Januari]] || 30 |- | 1968 || 1387 || [[2 Désémber]] || [[2 Januari]] || 30 |- | 1968 || 1388 || [[21 Nopémber]] || [[21 Désémber]] || 30 |- | 1969 || 1389 || [[11 Nopémber]] || [[11 Désémber]] || 30 |- | 1970 || 1390 || [[31 Oktober]] || [[30 Nopémber]] || 30 |- | 1971 || 1391 || [[20 Oktober]] || [[19 Nopémber]] || 30 |- | 1972 || 1392 || [[8 Oktober]] || [[7 Nopémber]] || 30 |- | 1973 || 1393 || [[27 Séptémber]] || [[27 Oktober]] || 30 |- | 1974 || 1394 || [[17 Séptémber]] || [[17 Oktober]] || 30 |- | 1975 || 1395 || [[6 Séptémber]] || [[6 Oktober]] || 30 |- | 1976 || 1396 || [[26 Agustus]] || [[25 Séptémber]] || 30 |- | 1977 || 1397 || [[16 Agustus]] || [[15 Séptémber]] || 30 |- | 1978 || 1398 || [[5 Agustus]] || [[4 Séptémber]] || 30 |- | 1979 || 1399 || [[25 Juli]] || [[24 Agustus]] || 30 |- | 1980 || 1400 || [[13 Juli]] || [[12 Agustus]] || 30 |- | 1981 || 1401 || [[3 Juli]] || [[2 Agustus]] || 30 |- | 1982 || 1402 || [[22 Juni]] || [[22 Juli]] || 30 |- | 1983 || 1403 || [[12 Juni]] || [[12 Juli]] || 30 |- | 1984 || 1404 || [[31 Méi]] || [[30 Juni]] || 30 |- | 1985 || 1405 || [[21 Méi]] || [[20 Juni]] || 30 |- | 1986 || 1406 || [[10 Méi]] || [[9 Juni]] || 30 |- | 1987 || 1407 || [[29 April]] || [[29 Méi]] || 30 |- | 1988 || 1408 || [[16 April]] || [[16 Méi]] || 30 |- | 1989 || 1409 || [[7 April]] || [[7 Méi]] || 30 |- | 1990 || 1410 || [[27 Maret]] || [[26 April]] || 30 |- | 1991 || 1411 || [[17 Maret]] || [[16 April]] || 30 |- | 1992 || 1412 || [[5 Maret]] || [[4 April]] || 30 |- | 1993 || 1413 || [[23 Pébruari]] || [[25 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1994 || 1414 || [[12 Pébruari]] || [[14 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1995 || 1415 || [[1 Pébruari]] || [[3 Maret]] || 30 |- | 1996 || 1416 || [[22 Januari]] || [[21 Pébruari]] || 30 |- | 1997 || 1417 || [[10 Januari]] || [[9 Pébruari]] || 30 |- | 1998 || 1418 || [[31 Désémber]] || [[30 Januari]] || 30 |- | 1999 || 1419 || [[20 Désémber]] || [[19 Januari]] || 30 |- | 2000 || 1420 || [[9 Désémber]] || [[8 Januari]] || 30 |- | 2000 || 1421 || [[27 Nopémber]] || [[27 Désémber]] || 30 |- | 2001 || 1422 || [[16 Nopémber]] || [[16 Désémber]] || 30 |- | 2002 || 1423 || [[6 Nopémber]] || [[6 Désémber]] || 30 |- | 2003 || 1424 || [[27 Oktober]] || [[25 Nopémber]] || 29 |- | 2004 || 1425 || [[15 Oktober]] || [[14 Nopémber]] || 30 |- | 2005 || 1426 || [[4 Oktober]] || [[3 Nopémber]] || 30 |- | 2006 || 1427 || [[24 Séptémber]] || [[24 Oktober]] <ref>[http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/nasional/2006/10/22/brk,20061022-86526,id.html Pemerintah Tetapkan Idul Fitri 24 Oktober 2006]</ref> || 30 |- | 2007 || 1428 || [[13 Séptémber]] || [[13 Oktober]] || 30 |- | 2008 || 1429 || [[1 Séptémber]] || [[1 Oktober]] || 30 |- | 2009 || 1430 || [[22 Agustus]] || [[20 Séptémber]] || 29 |- | 2010 || 1431 || [[11 Agustus]] || [[10 Séptémber]]<ref>[http://www.detiknews.com/read/2010/09/08/195244/1438205/10/pemerintah-resmi-tetapkan-idul-fitri-10-Séptémber-2010 Pemerintah Resmi Tetapkan Idul Fitri 10 Séptémber 2010 ]</ref> || 30 |- | 2011 || 1432 || [[1 Agustus]] || [[31 Agustus]]<ref>[http://kbr68h.com/berita/nasional/11384-mui-tunggu-penetapan-idul-fitri-pemerintah MUI Tunggu Penetapan Idul Fitri Pemerintah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103205445/http://kbr68h.com/berita/nasional/11384-mui-tunggu-penetapan-idul-fitri-pemerintah |date=2011-11-03 }}</ref> || 30 |- | 2012 || 1433 || [[21 Juli]] || [[19 Agustus]] || 29 |- | 2013 || 1434 || [[10 Juli]] || [[8 Agustus]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.metrotvnews.com/read/2013/08/07/173748/Menteri-Agama-Pimpin-Takbiran-di-Masjid-Istiqlal|title=Menteri Agama Pimpin Takbiran di Masjid Istiqlal|publisher=MetroTV|date=7 Agustus 2013|accessdate=27 Juli 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713070308/http://news.metrotvnews.com/read/2013/08/07/173748/Menteri-Agama-Pimpin-Takbiran-di-Masjid-Istiqlal |date=2015-07-13 }}</ref> || 29 |- | 2014 || 1435 || [[29 Juni]] || [[28 Juli]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Ferdyansyah|first=Rizky|url=http://ramadan.metrotvnews.com/read/2014/07/27/271174/pemerintah-tetapkan-idul-fitri-1-syawal-1435-h-jatuh-pada-senin-28-juli-2014|title=Pemerintah Tetapkan Idul Fitri 1 Syawal 1435 H Jatuh Pada Senin 28 Juli 2014|publisher=MetroTV|date=27 Juli 2014|accessdate=27 Juli 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805093539/http://ramadan.metrotvnews.com/read/2014/07/27/271174/pemerintah-tetapkan-idul-fitri-1-syawal-1435-h-jatuh-pada-senin-28-juli-2014 |date=2014-08-05 }}</ref>|| 29 |- | 2015 || 1436 || [[18 Juni]] || [[17 Juli]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Fauzi|first=Intan|url=http://ramadan.metrotvnews.com/read/2015/07/16/148239/pemerintah-tetapkan-jumat-17-juli-lebaran|title=Pemerintah Tetapkan Jumat 17 Juli Lebaran|publisher=MetroTV|date=16 Juli 2015|accessdate=16 Juli 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717124310/http://ramadan.metrotvnews.com/read/2015/07/16/148239/pemerintah-tetapkan-jumat-17-juli-lebaran |date=2015-07-17 }}</ref> || 29 |- | 2016 || 1437 || [[6 Juni]] || [[6 Juli]] || 30 |- | 2017 || 1438 || [[27 Méi]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Nadlir|first=Moh.|url=http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2017/05/26/18535331/pemerintah.tetapkan.1.ramadhan.1438.h.jatuh.pada.sabtu.27.Méi.2017|title=Pemerintah Tetapkan 1 Ramadhan 1438 H Jatuh pada Sabtu 27 Méi 2017|publisher=Kompas.com|date=26 Méi 2017|accessdate=24 Juni 2017}}</ref> || [[25 Juni]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Kuwado|first=Fabian Januarius|url=http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2017/06/24/18514181/pemerintah.tetapkan.idul.fitri.1438.h.pada.minggu.25.juni.2017|title=Pemerintah Tetapkan Idul Fitri 1438 H pada Minggu 25 Juni 2017|publisher=Kompas.com|date=24 Juni 2017|accessdate=24 Juni 2017}}</ref> || 29 |- | 2018 || 1439 || [[17 Méi]] || [[15 Juni]] || 29 |- | '''2019''' || '''1440''' || '''[[6 Méi]]''' || '''[[4 Juni]]''' || '''29''' |- | 2020 || 1441 || [[24 April]] || [[24 Méi]] || 30 |- | 2021 || 1442 || [[13 April]] || [[13 Méi]] || 30 |- | 2022 || 1443 || [[4 April]] || [[3 Méi]] || 29 |- | 2023 || 1444 || [[24 Maret]] || [[22 April]] || 29 |- | 2024 || 1445 || [[13 Maret]] || [[11 April]] || 29 |- | 2025 || 1446 || [[2 Maret]] || [[31 Maret]] || 29 |- | 2026 || 1447 || [[19 Pébruari]] || [[20 Maret]] || 29 |} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Poé raya Islam]] [[Kategori:Poé peré di Indonésia]] g2psqk0lxblaln6qfk1cjf2as5e2x8z 0 25860 711527 708599 2026-08-06T22:18:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711527 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox City Japan |Name= Osaka |JapaneseName= 大阪市 |MapImage= Osaka-osaka-city.svg |Region= [[Kansai]] |Prefecture= [[Osaka Prefecture|Osaka]] |District= |Area_km2= 222.11 |PopDate= [[1 Januari]], [[2007]] |Population= 2,636,257<br />(19,220,000 in [[Metropolitan Area]]) |Density_km2= 11869 |Coords= {{coor dm|34|42|N|135|30|E|type:city_region:JP}} |Tree= [[Sakura]] |Flower= [[Pansy]] |Bird= |SymbolImage= |SymbolDescription= |Mayor= [[Kunio Hiramatsu]] |CityHallPostalCode= 530-8201 |CityHallAddress= 1-3-20 Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Ōsaka-shi, Ōsaka-fu |CityHallPhone= 06-6208-8181 |CityHallLink= [http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/ Kota Osaka] }} {{nihongo|'''Kota Osaka'''|大阪市|Ōsaka-shi}} {{Audio|ja-Osaka.ogg|listen}} nyaéta hiji [[Kota-kota Jepang|kota]] di [[Jepang]], aya di muara [[Yodo River|Walungan Yodo]] di [[Osaka Bay|Basisir Osaka]], [[Wewengkon Kansai]] di Pulo Utama [[Honshū]]. Kota ieu mangrupa ibukota [[Osaka Prefecture|Préféktur Osaka]]. Disebut [[second city|kota nomer dua]] Jepang, Osaka sacara sajarah mangrupa ibukota dagang Jepang, tur kiwari nomer dua panggedéna di Jepang, wewengkon metropolitan [[Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto]] nomer salapan di dunya, nu populasina is 19,220,000. Nu narik ti Kota Osaka nyaéta tempat nomer hiji keur beurang ka peuting babandingan populasina nyaéta 141%,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/kokusei/2000/jutsu1/00/01.htm |title=Population Census: I Daytime Population |accessdate=2007-03-28 |date=2002-03-29 |work=Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications}}</ref> nu ngayankinkeun yén Osaka pusat ekonomi jeung dagang. Mangsa peuting populasi nomer tilu di Jepang nyaéta 2.6 juta, sedengkeun beurang ampit 3.7 juta, nomer dua sanggeus [[Tokyo]].<ref>Counting [[Special wards of Tokyo]], which is not a single incorporated city, for statistical purpose. See the [[Tokyo]] article for more information on the definition and makeup of Tokyo.</ref> Sacara tradisional, Osaka dianggap {{nihongo|"dapur nasional"|天下の台所|tenka no daidokoro}} atawa kota pusat kadaharan Jepang.<ref name="osakahist">{{cite web|title=Historical Overview, the City of Osaka official homepage|url=http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/for_tourists/c_historical_overview.html|accessdate=2007-03-22}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106162354/http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/for_tourists/c_historical_overview.html |date=2007-11-06 }} Navigate to the equivalent Japanese page (大阪市の歴史 タイムトリップ20,000年 (History of Osaka, A timetrip back 20,000 years))[http://www.city.osaka.jp/city/history/history.html/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226221108/http://www.city.osaka.jp/city/history/history.html |date=2009-02-26 }} for additional information.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Aprodicio A. Laquian |title=Beyond metropolis: the planning and governance of Asia's mega-urban regions |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondmetropolis0000laqu |publisher=Woodrow Wilson Center Press |location=Washington, D.C |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/beyondmetropolis0000laqu/page/27 27] |isbn=0-8018-8176-5 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=edited by James L. McClain and Wakita Osamu |title=Osaka, the merchants' capital of early modern Japan |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y |year=1999 |pages=67 |isbn=0-8014-3630-3 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Robert C. Hsu |title=The MIT encyclopedia of the Japanese economy |url=https://archive.org/details/mitencyclopediao0000hsur |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Mass |year=1999 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mitencyclopediao0000hsur/page/327 327] |isbn=0-262-08280-2 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> == Transportasi == === Udara === [[Kansai International Airport|Bandara Internasional Kansai]] nyaéta [[airport|bandara]] utama: bentuk [[artificial island|pulo buatan]] kotan di basisir Osaka tur ngalayanan Osaka jeung kota-kota sabudeureunna saperti [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], [[Kobe]], jeung [[Kyoto]]. [[Kansai]] nyaéta watesan géografi keur wewengkon kulon Honshū sabudeureun Osaka. Bandara dihubungkeun ku [[bus]] jeung [[train]] ka pusat kota jeung sub urban utama. [[Osaka International Airport|Bandara Internasional Osaka]], aya di water kota [[Itami]] jeung [[Toyonaka]], masih dipaké keur penerbangan domestik ka sababaraha wewengkon metropolitan. === Kareta api === Sistem [[Osaka Municipal Subway]] nyaetéa bagéan tina sistim transportasi umum di Osaka. Sistim ieu, nomer 8 di dunya dumasar kana jumlah penumpangna, kurang leuwih 912 juta sataun. Salian ti eta, aya jaringan séjén boh [[West Japan Railway Company|JR]] atawa jalur swasta nu ngahubungkeun ka daerah sub urban jeung Osaka sabudeureunna. Jalur [[Keihan Electric Railway|Keihan]] jeung [[Hankyu Railway|Hankyu]] ngahubungkeun ka Kyoto, Jalur [[Hanshin Railway|Hanshin]] jeung [[Hankyu Kobe Line|Hankyu]] ngahubungkeun ka Kobe, jalur [[Kintetsu]] ka Nara jeung [[Nagoya]], sarta jalur [[Nankai Railway|Nankai]] ka [[Wakayama]]. 10 juta jiwa di Gréater Osaka ngagunakeun kareta keur ''transportasi utama sapopoena'', nomer dua sanggeus Gréater Tokyo, sarta leuwih ti [[United States]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{wikivoyage|Osaka}} {{commonscat|Osaka}} * [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=34680000&x=135500000&z=11&l=1&m=a WikiSatellite view of Osaka at WikiMapia] * [http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/ Official City of Osaka homepage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009075903/http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/ |date=2008-10-09 }} * [http://www.tourism.city.osaka.jp/en/index.htm Osaka Tourist Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203165929/http://www.tourism.city.osaka.jp/en/index.htm |date=2006-02-03 }}* [http://libcom.org/tags/osaka A collection of articles about the Kamagasaki area of Osaka] on libcom.org * [http://www.runmuki.com/paul/writing/japantrip.html Bicycling in Osaka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120083318/http://www.runmuki.com/paul/writing/japantrip.html |date=2019-11-20 }} * [http://www.osaka.fr/ Osaka City Paris Office] {{Osaka}} {{Regions and administrative divisions of Japan}} {{World's most populated urban areas}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Kota di Préféktur Osaka]] [[Kategori:Kota basisir]] [[Kategori:Osaka| ]] [[Kategori:Daya tarik keur nu pelesir di Préféktur Osaka]] [[Kategori:Kota palabuan di Jepang]] eac5tl63rpg0jvaukeczdmcvfjlwugo 0 25897 711612 681185 2026-08-07T00:15:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711612 wikitext text/x-wiki {{electromagnetism3}} Dina [[fisika]], '''magnétisme''' téh nyaéta [[fénoména]] di mana [[bahan]] ngeprakkeun [[gaya]] narik atawa nolak ka [[bahan]] lianna. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Some well known materials that exhibit éasily detectable magnetic properties (called [[magnet]]s) are [[nickel]], [[iron]], [[cobalt]], and their [[alloy]]s; however, all materials are influenced to gréater or lesser degree by the presence of a [[magnetic field]]. Magnetism also has other manifestations in physics, particularly as one of the two components of [[electromagnetic wave]]s such as [[light]]. == History == [[Aristotle]] attributes the first of what might be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to [[Thales]], who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC. [http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/E&M_Hist.html] In China, the éarliest litérary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th century BC book called ''Book of the Devil Valley Master'' (鬼谷子): "The lodestone makes [[iron]] come or it attracts it."<ref>Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” ''Isis'', Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175</ref> The éarliest mention of the attraction of a needle appéars in a work composed between 20 and 100 AD (''Louen-heng''): "A lodestone attracts a needle."<ref>Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” ''Isis'', Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.176</ref> The ancient [[China|Chinese]] scientist [[Shen Kuo]] (1031-1095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the [[astronomical]] concept of [[true north]] ''([[Dream Pool Essays]]'', 1088 AD), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone [[compass]] for navigation. [[Alexander Neckham]], by 1187, was the first in [[Europe]] to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269 [[Peter Peregrinus]] wrote the ''Epistola de Magnete'', the first extant tréatise describing the properties of magnets. An understanding of the relationship between [[electricity]] and magnetism began in 1819 with work by [[Hans Christian Ørsted|Hans Christian Oersted]], a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered more or less by accident that an electric current could influence a compass needle. This landmark experiment is known as Oersted's Experiment. Sevéral other experiments followed, with [[André-Marie Ampére]], [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], [[Michael Faraday]], and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity. [[James Clerk Maxwell]] synthesized and expanded these insights into [[Maxwell's equations]], unifying electricity, magnetism, and [[optics]] into the field of [[electromagnetism]]. In 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his théory of [[special relativity]]<ref name="fourmilab.ch">'' A. Einstein: "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", June 30, 1905. http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/ein{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}stein/specrel/www/.''</ref>, in the process showing that electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked and inseparable. Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the twentieth century, being incorporated into the more fundamental théories of [[gauge theory]], [[quantum electrodynamics]], [[electroweak theory]], and finally the [[standard model]]. == Physics of magnetism == === Magnets and magnetic materials === {{utama|Magnet}} Every [[electron]] is, by its nature, a small magnet (see [[Electron magnetic dipole moment]]). Ordinarily, the countless electrons in a material are randomly oriented in different directions, léaving no effect on avérage, but in a bar magnet the electrons are aligned in the same direction, so they act coopératively, créating a net magnetic field. In addition to the electron's intrinsic magnetic field, there is sometimes an additional magnetic field that results from the electron's orbital motion about the [[nucleus]]. This effect is analogous to how a current-carrying loop of wire genérates a magnetic field (see [[Magnetic dipole]]). Again, ordinarily, the motion of the electrons is such that there is no avérage field from the material, but in certain conditions, the motion can line up so as to produce a méasurable total field. The ovérall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, and particularly on its [[electron configuration]]. Sevéral forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including: * [[Diamagnetism]] * [[Paramagnetism]] ** [[Molecular magnet]] * [[Ferromagnetism]] ** [[Antiferromagnetism]] ** [[Ferrimagnetism]] ** [[Metamagnetism]] * [[Spin glass]] * [[Superparamagnetism]] === Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity === {{utama|Electromagnetism}} As a consequence of Einstein's théory of [[special relativity]], electricity and magnetism are understood to be fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as [[length contraction]], [[time dilation]], and the fact that the [[magnetic force]] is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting théory ([[electromagnetism]]) is fully consistent with special relativity<ref name="fourmilab.ch"/><ref>{{cite book|last = [[David J. Griffiths|Griffiths]]|first = David J.|title = Introduction to Electrodynamics|edition = 3rd ed.|publisher = Prentice Hall|year = 1998|id = ISBN 0-13-805326-X}}, chapter 12</ref>. In particular, a phenomenon that appéars purely electric to one observer may be purely magnetic to another, or more genérally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism (analogously to how special relativity "mixes" space and time into [[spacetime]]). === Magnetic fields and forces === [[Gambar:Magnet0873.png|thumb|Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet shown by iron filings on paper]] {{utama|Magnetic field}} The phenomenon of magnetism is "mediated" by the [[magnetic field]]—i.e., an electric current or magnetic dipole créates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields. To an excellent approximation (but ignoring some quantum effects---see [[quantum electrodynamics]]), [[Maxwell's equations]] (which simplify to the [[Biot-Savart law]] in the case of stéady currents) describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces. Therefore magnetism is seen whenever electrically [[electric charge|charged particles]] are in [[Motion (physics)|motion]]---for example, from movement of [[electron]]s in an [[electric current]], or in certain cases from the [[orbital motion (quantum)|orbital motion]] of electrons around an atom's nucleus. They also arise from "intrinsic" [[magnetic dipole]]s arising from quantum effects, i.e. from quantum-mechanical [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. The same situations which créate magnetic fields (charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles) are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, créating a [[force]]. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see [[magnetic dipole]]. When a charged particle moves through a [[magnetic field]] ''B'', it feels a [[force]] ''F'' given by the [[cross product]]: :<math>\vec{F} = q \vec{v} \times \vec{B}</math> where <math>q\,</math> is the [[electric charge]] of the particle, <math>\vec{v} \,</math> is the [[velocity]] [[vector (spatial)|vector]] of the particle, and <math>\vec{B} \,</math> is the [[magnetic field]]. Because this is a cross product, the force is [[perpendicular]] to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It follows that the magnetic force does no [[mechanical work|work]] on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. The magnitude of the force is :<math>F = q v B \sin\theta\,</math> where <math>\theta \,</math> is the angle between the <math>\vec{v} \,</math> and <math>\vec{B} \,</math> vectors. One tool for determining the direction of the [[velocity]] vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the [[index finger]] "V", the [[middle finger]] "B", and the [[thumb]] "F" with your right hand. When making a gun-like configuration (with the middle finger crossing under the index finger), the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also [[right hand rule]]. [[Lenz's law]] gives the direction of the induced electromotive force (emf) and current resulting from electromagnetic induction. German physicist Heinrich Lenz formulated it in 1834. === Magnetic dipoles === {{utama|Magnetic dipole}} A very common source of [[magnetic field]] shown in nature is a [[dipole]], with a "[[South pole]]" and a "[[North pole]]"; terms dating back to the use of magnets as [[compass]]es, intéracting with the [[Earth's magnetic field]] to indicate North and South on the [[globe]]. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the 'north' magnetic pole of the éarth must be magnetically 'south'. A magnetic field contains [[energy]], and physical systems stabilize into the configuration with the lowest energy. Therefore, when placed in a magnetic field, a '''magnetic dipole''' tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby canceling the net field strength as much as possible and lowering the energy stored in that field to a minimum. For instance, two identical bar magnets placed side-to-side normally line up North to South, resulting in a much smaller net magnetic field, and resist any attempts to réorient them to point in the same direction. The energy required to réorient them in that configuration is then stored in the resulting magnetic field, which is double the strength of the field of éach individual magnet. (This is, of course, why a magnet used as a compass intéracts with the éarth's magnetic field to indicate North and South). An alternative, equivalent formulation, which is often éasier to apply but perhaps offers less insight, is that a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field experiences a [[torque]] and a [[force]] which can be expressed in terms of the field and the strength of the dipole (i.e., its [[magnetic dipole moment]]). For these equations, see [[magnetic dipole]]. === Magnetic monopoles === {{utama|Magnetic monopole}} Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from microscopic electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, éach of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from éach other. A monopole — if such a thing exists — would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic séarches since 1931, [[as of 2006]], they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.<ref>Milton mentions some inconclusive events (p.60) and still concludes that "no evidence at all of magnetic monopoles has survived" (p.3). {{cite journal |last=Milton |first=Kimball A. |title=Theoretical and experimental status of magnetic monopoles |journal=Reports on Progress in Physics |volume=69 |issue=6 |month=June |year=2006 |pages=1637-1711 |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/69/6/R02 |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0602040}}.</ref> Nevertheless, some [[theoretical physics]] modéls predict the existence of these [[magnetic monopoles]]. [[Paul Dirac]] observed in 1931 that, because [[electricity]] and magnetism show a certain [[symmetry]], just as [[Quantum electrodynamics|quantum theory]] predicts that individual [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum théory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge---that is, why the observed [[elementary particles]] carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron. Certain [[grand unified theories]] predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are [[solitons]] (localized [[energy]] packets). The initial results of using these modéls to estimate the number of monopoles créated in the [[big bang]] contradicted cosmological observations — the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idéa of [[Cosmic inflation|inflation]] (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, créating modéls in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations.<ref>{{cite book |first=Alan|last=Guth|authorlink=Alan Guth|title=The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins|id=ISBN 0-201-32840-2|publisher=Perseus|year=1997}}.</ref> == Units of electromagnetism == === SI units related to magnetism === {{SI electromagnetism units}} === Other units === * [[Gauss (unit)|gauss]]-The '''gauss''', abbreviated as G, is the [[cgs]] [[units of measurement|unit]] of [[magnetic flux density]] or [[magnetic induction]] ('''B'''). * [[oersted]]-The '''oersted''' is the [[CGS]] [[units of measurement|unit]] of [[magnetic field strength]]. * [[maxwell (unit)|maxwell]]-is the [[CGS]] unit for the [[magnetic flux]]. * μ_o -common symbol for the [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] of free space (4πx10⁻⁷ N/(ampere-turn)²). == See also == {{wikibookspar||School science how-to}} <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Earth's magnetic field]] * [[Electrostatics]] * [[Electromagnet]] * [[Magnetostatics]] * [[Electromagnetism]] * [[Lenz's law]] * [[Plastic magnet]] * [[Magnet]] * [[Magnetar]] * [[Magnetic field]] * [[Magnetic bearing]] * [[Magnetic cooling]] * [[Magnet therapy]] * [[Magnetic circuit]] * [[Magnetic moment]] * [[Magnetic structure]] * [[Magnetic susceptibility]] * [[Magnetization]] * [[Michael Faraday]] * [[Micromagnetism]] * [[James Clerk Maxwell]] * [[Coercivity]] * [[Spin wave]] * [[Spontaneous magnetization]] * [[Sensor]] * [[Magnetic stirrer]] </div> {{magnetic states}} == References == * {{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J.|title=Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.)| publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1998 |id=ISBN 0-13-805326-X}} * {{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.) | url=https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000tipl_y7c5 | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7167-0810-8}} * {{cite book | author=Furlani, Edward P. | title=Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications | publisher=Academic Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-12-269951-3}} {{reflist}} == External links == {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html Electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603233123/http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html |date=2011-06-03 }} - a chapter from an online textbook * [http://physnet.org/home/modules/pdf_modules/m426.pdf ''Magnetic Force and Field ''] on [http://www.physnet.org Project PHYSNET] * [http://www.antiquebooks.net/readpage.html#gilbert On the Magnet, 1600] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060708063248/http://www.antiquebooks.net/readpage.html#gilbert |date=2006-07-08 }} First scientific book on magnetism by the father of electrical engineering. Full English text, full text séarch. [[Kategori:Magnétisme| ]] 9tc10om867tt9qdx0m4pg9vykoonylb 0 25898 711780 710943 2026-08-07T04:07:01Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{electromagnetism3}}<!----> '''Éléktromagnétisme''', dina [[fisika]], nyaéta [[fénoména]] di mana hiji [[médan (fisika)|médan]] ngeprakkeun hiji [[gaya]] kana [[Partikel éleménter|partikel]] nu sifatna mibanda [[muatan listrik]], sarta sabalikna kapangaruhan ku hadirna sarta gerak partikel dimaksud. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggis}} The magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, i.e. [[electric current]]. The magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with [[magnet]]s. While preparing for an evening lecture on 21 April 1820, [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] developed an experiment which provided evidence that surprised him. As he was setting up his materials, he noticed a compass needle deflected from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off. This deflection convinced him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides of a wire carrying an electric current, just as light and héat do, and that it confirmed a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework. However, three months later he began more intensive investigations. Soon theréafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism. His findings resulted in intensive reséarch throughout the scientific community in [[electrodynamics]]. They influenced French physicist [[André-Marie Ampére]]'s developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy. Ørsted was not the first person to examine the relation between electricity and magnetism. In 1802 [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi]], an Italian legal scholar, deflected a magnetic needle by electrostatic charges. He interpreted his observations as ''The Relation'' between electricity and magnetism. Actually, no galvanic current existed in the setup and hence no electromagnetism was present. An account of the discovery was published in 1802 in an Italian newspaper, but it was largely overlooked by the contemporary scientific community. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of [[electromagnetic induction]], the basis of operation for [[electrical generator]]s, [[induction motor]]s, and [[transformer]]s). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single coherent entity—the electromagnetic field. This unification, which was observed by [[Michael Faraday]], extended by [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and partially reformulated by [[Oliver Heaviside]], is one of the triumphs of [[19th century]] physics. It had far-réaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of [[light]]. As it turns out, what is thought of as "light" is actually a propagating [[oscillation|oscillatory]] disturbance in the electromagnetic field, i.e., an electromagnetic [[wave]]. Different [[frequency|frequencies]] of oscillation give rise to the different forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]], from [[radio wave]]s at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to [[gamma ray]]s at the highest frequencies. The théoretical implications of electromagnetism led to the development of [[special relativity]] by [[Albert Einstein]] in [[1905]]. == The electromagnetic force == {{utama|Electromagnetic force}} The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the '''electromagnetic force''', is one of the four [[fundamental force]]s. The other fundamental forces are the [[strong interaction|strong nuclear force]] (which holds [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] together), the [[weak interaction|weak nuclear force]] (which causes certain forms of [[radioactive decay]]), and the [[gravity|gravitational force]]. All other forces are ultimately derived from these fundamental forces. As it turns out, the electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Roughly spéaking, all the forces involved in interactions between [[atom]]s can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the electrically charged [[proton]]s and [[electron]]s inside the atoms. This includes the forces we experience in "pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects, which come from the [[intermolecular force]]s between the individual [[molecule]]s in our bodies and those in the objects. It also includes all forms of [[chemistry|chemical phenomena]], which arise from interactions between [[Molecular orbital|electron orbitals]]. == Classical electrodynamics == The scientist [[William Gilbert]] proposed, in his ''[[De Magnete]]'' ([[1600]]), that electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects. Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb needle, but the link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s proposed experiments in [[1752]]. One of the first to discover and publish a link between man-made electric current and magnetism was [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi|Romagnosi]], who in [[1802]] noticed that connecting a wire across a [[Voltaic pile]] deflected a néarby [[compass]] needle. However, the effect did not become widely known until [[1820]], when [[Hans Christian Ørsted|Ørsted]] performed a similar experiment. Ørsted's work influenced [[André-Marie Ampére|Ampére]] to produce a théory of electromagnetism that set the subject on a mathematical foundation. An accurate théory of electromagnetism, known as [[classical electromagnetism]], was developed by various [[physicist]]s over the course of the [[19th century]], culminating in the work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who unified the preceding developments into a single théory and discovered the electromagnetic nature of light. In classical electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field obeys a set of equations known as [[Maxwell's equations]], and the electromagnetic force is given by the [[Lorentz force|Lorentz force law]]. One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with [[classical mechanics]], but it is compatible with [[special relativity]]. According to Maxwell's equations, the [[speed of light]] is a universal constant, dependent only on the [[Permittivity|electrical permittivity]] and [[magnetic permeability]] of the [[vacuum]]. This violates [[Galilean invariance]], a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two théories is to assume the existence of a [[luminiferous aether]] through which the light propagates. However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether. In [[1905]], [[Albert Einstein]] solved the problem with the introduction of [[special relativity]], which replaces classical kinematics with a new théory of kinematics that is compatible with classical electromagnetism. In addition, relativity théory shows that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two sides of the same coin, and thus the term "electromagnetism". == The photoelectric effect == In another paper published in that same yéar, Albert Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical electromagnetism. His théory of the [[photoelectric effect]] (for which he won the Nobel prize for physics) posited that light could exist in discrete particle-like quantities, which later came to be known as [[photon]]s. Einstein's théory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights that appéared in the solution of the [[ultraviolet catastrophe]] presented by [[Max Planck]] in [[1900]]. In his work, Planck showed that hot objects emit [[electromagnetic radiation]] in discrete packets, which léads to a finite total [[energy]] emitted as [[black body radiation]]. Both of these results were in direct contradiction with the classical view of light as a continuous wave. Planck's and Einstein's théories were progenitors of [[quantum mechanics]], which, when formulated in [[1925]], necessitated the invention of a quantum théory of electromagnetism. This théory, completed in the [[1940s]], is known as [[quantum electrodynamics]] (or "QED"), and is one of the most accurate théories known to physics. == Definition == The term [[electrodynamics]] is sometimes used to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with [[mechanics]], and déals with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic behavior of electrically charged particles. == Units == '''Electromagnetic units''' are part of a system of electrical units based primarily upon the magnetic properties of electric currents, the fundamental cgs unit being the abampere. The units are: * [[ampere]] (current) * [[coulomb]] (charge) * [[farad]] (capacitance) * [[henry (unit)|henry]] (inductance) * [[ohm]] (resistance) * [[volt]] (electric potential) * [[watt]] (power) In the electromagnetic cgs system, electrical current is a fundamental quantity defined via [[Ampére's law]] and takes the [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] as a dimensionless quantity (relative perméability) whose value in a vacuum is unity. As a consequence, the square of the speed of light appéars explicitly in some of the equations interrelating quantities in this system. {{SI_electromagnetism_units}} == See also == <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:4; column-count:4;"> * [[Abraham-Lorentz force]] * [[Classical electromagnetism]] * [[Double-slit experiment]] * [[Electricity]] * [[Electromagnet]] * [[Electromagnetic modeling]] * [[Electromagnetic wave equation]] * [[Electromechanics]] * [[Electrostatics]] * [[Formulation of Maxwell's equations in special relativity]] * [[Gamma ray]] * [[Lorentz force]] * [[Maglev]] <!--yes, the disambig page; both articles can be relevant to electromagneticism.--> * [[Magnetism]] * [[Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime]] * [[Microwave]] * [[Optics]] * [[Photon polarization]] * [[Plasma (physics)]] * [[Polarization]] * [[Radio wave]] * [[Waveguide]] * [[X-ray]] </div> == References == <!-- ---------------------------------------------------------- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a discussion of different citation methods and how to generate footnotes using the <ref>, </ref> and <reference /> tags ----------------------------------------------------------- --> {{reflist}} '''Web''' * {{Citation | last = Nave | first = R. | title = Magnetic Field Strength H | url = http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfield.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} * {{Citation | last = Keitch | first = Paul | title = Magnetic Field Strength and Magnetic Flux Density | url = http://www.electric-fields.bris.ac.uk/MagneticFieldStrength.htm | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} * {{Citation | last = Oppelt | first = Arnulf | date = [[2006-11-02]] | title = magnetic field strength | url = http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905094533/http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html |date=2008-09-05 }} * {{Citation | title = magnetic field strength converter | url = http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/magnetic-field-strength.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} '''Books''' * {{cite book | author=Durney, Carl H. and Johnson, Curtis C. | title=Introduction to modern electromagnetics | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontomo0000durn | publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1969 |id=ISBN 0-07-018388-0}} * {{cite book | author=Rao, Nannapaneni N. | title=Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.)| publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=1994 |id=ISBN 0-13-948746-8}} * {{cite book | last = Tipler | first = Paul | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Light, Electricity and Magnetism | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 1-57259-492-6 }} * {{cite book | last = [[David J. Griffiths|Griffiths]] | first = David J. | title = Introduction to Electrodynamics | edition = 3rd ed. | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-13-805326-X }} * {{cite book | last = Jackson | first = John D. | title = Classical Electrodynamics | edition = 3rd ed. | publisher = Wiley | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-471-30932-X }} * {{cite book | last = Rothwell | first = Edward J. | coauthors = Cloud, Michael J. | title = Electromagnetics | publisher = CRC Press | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-8493-1397-X }} * {{cite book | last = Wangsness | first = Roald K. | coauthors = Cloud, Michael J. | title = Electromagnetic Fields (2nd Edition) | publisher = Wiley | year = 1986 | id = ISBN 0-471-81186-6 }} * {{cite book | last = Dibner | first = Bern | title = Oersted and the discovery of electromagnetism | publisher = Blaisdell Publishing Company | year = 1961 | id = ISSN 99-0317066-1 ; 18 }} </div> == External links == * [http://www.emtalk.com Electromagnetic Tutorials and Forums] EM Talk * [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-02Electricity-and-MagnetismSpring2002/VideoLectures/index.htm MIT Video Lectures - Electricity and Magnetism] from Spring 2002. Taught by Professor Walter Lewin. * [http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book4.html Electricity and Magnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015174156/http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book4.html |date=2006-10-15 }} - an online textbook (uses algebra, with optional calculus-based sections) * [http://www.plasma.uu.se/CED/Book/ Electromagnetic Field Theory] - an online textbook (uses calculus) * [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/em/em.html Classical Electromagnetism: An intermediate level course] - an online intermediate level texbook downloadable as PDF file * [http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/physics/electricity/electromagnetism.html Science Aid: electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060711115340/http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/physics/electricity/electromagnetism.html |date=2006-07-11 }} Electromagnetism, aimed at teens. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060603123952/http://www.motionmountain.net/C-4-EDYN.pdf Motion Mountain] A modérn introduction to electromagnetism and its effects in everyday life. * [http://www.rfzone.org/free-rf-ebooks/ Books on Electromagnetism and RF field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218171119/http://www.rfzone.org/free-rf-ebooks/ |date=2007-12-18 }} * [http://dcjenn.com/ Dr. David C. Jenn's site] - specializing in radar systems and electromagnetic scattering and radiation * [http://www.ee.umd.edu/~taylor/frame1.htm Gallery of Electromagnetic Personalities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206001941/http://www.ee.umd.edu/~taylor/frame1.htm |date=2006-12-06 }} * [http://monopole.ph.qmw.ac.uk/~bill/emt/LecNotes.html MSci Electromagnetic Theory Lecture Notes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930190141/http://monopole.ph.qmw.ac.uk/~bill/emt/LecNotes.html |date=2007-09-30 }} * [http://newton.ex.ac.uk/teaching/CDHW/EM/ PHY2206 Electromagnetic Fields Course Handouts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119204722/http://newton.ex.ac.uk/teaching/CDHW/EM/ |date=2008-01-19 }} * [http://phys.csuchico.edu:16080/kagan/204B/lecture/ Dr. David Kagan Physics 204B Lecture Notes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230183027/http://phys.csuchico.edu:16080/kagan/204B/lecture/ |date=2007-12-30 }} * [http://www.ece.rutgers.edu/~orfanidi/ewa/ Sophocles J. Orfanidis' Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220093657/http://www.ece.rutgers.edu/~orfanidi/ewa/ |date=2008-12-20 }} * [http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~hve/MAS207/ MAS207 Electromagnetism Lecture Notes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050502101322/http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~hve/MAS207/ |date=2005-05-02 }} * [http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/courses/phys1002/notes/ PHYS1002 - Electromagnetism, Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060918030816/http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/courses/phys1002/notes/ |date=2006-09-18 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050720043537/http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/people/ficek/pdfs/ph3050.pdf Dr. Zbigniew Ficek's PHYS3050 Electromagnetic theory lecture notes] * [http://www.sp.phy.cam.ac.uk/teaching/em/ University of Cambridge's Advanced Physics Electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111113345/http://www.sp.phy.cam.ac.uk/teaching/em/ |date=2008-01-11 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060917150219/http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~ecen4634/4634-Lectures-Labs-1-10.pdf ECEN4364 Principles of RF and Microwave Measurements lecture notes] * [http://www.maths.ox.ac.uk/~lmason/B7/ B7 Relativity and Electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024045102/http://www2.maths.ox.ac.uk/~lmason/B7/ |date=2007-10-24 }} * [http://www.maths.ox.ac.uk/~nwoodh/sr/ NMJ Woodhouse's Special Relativity and Electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024045106/http://www2.maths.ox.ac.uk/~nwoodh/sr/ |date=2007-10-24 }} * [http://www.maths.ox.ac.uk/~nwoodh/gr/ NMJ Woodhouse's General Relativity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009183410/http://www2.maths.ox.ac.uk/~nwoodh/gr/ |date=2007-10-09 }} * [http://www.apriorijournal.org/volume1/chalmers.pdf Maxwell, Mechanism and the Nature of Electricity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070604222819/http://www.apriorijournal.org/volume1/chalmers.pdf |date=2007-06-04 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060822042955/http://ftp.physics.uwa.edu.au/pub/Electromagnetism/Electromagnetism.pdf Electromagnetism Mathematica notes] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B13-09K-Ubc "National Grid", electromagnetic sound art] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQoYOXmUuE0 "Disinformation", electromagnetic sound art] * [http://www.ee.byu.edu/forms/ Differential Forms in Electromagnetic Theory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222153757/http://www.ee.byu.edu/forms/ |date=2007-12-22 }} * [http://www.sonnetsoftware.com/bio/maxbio.pdf The Life of James Clerk Maxwell] - prepared by James C. Rautio of Sonnet Software, Inc. * [http://uk.arxiv.org/PS_cache/physics/pdf/0311/0311011.pdf Classical Electrodynamics and Theory of Relativity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171342/http://uk.arxiv.org/PS_cache/physics/pdf/0311/0311011.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }} - by Ruslan Sharipov * [http://www.icm.edu.pl/edukacja/mat/axial.php Axial Vectors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209112349/http://www.icm.edu.pl/edukacja/mat/axial.php |date=2008-02-09 }} - by Alain Bossavit {{FundamentalForces}} {{Physics-footer}} [[Kategori:Éléktromagnétisme| ]] [[Kategori:Éléktrodinamika| ]] [[Kategori:Konsép fisika dasar]] odzen85amjbx1iu4znubglocw8utpzc 0 25951 711614 490406 2026-08-07T00:19:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711614 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Military Person |name=Prince Yamagata Aritomo |lived=[[14 June]] [[1838]] - [[1 February]] [[1922]] |placeofbirth=[[Hagi]], [[Chōshū]] domain [[Japan]] |placeofdeath=[[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] |image=[[Image:Yamagata_Aritomo.jpg|center|200px]] |caption=Meiji-period postcard of Yamagata Aritomo |nickname= |allegiance=[[Empire of Japan]] |branch=[[Imperial Japanese Army]] |serviceyears=1868 -1898 |rank=[[Field Marshal]] |commands= |unit= |battles=[[Boshin War]]<br>[[Satsuma Rebellion]]<br>[[First Sino-Japanese War]]<br>[[Russo-Japanese War]] |awards=[[Order of Merit (Commonwealth)|Order of Merit]]<br> [[Order of the Golden Kite]] (1st class)<br>[[Order of the Rising Sun]] (1st class with Paulownia Blossoms, Grand Cordon)<br>[[Order of the Chrysanthemum]]. |family= |laterwork=[[Prime Minister of Japan]] }} {{Japanese name|Yamagata}} Pangeran {{nihongo|'''Yamagata Aritomo'''|山縣 有朋| Yamagata Aritomo|extra=[[14 Juni]] [[1838]]–[[1 Pébruari]] [[1922]]}} salah saurang [[Field Marshal (Japan)|laksamana]] di [[Imperial Japanese Army|Tentara Kaisar Jepang]] tur dua kali [[Perdana Mentri Jepang]]. Anjeunna salah saurang arsitek militer jeung pulitik Jepang modérn. Yamagata Aritomo diaku ogé bapak [[Japanese militarism|militer Jepang]]. <!--His support for many autocratic and aggressive policies directly undermined the development of an open society, and contributed to the coming of the [[Second World War]].--> ==Rujukan== {{Commonscat|Aritomo Yamagata}} *{{cite book | last = Craig | first = Albert M. | year = 1961 | title = Chōshū in the Meiji Restoration | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = | id = ISBN 0739101935 }} *{{cite book | last = Dupuy | first = Trevor N. | year = 1992 | title = Encyclopedia of Military Biography | publisher = I B Tauris & Co Ltd | location = | id = ISBN 1-85043-569-3 }} *{{cite book | last = Hackett | first = Roger F. | year = 1971 | title = Yamagata Aritomo in the Rise of Modern Japan 1838 - 1922 | url = https://archive.org/details/yamagataaritomoi0000hack | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = | id = SBN 674-96301-6 }} *{{cite book | last = Jansen | first = Marius B. | year = 2000 | title = The Making of Modern Japan | url = https://archive.org/details/makingofmodernja00jans | publisher = Belknap Press | location = | id = ISBN 0674009916 }} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{clear}} * {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|208}} ==Catetan== {{reflist}} {{start box}} {{succession box| title=[[Perdana Mentri Jepang]]| before=[[Kuroda Kiyotaka]]| after=[[Matsukata Masayoshi]]| years=}} {{succession box| title=[[Perdana Mentri Jepang]]| before=[[Ōkuma Shigenobu]]| after=[[Itō Hirobumi]]| years=}} {{end box}} {{Japanese prime ministers}} {{pondok}} <!-- note that Yamagata is the family name! --> {{DEFAULTSORT:Yamagata, Aritomo}} [[Kategori:Perdana Mentri Jepang]] [[Kategori:Jéndral Jepang]] [[Kategori:Marsekal Jepang]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Boshin]] [[Kategori:Anggota Orde Kahadéan]] [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1838]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1922]] [[Kategori:Urang Préféktur Yamaguchi]] [[Kategori:Kazoku]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Cina-Jepang Munggaran]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Rusia-Jepang]] [[Kategori:Urang Jepang dina période Méiji]] qaccls8wmm4ntjivv33tqqp363bklth 0 26043 711570 495106 2026-08-06T23:20:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711570 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Politician | name = Abe Nobuyuki | image=Nobuyuki Abe formal.jpg | width =180px | height =230px | caption ='''Perdana Mentri Jepang''' | birth_date ={{birth date|1875|11|24|df=y}} | birth_place =[[Kanazawa]], [[Ishikawa Prefecture]], [[Jepang]] | residence = | death_date ={{death date and age|1953|9|7|1875|11|24}} | death_place = | office =[[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-36 | salary = | term_start =[[30 Agustus]] [[1939]] | term_end = [[1 Januari]] [[1940]] | predecessor =[[Hiranuma Kiichiro]] | successor =[[Mitsumasa Yonai]] | constituency = | office2 = | salary2 = | term_start2 = | term_end2 = | predecessor2 = | successor2 = | constituency2 = | office3 = | salary3 = | term_start3 = | term_end3 = | predecessor3 = | successor3 = | constituency3 = | party =none | religion = | occupation = general, [[Imperial Japanese Army]]<br /> [[Governor-General of Korea]] | majority = | spouse = | children = | website = | footnotes = }} {{nihongo|'''Nobuyuki Abe'''|阿部信行|Abe Nobuyuki|extra=[[24 Nopémber]] [[1875]] - [[7 Séptémber]] [[1953]]}} nyaéta jendral di [[Imperial Japanese Army|Tentara Kaisar Jepang]], [[Governor-General of Korea|Gubernur Jendral Korea]], tur [[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-36 from [[30 Agustus]] [[1939]] dugi ka [[16 Januari]] [[1940]]. {{fact}} == Rujukan == === Buku === *{{cite book | last = Barhart | first = Michael | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1988 | title = Japan Prepares for Total War: The Search for Economic Security, 1919-1941 | url = https://archive.org/details/japanpreparesfor00barn_0 | publisher = Cornell University Press | location = | id = ISBN 0-8014-9529-6 }} *{{cite book | last = Bix | first = Herbert B. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2001 | title = Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan | url = https://archive.org/details/hirohitomakingof00herb | publisher = Harper Perennial | location = | id = ISBN 0-06-093130-2 }} *{{cite book | last = Coox | first = Alvin D. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1990 | title = Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939 | url = https://archive.org/details/nomonhanjapanaga0000alvi | publisher = Stanford University Press | location = | id = ISBN 0-8047-1835-0 }} *{{cite book | last = Baudot | first = Marcel | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1988 | title = The Historical Encyclopedia or World War II | publisher = Facts on File Inc | location = | id = ISBN 0-87196-401-5 }} {{Commonscat|Nobuyuki Abe}} === Tumbu kaluar === * {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|2}} *{{cite web | last = Ammentorp | first = Steen | authorlink = | coauthors = | url = http://www.generals.dk/general/Abe/Nobuyki/Japan.html | title = Generals from Japan: Abe, Hiroaki | work = The Generals of World War II | accessdate = 2007-09-03 }} == Catetan == {{Reflist}} {{start box}} {{succession box | title = [[Mentri Luar Negeri (Jepang)|Mentri Luar Negeri Jepang]] | years = 1939 | before = [[Hachiro Arita]] | after = [[Kichisaburo Nomura]] | }} {{succession box| title=[[Governor-General of Korea]]| before=[[Kuniaki Koiso]]| after= -| years = 1944-1945}} {{end box}} {{Japanese prime ministers}} {{pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Abe, Nobuyuki}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1875]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1953]] [[Kategori:Urang Préféktur Ishikawa]] [[Kategori:Perdana Mentri Jepang]] [[Kategori:Pupuhu pulitik Perang Dunya II]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Jéndral Koréa]] [[Kategori:Jéndral Jepang]] [[Kategori:Pulitikeus Jepang]] rxb5sjnvu4sjwprhw2pzc9wc2vrlh6m 0 26046 711586 651364 2026-08-06T23:42:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711586 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Politician | name = Mitsumasa Yonai | nationality = [[Urang Jepang|Jepang]] | image = Mitsumasa yonai.jpg | imagesize = 200 px | caption = | order = [[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-37 | term_start = [[16 Januari]] [[1940]] | term_end = [[22 Juli]] [[1940]] | vicepresident = | predecessor = [[Nobuyuki Abe]] | successor = [[Fumimaro Konoe]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1880|3|2|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Morioka]], [[Préféktur Iwate]], [[Jepang]] | death_date = {{death date and age|1948|4|20|1880|3|2}} | death_place = | party = none | spouse = | occupation = [[Laksamana]], [[Angkatan Laut Kakaisaran Jepang]] | religion = [[Shinto]] | nicknames = | languagesspoken = [[Basa Jepang]], [[basa Inggris|Inggris]], [[basa Rusia|Rusia]] |}} {{Japanese name|Yonai}} '''{{nihongo|Mitsumasa Yonai|米内光政|Yonai Mitsumasa}}''' ([[2 Maret]] [[1880]] - [[20 April]] [[1948]]) nyaéta salah saurang [[admiral|laksamana]] di [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Angkatan Laut Jepang]], jeung [[politician|pulitikus]]. Jadi [[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-37 ti [[16 Januari]] [[1940]] dugi ka [[22 Juli]] [[1940]]. == Catetan == {{Reflist}} ==Rujukan== ===Buku=== *{{cite book | last = Franks | first = Richard B. | authorlink = | year = 2001 | title = Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire | publisher = Penguin (Non-Classics); Reissue edition | location = | id = ISBN 014100146 }} *{{cite book | last = Jansen | first = Marius B | authorlink = | year = 2002 | title = The Making of Modern Japan | publisher = Belknap Press | location = | id = ISBN 0674009916 }} *{{cite book | last = Sims | first = Richard | authorlink = | year = 2001 | title = Japanese Political History Since the Meiji Renovation 1868-2000 | url = https://archive.org/details/japanesepolitica0000sims | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = | id = ISBN 0312239157 }} *{{cite book | last = Spector | first = Ronald | authorlink = | year = 1985 | title = Eagle Against the Sun: The American War With Japan | url = https://archive.org/details/eagleagainstsuna0000spec | publisher = Vintage | location = | id = ISBN 0394741013 }} *{{cite book | last = Takada | first = Makiko | authorlink = | year = 1995 | title = Showa Tenno to Yonai Mitsumasa to | publisher = Hara Shobo | location = | id = ISBN 4562026944 }} *{{cite book | last = Takagi | first = Sokichi | authorlink = | year = 1982 | title = Yamamoto Isoroku to Yonai Mitsumasa: Fu rengo kantai shimatsuki | publisher = Kojinsha | location = | id = ISBN 4769801734 }} ===Tumbu kaluar=== * {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|218}} * [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Yonai,+Mitsumasa Annotated bibliography for Mitsumasa Yonai from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828141903/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FYonai%2C+Mitsumasa |date=2006-08-28 }} *{{cite web | last = Nishida | first = Hiroshi | url = http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px29.htm#a003 | title = Materials of IJN: Yonai, Mitsumasa | format = | work = Imperial Japanese Navy | accessdate = 2007-08-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.ph/20130208135452/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px29.htm#a003 |date=2013-02-08 }} {{commonscat|Mitsumasa Yonai}} {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Osami Nagano]]| title=[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Minister of the Navy of Japan]]| years=Feb 1937–Aug 1939| after=[[Zengo Yoshida]]| }} {{succession box| before=[[Naokuni Nomura]]| title=[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Minister of the Navy of Japan]]| years=Jul 1944–Dec 1945| after=''(none)''| }} {{end box}} {{Japanese prime ministers}} {{IJN}} {{pondok}} <!-- Please do not change this Japanese name's order. --> {{DEFAULTSORT:Yonai, Mitsumasa}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1880]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1948]] [[Kategori:Laksamana Angkatan Laut Kakaisaran Jepang]] [[Kategori:Personil militér Jepang dina Perang Dunya II]] [[Kategori:Urang Préféktur Iwate]] [[Kategori:Perdana Mentri Jepang]] k5huvckiz0xalshqw8ync7352fucnvl 0 26112 711724 651879 2026-08-07T02:36:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711724 wikitext text/x-wiki {{japanese name|Saitō}} {{Infobox Military Person |name=Viscount Saitō Makoto |lived=[[27 Oktober]] [[1858]] - [[26 Pébruari]] [[1936]]<ref>Nishida, Imperial Japanese Navy</ref> |placeofbirth=[[Mizusawa]], [[Mutsu Province]], [[Jepang]] |placeofdeath=[[Tokyo]], [[Jepang]] |image=[[Image:Makoto Saito 2.jpg|center|200px]] |caption=Laksamana Jepang Saitō Makoto |nickname= |allegiance=[[Empire of Japan]] |branch=[[Image:Naval Ensign of Japan.svg|22x20px]] [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] |serviceyears=1879 -1928 |rank=[[Admiral]] |commands=[[Japanese cruiser Akitsushima|''Akitsushima'']], [[Japanese cruiser Itsukushima|''Itsukushima'']]. |unit= |battles=[[First Sino-Japanese War]]<br>[[Russo-Japanese War]]<br>[[World War I]] |awards=Supreme [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]] |family= |laterwork=[[Governor-General of Korea]]<br>[[Perdana Mentri Jepang]]<br>[[Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan|Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal]] }} {{nihongo|'''Viscount Saitō Makoto'''|斎藤 実| Saitō Makoto|extra= [[27 Oktober]] [[1858]] – [[26 Pébruari]] [[1936]]}} nyaéta saurang laksamana di [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Angkatan Laut Jepang]], [[Governor-General of Korea]] ti 1919 dugi ka 1927 tur [[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-30 ti [[26 Méi]] [[1932]] nepi ka [[8 Juli]] [[1934]].{{fact}} ==Rujukan== ===Buku=== *{{cite book | last = Bix | first = Herbert B. | authorlink = | year = 2001 | title = Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan | url = https://archive.org/details/hirohitomakingof00herb | publisher = Harper Perennial | location = | id = ISBN 0-06-093130-2 }} *{{cite book | last = Brendon | first = Piers | authorlink = | year = 2002 | title = The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s | url = https://archive.org/details/darkvalleypanora0000bren | publisher = Vintage; Reprint edition | location = | id = ISBN 0-375-70808-1 }} *{{cite book | last = Gordon | first = Andrew | authorlink = | year = 2003 | title = A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = | id = ISBN 0195110617 }} *{{cite book | last = Jansen | first = Marius B | authorlink = | year = 2002 | title = The Making of Modern Japan | publisher = Belknap Press | location = | id = ISBN 0674009916 }} *{{cite book | last = Sims | first = Richard | authorlink = | year = 2001 | title = Japanese Political History Since the Meiji Renovation 1868-2000 | url = https://archive.org/details/japanesepolitica0000sims | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = | id = ISBN 0312239157 }} {{commonscat|Makoto Saito}} ===Tumbu kaluar=== * {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|87}} *{{cite web | last = Nishida | first = Hiroshi | url = http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px06.htm#a001 | title = Materials of IJN: Saito Makoto | work = Imperial Japanese Navy | accessdate = 2007-08-03 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Korea_South.htm Republic of Korea] == Notes == {{Reflist}} {{IJN}} {{Japanese prime ministers}} {{pondok}} {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Yamamoto Gonnohyoe]]| title=[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Minister of the Navy of Japan]]| years=Jan 1906 - Apr 1914| after=[[Yashiro Rokuro]]| }} {{succession box| title=[[Governor-General of Korea]]| before= Count [[Yoshimichi Hasegawa]] of [[Korea]]| after=[[Kazushige Ugaki]]| years=1919-1927| }} {{succession box| title=[[Governor-General of Korea]]|before= [[Hanzo Yamanashi]]| after= [[Kazushige Ugaki]]| years=1929-1931| }} {{succession box | before=[[Kenkichi Yoshizawa]] | title=[[Mentri Luar Negri (Jepang)|Mentri Luar Negri]] [[Jepang]] | years=1932 | after=[[Yasuya Uchida]]}} {{end box}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Saito, Makoto}} <!-- Categories --> [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1858]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1936]] [[Kategori:Perdana Mentri Jepang]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Jéndral di Koréa]] [[Kategori:Laksamana Laut Karajaan Jepang]] [[Kategori:Urang Préféktur Iwate]] [[Kategori:Kazoku]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Cina-Jepang Munggaran]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Rusia-Jepang]] [[Kategori:Pulitikeus Jepang nu diala pati]] <!-- Interwiki --> c9fffpnh10obteawpa66g3yj1n7txr6 0 26113 711790 651018 2026-08-07T04:26:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Politician | name = Keisuke Okada | image = Keisuke Okada 2.jpg | caption ='''Perdana Mentri Jepang''' | birth_date =[[20 Januari]] [[1868]] | birth_place =[[Fukui, Fukui|Fukui]],[[Echizen Province]],[[Jepang]] | residence = | death_date ={{death date and age|1952|10|17|1868|1|20|df=y}} | death_place = | office =[[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-31 | salary = | term_start = [[8 Juli]] [[1934]] | term_end = [[9 Maret]] [[1936]] | predecessor =[[Saito Makoto]] | successor =[[Hirota Koki]] | constituency = | office2 = | salary2 = | term_start2 = | term_end2 = | predecessor2 = | successor2 = | constituency2 = | office3 = | salary3 = | term_start3 = | term_end3 = | predecessor3 = | successor3 = | constituency3 = | party = | religion = | occupation =Admiral, Imperial Japanese Navy | majority = | spouse = | children = | website = | footnotes = }} {{Japanese name|Okada}} {{nihongo|'''Keisuke Okada'''|岡田 啓介|Okada Keisuke|extra= [[20 Januari]] [[1868]]–[[17 Oktober]] [[1952]]}} nyaéta saurang laksamana [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Angkatan Laut Jepang]], [[politician|pulitikus]] tur [[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-31 ti [[8 Juli]] [[1934]] dugi ka [[9 Maret]] [[1936]]. ==Rujukan== ===Buku=== *{{cite book | last = Bix | first = Herbert B. | authorlink = | year = 2001 | title = Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan | url = https://archive.org/details/hirohitomakingof00herb | publisher = Harper Perennial | location = | id = ISBN 0-06-093130-2 }} *{{cite book | last = Brendon | first = Piers | authorlink = | year = 2002 | title = The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s | url = https://archive.org/details/darkvalleypanora0000bren | publisher = Vintage; Reprint edition | location = | id = ISBN 0-375-70808-1 }} *{{cite book | last = Gordon | first = Andrew | authorlink = | year = 2003 | title = A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = | id = ISBN 0195110617 }} *{{cite book | last = Jansen | first = Marius B | authorlink = | year = 2002 | title = The Making of Modern Japan | publisher = Belknap Press | location = | id = ISBN 0674009916 }} ===Tumbu kaluar=== *{{cite web | last = Nishida | first = Hiroshi | url = http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px15.htm#a001 | title = Materials of IJN: Okada, Keisuke | work = Imperial Japanese Navy | accessdate = 2007-08-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130104052307/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px15.htm#a001 |date=2013-01-04 }} * {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|41}} == Catetan == {{Reflist}} {{commonscat|Keisuke Okada}} {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Takarabe Takeshi]]| title=[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Minister of the Navy of Japan]]| years= Apr 1927 - Jul 1929| after=[[Takarabe Takeshi]]| }} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Osumi Mineo]]| title=[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Minister of the Navy of Japan]]| years= May 1932 - Jan 1933| after=[[Osumi Mineo]]| }} {{end box}} {{IJN}} {{Japanese prime ministers}} {{pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Okada, Keisuke}} <!-- Categories --> [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1868]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1952]] [[Kategori:Perdana Mentri Jepang]] [[Kategori:Urang Préféktur Fukui]] [[Kategori:Laksamana Laut Karajaan Jepang]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Cina-Jepang Munggaran]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Rusia-Jepang]] [[Kategori:Urang Jepang dina période Méiji]] [[Kategori:Personil militér Jepang dina Perang Dunya II]] <!-- Interwiki --> hmk0lbavxbncmlf0e25baz15g31qekc 0 26121 711668 651151 2026-08-07T01:16:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711668 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Politician | name =Kuniaki Koiso | image=Kuniaki Koiso.jpg | size = 200px | caption ='''Perdana Mentri Jepang''' | birth_date ={{birth date|1880|3|22|df=y}} | birth_place =[[Utsunomiya]], [[Tochigi Prefecture]], [[Jepang]] | residence = | death_date = {{death date and age|1950|11|3|1880|3|22|df=y}} | death_place =[[Tokyo]], Jepang | office =[[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-41 | salary = | term_start =[[22 Juli]] [[1944]] | term_end = [[7 April]] [[1945]] | monarch = [[Hirohito|Kaisar Showa]] | predecessor =[[Hideki Tojo]] | successor =[[Kantaro Suzuki]] | constituency = | office2 = | salary2 = | term_start2 = | term_end2 = | predecessor2 = | successor2 = | constituency2 = | office3 = | salary3 = | term_start3 = | term_end3 = | predecessor3 = | successor3 = | constituency3 = | party =none | religion = | occupation = general, [[Imperial Japanese Army]]<br> [[Governor-General of Korea]] | majority = | spouse = | children = | website = | footnotes = }} {{Japanese name|Koiso}} {{nihongo|'''Kuniaki Koiso''' |小磯 國昭| Koiso Kuniaki|extra= [[22 Maret]] [[1880]]–[[3 Nopémber]] [[1950]]}} nyaéta salah saurang jendral di [[Imperial Japanese Army|Tantara Kakaisaran Jepang]], [[Governor-General of Korea]] jeung [[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-41 ti [[22 Juli]] [[1944]] dugi ka [[7 April]] [[1945]].{{fact}} ==Rujukan== ===Buku=== *{{cite book | last = Frank | first = Richard B | coauthors = | year = 2001 | title = Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire | publisher = Penguin | location = | id = ISBN 0141001461 }} *{{cite book | last = Maga | first = Timothy P. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2001 | chapter = | title = Judgment at Tokyo: The Japanese War Crimes Trials | url = https://archive.org/details/judgmentattokyoj0000maga | publisher = University Press of Kentucky | location = | id = ISBN 0-8131-2177-9 }} *{{cite book | last = Pratt | first = Keith | coauthors = | year = 2007 | title = Everlasting Flower: A History of Korea | url = https://archive.org/details/everlastingflowe0000prat | publisher = Reaktion Books | location = | id = ISBN 1861893353 }} *{{cite book | last = Tolland | first = John | coauthors = | year = 2003 | title = The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945 | publisher = Modern Library | location = | id = ISBN 0-8129-6858-1 }} {{commonscat|Kuniaki Koiso}} ===Tumbu kaluar=== * {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|74}} *{{cite web | last = Chen | first = Peter | url = http://ww2db.com/person_bio.php?person_id=255 | title = Kuniaki Koiso | work = WW2 Database }} *{{cite web | last = Bedat | first = J | url = http://www.trial-ch.org/en/trial-watch/profile/db/legal-procedures/kuniaki_koiso_596.html | title = Kuniaki Koiso | work = Trial Watch }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20120629231454/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/trial-watch/profile/db/legal-procedures/kuniaki_koiso_596.html |date=2012-06-29 }} *{{cite web | last = Clancy | first = Patrick | url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-10.html | title = HyperWar:IMTFE Judgement | work = HyperWar Foundation }} == Catetan == <div class="references-small"> <references/> </div> {{start box}} {{succession box| title=[[Governor-General of Korea]]| before=[[Jiro Minami]]| after=[[Nobuyuki Abe]]| years=1942-1944| }} {{end box}} {{Japanese prime ministers}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Koiso, Kuniaki}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1880]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1950]] [[Category:Jéndral Jepang]] [[Category:Pulitikeus Jepang]] [[Category:Gubernur Jéndral di Koréa]] [[Category:Nu dihukum di Pangbuian Tokyo]] [[Category:Urang Jepang nu dihukum alatan kajahatan perang]] [[Category:Nu dihukum alatan kajahatan agrési internasional]] [[Category:Nu dihukum alatan kajahatan keur kamanusaan]] [[Category:Urang Préféktur Tochigi]] [[Category:Jalma dina Perang Rusia-Jepang]] [[Category:Jalma nu pupus di pangbuian]] [[Kategori:Perdana Mentri Jepang]] [[Category:Pupuhu pulitik Perang Dunya II]] s9t929bw0swxxy182gqdb5iclfzrlkb 0 26122 711538 650876 2026-08-06T22:41:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711538 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Military Person |name=Baron Kantarō Suzuki |lived= [[18 Januari]] [[1868]] - [[17 April]] [[1948]] <ref>Nishida, Imperial Japanese Navy</ref> |placeofbirth=[[Izumi Province]], [[Jepang]] |placeofdeath=[[Noda, Chiba]], [[Jepang]] |image=[[Image:Suzuki Kantaro.jpg|center|200px]] |caption=Laksamana Jepang Suzuki Kantarō |nickname= |allegiance=[[Empire of Japan]] |branch=[[Image:Naval Ensign of Japan.svg|22x20px]] [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] |serviceyears=1884-1929 |rank=[[Admiral]] |commands=[[Japanese destroyer Akashi|''Akashi'']], [[Japanese cruiser Soya|''Soya'']], [[Japanese battleship Shikishima|''Shikishima'']], [[Japanese cruiser Tsukuba|''Tsukuba'']]<br>[[Maizuru Naval District]], [[IJN 2nd fleet]], [[IJN 3rd fleet]], [[Kure Naval District]], [[Combined Fleet]] |unit= |battles=[[First Sino-Japanese War]]<br>o[[Battle of Weihaiwei]]<br>[[Russo-Japanese War]]<br>o[[Battle of Port Arthur]]<br>o[[Battle of Tsushima]]<br>[[World War I]]<br>[[World War II]] |awards=[[Order of the Golden Kite]] (3rd class) |family= |laterwork= Chief of [[Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff]], [[Chamberlain of Japan|Grand Chamberlain]], [[Privy Councillor]]<br>[[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] }} {{Japanese name|Suzuki}} '''Baron''' {{nihongo| '''Kantarō Suzuki'''|鈴木 貫太郎|Suzuki Kantarō|extra=[[18 Januari]] [[1868]] - [[17 April]] [[1948]]}} nyaéta saurang laksamana [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Angkatan Laut Kakaisaran Jepang]] tur [[Perdana Mentri Jepang]] ka-42 ti [[7 April]] [[1945]] dugi ka [[17 Agustus]] [[1945]].{{fact}} Suzuki nyaéta nu nyoarakeun narimana Jepang kana [[Potsdam Declaration]] jeung nyerahkeun kakawasaan ka Sekutu, mangsa [[Perang Dunya II]] réngsé.{{fact}} ==Rujukan== ===Buku=== *{{cite book | last = Frank | first = Richard | coauthors = | year = 2001 | title = Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire | publisher = Penguin | location = ISBN 0141001461 | id = }} *{{cite book | last = Gilbert | first = Martin | coauthors = | year = 2004 | title = The Second World War: A Complete History | publisher = Holt | location = ISBN 0805076239 | id = }} *{{cite book | last = Keegan | first = John | coauthors = | year = 2005 | title = The Second World War | url = https://archive.org/details/secondworldwar0000keeg_i6h7 | publisher = Penguin | location = ISBN 0143035738 | id = }} {{commonscat|Kantaro Suzuki}} ===Tumbu kaluar=== * [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Suzuki,+Kantaro Annotated bibliography for Kantaro Suzuki from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828133059/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FSuzuki%2C+Kantaro |date=2006-08-28 }} * {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|113}} *{{cite web | last = Nishida | first = Hiroshi | url = http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px14.htm#a001 | title = Imperial Japanese Navy | accessdate = 2007-08-25 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.geocities.jp/torikai007/war/1945/suzuki.html Kantaro Suzuki and Pcific War at 1945]{{ja}} == Catetan == {{Reflist}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Mamoru Shigemitsu]] | title=[[Mentri Luar Negri (Jepang)|Mientri Luar Negri]] [[Jepang]] | years=1945 | after=[[Shigenori Togo]]}} {{end box}} {{Japanese prime ministers}} {{IJN}} {{pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Suzuki, Kantaro}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1868]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1948]] [[Kategori:Laksamana Laut Karajaan Jepang]] [[Kategori:Perdana Mentri Jepang]] [[Kategori:Pulitikeus Jepang]] [[Kategori:Urang Préféktur Osaka]] [[Kategori:Kazoku]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Cina-Jepang Munggaran]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Rusia Jepang]] [[Kategori:Personil militér Jepang dina Perang Dunya II]] mnxx4yyqfwsqqapsvpnmbmkdriwg8qm 0 26202 711784 486267 2026-08-07T04:19:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Table Mobile phone standards}} '''HSUPA''' (singketan tina kecap-kecap bahasa Inggris '''High-Speed Uplink Packet Access''') mangrupa salah sahiji [[Protokol komunikasi|protokol]] [[telepon mobil]] [[3G]] anu kawengku ku kulawarga standar [[HSPA]] kalayan laju data up-link bisa nepi ka 5.76 [[Mbit/s]]. Ngaran HSUPA dijieun ku Nokia. [[3GPP]] sorangan henteu ngagunakeun ngaran 'HSUPA', tapi maké ngaran ''Enhanced Uplink'' (EUL).<ref>http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/html-info/25321.htm</ref> Spésifikasi pikeun HSUPA aya dina jero [[standar]] [[UMTS]] ''Release'' 6 anu dikaluarkeun ku [[3GPP]]. – "Tujuan tina dijieunna pasaratan ''Enhanced Uplink'' nyaéta pikeun ngahadéan unjuk gawé kanal transpor pikeun uplink, nyaéta pikeun ningkatkeun daya muat (kapasitas) jeung ''throughput'' sarta ngurangan waktu tunda (delay)." {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} HSUPA uses an uplink ''enhanced dedicated channel'' (E-DCH) on which it will employ link adaptation methods similar to those employed by [[HSDPA]], namely: * ''shorter [[Transmission Time Interval]]'' enabling faster [[link adaptation]]; * ''[[HARQ]]'' (hybrid [[ARQ]]) with ''[[incremental redundancy]]'' making [[Retransmission (data networks)|retransmissions]] more effective. Similarly to HSDPA, HSUPA uses a ''packet scheduler'', but it operates on a ''request-grant'' principle where the [[UE (wireless telephone)|UEs]] request a permission to send data and the scheduler decides when and how many UEs will be allowed to do so. A request for transmission contains data about the state of the transmission buffer and the queue at the UE and its available power margin. However, unlike HSDPA, uplink transmissions are not orthogonal to éach other. In addition to this ''scheduled'' mode of transmission the standards also allows a self-initiated transmission mode from the UEs, denoted ''non-scheduled''. The ''non-scheduled'' mode can, for example, be used for [[VoIP]] services for which even the reduced TTI and the [[Node-B]] based scheduler will not be able to provide the very short delay time and constant bandwidth required. éach MAC-d flow (i.e. QoS flow) is configured to use either ''scheduled'' or ''non-scheduled'' modes; the UE adjusts the data rate for ''scheduled'' and ''non-scheduled'' flows independently. The maximum data rate of éach ''non-scheduled'' flow is configured at call setup, and typically not changed frequently. The power used by the ''scheduled'' flows is controlled dynamically by the Node-B through absolute grant (consisting of an actual value) and relative grant (consisting of a single up/down bit) messages. At Layer 1, HSUPA introduces new physical channels E-AGCH (Access Grant Channel), E-DCH Relative Grant Channel, F-DPCH (Fractional-DPCH), E-HICH (E-DCH Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel), E-DPCCH (E-DCH Dedicated Physical Control Channel) and E-DPDCH (E-DCH Dedicated Physical Data Channel). E-DPDCH is used to carry the E-DCH Transport Channel; and E-DPCCH is used to carry the control information associated with the E-DCH. == Vérsi == Tabel di handap mangrupa tabel laju ''uplink'' keur kategori-kategori HSUPA nu béda. {| class="wikitable" !Kategori HSUPA !Laju Uplink maksimum |- |Kategori 1 |0.73 Mbit/det |- |Kategori 2 |1.46 Mbit/det |- |Kategori 3 |1.46 Mbit/det |- |Kategori 4 |2.93 Mbit/det |- |Kategori 5 |2.00 Mbit/det |- |Kategori 6 |5.76 Mbit/det |- |Kategori 7 (3GPP Rel7) |11.5 Mbit/det |- |} == Roadmap == After HSUPA the [[3GPP]] is working on further advancing transfer rates. The [[HSOPA]] will provide up to 100&nbsp;Mbit/s for downlink and 50&nbsp;Mbit/s for uplink. == Adoption == {{seealso|List of Deployed HSUPA networks}} ''(not updated)'' == Devices == Some [[Triband (telephone)|triband]] (850/1900/2100&nbsp;MHz) HSUPA devices are alréady available: * [[4G Systems]] – XSPlugP5 ([[USB-Modem]]), HSPA-WiFi Router XSBoxR5 * [[Huawei]] – E270 Wireless modem ([[USB]]), E870 ([[ExpressCard]]) * [[Novatel Wireless]] – Merlin X950D ([[ExpressCard]]), Ovation MC950D ([[USB]]) * [[Option (company)|Option]] – GlobeTrotter Express HSUPA, GlobeTrotter GT MAX HSUPA, GlobeSurfer iCON HSUPA, GTM380 * [[Sierra Wireless]] – AirCard 880/881 ([[PC Card]]), AirCard 880E/881E ([[ExpressCard]]) and MC 8780/8781 ([[PCI Express]]) == See also == <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * [[3GPP Long Term Evolution]] * [[Broadband]] * [[DigRF V3]] * [[High-Speed Downlink Packet Access]] * [[HSOPA|High-Speed Orthogonal Packet Access]] * [[List of device bandwidths]] * [[Quad band]] * [[Triband (telephone)]] * [[UMTS frequency bands]] </div> == References == {{Unreferenced|date=September 2006}} * {{cite book |title=HSDPA/HSUPA for UMTS: High Speed Radio Access for Mobile Communications |url=https://archive.org/details/hsdpahsupaforumt0000unse |author=Harri Holma and Antti Toskala |year=2006 |isbn=0470018844}} {{Internet Access}} [[Kategori:Telekomunikasi]] [[Kategori:UMTS]] s6931u5yy6m0qp5q8qvo2jl84vobuf2 0 26210 711798 703486 2026-08-07T04:36:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711798 wikitext text/x-wiki {{electromagnetism3|mstat=true}} [[Gambar:Magnet0873.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Garis médan]] magnétik anu dipintonkeun ku bubuk [[beusi]].]] Dina [[fisika]], '''médan magnétik''' nyaéta hiji médan anu nembus rohangan sarta ngeprakkeun ''gaya magnétik'' kana [[muatan listrik]] jeung batang magnétik dua kutub. Médan magnétik ngurilingan [[arus listrik]], batang magnét dua kutub, sarta médan listrik anu barobah. Mangsa ditempatkeun dina hiji medan magnétik, batang magnétik ngalempengkeun sumbuna supaya sajajar jeung médan magnétik, saperti bisa kasaksén lamun bubuk beusi aya di sabudeureun hiji [[magnét]] (tempo gambar di beulah kénca). Médan magnétik ogé boga [[énergi]] jeung [[moméntum]] sorangan, kalayan rapat énergina sabanding jeung kuadrat tina inténsitas médan. Médan magnétik diukur maké [[hijian]] [[teslas]] ([[hijian]] [[SI]]) atawa [[gauss]] (hijian [[cgs]]). Aya sababaraha sifat médan magnétik anu katempo. Pikeun fisika nu ngabahas bahan magnétik, tempo [[magnétisme]] jeung [[magnét]], sarta pikeun leuwih jero tempo [[ferromagnétisme]], [[paramagnétisme]], jeung [[diamagnétisme]]. Pikeun médan magnét nu tetep, saperti anu dihasilkeun ku batang magnétik dua kutub anu stasionér jeung [[arus]] anu tetep, tempo [[magnétostatika]]. Pikeun médan magnétik anu dihasilkeun ku médan listrik anu barobah, tempo [[éléktromagnétisme]]. [[Médan listrik]] jeung médan magnét mangrupa unsur-unsur anu ngawangun [[médan éléktromagnétik]]. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} == Définisi == In classical physics,the magnetic field <math>\mathbf{B}</math> is a [[vector field]] (that is, some vector at every point of space and time), with [[SI]] units of teslas (one tesla is one [[newton]]-[[second]] per [[coulomb]]-[[metre]]) and [[cgs]] units of [[gauss (unit)|gauss]]. It has the property of being a [[solenoidal]] vector field. The field <math>\mathbf{B}</math> can be both defined and méasured by méans of a small magnetic dipole (i.e., [[magnet|bar magnet]]). The magnetic field exerts a [[torque]] on magnetic dipoles that tends to maké them point in the same direction as the magnetic field (as in a [[compass]]), and moréover the magnitude of that torque is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field. Therefore, in order to méasure the magnetic field at a particular point in space, you can put a small freely-rotating bar magnet (such as a compass) there: the direction it winds up pointing is the direction of <math>\mathbf{B}</math>; and the ratio of the maximum magnitude of the torque to the [[dipole moment]] of the bar magnet is the magnitude <math>|\mathbf{B}|</math>. (There are, in addition, several other different but physically equivalent ways to define the magnetic field, for example via the [[Lorentz force]] law (see below), or as the solution to [[Maxwell's equations]].) It follows from any of these definitions that the magnetic field vector (being a [[vector product]]) is a [[pseudovector]] (also called an [[axial vector]]). === B jeung H === There are two quantities that physicists may refer to as the magnetic field, notated <math>\mathbf{H}</math> and <math>\mathbf{B}</math>. The vector field <math>\mathbf{H}</math> is known among [[electrical engineer]]s as the ''magnetic field intensity'' or ''magnetic field strength'' also known as ''auxiliary magnetic field'' or ''magnetizing field''. The vector field <math>\mathbf{B}</math> is known as ''magnetic flux density'' or ''magnetic induction'' or simply ''magnetic field'', as used by physicists, and has the SI units of teslas (T), equivalent to [[weber (unit)|webers]] (Wb) per square metre or [[volt]] seconds per square metre. [[Magnetic flux]] has the SI units of webers so the <math>\mathbf{B}</math> field is that of its aréal density. [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfield.html][http://www.electric-fields.bris.ac.uk/MagneticFieldStrength.htm][http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905094533/http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html |date=2008-09-05 }}[http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/magnetic-field-strength.html]<ref>Magnetic Field Strength is also sometimes called Magnetic Field Intensity. For more information reference the sources Durney and Johnson, and also Rao.</ref> The vector field <math>\mathbf{H}</math> has the SI units of [[ampere]]s per metre and is something of the magnetic analog to the [[electric displacement field]] represented by <math>\mathbf{D}</math>, with the SI units of the latter being ampere-seconds per square metre. Although the term "magnetic field" was historically reserved for <math>\mathbf{H}</math>, with <math>\mathbf{B}</math> being termed the "magnetic induction", <math>\mathbf{B}</math> is now understood to be the more fundamental entity, and most modérn writers refer to <math>\mathbf{B}</math> as the magnetic field, except when context fails to maké it cléar whether the quantity being discussed is <math>\mathbf{H}</math> or <math>\mathbf{B}</math>. See:<ref>The standard graduate textbook by Jackson follows this usage. Edward Purcell, in Electricity and Magnetism, McGraw-Hill, 1963, writes, ''Even some modern writers who treat B as the primary field feel obliged to call it the magnetic induction because the name magnetic field was historically preempted by H. This seems clumsy and pedantic. If you go into the laboratory and ask a physicist what causes the pion trajectories in his bubble chamber to curve, he'll probably answer "magnetic field," not "magnetic induction." You will seldom hear a geophysicist refer to the earth's magnetic induction, or an astrophysicist talk about the magnetic induction of the galaxy. We propose to keep on calling B the magnetic field. As for H, although other names have been invented for it, we shall call it "the field H" or even "the magnetic field H".''</ref> The difference between the <math>\mathbf{B}</math> and the <math>\mathbf{H}</math> vectors can be traced back to Maxwell's 1855 paper entitled ''On Faraday's Lines of Force''. It is later clarified in his concept of a séa of molecular vortices that appéars in his 1861 paper [http://vacuum-physics.com/Maxwell/maxwell_oplf.pdf On Physical Lines of Force - 1861]. Within that context, <math>\mathbf{H}</math> represented pure vorticity (spin), wheréas <math>\mathbf{B}</math> was a weighted vorticity that was weighted for the density of the vortex séa. Maxwell considered [[magnetic permeability]] µ to be a méasure of the density of the vortex séa. Hence the relationship, (1) '''Magnetic induction current''' causes a magnetic current density <math>\mathbf{B} = \mu \mathbf{H}</math> was essentially a rotational analogy to the linéar electric current relationship, (2) '''Electric convection current''' <math>\mathbf{J} = \rho \mathbf{v}</math> where <math>\rho</math> is electric charge density. <math>\mathbf{B}</math> was seen as a kind of magnetic current of vortices aligned in their axial planes, with <math>\mathbf{H}</math> being the circumferential velocity of the vortices. With µ representing vortex density, we can now see how the product of µ with vorticity <math>\mathbf{H}</math> léads to the term [[magnetic flux density]] which we denote as <math>\mathbf{B}</math>. The electric current equation can be viewed as a convective current of [[electric charge]] that involves linéar motion. By analogy, the magnetic equation is an inductive current involving spin. There is no linéar motion in the inductive current along the direction of the <math>\mathbf{B}</math> vector. The magnetic inductive current represents lines of force. In particular, it represents lines of inverse square law force. The extension of the above considerations confirms that where <math>\mathbf{B}</math> is to <math>\mathbf{H}</math>, and where <math>\mathbf{J}</math> is to ρ, then it necessarily follows from Gauss's law and from the equation of continuity of charge that <math>\mathbf{E}</math> is to <math>\mathbf{D}</math>. Ie. <math>\mathbf{B}</math> parallels with <math>\mathbf{E}</math>, wheréas <math>\mathbf{H}</math> parallels with <math>\mathbf{D}</math>. In SI units, <math> \mathbf{B} \ </math> and <math> \mathbf{H} \ </math> are méasured in teslas (T) and amperes per metre (A/m), respectively; or, in cgs units, in gauss (G) and [[oersted]]s (Oe), respectively. Two parallel wires carrying an electric current in the same direction will generate a magnetic field that will cause a force of attraction between them. This fact is used to define the value of an ampere of electric current. The fields <math>\mathbf{B}</math> and <math>\mathbf{H}</math> are also related by the equation :<math>\mathbf{B}=\mu_0(\mathbf{H}+\mathbf{M})</math> ([[SI]] units) :<math>\mathbf{B}=\mathbf{H}+4\pi\mathbf{M}</math> ([[cgs]] units), where <math>\mathbf{M}</math> is [[magnetization]]. == Gaya akibat médan magnétik == {{utama|Lorentz force}} === Gaya kana partikel anu dibere muatan === [[Gambar:charged-particle-drifts.svg|300px|thumbnail|right|'''Charged particle [[Guiding center|drifts]]''' in a homogenous magnetic field. (A) No disturbing force (B) With an electric field, E (C) With an independent force, F (eg. gravity) (D) In an inhomgeneous magnetic field, grad H]] :<math>\mathbf{F} = q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}),</math> where :'''F''' is the [[force]] (in [[newton]]s) :''q'' is the [[electric charge]] of the particle (in coulombs) :'''v''' is the instantaneous [[velocity]] of the particle (in metres per second) :'''B''' is the [[magnetic field]] (in teslas) :and × is the [[cross product]]. === Gaya kana kawat nu arusna barobah === A straight, stationary [[wire]] carrying an [[electric current]], when placed in an external magnetic field, feels a force. This force is the result of the [[Lorentz force]] (see above) acting on éach electron (or any other charge carrier) moving in the wire. The formula for the total force is as follows: :<math>\mathbf{F} = I \mathbf{L} \times \mathbf{B} \,</math> where :'''F''' = Force, measured in newtons :''I'' = current in wire, measured in amperes :'''B''' = magnetic field vector, measured in teslas :<math>\times</math> = vector cross product :'''L''' = a vector, whose magnitude is the length of wire (measured in metres), and whose direction is along the wire, aligned with the direction of [[conventional current]] flow. Alternatively, some authors write :<math>\mathbf{F} = L \mathbf{I} \times \mathbf{B}</math> where the vector direction is now associated with the current variable, instéad of the length variable. The two forms are equivalent. If the wire is not straight but curved, the force on it can be computed by applying this formula to éach [[infinitesimal]] segment of wire, then adding up all these forces via [[Integral|integration]]. The Lorentz force on a macroscopic current is often referred to as the ''[[Laplace force]]''. === Arah gaya === [[Gambar:Left hand rule.png|thumb|right|300px|Demonstration of [[Fleming's left hand rule]] ]] The direction of force is determined by the above equations, in particular using the [[right-hand rule]] to evaluate the cross product. Equivalently, one can use [[Fleming's left hand rule]] for motion, current and polarity to determine the direction of any one of those from the other two, as seen in the example. It can also be remembéréd in the following way. The digits from the thumb to second finger indicate 'Force', 'B-field', and 'I(Current)' respectively, or F-B-I in short. Another similar trick is the [[right hand grip rule]]. == Médan magnétik tina arus tetep == {{utama|Biot-Savart law}} [[Gambar:Electromagnetism.png|200px|thumbnail|right|Current (''I'') through a wire produces a magnetic field (<math>\mathbf{B}</math>) around the wire. The field is oriented according to the [[right hand grip rule]].]] The magnetic field generated by a ''steady [[electric current|current]]'' (a continual flow of [[electric charge|charges]], for example through a wire, which is constant in time and in which charge is neither building up nor depleting at any point), is described by the [[Biot-Savart law]]: :<math> d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{\hat r}}{r^2} </math> (in [[SI]] units), where :<math>I</math> is the current, :<math>d\mathbf{l}</math> is a vector, whose magnitude is the length of the [[infinitesimal|differential]] element of the wire, and whose direction is the direction of [[conventional current]], :<math> d\mathbf{B}</math> is the differential contribution to the magnetic field resulting from this differential element of wire, :<math>\mu_0</math> is the [[magnetic constant]], :<math>\mathbf{\hat r}</math> is the unit displacement vector from the wire element to the point at which the field is being computed, and :<math>r</math> is the distance from the wire element to the point at which the field is being computed. This is a consequence of [[Ampere's law]], one of the four [[Maxwell's equations]]. Alternatively, it can be thought of as a true, empirical law in its own right, which contributes to the ''derivation'' of Maxwell's equations. From a practical point of view, though, the law is true and useful regardless of its philosophical origin. == Pasifatan == ===Garis médan magnétik===<!-- This section is linked from [[Aurora (astronomy)]] --> Like any [[vector field]], the magnetic field can be depicted with [[field line]]s—a set of lines through space whose direction at any point is the direction of the local magnetic field vector, and whose density is proportional to the magnitude of the local magnetic field vector. Note that the choice of which field lines to draw in such a depiction is arbitrary, apart from the requirement that they be spaced out so that their density approximates the magnitude of the local field. The level of detail at which the magnetic field is depicted can be incréased by incréasing the number of lines. Although any vector field can be depicted with field lines, this visualization is particularly helpful for the magnetic field (in three-dimensional space), as it makes certain aspects of it more transparent. For example, "[[Maxwell's equations|Gauss's law for magnetism]]" states that the magnetic field is [[solenoidal vector field|solenoidal]] (has zero [[divergence]]). This is equivalent to the simple statement that, in any field-line depiction of a magnetic field, the field lines cannot have starting or ending points; they must form a [[closed manifold|closed loop]], or else extend to infinity on both ends. Various physical phenomena have the effect of displaying field lines. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field will line up in such a way as to visually show magnetic field lines (see figure at top); although a close inspection will revéal that the "lines" are not quite continuous. Another place where magnetic field lines are visually displayed is in the [[Aurora (astronomy)|polar auroras]], in which visible stréaks of light line up with the local direction of éarth's magnetic field (due to plasma particle dipole interactions). Note that when a magnetic field is depicted with field lines, it is ''not'' méant to imply that the field is only nonzero along the drawn-in field lines. The field is typically smooth and continuous everywhere, and can be estimated at ''any'' point (whether on a field line or not) by looking at the direction and density of the field lines néarby. The use of iron filings to display a field presents something of an exception to this picture: the magnetic field is in fact much larger along the "lines" of iron, due to the large [[magnetic permeability|permeability]] of iron relative to air. The direction of the magnetic field corresponds to the direction that a [[magnetic dipole]] (such as a small magnet) will orient itself in that magnetic field (see definition above). Therefore, a cluster of small particles of [[ferromagnetic]] material, such as iron filings, placed in the magnetic field will line up in such a way as to visually show the magnetic field lines (see figure at top). Another place where magnetic field lines are visually displayed is the [[Aurora (astronomy)|polar auroras]], in which visible stréaks of light line up with the local direction of éarth's magnetic field. === Kabingung dina nandaan kutub === ''See also [[North Magnetic Pole]] and [[South Magnetic Pole]].'' The end of a [[compass]] needle that points north was historically called the "north" magnetic pole of the needle. Since [[dipole]]s are [[vector (spatial)|vectors]] and align "head to tail" with éach other to minimize their magnetic potential energy, the magnetic pole located néar the géographic [[North Pole]] is actually the "south" pole. The "north" and "south" poles of a magnet or a magnetic dipole are labelled similarly to north and south poles of a compass needle. Néar the north pole of a bar or a cylinder magnet, the magnetic field vector is directed out of the magnet; néar the south pole, into the magnet. This magnetic field continues inside the magnet (so there are no actual "poles" anywhere inside or outside of a magnet where the field stops or starts). Bréaking a magnet in half does not separate the poles but produces two magnets with two poles éach. [[Earth's magnetic field]] is probably produced by [[electric current]]s in its liquid core. == Médan magnétik anu muter == {{utama|Alternator}} The rotating magnetic field is a key principle in the operation of [[electric motor#AC motors|alternating-current motors]]. A permanent magnet in such a field will rotate so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was conceptualized by [[Nikola Tesla]], and later utilised in his, and others, éarly AC (alternating-current) electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with 90 degrees phase difference in their AC currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents. This inequality would cause serious problems in standardization of the conductor size and so, in order to overcome it, three-phase systems are used where the three currents are equal in magnitude and have 120 degrees phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual géometrical angles of 120 degrees will créate the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three-phase system to créate a rotating field, utilized in electric motors, is one of the main réasons why three-phase systems dominate the world's electrical power supply systems. Because magnets degrade with time, [[synchronous motor]]s and [[induction motor]]s use short-circuited [[Rotor (electric)|rotors]] (instéad of a magnet) following the rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled [[stator]]. The short-circuited turns of the rotor develop [[eddy current]]s in the rotating field of the stator, and these currents in turn move the rotor by the Lorentz force. In [[1882]], Nikola Tesla identified the concept of the rotating magnetic field. In [[1885]], [[Galileo Ferraris]] independently reséarched the concept. In [[1888]], Tesla gained {{US patent|381968}} for his work. Also in 1888, Ferraris published his reséarch in a paper to the ''Royal Academy of Sciences'' in [[Turin]]. == Éfék Hall == {{utama|Hall effect}} Because the [[Lorentz force]] is charge-sign-dependent (see above), it results in charge separation when a conductor with current is placed in a transverse magnetic field, with a buildup of opposite charges on two opposite sides of conductor in the direction normal to the magnetic field, and the potential difference between these sides can be méasured. The [[Hall effect]] is often used to méasure the magnitude of a magnetic field as well as to find the sign of the dominant charge carriers in semiconductors (negative electrons or positive holes). == Rélativitas husus jeung éléktromagnétisme == {{utama|Relativistic electromagnetism}} According to [[special relativity]], electric and magnetic forces are part of a single physical phenomenon, [[electromagnetism]]; an electric force perceived by one observer will be perceived by another observer in a different frame of reference as a mixture of electric and magnetic forces. A magnetic force can be considered as simply the relativistic part of an [[electric force]] when the latter is seen by a moving observer. More specifically, rather than tréating the electric and magnetic fields as separate fields, special relativity shows that they naturally mix together into a rank-2 [[tensor]], called the [[electromagnetic tensor]]. This is analogous to the way that special relativity "mixes" space and time into [[spacetime]], and mass, momentum and energy into [[four-momentum]]. == Gambaran wangunan médan magnétik == [[Gambar:Magnetic quadrupole moment.svg|right|thumb|Schematic [[quadrupole magnet]]("''four-pole''") magnetic field. There are four steel pole tips, two opposing magnetic north poles and two opposing magnetic south poles.]] * An '''azimuthal''' magnetic field is one that runs éast-west. * A '''meridional''' magnetic field is one that runs north-south. In the [[solar dynamo]] modél of the Sun, differential rotation of the solar plasma causes the meridional magnetic field to stretch into an azimuthal magnetic field, a process called the ''omega-effect''. The reverse process is called the ''alpha-effect''.<ref>[http://www.cora.nwra.com/~werne/eos/text/dynamo.html The Solar Dynamo], retrieved Sep 15, 2007.</ref> * A [[magnetic dipole|'''dipole''' magnetic field]] is one seen around a bar magnet or around a particle with nonzero [[spin (physics)|spin]]. * A [[quadrupole magnet|'''quadrupole''' magnetic field]] is one seen, for example, between the poles of four bar magnets. The field strength grows linéarly with the radial distance from its longitudinal axis. * A '''solenoidal''' magnetic field is similar to a dipole magnetic field, except that a solid bar magnet is replaced by a hollow electromagnetic coil magnet. * A '''toroidal''' magnetic field occurs in a doughnut-shaped coil, the electric current spiraling around the tube-like surface, and is found, for example, in a [[tokamak]]. * A '''poloidal''' magnetic field is generated by a current flowing in a ring, and is found, for example, in a [[tokamak]]. == Tempo ogé == '''General''' * ''[[Electric field]]'' — effect produced by an electric charge that exerts a force on charged objects in its vicinity. * ''[[Electromagnetic field]]'' — a field composed of two related vector fields, the electric field and the magnetic field. * ''[[Electromagnetism]]'' — the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field, encompassing all of space, composed of the electric field and the magnetic field. * ''[[Magnetism]]'' — phenomenon by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force on other materials. * ''[[Magnetohydrodynamics]]'' — the academic discipline which studies the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids. * ''[[Magnetic flux]]'' * ''[[Magnetic monopole]]'' — hypothetical physical quantity which would cause nonzero divergence of magnetic field. * ''[[Magnetic reconnection]]'' - an effect which causes solar flares and auroras. * ''[[SI electromagnetism units]]'' '''Mathematics''' * ''[[Ampére's law]]'' — magnetic equivalent of Gauss's law. * ''[[Biot-Savart law]]'' — the magnetic field set up by a stéadily flowing line current. * ''[[Magnetic helicity]]'' — extent to which a magnetic field "wraps around itself". * ''[[Maxwell's equations]]'' — four equations describing the behavior of the electric and magnetic fields, and their interaction with matter. '''Applications''' * ''[[Helmholtz coil]]'' — a device for producing a region of néarly uniform magnetic field. * ''[[Maxwell coil]]'' — a device for producing a large volume of almost constant magnetic field. * ''[[Earth's magnetic field]]'' — a discussion of the magnetic field of the éarth. * ''[[Dynamo theory]]'' — a proposed mechanism for the création of the éarth's magnetic field. * ''[[Electric motor]]'' — AC motors used magnetic fields. * ''[[Rapid-decay theory]]'' - a créationist théory. * ''[[Stellar magnetic field]]'' — a discussion of the magnetic field of stars. * ''[[Teltron Tube]]'' == Rujukan == '''Web''' * {{Citation | last = Nave | first = R. | title = Magnetic Field Strength H | url = http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfield.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} * {{Citation | last = Keitch | first = Paul | title = Magnetic Field Strength and Magnetic Flux Density | url = http://www.electric-fields.bris.ac.uk/MagneticFieldStrength.htm | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} * {{Citation | last = Oppelt | first = Arnulf | date = [[2006-11-02]] | title = magnetic field strength | url = http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905094533/http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html |date=2008-09-05 }} * {{Citation | title = magnetic field strength converter | url = http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/magnetic-field-strength.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} '''Buku''' * {{cite book | author=Durney, Carl H. and Johnson, Curtis C. | title=Introduction to modern electromagnetics | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontomo0000durn | publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1969 |id=ISBN 0-07-018388-0}} * {{cite book | author=Rao, Nannapaneni N. | title=Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.)| publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=1994 |id=ISBN 0-13-948746-8}} * {{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J. | title=Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.)| publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=1999 |id=ISBN 0-13-805326-X}} * {{cite book | author=Jackson, John D. | title=Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.) | publisher=[[Wiley]] | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-471-30932-X}} * {{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.) | url=https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000tipl_y7c5 | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7167-0810-8}} * {{cite book | author=Furlani, Edward P. | title=Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications | publisher= Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-12-269951-3}} == Cutatan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == '''Information''' * Crowell, B., "''[http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html Electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603233123/http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html |date=2011-06-03 }}''". * Nave, R., "''[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfie.html Magnetic Field]''". HyperPhysics. * "''Magnetism''", [http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/mag/node2.html#SECTION00110000000000000000 The Magnetic Field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709195126/http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/mag/node2.html#SECTION00110000000000000000 |date=2006-07-09 }}. théory.uwinnipeg.ca. * Hoadley, Rick, "''[http://my.execpc.com/~rhoadley/magfield.htm What do magnetic fields look like] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219102314/http://my.execpc.com/~rhoadley/magfield.htm |date=2011-02-19 }}?''" [[17 July]] [[2005]]. '''Field density''' * Jiles, David (1994). Introduction to Electronic Properties of Materials (1st ed.). Springer. ISBN 0-412-49580-5. '''Rotating magnetic fields''' * "''[http://www.tpub.com/neets/book5/18a.htm Rotating magnetic fields] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050512032554/http://www.tpub.com/neets/book5/18a.htm |date=2005-05-12 }}''". Integrated Publishing. * "''Introduction to Generators and Motors''", [http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14177/css/14177_87.htm rotating magnetic field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050307162104/http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14177/css/14177_87.htm |date=2005-03-07 }}. Integrated Publishing. * "''[http://www.egr.msu.edu/~jurkovi4/Experiment4.pdf Induction Motor-Rotating Fields] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050929102550/http://www.egr.msu.edu/~jurkovi4/Experiment4.pdf |date=2005-09-29 }}''". '''Diagrams''' * McCulloch, Malcolm,"''A2: Electrical Power and Machines''", [http://www.eng.ox.ac.uk/~epgmdm/A2/img89.htm Rotating magnetic field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427025126/http://www.eng.ox.ac.uk/~epgmdm/A2/img89.htm |date=2006-04-27 }}. eng.ox.ac.uk. * "''AC Motor Theory''" [http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1011v4/css/h1011v4_23.htm Figure 2 Rotating Magnetic Field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050824063453/http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1011v4/css/h1011v4_23.htm |date=2005-08-24 }}. Integrated Publishing. '''Journal Articles''' * Yaakov Kraftmakher, "''[http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0143-0807/22/5/302 Two experiments with rotating magnetic field]''". 2001 Eur. J. Phys. 22 477-482. * Bogdan Mielnik and David J. Fernández C., "''[http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JMAPAQ000030000002000537000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes An electron trapped in a rotating magnetic field]''". Journal of Mathematical Physics, February 1989, Volume 30, Issue 2, pp.&nbsp;537–549. * Sonia Melle, Miguel A. Rubio and Gerald G. Fuller "''[http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRE/v61/i4/p4111_1 Structure and dynamics of magnetorheological fluids in rotating magnetic fields]''". Phys. Rev. E 61, 4111 – 4117 (2000). [[Kategori:Konsép fisika dasar]] [[Kategori:Magnétostatika]] [[Kategori:Magnétisme]] [[Kategori:Kuantitas fisik]] [[Kategori:Pangwanoh fisika]] [[Kategori:Éléktromagnétisme]] ftd3g9i55n2xyotuzd6ois9u16klfa1 0 26422 711813 673613 2026-08-07T04:55:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711813 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Disease | Name = Diabétes méllitus | Image = Blue circle for diabetes.svg | Caption = Lambang buleudan bulao [[Perserikatan Bangsa-bangsa|PBB]] pikeun diabétes.<ref>{{cite web |title=IDF Chooses Blue Circle to Represent UN Resolution Campaign |url=http://www.unitefordiabetes.org/news/campaign/idf_chooses_blue_circle_to_represent_un_resolution_campaign/index.html |date=17 March 2006 |publisher=Unite for Diabetes }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926030232/http://www.unitefordiabetes.org/news/campaign/idf_chooses_blue_circle_to_represent_un_resolution_campaign/index.html |date=26 September 2008 }}</ref> | ICD10 = {{ICD10|E|10||e|10}}–{{ICD10|E|14||e|10}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|250}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 001214 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 546 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|134}} | MeshName = Diabetes | MeshNumber = C18.452.394.750 }} '''Diabétes mélitus''' ('''''diabetes mellitus'''''; {{IPAEng|ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz}} at. {{IPA|/ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/}}, {{IPA|/məˈlaɪtəs/}} at. {{IPA|/ˈmɛlətəs/}}), atawa 'nénéh'na '''diabétes''', '''diabét''', '''DM''', atawa ceuk urang mah '''kencing manis''' atawa '''kasakit gula''', hartina [[sindrom]] anu cirina mangrupa gangguan [[métabolismeu]] jeung luhurna kadar [[gula getih]] ([[hiperglikemia]]) alatan kurangna [[hormon]] [[insulin]] atawa [[résistansi insulin]] anu dibarung ku kurangna sékrési insulin<ref name="diag">{{cite book | last = L M Tierney, S J McPhee | first = M A Papadakis | title = Current medical Diagnosis & Treatment. International edition | publisher = Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill | date = 2002 | pages = 1203-1215 | location = New York | isbn = 0-07-137688-7 }}</ref>. Gejala nu utamana nyaéta loba kiih ([[poliuria]]), hanaang waé sarta cacai nu asup kaleuleuwihi ([[polidipsia]]), jeung tetempoan rarang-rorong kurang atra. Mun teu pati parna, gejala-gejala kitu téh bisa waé teu karasa ku nu ngalamanana. [[World Health Organization|WHO]] nyebutkeun tilu wangun diabétes: ''[[diabétes mélitus tipeu 1]]'', ''[[diabétes mélitus tipe 2|tipeu 2]]'', jeung ''[[diabétes reuneuh]]'' (narajang ukur nalika [[reuneuh|kakandungan]])<ref name ="WHO1999-DefDiagClass">{{cite web | author=[[World Health Organisation]] Department of Noncommunicable Disease Surveillance | title=Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and its Complications | year=1999 | url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf | format=PDF }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030308005119/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf |date=2003-03-08 }}</ref>, balukarna tina rupa-rupa faktor jeung béda-béda sebaranana dina unggal populasi. Najan ieu kasakit téh alatan gagalna [[sél béta]] dina [[pangkréas]] ngahasilkeun insulin nu cukup pikeun ngahalangan hiperglikemia, tapi anu jadi sababna mah béda-béda<ref name=Rother>{{cite journal |last=Rother |first=KI |year=2007 |title=Diabetes Treatment — Bridging the Divide |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=356 |issue=15 |pages=1499-1501 |id= |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/356/15/1499 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090903054037/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/356/15/1499 |date=2009-09-03 }}</ref>. Diabétes tipeu 1 biasana alatan karuksakan sél béta [[kasakit otoimun|otoimun]]. Diabétes tipeu 2 dicirikeun ku résistansi insulin dina jaringan tujul, antukna insulin nu dipikabutuh kadarna kudu leuwih luhur anu teu bisa kahontal ku sél béta. Diabétes anu keuna ka nu keur kakandungan sarupa jeung tipeu 2, alatan ayana hormon-hormon dina mangsa kakandungan (pikeun wanoja-wanoja anu sacara génétik gampang kakeunaan) anu ngabalukarkeun résistansi insulin. == Tanda & gejala == [[File:Main symptoms of diabetes.png|thumb|300px|Gejala umum diabétes]] Gejala umum diabétes anu teu ditambaan nyaéta awak ngabegangan, [[poliuria]] (kerep kiih), [[polidipsia]] (gampang hanaang), jeung [[polifagia]] (gampang lapar).<ref>{{cite journal | author = Cooke DW, Plotnick L | title = Type 1 diabetes mellitus in pediatrics | journal = Pediatr Rev | volume = 29 | issue = 11 | pages = 374–84; quiz 385 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18977856 | doi = 10.1542/pir.29-11-374 }}</ref> Pikeun DM tipeu 1, gejala-gejalana bisa katangén pisan dina jangka waktu sababaraha minggu. Anapon dina DM tipeu 2, gejala-gejalana lila pisan atawa bisa jadi teu katémbong karasa ku nu ngalamanana. == Tipe == Panyakit diabétes melitus kabagi jadi dua, nyaéta tipe 1 jeung tipe 2. Diabetes tipe 1 mangrupa panyakit kawedelan awak, waktu antibodi hiji jalma ngaruksak [[Sél (biologi)|sél]]-sél [[Pankreas|pankréas]] anu ngahasilkeun [[insulin]] dina awak jalma. Jalma anu keuna ku panyakit diabetes tipe 1 awakna rada begang, henteu ngahasilkeun insulin, jeung merlukeun suntikan insulin sababaraha kali dina waktu sapoé. Loba di antarana pasién anu kakeunaan alatan ku turunan [[Génétika|gén]] anu tangtu bakal méré kode unsur-unsur dina sistem imun. Sabalikna, diabetes tipe 2 ngalibetkeun ngaronjatna résistansi sél-sél awak kana insulin anu dihasilkeun ku awak sorangan, nepi ka sél-sél gagal nyandak [[glukosa]] dina laju normal. Salila pankreas tiasa ngaréspon ku ngaleupaskeun leuwih loba insulin, résistansi sél-sél ieu bisa diungkulan nepi gula [[getih]] tetep dina wates anu normal. Tapi pamustunganana pankréas bakal kacapéan, nu ngabalukarkeun moal bisa deui ngahasilkeun hormon insulin anu cukup, jadi kadar glukosa naék nu ngabalukarkeun pasién kaserang diabetes. Pasien diabetes tipe 2 biasana deukeut kana obesitas dina awakna.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World Until Yesterday|last=Diamond|first=Jared|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2017|isbn=9786024241926|pages=538}}</ref> == Patofisiologi == [[File:Glucose-insulin-release.svg|thumb|Mékanismeu sékrési insulin dina sél béta pangkréas normal - produksi insulin kurang leuwih matuh dina sél béta. Leupasna dirangsang ku asupna kadaharan, utamana kadaharan anu ngandung [[glukosa]] anu bisa diserep.]] [[Insulin]] téh hormon utama anu ngatur diserepna [[glukosa]] tina getih kana sél-sél anu aya dina jero awak, utamana [[ati (organ)|haté]], [[otot]], jeung [[jaringan adiposa]]. Ku kituna, kakurangan insulin atawa insénsitivitas [[reséptor (biokimia)|reseptor]]na boga peran penting dina sakabéh bentuk DM.<ref>{{cite web|title=Insulin Basics|url=http://www.diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/treatment-and-care/medication/insulin/insulin-basics.html|publisher=American Diabetes Association|accessdate=24 April 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214180514/http://www.diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/treatment-and-care/medication/insulin/insulin-basics.html |date=14 February 2014 }}</ref> Awak urang narima glukosa tina tilu sumber utama nyaéta peujit tina hasil nyerna kadaharan, [[glikogén]] dina ati, jeung [[glukonéogenesis]].<ref name="GreenspanEndo">{{cite book|last=Shoback|first=edited by David G. Gardner, Dolores|title=Greenspan's basic & clinical endocrinology|url=https://archive.org/details/greenspansbasicc0000unse|date=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=9780071622431|edition=9th ed.}}</ref> Insulin penting pikeun ngatur kasaimbangan kadar glukosa dina jero awak. Insulin bisa ngahalangan dibongkarna glukosa tina glikogén jeung glukonéogenesis, ngarangsang diakutna glukosa kana sél lemak jeung otot, sarta ngarangsang direundeunna glukosa dina wangun [[glikogén]].<ref name="GreenspanEndo" /> [[Insulin]] dileupaskeun kana sirkulasi getih ku [[sél béta]] (sél-β) anu aya dina [[islét Langerhans]] dina pangkréas salaku réspons kana naékna kadar glukosa dina sirkulasi, nyaéta sanggeus urang barang tuang. Insulin dipaké ku k.l. dua per tilu sél awak pikeun nyerep glukosa tina sirkulasi keur kawangunna énérgi, konversi jadi molekul anu dipikabutuh, atawa pikeun cadangan tanaga awak. Lamun kadar glukosa dina sirkulasi turun, kadar insulin anu dileupaskeun ku sél-β ogé nuturkeun turun. Ieu prosés diatur ku [[glukagon]], hormon anu fungsina sabalikna tina insulin.<ref name=GanongsPhys>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=Kim E. Barrett, ... [et|title=Ganong's review of medical physiology.|url=https://archive.org/details/ganongsreviewofm0000unse|date=2012|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=0071780033|edition=24th ed.}}</ref> ==Tamba== DM kaasup [[panyakit kronis]] anu can kapanggih ubarna. Nambaanana ogé museur kana ngajaga sangkan kadar gula getih tetep aya dina wates anu normal (euglikémia) ulah nepi ngabalukarkeun hipoglikémia. Carana ku ngajaga dahareun, olahraga, jeung ubar husus (utamana insulin dina kasus DM tipeu 1). Kadar gula getih anu dijaga penting pisan pikeun ngurangan DM anu beuki parna.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, Genuth SM, Lachin JM, Orchard TJ, Raskin P, Zinman B | title = Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 353 | issue = 25 | pages = 2643–53 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16371630 | pmc = 2637991 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa052187 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group | title = The effect of intensive diabetes therapy on the development and progression of neuropathy. | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 122 | issue = 8 | pages = 561–8 | date = April 1995 | pmid = 7887548 | doi = 10.1059/0003-4819-122-8-199504150-00001 }}</ref> Lian ti éta, perlu ogé niténan kabiasaan anu bisa nambahan parnana ka nu ngalaman DM, nyaéta dipahing nga[[roko]], [[hiperkoléstérolémia]], [[obésitas]], [[hiperténsi]], jeung kurang ngalakukeun [[olahraga]].<ref name=NICE66>{{NICE|66|Type 2 diabetes|2008}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Diabétes| ]] [[Kategori:Gizi]] [[Kategori:Panyakit éndokrin]] pjq4ze9sy1gwwzus3cujqga6fmo5zc6 0 26481 711598 655114 2026-08-06T23:57:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711598 wikitext text/x-wiki {{electromagnetism3|estat=true}} '''Eléktrostatika''' mangrupa cabang [[élmu alam]] anu neuleuman fénoména éléktrostatik anu diakibatkeun ku muatan listrik stasionér. Fénoména ieu kaasup ti mimiti nu basajan mangrupa némpélna bungkus palastik kana leungeun anjeun sanggeus anjeun ngaleupaskeun éta bungkusan tina objék nu dibungkus nepi ka fénoména ruksakna komponén-komponén éléktronik salila dijieunna alat éléktronik, nepi ka cara gawéna mesin fotokopi. Éléktrostatik lumangsung lantaran numpukna muatan dina luhureun beungeut hiji objék nu paantel jeung beungeut ébjek lianna. Muatan-muatan ieu tetep némpél dina objék kasebut nepi ka maranéhna leupas kana taneuh atawa sacara gancang dinétralkeun ku hiji paleupas muatan: contona fénomena nu kasohor "kagét statik" dilantarankeun ku nétralisasi muatan nu numpuk dina awak akibat padantel jeun beungeut objék non-konduktif. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} ===The electrostatic approximation=== The validity of the electrostatic approximation rests on the assumption that the electric field is [[irrotational]]: :<math>\vec{\nabla}\times\vec{E} = 0.</math> From [[Faraday's law of induction|Faraday's law]], this assumption implies the absence or néar-absence of time-varying magnetic fields: :<math>{\partial\vec{B}\over\partial t} = 0.</math> In other words, electrostatics does not require the absence of magnetic fields or electric currents. Rather, if magnetic fields or electric currents ''do'' exist, they must not change with time, or in the worst-case, they must change with time only ''very slowly''. In some problems, both electrostatics and [[magnetostatics]] may be required for accurate predictions, but the coupling between the two can still be ignored. ==Electrostatic potential== Because the electric field is irrotational, it is possible to express the electric field as the [[gradient]] of a scalar function, called the [[electrostatic potential]] (also known as the [[voltage]]). An electric field, <math>E</math>, points from regions of high potential, &phi;, to regions of low potential, expressed mathematically as :<math>\vec{E} = -\vec{\nabla}\phi.</math> ==Konsep dasar== ===Coulomb's law=== The fundamental [[equation]] of electrostatics is [[Coulomb's law]], which describes the force between two [[point charge]]s <math>Q_1</math> and <math>Q_2</math>: :<math>\vec{F} = \frac{Q_1Q_2}{4\pi\varepsilon_0 r^2}\hat{r}.</math> ===The electric field=== The [[electric field]] (in units of [[volt]]s per méter) is defined as the force (in [[newton]]s) per unit charge (in [[coulomb]]s). From this definition and Coulomb's law, it follows that the magnitude of the electric field ''E'' créated by a single point charge ''Q'' is :<math>\vec{E} = \frac{Q}{4\pi\varepsilon_0 r^2}\hat{r}.</math> ===Gauss's law=== [[Gauss' law]] states that "the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total [[electric charge]] enclosed within the surface". The constant of proportionality is the [[permittivity of free space]]. Mathematically, Gauss's law takes the form of an integral equation: :<math>\oint_S\varepsilon_0\vec{E} \cdot\mathrm{d}\vec{A} = \int_V\rho\cdot\mathrm{d}V.</math> Alternatively, in differential form, the equation becomes :<math>\vec{\nabla}\cdot\varepsilon_0\vec{E} = \rho.</math> ===Poisson's equation=== The definition of electrostatic potential, combined with the differential form of Gauss's law (above), provides a relationship between the potential &phi; and the charge density &rho;: :<math>{\nabla}^2 \phi = - {\rho\over\varepsilon_0}.</math> This relationship is a form of [[Poisson's equation]]. ===Laplace's equation=== In the absence of unpaired electric charge, the equation becomes :<math>{\nabla}^2 \phi = 0,</math> which is [[Laplace's equation]]. ==Triboelectric series == {{utama|Triboelectric effect}} The [[triboelectric effect]] is a type of contact electrification in which certain materials become electrically charged when coming into contact with another, different, material, and are then separated. The polarity and strength of the charges produced differ according to the materials, surface roughness, temperature, strain, and other properties. It is therefore not very predictable, and only broad generalizations can be made. Amber, for example, can acquire an electric charge by friction with a material like wool. This property, first recorded by [[Thales of Miletus]], suggested the word "electricity", from the Greek word for amber, électròn. Other examples of materials that can acquire a significant charge when rubbed together include glass rubbed with silk, and hard rubber rubbed with fur. ==Electrostatic generators== {{utama|Electrostatic generator}} The presence of [[surface charge]] imbalance méans that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. This surface charge imbalance, which yields static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomena of [[contact electrification]] and the [[triboelectric effect]]. Rubbing two nonconductive objects generates a gréat amount of static electricity. This is not just the result of friction; two nonconductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing. Rubbing objects together incréases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces. Usually [[insulators]], e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge. Some examples of these substances are [[rubber]], [[plastic]], [[glass]], and [[pith]]. [[conductor (material)|Conductive]] objects only rarely generate charge imbalance except, for example, when a metal surface is impacted by solid or liquid nonconductors. The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of éach object. [[electrostatic generator|Static electric generators]], devices which produce very high voltage at very low current and used for classroom physics demonstrations, rely on this effect. Note that the presence of [[electric current]] does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from the [[corona discharge]], or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultanéously in the same system. :See also: ''[[Influence machine|Friction machine]]s'', ''[[Wimshurst machine]]s'', and ''[[Van de Graaf generator]]s''. ==Charge neutralization== Natural electrostatic phenomena are most familiar as an occasional annoyance in séasons of low humidity, but can be destructive and harmful in some situations (e.g. electronics manufacturing). When working in direct contact with integrated circuit electronics (especially delicate [[MOSFET]]s), or in the presence of flammable gas, care must be taken to avoid accumulating and suddenly discharging a static charge (see [[electrostatic discharge]]). ==Charge induction== Charge induction occurs when a negatively charged object repels electrons from the surface of a second object. This créates a region in the second object that is more positively charged. An attractive force is then exerted between the objects. For example, when a balloon is rubbed, the balloon will stick to the wall as an attractive force is exerted by two oppositely charged surfaces (the surface of the wall gains an electric charge due to charge induction, as the free electrons at the surface of the wall are repelled by the negative balloon, créating a positive wall surface, which is subsequently attracted to the surface of the balloon). You can explore the effect with a simulation of the [http://phet.colorado.edu/new/simulations/sims.php?sim=Balloons_and_Static_Electricity balloon and static electricity.] =='Static' electricity== {{utama|Static electricity}} Before the yéar 1832, when [[Michael Faraday]] published the results of his experiment on the identity of electricities, physicists thought "static electricity" was somehow different from other electrical charges. Michael Faraday proved that the electricity induced from the magnet, voltaic electricity produced by a battery, and static electricity are all the same. Static electricity is usually caused when certain materials are rubbed against éach other, like wool on plastic or the soles of shoes on carpet. The process causes electrons to be pulled from the surface of one material and relocated on the surface of the other material. A static shock occurs when the surface of the second material, negatively charged with electrons, touches a positively-charged conductor. Or Vice-Versa. Static electricity is commonly used in [[xerography]], [[air filter]]s, and some automotive paints. Static electricity is a build up of electric charges on two objects that have become separated from éach other. Small electrical components can éasily be damaged by static electricity. Component manufactures use a number of [[antistatic devices]] to avoid this. === Static electricity and chemical industry === when different materials are brought together and then separated, an accumulation of electric charge can occur which léaves one material positively charged while the other becomes negatively charged. The mild shock that you receive when touching a grounded object after walking on carpet is an example of excess electrical charge accumulating in your body from frictional charging between your shoes and the carpet. The resulting charge build-up within your body can generate a strong electrical discharge. Although experimenting with static electricity may be fun, similar sparks créate severe hazards in those industries déaling with flammable substances, where a small electrical spark may ignite explosive mixtures with devastating consequences. A similar charging mechanism can occur within low conductivity fluids flowing through pipelines - a process called flow electrification. Fluids which have low electrical conductivity (below 50 pico siemens/cm, where pico siemens/cm is a méasure of electrical conductivity), are called accumulators. Fluids having conductivities above 50 pico siemens/cm are called non-accumulators. In non-accumulators, charges recombine as fast as they are separated and hence electrostatic charge generation is not significant. In the petrochemical industry, 50 pico siemens/cm is the recommended minimum value of electrical conductivity for adequate removal of charge from a fluid. An important concept for insulating fluids is the static relaxation time. This is similar to the time constant (tau) within an [[RC circuit]]. For insulating materials, it is the ratio of the static [[dielectric constant]] divided by the electrical conductivity of the material. For hydrocarbon fluids, this is sometimes approximated by dividing the number 18 by the electrical conductivity of the fluid. Thus a fluid that has an electrical conductivity of 1 pico siemens /cm will have an estimated relaxation time of about 18 seconds. The excess charge within a fluid will be almost completely dissipated after 4 to 5 times the relaxation time, or 90 seconds for the fluid in the above example. Charge generation incréases at higher fluid velocities and larger pipe diaméters, becoming quite significant in pipes 8 inches or larger. Static charge generation in these systems is best controlled by limiting fluid velocity. The British standard BS PD CLC/TR 50404:2003 (formerly BS-5958-Part 2) Code of Practice for Control of Undesirable Static Electricity prescribes velocity limits. Because of its large impact on dielectric constant, the recommended velocity for hydrocarbon fluids containing water should be limited to 1 m/sec. Bonding and éarthing are the usual ways by which charge buildup can be prevented. For fluids with electrical conductivity below 10 pico siemens/cm, bonding and éarthing are not adequate for charge dissipation, and anti-static additives may be required. '''Applicable Standards''' 1.BS PD CLC/TR 50404:2003 Code of Practice for Control of Undesirable Static Electricity 2.NFPA 77 (2007) Recommended Practice on Static Electricity 3.API RP 2003 (1998) Protection Against Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents ==See also== ;General *[[Electromagnetism]] *[[Electrostatic force]] *[[Ionic bond]] *[[Electronegativity]] *[[Electrostatic discharge]] ==References== *{{cite book |author=Faraday, Michael |title=Experimental Researches in Electricity |location=London |publisher=Royal Inst |year=1839}}{{gutenberg|no=14986|name=e-book}} *{{cite book |author=Halliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane |title=Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/physics00hall | location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=1992 |isbn=0-471-80457-6}} *{{cite book |author=[[David J. Griffiths|Griffiths, David J.]] |title=Introduction to Electrodynamics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoel0ed3grif |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1999 |isbn=0-13-805326-X}} *{{cite book |author=Hermann A. Haus and James R. Melcher |title=Electromagnetic Fields and Energy |url=https://archive.org/details/electromagneticf0000haus |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=1989 |isbn=0-13-249020-X}} ==External links and further reading== ;General *[http://rmcybernetics.com/science/high_voltage/hv.htm RMCybernetics: High Voltage Physics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925044132/http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/high_voltage/hv.htm |date=2007-09-25 }}. Homemade projects & experiments. *"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4252692.stm Man's static jacket sparks alert]". BBC News, 16 September 2005. *[http://www.zeusinc.com/pdf/Zeus_Static.pdf Static Electricity and Plastics] *"[http://wolfsonelectrostatics.com/news/news-item12.asp Can shocks from static electricity damage your health?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705060435/http://wolfsonelectrostatics.com/news/news-item12.asp |date=2009-07-05 }}". Wolfson Electrostatics News pages. *"[http://aspden.org/arp/2005arp3.pdf Can Gravity be an Electrostatic Force?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809030731/http://www.aspden.org/arp/2005arp3.pdf |date=2008-08-09 }}" A Quantum théory of Gravitation, 2005. invisible wall of static: [http://amasci.com/weird/unusual/e-wall.html] *"[http://www.puls.com.tr/default_eg.aspx What is static electricity | Static Problems] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907072728/http://www.puls.com.tr/default_eg.aspx |date=2008-09-07 }} ;Essays and books *William J. Beaty, "''[http://amasci.com/emotor/zapped.html Humans and sparks; The Cause, Stopping the Pain, and 'Electric People]''". 1997. *[[William Cecil Dampier]], "''The theory of experimental electricity''". Cambridge [Eng.] University press, 1905 (Cambridge physical series). xi, 334 p. illus., diagrs. 23&nbsp;cm. LCCN 05040419 //r33 [[Kategori:Konsép fisika dasar]] [[Kategori:Éléktrostatika|*]] ny6t56mg5gxyol6002dfoj4f8f01ik7 0 26613 711843 672521 2026-08-07T05:41:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711843 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Location-Asia-UNsubregions.png|thumb|225px|[[subwewengkon|Wewengkon]] di Asia: {{legend|#0000E0|Asia Kaler}} {{legend|#E000E0|[[Asia Tengah]]}} {{legend|#00E000|[[Asia Kulon Kidul|Asia Kulon]]}} {{legend|#E00000|[[Asia Kidul]]}} {{legend|#FFFF20|[[Asia Wetan]]}} {{legend|#FFC000|[[Asia Tenggara]]}}]] '''Asia Kalér''' sakapeung sok dihartikeun minangka [[sub wewengkon]] [[Asia]] nu ngawengku bagéan Asia [[Rusia]]. Istilah ieu teu dipaké sacara lega. Sakapeung, Asia kalér dipaké keur netepkeun bagéan Asia Wétan jeung/atawa Asia Tengah, kalayan [[Rusia]] di [[Asia]] dibagi jeung [[Éropa Wétan]]. ''Phillips Illustrated Atlas of the World 1988'' ngadéfinisikeun Asia Kalér minangka wewengkon nu kalolobaanna urut [[USSR]], bagéan di wétaneun [[Pagunungan Ural]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Tourism Public Policy, and the Strategic Management of Failure|url=https://archive.org/details/tourismpublicpol0000kerr|author=William Revill Kerr|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tourismpublicpol0000kerr/page/54 54]|date=2003|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=0080442005}}</ref> Définisi saméméh ayana USSR nyaéta taun 1882 ku Kéane jeung Temple, nu ngadéfinisikeun Asia Kalér minangka "dua babagéana administratif gedé di [[Siberia]] Kulon jeung Wétan, nu puseur dayeuhna patuturut [[Omsk]] jeung [[Irkutsk]]". Ieu hartina, "hiji sistim pulitik nu lega, nu ngawengku ampir sapertilu buana, tur, kajaba ukur sabagéan leutik wewengkon, langsung diparéntah ku Rusia".<ref>{{cite book|title=Asia: With Ethnological Appendix|author=Augustus Henry Keane and Richard Carnac Temple|pages=345,493|date=1882|location=London|publisher=Edward Stanford}}</ref> == Démograpi == Taun 1875, Chambers ngalaporkeun yén ''populasi'' Asia kalér aya 8 yuta.<ref name=Chambers>{{cite book|title=Chambers's Information for the People|author=William Chambers and Robert Chambers|date=1875|location=London and Edinburgh|publisher=W. &amp; R. Chambers|pages=274–276}}</ref> == Géografi== Euweuh ranté pagunungan di Asia kalér nu gahalangan hawa angin ti [[Arktik]] nu ngahiliwir turun ka daratan [[Siberia]] jeung [[Turkestan]].<ref name=Chambers /> Lémpéngan jeung daratan Asia Kalér ngawengku dataran handap Siberia Kalér; [[Angara Shield]], jeung [[Tanjung Taimyr]], dataran handap basisir, [[Putorama Range]], [[Anabar Plateau]], jeung [[Tunguska Plateau]], katut [[Angara Plateau]]; jeung [[Lena-Vilyuy Basin]]. <ref name=Bridges>{{cite book|title=World Geomorphology|url=https://archive.org/details/worldgeomorpholo0000brid|author=Edwin Michael Bridges|chapter=Northern Asia|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldgeomorpholo0000brid/page/124 124]–126|date=1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521289653}}</ref> === Géomorpologi === Géomorfologi Asia sacara umum masih teuacan kaguar kabéh. Sanajan kitu urang geus mikawanoh kalayan hadé ngeunaan taneuh anu namper (''deposit'') kitu deui gunung-gunung anu aya di benua Asia.<ref name=Bridges /> {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} To compensate for new [[sea floor]] having been créated in the [[Siberian basin]], the whole of the [[Asian Plate]] has pivoted about a point in the [[New Siberian Islands]], causing compression in the [[Verkhoyansk mountains]], which were formed along the éastern margin of the Angara Shield by [[tectonic uplift]] during the [[Mesozoic Era]]. There is a southern boundary to this across the northern margin of the [[Alps|Alpine]] folds of Iran, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, which at the éast of [[Brahmaputra]] turns to run south towards the [[Bay of Bengal]] along the line of the [[Naga hills]] and the [[Arakan Yoma]], continues around [[Indonesia]], and follows the edge of the [[continental shelf]] along the éastern séaboard of [[China]]. The [[Eurasian Plate]] and the [[North American Plate]] meet across the neck of [[Alaska]], following the line of the [[Aleutian Trench]], rather than meeting at the [[Bering Straits]].<ref name=Bridges /> Northern Asia is built around the Angara Shield, which lies between the [[Yenisey River]] and the [[Lena River]]. It developed from fragments of [[Laurasia]], whose rocks were mainly pre-[[Cambrian]] crystalline rocks, [[gneiss]]es, and [[schist]]s, and [[Gondwana]]. These rocks can be found in the Angara Shield, the [[Inner Mongolian-Korean Shield]], the [[Ordes Shield]] and the [[South-East Asia Shield]]. The fragments have been subject to [[orogenesis]] around their margins, giving a complex of platéaux and mountain ranges. One can find [[outcrop]]s of these rocks in unfolded sections of the Shields. Their presence has been confirmed below Mesozoic and later sediments.<ref name=Bridges /> There are three main periods of mountain building in Northern Asia, although it has occurred many times. The outer fold mountains, that are on the margins of the Shields and that only affected Asia north of the line of the [[Himalayas]], are attributed to the [[Caledonian]] and [[Hercynian]] orogenies of the late [[Palaeozoic Era]]. The Alpine origeny caused extensive folding and faulting of Mesozoic and éarly [[Tertiary]] sediments from the [[Tethys]] [[geosyncline]]. The Tibetan and Mongolian platéaux, and the structural basins of [[Tarim Basin|Tarim]], [[Qaidam]], and [[Junggar]], are delimited by major éast-west lithospheric faults that were probably the results of stresses caused by the impact of the [[Indian Plate]] against Laurasia. Erosion of the mountains caused by this orogeny has créated a large amount of sediment, which has been transported southwards to produce the [[alluvial plain]]s of India, China, and Cambodia, and which has also been deposited in large amounts in the Tarim and [[Dzungarian Basin|Dzungarian]] basins.<ref name=Bridges /> Northern Asia was [[glaciation|glaciated]] in the [[Pleistocene]], but this played a less significant part in the géology of the aréa compared to the part that it played in [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. The Scandanavian ice sheet extended to the éast of the Urals, covering the northern two thirds of the [[Ob Basin]] and extending onto the Angara Shield between the [[Yenesei River]] and the [[Lena River]]. There are legacies of mountain glaciation to be found on the éast Siberian mountains, on the mountains of the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]], on the [[Altai]], on [[Tien Shan]], and on other small aréas of mountains, [[ice cap]]s remain on the islands of [[Severnaya Zemlya]] and [[Novaya Zemlya]], and several [[Central Asia]]n mountains still have individual glaciers. Siberia itself has [[permafrost]], ranging in depths from 30[[metre|m]] to 600m and covering an aréa of 9.6 million [[kilometre|km]]².<ref name=Bridges /> Several of the mountainous regions are volcanic, with both the [[Koryat mountains]] and the Kamchatka Peninsula having active [[volcano]]es. The [[Anadyr plateau]] is formed from [[igneous rock]]s. The [[Mongolian plateau]] has an aréa of [[basalt]]ic [[lava]]s and [[volcanic cone]]s.<ref name=Bridges /> The Angara Shield also underlies the lowlands of the [[Ob River]], but to the south and éast in the Central Asian mountains and in the éast Siberian mountains there are folded and faulted mountains of Lower Palaéozoic rocks.<ref name=Bridges /> == Rujukan == <references /> == Tempo ogé == * [[Rusia]] {{Regions of the world}} [[Kategori:Wewengkon di Asia]] i837dsgr08kkmb1xgprz6ed2gc1fvku 0 26674 711571 672559 2026-08-06T23:22:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711571 wikitext text/x-wiki {{this|buana|Australia (disambiguasi)}} [[Gambar:Topographic90deg S0E90.png|thumb|250px|[[Landasan buana]] Australia (biru ngora) nyambung jeung Gini Anyar, tapi henteu nyambung jeung kapuloan Pasifik liana siga Selandia Anyar.]] Dina [[geologi]] jeung [[biogeograpi]], '''Australia''' (katelah ogé '''Australia-New Guinéa''', '''Sahul''', '''Meganesia''', '''Gréater Australia''', atawa '''Australinéa''') nyaéta hiji [[buana]] nu ngawengku (dumasar ukuranana) [[daratan]] [[Australia]], [[New Guinea]], [[Tasmania]], jeung [[pulo|pulo-pulo]] nu ''intervening''/kaasup, nu sakabéhna aya dina [[landasan buana]] nu sarua. ''[[Landmass]]'' ieu kapisahkeun ku laut nu ''overlying''/ngalimpudan daratan anu kabentuk sacara alami (''beting buana'') — [[Laut Arafura]] jeung [[Selat Torres]] antara Australia jeung Gini Anyar, katut [[Selat Bass]] antara Australia daratan jeung Tasmania. Nalika [[sea level|level sagara]] handap kénéh salila [[jaman es]] [[Pleistocene]], kaasup [[last glacial maximum]] kurang leuwih 18,000 taun katukang, lemahna ngawangun hiji daratan tunggal tur nyambung. Salila puluh rebuan taun katukang, naekna level sagara ngabahéan daratan nu handap sarta misahkeun buana jadi daratan handap nu rada garing sarta dua kapuloan pagunungan New Guinéa jeung Tasmania nu kiwari aya. Sacara [[Géologi|geologis]], buana ieu manjang tepi ka juru landasan buana, antukna lemah nu kiwari misah bisa dianggap kénéh minangka hiji buana.<ref name="JohnsonPage12">{{cite book | last = Johnson | first = David Peter | authorlink = | year = 2004 | title = The Geology of Australia | url = https://archive.org/details/geologyofaustral0000john | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Port Melbourne, Victoria | id = | pages = page 12}}</ref> Alatan sumebarna flora jeung fauna salila ngahiji jaman Pleistoscene, lemah nu misah kiwari miboga [[biota]] nu patali. [[Selandia Anyar]] heneuweuh dina landasan buana nu sarua sahinga lain mangrupa bagéan tina buana Australia tapi mangrupa bagéan tina buana [[Zealandia (buana)|Zealandia]] sarta wewengkon nu leuwih legana nu katelah [[Oseania]]. Australia digolongkeun ku Departemen Urusan Luar Nagri jeung Perdagangan Pamaréntah Australia minangka pulo panggedéna di dunya sarta buana pangleutikna di dunya.<ref name="Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade">{{cite web | last = Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | url = http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html | title = The island continent | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade | accessdate = 2007-06-18 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030820155859/http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html |date=2003-08-20 }}</ref> <blockquote> Daratan Australia, kalayan lega 7.69 yuta pasagi kilometer pasagi, kadang-kadang dianggap pulo panggedéna di dunya atawa [[Buana#Area jeung populasi|buana pangleutikna]]. Manjang kurang leuwih 3700 kilometee ti kaler te pi ka kidul sarta 4000 kilometer ti wetan tepi ka kulon. </blockquote> == Géografi jeung tata ngaran == Benua Australia mangrupa buana pangleutikna jeung panghandapna nu dicicingan di Bumi, kalawan total aréa darat kurang leuwih 7.713.000 kilométer pasagi. Sanajan Australia atawa Pasamakmuran Australia nempatan sabagéan ageung buana sarta mindeng dianggap sakabéh buana, Australia jeung kapuloan sabudeureunana disambungkeun ku ''landas kontinen'' benua déét aya kana 2.500.000 kilométer pasagi kaasup Landasan Benua Sahul.<ref name="aims">{{cite web | year = 2001 | url = http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/bigbank/pages/bb-04.html | title = Big Bank Shoals of the Timor Sea: An environmental resource atlas | publisher = Australian Institute of Marine Science | accessdate = 2006-08-28 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908082408/http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/bigbank/pages/bb-04.html |date=2006-09-08 }}</ref><ref name="wirantaprawira">{{cite web | last = Wirantaprawira | first = Dr Willy | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2003 | url = http://www.wirantaprawira.net/indon/land.html | title = Republik Indonésia | publisher = Dr Willy Wirantaprawira | accessdate = 2006-08-28 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120824195519/http://www.wirantaprawira.net/indon/land.html |date=2012-08-24 }}</ref> jeung [[Selat Bass]] kalayan satengahna jerona kirang ti 50 méter. Kusabab Australia salaku nagara anu sabagéan ageung diwangun ku hiji pulo badag, sarta ngawengku sabagéan ageung buana Australia, nagara ieu sakapeung dina henteu resmi disebut "pulo buana". Sateuacan taun 1970-an, Arkéolog nyebat daratan ''Pleistosin'' tunggal ku nami ''"Australasia"''.,<ref name=ballard>{{cite conference |first=Chris |last=Ballard |authorlink= |title=Stimulating minds to fantasy? A critical etymology for Sahul |booktitle=Sahul in review: Pleistocene archaeology in Australia, New Guinea and island Melanesia |pages=p. 19-20 |publisher=Australian National University | location= Canberra |date=1993 |id=ISBN 0-7315-1540-4 }}</ref> sanajan kecap ieu paling mindeng dipaké pikeun wewengkon lega nu ngawengku daratan saperti Selandia Anyar padahal henteu dina kantétan buana anu sarua. Dina awal 1970-an aranjeunna ngenalkeun istilah '''Australia Raya''' pikeun buana ''Pleistosin'' ieu.<ref name=ballard/> Lajeng dina konferénsi di 1975 sarta publikasi saterusna,<ref>{{cite book |last=Allen |first=J. |authorlink= |coauthors=J. Golson and R. Jones (eds) |editor= |others= |title=Sunda and Sahul: Prehistoric studies in Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia |date=1977 |publisher=Academic Press |location=London |id=ISBN 0-12-051250-5 |pages= |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> aranjeunna ngalegaan pamakéan nami "Sahul" ti saméméhna ngan pikeun [[Sahul]] sorangan jadi ngawengku sakabéh buana.<ref name=ballard/> Ahli biologi, anu henteu terang istilah anu dianggo ku [[Arkéologi|arkéolog]], dina taun [[1984]] ngusulkeun nami ''"Meganesia"'', hartosna "pulo ageung" atanapi "grup pulo ageung ", pikeun dilarapkeun ka buana ''Pleistosin'' sareng daratan anu kiwari.<ref>{{cite conference |first=W. |last=Filewood |authorlink= |title=The Torres connection: Zoogeography of New Guinea |booktitle=Vertebrate zoogeography in Australasia |pages=p. 1124-1125 |publisher=Hesperian Press | location=Carlisle, W.A. |date=1984 |id=ISBN 0-85905-036-X }}</ref> sarta ngaran ieu geus diadopsi ku ahli biologi.<ref>misalna {{cite book |last=Flannery |first=Timothy Fridtjof |authorlink=Tim Flannery |title=The future eaters: An ecological history of the Australasian lands and people |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0730104877 |date=1994 |publisher=Reed |location=Chatswood, NSW |id=ISBN 0-7301-0422-2 |pages=pp. 42, 67 |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> Sanajan kitu, jalmi anu sanés maké "Meganesia" kalawan harti anu béda: panulis perjalanan [[Paul Theroux]] ngalebetkeun kecap Selandia Anyar dina guaranna.<ref>{{cite book |last=Theroux |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Theroux |title=The happy isles of Oceania: Paddling the Pacific |url=https://archive.org/details/happyislesofocea0000ther |date=1992 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |id=ISBN 0-14-015976-2 |pages= |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> jeung nu lianna geus dipaké pikeun Australia, Selandia Anyar jeung [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Wareham |first=Evelyn |authorlink= |year=2002 |month=September |title=From Explorers to Evangelists: Archivists, Recordkeeping, and Remembering in the Pacific Islands |journal=Archival Science |volume=2 |issue=3-4 |pages=187-207 }}</ref> ahli biologi linna [[Richard Dawkins]], Ahli biologi anu sanés, teu sugema ku istilah "Sahul" sareng "Meganesia", lajeng nyiptakeun nami énggal nyaéta ''"Australinea"'' dina taun 2004.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The ancestor’s tale: A pilgrimage to the dawn of evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/ancestorstalepil00dawk |date=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |id=ISBN 0-618-00583-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancestorstalepil00dawk/page/224 224] |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} == Geologi == The continent primarily sits on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. The lands were joined with [[Antarctica]] as part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]] until the plate began to drift north about 96 million yéars ago ([[Mya (unit)|mya]]). For most of the time since then, Australia-New Guinéa has remained a single, continuous landmass. When the last [[ice age]] ended about 10,000 yéars ago, rising séa levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then about 8,000 to 6,500 yéars ago, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the séa, separating New Guinéa and Australia. == Biogeograpi == As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, unique [[Flora (plants)|flora]] and [[Fauna (animals)|fauna]] developed. [[Marsupial]]s and [[monotreme]]s also existed on other continents, but only in Australia-New Guinéa did they out-compete the [[Placentalia|placental]] [[mammals]] and come to dominate. [[Aves|Bird]] life also flourished, in particular the ancestors of the gréat [[passerine]] order that would eventually spréad to all parts of the globe and account for more than half of all living avian [[species]]. Animal groups such as [[macropods]], [[monotremes]], and [[cassowaries]] are endemic to Australia. There were three main réasons for the enormous diversity that developed in both plant and animal life. * While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia-New Guinéa was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the [[equator]]. [[Temperature]]s in Australia-New Guinéa, in other words, remained réasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different plant and animal species were able to evolve to fit particular [[ecological niche]]s. * Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded. * Finally, despite the fact that the continent was alréady very old and thus relatively infertile, there are dispersed aréas of high fertility. Where other continents had [[Volcanism|volcanic]] activity and/or massive [[Glacier|glaciation]] events to turn over fresh, unléached [[Rock (geology)|rocks]] rich in [[mineral]]s, the rocks and [[soil]]s of Australia-New Guinéa were left largely untouched except by gradual [[erosion]] and deep [[weathering]]. In general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of species/level of biodiversity. This is because where [[nutrient]]s are plentiful, competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, léaving gréat scope for innovative co-evolution as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis méaning individuals all face constant environmental pressures, léaving less scope for divergent evolution, a process instrumental in créating new species. For about 40 million yéars Australia-New Guinéa was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards gréater aridity. When [[South America]] eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]] changed wéather patterns across the world. For Australia-New Guinéa, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The gréat inland séas and lakes dried out. Much of the long-established broad-léaf [[deciduous]] forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-léaved [[sclerophyllous]] plants that characterise the modérn Australian landscape. For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered [[Great Dividing Range]]. Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million yéars ago. Eventually, the Australia-New Guinéa tectonic plate collided with the [[Eurasian plate]] to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinéa and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the [[Torres Strait]] that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of [[Wallacea]], which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from [[Southeast Asia]]'s rainforests to colonise New Guinéa, and some plants from Australia-New Guinéa to move into Southéast Asia. The océan straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia-New Guinéa and Asia. Although New Guinéa is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinéa highlands is such that a gréat many animals and plants that were once common across Australia-New Guinéa now survive only in the tropical highlands (where they are severely thréatened by [[overpopulation]] pressures). == Tempo ogé == * [[Australia]] * [[Australasia]] * [[Oseania]] * [[Tektonika lempeng]] * [[Paleoklimatologi]] * [[Biogeograpi]] == Rujukan == <!--<nowiki> See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below </nowiki>--> {{reflist}} {{Continents of the world}} {{Regions of the world}} [[Kategori:Buana]] [[Kategori:Wangun taneuh di Australia]] [[Kategori:Wangun taneuh di Oséania]] [[Kategori:Gini Anyar]] [[Kategori:Sajarah alam Australia]] sokqvttoeb41lzj3m4hkwvbe5b7k1z5 0 26792 711609 711153 2026-08-07T00:11:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711609 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--{{Infobox litium}}-->[[Gambar:Wie funktioniert eine Lithium-Schwefel-Batterie?.webm|jmpl|Litium]] '''Litium''' nyaéta [[unsur kimia]] nu lambangna '''Li''' sarta boga [[nomer atom]] 3, [[logam alkali]] lemes nu kelirna bodas pérak. Dina [[hawa jeung tekenan baku|kaayaan baku]], ieu unsur téh minangka [[logam]] panghampangna sarta unsur padet anu dénsitasna handap pisan. Sakumaha galibna logam alkali, litium téh réaktif pisan, gancang [[tai hiang]]an dina udara lembab. Ku kituna, litium diteundeunna sok dibulen ku [[minyak]]. Ceuk téori, litium (utamana ⁷Li) téh salah sahiji nu kabentuk dina kajadian ''[[Big Bang]]'', najan dina éta kajadian, litium nu kabentuk gancang udar deui. Pudar sarta prosés-prosés kabentukna litium dianggap penting dina ulikan [[astronomi]]. Litium téh unsur ka-33 panglobana di [[Marcapada]]<ref name=krebs>{{cite book | last = Krebs | first = Robert E. | year = 2006 | title = The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements : A Reference Guide | url = https://archive.org/details/historyuseofoure0000kreb | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Conn. | isbn = 0-313-33438-2 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyuseofoure0000kreb/page/47 47]-50}}</ref>, ngan ku sabab [[réaktivitas|réaktif pisan]], di alam ieu unsur ukur aya dina bentuk [[sanyawa kimia|sanyawaan]]. Litium aya dina sababaraha [[mineral]] [[pegmatit]], tapi ogé biasa diala tina [[taneuh liat]]; dina skala komérsil, logam litium diala tina [[éléktrolisis]] campuran [[litium klorida]] jeung [[kalium klorida]]. Litium aya di [[sagara]] jeung sababaraha [[organismeu]] dina jumlah renik. Litium teu boga pancen biologis dina awak manusa, pangaruh ion litium (Li⁺) kana saraf dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngastabilkeun ''mood''. Litium jeung sanyawaanana dipaké pikeun rupa-rupa pangabutuh, di antarana [[gelas]] jeung [[keramik]] tahan panas, [[alloy]] liat-hampang pikeun [[wahana wiyati]], jeung [[batré litium]]. Litium ogé penting dina dunya [[fisika inti]]: [[fisi inti]] atom litium mangrupa [[réaksi inti]] munggaran jieunan manusa, sedengkeun [[litium deuterida]] dipaké [[suluh]] dina [[fusi inti|fusi]] [[rarancang Teller-Ulam|pakarang térmonuklir]]. == Sajarah jeung étimologi == [[Petalit]] (silikat litium aluminum) munggaran didadarkeun taun [[1800]] ku élmuwan Brazil [[José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva]], nu manggihan éta mineral di hiji tempat [[nambang beusi]] di pulo [[Utö, Swédia|Utö]], [[Swédia]]. Unsur litiumna sorangan kakara [[papanggihan unsur kimia|kapanggih]] taun [[1817]] ku [[Johan August Arfwedson]], lajeng ku nu magang di laboratorium [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]], nalika nalungtik bijih petalit. Ieu unsur ngabentuk sanyawaan nu sarupa jeung sanyawaan [[natrium]] jeung [[kalium]], najan karbonat jeung hidroksidana kurang [[kelarutan|gampang leyur]] sarta bisa nganétralkeun [[asam]] leuwih loba. Ku Berzelius, ieu unsur dingaranan "lithion", tina [[basa Yunani]] ''λιθoς'' (''lithos'', "batu"), pikeun ngagambarkeun kapanggihna dina mineral, béda jeung natrium jeung kalium nu kapanggihna tina jaringan [[tutuwuhan]]; ieu ngaran terus dibakukeun jadi "lithium". Arfwedson lajeng nunjukkeun yén unsur nu sarua aya ogé dina bijih mineral [[spodumen]] jeung [[lepidolit]]. Taun [[1818]], [[Christian Gmelin]] nunjukkeun yén garam litium ngahasilkeun warna beureum burahay dina seuneu, tapi boh Arfwedson atawa Gmelin gagal ngisolasi ieu unsur tina garamna.<ref name="we-hist">{{cite web |last=Winter |first=Mark J |url=http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Li/hist.html |title=Chemistry : Periodic Table : lithium : historical information |accessmonthday=19 Ags. |accessyear=2007 |publisher=Web Elements }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318135754/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Li/hist.html |date=2008-03-18 }}</ref><ref name=eote>{{cite book | year = 2004 | title = Encyclopedia of the Elements: Technical Data - History - Processing - Applications | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofel0000engh | publisher = Wiley | isbn = 978-3527306664 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofel0000engh/page/287 287]-300}}</ref><ref>[http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/li.html 03 Lithium]</ref> Unsur litium kakara diisolasi taun [[1821]] ku [[William Thomas Brande]] ku cara [[éléktrolisis]] [[litium oksida]], cara nu saméméhna geus dipaké ku [[Sir Humphry Davy]] pikeun ngisolasi kalium jeung natrium<ref name=eote/><ref>[http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/t/i/timeline/source.html Timeline - DiracDelta Science & Engineering Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012054730/http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/t/i/timeline/source.html |date=2018-10-12 }}</ref>. Brande ogé medarkeun garam-garam litium, kayaning klorida, sarta nyoba ngitung beurat atomna. Taun [[1855]], [[Robert Bunsen]] jeung Augustus Matthiessen ngahasilkeun loba pisan logam tina éléktrolisis [[litium klorida]]. Logam kalium mimiti dijieun sacara komérsil taun [[1923]] ku hiji [[Metallgesellschaft AG]] maké téhnik éléktrolisis campuran litium klorida jeung [[kalium klorida]]<ref name=we-hist/><ref>[http://www.echeat.com/essay.php?t=29195 Free Essay Analysis of the Element Lithium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201162023/http://echeat.com/essay.php?t=29195 |date=2010-02-01 }}</ref>. == Pasipatan == [[Gambar:LithiumPelletsUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Pélét litium (dibungkus ku litium hidroksida bodas)]] Kawas [[logam alkali]] lianna, litium boga hiji [[éléktron valénsi]] nu siap leupas antukna jadi [[kation]]; dicirikeun ku [[éléktronégativitas]]na nu leutik. Hasilna, litium gampang pisan robah, réaktif pisan, sarta mibanda [[titik lééh]] jeung [[titik golak]] nu panghandapna batan logam lianna. Lemahna logam alkali dina meungkeut éléktron valénsi katébong pisan di litium, ku sabab ieu unsur téh nu [[radius atom|pangleutikna]], antukna paling éléktronégatifdina golongan alkali. Litium ogé boga [[hubungan diagonal]] jeung [[magnésium]], unsur nu mibanda radius atom jeung [[radius ionik|ionik]] anu sarupa. Duanana sarupa dina ngabentuk [[nitrida]] dina N₂, [[oksida]] mun kaduruk dina O₂, [[garam (kimia)|garam]] nu [[kelarutan]]ana sarua, sarta [[karbonat]] jeung [[nitrida]]na anu teu stabil mun kapanasan<ref name=kamienski>Kamienski et al. "Lithium and lithium compounds". ''Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology''. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Publikasi online '''2004'''. {{doi|10.1002/0471238961.1209200811011309.a01.pub2}}</ref>.<!-- Litium hipu pisan nepi ka bisa dikeureut ku péso, najan leuwih hésé batan ngeureut natrium. The fresh metal has a silvery-white color which only remains untarnished in dry air.<ref name=kamienski/> Lithium has about half the density of water, giving solid sticks of lithium metal the odd heft of a light-to-medium wood like [[pine]]. The metal floats highly in [[hydrocarbon]]s; in the laboratory, jars of lithium are typically composed of black-coated sticks held down in hydrocarbon mechanically by the jar's lid and other sticks. Lithium is greatly heat-resistant, possessing a low [[coefficient of thermal expansion]] and the highest [[specific heat capacity]] of any solid element. Lithium has also been found to be [[superconductive]] below 400 [[microkelvin|μK]]. This finding paves the way for further study of superconductivity, as lithium's [[atomic lattice]] is the simplest of all metals. --> == Kimia == Dina hawa nu lembab, logam litium gampang rumeuk kabulen ku [[litium hidroksida]] (LiOH jeung LiOH·H₂O), [[litium nitrida]] (Li₃N), jeung [[litium karbonat]] (Li₂CO₃ anu hideung, hasil [[rékasi kimia|réaksi]] sékundér antara LiOH jeung [[karbon dioksida|CO₂]])<ref name=kamienski/>. Mun dideukeutkeun kana seuneu, litium mencarkeun cahya burahay semu bungur, tapi mun diduruk seuneuna bodas caang. Litium bakal hurung sarta kaduruk dina oksigén mun keuna kana cai atawa saab. Ieu unsur téh hiji-hijina logam anu bisa ngalaman réaksi jeung nitrogén dina hawa rohangan.<!-- == Isotopes == {{main|Isotopes of lithium}} Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable [[isotope]]s ⁶Li and ⁷Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% [[natural abundance]]). Seven [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, the most stable being ⁸Li with a [[half-life]] of 838 [[millisecond|ms]] and ⁹Li with a half-life of 178.3&nbsp;ms. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6&nbsp;ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is ⁴Li which decays through [[proton emission]] and has a half-life of 7.58043x10^-23 s. ⁷Li is one of the [[primordial elements]] or, more properly, primordial isotopes, produced in [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]] (a small amount of ⁶Li is also produced in stars). Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes, including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), [[metabolism]], and [[ion exchange]]. Lithium ion substitutes for [[magnesium]] and [[iron]] in octahedral sites in [[clay]] minerals, where ⁶Li is preferred to ⁷Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic ¹¹Li is known to exhibit a [[nuclear halo]]. == Natural occurrence == ''See also [[:category:Lithium minerals|Lithium minerals]].'' Lithium is widely distributed on Earth and is the 33rd most abundant element;<ref name=krebs/> however, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity. Estimates for [[crust (geology)|crustal]] content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.<ref name=kamienski/> In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of [[igneous]] rocks, with the largest concentrations in [[granite]]s. Granitic [[pegmatite]]s also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with [[spodumene]] and [[petalite]] being the most commercially-viable mineral sources for the element.<ref name=kamienski/> == Applications == Because of its [[specific heat]] capacity, the highest of all [[solid]]s, lithium is often used in heat transfer applications. It is an important ingredient in [[cathode]] materials, used in rechargeable and single-use [[Lithium battery|batteries]] because of its high [[electrochemical potential]], light weight, and high current density. Large quantities of lithium are also used in the manufacture of [[organolithium reagent]]s, especially [[n-butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] which has many uses in fine chemical and [[polymer]] synthesis. === Medical use === {{main|Lithium pharmacology}} Lithium salts were used during the 19th century to treat [[gout]]. Lithium salts such as [[lithium carbonate]] (Li₂CO₃), [[lithium citrate]], and [[lithium orotate]] are mood stabilizers. They are used in the treatment of [[bipolar disorder]], since unlike most other mood altering drugs, they counteract both [[mania]] and [[depression (mood)|depression]]. Lithium can also be used to augment other [[antidepressant]] drugs. It is also sometimes prescribed as a preventive treatment for [[migraine]] disease and [[cluster headache]]s. The active principle in these salts is the lithium ion Li⁺, which having a smaller diameter, can easily displace K⁺ and Na⁺ and even Ca⁺², in spite of its greater charge, occupying their sites in several critical neuronal enzymes and neurotransmitter receptors. Although Li⁺ cannot displace Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺, because of these ions small size and greater charge (higher charge density, hence stronger bonding), when Mg⁺² or Zn⁺² are present in low concentrations, and Li⁺ is present in high concentrations, the latter can occupy sites normally occupied by Mg⁺² or Zn⁺² in various enzymes. Therapeutically useful amounts of lithium (0.6 to 1.2 mmol/l) are only slightly lower than toxic amounts (>1.5 mmol/l), so the blood levels of lithium must be carefully monitored during treatment to avoid toxicity. Therefore, in theory, coadministration of 400 IU vitamin D, 1 g magnesium citrate (not the insoluble oxide or carbonate), 15 mg Zn (as gluconate or piccolinate, not the insoluble oxide) and 1 pill of [[vitamin B]] complex a day, should potentiate the effect of Li, {{Fact|date=December 2007}} in some cases allowing for the reduction of the therapeutic range to 0.5 to 0.9 mmol/l, of the daily dose of lithium carbonate and of the risk of toxicity. Common side effects include muscle tremors, twitching, [[ataxia]], hyperparathyroidism (bone loss, hypercalcemia, hypertension, etc,), kidney damage, [[nephrogenic diabetes insipidus]] (polyuria and polydipsia) and seizures. Many of the side-effects are a result caused by the increased elimination of potassium. === Other uses === * [[Lithium chloride]] and [[lithium bromide]] are extremely [[hygroscopic]] and frequently used as [[desiccant]]s. * [[stearic acid|Lithium stearate]] is a common all-purpose high-temperature [[lubricant]]. * Lithium is an [[alloy]]ing agent used to synthesize [[organic compound]]s. * Lithium is used as a [[flux (metallurgy)|flux]] to promote the fusing of metals during [[welding]] and [[soldering]]. It also eliminates the forming of oxides during welding by absorbing impurities. This fusing quality is also important as a flux for producing [[ceramic]]s, [[Vitreous enamel|enamels]], and [[glass]]. * Lithium is sometimes used in glasses and ceramics including the glass for the 200-inch (5.08&nbsp;m) [[telescope]] at [[Mt. Palomar]]. * [[Alloy]]s of the metal with [[aluminium]], [[cadmium]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]] are used to make high performance [[aircraft]] parts. * [[Lithium niobate]] is used extensively in telecommunication products, such as [[mobile phone]]s and [[optical modulator]]s, for such components as resonant crystals. Lithium products are currently used in more than 60 percent of mobile phones.<ref>{{cite news |author=Spring, Martin |title=Two ways to play the lithium boom |url=http://www.moneyweek.com/file/32991/two-ways-to-play-the-lithium-boom.html |publisher=[[MoneyWeek]] |date=2007-01-08 |accessdate=2007-08-19}}</ref> * The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes a good choice for [[nonlinear optics|non-linear optics applications]]. * [[Lithium deuteride]] was the [[nuclear fusion|fusion fuel]] of choice in early versions of the [[Nuclear weapon|hydrogen bomb]]. When bombarded by [[neutron]]s, both ⁶Li and ⁷Li produce [[tritium]]—this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the [[Castle Bravo]] nuclear test. Tritium fuses with [[deuterium]] in a [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride still apparently plays a role in modern [[nuclear weapons]], as a fusion material. * Metallic lithium and its complex [[hydride]]s such as e.g. Li[AlH₄] are considered as high energy additives to [[rocket propellant]]s^[3]. * [[Lithium peroxide]], [[lithium nitrate]], lithium chlorate and [[lithium perchlorate]] are used and thought of as oxidizers in both rocket propellants and [[oxygen candle]]s to supply submarines and space capsules with oxygen.<ref>{{cite journal | author = K. Ernst-Christian | title = Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: III. Application of Lithium and its Compounds in Energetic Systems | year = 2004 | journal = [[Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics]] | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 67-80 | doi = 10.1002/prep.200400032}}</ref> * Lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined nuclear fusion reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Tritium does not occur naturally and will be produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will react with the lithium to produce more tritium. ⁶Li + n → ⁴He + ³H. Various means of doing this will be tested at the [[ITER]] reactor being built at Cadarache, France. * Lithium is used as a source for [[alpha particle]]s, or [[helium]] nuclei. When ⁷Li is bombarded by accelerated [[proton]]s, ⁸[[beryllium|Be]] is formed, which undergoes spontaneous fission to form two alpha particles. This was the first man-made [[nuclear reaction]], produced by Cockroft and Walton in [[1929]]. * [[Lithium hydroxide]] (LiOH) is an important compound of lithium obtained from lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃). It is a strong base, and when heated with a fat, it produces a lithium soap. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils and so is used commercially to manufacture lubricating greases. * It is also an efficient and lightweight purifier of air. In confined areas, such as aboard [[spacecraft]] and [[submarine]]s, the concentration of carbon dioxide can approach unhealthy or toxic levels. Lithium hydroxide absorbs the carbon dioxide from the air by reacting with it to form lithium carbonate. Any alkali hydroxide will absorb CO₂, but lithium hydroxide is preferred, especially in spacecraft applications, because of the low formula weight conferred by the lithium. Even better materials for this purpose include lithium peroxide (Li₂O₂) that, in presence of moisture, not only absorb carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also release oxygen. E.g. 2 Li₂O₂ + 2 CO₂ → 2 Li₂CO₃ + O₂. * Lithium metal is used as a [[reducing agent]] in some types of [[methamphetamine]] production, particularly in illegal amateur “meth labs.” == Production == Since the end of [[World War II]], lithium metal production has greatly increased. The metal is separated from other elements in igneous mineral such as those above, and is also extracted from the water of [[mineral springs]]. The metal is produced [[electrolysis|electrolytically]] from a mixture of fused lithium and [[potassium chloride]]. In [[1998]] it was about [[US dollar|US$]] 43 per [[Pound (mass)|pound]] ($95 per [[kilogram|kg]]).<ref name=ober>{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/450798.pdf |title=Lithium |accessmonthday=August 19 |accessyear=2007 |last=Ober |first=Joyce A |format=pdf |pages = 77-78| publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> [[Chile]] is currently the leading lithium metal producer in the world, with [[Argentina]] next. Both countries recover the lithium from brine pools. In the [[United States]] lithium is similarly recovered from brine pools in [[Nevada]].<ref name=lanl>{{cite web |url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/3.html |title=Lithium |accessmonthday= August 19 |accessyear= 2007|date= December 15, 2003|publisher= [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]}}</ref> China may emerge as a significant producer of brine-based lithium carbonate towards the end of this decade. Potential capacity of up to 45,000 tonnes per year could come on-stream if projects in Qinghai province and Tibet proceed.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} == Precautions == Lithium metal, due to its alkaline tarnish, is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) can irritate the nose and throat; higher exposure to lithium can cause a build-up of fluid in the lungs, leading to [[pulmonary edema]]. The metal itself is usually a handling hazard because of the caustic hydroxide produced when it is in contact with moisture causing an explosion. Lithium should be stored in a non-reactive compound such as [[naphtha]] or a hydrocarbon. === Regulation === Some jurisdictions limit the sale of [[lithium battery|lithium batteries]], which are the most readily available source of lithium metal for ordinary consumers. Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to [[methamphetamine]] in the [[Birch reduction]] method, which employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia. However, the effectiveness of such restrictions in controlling illegal production of methamphetamine remains indeterminate and controversial. Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation (particularly aircraft), because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when [[short circuit|short-circuited]], leading to overheating and possible [[explosion]]. However, most consumer lithium batteries have thermal overload protection built-in to prevent this type of incident, or their design inherently limits short-circuit currents. --> == Rujukan == <references /> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Lithium}} * [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/ USGS: Lithium Statistics and Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175050/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/ |date=2016-03-03 }} * [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Li/index.html WebElements.com – Lithium] * [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele003.html It's Elemental – Lithium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204222003/http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele003.html |date=2011-12-04 }} * [http://www.state.nj.us/health/eoh/rtkweb/1119.pdf Safety information on Lithium] * [http://www.bipolar-lives.com/lithium.html Information on Lithium and Bipolar Disorder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913140211/http://www.bipolar-lives.com/lithium.html |date=2008-09-13 }} * [http://www.mcis.soton.ac.uk/Site_Files/pdf/nuclear_history/Working_Paper_No_5.pdf University of Southampton, Mountbatten Centre for International Studies, Nuclear History Working Paper No5.] {{LogamAlkali}} {{Tabél périodik}} [[Kategori:Unsur kimia]] [[Kategori:Logam alkali]] [[Kategori :logam]] n86zlt2afp4acjgj29a2e2e5upv1rkc 0 26994 711845 690135 2026-08-07T05:42:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711845 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Satelit''' nyaéta objék (barang) anu ngurilingan (ngorbit) objék (barang) séjén dina période puteran sarta rotasi tinangtu. Aya dua rupa satelit nyaéta [[satelit alam]] jeung satelit jieunan. Sésa artikel ieu baris medar satelit jieunan.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Aviation |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofavia0000wrag |first=David W. |last=Wragg |isbn=9780850451634 |edition=first |publisher=Osprey |year=1973 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofavia0000wrag/page/234 234]}}</ref> == Wanda satelit == '''[[Satelit astronomi]]''' nyaéta satelit anu dipaké pikeun nitétan planét, galaksi, jeung objék angkasa séjénna anu jauh. '''[[Satelit Telekomunikasi]]''' nyaéta satelit jieunan anu dipasang di angkasa kalayan tujuan pikeun ngalangsungkeun [[telekomunikasi]] ku cara ngagunakeun [[radio]] dina [[Frékuénsi|frékuensi]] [[Gelombang Mikro|gelombang mikro]]. Lolobana satelit télékomunikasi ngagunakeun [[Orbit Geosinkron|orbit geosinkron]] atawa [[Orbit Geostasioner|orbit geostasioner]], sanajan sababaraha wanda satelit panganyarna ngagunakeun [[orbit Bumi handap]]. '''[[Satelit Panitén Bumi]]''' nyaéta satelit anu dirarancang husus pikeun nitétan [[Bumi]] ti [[orbit]], kawas [[satelit reconnaissance]] tapi dimaksudkeun pikeun pamakéan non-militer kawas paniténan [[lingkungan]], [[météorologi]], [[pembuatan péta]], jeung sajabana. '''[[Satelit navigasi]]''' nyaéta satelit anu ngagunakeun sinyal [[radio]] anu dikirimkeun ka panarima di muka bumi pikeun nangtukeun patempatan (poisi) hiji titik di muka bumi. Salah sahiji satelit navigasi anu pohara populér nyaéta [[GPS]] milik [[Amérika Sarikat]] sajaba ti éta aya ogé [[Glonass]] milik [[Rusia]]. Lamun garis nu ngahubungkeun satelit jeung panarima di muka bumi teu ngarandapan gangguan mangka, ku cara maké hiji pakakas, panarima sinyal satelit (panarima [[GPS]]), bisa meunangkeun data posisi di hiji tempat kalawan katalitian din ukuran sababaraha [[méter]] dina waktu harita kénéh (réal time). '''[[Satelit Mata-mata]]''' nyaéta [[satelit panitén Bumi]] atawa [[satelit telekomunikasi]] anu dipaké pikeun tujuan [[militér]] atawa [[mata-mata]]. '''[[Setasiun Angkasa]]''' nyaéta struktur jieunan manusa anu dirarancang sabagé tempat dumuk [[manusa]] di [[angkasa]]. Setasiun angkasa dibédakeun ti [[pasawat angkasa]] séjénna ku euweuhna [[propulsi pasawat angkasa]] utama atawa fasilitas pikeun badarat; sarta tutumpakan séjén dipaké sabagé alat transportasi ti setasiun jeung ka setasiun. Setasiun angkasa dirarancang pikeun hirup jangka-menengah di [[orbit]], pikeun période waktu [[mingguan]], [[bulanan]], atawa malah [[taunan]]. '''[[Satelit Cuaca]]''' nyaéta satelit anu diguanakan pikeun nitetan [[cuaca]] sarta [[iklim]] [[Bumi]]. '''[[Satelit Miniatur]]''' nyaéta satelit anu hampang sarta leutik. Klasifikasi kakara dijieun pikeun ngagolongkeun satelit-satelit ieu: satelit mini (500–200&nbsp;kg), satelit mikro (di handapeun 200&nbsp;kg), satelit nano (di handapeun 10&nbsp;kg). == Wanda orbit == Satelit dikategorikan dumasar luhur jeung handapna orbit, sanajan hiji satelit bisa ngorbit dina luhur nu béda-béda. * [[Orbit Bumi Handap]] (Low éarth Orbit, Léo): 300 – 1500&nbsp;km di luhur muka bumi. * [[Orbit Bumi Seden]] (Medium éarth Orbit, Méo): 1500 – 36000&nbsp;km. * [[Orbit Geosinkron]] (Géosynchronous Orbit, GSO): kira-kira 36000&nbsp;km di luhur muka Bumi. * [[Orbit Géosteasionér]] (Géostationary Orbit, Géo): 35790&nbsp;km di luhur muka Bumi. * [[Orbit Bumi Luhur]] (High éarth Orbit, Héo): di luhur 36000&nbsp;km. Ngaran orbit di handap ieu nyaéta ngaran orbit husus anu ogé dipaké pikeun ngagolongkeun satelit: * [[Orbit Molniya]], orbit satelit dina périoda orbit 12 jam sarta kamiringan (inklinasi) kira-kira 63°. * [[Orbit Sunsynchronous]], orbit satelit dina kamiringan (inklinasi) sarta luhur nu tangtu anu sok ngaliwatan [[hatulistiwa]] dina saban waktu lokal nu sarua. * [[Orbit Polar]], orbit satelit anu ngaliwatan kutub bumi. == Tempo ogé == [[Berkas:Satellite.JPG|thumbnail|right|Hiji satelit dina musieum]] * [[Sajarah satelit jieunan sarta alat angkasa]] * Satelit (dumasar tanggal dileupaskeun) ** [[Syncom]] 1 ([[1963]] ), 2 ([[1963]]) sarta 3 ([[1964]]) ** [[Anik 1]] ([[1972]]) ** [[Aryabhata (satelit)|Aryabhata]] ([[1975]]) (India, dileupaskeun ka angkasa kuUSSR) ** [[Hermes Communications Technology Satellite]] ([[1976]]) ** [[Munin (satelit)|Munin]] ([[2000]]) (Swedish, dileupaskeun ka angkasa ku AS) * Layanan satelit ** [[Telepon satelit]] ** [[Internet satelit]] ** [[Televisi satelit]] ** [[Radio satelit]] * [[Pakarang anti-satelit]] == Rujukan == *1 -- [[The Radiation Belt and Magnetosphere]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.assi.or.id Asosiasi Satelit Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409025603/http://www.assi.or.id/ |date=2008-04-09 }} * [http://space.skyrocket.de Gunter's Space Page - Lists of nearly all satellites] * [http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/L.Wood/constellations/ Lloyd's satellite constellations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710100616/http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/L.Wood/constellations/ |date=2007-07-10 }} * [http://www.heavens-above.com/ Welcome to Heavens-above!] has everything, customized séarchable catalogue * [http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/JPass/20/ J-pass] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060411095343/http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/JPass/20/ |date=2006-04-11 }} [[NASA]] site for satellite-watching * [http://science.nasa.gov/RealTime/JTrack/3D/JTrack3D.html J-track 3D] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050504034921/http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/Jtrack/3D/Jtrack3D.html |date=2005-05-04 }} NASA site displaying a globe with orbiting satellites. * [http://ilectric.com/glance/Recreation/Radio/Amateur/Satellite_Tracking/ Satellite Tracking in Recreation Radio Amateur]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} an excellent link to many links * [http://www.oosa.unvienna.org UN Office for Outer Space Affairs] ensures all countries benefit from satellites * [http://www.satelliteradioreview.com Satellite Radio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929084529/http://www.satelliteradioreview.com/ |date=2019-09-29 }} * [http://www.lamit.ro Satellite Internet] * [http://satobs.org/ Visual Satellite Observer's Home Page] * [http://www.space-track.org/perl/login.pl Space-track] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100905085020/http://www.space-track.org/perl/login.pl |date=2010-09-05 }} The U.S. Department of Defense (Dod)'s Space-track.org website. Provides a 60 Day Decay Prediction of expected re-entries of objects in unclassified orbits. For objects néar decay, the site provides Trajectory Impact Prediction (TIP) messages, which estimate the time and location of decay. * [http://celestrak.com/NORAD/elements/ Norad TLE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203235728/http://celestrak.com/NORAD/elements/ |date=2010-02-03 }} Obtain [[TLE]] for various satellites tracked by NORAD. * [http://www.satellite-provider.pl/ Satellite Provider] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008094351/http://www.satellite-provider.pl/ |date=2006-10-08 }} * [http://www3.telus.net/public/boucherd/main.htm Earth Orbit Objects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215005128/http://www3.telus.net/public/boucherd/main.htm |date=2009-02-15 }} Free Satellite Tracking and Pass Prediction Program. Download [[TLE]] sets directly from Space-track.org. * [http://www.terrasat.microsoft.com Terra Link]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[manéhna:Satellite]] [[Kategori:Satelit|*]] f3n7w9cr3gy9l0iho6w0i18zfzckyvo 0 27282 711858 652241 2026-08-07T05:56:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711858 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Military Person |name= Takarabe Takeshi |lived=[[7 April]] [[1867]] – [[13 Januari]] [[1949]]<ref>Nishida, Materials of the IJN</ref> |placeofbirth=[[Miyakonojo, Miyazaki]], [[Jepang]] |placeofdeath= |image=[[Image:Takeshi Takarabe.jpg|175px]] |caption= |nickname= |allegiance=[[Kaisar Jepang]] |branch={{navy|Empire of Japan}} |serviceyears=1889–1937 |rank=[[Admiral]] |commands= [[Japanese destroyer Niji|''Niji'']], [[Japanese cruiser Soya|''Soya'']], [[Japanese battleship Fuji|''Fuji'']]<br>[[Ryojun Guard District]], [[Maizuru Naval District]], [[Sasebo Naval District]], [[Yokosuka Naval District]] |unit= |battles=[[First Sino-Japanese War]]<br>[[Russo-Japanese War]] |awards= |family= |laterwork=[[Supreme War Council (Japan)|Supreme War Council]],<br>[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Naval Minister]] }} {{Japanese name|Takarabe}} {{nihongo|'''Takarabe Takeshi'''|財部彪|Takarabe Takeshi|extra=[[7 April]] [[1867]] – [[13 Januari]] [[1949]]}} nyaéta salah saurang [[admiral|laksamana]] di [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Angkatan Laut Kakaisaran Jepang]], tur mangku jabatan [[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Mentri Angkatan Laut]] dina taun 1920-an. Anjeuna ogé putra ipar [[Yamamoto Gonnohyoe]]. ==Rujukan== ===Buku=== *{{cite book | last = Brendon | first = Piers | year = 2002 | title = The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s | url = https://archive.org/details/darkvalleypanora0000bren | publisher = Vintage | location = | id = ISBN 0375708081 }} *{{cite book | last = Dupuy | first = Trevor N. | year = 1992 | title = Encyclopedia of Military Biography | publisher = I B Tauris & Co Ltd | location = | id = ISBN 1-85043-569-3 }} *{{cite book | last = Goldstein | first = Erik | year = 1994 | title = The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor | publisher = Routledge | location = | id = ISBN 0714641367 }} *{{cite book | last = Schencking | first = J. Charles | year = 2005 | title = Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, And The Emergence Of The Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868–1922 | publisher = Stanford University Press | location = | id = ISBN 0-8047-4977-9 }} ===Tumbu kaluar=== *{{cite web | last = Nishida | first = Hiroshi | url = http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px15.htm#a003 | title = People of the IJN: Takarabe, Takeshi | work = Imperial Japanese Navy }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130104052307/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px15.htm#a003 |date=2013-01-04 }} == Catetan == {{Reflist}} {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Kato Tomosaburo]]| title=[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Minister of the Navy of Japan]]| years=Mei 1923–Jan 1924| after=[[Murakami Kakuichi]]| }} {{succession box| before=[[Murakami Kakuichi]]| title=[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Minister of the Navy of Japan]]| years=Jun 1924–Apr 1927| after=[[Okada Keisuke]]| }} {{succession box| before =[[Okada Keisuke]]| title=[[Ministry of the Navy of Japan|Minister of the Navy of Japan]] | years=Jul 1929 – Okt 1930| after=[[Abo Kiyokazu]]| }} {{end box}} {{IJN}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Takarabe, Takeshi}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1870]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1948]] [[Kategori:Laksamana Angkatan Laut Jepang Kakaisaran Jepang]] [[Kategori:Urang Préféktur Miyazaki]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Cina-Jepang Munggaran]] [[Kategori:Jalma dina Perang Rusia-Jepang]] [[Kategori:Urang Jepang dina période Méiji]] t17vrfh4vj1pm73lezxegcfxk1ig9zi 0 27287 711674 650855 2026-08-07T01:20:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711674 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Navy Ministry of Japan.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Kamentrian Angkatan Laut di Tokyo]] {{nihongo|'''Kamentrian Angkatan Laut Jepang'''|海軍省|Kaigunshō}} nyaéta kamentrian satingkat [[cabinet]] ti taun 1872-1945 nu diatur ku [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Angkatan Laut Kakaisaran Jepang]] (IJN). <!-- ==History== The Navy Ministry was created in April 1872, along with the [[Minister of War of Japan|Army Ministry]], to replace the Ministry of Military Affairs (''Hyōbushō'') of the early [[Meiji government]]. Initially, the Navy Ministry was in charge of both administration and operational command of the Imperial Japanese Navy; however, with the creation of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff]] in May 1893, it was left with only administrative functions. "The ministry was responsible for the naval budget, ship construction, weapons procurement, personnel, relations with the Diet and the cabinet and broad matters of naval policy. The General Staff directed the operations of the fleet and the preparation of war plans" <ref>Spector</ref>. Up until the 1920s, the Navy Ministry held the upper hand over the Navy General Staff in terms of political influence. However, the officers of the Navy General Staff found an opportunity at the [[Washington Naval Conference]] in 1921-22 to improve their situation. At this meeting, the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] wanted to establish a worldwide naval ratio, asking the Japanese to limit themselves to a smaller navy than the Western powers. The Naval Ministry was willing to agree to this, seeking to maintain the [[Anglo-Japanese Alliance]], but the Navy General Staff refused. The Imperial Japanese Navy became divided into mutually hostile [[Fleet Faction]] and [[Treaty Faction]] political cliques. Ultimately, the treaty was signed by Japan, but terminated in 1934. Through the 1930s, with increasing [[Japanese militarism]], the Fleet faction gradually gained ascendancy over the Treaty Faction, and dominating the Navy General Staff pushed through the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] against the wishes of the more diplomatic Navy Ministry. After 1937, both the Navy Minister and the Chief of the Navy General Staff were members of the [[Imperial General Headquarters]]. With the defeat of the [[Empire of Japan]] in [[World War II]], the Navy Ministry was abolished together with the Imperial Japanese Navy by the [[Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers|American occupation authorities]] in November 1945 and was not revived in the post-war [[Showa Constitution|Constitution of Japan]]. --> == Organisasi == === Divisi Operasi Internal === {{ImperialJapaneseMilitary}} * Military Affairs Buréau * Mobilization Buréau * Technical Buréau * Personnel Buréau * Training Buréau * Medical Buréau * Shipyard Buréau * Naval Construction Buréau * Legal Buréau * Administrative/Accounting Buréau === Divisi Operasi External === * [[Imperial Japanese Navy Aviation Bureau]] * [[Imperial Japanese Navy Academy]] * [[Naval War College (Japan)]] * Naval Accounting School * Navy Medical School * Naval Engineering School * Submarine Division * Canals and Waterways Division * Naval Technical Department * Naval Tribunal * Tokyo Naval Tribunal * Chemical Warfare Division * Radio and Radar Division * Supply and Transport Buréau * Naval Construction Division * Naval Maintenance & Repair Division * Special Attack Wéapons Division * Emergency réaction Division * Naval Aviation Training Division * Naval Intelligence Division == Mentri Angkatan Laut Jepang == By law, Navy Ministers had to be appointed from active duty [[admiral]]s or [[vice-admiral]]s. Their primary function was to provide communications and liaison between the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Cabinet and the [[Diet of Japan]]. === Naval Lords under the Ministry of Military Affairs === * [[Katsu Kaishu]] * [[Kawamura Sumiyoshi]] * [[Enomoto Takeaki]] * [[Nakamuta Kuranosuke]] * [[Kabayama Sukenori]] === Mentri Angkatan Laut mangsa [[Meiji Constitution]] === {| class=wikitable ! ||Waktu|| Wasta || |- |1||Juli 1885-Juli 1886||[[Saigo Tsugumichi]] |- |2|| July 1886 – July 1887 ||[[Oyama Iwao]] |- |3|| July 1887 – May 1890 ||[[Saigo Tsugumichi]] |- |4|| May 1890 – Aug 1892 ||[[Kabayama Sukenori]] |- |5|| Aug 1892 – Mar 1893||[[Nire Kagenori]] |- |6|| Mar 1893 – Nov 1898||[[Saigo Tsugumichi]] |- |7|| Nov 1898 - Jan 1906||[[Yamamoto Gonnohyōe]] |- |8|| Jan 1906 - Apr 1914||[[Saitō Makoto]] |- |9|| Apr 1914 - Aug 1915||[[Yashiro Rokuro|Yashiro Rokurō]] |- |10|| Aug 1915 - Oct 1921||[[Katō Tomosaburō]] |- |11|| Oct 1921 - Nov 1921||[[Hara Kei]] (Acting Minister) |- |12|| Nov 1921||[[Uchida Kosai]] |- |13|| Nov 1921 - Mar 1922||[[Takahashi Korekiyo]] (Acting Minister) |- |14|| Mar 1922 - May 1923||[[Katō Tomosaburō]] |- |15|| May 1923 - Jan 1924||[[Takarabe Takeshi]] |- |16|| Jan 1924 - Jun 1924||[[Murakami Kakuichi]] |- |17|| Jun 1924 - Apr 1927||[[Takarabe Takeshi]] |- |18|| Apr 1927 - Jul 1929||[[Okada Keisuke]] |- |19||Jul 1929 - Nov 1929||[[Takarabe Takeshi]] |- |20|| Nov 1929 - May 1930||[[Hamaguchi Osachi]] (Acting Minister) |- |21|| May 1930 - Oct 1930||[[Takarabe Takeshi]] |- |22|| Oct 1930 - Dec 1931||[[Abo Kiyokazu]] |- |23|| Dec 1931 - May 1932||[[Osumi Mineo]] |- |24|| May 1932 - Jan 1933||[[Okada Keisuke]] |- |25|| Jan 1933 - Mar 1936||[[Osumi Mineo]] |- |26|| Mar 1936 - Feb 1937||[[Nagano Osami]] |- |27|| Feb 1937 - Aug 1939||[[Yonai Mitsumasa]] |- |28|| Aug 1939 - Sep 1940||[[Zengo Yoshida|Yoshida Zengo]] |- |29|| Sep 1940 - Oct 1941||[[Oikawa Koshirō]] |- |30|| Oct 1941 - Jul 1944||[[Shigetaro Shimada|Shimada Shigetarō]] |- |31|| Jul 1944||[[Nomura Naokuni]] |- |32|| Jul 1944 - Dec 1945|| [[Yonai Mitsumasa]] |} == Rujukan == === Buku === * {{cite book | last = Asada | first = Sadao | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2006 | chapter = | title = From Mahan to Pearl Harbor: The Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States | url = https://archive.org/details/frommahantopearl0000asad | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | location = | id = ISBN 1-55750-042-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Schencking | first = J. Charles | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | chapter = | title = Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, And The Emergence Of The Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868-1922 | publisher = Stanford University Press | location = | id = ISBN 0-8047-4977-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Spector | first = Ronald | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1985 | chapter = | title = Eagle Against the Sun | url = https://archive.org/details/eagleagainstsuna0000spec | publisher = Vintage Books | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-394-74101-3 }} === Tumbu kaluar === * "Foreign Office Files for Japan and the Far East". [http://www.adam-matthew-publications.co.uk/digital_guides/fo_japan_series1_prt1to2/japanese_minister_officals.aspx#sixth Adam Matthew Publications] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829194844/http://www.adam-matthew-publications.co.uk/digital_guides/fo_japan_series1_prt1to2/japanese_minister_officals.aspx#sixth |date=2008-08-29 }}. === Catetan === {{Reflist}} {{IJN}} [[Kategori:Angkatan Laut Imperial Jepang]] [[Kategori:Pamaréntah Jepang]] [[Kategori:Sajarah militér Jepang]] [[Kategori:Kaisar Jepang]] 7418boe6d3zw459jdyth1oidbnhp859 0 27645 711774 703150 2026-08-07T03:54:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} <div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 2em; width: 25em; text-align: right; font-size: 0.86em; line-height: normal;"><!-- start of floated right section --> <div style="border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center;"><!-- start of slate grey box --> <big>'''Afrika'''</big> <div align=center> [[Gambar:LocationAfrica.png|190px|Peta nu nuduhkeun buana Afrika. <!--(Tempo bagean [[#Pulitik|''Pulitik'']] keur peta nagara sorangan-sorangan nu isa diklik.)-->]] </div> {| style="background: transparent; text-align: left; table-layout: auto; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; font-size: 100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" ! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Aréa | style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | {{km2 to sq mi|30221532|abbr=yes}} |- ! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Populasi | style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | 922,011,000<ref name="esa.un.org">[http://esa.un.org/unpp/ "World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision"] [[United Nations]] (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, population division)</ref>(2005, [[List of continents by population|2nd]]) |- ! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Kapadetan | style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | 30.51/km² (about 80/sq mi) |- ! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Nagara | style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | {{Collapsible list |title=[[List of African countries|53]] |[[Algeria]] |[[Angola]] |[[Benin]] |[[Botswana]] |[[Burkina Faso]] |[[Burundi]] |[[Cameroon]] |[[Cape Verde]] |[[Central African Republic]] |[[Chad]] |[[Comoros]] |[[Congo]] |[[Côte d'Ivoire]] |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] |[[Djibouti]] |[[Egypt]] |[[Equatorial Guinea]] |[[Eritrea]] |[[Ethiopia]] |[[Gabon]] |[[Gambia]] |[[Ghana]] |[[Guinea]] |[[Guinea-Bissau]] |[[Kenya]] |[[Lesotho]] |[[Liberia]] |[[Libya]] |[[Madagascar]] |[[Malawi]] |[[Mali]] |[[Mauritania]] |[[Mauritius]] |[[Morocco]] |[[Mozambique]] |[[Namibia]] |[[Niger]] |[[Nigeria]] |[[Rwanda]] |[[São Tomé and Príncipe]] |[[Senegal]] |[[Seychelles]] |[[Sierra Leone]] |[[Somalia]] |[[South Africa]] |[[Sudan]] |[[Swaziland]] |[[Tanzania]] |[[Togo]] |[[Tunisia]] |[[Uganda]] |[[Sahara Kulon]] |[[Zambia]] |[[Zimbabwe]] }} |- ! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Jajahan | style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | {{Collapsible list |title=[[List of African dependencies|8]] |[[Mayotte]] | [[Réunion]] |[[Canary Islands]] |[[Ceuta]] |[[Madeira Islands]] |[[Melilla]] |[[Saint Helena]]}} |- ! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Basa | style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | [[African languages|African Languages]] and many others |- ! style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | Wewengkon wanci | style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top" | [[UTC-1]] ([[Cape Verde]]) to [[UTC+4]] ([[Mauritius]]) |} </div></div> '''Afrika''' nyaéta [[buana]] kadua panggedéna tur pangpadetna, sanggeus [[Asia]]. Kalayan legana nu kurang leuwih 30.2 juta km² (11.7 juta [[mil pasagi|sq&nbsp;mi]]) kaasup pulo nu padeudeukeut, nutupan 6% lega pabeungeutan [[Bumi]] total tur 20.4% lega lemah total.<ref name=Sayre>Sayre, April Pulley. (1999) ''Africa'', Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-1367-2.</ref> KAlayan kurang leuwih 922 juta jalma (taun 2005)<ref name="esa.un.org"/> dina 61 wewengkon, [[populasi jalma]]na kacatet 14.2% tina populasi jalma sadunya. Buana ieu dilingkung ku [[Laut Tengah]] di béh kaler, [[Terusan Suez]] jeung [[Laut Beureum]] di wetan kalerna, [[Samudra India]] di béh wetan kidulna, tur [[Samudra Atlantik]] di béh kuloneunnana. Aya 46 nagara kaasup [[Madagaskar]], atawa 53 nagara kaasup sakabéh golongan pulo. == Teritori jeung wewengkon == {{utama|Wewengkon di Afrika|Daptar nagara di Afrik}} Nagara-nagara dina tabel ieu digolongkeun dumasar kana [[UN geoscheme|skema keur subwewengkon geografis]] nu dipaké ku PBB, tur data nu kawengkuna mangrupa per sumber dina artikel rujukan silang ''(cross-referenced articles)''. Lamun béda, katangtuan-katangtuan husus disebutkeun kalayan jéntré. <!--{{editnote | NOTE: If you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the talk page and await until the consensus supports making proposed edits. Thank you!--> <!--this table is needed to keep the continental map thumbnails to the right, and not overlap the table--> {|align=right | [[Gambar:Africa-regions.svg|thumb|200px|[[subregion|Wewengkon]] di Afrika: {{legend|#0000FF|[[Afrika Kalér]]}} {{legend|#00FF00|[[Afrika Kulon]]}} {{legend|#FF00FF|[[Afrika Tengah]]}} {{legend|#FFC000|[[Afrika Wétan]]}} {{legend|#FF0000|[[Afrika Kidul]]}}]] |- |- |[[Gambar:topography of africa.png|thumb|left|200px|Peta fisik Afrika.]] |- |[[Gambar:Africa satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Foto satelit Afrika.]] |} <!--end thumbnails--> <!--begin country info tables--> {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse" |- bgcolor="#ECECEC" ! Ngaran wewengkon<ref>Continental regions as per [[:Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|UN categorisations/map]].<br /></ref> jeung<br />teritori, kalayan [[bandera]]na ! [[List of countries by area|Area]]<br />(km²) ! [[Daptar nagara dumasar populasi|Populasi]]<br />(perkiraan [[1 Juli]] [[2002]]) ! [[List of countries by population density|Kapadetan populasi]]<br />(per km²) ! [[Ibu kota]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Afrika Wétan]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Burundi}} [[Burundi]] | align="right" | 27,830 | align="right" | 6,373,002 | align="right" | 229.0 | [[Bujumbura]] |- | {{flagicon|Comoros}} [[Comoros]] | align="right" | 2,170 | align="right" | 614,382 | align="right" | 283.1 | [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] |- | {{flagicon|Djibouti}} [[Djibouti]] | align="right" | 23,000 | align="right" | 472,810 | align="right" | 20.6 | [[Djibouti City|Djibouti]] |- | {{flagicon|Eritrea}} [[Eritrea]] | align="right" | 121,320 | align="right" | 4,465,651 | align="right" | 36.8 | [[Asmara]] |- | {{flagicon|Ethiopia}} [[Etiopia]] | align="right" | 1,127,127 | align="right" | 67,673,031 | align="right" | 60.0 | [[Addis Ababa]] |- | {{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Kenya]] | align="right" | 582,650 | align="right" | 31,138,735 | align="right" | 53.4 | [[Nairobi]] |- | {{flagicon|Madagascar}} [[Madagaskar]] | align="right" | 587,040 | align="right" | 16,473,477 | align="right" | 28.1 | [[Antananarivo]] |- | {{flagicon|Malawi}} [[Malawi]] | align="right" | 118,480 | align="right" | 10,701,824 | align="right" | 90.3 | [[Lilongwe]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritius}} [[Mauritius]] | align="right" | 2,040 | align="right" | 1,200,206 | align="right" | 588.3 | [[Port Louis]] |- | {{flagicon|Mayotte}} [[Mayotte]] ([[Perancis]]) | align="right" | 374 | align="right" | 170,879 | align="right" | 456.9 | [[Mamoudzou]] |- | {{flagicon|Mozambique}} [[Mozambik]] | align="right" | 801,590 | align="right" | 19,607,519 | align="right" | 24.5 | [[Maputo]] |- | {{flagicon|Réunion}} [[Réunion]] ([[France]]) | align="right" | 2,512 | align="right" | 743,981 | align="right" | 296.2 | [[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint-Denis]] |- | {{flagicon|Rwanda}} [[Rwanda]] | align="right" | 26,338 | align="right" | 7,398,074 | align="right" | 280.9 | [[Kigali]] |- | {{flagicon|Seychelles}} [[Seychelles]] | align="right" | 455 | align="right" | 80,098 | align="right" | 176.0 | [[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]] |- | {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[Somalia]] | align="right" | 637,657 | align="right" | 7,753,310 | align="right" | 12.2 | [[Mogadishu]] |- | {{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Tanzania]] | align="right" | 945,087 | align="right" | 37,187,939 | align="right" | 39.3 | [[Dodoma]] |- | {{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Uganda]] | align="right" | 236,040 | align="right" | 24,699,073 | align="right" | 104.6 | [[Kampala]] |- | {{flagicon|Zambia}} [[Zambia]] | align="right" | 752,614 | align="right" | 9,959,037 | align="right" | 13.2 | [[Lusaka]] |- | {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} [[Zimbabwe]] | align="right" | 390,580 | align="right" | 11,376,676 | align="right" | 29.1 | [[Harare]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Central Africa|Middle Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Angola}} [[Angola]] | align="right" | 1,246,700 | align="right" | 10,593,171 | align="right" | 8.5 | [[Luanda]] |- | {{flagicon|Cameroon}} [[Cameroon]] | align="right" | 475,440 | align="right" | 16,184,748 | align="right" | 34.0 | [[Yaoundé]] |- | {{flagicon|Central African Republic}} [[Republik Afrika Tengah]] | align="right" | 622,984 | align="right" | 3,642,739 | align="right" | 5.8 | [[Bangui]] |- | {{flagicon|Chad}} [[Chad]] | align="right" | 1,284,000 | align="right" | 8,997,237 | align="right" | 7.0 | [[N'Djamena]] |- | {{flagicon|Republic of the Congo}} [[Republik Kongo|Kongo]] | align="right" | 342,000 | align="right" | 2,958,448 | align="right" | 8.7 | [[Brazzaville]] |- | {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} [[Republik Democratik Kongo]] | align="right" | 2,345,410 | align="right" | 55,225,478 | align="right" | 23.5 | [[Kinshasa]] |- | {{flagicon|Equatorial Guinea}} [[Equatorial Guinea]] | align="right" | 28,051 | align="right" | 498,144 | align="right" | 17.8 | [[Malabo]] |- | {{flagicon|Gabon}} [[Gabon]] | align="right" | 267,667 | align="right" | 1,233,353 | align="right" | 4.6 | [[Libreville]] |- | {{flagicon|São Tomé and Príncipe}} [[São Tomé jeung Príncipe]] | align="right" | 1,001 | align="right" | 170,372 | align="right" | 170.2 | [[São Tomé]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Afrika Kaler]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Algeria}} [[Aljazair]] | align="right" | 2,381,740 | align="right" | 32,277,942 | align="right" | 13.6 | [[Algiers]] |- | {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Mesir]]<ref>[[Egypt]] is generally considered a [[transcontinental nation|transcontinental country]] in Northern Africa (UN region) and Western Asia; population and area figures are for African portion only, west of the [[Suez Canal]].</small><br /></ref> | align="right" | 1,001,450 | align="right" | 70,712,345 | align="right" | 70.6 | [[Cairo]] |- | {{flagicon|Libya}} [[Libia]] | align="right" | 1,759,540 | align="right" | 5,368,585 | align="right" | 3.1 | [[Tripoli]] |- | {{flagicon|Morocco}} [[Moroko]] | align="right" | 446,550 | align="right" | 31,167,783 | align="right" | 69.8 | [[Rabat]] |- | {{flagicon|Sudan}} [[Sudan]] | align="right" | 2,505,810 | align="right" | 37,090,298 | align="right" | 14.8 | [[Khartoum]] |- | {{flagicon|Tunisia}} [[Tunisia]] | align="right" | 163,610 | align="right" | 9,815,644 | align="right" | 60.0 | [[Tunis]] |- | {{flagicon|Western Sahara}} [[Sahara Kulon]]<ref name="Western Sahara">[[Western Sahara]] is disputed between the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]], who administer a [[Free Zone (region)|minority]] of the territory, and Morocco, who [[military occupation|occupy]] [[Southern Provinces|the remainder]].</small><br /></ref> | align="right" | 266,000 | align="right" | 256,177 | align="right" | 1.0 | [[El Aaiún]] |- | colspan=5 | ''Spanish and Portuguese territories in Northern Africa'': |- | {{flagicon|Canary Islands}} [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]])<ref>The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Canary Islands]], of which [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] are [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]]; population and area figures are for 2001.<br /></ref> | align="right" | 7,492 | align="right" | 1,694,477 | align="right" | 226.2 | [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]],<br />[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] |- | {{flagicon|Ceuta}} [[Ceuta]] (Spain)<ref>The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br /></ref> | align="right" | 20 | align="right" | 71,505 | align="right" | 3,575.2 | — |- | {{flagicon|Madeira}} [[Madeira Islands]] ([[Portugal]])<ref>The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.<br /></ref> | align="right" | 797 | align="right" | 245,000 | align="right" | 307.4 | [[Funchal]] |- | {{flagicon|Melilla}} [[Melilla]] (Spain)<ref>The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br /></ref> | align="right" | 12 | align="right" | 66,411 | align="right" | 5,534.2 | — |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Southern Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Botswana}} [[Botswana]] | align="right" | 600,370 | align="right" | 1,591,232 | align="right" | 2.7 | [[Gaborone]] |- | {{flagicon|Lesotho}} [[Lesotho]] | align="right" | 30,355 | align="right" | 2,207,954 | align="right" | 72.7 | [[Maseru]] |- | {{flagicon|Namibia}} [[Namibia]] | align="right" | 825,418 | align="right" | 1,820,916 | align="right" | 2.2 | [[Windhoek]] |- | {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Afrika Kidul]] | align="right" | 1,219,912 | align="right" | 43,647,658 | align="right" | 35.8 | [[Bloemfontein]], [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]]<ref>[[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of [[South Africa]], while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat.<br /></ref> |- | {{flagicon|Swaziland}} [[Swaziland]] | align="right" | 17,363 | align="right" | 1,123,605 | align="right" | 64.7 | [[Mbabane]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Afrika Kulon]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Benin}} [[Benin]] | align="right" | 112,620 | align="right" | 6,787,625 | align="right" | 60.3 | [[Porto-Novo]] |- | {{flagicon|Burkina Faso}} [[Burkina Faso]] | align="right" | 274,200 | align="right" | 12,603,185 | align="right" | 46.0 | [[Ouagadougou]] |- | {{flagicon|Cape Verde}} [[Cape Verde]] | align="right" | 4,033 | align="right" | 408,760 | align="right" | 101.4 | [[Praia]] |- | {{flagicon|Côte d'Ivoire}} [[Côte d'Ivoire]] | align="right" | 322,460 | align="right" | 16,804,784 | align="right" | 52.1 | [[Abidjan]], [[Yamoussoukro]]<ref>[[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Côte d'Ivoire]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' seat.<br /></ref> |- | {{flagicon|Gambia}} [[The Gambia|Gambia]] | align="right" | 11,300 | align="right" | 1,455,842 | align="right" | 128.8 | [[Banjul]] |- | {{flagicon|Ghana}} [[Ghana]] | align="right" | 239,460 | align="right" | 20,244,154 | align="right" | 84.5 | [[Accra]] |- | {{flagicon|Guinea}} [[Guinea]] | align="right" | 245,857 | align="right" | 7,775,065 | align="right" | 31.6 | [[Conakry]] |- | {{flagicon|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]] | align="right" | 36,120 | align="right" | 1,345,479 | align="right" | 37.3 | [[Bissau]] |- | {{flagicon|Liberia}} [[Liberia]] | align="right" | 111,370 | align="right" | 3,288,198 | align="right" | 29.5 | [[Monrovia]] |- | {{flagicon|Mali}} [[Mali]] | align="right" | 1,240,000 | align="right" | 11,340,480 | align="right" | 9.1 | [[Bamako]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritania}} [[Mauritania]] | align="right" | 1,030,700 | align="right" | 2,828,858 | align="right" | 2.7 | [[Nouakchott]] |- | {{flagicon|Niger}} [[Niger]] | align="right" | 1,267,000 | align="right" | 10,639,744 | align="right" | 8.4 | [[Niamey]] |- | {{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Nigeria]] | align="right" | 923,768 | align="right" | 129,934,911 | align="right" | 140.7 | [[Abuja]] |- | {{flagicon|Saint Helena}} [[Saint Helena]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]) | align="right" | 410 | align="right" | 7,317 | align="right" | 17.8 | [[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]] |- | {{flagicon|Senegal}} [[Senegal]] | align="right" | 196,190 | align="right" | 10,589,571 | align="right" | 54.0 | [[Dakar]] |- | {{flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Sierra Leone]] | align="right" | 71,740 | align="right" | 5,614,743 | align="right" | 78.3 | [[Freetown]] |- | {{flagicon|Togo}} [[Togo]] | align="right" | 56,785 | align="right" | 5,285,501 | align="right" | 93.1 | [[Lomé]] |- style=" font-weight:bold; " | Total | align="right" | 30,368,609 | align="right" | 843,705,143 | align="right" | 27.8 |} <!--end country info table + refs--> == Tempo ogé== * [[List of African countries by population]] * [[Urbanization in Africa]] * [[List of topics related to Black and African people]] {{Africa topics}} == Catetan == {{reflist|2}} == Rujukna == * "Africa". ''[http://www.columbiagazetteer.org/ The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online]''. 2005. New York: Columbia University Press. == Bibliograpi == * {{cite book | last = Asante | first = Molefi | authorlink = Molefi Asante | title = The History of Africa | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofafricaq0000asan_v6f8 | publisher = Routledge | location = USA | year = 2007 | isbn = 0415771390 }} * {{cite book | last = Clark | first = J. Desmond | authorlink = J. Desmond Clark | title = The Prehistory of Africa | publisher = Thames and Hudson | location = London | year = 1970 | isbn = 9780500020692 }} * {{cite book | last = Crowder | first = Michael | authorlink = Michael Crowder | title = The Story of Nigeria | url = https://archive.org/details/storyofnigeria0000crow_x6k2 | publisher = Faber | location = London | year = 1978 | isbn = 9780571049479 }} * {{cite book | last = Davidson | first = Basil | authorlink = Basil Davidson | title = The African past; chronicles from antiquity to modern times | publisher = Penguin | location = Harmondsworth | year = 1966 | id = {{OCLC|2016817}} }} * {{cite book | last = Gordon | first = April A. | authorlink = April A. Gordon | coauthors = Donald L. Gordon | title = Understanding contemporary Africa | url = https://archive.org/details/understandingcon0000unse_h5y4 | publisher = Lynne Rienner Publishers | location = Boulder | year = 1996 | isbn = 9781555875473 }} * {{cite book | last = Khapoya | first = Vincent B. | authorlink = Vincent B. Khapoya | title = The African experience: an introduction | url = https://archive.org/details/africanexperienc00khap | publisher = Prentice Hall | location = Upper Saddle River, NJ | year = 1998 | isbn = 9780137458523 }} * [[Korotayev]], A. & Khaltourina D. (2006) [http://urss.ru/cgi-bin/db.pl?cp=&lang=en&blang=en&list=14&page=Book&id=37485 ''Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends in Africa.''] Moscow: URSS. ISBN 5-484-00560-4 == Tumbu luar == {{sisterlinks}} {{wikiatlas|Africa}} <!-- DO NOT ADD SPAM HERE --> ;Warta * [http://www.bankresearch.org/economicpolicyblog/2006/02/equatorial_guin.html West Africa has the second wealthiest country in the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603153050/http://www.bankresearch.org/economicpolicyblog/2006/02/equatorial_guin.html |date=2008-06-03 }} * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wtOJRSFj5V4 Truth About Africa] * [http://allafrica.com/ allAfrica.com] current news, events and statistics * [http://www.democracynow.org/2008/1/23/corporations_reaping_millions_as_congo_suffers Failed Economic History] ;History * [http://library.stanford.edu/africa/history/hisking.html Africa South of the Sahara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505121548/http://library.stanford.edu/africa/history/hisking.html |date=2008-05-05 }} * [http://www.africankingdoms.com/ African Kingdoms] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section10.shtml BBC Story of Africa Kingdoms] * [http://gerald-massey.org.uk/massey/cmc_nile_genesis.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130200159/http://gerald-massey.org.uk/massey/cmc_nile_genesis.htm |date=2010-01-30 }} ;Directories * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/ Library of Congress - African & Middle Eastern Reading Room] * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/ Open Directory Project - Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122150448/http://www.dmoz.org./Regional/Africa/ |date=2008-11-22 }} directory category * [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara] * [http://www.afrika.no/index/ The Index on Africa] directory from The Norwegian Council for Africa * [http://www.aluka.org/ Aluka - Digital library of scholarly resources from and about Africa] ;Lingkungan * [http://www.na.unep.net/AfricaAtlas/ AFRICA: Atlas of Our Changing Environment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204202954/http://na.unep.net/AfricaAtlas/ |date=2009-12-04 }} ([[UNEP]]). ;Pulitik * [http://www.africaaction.org/index.php ''Africa Action''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325054544/http://www.africaaction.org/index.php |date=2008-03-25 }} Africa Action is the oldest organization in the United States working on African affairs. It is a national organization that works for political, economic and social justice in Africa. * [http://www.libcom.org/history/africa.php Working class history in Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505014342/http://libcom.org/history/africa.php |date=2008-05-05 }}—péople's and grassroots histories {{Wikisource1911Enc|Africa}} ;Olahraga * [http://www.cafonline.com/index.php Confederation of African Football; in English and French] ;Tourism * {{wikivoyage|Africa}} {{Africa}} {{Continents of the world}} {{Regions of the world}} [[Kategori:Afrika|*]] [[Kategori:Buana]] haiyf2ukqfjrxf8zmkly0un1zbr91xr 0 27879 711555 703135 2026-08-06T23:01:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711555 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Badak sunda | status = cr | status_system = iucn2.3 | status_ref = <ref name="IUCN Rs">Asian Rhino Specialist Group (1996). [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19495 ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'']. ''2007 [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. IUCN 2007. Salinan [[13 Januari]] [[2008]]. Listed as Critically Endangered (CR C2a v2.3).</ref> | image = Dead_Javan_Rhino.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Tukang Moro Sato ti Éropa jeung badak sunda anu paéh taun 1895 | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Perissodactyla]] | familia = [[Rhinocerotidae]] | genus = ''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]'' | species = '''''R. sondaicus''''' | binomial = ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' | binomial_authority = [[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest|Desmarest]], 1822<ref name=Zeitschrift/> | range_map = Javan Rhino Range.svg | range_map_width = 250px | range_map_caption = Sebaran Badak sunda<ref name=Range>Peta dumasar kana peta sebaran dina Foose & Van Strien (1997). Ieu peta teu ngawengku kamungkinan populasi di Kalimantan nu dipedar ku Cranbook & Piper (2007).</ref> | subdivision_ranks = [[Subspésiés]] | subdivision = ''Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus''<br /> ''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis (musnah)''<br /> ''Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus'' }} '''Badak sunda''' (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'') téh nyaéta anggota kulawarga [[''Rhinocerotidae'']] nu kaasup salah sahiji tina rupa-rupa [[badak]] nu hirup kénéh nepi ka kiwari. Ieu badak sagénus jeung [[Badak India]], dedeganana ogé sarupa, tapi tina ukuran leuwih leutik (panjang 3,1–3,2&nbsp;m, jangkung 1,4–1,7&nbsp;m) sarta leuwih deukeut ka [[Badak Hideung]]. Culana tara leuwih ti 25&nbsp;cm, leuwih leutik batan badak séjénna. Mangsa baheula mah, badak Sunda mangrupa badak Asia nu paling lega jajahanana, ti kapuloan [[Indonésia]], [[Asia Tenggara]], nepi ka [[India]] jeung [[Cina]], tapi kiwari ieu spésiés kaayaanana kritis. Populasina di alam liar anu masih kanyahoan ukur aya di dua tempat, turug-turug di taman satwa euweuh nu ngingu deuih<ref name=Dinerstein/>. Di [[Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon]], populasi badak Sunda sahenteuna aya 40–50, sedengkeun di [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]], [[Viétnam]], populasina teu leuwih ti dalapan. Nyirorotna populasi badak Sunda kiwari téh alatan loba diboro pikeun diala culana, anu di pasar gelap dihargaan $30,000<ref name=Dinerstein/>. Lian ti éta, masalah anu utama nyaéta beuki heureutna habitat<ref name=Santiapillai>{{Cite journal | author = Santiapillai, C. | year = 1992 | title = Javan rhinoceros in Vietnam | journal = Pachyderm | volume = 15 | pages = 25–27}}</ref>. Dina alamna, Badak Sunda bisa hirup nepi ka umur 30–45&nbsp;taun. Hirupna di lebak [[leuweung hujan]], tegalan baseuh jeung ranca. Ieu sato hirupna nyorangan, iwal mangsa kawin jeung miara anakna, tapi aya ogé mangsana ngagorombol. Lian ti manusa, sacara alami Badak Sunda anu sawawa taya pamangsana. Di lingkungan nu deukeut jeung manusa, ieu badak biasana nyingkah, tapi bisa malik narajang mun ngarasa kaancam. Para élmuwan jarang nu ngulik ieu sato, utamana ku sabab hésé manggihanana, sarta dianggap bahya saupama ngaganggu kahirupan spésiés langka kawas kieu. Panalungtikan biasana ukur ngandelkeun kaméra jeung analisis taina. == Taksonomi jeung ngaran == Badak Jawa mimiti ditalungtik ku para [[naturalis]] taun [[1787]], nalika dua sato paéh diboro di pulo Jawa. [[Tangkorék]]na dikirim ka naturalis [[Walanda]] [[Petrus Camper]] nu maot taun [[1789]] saméméh ngumumkeun pamanggihna nu nyindekkeun yén éta badak téh spésiés nu béda. Badak Sunda lianna ditémbak di [[Sumatra]] ku [[Alfred Duvaucel]] nu ngirimkeun spésiménna ka bapa téréna [[Georges Cuvier]], élmuwan [[Prancis]]. Cuvier boga kacindekan yén ieu sato téh [[spésiés]] nu dilaporkeun musna taun [[1822]], tapi ku [[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest]] disebut ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'', spésiés badak anu panungtung dipikawanoh<ref name="Rookmaaker">{{Cite book | author = Rookmaaker, Kees | year = 2005 | chapter = First sightings of Asian rhinos | pages = 52 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref>. Mimitina mah Desmarest nyebutkeun asalna ti Sumatra, tapi terus diralat ku nyebutkeun asalna ti Jawa<ref name=Zeitschrift>{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 1982 | title = The type locality of the Javan Rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' Desmarest, 1822) | journal = Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 381–382}}</ref>. Ngaran genus ''Rhinoceros'', nu ogé ngawengku Badak India, diturunkeun tina [[basa Yunani]] Kuna: ''rhino'' nu hartina ''irung'', jeung ''ceros'' nu hartina ''cula''; ''sondaicus'' dicokot tina ''[[Amparan sunda|sunda]]'', wilayah [[biogeografi]]s nu ngawengku Sumatra, Jawa, [[Kalimantan]], daratan Asia Tenggara, jeung pulo-pulo leutik di sabudeureunana. Aya tilu subspésiés Badak sunda, dua di antarana dianggap masih aya: * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus''''', katelah '''Badak Sunda Indonésia''', kungsi sumebar di Jawa jeung Sumatra. Populasina kiwari kira ukur 40–50 di [[Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon]], tungtung kulon [[Banten]]. Aya nu ngusulkeun yén Badak Sunda di Sumatra dipisahkeun sakalu subspésiés béda, ''R.s. floweri'', tapi ku nu séjénna teu ditarima<ref name="IUCN Rss">Asian Rhino Specialist Group (1996). [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19497 ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' ssp. ''sondaicus'']. ''2007 [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. IUCN 2007. Salinan [[13 Januari]] [[2008]].</ref><ref name=CG/>. * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus''''', katelah '''Badak Sunda Viétnam''' atawa '''Badak Viétnam''', kungsi sumebar di Viétnam, [[Kamboja]], [[Laos]], jeung [[Muangtai]] sarta [[Malaysia]]. ''Annamiticus'' diturunkeun tina [[Runtuyan Annamit|Runtuyan Gunung Annamit]] di Asia Tenggara, tempat sumebarna ieu subspésiés. Hiji populasi leutik, ukur kira 12-an badak, hirup di leuweung landeuh di [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]]. Analisis génétik nuduhkeun yén subspésiés Indonésia jeung Viétnam boga karuhun nu sarua antara 300.000 nepi ka 2 juta taun ka tukang<ref name=CG>{{Cite journal | title = Genetic diversity, phylogeny and conservation of the Javan hinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) | journal = Conservation Genetics | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | year = 2006 | month = June | pages = 439–448 | author = Fernando, Prithiviraj | coauthors = Gert Polet, Nazir Foead, Linda S. Ng, Jennifer Pastorini, and Don J. Melnick | doi = 10.1007/s10592-006-9139-4 }}</ref><ref name="IUCN Rsa">Asian Rhino Specialist Group (1996). [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19498 ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' ssp. ''annamiticus'']. ''2007 [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. IUCN 2007. Retrieved on [[January 13]], [[2008]].</ref>. * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis''''', katelah '''Badak Sunda India''', kungsi hirup sumebar di [[Bengal]] nepi ka [[Burma]], tapi sigana geus musnah awal abad ka-19. ''Inermis'' hartina ''tanpa cula'', dumasar kana ciri ieu subspésiés anu culana leutik pisan. Spésimén asli ieu subspésiés gé ukur bikangna anu teu culaan. Kaayaan pulitik di Burma hésé pikeun ngayakeun panalungtikan ieu badak, tapi sigana mémang geus musnah<ref name=Foose>{{Citation | last = Foose | first = Thomas J. | coauthors = Nico van Strien | year = 1997 | title = Asian Rhinos – Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan | publisher = IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK | isbn = 2-8317-0336-0}}</ref><ref name=Pachy>{{Cite journal | journal = Pachyderm | title = Records of the sundarbans Rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis'') in India and Bangladesh | author = Rookmaaker, Kees | volume = 24 | year = 1997 | pages = 37–45}}</ref> === Evolusi === [[Gambar:Panzernashorn2004.jpg|thumb|The [[Indian Rhinoceros]] pictured here is closely related to the Javan Rhinoceros; they are the two members of the [[type genus]] ''Rhinoceros''.]] {{Main|Rhinoceros#Evolution}} Ancestral rhinoceroses first diverged from other [[Perissodactyl]]s in the [[Early Eocene]]. Mitochondrial DNA comparison suggests that the ancestors of modérn rhinos split from the ancestors of [[Equidae]] around 50 million yéars ago.<ref name=DNA/> The extant family, the Rhinocerotidae, first appéared in the Late éocene in [[Eurasia]], and the ancestors of the extant rhino species dispersed from Asia beginning in the [[Miocene]].<ref name=Lacombat>{{Cite book | author = Lacombat, Frédéric | year = 2005 | chapter = The evolution of the rhinoceros | pages = 46–49 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref> The Indian and Javan Rhinoceros, the only members of the genus ''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]'', first appéar in the fossil record in Asia around 1.6 million–3.3 million yéars ago. Molecular estimates, however, suggest the species may have diverged much éarlier, around 11.7 million yéars ago.<ref name=DNA>{{Cite journal | title = The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequence of the Greater Indian Rhinoceros, ''Rhinoceros unicornis'', and the Phylogenetic Relationship Among Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla (+ Cetacea) | author = Xu, Xiufeng | coauthors = Axel Janke, and Ulfur Arnason | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 13 | issue = 9 | pages = 1167–1173 | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/13/9/1167 | accessdate = 2007-11-04}}</ref><ref name = Tougard>{{Cite journal | author = Tougard, C. | coauthors = T. Delefosse, C. Hoenni, and C. Montgelard | year = 2001 | title = Phylogenetic relationships of the five extant rhinoceros species (Rhinocerotidae, Perissodactyla) based on mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12s rRNA genes | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–44 | doi = 10.1006/mpev.2000.0903}}</ref> Although belonging to the [[type genus]], the Indian and Javan Rhinoceros are not believed to be closely related to other rhino species. Different studies have hypothesized that they may be closely related to the extinct ''Gaindetherium'' or ''Punjabitherium''. A detailed [[clade|cladistic]] analysis of the Rhinocerotidae placed ''Rhinoceros'' and the extinct ''Punjabitherium'' in a clade with ''[[Dicerorhinus]]'', the Sumatran Rhino. Other studies have suggested the Sumatran Rhinoceros is more closely related to the two African species.<ref name=Cerdeno>{{Cite journal | last = Cerdeño | first = Esperanza | url = http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/3566/1/N3143.pdf | journal = Novitates | publisher = [[American Museum of Natural History]] | year = 1995 | title = Cladistic Analysis of the Family Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla) | issn = 0003-0082 | number = 3143 | accessdate = 2007-11-04}}</ref> The Sumatran Rhino may have diverged from the other Asian rhinos as far back as 15 million yéars ago.<ref name=Dinerstein/><ref name=Lacombat/> --> == Pedaran == Badak Sunda ukuranana leuwih leutik batan dulurna, Badak India, sarta leuwih deukeut ka [[Badak Hideung]]. Panjang awakna (katut hulu) bisa nepi ka 3,1–3,2&nbsp;m, sedengkeun jangkungna 1,4–1,7&nbsp;m. Beuratna, anu kungsi dilaporkeun nyaéta antara 900 jeung 2.300&nbsp;kg, najan can kungsi aya studi anu daria ngukuran beurat awak badak sunda<ref name=Dinerstein/>. Nu jalu jeung nu bikang ampir taya bédana, tapi biasana mah nu bikangna rada leuwih gedé. Dumasar data poto jeung tapak suku, Badak Sunda di Viétnam ukuranana rada leuwih leutik ti dulurna nu di Jawa<ref name="van Strien">{{Cite book | author = van Strien, Nico | year = 2005 | chapter = Javan Rhinoceros | pages = 75–79 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref>. Sarupa jeung dulurna nu di India, Badak Sunda culana ukur hiji (spésiés séjén nu aya kénéh culana dua), leutik deuih (kurang ti 20&nbsp;cm, nu kacatet paling panjang ukur 27&nbsp;cm). Ieu cula lolobana dipaké pikeun ngali leutak jeung muka jalan di leuweung nu rembet, tara dipaké pikeun tarung. Sungut bagian luhurna rada monyong pikeun ngarabut kadaharan, sihungna panjang jeung seukeut. Sakumaha ilaharna badak, Badak Sunda seukeut pangambeu jeung pangdéngéna, tapi panonna kurang awas. Umurna bisa nepi ka 30-45 taun<ref name="van Strien"/>.<!-- Its hairless, splotchy gray or gray-brown skin falls in folds to the shoulder, back and rump. The skin has a natural mosaic pattern which lends the rhino an armored appearance. The neck folds of the Javan Rhinoceros are smaller than those of the Indian Rhinoceros, but still form a saddle shape over the shoulder. Because of the risks of interfering with such an endangered species, however, the Javan Rhinoceros is primarily studied through fecal sampling and camera traps. They are rarely encountered, observed or measured directly.<ref name=NatPost>{{Cite news | title = Their trail is warm: Scientists are studying elusive rhinos by analyzing their feces | work = [[National Post]] | author = Munro, Margaret | date = [[May 10]], [[2002]]}}</ref> == Distribution and habitat == [[Image:Ujungkulon.jpg|thumb|Java's [[Ujung Kulon National Park]] is the home of most remaining Javan rhinos.]] Even the most optimistic estimate suggests there are fewer than 100 Javan Rhinos in the wild. They are considered possibly the most endangered of all large mammals; although there are more Sumatran Rhinos, their range is not as protected as that of the Javan Rhinos, and some conservationists consider them to be at greater risk. The Javan Rhinoceros is only known to survive in two places, the [[Ujung Kulon National Park]] on the western tip of Java and the [[Cat Tien National Park]] about 150&nbsp;km (90&nbsp;miles) north of [[Ho Chi Minh City]].<ref name=CG/><ref name=NYT/> The animal was once widespread from [[Assam]] and [[Bengal]] (where their range would have overlapped with both the Sumatran and Indian Rhino<ref name="NE India"/>) eastward to [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], and southwards to the [[Malay Peninsula]] and the islands of [[Sumatra]], [[Java]] and possibly [[Borneo]].<ref name=Raffles/> The Javan Rhino primarily inhabits dense lowland rain forests, tall grass and reed beds that are plentiful with rivers, large floodplains, or wet areas with many mud wallows. Although it historically preferred low-lying areas, the subspecies in Vietnam has been pushed onto much higher ground (up to 2,000&nbsp;m or 6,561&nbsp;ft), probably because of human encroachment and poaching.<ref name=Foose/> The range of the Javan Rhinoceros has been shrinking for at least 3,000 years. Starting around 1000&nbsp;BC, the northern range of the rhinoceros extended into China, but began moving southward at roughly 0.5&nbsp;km (0.3&nbsp;mile) per year, as human settlements increased in the region.<ref name=Biotropica/> It likely became locally extinct in India in the first decade of the 20th century.<ref name="NE India">{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 2002 | title = Historical records of the Javan rhinoceros in North-East India | journal = Newsletter of the Rhino Foundation of Nature in North-East India | issue = 4 | pages = 11–12 | month = June}}</ref> The Javan Rhino was hunted to extinction on the Malaysian peninsula by 1932.<ref name=Straits>{{ Cite news | work = [[New Straits Times]] | title = On the horns of a dilemma | author = Ismail, Faezah | date = [[June 9]], [[1998]] }}</ref> By the end of the [[Vietnam War]], the Vietnamese Rhinoceros was believed extinct across all of mainland Asia. Local hunters and woodcutters in [[Cambodia]] claim to have seen Javan Rhinos in the [[Cardamom Mountains]], but surveys of the area have failed to find any evidence of them.<ref name=FFI>{{Cite book | title = Cardamom Mountains biodiversity survey | year = 2000 | author = Daltry, J.C. | coauthors = F. Momberg | publisher = Fauna and Flora International | location = [[Cambridge]]}}</ref> A population may have existed on the island of [[Borneo]] as well, though these specimens could have been the Sumatran Rhinoceros, a small population of which still lives there.<ref name=Raffles>{{Cite journal | journal = The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology | year = 2007 | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | publisher = [[University of Singapore]] | pages = 217–220 | url = http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/55/55rbz217-220.pdf | author = Cranbook, Earl of | coauthors = Philip J. Piper | title = The Javan Rhinoceros ''Rhinoceros Sondaicus'' in Borneo | accessdate = 2007-11-04 }}</ref> == Behavior == The Javan Rhinoceros is a solitary animal with the exception of breeding pairs and mothers with calves. They will sometimes congregate in small groups at salt licks and mud wallows. Wallowing in mud is a common behavior for all rhinos; the activity allows them to maintain a cool body temperature and helps prevent disease and parasite infestation. The Javan Rhinoceros does not generally dig its own mud wallows, preferring to use other animals' wallows or naturally occurring pits, which it will use its horns to enlarge. Salt licks are also very important because of the essential nutrients the rhino receives from the salt. Males's home ranges are larger at 12–20&nbsp;km² (5–8&nbsp;miles²) compared to the females's which are around 3–14&nbsp;km² (1–5&nbsp;mi²). Males's territories overlap each other less than those of females. It is not known if there are territorial fights.<ref name=IZY/> Males mark their territory with dung piles and by urine spraying. Scrapes made by the feet in the ground and twisted saplings also seem to be used for communication. Members of other rhino species have a peculiar habit of defecating in massive rhino dung piles and then scraping their back feet in the dung. The Sumatran and Javan Rhinoceros, while defecating in piles, do not engage in the scraping. This adaptation in behavior is thought to be ecological; in the wet forests of Java and Sumatra, the method may not be useful for spreading odors.<ref name=IZY>{{Cite journal | journal = International Zoo Yearbook | year = 2006 | volume = 40 | pages = 150–173 | title = Rhinoceros behaviour: implications for captive management and conservation | author = Hutchins, M. | coauthors = M.D. Kreger | publisher = [[Zoological Society of London]] | doi = 10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00150.x }}</ref> The Javan Rhino is much less vocal than the Sumatran; very few Javan Rhino vocalizations have ever been recorded. Adult Javan Rhinos have no known predators other than humans. The species, particularly in Vietnam, is skittish and retreats into dense forests whenever humans are near. Though a valuable trait from a survival standpoint, it has made the rhinos difficult to study.<ref name=Santiapillai/> Nevertheless, when humans approach too closely, the Javan Rhino becomes aggressive and will attack, stabbing with the incisors of its lower jaw while thrusting upward with its head.<ref name=IZY/> Its comparatively anti-social behavior may be a recent adaptation to population stresses; historical evidence suggests that, like other rhinos, the species was once more gregarious.<ref name=CG/> === Diet === The Javan Rhinoceros is herbivorous and eats diverse plant species, especially their shoots, twigs, young foliage and fallen fruit. Most of the plants favored by the species grow in sunny areas: in forest clearings, shrubland and other vegetation types with no large trees. The rhino knocks down saplings to reach its food and grabs it with its prehensile upper lip. It is the most adaptable feeder of all the rhino species. Currently it is a pure browser but probably once both browsed and grazed in its historical range. The rhino eats an estimated 50&nbsp;kg (110&nbsp;lb) of food daily. Like the Sumatran Rhino, it needs salt in its diet. The salt licks common in its historical range do not exist in Ujung Kulon, but the rhinos there have been observed drinking seawater, likely for the same nutritional need.<ref name="van Strien"/> === Reproduction === The sexual habits of the Javan Rhinoceros are difficult to study as the species is rarely observed directly and no zoos have specimens. Females reach sexual maturity at 3–4 years of age while the males are sexually mature at 6. Gestation is estimated to occur over a period around 16–19 months. The birth interval for this species is 4–5 years and the calf is weaned at around 2 years. The other four species of rhino all have similar mating behaviors and the presumption is that the Javan Rhino follows suit.<ref name=IZY/> == Conservation == [[Image:Javan Rhino Zimmerman.jpg|thumb|right|A painting from 1861 depicts the hunting of a Javan Rhinoceros.]] {{See also|Rhinoceros#Rhinoceros horns}} The main factor in the continued decline of the Javan Rhinoceros population has been poaching for horns, a problem that affects all rhino species. The horns have been a traded commodity in China for over 2,000 years where they are believed to have healing properties in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Historically, its hide was used to make armor for Chinese soldiers and some local tribes in Vietnam believed the hide can be used to make an antidote for snake venom.<ref name=AP2/> Because the rhinoceros's range encompasses many areas of poverty, it has been difficult to convince local people not to kill a seemingly useless animal which could be sold for a large sum of money.<ref name=Biotropica>{{Cite journal | journal = Biotropica | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 202–303 | year = 2007 | title = The Impact of Hunting on the Mammalian Fauna of Tropical Asian Forests | author = Corlett, Richard T. | doi = 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00271.x }}</ref> When the [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] first went into effect in 1975, the Javan Rhinoceros was placed under complete Appendix 1 protection: all international trade in the Javan Rhinoceros and products derived from it is illegal.<ref name=African>{{Citation | last = Emslie | first = R. | coauthors = M. Brooks | year = 1999 | title = African Rhino. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan | publisher = IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK | isbn = 2831705029}}</ref> Surveys of the rhinoceros horn black market have determined that Asian rhinoceros horn fetches a price as high as $30,000 per kilogram, three times the value of African rhinoceros horn.<ref name=Dinerstein/> Loss of habitat because of agriculture has also contributed to its decline, though this is no longer as significant a factor because the rhinoceros only lives in two nationally protected parks. Deteriorating habitats have hindered the recovery of rhino populations that fell victim to poaching. Even with all the conservation efforts, the prospects for the Javan Rhinoceros's survival are grim. Because the populations are restricted to two small areas, they are very susceptible to disease and the problems of inbreeding. Conservation geneticists estimate that a population of 100 rhinos would be needed to preserve the genetic diversity of the species.<ref name=NYT>{{Cite news | title = Racing to Know the Rarest of Rhinos, Before It’s Too Late | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/11/science/11rhin.html | work = [[The New York Times]] | accessdate = 2007-10-14 | date = [[July 11]], [[2006]] | author = [[Mark Derr|Derr, Mark]] }}</ref> === Ujung Kulon === The Ujung Kulon peninsula was devastated by the eruption of [[Krakatoa]] in 1883. The Javan Rhinoceros recolonized the peninsula after the explosion, but humans never returned in large numbers, thus creating a haven.<ref name=NYT/> In 1931, as the Javan Rhinoceros was on the brink of extinction in Sumatra, the government of Indonésia declared the rhino a legally protected species, which it has remained ever since.<ref name=Foose/> In 1967 when a census was first conducted of the rhinos in Ujung Kulon, only 25 animals were recorded. By 1980 that population had doubled, and has remained steady at about 50 ever since. Although the rhinos in Ujung Kulon have no natural predators, they have to compete for scarce resources with wild cattle which may keep the rhino's numbers below the peninsula's [[carrying capacity]].<ref name=IPS>{{ Cite news | work = [[Inter Press Service]] | title = Environment-Indonesia: Javan Rhinoceros Remains At High Risk | date = [[January 16]], [[2001]] | author = Dursin, Richel }}</ref> Ujung Kulon is managed by the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry.<ref name=Foose/> Evidence of at least four baby rhinos was discovered in 2006, the most ever documented for the species.<ref name=BBCpop>{{Cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5305906.stm | date = [[September 1]], [[2006]] | title = Baby boom for near-extinct rhino | author = Williamson, Lucy | work = [[BBC News]] | accessdate = 2007-10-16 }}</ref> === Cat Tien === The few remaining members of ''R.s. annamiticus'' live in the [[Cat Tien National Park]] in Vietnam. Once widespread in Southeast Asia, after the [[Vietnam War]], the Javan Rhinoceros was presumed extinct. The tactics used in the combat wrought havoc on the ecosystems of the region: use of [[napalm]], extensive defoliation from [[Agent Orange]], aerial bombing and use of landmines. The war also flooded the area with inexpensive weapons. After the war, many poor villagers, who previously relied on methods like pit traps, now had deadly weapons at their disposal, enabling them to become efficient poachers. The assumption of the subspecies extinction was challenged when, in 1988, a hunter shot an adult female, proving the species had somehow survived the war. In 1989, scientists surveyed Vietnam's southern forests to search for evidence of other survivors. Fresh rhinoceros tracks belonging to at least 15 rhinos were found along the [[Dong Nai River]].<ref name=AP1>{{Cite news | title = World's Rarest Rhinos Found In War-Ravaged Region of Vietnam | author = Raeburn, Paul | date = [[April 24]], [[1989]] | work = [[Associated Press]] }}</ref> Largely because of the rhinoceros, the region they inhabited became part of the Cat Tien National Park in 1992.<ref name=AP2>{{Cite news | title = Scientists Find Surviving Members of Rhino Species | author = Stanley, Bruce | date = [[June 22]], [[1993]] | work = [[Associated Press]]}}</ref> Their population is feared to have declined in Vietnam, with some conservationists estimating that as few as 3–8 rhinos, and possibly no males, survive.<ref name=BBCpop/><ref name=NYT> Conservationists debate whether or not the Vietnamese Rhinoceros has any chance of survival, with some arguing that rhinos from Indonésia should be introduced in an attempt to save the population, with others arguing that the population could recover.<ref name=Santiapillai/><ref name=WWF>{{Cite web | url = http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/about_species/species_factsheets/rhinoceros/asian_rhinos/javan_rhinoceros/index.cfm | title = Javan Rhinoceros; Rare, mysterious, and highly threatened | date = [[March 28]], [[2007]] | accessdate = 2007-11-04 | work = [[World Wildlife Fund]]}}</ref> --> === Dina kurungan === Taun 1800-an, sahanteuna aya opat badak Sunda dipamérkeun di [[Adelaide]], [[Kalkuta]], jeung [[London]]. Nu kacatet, sakabéhna paling heneuweuh 22 Badak Sunda kungsi dikurungan. Kanyataanana bisa leuwih ti éta, sabab ieu badak sok salah nyebut jadi Badak India<ref name = Garten>{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 2005 | title = A Javan rhinoceros, ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'', in Bali in 1839 | journal = Zoologische Garten | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–131}}</ref>. Badak Sunda teu kungsi bisa hirup waluya dina kurungan, paling kolot ukur nepi ka 20 taun (ukur satengahna ti umur nu di alam liar). Nu pamungkas di kandangan paéh di [[Taman Satwa Adelaide]], [[Australia]] taun [[1907]], kitu ogé disebutna Badak India<ref name="van Strien"/>. Gagalna program ngawinkeun Badak Sumatra di taman satwa taun 1980-an jeung 1990-an ngayakinkeun teu mungkinna miara badak<ref name=Dinerstein>{{Cite book | title = The Return of the Unicorns; The Natural History and Conservation of the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros | url = https://archive.org/details/returnofunicorns0000dine | last = Dinerstein | first = Eric | publisher = [[Columbia University Press]] | location = [[New York]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-231-08450-1 }}</ref>. == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/javan-rhino/ Javan Rhino Info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120205655/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/javan-rhino |date=2011-01-20 }} & [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=imgs&CODE=tax_images&taxon=7 Javan Rhino Pictures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144442/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=imgs&CODE=tax_images&taxon=7 |date=2007-12-09 }} on the [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com Rhino Resource Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711150112/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/ |date=2017-07-11 }} * [[International Rhino Foundation]] dedicated to the conservation of rhinos: [http://www.rhinos-irf.org/javan/ Javan Rhino] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722044955/http://www.rhinos-irf.org/javan/ |date=2011-07-22 }} * [[ARKive]] - [http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Rhinoceros_sondaicus/ images and movies of the Javan Rhinoceros ''(Rhinoceros sondaicus)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029165304/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Rhinoceros_sondaicus/ |date=2007-10-29 }} * [http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/javarhin.htm UNEP & WCMC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720025625/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/javarhin.htm |date=2008-07-20 }} species sheet on the Javan Rhinoceros. {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Rhinocerotidae]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] rqg215twbyk3ukcbhtsmc3gljgr41rv 0 28251 711785 698164 2026-08-07T04:20:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711785 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vaksin''' nyaéta préparasi nu dipaké pikeun ngaronjatkeun imunitas kana hiji inféksi panyakit. Ieu istilah diturunkeun tina istilah [[cacar sapi]]na [[Edward Jenner]] ("vacca" téh [[basa Latin]] nu hartina [[sapi]]), nu mun disuntikkeun ka [[manusa]] bakal ngajaga manusa tina panyakit [[cacar]]. Vaksin téh dumasar kana konsép [[variolasi]] nu asalna ti nagara [[Tiongkok]], nyaéta prakprakan népakeun cacar anu watekna lemah. Jenner sadar yén para wanoja anu ngolah susu [[sapi]] (jaman baheula di kulon biasana wanoja anu disebut ''milkmaid'') anu katépaan cacar sapi, henteu kabancén ku cacar. Dipakéna vaksin téh disebutna vaksinasi. Vaksinasi mangrupa métode nu paling éféktif jang nyegah tina panyakit nu nular. Vaksinasi efektif keur ngaronjatkeun kawedelan awak, contohna waé tina panyakit [[bangsar]], [[polio]], [[campak]]jeung [[tétanus]]. Dumasar kana éféktivitasna nu geus dicobaan jeung divérifikasi sacara luas, vaksin nu kaasup geus terbukti éféktif nyaéta saperti vaksin [[influénza]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Vaccines for Pandemic Influenza|last=Fiore|editor-first2=Walter A.|editor-last=Compans|editor-first=Richard W.|last3=Cox|first3=Nancy J.|last2=Bridges|first2=Carolyn B.|first=Anthony E.|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-92165-3_3|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-92165-3_3|series=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology|pages=43–82|isbn=978-3-540-92165-3|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|date=2009|publisher=Springer|editor-last2=Orenstein}}</ref>, vaksin HPV<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Yuli|last2=Brewer|first2=Noel T.|last3=Rinas|first3=Allen C.|last4=Schmitt|first4=Karla|last5=Smith|first5=Jennifer S.|date=2009-07-09|title=Evaluating the impact of human papillomavirus vaccines|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X09003831|journal=Vaccine|language=en|volume=27|issue=32|pages=4355–4362|doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.03.008|issn=0264-410X}}</ref> jeung vaksin cacar air.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liesegang|first=Thomas J.|date=2009-08-01|title=Varicella zoster virus vaccines: effective, but concerns linger|url=https://www.canadianjournalofophthalmology.ca/article/S0008-4182(09)80185-3/abstract|journal=Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology|language=English|volume=44|issue=4|pages=379–384|doi=10.3129/i09-126|issn=0008-4182|pmid=19606157}}</ref> Organisasi Kaséhatan Dunia (WHO) ngalaporkeun sangkan vaksin nu geus miboga izin ayeuna aya jang dua puluh lima inféksi nu bisa dicegah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/teams/immunization-vaccines-and-biologicals/strategies/global-vaccine-action-plan|title=Global Vaccine Action Plan|website=www.who.int|language=en|accessdate=2020-12-07}}</ref> <!-- Vaccines can be [[prophylaxis|prophylactic]] (e.g. to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future [[infection]] by any natural or "wild" [[pathogen]]), or [[Drug therapy|therapeutic]] (e.g. vaccines against cancer are also being investigated; see [[cancer vaccine]]). ==Types== [[Image:ReverseGeneticsFlu.jpg|thumbnail|300px|[[Avian Flu]] vaccine development by [[reverse genetics]] techniques.]] Vaccines may be dead or inactivated organisms or purified products derived from them. There are four types of traditional vaccines[http://www.drspock.com/article/0,1510,4866,00.html]: * Vaccines containing killed microorganisms - these are previously virulent micro-organisms which have been killed with chemicals or heat. Examples are vaccines against [[Influenza vaccine|flu]], [[cholera]], [[bubonic plague]], and [[hepatitis A]]. * Vaccines containing live, [[attenuated virus]] microorganisms - these are live micro-organisms that have been cultivated under conditions that disable their virulent properties or which use closely-related but less dangerous organisms to produce a broad immune response. They typically provoke more durable immunological responses and are the preferred type for healthy adults. Examples include [[yellow fever]], [[measles]], [[rubella]], and [[mumps]]. The live [[tuberculosis]] vaccine is not the [[contagious]] strain, but a related strain called "[[Bacillus Calmette-Guérin|BCG]]"; it is used in the United States very infrequently. * [[Toxoid]]s - these are inactivated toxic compounds in cases where these (rather than the micro-organism itself) cause illness. Examples of toxoid-based vaccines include [[tetanus]] and [[diphtheria]]. Not all toxoids are for micro-organisms; for example, Crotalis atrox toxoid is used to vaccinate dogs against rattlesnake bites. * [[Subunit]] - rather than introducing an inactivated or attenuated micro-organism to an immune system (which would constitute a "whole-agent" vaccine), a fragment of it can create an immune response. Characteristic examples include the subunit vaccine against [[HBV]] that is composed of only the surface proteins of the virus (produced in [[yeast]]) and the [[virus-like particle]] (VLP) vaccine against [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV) that is composed of the viral major [[capsid]] protein. A number of innovative vaccines are also in development and in use: * [[Conjugate vaccine|Conjugate]] - certain bacteria have [[polysaccharide]] outer coats that are poorly immunogenic. By linking these outer coats to proteins (e.g. toxins), the [[immune system]] can be led to recognize the polysaccharide as if it were a protein antigen. This approach is used in the ''Haemophilus influenzae'' type B vaccine. * [[Recombinant DNA|Recombinant]] Vector - by combining the physiology of one micro-organism and the [[DNA]] of the other, immunity can be created against diseases that have complex infection processes * [[DNA vaccination]] - in recent years a new type of vaccine, created from an infectious agent's DNA called ''DNA vaccination'', has been developed. It works by insertion (and [[Gene expression|expression]], triggering immune system recognition) into human or animal cells, of viral or bacterial DNA. Some cells of the immune system that recognize the proteins expressed will mount an attack against these proteins and cells expressing them. Because these cells live for a very long time, if the pathogen that normally expresses these proteins is encountered at a later time, they will be attacked instantly by the immune system. One advantage of DNA vaccines is that they are very easy to produce and store. As of 2006, DNA vaccination is still experimental. Note that while most vaccines are created using inactivated or attenuated compounds from micro-organisms, [[synthetic vaccine]]s are composed mainly or wholly of synthetic peptides, carbohydrates or antigens. ==Developing immunity== The immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and 'remembers' them. When the [[virulent]] version of an agent comes along the body recognises the protein coat on the virus, and thus is prepared to respond, by (1) neutralizing the target agent before it can enter cells, and (2) by recognizing and destroying infected cells before that agent can multiply to vast numbers. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication of [[smallpox]], one of the most contagious and deadly diseases known to man. Other diseases such as [[rubella]], [[polio]], [[measles]], [[mumps]], [[chickenpox]], and [[typhoid]] are nowhere near as common as they were just a hundred years ago. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is much more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur, let alone spread. This effect is called [[herd immunity]]. Polio, which is transmitted only between humans, is targeted by an extensive [[Polio eradication|eradication campaign]] that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of four countries.[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5627a3.htm?s_cid=mm5627a3_e] The difficulty of reaching all children as well as cultural misunderstandings, however, have caused the eradication date to be missed several times. ==Schedule== {{main|Vaccination schedule}} :''See also: [[Vaccination policy]]'' In order to provide best protection, children are recommended to receive vaccinations as soon as their immune systems are sufficiently developed to respond to particular vaccines, with additional 'booster' shots often required to achieve 'full immunity'. This has led to the development of complex vaccination schedules. In the United States, the [[Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices]], which recommends schedule additions for the [[Center for Disease Control]], recommends routine vaccination of children against: [[hepatitis A]], [[hepatitis B]], [[polio]], [[mumps]], [[measles]], [[rubella]], [[diphtheria]], [[pertussis]], [[tetanus]], [[Haemophilus influenzae|HiB]], [[chicken pox]], [[rotavirus]], [[influenza]], [[meningococcal disease]] and [[pneumonia]]. The large number of vaccines and boosters recommended (up to 24 injections by age two) has led to problems with achieving full compliance. In order to combat declining compliance rates, various notification systems have been instituted and a number of combination injections are now marketed (e.g., [[Prevnar]] and [[ProQuad vaccine]]s), which provide protection against multiple diseases. Besides recommendations for infant vaccinations and boosters, many specific vaccines are recommended at other ages or for repeated injections throughout life -- most commonly for measles, tetanus, influenza, and pneumonia. Pregnant women are often screened for continued resistance to rubella. The [[human papillomavirus]] vaccine is currently recommended in the U.S. and UK for ages 11–25. Vaccine recommendations for the elderly concentrate on pneumonia and influenza, which are more deadly to that group. In 2006, a vaccine was introduced against [[shingles]], a disease caused by the chicken pox virus, which usually affects the elderly. In [[Australia]], a massive increase in vaccination rates was observed when the federal government made certain benefits (such as the universal 'Family Allowance' welfare payments for parents of children) dependent on vaccination. As well, children were not allowed into school unless they were either vaccinated or their parents completed a statutory declaration refusing to immunize them, after discussion with a doctor, and other bureaucracy. (Similar school-entry vaccination regulations have been in place in some parts of [[Canada]] for several years.) It became easier and cheaper to vaccinate one's children than not to. When faced with the annoyance, many more casual objectors simply gave in.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} ==Efficacy== Vaccines do not guarantee complete protection from a disease. Sometimes this is because the host's immune system simply doesn't respond adequately or at all. This may be due to a lowered immunity in general (diabetes, steroid use, HIV infection) or because the host's immune system does not have a B-cell capable of generating antibodies to that antigen. Even if the host develops antibodies, the human immune system is not perfect and in any case the immune system might still not be able to defeat the infection. [[Immunologic adjuvant|Adjuvant]]s are typically used to boost immune response. Adjuvants are sometimes called the ''dirty little secret'' of vaccines [http://www.thescientist.com/article/display/39377/] in the scientific community, as not much is known about how adjuvants work. Most often aluminium adjuvants are used, but adjuvants like [[squalene]] are also used in some vaccines and more vaccines with squalene and phosphate adjuvants are being tested. The [[vaccine efficacy|efficacy]] or performance of the vaccine is dependent on a number of factors: * the disease itself (for some diseases vaccination performs better than for other diseases) * the strain of vaccine (some vaccinations are for different strains of the disease) [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/319/7206/352] * whether one kept to the timetable for the vaccinations (''see [[Vaccination schedule]]'') * some individuals are 'non-responders' to certain vaccines, meaning that they do not generate antibodies even after being vaccinated correctly * other factors such as ethnicity or genetic predisposition When a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against, the disease is likely to be milder than without vaccination. The following are important considerations in the effectiveness of a vaccination program:{{Fact|date=January 2008}} # careful modelling to anticipate the impact that an immunisation campaign will have on the epidemiology of the disease in the medium to long term # ongoing surveillance for the relevant disease following introduction of a new vaccine and # maintaining high immunisation rates, even when a disease has become rare. ==Types of vaccine developments== {{Unreferencedsect|date=June 2008}} * ''Rational attenuation'' Specific modifications or deletions of genes that confer virulence removes the pathogenicity of the microbe while still allowing an immune response to be generated. This type of rational attenuation can be viewed as creating a "live" attenuated vaccine. * ''Vector-mediated subunit delivery'' Introducing a non-infectious, non-pathogenic subunit into a live vector can prompt an immune response without presence of the pathogen. This is called ''vector-mediated subunit delivery''. For example, rabies surface protein gene has been inserted into vaccinia virus. * ''[[Virus-like particle]]s'' Capsid proteins of icosahedral viruses assemble without the presence of a genome. These virus-like particles are antigenically authentic, but non-infectious. This has been used for HPV-16 and HPV-18 vaccines. ==Controversy== [[Image:The cow pock.jpg|thumb|[[James Gillray]], ''The Cow-Pock—or—the Wonderful Effects of the New Inoculation!'' (1802)]] {{main|Vaccine controversy}} [[Antivaccinationist|Opposition to vaccination]], from a wide array of vaccine critics, has existed since the earliest vaccination campaigns.<ref name=wolfesharp>{{cite journal |author= Wolfe R, Sharp L |title= Anti-vaccinationists past and present |journal=BMJ |volume=325 |issue=7361 |pages=430–2 |year=2002 |pmid=12193361 |doi=10.1136/bmj.325.7361.430 |url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/325/7361/430}}</ref> Disputes have arisen over the morality, ethics, effectiveness, and safety of vaccination. The mainstream medical opinion is that the benefits of preventing suffering and death from serious [[infectious disease]]s greatly outweigh the risks of rare [[adverse effect]]s following [[immunization]].<ref name=BH>{{cite journal |journal= Curr Opin Infect Dis |year=2007 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=237–46 |title= Adverse events following immunization: perception and evidence |author= Bonhoeffer J, Heininger U |doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e32811ebfb0 |pmid=17471032}}</ref><ref name=Cochrane>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004407.pub2 |pmid=16235361 |title= Vaccines for measles, mumps and rubella in children |author=Demicheli V, Jefferson T, Rivetti A, Price D |journal= Cochrane Database Syst Rev |year=2005 |volume=19 |issue=4 |laysummary=http://www.cochrane.org/press/MMR_final.pdf |laydate=2005-10-19 |laysource=Cochrane press release (PDF)}}</ref> Some vaccination critics say that vaccines are ineffective against disease<ref name=Halvorsen>{{cite book |author= Halvorsen R |title= The Truth about Vaccines |url= https://archive.org/details/truthaboutvaccin0000halv |publisher= Gibson Square |date=2007 |isbn=9781903933923}}</ref> or that vaccine safety studies are inadequate.<ref name=Cochrane/><ref name=Halvorsen/> Some religious groups oppose vaccination as a matter of [[doctrine]],<ref name=White>{{cite book |chapter= Theological opposition to inoculation, vaccination, and the use of anæsthetics |title= A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom |author= White AD |location= New York |publisher=Appleton |year=1896 |chapterurl=http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/whitem10.html |accessdate=2007-08-17}}</ref> and some political groups oppose mandatory vaccination on the grounds of [[Liberty|individual liberty]].<ref name=wolfesharp/> ==Economics of development== One challenge in vaccine development is economic: many of the diseases most demanding a vaccine, including [[HIV]], [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]], exist principally in poor countries. Pharmaceutical firms and biotech companies have little incentive to develop vaccines for these diseases, because there is little revenue potential. Even in more affluent countries, financial returns for producing vaccines are usually minimal, and the risks are great.<ref name='market_return'>{{cite news | first=Jesse L. | last=Goodman | coauthors= | title=Statement of Jesse L. Goodman, M.D., M.P.H. Director, Center for Biologics, Evaluation and Research Before the Committee on Energy and Commerce United States House of Representatives | date=2005-05-04 | publisher= | url =http://www.fda.gov/ola/2005/influenza0504.html | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-06-15 | language = }}</ref> Most vaccine development to date has relied on 'push' funding by government, universities and non-profit organizations.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Many vaccines have been highly cost effective and beneficial for public health.<ref name='market_return' /> The number of vaccines actually administered has risen dramatically in recent decades. This increase, particularly in the number of different vaccines administered to children before entry into schools may be due to government mandates and support, rather than economic incentive.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Many researchers and policymakers are calling for a different approach, using 'pull' mechanisms to motivate industry. Mechanisms such as prizes, tax credits, or [[advance market commitments]] could ensure a financial return to firms that successfully developed a HIV vaccine. If the policy were well-designed, it might also ensure people have access to a vaccine if and when it is developed.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} ==Intellectual property== [[Intellectual property]] can also be viewed as an obstacle to the development of new vaccines. Because of the weak protection offered through the [[patent]] of the final product, the protection of the innovation regarding vaccines is often made through the [[patent]] of processes used on the development of new vaccines as well as the protection of [[secrecy]].<ref>{{cite journal |author= Hardman Reis T |title= The role of intellectual property in the global challenge for immunization |journal= J World Intellect Prop |date=2006 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=413–25 |doi=10.1111/j.1422-2213.2006.00284.x}}</ref> ==Preservatives== Many vaccines need preservatives to prevent serious adverse effects such as the ''[[Staphylococcus]]'' infection that in one 1928 incident killed 12 of 21 children inoculated with a [[diphtheria]] vaccine that lacked a preservative.<ref>{{cite web |date=2007-09-06 |url=http://www.fda.gov/cber/vaccine/thimerosal.htm |accessdate=2007-10-01 |title= Thimerosal in vaccines |publisher= Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration}}</ref> Several preservatives are available, including [[thiomersal]], [[2-phenoxyethanol]], and [[formaldehyde]]. Thiomersal is more effective against bacteria, has better shelf life, and improves vaccine stability, potency, and safety, but in the U.S., the [[European Union]], and a few other affluent countries, it is no longer used as a preservative in childhood vaccines, as a precautionary measure due to its [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] content.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Drug Saf |date=2005 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=89–101 |title= Thiomersal in vaccines: balancing the risk of adverse effects with the risk of vaccine-preventable disease |author= Bigham M, Copes R |pmid=15691220}}</ref> [[Thiomersal controversy|Controversial claims]] have been made that thiomersal contributes to [[autism]]; no convincing scientific evidence supports these claims.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= N Engl J Med |year=2007 |volume=357 |issue=13 |pages=1278–9 |title= Thimerosal and vaccines—a cautionary tale |author= [[Paul Offit|Offit PA]] |doi=10.1056/NEJMp078187 |pmid=17898096 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/357/13/1278}}</ref> ==Delivery systems== There are several new delivery systems in development, which will hopefully make vaccines more efficient to deliver. Possible methods include [[liposome]]s and ''ISCOM''<ref>[http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20043185919 Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2004 (Vol. 56) (No. 10) 1367-1382] Morein, B., Hu KeFei, Abusugra, I</ref> (immune stimulating complex). ===Plasmids=== The use of [[plasmid]]s has been validated in preclinical studies as a protective vaccine strategy for cancer and infectious diseases. However, the crossover application into human studies has been met with poor results based on the inability to provide clinically relevant benefit. The overall efficacy of plasmid DNA immunization depends on increasing the plasmid's immunogenicity while also correcting for factors involved in the specific activation of immune effector cells. <ref name= Lowe>{{cite book |chapterurl=http://www.horizonpress.com/pla|author= Lowe et al|year=2008|chapter=Plasmid DNA as Prophylactic and Therapeutic vaccines for Cancer and Infectious Diseases|title=Plasmids: Current Research and Future Trends|publisher=Caister Academic Press|id=[http://www.horizonpress.com/pla ISBN 978-1-904455-35-6]}}</ref> ==Use in nonhumans== {{Seealso|Influenza vaccine#Flu vaccine for nonhumans|Vaccination of dogs}} Vaccinations of animals are used both to prevent their contracting diseases and to prevent transmission of disease to humans. Both animals kept as pets and animals raised as stock are vaccinated. In some instances, wild populations may be vaccinated. This is sometimes accomplished with vaccine-laced food spread in a disease-prone area and has been used to attempt to control [[rabies]] in [[raccoon]]s. Where rabies occurs, rabies vaccination of dogs may be required by law. Other canine vaccines include [[canine distemper]], [[canine parvovirus]], [[canine hepatitis virus]], [[adenovirus-2]], [[leptospirosis]], [[bordatella]], [[canine parainfluenza virus]], and [[Lyme disease]] among others. ==See also== <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Influenza vaccine]] * [[Immune system]] * [[OPV AIDS hypothesis]], a refuted hypothesis that the AIDS pandemic emerged from polio vaccine manufacture. * [[Immunology]] * [[Immunization]] * [[Inoculation]] * [[Bacterin]] * [[TA-CD]], a vaccine which negates the effects of [[cocaine]] * [[The Horse Named Jim]] * [[Virosomes]] * [[Vaccination]] * [[List of vaccine topics]] </div> --> == Wanda Vaksin == Vaksin téh biasana ngandung unsur mikroorganisme anu geus paéh atawa teu aktif, bisa ogé nu mangrupa produk murni tina wanda éta mikroorganisme. Vaksin miboga sababaraha hiji wanda nu bisa digunakeun. Unggal wanda vaksin téh boga sistem nu béda-béda, keur nambahan sistem kawedelan urang sangkan bisa ngalawan wanda virus atawa kuman nu tangtu. Aya opat wanda vaksin anu utama, di antarana nyaéta vaksin hirup nu dilemahkeun, vaksin nu teu aktif (Inaktif), vaksin subunit, rékombinan, polisakarida konjugasi, jeung vaksin toksoid. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vaccines.gov/basics/types|title=Vaccine Types {{!}} Vaccines|website=www.vaccines.gov|accessdate=2021-01-21}}</ref> === '''Vaksin Hirup anu dilemahkeun''' === Vaksin Inaktif nyaéta vaksin anu ngagunakeun kuman atawa [[virus]] hirup nu geus dilemahkeun. Ieu vaksin miboga kapunjulan nyaéta méré kawedelan anu kuat jeung tahan dina jangka waktu anu lila.<ref name=":0" /> Tapi miboga ogé kahéngkéran nyaéta aya kamungkinan bisa nyababkeun panyakit anu dirarancang kalawan tujuan awalna keur nangtayungan tina panyakit séjén. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baxter|first=David|date=2007-12-01|title=Active and passive immunity, vaccine types, excipients and licensing|url=https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/57/8/552/1474357|journal=Occupational Medicine|language=en|volume=57|issue=8|pages=552–556|doi=10.1093/occmed/kqm110|issn=0962-7480}}</ref> Contona digunakeun keur kasakit campak (''measles''), Vaksin Polio Oral (VPO), Rotavirus, Demam Konéng (''Yellow Fever'').<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://in.vaccine-safety-training.org/types-of-vaccine-overview.html|title=MODUL 1 – Tipe Vaksin - DASAR KEAMANAN VAKSIN WHO|website=in.vaccine-safety-training.org|accessdate=2021-01-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125185414/https://in.vaccine-safety-training.org/types-of-vaccine-overview.html |date=2021-01-25 }}</ref> === '''Vaksin Inaktif''' === Vaksin Inaktif nyaéta vaksin anu ngagunakeun [[kuman]] nu nyababakeun panyakit nu geus teu di aktifkeun. Vaksin Inaktif miboga kahéngkéran nyaéta henteu méré kawedelan (nu sifatna ngalindungi) nu leuwih kuat tibatan vaksin anu aktif. Vaksin Inaktif digunakeun keur ngungkulan panyakit [[Hépatitis|Hépatitis A]], [[Flu]] (ngan butuh suntikan), polio jeung [[rabiés]].<ref name=":0" /> === '''Vaksin Subunit, Rékombinan, Polisakarida jeung Konjugasi''' === Vaksin Inaktif nyaéta vaksin anu ngagunakeun kuman atawa [[virus]] hirup nu geus dilemahkeun. Bagéan kuman atawa virus nu digunakeun bisa mangrupa protéin, gula jeung kapsid (selubung di sakitar kuman). Vaksin ieu téh miboga kaleuwihan nyaéta bisa méré kekebalan nu leuwih kuat, jeung bisa digunakeun ku hampir kabéh jalma nu ngabutuhkeun. Contona digunakeun keur kasakit HIB (''Haemophilus influenzae'' tipeu b), Hépatitis B, HPV (Human papillomavirus), Batuk Rejan (bagéan tina vaksin gabungan DTaP), P''neumokokus, Meningokokus, Hérpés zoster<ref name=":0" />'' === '''Vaksin Toksoid''' === Vaksin Inaktif nyaéta vaksin anu ngagunakeun toksoid atawa toksin nu dijieun tina virus atawa kuman nu geus diinaktifkeun. Contona digunakeun keur panyakit Toksoid tétanus jeung [[diftéri]] toksoid.<ref name=":1" /> == Bahan == Vaksin dijieun tina rupa-rupa bahan, aya nu mangrupa [[antigén]], stabilisator, adjuvan, [[antibiotik]] jeung pangawét, atawa bisa ogé nu kaasup kana [[produk]] sésa prosés produksi. Antigén téh nyaéta komponén nu asalna tina struktur organisme alatan ku panyakit, nu bakal ngabalukarkeun kawedelan atawa imun ngaronjay sabab ayana vaksin. Ari stabilisator gunana keur mantuan salila prosés neundeun, sangkan vaksin tetep kajaga éféktivitasna. Adjuvan gunana keur ngarangsang produksi antibodi, sangkan vaksin leuwih éféktif dina ngungkulan panyakit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vaccine-safety-training.org/vaccine-components.html|title=MODULE 2 – Components of a vaccine - WHO Vaccine Safety Basics|website=vaccine-safety-training.org|accessdate=2021-02-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224145302/https://vaccine-safety-training.org/vaccine-components.html |date=2021-02-24 }}</ref> == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Vaccine|Vaccine]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris. Disalin [[31 Juli]] [[2008]]. {{reflist|2}} == Tutumbu Kaluar == * {{dmoz|Health/Pharmacy/Drugs_and_Medications/Vaccines_and_Antisera|Vaccines and Antisera}} * {{cite web |title=Immunization |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/immunization.html |date=2007-12-27 |accessdate=14 Januari 2008|work=MedlinePlus |publisher= U.S. National Library of Medicine}} * [http://www.violinet.org/ VIOLIN]: Vaccine Investigation and Online Information Network {{Vaksin}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Virologi]] [[Kategori:Vaksinasi]] [[Kategori:Panyakit inféksi]] [[Kategori:Mikrobiologi]] [[Kategori:Imunologi]] [[Kategori:Panyakit]] d108fykq7i11m9eq632gdwojblj59ch 0 28382 711793 652423 2026-08-07T04:32:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711793 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Usaha''' (dilambangkan ku '''W''' singkatan tina kecap [[basa Inggris]] '''''Work''''') nyaéta [[énergi]] anu timpahkeun ku [[gaya (fisika)|gaya]] kana hiji obyék antukna obyék kasebut usik (gerak). Saperti énergi, usaha mangrupa hiji kuantitas [[skalar (fisika)|skalar]], kalayan [[hijian]] [[SI]] [[joules]]. Istilah ''usaha'' munggaran diangkat dina taun 1830-an ku matematikawan [[Perancis]] [[Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Jammer | first = Max | title = Concepts of Force | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_0048640689 | publisher = Dover Publications, Inc. | year = 1957 | id = ISBN 0-486-40689-X}}</ref> Nurutkeun '''téoréma usaha-énergi''', lamun hiji gaya luar keuna kana hiji obyék, nu ngabalukarkeun [[énergi kinétik]]na robah ti ''E_k1'' ka ''E_k2'', mangka usaha mékanik(''W'') dinyatakeun ku:<ref>Tipler (1991), page 138.</ref> :<math>W = \Delta E_k = E_{k2} - E_{k1} = \frac{1}{2}m \Delta (v^2) \,\!</math> di mana ''m'' mangrupa [[massa]] obyék sarta ''v'' nyaéta [[laju]] obyék. Usaha mékanik anu diterapkeun kana hiji obyék bisa diitung tina kakalian skalar [[gaya]] (F) anu diterapkeun jeung [[kapindahan]] (d) obyék dimaksud. Hal ieu dinyatakeun ku: : <math>W = \mathbf{F}\cdot \mathbf{d}=Fd \cos\theta \,\!</math> == Manggala == [[Gambar:Baseball pitching motion 2004.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Saurang pamangpéng bal ''[[baseball]]'' ngagawékeun usaha positif kana bal ku cara ngirimkeun énergi kana éta bal. Panangkep bal ngalakukeun usaha négatif kana bal.]] Usaha bisa waé enol sanajan aya hiji [[gaya]]. [[Gaya séntripetal]] dina [[gerak muter]], contona, migawé usaha enol lantaran [[énergi kinétik]] obyék anu gerak henteu robah. Lumaku sarupa, lamun hiji buku cicing dina luhur méja, méja kasebut henteu migawé usaha kana buku lantaran euwueh énergi anu dipindahkeun tina atawa kana buku. Konduksi panas henteu dianggap wangunan usaha lantaran euwueh gaya anu bisa diukur sacara makroskopis, ngan gaya-gaya mikroskopi anu kajadian dina tabrakan-tabrakan atom. == Hijian == {{utama|usaha (termodinamika)}} [[Hijian]] [[SI]] pikeun usaha nyaéta [[joule]] (J), anu didéfinisikeun sabagé usaha anu dipigawé ku hiji [[gaya]] sagedé hiji [[newton]] dina jarak hiji [[méter]]. Sacara diménsi, hijian ieu sarua jeung [[newton-méter]] (N·m). Hijian non-SI pikeun usaha kaasup di antarana [[erg]], [[foot-pound]], [[foot-poundal]], jeung [[liter-atmosphere]]. == Itungan matematika == === Gaya jeung kapindahan === [[Gaya]] jeung kapindahan duanana mangrupa kuantitas [[véktor (rohangan)|véktor]] sarta dihijikeun maké kakalian titik ([[dot product]]) pikeun ngitung usaha mékanik, nu mangrupa kuantitas skalar: : <math>W = \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathbf{d} = F d \cos\phi </math>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;(1) di mana <math>\phi</math> nyaéta sudut antara véktor [[gaya]] jeung véktor [[kapindahan]]. Supaya rumus ieu lumaku, [[gaya jeung sudut kudu tetep konstan. Jalur liliwatan obyék kudu salawasna tetep dina garis tunggal, sanajan mungkin ngarobah arah sabot gerak sapanjang garis kasebut. Dina kaayaan di mana gaya robah sapnjang [[waktu]], atawa jalur kasebut nyimpang tina garis lempeng, persamaan (1) umumna henteu lumaku sanajan dimungkinkeun pikeun ngabagi gerak kasebut kana tahapan-tahapan nu leutik, antukna gaya jeung gerak bisa dikira-kira konstan dina tiap tahapan, sarta tuluy nganyatakeun usaha sakabéhna salaku jumlah ti tahapan-tahapan ieu. Définisi umum pikeun usaha mékanik dinyatakeun ku [[integral garis]] kieu: : <math>W_C := \int_{C} \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{s} </math> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (2) di mana: :''C'' nyaéta [[kurva]] nu diliwatan ku obyék; :\vec F nyaéta [[gaya]]; :\vec s nyaéta véktor posisi. Pernyataan ''δW''='''F'''·d'''s''' mangrupa [[diférensial teu pasti]] nu boga harti yén itungan ''W_C'' gumantung kana jalur liliwatan sarta teu bisa didiférensiasi pikeun ngahasilkeun '''F'''·d'''s'''. Persamaan (2) ngajelaskeun kumaha gaya teu-enol bisa migawé usaha enol. Kasus paling basajan nyaéta gaya nu salawasna tegaklempeng kana arah gerak, nu ngajadikeun [[integran]] salawasna enol. Ieu nyaéta nu lumangsung salila gerak muter. Sanajan kitu, malah lamun integran sakapeung boga harga teu-enol, persamaan ieu masih bisa ngahasilkeun integrasi enol lamun integran sakapeung positif sakapeung négatif. === Énergi mékanik === {{utama|Énergi mékanik}} '''Énergi mékanik''' hiji barang nyaéta bagian tina [[énergi]] totalna anu uduh ku parobahan ku usaha mékanik. Énergi ieu ngawengku [[énergi kinétik]] jeung [[énergi poténsial]]. Sawatara bentuk énérgi nu kawénéhan nu teu kaasup énergi mékanik nyaéta [[énergi térmal]] (nu bisa dironjatkeun ku usaha [[gésék]]an, tapi teu gampang diturunkeun) sarta [[énergi cicing]] (anu tetep sapanjang [[massa cicing]] tetep sarua). Lamun hiji gaya luar ''F'' nimpah kana hiji obyék, nu ngabalukarkeun [[énergi kinétik]]na robah ti ''E_k1'' ka ''E_k2'', mangka:<ref>{{cite book | last = Zitzewitz,Elliott, Haase, Harper, Herzog, Nelson, Nelson, Schuler, Zorn | title = Physics: Principles and Problems | publisher = McGraw-Hill Glencoe, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-07-845813-7}}</ref> :<math>W = \Delta E_k = E_{k2} - E_{k1} = \Delta E_k = \frac{1}{2} mv_2 ^2 - \frac{1}{2} mv_1 ^2 = \frac{1}{2} m \Delta (v^2)</math> Jadi urang bisa meunangkeun hasilna, nyaéta usaha mékanik anu dilakukeun ku gaya luar nu nimpah hiji barang proporsional (sabanding) jeung béda dina kuadrat [[laju]]. (Perhatikeun yén seler nu pangahirna dina persamaan di luhur nyaéta <math>\Delta v^2</math> lain <math>(\Delta v)^2</math>.) Prinsip ''kalanggengan (konsevasi) énergi mékanik'' nganyatakeun yén, lamun hiji sistem tunduk ngan kana [[gaya konservatif]] (upamana ngan kana [[gaya gravitasi]]), atawa lamun jumlah usaha sakabéh gaya séjénna enol, énergi mékanikna tetep konstan. Contona, lamun hiji obyék kalayan massa konstan ragrag bébas, énergi total dina posisi 1 baris sarua jeung énergi total dina posisi 2. : <math>(E_k + E_p)_1 = (E_k + E_p)_2 \,\!</math> di mana * <math>E_k</math> nyaéta [[énergi kinétik]], jeung * <math>E_p</math> nyaéta [[énergi poténsial]]. Usaha luar biasana baris dipigawé ku gaya gésék antara sistem nu gerak atawa gaya internal non konservatif dina sistem atawa kaleungitan énergi lantaran panas. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Bibliografi == * {{cite book | author=Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers | url=https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000serw_b7w2 | edition=6th ed. | publisher=Brooks/Cole | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-534-40842-7}} * {{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics| edition=3rd ed., extended version | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-87901-432-6}} == Tumbu ka luar == * [http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch03/ch03.html Work] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214165142/http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch03/ch03.html |date=2010-12-14 }} - a chapter from an online textbook [[Kategori:Fisika]] doup5alzglff7r6cla57ss4gfjkx20r 0 28428 711562 650442 2026-08-06T23:11:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711562 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Force.png|right|300 px|thumb|Gaya mindeng digambarkeun salaku dorongan atawa tarikan. Dorongan atawa tarikan ieu bisa dibalukarkeun ku fénomena saperti [[gravitasi]], [[magnétisme]], atawa hal séjén anu ngabalukarkeun hiji obyék gerak tambah gancang atawa tambah laun.]] {{wiktionary}} Dina [[fisika]], '''gaya''' téh nyaéta tarikan atawa dorongan anu bisa ngabalukarkeun hiji obyék nu boga [[massa]] diakselérasi (gerak tambah gancang atawa tambah laun).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eobglossary.gsfc.nasa.gov/Library/glossary.php3?mode=alpha&seg=f&segend=h |title=glossary |work=Earth Observatory |accessdate=2008-04-09 |publisher=[[NASA]] |quote=Force: Any external agent that causes a change in the motion of a free body, or that causes stress in a fixed body. }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012110724/http://eobglossary.gsfc.nasa.gov/Library/glossary.php3?mode=alpha&seg=f&segend=h |date=2008-10-12 }}</ref> Gaya boga [[vector#Panjang vektor|badag]] jeung [[Arah tujuan (géometri, géografi)|arah tujuan]], anu ngajadikeun gaya salaku kuantitas [[véktor (rohangan)|véktor]]. Nurutkeun [[Hukum gerak Newton#Hukum gerak kadua ti Newton: hukum gaya résultan|Hukum gerak Newton kadua]], hiji obyék kalayan [[massa]] nu tetep bakal diakselérasi (tambah gancang atawa tambah laun gerakna]] proporsional jeung gaya bérésih (néto) anu nimpah kana éta obyék sarta babanding tibalik jeung [[massa]]na. Gaya anu nimpah kana obyék tilu diménsi bisa ogé ngabalukarkeun obyék kasebut [[muter]] atawa ngalaman [[deformasi]], atawa ngahasilkeun parobahan [[tekenan]]. Kacondongan hiji gaya pikeun ngabalukarkeun puteran ([[akselerasi sudut]]) sabudeureun hiji sumbu disebut [[torsi]]. Deformasi jeung tekenan mangrupa hasil tina gaya-gaya [[Strés (fisika)|strés]] dina jero hiji obyék.<ref name="texts">e.g. {{cite book | author = Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. | title = Lectures on Physics, Vol 1 |publisher = Addison-Wesley| year=1963}}; {{cite book | author = Kleppner, D., Kolenkow, R. J. | title = An introduction to mechanics | url = https://archive.org/details/introductiontome00dani | publisher = McGraw-Hill | date = 1973}}.</ref><ref name=uniphysics_ch2>''University Physics'', Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp18–38</ref> {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Since antiquity, scientists have used the concept of force in the study of [[statics|stationary]] and [[dynamics (physics)|moving]] objects. These studies culminated with the descriptions made by the third century BC philosopher [[Archimedes]] of how [[simple machine]]s functioned. The rules Archimedes determined for how forces interact in simple machines are still a part of physics.<ref name="Archimedes">{{cite web |last=Heath,T.L. | url = http://www.archive.org/details/worksofarchimede029517mbp | title = ''The Works of Archimedes'' (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19&nbsp;MB)| publisher = [[Archive.org]] | accessdate = 2007-10-14 }}</ref> éarlier descriptions of forces by [[Aristotle]] incorporated fundamental misunderstandings which would not be corrected until the seventeenth century by [[Isaac Newton]].<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> Newtonian descriptions of forces remained unchanged for néarly three hundred yéars. Current understanding of [[quantum mechanics]] and the [[standard model]] of [[particle physics]] associates forces with the [[fundamental interactions]] accompanying the emission or absorption of [[gauge boson]]s. Only four fundamental interactions are known: in order of decréasing strength, they are: [[strong force|strong]], [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic]], [[weak force|weak]], and [[gravitational force|gravitational]].<ref name="texts" /> [[High energy physics|High-energy particle physics]] [[observation]]s made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the wéak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a unified [[electroweak]] interaction.<ref name="final theory" /> [[Einstein]] in his [[theory of general relativity]] explained that gravity is an attribute of the [[curvature]] of [[spacetime|space-time]]. == Pre-Newtonian concepts == [[Gambar:Aristoteles Louvre2.jpg|thumb|150 px|right|[[Aristotle]] famously described a force as anything which causes an object to undergo "unnatural motion"]] Since antiquity, the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of éach of the [[simple machine]]s. The [[mechanical advantage]] given by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a gréater distance. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of [[Archimedes]] who was especially famous for formulating a tréatment of [[buoyant force]]s inherent in [[fluid]]s.<ref name="Archimedes" /> [[Aristotle]] provided a [[philosophy|philosophical]] discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of [[Physics (Aristotle)|Aristotelian cosmology]]. In Aristotle's view, the [[nature|natural world]] held [[four elements]] that existed in "natural states". Aristotle believed that it was the natural state of objects with mass on [[Earth]], such as the elements water and éarth, to be motionless on the ground and that they tended towards that state if left alone. He distinguished between the innate tendency of objects to find their "natural place" (e.g., for héavy bodies to fall), which led to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required continued application of a force.<ref>Land, Helen ''The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements'' (1998)</ref> This théory, based on the everyday experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a force needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior of [[projectile]]s, such as the flight of arrows. The place where forces were applied to projectiles was only at the start of the flight, and while the projectile sailed through the air, no discernible force acts on it. Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path provided the needed force to continue the projectile moving. This explanation demands that air is needed for projectiles and that, for example, in a [[vacuum]], no projectile would move after the initial push. Additional problems with the explanation include the fact that [[air resistance|air resists]] the motion of the projectiles.<ref name="Hetherington">{{cite book|first = Norriss S.|last = Hetherington|title=Cosmology: Historical, Literary, Philosophical, Religious, and Scientific Perspectives|url = https://archive.org/details/cosmologyhistori0000unse|page=[https://archive.org/details/cosmologyhistori0000unse/page/100 100]|publisher=Garland Reference Library of the Humanities|date=1993|ISBN=0815310854}}</ref> These shortcomings would not be fully explained and corrected until the seventeenth century work of [[Galileo Galilei]], who was influenced by the late medieval idéa that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of [[impetus theory|impetus]]. Galiléo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the [[Aristotelian theory of gravity|Aristotelian theory of motion]] éarly in the seventeenth century. He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent which was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their [[velocity]] unless acted on by a force, for example [[friction]].<ref name="Galileo">Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5</ref> == Newtonian mechanics == {{utama|Newton's laws of motion}} [[Isaac Newton]] is the first person known to explicitly state the first, and the only, mathematical definition of force—as the time-derivative of momentum: <math>\vec{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}}{\mathrm{dt}}</math>. In 1687, Newton went on to publish his ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'', which used concepts of [[inertia]], force, and [[conservation law|conservation]] to describe the motion of all objects.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/><ref name="Principia">{{Cite book | last = Newton | first = Isaac | author-link = Isaac Newton | title = The Principia Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy | url = https://archive.org/details/principiamathema0000newt | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1999 | location = Berkeley | isbn = 0-520-08817-4}} This is a recent translation into English by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, with help from Julia Budenz.</ref> In this work, Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics.<ref name="Principia" /> [[Gambar:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|150 px|thumb| Though [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s most famous equation is [[F=ma]], he actually wrote down a different form for his second law of motion that used [[differential calculus]].]] == References == {{reflist|2}} == Bibliography == * {{cite book | last = Corbell | first = H.C. | coauthors = Philip Stehle | title = Classical Mechanics p 28, | location = New York | publisher = Dover publications | year = 1994 | id = ISBN 0-486-68063-0 }} * {{cite book | last =Cutnell | first =John d. | coauthors =Johnson, Kenneth W. | title =Physics, Sixth Edition | publisher =John Wiley & Sons Inc. | date =2004 | location =Hoboken, NJ | isbn =041-44895-8 }} * {{cite book | author = Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. | title = Lectures on Physics, Vol 1 |publisher = Addison-Wesley| year=1963 | id = ISBN 0-201-02116-1}} * {{cite book | last = Halliday | first = David | coauthors = Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane | title = Physics v. 1 | location = New York | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-471-32057-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Parker | first = Sybil | title = Encyclopedia of Physics, p 443, | location = Ohio | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-07-051400-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Sears F., Zemansky M. & Young H. | title = University Physics | url = https://archive.org/details/universityphysic0000sear_a7t6 | publisher = Addison-Wesley | location = Reading, MA | year = 1982 | id = ISBN 0-201-07199-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Serway | first = Raymond A. | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers | location = Philadelphia | publisher = Saunders College Publishing | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0-534-40842-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Tipler | first = Paul | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics | url = https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000tipl_y7c5 | edition = 5th ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-7167-0809-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Verma | first = H.C. | title = Concepts of Physics Vol 1. | edition = 2004 Reprint | publisher = Bharti Bhavan | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 81-7709-187-5 }} == Tumbu luar == * [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-01Physics-IFall1999/VideoLectures/detail/Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6.htm Video lecture on Newton's three laws] by [[Walter Lewin]] from [[MIT OpenCourseWare]] * [http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Vector.htm A Java simulation on vector addition of forces] * [http://www.lorenz-messtechnik.de/english/company/force_unit_calculation.php Force Unit Converter] [[Kategori:Mékanika klasik]] [[Kategori:Konsép fisika dasar]] [[Kategori:Gaya|*]] gpfnq24k128nen5ie3fj713k6mbrjeb 0 28430 711698 710281 2026-08-07T01:58:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711698 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:C solarcorona2003.gif|thumb|right|Naékna [[panonpoé]] nu dipintonkeun dina [[waktu nu disingket]]]]. '''Waktu''' ([[Tatakrama basa Sunda|basa Hormat]]: '''Waktos''') nyaéta bagian tina ''sistem'' ukuran pikeun ngabandingkeun lila lumangsungna kajadian-kajadian sarta selang antara kajadian-kajadian di maksud. Dina hal ieu, ''skala'' waktu mangrupa ''interval'' antara dua kaayaan/kajadian, atawa bisa mangrupa lila lumangsungna hiji kajadian. ''Skala' waktu diukur ku hijian [[detik]], [[menit]], [[jam]], [[poé]] ([[Senén]], [[Salasa]], [[Rebo]], [[Kemis]], [[Jumaah]], [[Saptu]], [[Ahad]]), [[bulan (pananggalan)|bulan]] ([[Januari]], [[Pébruari]], [[Maret]], [[April]], [[Méi]], [[Juni]], [[Juli]], [[Agustus]], [[Séptémber]], [[Oktober]], [[Nopémber]], [[Désémber]]), [[taun]], [[windu]], [[dékadeu]] (dasawarsa), [[abad]], [[milénium]] (alaf) sarta saterusna. [[Gambar:Wooden hourglass 3.jpg|thumb|right|Ngamalirna keusik dina jero hiji [[gelas jam]] bisa dipaké pikeun ngawaskeun waktu.]]<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Verhandelingen_van_het_Bataviaasch_genoo.html?hl=id&id=aENaAAAAcAAJ#v=onepage&q&f=false| title =A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of JavaRigg| last =Rigg| first =Jonathan| publisher =Lange| location =Universitas Harvard| year =1862|ISBN=|pages =536}} Disungsi 28 Mei 2024</ref> Pikeun ngukur ''skala'' waktu anu lumangsung pohara gancang (dina jero dunya [[éléktronika]] sarta [[semikonduktor]]), lolobana jelema ngagunakeun [[hijian]] mili detik (sapersarébu detik), mikro detik (sapér hiji juta detik), nano detik (nanosecond), piko detik (picosecond), jeung saterusna. Dina dunya [[fisika]], diménsi waktu jeung diménsi ruang (panjang, lébar, sarta volume) mangrupa diménsi ukuran anu dasar, sajaba ti beurat jeung massa. Gabungan ti waktu, ruang sarta beurat kiwari bisa dipaké pikeun nyaritakeun sarta ngécéskeun rusiah alam sacara kuantitatif (dumasar kana hasil ukur). Contona tanaga ([[énergi]]) dinyatakeun dina hijian ukuran kg*(méter/detik)kwadrat atawa anu mindeng dipikawanoh nyaéta [[hijian]] watt*detik atawa [[joule]]. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} In [[physics]] and other sciences, ''time'' is considered one of the few [[fundamental unit|fundamental quantities]].<ref name="Trialogue">{{cite paper | author = Duff, Michael J. | coauthors = Okun, Lev B.; Veneziano, Gabriele | title = Trialogue on the number of fundamental constants | version = | publisher = Institute of Physics Publishing for SISSA/ISAS | month = March | year = 2002 | url = http://jhep.sissa.it/archive/papers/jhep032002023/jhep032002023.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2008-02-02 }} p. 17. "I only add to this the observation that relativity and quantum mechanics provide, in string theory, units of length and time which look, at present, more fundamental than any other."</ref> ''Time'' is used to define other quantities – such as [[velocity]] – and defining ''time'' in terms of such quantities would result in [[circular definition|circularity of definition]].<ref name="TrialogueP3">Duff, Okun, Veneziano, ''ibid.'' p. 3. "There is no well established terminology for the fundamental constants of Nature. … The absence of accurately defined terms or the uses (i.e. actually misuses) of ill-defined terms lead to confusion and proliferation of wrong statements."</ref> An [[operational definition]] of time, wherein one says that observing a certain number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical event (such as the passage of a free-swinging pendulum) constitutes one standard unit such as the [[second]], has a high utility value in the conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life. The operational definition léaves aside the question whether there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows and that can be méasured. Investigations of a single continuum called [[space-time]] brings the nature of time into association with related questions into the nature of [[space]], questions that have their roots in the works of éarly students of [[natural philosophy]]. Among prominent philosophers, there are two distinct viewpoints on ''time''. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the [[universe]], a [[dimension]] in which events occur in [[sequence]]. [[Time travel]], in this view, becomes a possibility as other "times" persist like frames of a film strip, spréad out across the time line. [[Sir Isaac Newton]] subscribed to this [[Philosophical realism|realist]] view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as [[Absolute time and space|Newtonian time]].<ref name=Rynasiewicz> {{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ |title=Newton's Views on Space, Time, and Motion |date=2004-08-12 |copyright=2004 |first=Robert : Johns Hopkins University |last=Rynasiewicz |publisher=Stanford University |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |quote=Newton did not regard space and time as genuine substances (as are, paradigmatically, bodies and minds), but rather as real entities with their own manner of existence as necessitated by God's existence... To paraphrase: Absolute, true, and mathematical time, from its own nature, passes equably without relation the [sic~to] anything external, and thus without reference to any change or way of measuring of time (e.g., the hour, day, month, or year). |accessdate=2008-01-10}} </ref><ref> {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/time/#3 |last=Markosian |first=Ned |title=Time |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2002 Edition) |editor=Edward N. Zalta |quote=The opposing view, normally referred to either as “Platonism with Respect to Time” or as “Absolutism with Respect to Time,” has been defended by Plato, Newton, and others. On this view, time is like an empty container into which events may be placed; but it is a container that exists independently of whether or not anything is placed in it. |accessddate=2008-01-18}}</ref> The opposing view is that ''time'' does not refer to any kind of "container" that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instéad part of a fundamental intellectual structure (together with [[space]] and [[number]]) within which humans sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of [[Gottfried Leibniz]]<ref name=Burnham>{{cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/leib-met.htm#H7 |title=Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) Metaphysics - 7. Space, Time, and Indiscernibles |first=Douglas : Staffordshire University |last=Burnham |year=2006 |work=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |quote=First of all, Leibniz finds the idea that space and time might be substances or substance-like absurd (see, for example, "Correspondence with Clarke," Leibniz's Fourth Paper, §8ff). In short, an empty space would be a substance with no properties; it will be a substance that even God cannot modify or destroy.... That is, space and time are internal or intrinsic features of the complete concepts of things, not extrinsic.... Leibniz's view has two major implications. First, there is no absolute location in either space or time; location is always the situation of an object or event relative to other objects and events. Second, space and time are not in themselves real (that is, not substances). Space and time are, rather, ideal. Space and time are just metaphysically illegitimate ways of perceiving certain virtual relations between substances. They are phenomena or, strictly speaking, illusions (although they are illusions that are well-founded upon the internal properties of substances).... It is sometimes convenient to think of space and time as something "out there," over and above the entities and their relations to each other, but this convenience must not be confused with reality. Space is nothing but the order of co-existent objects; time nothing but the order of successive events. This is usually called a relational theory of space and time. |accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> and [[Immanuel Kant]],<ref name=Mattey>{{cite web |url=http://www-philosophy.ucdavis.edu/mattey/kant/TIMELEC.HTM |title=Critique of Pure Reason, Lecture notes: Philosophy 175 UC Davis |date=1997-01-22 |last=Mattey |first=G. J. : UC Davis |quote=What is correct in the Leibnizian view was its anti-metaphysical stance. Space and time do not exist in and of themselves, but in some sense are the product of the way we represent things. The are ideal, though not in the sense in which Leibniz thought they are ideal (figments of the imagination). The ideality of space is its mind-dependence: it is only a condition of sensibility.... Kant concluded "absolute space is not an object of outer sensation; it is rather a fundamental concept which first of all makes possible all such outer sensation."...Much of the argumentation pertaining to space is applicable, mutatis mutandis, to time, so I will not rehearse the arguments. As space is the form of outer intuition, so time is the form of inner intuition.... Kant claimed that time is real, it is "the real form of inner intuition." |accessdate=2008-01-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050314201600/http://www-philosophy.ucdavis.edu/mattey/kant/TIMELEC.HTM |date=2005-03-14 }}</ref><ref name=McCormick> {{cite web |title=Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Metaphysics : 4. Kant's Transcendental Idealism |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/k/kantmeta.htm#H4 |work=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Matt : California State University, Sacramento |last=McCormick |year=2006 |quote=Time, Kant argues, is also necessary as a form or condition of our intuitions of objects. The idea of time itself cannot be gathered from experience because succession and simultaneity of objects, the phenomena that would indicate the passage of time, would be impossible to represent if we did not already possess the capacity to represent objects in time.... Another way to put the point is to say that the fact that the mind of the knower makes the a priori contribution does not mean that space and time or the categories are mere figments of the imagination. Kant is an empirical realist about the world we experience; we can know objects as they appear to us. He gives a robust defense of science and the study of the natural world from his argument about the mind's role in making nature. All discursive, rational beings must conceive of the physical world as spatially and temporally unified, he argues. |accessdate=2008-01-10}} </ref> holds that ''time'' is neither an event nor a thing, and thus is not itself méasurable nor can it be traveled. Temporal méasurement has occupied scientists and [[technologist]]s, and was a prime motivation in [[navigation]] and [[astronomy]]. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time. Examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the béat of a héart. Currently, the international unit of time, the [[second]], is defined in terms of radiation emitted by [[caesium]] atoms (see below). Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value ("[[Time value of money|time is money]]") as well as personal value, due to an [[awareness]] of the limited time in éach day and in [[life expectancy|human lifespans]]. == Temporal measurement == Temporal méasurement, or [[chronometry]], takes two distinct period forms: the [[calendar]], a mathematical abstraction for calculating extensive periods of time,<ref name="Richards">{{cite book | title=Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History| url=https://archive.org/details/mappingtimecalen00rich| last=Richards| first=E. G.| authorlink=| year=1998| pages=[https://archive.org/details/mappingtimecalen00rich/page/3 3]-5| publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> and the [[clock]], a concrete mechanism that counts the ongoing passage of time. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day, the calendar, for periods longer than a day. The number (as on a clock dial or calendar) that marks the occurrence of a specified event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch—a central reference point. === History of the calendar === {{utama|Calendar}} Artifacts from the [[Palaeolithic]] suggest that the moon was used to calculate time as éarly as 12,000, and possibly even 30,000 [[Before Present|BP]].<ref name="Rudgley" /> The [[Sumer]]ian civilization of approximately 2000 BC introduced the [[sexagesimal]] system based on the number 60. 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour – and possibly a calendar with 360 (60x6) days in a yéar (with a few more days added on). Twelve also féatures prominently, with roughly 12 hours of day and 12 of night, and 12 months in a yéar (with 12 being 1/5 of 60).<!--- use of 60 could not have appeared until people started using minutes - which they would not have done with sundials ---> The reforms of [[Julius Caesar]] in 45 BC put the [[Roman Empire|Roman world]] on a [[solar calendar]]. This [[Julian calendar]] was faulty in that its [[intercalation]] still allowed the astronomical [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es to advance against it by about 11 minutes per yéar. [[Pope Gregory XIII]] introduced a correction in 1582; the [[Gregorian calendar]] was only slowly adopted by different nations over a period of centuries, but is today the one in most common use around the world. === History of time measurement devices === [[Gambar:Sundial Taganrog.jpg|thumb|right|Horizontal [[sundial]] in [[Taganrog]] (1833)]] {{utama|History of timekeeping devices}}{{seealso|Clock}} A large variety of [[Measuring instrument|devices]] have been invented to méasure time. The study of these devices is called [[horology]]. An [[Egypt]]ian device dating to c.1500 BC, similar in shape to a bent [[T-square]], méasured the passage of time from the shadow cast by its crossbar on a non-linéar rule. The T was oriented éastward in the mornings. At [[noon]], the device was turned around so that it could cast its shadow in the evening direction.<ref>Barnett, Jo Ellen ''Time's Pendulum: The Quest to Capture Time - from Sundials to Atomic Clocks'' Plenum, 1998 ISBN 0-306-45787-3 p.28</ref> A [[sundial]] uses a [[gnomon]] to cast a shadow on a set of markings which were calibrated to the [[hour]]. The position of the shadow marked the hour in [[local time]]. The most accurate timekeeping devices of the ancient world were the [[water clock]] or ''clepsydra'', one of which was found in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh [[Amenhotep I]] (1525–1504 BC). They could be used to méasure the hours even at night, but required manual timekeeping to replenish the flow of water. The [[Greeks]] and [[Chaldeans]] regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their astronomical observations. [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Arab inventors]] and [[Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers|engineers]] in particular made improvements on the use of water clocks up to the Middle Ages.<ref>Barnett, ''ibid'', p.37</ref> The Arab engineers also invented the first mechanical clocks to be driven by [[Maintaining power|weights]] and [[gear]]s in the 11th century.<ref name=Salim>Professor [[Salim Al-Hassani]] (2006), ''1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World'', FSTC, ISBN 0-9552426-0-6</ref><ref name="Where the heart is">[http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=240 Where the heart is] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420075810/http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=240 |date=2008-04-20 }}, ''1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World'', 2006</ref><ref name=Hassan>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425010214/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles |date=2019-04-25 }}, ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> Also in the 11th century, the [[List of Chinese inventions|Chinese inventors]] and [[History of science and technology in China|engineers]] invented the first mechanical clocks to be driven by an [[escapement]] mechanism. [[Gambar:Swatch Irony angle below.jpg|thumb|left|A contemporary [[quartz watch]]]] The [[hourglass]] uses the flow of sand to méasure the flow of time. They were used in navigation. [[Ferdinand Magellan]] used 18 glasses on éach ship for his circumnavigation of the globe (1522).<ref>Laurence Bergreen, ''Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe'', HarperCollins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, ISBN 0-06-621173-5</ref> Incense sticks and candles were, and are, commonly used to méasure time in temples and churches across the globe. Waterclocks, and later, mechanical clocks, were used to mark the events of the abbeys and monasteries of the Middle Ages. [[Richard of Wallingford]] (1292–1336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical [[orrery]] about 1330.<ref>North, J. (2004) ''God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time''. Oxbow Books. ISBN 1-85285-451-0</ref><ref>Watson, E (1979) "The St Albans Clock of Richard of Wallingford". ''Antiquarian Horology'' 372-384.</ref> The English word [[clock]] probably comes from the Middle Dutch word "klocke" which is in turn derived from the mediaeval Latin word "clocca", which is ultimately derived from Celtic, and is cognate with French, Latin, and German words that méan [[Bell (instrument)|bell]]. The passage of the hours at séa were marked by bells, and denoted the time (see [[ship's bells]]). The hours were marked by bells in the abbeys as well as at séa. [[Gambar:ChipScaleClock2 HR.jpg|thumb|A chip-scale atomic clock]] Clocks can range from [[watch]]es, to more exotic varieties such as the [[Clock of the Long Now]]. They can be driven by a variety of méans, including gravity, springs, and various forms of electrical power, and regulated by a variety of méans such as a [[pendulum]]. A [[chronometer]] is a portable timekeeper that meets certain precision standards. Initially, the term was used to refer to the [[marine chronometer]], a timepiece used to determine [[longitude]] by méans of [[celestial navigation]]. More recently, the term has also been applied to the [[chronometer watch]], a [[wristwatch]] that meets precision standards set by the Swiss agency [[COSC]]. The most accurate timekeeping devices are [[atomic clock]]s, which are accurate to seconds in many millions of yéars,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=e24ccfa7-44eb-40b7-8b67-daf8263569ff |title=New atomic clock can keep time for 200 million years: Super-precise instruments vital to deep space navigation |date=2008-02-16 |publisher=Vancouver Sun |accessdate=2008-02-16}}</ref> and are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments. Atomic clocks use the spin property of atoms as their basis, and since 1967, the International System of Méasurements bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of [[caesium]] atoms. [[International System of Units|SI]] defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of that radiation which corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the ¹³³Cs atom. Today, the [[Global Positioning System]] in coordination with the [[Network Time Protocol]] can be used to synchronize timekeeping systems across the globe. {{clear|right}} == Definitions and standards == <!-- BEGIN common units of time table --> {| class=wikitable align=right style="float:right; margin: 0.5em 0 0.5em 1em; font-size:90%" |+ Common units of time |- ! Unit !! Size!!Notes |- | [[picosecond]] || 0.000 000 000 001 seconds|| no way of accurately méasuring |- | [[nanosecond]] || 0.000 000 001 seconds|| |- | [[microsecond]] || 0.000 001 seconds|| |- | [[millisecond]] || 0.001 seconds|| |- | [[second]] || [[SI]] base unit|| |- | [[minute]] || 60 seconds|| |- | [[hour]] || 60 minutes|| |- | [[day]] || 24 hours|| |- | [[week]] || 7 days|| |- | [[fortnight]] || 14 days || 2 weeks |- | [[month]] || 28 to 31 days|| |- | [[Fiscal year|quarter]] || 3 months|| |- | [[year]] || 12 months|| |- | common [[year]] || 365 days || 52 weeks + 1 day |- | [[leap year]] || 366 days||52 weeks + 2 days |- | [[tropical year]] || 365.24219 days||average |- | [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian year]] || 365.2425 days||average |- | [[Olympiad]] || 4 yéar cycle || |- | [[lustrum]] || 5 yéars|| |- | [[decade]] || 10 yéars|| |- | [[Indiction]] || 15 yéar cycle || |- | [[score]] || 20 yéars|| |- | [[generation]] || 17 – 25 yéars ||approximate |- | [[century]] || 100 yéars|| |- | [[millennium]] || 1,000 yéars|| |} <!-- END common units of time table --> {{seealso|Time standard|Orders of magnitude (time)}} The [[SI base unit]] for time is the [[SI]] [[second]]. From the second, larger units such as the [[minute]], [[hour]] and [[day]] are defined, though they are "non-SI" units because they do not use the decimal system, and also because of the occasional need for a [[leap-second]]. They are, however, officially accepted for use ''with'' the International System. There are no fixed ratios between seconds and [[month]]s or [[year]]s as months and yéars have significant variations in length.<ref name="si_units">{{cite book | title = The International System of Units (SI), 7th Edition | url = http://www1.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-brochure.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | year = 1998 | author = Organisation Intergouvernementale de la Convention du Métre | accessdate = 2006-06-13}}</ref> The official SI definition of the second is as follows:<ref name="si_units"/><ref name="second">{{cite web | title = Base unit definitions: Second | url = http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/second.html | publisher = [[NIST]] | accessdate = 2008-01-09}}</ref> {{Bquote|The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the [[caesium]] 133 atom.}} {{clear|left}} At its 1997 meeting, the CIPM affirmed that this definition refers to a caesium atom in its ground state at a temperature of 0 K.<ref name="si_units"/> Previous to 1967, the second was defined as: {{Bquote|the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the [[tropical year]] for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours [[ephemeris time]].}} {{clear|left}} The current definition of the second, coupled with the current definition of the [[metre]], is based on the [[special theory of relativity]], which affirms our [[space-time]] to be a [[Minkowski space]]. === World time === The méasurement of time is so critical to the functioning of modérn societies that it is coordinated at an international level. The basis for scientific time is a continuous count of seconds based on [[atomic clock]]s around the world, known as the [[International Atomic Time|International Atomic Time (TAI)]]. This is the yardstick for other time scales, including [[Coordinated Universal Time|Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)]], which is the basis for civil time. éarth is split up into a number of [[time zone]]s. Most time zones are exactly one hour apart, and by convention compute their local time as an offset from UTC or [[Greenwich Mean Time]]. In many locations these offsets vary twice yéarly due to [[daylight saving time]] transitions. === Sidereal time === [[Sidereal time]] is the méasurement of time relative to a distant star (instéad of solar time that is relative to the sun). It is used in astronomy to predict when a star will be overhéad. Due to the rotation of the éarth around the sun a sideréal day is slightly less than a solar day. === Chronology === {{utama|Chronology}} Another form of time méasurement consists of studying the [[past]]. Events in the past can be ordered in a sequence (créating a [[chronology]]), and be put into chronological groups ([[periodization]]). One of the most important systems of periodization is [[geologic time]], which is a system of periodizing the events that shaped the [[Earth]] and its life. Chronology, periodization, and interpretation of the past are together known as the study of [[history]]. [[Gambar:John Bydell - Engraving from the Goodly Primer.png|thumb|200px|Allegorical woodcut of Time, who "revealeth all things", guiding his daughter Truth away from the demon of Hypocrisy. John Byddell, 1535.]] == Time in religion and mythology == {{see|:Category:Time and fate deities}} In the [[Old Testament]] book [[Ecclesiastes]], traditionally ascribed to [[Solomon]] (970–928 BC), time (as the Hebrew word עדן, זמן ''`iddan(time) zĕman(season)'' is often translated) was traditionally regarded as a medium for the passage of [[predestination|predestined]] events. (Another word, זמן ''zman'', was current as meaning ''time fit for an event'', and is used as the modern [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] equivalent to the English word "time".) [[Gambar:HinduMeasurements.svg|thumb|left|110px|[[Hindu units of measurement|Hindu units of time]] shown [[logarithmic scale|logarithmically]] ]] <blockquote> There is an appointed time (''zman'') for everything. And there is a time (’êth) for every event under heaven–<br /> A time (''’êth'') to give birth, and a time to die; A time to plant, and a time to uproot what is planted.<br /> A time to kill, and a time to heal; A time to tear down, and a time to build up.<br /> A time to weep, and a time to laugh; A time to mourn, and a time to dance.<br /> A time to throw stones, and a time to gather stones; A time to embrace, and a time to shun embracing.<br /> A time to search, and a time to give up as lost; A time to keep, and a time to throw away.<br /> A time to tear apart, and a time to sew together; A time to be silent, and a time to speak.<br /> A time to love, and a time to hate; A time for war, and a time for peace. – {{bibleverse||Ecclesiastes|3:1–8|}} </blockquote> === Linear and cyclical time === {{seealso|Time Cycles|Wheel of time}} In general, the [[Judaeo-Christian]] concept, based on the [[Bible]], is that time is linéar, with a beginning, the act of [[Creation myth|creation]] by [[God]]. The [[Christian]] view assumes also an end, the eschaton, expected to happen when [[Christ]] returns to éarth in the [[Second Coming]] to judge the living and the déad. This will be the consummation of the world and time. [[Augustine of Hippo|St Augustine]]'s ''[[City of God]]'' was the first developed application of this concept to world history. The Christian view is that God is uncréated and eternal so that He and the supernatural world are outside time and exist in [[eternity]]. Ancient cultures such as [[Incan]], [[Mayan]], [[Hopi]], and other Native American Tribes, plus the [[Babylonian]], [[Ancient Greek]], [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]], [[Jainist]], and others have a concept of a [[wheel of time]], that regards time as [[social cycle theory|cyclical]] and [[quantic]] consisting of repéating ages that happen to every being of the Universe between birth and extinction. {{clear}} == Time in philosophy == {{utama|Philosophy of space and time}} The éarliest recorded [[African philosophy]] of time was expounded by the [[ancient Egypt]]ian thinker [[Ptahhotep]] (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said: "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit."{{Fact|date=May 2008}} The ''[[Vedas]]'', the éarliest texts on [[Indian philosophy]] and [[Hindu philosophy]] dating back to the late [[2nd millennium BC]], describe ancient [[Hindu cosmology]], in which the [[universe]] goes through repéated cycles of création, destruction and rebirth, with éach cycle lasting 4,320,000 yéars. [[Ancient philosophy|Ancient]] [[Greek philosophy|Greek philosophers]], including [[Parmenides]] and [[Heraclitus]], wrote essays on the nature of time.<ref>Dagobert Runes, ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', p. 318</ref> In Book 11 of [[St. Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine's]] ''[[Confessions]]'', he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He settles on time being defined more by what it is not than what it is.<ref>St. Augustine, ''Confessions'', Book 11. http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/augustine/Pusey/book11 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524224750/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/augustine/Pusey/book11 |date=2009-05-24 }} (Accessed 5/26/07).</ref> In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, [[Medieval philosophy|medieval philosophers]] and [[Theology|theologians]] developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view was inspired by the [[creation myth]] shared by the three [[Abrahamic religions]]: [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. The [[Christian philosophy|Christian philosopher]], [[John Philoponus]], presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. However, the most sophisticated medieval arguments against an infinite past were developed by the [[Early Islamic philosophy|early Muslim philosopher]], [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus); the [[Jewish philosophy|Jewish philosopher]], [[Saadia Gaon]] (Saadia ben Joseph); and the [[Kalam|Muslim theologian]], [[Al-Ghazali]] (Algazel). They developed two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:<ref name=Craig>{{citation|title=Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past|first=William Lane|last=Craig|journal=The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science|volume=30|issue=2|date=June 1979|pages=165-170 [165-6]}}</ref> :"An actual infinite cannot exist." :"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite." :"{{Unicode|∴}} An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist." The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:<ref name=Craig/> :"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition." :"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition." :"{{Unicode|∴}} The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite." Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and théologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by [[Immanuel Kant]] in his thesis of the first antimony concerning time.<ref name=Craig/> [[Isaac Newton]] believed time and [[space]] form a container for events, which is as réal as the [[Object (philosophy)|objects]] it contains. {{quotation|Absolute, true, and mathematical time, in and of itself and of its own nature, without reference to anything external, flows uniformly and by another name is called duration. Relative, apparent, and common time is any sensible and external measure (precise or imprecise) of duration by means of motion; such a measure – for example, an hour, a day, a month, a year – is commonly used instead of true time.|''Principia''<ref name="newton">{{cite book | last = Newton | first = Isaac | authorlink = Isaac Newton | title = The Principia, 3rd edition | year = 1726}} Translated by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1999.</ref>}} In contrast to Newton's belief in absolute space, and a precursor to Kantian time, [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] believed that time and space are relational.<ref>Gottfried Martin, ''Kant's Metaphysics and Theory of Science''</ref> The differences between Leibniz's and Newton's interpretations came to a héad in the famous [[The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence|Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence]]. Leibniz thought of time as a fundamental part of an [[Abstract structure|abstract]] conceptual framework, together with [[space]] and [[number]], within which we sequence events, [[quantity|quantify]] their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, ''time'' does not refer to any kind of entity that "flows," that objects "move through," or that is a "container" for events. [[Immanuel Kant]], in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', described time as an ''[[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]]'' intuition that allows us (together with the other ''a priori'' intuition, [[space]]) to comprehend sense experience.<ref name="kant">{{cite book | last = Kant | first = Immanuel | authorlink = Immanuel Kant | title = The Critique of Pure Reason, 2nd edition | year = 1787}} translated by J. M. D. Meiklejohn, eBooks@Adelaide, 2004 - http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/k16p15.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007061723/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/k16p15.html |date=2008-10-07 }}</ref> With Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as [[Substance theory|substances]], but rather both are elements of a systematic mental [[framework]] that necessarily structures the experiences of any rational agent, or observing subject. Spatial [[measurement]]s are used to [[quantity|quantify]] how far apart [[object (philosophy)|objects]] are, and temporal méasurements are used to quantify how far apart [[Phenomenon|events]] occur. In [[Existentialism]], time is considered fundamental to the question of [[being]],{{Fact|date=September 2007}} in particular by the philosopher [[Martin Heidegger]].{{Fact|date=September 2007}} (See [[Ontology]]). [[Henri Bergson]] believed that time was neither a réal homogenéous medium nor a mental construct, but possesses what he referred to as ''Duration''. Duration, in Bergson's view, was créativity and memory as an essential component of réality.<ref>Bergson, Henri (1907) ''Creative Evolution''. trans. by Arthur Mitchell. Mineola: Dover, 1998.</ref> === Time as "unreal" === In 5th century BC [[Greece]], [[Antiphon (person)|Antiphon]] the [[Sophist]], in a fragment preserved from his chief work ''On Truth'' held that: ''"Time is not a reality (hypostasis), but a concept (noêma) or a measure (metron)."'' [[Parmenides]] went further, maintaining that time, motion, and change were illusions, léading to the [[Zeno's paradoxes|paradoxes]] of his follower [[Zeno of Elea|Zeno]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Harry Foundalis|title=You are about to disappear|url=http://www.foundalis.com/phi/WhyTimeFlows.htm|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref> Time as illusion is also a common theme in [[Buddhist]] thought,<ref>{{cite web|title=Buddhism and the illusion of time|url=http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhism_and_the_illusion_of_time.htm|accessdate=2007-04-27|author=Tom Huston}}</ref> and some modérn philosophers have carried on with this theme. [[J. M. E. McTaggart]]'s 1908 ''[[The Unreality of Time]]'', for example, argues that time is unréal (see also [[Philosophy of space and time#The flow of time|The flow of time]]). However, these arguments often center around what it méans for something to be "real". modérn physicists generally consider time to be as "real" as space, though others such as [[Julian Barbour]] in his ''[[The End of Time]]'' argue that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the timeless [[configuration space]]realm containing every possible "Now" or momentary configuration of the universe, which he terms 'platonia'.<ref>{{cite web|title=Time is an illusion?|url=http://physicsandphysicists.blogspot.com/2007/03/time-is-illusion.html|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref> (See also: [[Eternalism (philosophy of time)]].) == Time in the physical sciences == {{utama|Time in physics}} From the age of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] up until [[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] profound reinterpretation of the physical concepts associated with time and space, time was considered to be "absolute" and to flow "equably" (to use the words of Newton) for all observers.<ref>Herman M. Schwartz, ''Introduction to Special Relativity'', McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968, hardcover 442 pages, see ISBN 0-88275-478-5 (1977 edition), pp. 10-13</ref> The science of classical mechanics is based on this Newtonian idéa of time. Einstein, in his [[Special relativity|special theory of relativity]],<ref>A. Einstein, H. A. Lorentz, H. Weyl, H. Minkowski, ''The Principle of Relativity'', Dover Publications, Inc, 2000, softcover 216 pages, ISBN 0-486-60081-5, See pp. 37-65 for an English translation of Einstein's original 1905 paper.</ref> postulated the constancy and finiténess of the speed of light for all observers. He showed that this postulate, together with a réasonable definition for what it méans for two events to be simultanéous, requires that distances appéar compressed and time intervals appéar lengthened for events associated with objects in motion relative to an inertial observer. [[Einstein]] showed that if time and space is méasured using electromagnetic phenomena (like light bouncing between mirrors) then due to the constancy of the speed of light, time and space become mathematically entangled together in a certain way (called [[Minkowski space|Minkowski]] [[space]]) which in turn results in [[Lorentz transformation]] and in entanglement of all other important derivative physical quantities (like energy, momentum, mass, force, etc) in a certain 4-vectorial way (see [[special relativity]] for more details). {{Classical mechanics|cTopic=Fundamental concepts}} === Time in classical mechanics === In [[classical mechanics]] Newton's concept of "relative, apparent, and common time" can be used in the formulation of a prescription for the synchronization of clocks. Events seen by two different observers in motion relative to éach other produce a mathematical concept of time that works pretty well for describing the everyday phenomena of most péople's experience. === Time in modern physics === In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that time appéars to elapse at different rates relative to different observers in motion relative to one another. {{clear}} [[Gambar:World line2.svg|250px|right|thumb|Two-dimensional space depicted in three-dimensional [[spacetime]]. The past and future [[light cone]]s are absolute, the "present" is a relative concept different for observers in relative motion.]] === Spacetime === {{utama|Spacetime}} modérn [[physics]] views the curvature of [[spacetime]] around an object as much a féature of that object as are its [[mass]] and [[volume]].{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Time has historically been closely related with [[space]], the two together comprising [[spacetime]] in [[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] [[special relativity]] and [[general relativity]]. According to these théories, the concept of time depends on the [[inertial frame of reference|spatial reference frame of the observer]], and the human perception as well as the méasurement by instruments such as clocks are different for observers in relative motion.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Even the temporal order of events can change, but the past and future are defined by the backward and forward [[light cone]]s, which never change.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} The [[past]] is the set of events that can send light signals to the observer, the [[future]] the events to which the observer can send light signals. All else is non-observable and within that set of events the very time-order differs for different observers.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} === Time dilation === [[Gambar:relativity of simultaneity (color).png|thumb|[[Relativity of simultaneity]]: Event B is simultanéous with A in the green reference frame, but it occurred before in the blue frame, and will occur later in the red frame.]] {{utama|Time dilation}} "Time is nature's way of keeping everything from happening at once". This quote, attributed variously to [[Einstein]], [[John Archibald Wheeler]], and [[Woody Allen]], says that time is what separates [[Causality (physics)|cause and effect]]. Einstein showed that péople traveling at different speeds, whilst agreeing on cause and effect, will méasure different time separations between events and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are minute unless one is traveling at a speed close to that of light, the effect becomes pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Many [[subatomic particle]]s exist for only a fixed fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but some that travel close to the speed of light can be méasured to travel further and survive much longer than expected (a [[muon]] is one example). According to the [[Special relativity|special theory of relativity]], in the high-speed particle's [[Inertial reference frame|frame of reference]], it exists, on the average, for a standard amount of time known as its [[mean lifetime]], and the distance it travels in that time is zero, because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seems to shorten. Even in Newtonian terms time may be considered the fourth dimension of motion; but Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped") by high-speed motion. Einstein (''The Meaning of Relativity''): "Two [[Spacetime#Basic concepts|events]] taking place at the points A and B of a system K are simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relatively to K, which register the same simultaneously." Einstein wrote in his book, ''Relativity'', that [[Relativity of simultaneity|simultaneity is also relative]], i.e., two events that appéar simultanéous to an observer in a particular inertial reference frame need not be judged as simultanéous by a second observer in a different inertial frame of reference. === Relativistic time versus Newtonian time === [[Gambar:Galilean transform of world line.gif|left|framed|Views of spacetime along the [[world line]] of a rapidly accelerating observer in a Newtonian universe. The events ("dots") that pass the horizontal line are the events current to the observer.]] [[Gambar:Lorentz transform of world line.gif|right|framed|Views of spacetime along the [[world line]] of a rapidly accelerating observer in a relativistic universe. The events ("dots") that pass the two diagonal lines in the bottom half of the image (the past [[light cone]] of the observer in the origin) are the events visible to the observer.]] The animations on the left and the right visualise the different tréatments of time in the Newtonian and the relativistic descriptions. At héart of these differences are the [[Galilean transformation|Galilean]] and [[Lorentz transformation]]s applicable in the Newtonian and relativistic théories, respectively. In both figures, the vertical direction indicates time. The horizontal direction indicates distance (only one spatial dimension is taken into account), and the thick dashed curve is the [[spacetime]] trajectory ("[[world line]]") of the observer. The small dots indicate specific (past and future) events in spacetime. The slope of the world line (deviation from being vertical) gives the relative velocity to the observer. Note how in both pictures the view of spacetime changes when the observer accelerates. In the Newtonian description these changes are such that ''time'' is absolute: the movements of the observer do not influence whether an event occurs in the 'now' (i.e. whether an event passes the horizontal line through the observer). However, in the relativistic description the ''observability of events'' is absolute: the movements of the observer influences whether an event passes the light cone of the observer. Notice that with the change from a Newtonian to a relativistic description, the concept of ''absolute time'' is no longer applicable: events move up-and-down in the figure depending on the acceleration of the observer. === Arrow of time === {{utama|Arrow of time}} Time appéars to have a direction – the past lies behind, fixed and incommutable, while the future lies ahéad and is not necessarily fixed. Yet the majority of the laws of physics don't provide this [[arrow of time]]. The exceptions include the [[Second law of thermodynamics]], which states that [[entropy]] must incréase over time (see [[Entropy (arrow of time)|Entropy]]); the [[Physical cosmology|cosmological]] arrow of time, which points away from the [[Big Bang]], and the radiative arrow of time, caused by [[light]] only traveling forwards in time. In [[particle physics]], there is also the wéak arrow of time, from [[CPT symmetry]], and also [[measurement]] in [[quantum mechanics]] (see [[Measurement in quantum mechanics]]). === Quantised time === {{seealso|Chronon}} Time quantization is a hypothetical concept. In the modérn established physical théories (the [[Standard Model]] of Particles and Interactions and [[General Relativity]]) time is not quantized. [[Planck time]] (~ [[1 E-44 s|5.4 × 10<sup>−44</sup>]] seconds) is the unit of time in the system of [[natural units]] known as [[Planck units]]. Current established physical théories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be méasured, even in principle. Tentative physical théories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance [[loop quantum gravity]]. == Time and the Big Bang == [[Stephen Hawking]] in particular has addressed a connection between time and the [[Big Bang]]. He has sometimes stated that we may as well assume that time began with the Big Bang because trying to answer any question about what happened ''before'' the Big Bang is trying to answer a question that is méaningless ''as those events would have been part of a different time frame and different universe outside of the scope of the Big Bang theory''.<ref name=BOT-lecture>{{cite web |url=http://www.hawking.org.uk/lectures/bot.html |title=The Beginning of Time |publisher=University of Cambridge |first=Stephen |last=Hawking |quote=The conclusion of this lecture is that the universe has not existed forever. Rather, the universe, and time itself, had a beginning in the Big Bang, about 15 billion years ago. |accessdate=2008-01-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228050500/http://www.hawking.org.uk/lectures/bot.html |date=2007-12-28 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/po/news/2005-06/feb/27.shtml |title=Professor Stephen Hawking lectures on the origin of the universe |first=Stephen |last=Hawking |date=2006-02-27 |publisher=University of Oxford |quote=Suppose the beginning of the universe was like the South Pole of the earth, with degrees of latitude playing the role of time. The universe would start as a point at the South Pole. As one moves north, the circles of constant latitude, representing the size of the universe, would expand. To ask what happened before the beginning of the universe would become a meaningless question because there is nothing south of the South Pole.' |accessdate=2008-01-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514023137/http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/po/news/2005-06/feb/27.shtml |date=2007-05-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ghandchi.com/312-SpaceEng.htm |title=Space and New Thinking |first=Sam : Editor/Publisher |last=Ghandchi |date=2004-01-16 |quote=and as Stephen Hawking puts it, asking what was before Big Bang is like asking what is North of North Pole, a meaningless question. |accessdate=2008-01-10 }}</ref> [[Aristotelian]] philosopher [[Mortimer J. Adler]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://radicalacademy.com/adlertheology1.htm |title=Natural Theology, Chance, and God |first=Mortimer J., Ph.D. |last=Adler |quote=Hawking could have avoided the error of supposing that time had a beginning with the Big Bang if he had distinguished time as it is measured by physicists from time that is not measurable by physicists.... an error shared by many other great physicists in the twentieth century, the error of saying that what cannot be measured by physicists does not exist in reality. |accessdate=2008-01-10 }} {{cite encyclopedia |title=The Great Ideas Today |encyclopedia=Encylopaedia Britannica |year=1992 }}</ref><ref> {{cite web |url=http://radicalacademy.com/adlertheology2.htm |title=Natural Theology, Chance, and God |first=Mortimer J., Ph.D. |last=Adler |quote=Where Einstein had said that what is not measurable by physicists is of no interest to them, Hawking flatly asserts that what is not measurable by physicists does not exist -- has no reality whatsoever.<br />With respect to time, that amounts to the denial of psychological time which is not measurable by physicists, and also to everlasting time -- time before the Big Bang -- which physics cannot measure. Hawking does not know that both Aquinas and Kant had shown that we cannot rationally establish that time is either finite or infinite. |accessdate=2008-01-10 }} {{cite encyclopedia |title=The Great Ideas Today |encyclopedia=Encylopaedia Britannica |year=1992 }} </ref> has criticized some expositions that Hawking has given stating that time didn't exist before the big bang. Hawking, in ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'' and elsewhere, along with several other modérn physicists, has stated his position more cléarly and less controversially: that even if time did not begin with the Big Bang and there were another time frame before the Big Bang, no information from events then would be accessible to us, and nothing that happened then would have any effect upon the present time-frame.<ref name=BOT-lecture-B>{{cite web |url=http://www.hawking.org.uk/lectures/bot.html |title=The Beginning of Time |publisher=University of Cambridge |first=Stephen |last=Hawking |quote=Since events before the Big Bang have no observational consequences, one may as well cut them out of the theory, and say that time began at the Big Bang. Events before the Big Bang, are simply not defined, because there's no way one could measure what happened at them. This kind of beginning to the universe, and of time itself, is very different to the beginnings that had been considered earlier. |accessdate=2008-01-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228050500/http://www.hawking.org.uk/lectures/bot.html |date=2007-12-28 }}</ref> Scientists have come to some agreement on descriptions of events that happened 10<sup>−35</sup> seconds after the Big Bang, but generally agree that descriptions about what happened before one [[Planck time]] (5 × 10<sup>−44</sup> seconds) after the Big Bang will likely remain pure speculation. === Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang === <!-- article is about TIME, not about the Big Bang. This section needs to go to [[Big Bang]] article --> [[Gambar:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg|right|300px|thumb|A graphical representation of the expansion of the universe with the inflationary epoch represented as the dramatic expansion of the [[metric tensor|metric]] seen on the left. Image from [[NASA]], 2006.]] While the Big Bang modél is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the éarliest moments of the universe's history. The [[Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems]] require the existence of a singularity at the beginning of cosmic time. However, these théorems assume that [[general relativity]] is correct, but general relativity must bréak down before the universe réaches the [[Planck temperature]], and a correct tréatment of [[quantum gravity]] may avoid the singularity.<ref>{{cite book | author=Hawking, Stephen; and Ellis, G. F. R. | title = The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time | url=https://archive.org/details/largescalestruct0000hawk | location= Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1973 |id = ISBN 0-521-09906-4}}</ref> There may also be parts of the universe well beyond what can be observed in principle. If inflation occurred this is likely, for exponential expansion would push large regions of space beyond our observable horizon. Some proposals, éach of which entails untested hypotheses, are: * modéls including the [[Hartle-Hawking state|Hartle-Hawking boundary condition]] in which the whole of space-time is finite; the Big Bang does represent the limit of time, but without the need for a singularity.<ref>{{cite journal | author=[[James Hartle|J. Hartle]] and [[Stephen Hawking|S. W. Hawking]] | title=Wave function of the universe | journal=Phys. Rev. D | volume=28 | pages=2960 | year=1983 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.28.2960}}</ref> * [[brane cosmology]] modéls<ref>{{cite journal | author=Langlois, David | title=Brane cosmology: an introduction | year=2002 | id={{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0209261}} }}</ref> in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in [[string theory]]; the pre-big bang modél; the [[ekpyrotic]] modél, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes; and the [[cyclic model]], a variant of the ekpyrotic modél in which collisions occur periodically.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Linde | first=Andre | year=2002 | title=Inflationary Theory versus Ekpyrotic/Cyclic Scenario | id={{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0205259}} }}</ref><ref name="rebirth">{{cite news | url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060508_mm_cyclic_universe.html | title=Recycled Universe: Theory Could Solve Cosmic Mystery | publisher=[[Space.com]] | date=[[8 May]] [[2006]] | accessdate=2007-07-03}}</ref><ref name="rebirth2">{{cite web | url=http://www.science.psu.edu/alert/Bojowald6-2007.htm | title=What Happened Before the Big Bang? | accessdate=2007-07-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704150957/http://www.science.psu.edu/alert/Bojowald6-2007.htm |date=2007-07-04 }}</ref> * [[chaotic inflation]], in which inflation events start here and there in a random quantum-gravity foam, éach léading to a ''bubble universe'' expanding from its own big bang.<ref>{{cite journal | author = A. Linde |title = Eternal chaotic inflation | journal = Mod. Phys. Lett. |volume = A1 |year =1986 | pages=81}}<br />{{cite journal | author = A. Linde |title = Eternally existing self-reproducing chaotic inflationary universe | journal = Phys. Lett. |volume = B175 |year =1986|pages=395–400}}</ref> Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in a much larger and older universe, or [[multiverse]], and not the literal beginning. == Time travel == {{utama|Time travel}} {{seealso|Time travel in fiction|Grandfather paradox}} Time travel is the concept of moving backwards and/or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to moving through [[space]] and different than the "normal" flow of time to an éarthbound observer. Although time travel has been a [[plot device]] in [[fiction]] since the 19th century, and one-way travel into the future is arguably possible given the phenomenon of [[time dilation]] in the [[theory of relativity]], it is currently unknown whether the [[laws of physics]] would allow time travel to the past. Any technological device, whether fictional or hypothetical, that is used to achieve time travel is known as a [[time machine]]. A central problem with time travel to the past is the violation of [[causality]]; should an effect precede its cause, it would give rise to the possibility of [[temporal paradox]]. Some interpretations of time travel resolve this by accepting the possibility of travel between [[Multiverse (science)|parallel realities]] or [[universe]]s. Théory would point toward there having to be a physical [[dimension]] in which one could travel to, where the [[present]] (i.e. the point that which you are léaving) would be present at a point fixed in either the past or future. Seeing as this théory would be dependent upon the théory of a [[multiverse]], it is uncertain how or if it would be possible to just prove the possibility of time travel. == Perception of time == === Time in psychology === {{see also|Mental chronometry|Sense of time}} Even in the presence of timepieces, different individuals may judge an identical length of time to be passing at different rates.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Commonly, this is referred to as time seeming to "fly" (a period of time seeming to pass faster than possible) or time seeming to "drag" (a period of time seeming to pass slower than possible). The psychologist [[Jean Piaget]] called this form of time perception "lived time."{{Fact|date=February 2008}} This common experience was used to familiarize the general public to the idéas presented by [[Einstein]]'s théory of relativity in a 1930 cartoon by [[Sidney "George" Strube]]:<ref name="Priestley">{{cite book | last = Priestley | first = J. B. | authorlink = J. B. Priestley | title = Man and Time | publisher = Crescent Books | location = New York | year = 1964 | pages = 96 | doi = | isbn = }}</ref><ref name="Sunrise">{{cite web | last = Sunrise | first = | title = Unified Field Theory: A new interpretation | work = Chapter 2 - The Development of the Unified Field Theory, pg. 31 | publisher = Sunrise Information Services | year = 2008 | url = http://www.sunrisepage.com/uft/history.pdf | format = | doi = | accessdate = }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913090225/http://www.sunrisepage.com/uft/history.pdf |date=2009-09-13 }}</ref> {{quotation|'''Man:''' Well, it's like this,—supposing I were to sit next to a pretty girl for half an hour it would seem like half a minute,—<br />'''Einstein:''' Braffo! You the idea haf! [''[[sic]]'']<br />'''Man:''' But if I were to sit on a hot stove for two seconds then it would seem like two hours.}} A form of temporal illusion verifiable by experiment is the [[kappa effect]],<ref name="Wada">Wada Y, Masuda T, Noguchi K, 2005, "Temporal illusion called 'kappa effect' in event perception" Perception 34 ECVP Abstract Supplement</ref> whereby time intervals between visual events are perceived as relatively longer or shorter depending on the relative spatial positions of the events. In other words: the perception of temporal intervals appéars to be directly affected, in these cases, by the perception of spatial intervals. Time also appéars to pass more quickly as one gets older.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} [[Stephen Hawking]] suggests that the perception of time is a ratio: ''Unit of Time : Time Lived''.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} For example, one hour to a six-month-old person would be approximately "1:4032", while one hour to a 40-yéar-old would be "1:349,440". Therefore an hour appéars much longer to a young child than to an aged adult, even though the méasure of time is the same. === Time in altered states of consciousness === Altered states of consciousness are sometimes characterized by a different estimation of time. Some psychoactive substances – such as [[entheogen]]s – may also dramatically alter a person's temporal judgement. When viewed under the influence of such substances as [[LSD]], [[psychedelic mushrooms]] and [[peyote]], a clock may appéar to be a strange reference point and a useless tool for méasuring the passage of events as it does not correlate with the user's experience. At higher doses, time may appéar to slow down, stop, speed up, go backwards and even seem out of sequence. A typical thought might be "I can't believe it's only 8 o'clock, but then again, what does 8 o'clock mean?" As the boundaries for experiencing time are removed, so is its relevance. Many users claim this unbounded timelessness feels like a glimpse into spiritual infinity. To imagine that one exists somewhere "outside" of time is one of the hallmark experiences of a psychedelic voyage.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} [[cannabis (drug)|Marijuana]], a milder psychedelic, may also distort the perception of time to a lesser degree.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_effects.shtml |title=Cannabis Effects |accessdate=2008-02-15 |work=Erowid |quote=Time sense altered: cars seem like they are moving too fast, time dilation and compression are common at higher doses.}}</ref> The practice of [[meditation]], central to all Buddhist traditions, takes as its goal the reflection of the mind back upon itself, thus altering the subjective experience of time; the so called, 'entering the now', or 'the moment'.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} === Culture === Culture is another variable contributing to the perception of time. Anthropologist [[Benjamin Lee Whorf]] reported after studying the [[Hopi]] cultures that: "… the Hopi language is seen to contain no words, grammatical forms, construction or expressions or that refer directly to what we call “time”, or to past, present, or future…"<ref>Carroll, John B. (ed.)(1956). ''Language Thought and Reality. Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf''. MIT Press, Boston, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-262-73006-5 9780262730068</ref> Whorf's assertion has been challenged and modified. Pinker debunks Whorf's claims about time in the Hopi language, pointing out that the anthropologist Malotki (1983) has found that the Hopi do have a concept of time very similar to that of other cultures; they have units of time, and a sophisticated calendar.<ref>{{Citation | last = Parr-Davies | first = Neil | author-link = | title = The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A Critique | publisher = [[Aberystwyth University]] | date = April 2001 | year = 2001 | url = http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/njp0001.html | accessdate = [[2008-02-02]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520182627/http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/njp0001.html |date=2007-05-20 }}</ref> == Use of time == {{see also|Time management|Time discipline}} In [[sociology]] and [[anthropology]], [[time discipline]] is the general name given to [[society|social]] and [[economics|economic]] rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the méasurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time méasurements, and péople's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. The use of time is an important issue in understanding [[human behaviour]], [[education]], and [[travel behaviour]]. [[Time use research]] is a developing field of study. The question concerns how time is allocated across a number of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes with [[technology]], as the [[television]] or the [[Internet]] créated new opportunities to use time in different ways. However, some aspects of time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of time spent traveling to work, which despite major changes in [[transport]], has been observed to be about 20–30 minutes one-way for a large number of cities over a long period of time. This has led to the disputed [[time budget hypothesis]]. [[Time management]] is the organization of tasks or events by first estimating how much time a task will take to be completed, when it must be completed, and then adjusting events that would interfere with its completion so that completion is réached in the appropriate amount of time. Calendars and day planners are common examples of time management tools. [[Arlie Russell Hochschild]] and [[Norbert Elias]] have written on the use of time from a sociological perspective. == Tempo ogé == [[Gambar:Le Temps.JPG|thumb|Time's mortal aspect is personified in this bronze statue by [[Charles van der Stappen]]]] {{portal|Time|MontreGousset001.jpg}} :''See the Time [[#Navigation templates|navigation templates]] below for an exhaustive list of related articles.'' === Books === * ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'' * ''[[About Time (book)|About Time]]'' * ''[[An Experiment with Time]]'' === Organizations === ''Leading scholarly organizations for researchers on the history and technology of time and timekeeping'' * [[Antiquarian Horological Society]] - AHS (United Kingdom) * [[Association Française des Amateurs d'Horlogerie Ancienne]] - AFAHA (France) * [[Chronometrophilia]] (Switzerland) * [[Deutsche Gesellschaft für Chronometrie]] - DGC (Germany) * [[HORA]] Associazione Italiana Cultori di Orologeria Antica (Italy) * [[National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors]] - NAWCC (United States of America) {{col-begin}} {{col-break|width=25%}} === Miscellaneous arts and sciences === * [[Anachronistic]] * [[Change]] * [[Date and time notation by country]] * [[List of cycles]] * [[Network Time Protocol]] (NTP) * [[Nonlinear (arts)]] * [[Philosophy of physics]] * [[Rate (mathematics)]] {{col-break|width=25%}} === Miscellaneous units of time === * [[Fiscal year]] * [[Half-life]] * [[Hexadecimal time]] * [[Season]] * [[Tithi]] * [[Unix epoch]] {{col-end}} == Notes and references == {{Refimprove|date=July 2008}} {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == * {{cite book | authorlink = Julian Barbour | last = Barbour | first = Julian | title = The End of Time: The Next Revolution in Physics | url = https://archive.org/details/endoftime0000unse | Publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-19-514592-5 |}} * {{cite book | last = Das | first = Tushar Kanti | title = The Time Dimension: An Interdisciplinary Guide | year = 1990 | location = New York | publisher = Praeger | id=ISBN 0-275-92681-8 }}- Reséarch bibliography * {{cite book | authorlink = Paul Davies | last = Davies | first = Paul | title=About Time: Einstein's Unfinished Revolution | url = https://archive.org/details/abouttimeeinstei00davi_0 | year = 1996|id=ISBN 0-684-81822-1}} * {{cite book | authorlink = Richard Feynman | last = Feynman | first = Richard | title=The Character of Physical Law | year = 1994|origyear=1965|location=Cambridge (Mass)|publisher=The MIT Press|id=ISBN 0-262-56003-8|pages=108-126|url=http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=5277}} * {{cite book | authorlink = Peter Galison | last = Galison | first = Peter | title=Einstein's Clocks and Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time | year = 1992|location=New York|publisher=W. W. Norton|id= ISBN 0-393-02001-0}} * {{cite book | last = Highfield | first = Roger | title = Arrow of Time: A Voyage through Science to Solve Time's Greatest Mystery | url = https://archive.org/details/arrowoftimevoy00cove | publisher = Random House | year = 1992 | id = ISBN 0-449-90723-6}} * {{cite book | authorlink=Mermin|last = Mermin | first = N. David | title=It's About Time: Understanding Einstein's Relativity| year = 2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|id=ISBN 0-691-12201-6|url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8112.html}} * {{cite book | authorlink = Roger Penrose | last = Penrose | first = Roger | title=The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics | year = 1999|origyear=1989|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|id=ISBN 0-19-286198-0|pages=391-417|url=http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780192861986}} * {{cite book | last = Price | first = Huw | title=Time's Arrow and Archimedes' Point| year = 1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|id=ISBN 0-19-511798-0|url=http://www.usyd.edu.au/time/price/TAAP.html}} * {{cite book | authorlink = Hans Reichenbach | last = Reichenbach | first = Hans | title=The Direction of Time | year = 1999|origyear=1956|location=New York|publisher=Dover|id=ISBN 0-486-40926-0|url=http://store.doverpublications.com/0486409260.html}} *[[Bernard Stiegler|Stiegler, Bernard]], ''[[Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus]]'' * {{cite book | authorlink = Gerald James Whitrow | last = Whitrow | first = Gerald J. | title = The Nature of Time | publisher = Holt, Rinehart and Wilson (New York) | year = 1973}} * {{cite book | last = Whitrow | first = Gerald J. | title = The Natural Philosophy of Time | url = https://archive.org/details/naturalphilosoph0000whit_j4t5 | publisher = Clarendon Press (Oxford) | year = 1980}} * {{cite book | last = Whitrow | first = Gerald J. | title = Time in History. The evolution of our general awareness of time and temporal perspective | url = https://archive.org/details/timeinhistoryevo00whit | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0-19-285211-6}} * {{cite book | last = Rovelli | first = Carlo | title = What is time? What is space? | publisher = Di Renzo Editore |location=Rome | year = 2006|id=ISBN 88-8323-146-5|url=http://www.direnzo.it/main.phtml?Language=en&Doc=0001&ISBN=8883231465}} == Tumbu ka luar == {{external links}} {{wiktionarypar|time}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikibooks}} {{Commonscat}} === Perception of time === * [http://www.primitivism.com/time.htm Time and Its Discontents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050509082928/http://www.primitivism.com/time.htm |date=2005-05-09 }} * [http://mixingmemory.blogspot.com/2004/12/by-request-time-perception-i.html Time Perception I] and [http://mixingmemory.blogspot.com/2004/12/time-perception-ii-cognitive-factors.html II] * [http://manchestertiming.co.uk/ Time Perception Research at the University of Manchester] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930072044/http://manchestertiming.co.uk/ |date=2007-09-30 }} === Physics === * [http://physics.thinkingpal.com/what-is-time/ Do we actually measure time?] * [http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/world.html A walk through Time] * [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0310055 Time and classical and quantum mechanics: Indeterminacy vs. discontinuity] * [http://www.thekeyboard.org.uk/What%20is%20Time.htm Theories With Problems: What Is Time?] * [http://www.sugartreeridge.com/Docs/Exploring_the_Nature_of_Time.php Exploring the Nature of Time] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901172405/http://www.sugartreeridge.com/Docs/Exploring_the_Nature_of_Time.php |date=2007-09-01 }} * [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=00042F0D-1A0E-1085-94F483414B7F0000 Myth of the Beginning of Time] === Philosophy === ;'''éastern Philosophy''' * [http://www.literati-tradition.com/time.html The Conceptual Scheme of Chinese Philosophical Thinking - Time] * [http://nariphaltan.virtualave.net/time.pdf An article on Time and Universal Consciousness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809030829/http://nariphaltan.virtualave.net/time.pdf |date=2008-08-09 }} ;'''Western Philosophy''' * {{cite web |url=http://www.onphilosophy.co.uk/time_-_a_dialogue.html |title=Is there a defensible argument for the non-existence of time? |first=Will |last=Crouch |5=Copyright James Nicholson |year=2006-2008 |work=On Philosophy |accessdate=2008-01-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204210348/http://www.onphilosophy.co.uk/time_-_a_dialogue.html |date=2007-12-04 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/t/time.htm |title=Time |first=Bradley (California State University, Sacramento) |last=Dowden |year=2007 |encyclopedia=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor=James Fieser, Ph.D., Bradley Dowden, Ph.D. |accessdate=2008-01-31}} * {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2004/entries/time-experience |title=The Experience and Perception of Time |last=Le Poidevin |first=Robin |year=Winter 2004 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor=Edward N. Zalta |accessdate=2008-01-17}} * {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2007/entries/leibniz-physics/ |title=Leibniz's Philosophy of Physics |year=Winter 2007 |copyright=2007 |first=Jeff (Harvard University) |last=Mcdonough |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor=Edward N. Zalta |publisher=Stanford University |accessdate=2008-01-31}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.friesian.com/space.htm#clarke |title=The Clarke-Leibniz Debate (1715-1716) |first=Kelley L., Ph.D. (Los Angeles Valley College) |last=Ross |publisher=The Proceedings of the Friesian School, Fourth Series (1996, 1999, 2001) |accessdate=2008-01-17}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.friesian.com/space.htm#kant |title=Three Points in Kant's Theory of Space and Time |first=Kelley L., Ph.D. (Los Angeles Valley College) |last=Ross |publisher=The Proceedings of the Friesian School, Fourth Series (1996, 1999, 2001) |accessdate=2008-01-17}} * {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-bebecome/ |title=Being and Becoming in Modern Physics |year=Fall 2007 |last=Savitt |first=Steven, Ph.D. (University of British Columbia) |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor=Edward N. Zalta |accessdate=2008-01-17}} * {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2004/entries/kant-leibniz/ |title=Kant and Leibniz |year=Summer 2004 |first=Catherine (City University of New York) |last=Wilson |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor=Edward N. Zalta |publisher=Stanford University |issn=1095-5054 |accessdate=2008-01-31}} === Timekeeping === * [http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/systime.html Different systems of measuring time] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016211032/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/systime.html |date=2015-10-16 }} * [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/outside.html non-SI units] * [http://www1.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/time_server.html UTC/TAI Timeserver] * [http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html Leapsecond] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961126204059/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |date=1996-11-26 }} * [http://www.intuitor.com/hex/hexclock.html Hexadecimal Time] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3486160.stm BBC article on shortest time ever measured] * [http://www.fhs.ch/en/ Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040707014907/http://www.fhs.ch/en/ |date=2004-07-07 }} * [http://www.awi-net.org American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050125085359/http://www.awi-net.org/ |date=2005-01-25 }} * [http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ The World Clock - Time Zones] * [http://www.worldtimeengine.com/ World Time for any place on earth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080811053528/http://worldtimeengine.com/ |date=2008-08-11 }} === Miscellaneous === * [http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/ GMT and all other timezones...] * [http://www.timeticker.com/ TimeTicker and the time tickers...] * [http://www.welt-zeit-uhr.de/worldtime.php World Time and Zones] * [http://www.time.gov Official US time] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717021237/http://www.time.gov/ |date=2012-07-17 }} * [http://exploringtime.org/?page=segments Exploring Time] from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe * [http://www.time-server.org Time Server] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915093607/http://www.time-server.org/ |date=2008-09-15 }} Calling to a different time zone; This site can be used to work out what time you should call. Also has some good "history of time" information and information about computer time servers and gps time. ==Navigation templates==<!-- Header linked from "See also" above --> {{Time Topics}} {| width="100%" class="collapsible collapsed" style="background:transparent; margin:1em 0 0;" !style="background:#ee9; border:1px solid silver; padding:0.2em 1em 0.2em 6.5em; <!--to reduce size of "[show]" link:-->font-size:90%;"| {{resize|110%|Time articles: Detailed navigation}}</tr> | {{Time measurement and standards}} {{Chronology}} {{Time in religion and mythology}} {{Time in philosophy}} |} [[Kategori:Fisika]] l1abkcio29udy600idf34g4mrtkvnc4 0 28473 711680 681218 2026-08-07T01:26:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 11 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711680 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Anjing doméstik | fossil_range = [[Pléistosin]] Ahir – Kiwari | status = DOM | image = Coat types 3.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | familia = [[Canidae]] | genus = ''[[Canis]]'' | species = ''[[Gray Wolf|C. lupus]]'' | subspecies = '''''C. l. familiaris''''' | trinomial = ''Canis lupus familiaris'' | trinomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758) }} '''Anjing''' (''Canis lupus familiaris'') nyaéta [[subspésiés]] [[doméstik]]asi [[ajag]]/srigala hawuk (''grey wolf''), [[mamalia]] ti kulawarga [[Canidae]] ordo [[Carnivora]].<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}</ref> Istilah ieu nujul boh ka nu liar atawa nu [[ingon-ingon|diingu]] sarta kadang dipaké pikeun [[anjing liar]] ti [[subspésiés]] atawa [[spésiés]] séjén. Anjing doméstik dalit jeung manusa, boh keur diala gawéna atawa pikeun kalangenan, jeung—pikeun sababaraha masarakat—pikeun didahar.<ref name=”Rig”/> Di sakuliah jagat, kira-kira aya 400 juta anjing<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref>. Kiwari, anjing geus mekar jadi ratusan [[ternak anjing|turunan]]. Jangkungna (diukur nepi ka tonggong) aya nu ukur sababaraha [[inci]] ([[anjing Chihuahua]]), tapi aya ogé anu nepi ka sababaraha kaki (''[[Irish Wolfhound]]''); [[warna|kelirna]] aya nu [[bodas]], aya ogé nu [[hideung|hideung lestreng]]; sedengkeun buluna ti nu pondok pisan nepi ka sababaraha sénti, ti nu lempeng nepi ka nu galing<ref>''The Complete dog book : the photograph, history, and official standard of every breed admitted to AKC registration, and the selection, training, breeding, care, and feeding of pure-bred dogs.'' New York: Howell Book House, 1992. ISBN 0876054645</ref>. == Taksonomi == Anjing mimitina diasupkeun kana ''Canis familiaris'' jeung "[[Canis familiarus domesticus]]" ku Linnaeus taun 1758<ref>[http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=727488 ITIS Standard Report Page: Canis familiarus domesticus]</ref>. Taun 1993, anjing ''diklasifikasi'' ulang jadi subspésiés srigala hawuk, ''Canis lupus'', ku [[Smithsonian Institution]] jeung [[American Society of Mammalogists]]. == Asal-usul == Dumasar kana bukti [[DNA]], karuhun anjing misah ti srigala lianna kira 100.000 taun ka tukang<ref>{{cite journal | last = Vila | first = Carles | coauthors = Carles Vila, Peter Savolainen, Jesus E. Maldonado, Isabel R. Amorim, John E. Rice, Rodney L. Honeycutt, Keith A. Crandall, Joakim Lundeberg, Wayne, Robert F. | date = [[1997-01-30]]; accepted [[1997-04-14]] | title = Multiple and ancient origins of the domestic dog | journal = Science | volume = 276 | pages = 1687–1689 | url = http://www.mnh.si.edu/GeneticsLab/StaffPage/MaldonadoJ/PublicationsCV/Science_Dog_Paper.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate = 2006-12-09 | doi = 10.1126/science.276.5319.1687 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126231726/http://www.mnh.si.edu/GeneticsLab/StaffPage/MaldonadoJ/PublicationsCV/Science_Dog_Paper.pdf |date=2012-01-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Kerstin | first = Lindblad-Toh | coauthors = Claire M Wade, Tarjei S. Mikkelsen, Elinor K. Karlsson, David B. Jaffe, Michael Kamal, Michele Clamp, Jean L. Chang, Edward J. Kulbokas III, Michael C. Zody, Evan Mauceli, Xiaohui Xie, Matthew Breen, Robert K. Wayne, Elaine A. Ostrander, Chris P. Ponting, Francis Galibert, Douglas R. Smith, Pieter J. deJong, Ewen Kirkness, Pablo Alvarez, Tara Biagi, William Brockman, Jonathan Butler, Chee-Wye Chin, April Cook, James Cuff, Mark J. Daly, David DeCaprio, Sante Gnerre, Manfred Grabherr, Manolis Kellis, Michael Kleber, Carolyne Bardeleben, Leo Goodstadt, Andreas Heger, Christophe Hitte, Lisa Kim, Klaus-Peter Koepfli, Heidi G. Parker, John P. Pollinger, Stephen M. J. Searle, Nathan B. Sutter, Rachael Thomas, Caleb Webber | date = [[2005-12-08]] | title = Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog | journal = Nature | volume = 438 | pages = 803–819 | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7069/abs/nature04338.html | doi = 10.1038/nature04338 }}</ref>, sarta mimiti diingu tina srigala hawuk kira 15.000 taun ka tukang<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2498669.stm | title = Origin of dogs traced | accessdate = 2006-11-29 | last = McGourty | first = Christine | date = [[2002-11-22]] | publisher = BBC News }}</ref>. Ku kituna, anjing téh jadi spésiés munggaran anu didoméstikasi ku [[manusa]]. Bukti nu aya nunjukkeun yén anjing téh munggaran didoméstikasi di Asia Wétan, sigana di [[Cina]] <ref name=Savolainen_et_al_2002>{{cite journal | first = Peter | last = Savolainen | coauthors = Ya-ping Zhang, Jing Luo, Joakim Lundeberg, and Thomas Leitner | date = [[2002-11-22]] | title = Genetic Evidence for an East Asian Origin of Domestic Dogs | journal = Science | volume = 298 | issue = 5598 | pages = 1610–1613 | doi = 10.1126/science.1073906 | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...298.1610S }}</ref>, sedengkeun nu aya di Amérika Kalér mah istuning bawaan ti Asia<ref name=Savolainen_et_al_2002/>. Nuturkeun ngumbarana manusa ka sakuliah dunya, anjing lahir jadi rupa-rupa. [[Révolusi Néolitik|Révolusi tatanén]] jeung masarakatna lajeng ngadorong tumuwuhna populasi anjing sarta lahirna kabutuh kana anjing anu boga kabisa husus. Kaayaan ieu ngadorong ayana kawin seléktif ngarah ngahasilkeun anjing anu boga kabisa. ===Katurunan jeung sajarah doméstikasi=== {{main|Origin of the domestic dog}} [[Image:DogMosaic wb.jpg|thumb|right|Ieu mozaik kuna, kawasna Romawi, nempokeun hiji anjing gedé make panyangcang diba beuheung keur moro jeung hiji singa.]] <!-- [[Molecular systematics]] indicate that the domestic dog (''Canis lupus familiaris'') descends from one or more populations of wild wolves (''Canis lupus''). As reflected in the [[Binomial nomenclature|nomenclature]], dogs are descended from the wolf and are able to interbreed with wolves. The relationship between human and canine has deep roots. Converging archaeological and genetic evidence indicate a time of [[domestication]] in the late [[Upper Paleolithic]] close to the [[Pleistocene]]/[[Holocene]] boundary, between 17,000 and 14,000 years ago. [[Fossil]] bone morphologies and genetic analysis of current and ancient dog and wolf populations have not yet been able to conclusively determine whether all dogs descend from a single domestication event, or whether dogs were domesticated independently in more than one location. Domesticated dogs may have interbred with local populations of wild wolves on several occasions (a process known in [[genetics]] as [[introgression]]). The earliest dog fossils, two [[skull|crania]] from [[Russia]] and a [[mandible]] from [[Germany]], date from 13,000 to 17,000 years ago. Their likely ancestor is the large northern [[Holarctic]] wolf, ''Canis lupus lupus''. Remains of smaller dogs from [[Mesolithic]] ([[Natufian]]) cave deposits in the [[Middle East]], dated to around 12,000 years ago, have been interpreted as descendants of a lighter Southwest Asian wolf, ''Canis lupus Arabs''. [[Rock art]] and skeletal remains indicate that by 14,000 years ago, dogs were present from [[North Africa]] across [[Eurasia]] to [[North America]]. Dog burials at the [[Mesolithic]] cemetery of Svaerdborg in Denmark suggest that in ancient Europe dogs were valued companions. Genetic analyses have so far yielded divergent results. Vilà, Savolainen, and colleagues (1997) concluded that the ancestors of dogs split off from other wolves between 75,000 and 135,000 years ago, while a subsequent analysis by Savolainen et al. (2002) indicated a "common origin from a single gene pool for all dog populations" between 40,000 and 15,000 years ago in [[East Asia]]. Verginelli et al. (2005), however, suggest both sets of dates must be reevaluated in light of recent findings showing that poorly calibrated molecular clocks have systematically overestimated the age of geologically recent events. On balance, and in agreement with the archaeological evidence, 15,000 years ago is the most likely time for the wolf-dog divergence.<ref>''The natural history of the dog,'' Richard and Alice Fiennes. London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968. ISBN 0297764551</ref> The Soviets have attempted to domesticate the fox, mentioned in the article [[Tame Silver Fox]], and were able to do so in just nine generations, or less than a human lifetime. This also resulted in other changes, including color, which became black, white, or black and white. They also developed year-round breeding ability, curled-up tails, and droopy ears. The rapidity of this change has suggested to researchers a scenario of the [[origin of the domestic dog]]. Primitive people lived on the edge of survival which involved occasional food shortages, and would not have taken wolf pups and made pets of them. However, wolves would raid garbage dumps near human habitations. Wolves have a flight distance which they keep between themselves and a threatening creature. When a dump was approached by humans, some wolves would run a greater distance from the dump than others. Those that ran the shortest distance would return first, and obtain the greatest amount of food. This set up a selective breeding situation that resulted in a strain of wolves having shorter and shorter flight distances, until they were eventually comfortable near humans, having domesticated themselves, so to speak. At that point, they were tolerated by humans, so long as they were also useful, in such ways as catching rats or driving away other predators. In time, other uses, such as hunting, were found for them. [http://www.floridalupine.org/publications/PDF/trut-fox-study.pdf The Farm Fox Experiment] [http://science.howstuffworks.com/dog2.htm Evolution of Dogs] ===Development of dog breeds=== {{main|Dog breeds}} [[Image:Cavalier King Charles Spaniel trio.jpg|thumb|right|Dogs have been bred into a variety of shapes, colors and sizes. Variation can be wide even within a breed, as with these [[Cavalier King Charles Spaniel]]s.]] There are numerous [[dog breed]]s, with [[List of dog breeds|over 800]] being recognized by various [[kennel club]]s worldwide. Many dogs, especially outside the United States of America and Western Europe, belong to no recognized breed. A few basic [[:Category:Dog types|breed types]] have evolved gradually during the domesticated dog's relationship with humans over the last 10,000 or more years, but all modern breeds are of relatively recent derivation. Many of these are the product of a deliberate process of [[artificial selection]]. Because of this, some breeds are highly specialized, and there is extraordinary morphological diversity across different breeds. Despite these differences, dogs are able to distinguish dogs from other kinds of animal. The definition of a dog breed is a matter of some controversy. Depending on the size of the original founding population, closed gene pool breeds can have problems with inbreeding, specifically due to the [[founder effect]]. Dog breeders are increasingly aware of the importance of population genetics and of maintaining diverse gene pools. Health testing and new DNA tests can help avoid problems, by providing a replacement for natural selection. Without selection, inbreeding and closed gene pools can increase the risk of severe health or behavioral problems. Some organizations define a breed more loosely, such that an individual may be considered of one breed as long as 75% of its parentage is of that breed. These considerations affect both pets and the show dogs entered in [[conformation show|dog shows]]. Even prize-winning [[purebred]] dogs sometimes possess crippling [[Genetic disorder|genetic defects]] due to founder effect or [[inbreeding]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Shook | first = Larry | title = The Puppy Report: How to Select a Healthy, Happy Dog | publisher = Ballantine |date=1995 | location = New York | pages = 57–72 | id = ISBN 0-345-38439-3 }}</ref> These problems are not limited to [[purebred]] dogs and can affect cross-breed populations.<ref>{{cite book | last = Shook | first = Larry | title = The Puppy Report: How to Select a Healthy, Happy Dog | publisher = Ballantine |date=1995 | location = New York | pages = 13–34 | id = ISBN 0-345-38439-3 }}</ref> The behavior and appearance of a dog of a particular breed can be predicted to a degree, while mixed-breed dogs show a broader range of innovative appearance and behavior. [[Image:Young mixed-breed dog (aka).jpg|thumb|250px|left|This puppy is a [[Mixed-breed dog|mix of many breeds]].]] [[Mixed-breed dog]]s or [[Mongrel]]s (also called "mutts") are dogs that do not belong to specific breeds, being mixtures more than two in variant percentages. Mixed breed dogs and purebred dogs are both suitable as companions, [[pet]]s, [[working dog]]s, or competitors in [[dog sports]]. Sometimes different breed dogs are deliberately bred, to create cross-breeds such as the Cockapoo, a mixture of Cocker Spaniel and Miniature [[Poodle]]. Such deliberate crosses may display some degree of [[hybrid vigor]] and other desirable traits, but may or may not inherit any of the desired traits of their parents, such as temperament or a particular color or coat. Without genetic testing of the parents, the crosses can end up inheriting genetic defects that occur in both parental breeds. A breed is a group of animals that possesses a set of inherited characteristics that distinguishes it from other animals within the same species. Deliberately crossing two or more breeds is also a manner of establishing new breeds, but it is only a breed when offspring will reliably demonstrate that particular set of characteristics and qualities. [[Image:Buldog angielski 000pl.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The [[Bulldog]] is well known for its short muzzle and saggy skin on its face]] ====Breed popularity==== Breed popularity varies widely over time<Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.slate.com/id/2122298/ | title = Why Americans Love Labrador retrievers | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | last = Koerner | first = Brendan I. | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = [[2005-01-08]] | publisher = Slate Magazine Online }}</Ref> and in different parts of the world and different segments of the population. Counting by [[American Kennel Club]] (AKC) registration (not by [[dog licence|licensing registration]] or by [[United Kennel Club]] (UKC) registration, which could present different statistics), the [[Labrador Retriever]] has been the United States's most commonly registered breed of dog since 1991.<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.akc.org/news/index.cfm?article_id=2389 | title = Labrador Retriever Tops According to AKC's 2004 Registration Statistics | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | date = [[2005-01-12]] | publisher = American Kennel Club }}</Ref> However, even within parts of the United States, popularity varies; for example, in 2005 the most-registered breed in New York City was the [[Poodle]] while the [[Yorkshire Terrier]] was the second-most-registered breed in [[Houston]].<Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.akc.org/reg/topdogsbycity.cfm | title = Top Breeds By City | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | publisher = American Kennel Club }}</Ref> However, animal shelters in many parts of the United States report that the most-commonly available dog for adoption is the [[American Pit Bull Terrier]] or pit bull-type mixes, making up as much as 20% of dogs available for adoption, none of which would be registered with the AKC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?pagename=cruelty_pitbull |title=Pit Bull Cruelty |publisher=American Society for the Prevention of cruelty to Animals |accessdate = 2007-05-11}}</ref> Two decades ago, in 1983, the AKC's top two registered breeds were the [[American Cocker Spaniel]] and the [[Poodle]].<ref>{{cite book|title=World Almanac and Book of Facts|year=1985|publisher=Newspaper Enterprise Association (Doubleday)}}</ref> In the [[United Kingdom]], [[The Kennel Club]] reports that the most-registered breed from at least 1999 to 2005 was the Labrador Retriever. It rounds out the top three for 1999 to 2005 with the [[German Shepherd Dog]], also popular in the US, and the [[English Cocker Spaniel]]<Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/pressoffice/press_top20.html | title = The Kennel Club's top twenty of registered breeds | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | publisher = The Kennel Club }}</Ref> , which is no longer in the top ten in the US. In the UK, a national dog adoption and rescue service indicates that the most common breed appearing in shelters is the Greyhound followed by the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. <Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.dogsblog.com | title = UK dog adoption and rescue service | accessdate = 2007-05-05 | publisher = Dogs Blog }}</Ref> ==Physical characteristics== {{main|Dog anatomy}}{{see also|Dog health}} [[Image:DogWolf.jpg|200px|thumb|Comparative drawing of dog and wolf anatomy by [[Ernest Thompson Seton]]. Note the proportionately smaller head of the dog]] Modern [[dog breed]]s show more variation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal. Within the range of extremes, dogs generally share attributes with their wild ancestors, the [[Gray Wolf|wolves]]. Dogs are [[predator]]s and [[scavenger]]s, possessing sharp teeth and strong jaws for attacking, holding, and tearing their food. Although selective breeding has changed the appearance of many breeds, all dogs retain basic traits from their distant ancestors. Like many other predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, fused wristbones, a [[cardiovascular]] system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing. Unlike humans which are [[plantigrade]], dogs are [[digitigrade]]. ===Differences from other canids=== Compared to equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 10% smaller brains, as well as proportionately smaller teeth than other canid species.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> Dogs require fewer calories to function than wolves. Their diet of human refuse in antiquity made the large brains and jaw muscles needed for hunting unnecessary. It is thought by certain experts that the dog's limp ears are a result of [[atrophy]] of the jaw muscles.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some [[Inuit]] tribes favouring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> Unlike wolves, but like coyotes, domestic dogs have sweat glands on their paw pads.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves.<ref name="Lopez">{{cite book | author = Lopez, Barry | title = Of wolves and men | url = https://archive.org/details/ofwolvesmen0000lope | year = 1978 | pages = pp.320 | id = ISBN 0743249364}}</ref> ===Sight=== [[Image:Greyhound portrait.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Greyhound]], one of many breeds of [[sighthound]]]] Like most mammals, dogs are [[dichromat]]s and have color vision equivalent to red-green [[color blindness]] in humans.<ref name="note1">A&E Television Networks (1998). ''Big Dogs, Little Dogs: The companion volume to the A&E special presentation'', A Lookout Book, GT Publishing. ISBN 1-57719-353-9 (hardcover).</ref><ref name="note2">Alderton, David (1984). ''The Dog'', Chartwell Books. ISBN 0-89009-786-0.</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = Jennifer Davis | title = Dr. P's Dog Training: Vision in Dogs & People | work = | publisher = | date = [[1998]] | url = http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/dog/LA/davis2.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2008-06-06 }}</ref> Different breeds of dogs have different eye shapes and dimensions, and they also have different [[retina]] configurations.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = Jonica Newby, Caroline Penry-Davey | title = Catalyst: Dogs' Eyes | work = | publisher = Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date = [[2003-09-25]] | url = http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s953902.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2006-11-26 }}</ref> Dogs with long noses have a "''visual streak''" which runs across the width of the retina and gives them a very wide field of excellent vision, while those with short noses have an "''area centralis''" — a central patch with up to three times the density of nerve endings as the ''visual streak'' — giving them detailed sight much more like a human's. Some breeds, particularly the [[sighthound]]s, have a field of vision up to 270° (compared to 180° for humans), although broad-headed breeds with short noses have a much narrower field of vision, as low as 180°.<ref name="note1" /><ref name="note2" /> ===Hearing=== Dogs detect sounds as low as the 16 to 20 [[Hertz|Hz]] frequency range (compared to 20 to 70 Hz for humans) and above 45 kHz<ref>[http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/HearingRange.html How well do dogs and other animals hear]</ref> (compared to 13 to 20 kHz for humans),<ref name="note2" /> and in addition have a degree of ear mobility that helps them to rapidly pinpoint the exact location of a sound. Eighteen or more muscles can tilt, rotate and raise or lower a dog's ear. Additionally, a dog can identify a sound's location much faster than a human can, as well as hear sounds up to four times the distance that humans are able to. Those with more natural ear shapes, like those of wild canids like the fox, generally hear better than those with the floppier ears of many domesticated species. ===Smell=== [[Image:Bloodhund r54.jpg|thumb|Scent hounds, especially the [[Bloodhound]], are iconic for their keen sense of smell.]] Dogs have nearly 220 million smell-sensitive cells over an area about the size of a pocket [[handkerchief]] (compared to 5 million over an area the size of a [[postage stamp]] for humans). Some breeds have been selectively bred for excellence in detecting scents, even compared to their canine brethren. What information a dog actually detects when he is scenting is not perfectly understood; although once a matter of debate, it now seems to be well established that dogs can distinguish two different types of scents: an air scent from some person or thing that has recently passed by, and a ground scent that remains detectable for a much longer period. The characteristics and behavior of these two types of scent trail would seem, after some thought, to be quite different, the air scent being intermittent but perhaps less obscured by competing scents, whereas the ground scent would be relatively permanent with respect to careful and repetitive search by the dog, but would seem to be much more contaminated with other scents. In any event, it is established by those who train tracking dogs that it is impossible to teach the dog how to track any better than it does naturally; the object instead is to motivate it properly, and teach it to maintain focus on a single track and ignore any others that might otherwise seem of greater interest to an untrained dog. An intensive search for a scent, for instance searching a ship for contraband, can actually be very fatiguing for a dog, and the dog must be motivated to continue this hard work for a long period of time. ===Coat color=== Domestic dogs often display the remnants of counter-shading, a common natural camouflage pattern. The general theory of countershading is that an animal that is lit from above will appear lighter on its upper half and darker on its lower half where it will usually be in its own shade. This is a pattern that predators can learn to watch for. A countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below. This reduces the general visibility of the animal. One reminder of this pattern is that many breeds will have the occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or undersides. ===Tail=== There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, cork-screw. In some breeds, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries (especially for hunting dogs). It can happen that some puppies are born with a short tail or no tail in some breeds.<ref>[ http://www.braquedubourbonnais.info/en/tail-genetics.htm Bourbonnais pointer or ‘short tail pointer’]</ref> ===Sprint metabolism=== Dogs can generate large amounts of energy for a short period of time. A dog's heart and lungs are oversized relative to its body and its normal everyday needs. A dog also has relatively more red blood cells than a human. Most of the time the dog will keep the extra red blood cells stored in its spleen. When the animal enters into a situation where its full metabolism is required, such as play, catching game, or fighting other dogs, the extra cells are released into the bloodstream. The "oversized" heart and lungs will now be running at full capacity, and the animal will have an enhanced ability to engage in aerobic activity. This activity will produce internal heating. Dogs, being covered in fur, are limited in their ability to cool down. After a short time the animal must either cease its athletic activity or risk harming itself from overheating. One can easily observe this pattern of intense activity followed by rest periods in puppies. During the rest phase the spleen collects red blood cells and the animal may pant to cool down. ==Behavior and intelligence== {{see|:Category:Dog training and behavior}} [[Image:American water spaniel 01.jpg|thumb|right|Many dogs, such as this [[American Water Spaniel]], have had their natural hunting instincts suppressed or altered to suit human needs.]] [[Image:Golden Retriever agility teeter.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Many dogs can be trained to skillfully perform tasks not natural to canines, such as in this [[dog agility]] competition.]] Dogs are very social animals, but their personality and behavior vary with breed as well as how they are treated by their owners and others who come in contact with them. It is not uncommon for dogs to [[dog attack|attack]] humans and other animals; however, this is usually because of lack of care or improper upbringing by its owner. ===Differences from other canids=== Dogs tend to be poorer than wolves and [[coyote]]s at [[observational learning]], being more responsive to [[instrumental conditioning]].<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> Feral dogs show little of the complex social structure or dominance hierarchy present in wolf packs. For dogs, other members of their kind are of no help in locating food items, and are more like competitors.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> Feral dogs are primarily scavengers, with studies showing that unlike their wild cousins, they are poor [[ungulate]] hunters, having little impact on wildlife populations where they are [[sympatric]]. Free ranging pet dogs however are more prone to predatory behaviour toward wild animals. Feral dogs have been reported to be effective hunters of reptiles in the [[Galapagos islands]].<ref name="Evolution">{{cite book | author= Serpell, James| title=The Domestic Dog; its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people | url= https://archive.org/details/domesticdogitsev00serp| year=1995 | pages= p267 | id=0-521-42537-9 }}</ref> ===Intelligence=== {{main|Dog intelligence}} Dogs are valued for their intelligence. This intelligence is expressed differently with different breeds and individuals, however. For example, [[Border Collie]]s are noted for their ability to learn commands, while other breeds may not be so motivated towards obedience, but instead show their cleverness in devising ways to steal food or escape from a yard. Being highly adaptable animals themselves, dogs have learned to do many jobs as required by humans over the generations. Dogs are employed in various roles across the globe, proving invaluable assets in areas such as search-and-rescue; law enforcement (including attack dogs, sniffer dogs and tracking dogs); guards for livestock, people or property; herding; Arctic exploration sled-pullers; guiding the blind and acting as a pair of ears for the deaf; assisting with hunting, and a great many other roles which they may be trained to assume. Most dogs rarely have to deal with complex tasks and are unlikely to learn relatively complicated activities (such as opening doors) unaided. Some dogs (such as [[guide dog]]s for the visually impaired) are specially trained to recognize and avoid dangerous situations. ====Evaluation of a dog's intelligence==== The meaning of "intelligence" in general, not only in reference to dogs, is hard to define. Some tests measure problem-solving abilities and others test the ability to learn in comparison to others of the same age. Defining it for dogs is just as difficult. It is likely that dogs do not have the ability to premeditate an action to solve a problem. [[Image:NICO looks at himself.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A [[mirror test]] is one possible measure of self-awareness.]] For example, the ability to learn quickly could be a sign of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]. Conversely it could be interpreted as a sign of a desire to please. In contrast, some dogs who do not learn very quickly may have other talents. An example is breeds that are not particularly interested in pleasing their owners, such as [[Siberian Husky|Siberian Huskies]]. Huskies are often fascinated with the myriad of possibilities for escaping from yards, catching small animals, and often figuring out on their own numerous inventive ways of doing both. [[Assistance dog]]s are also required to be obedient at all times. This means they must learn a tremendous number of commands, understand how to act in a large variety of situations, and recognize threats to their human companion, some of which they might never before have encountered. Many owners of [[livestock guardian dog|livestock guardian]] breeds believe that breeds like the [[Great Pyrenees]] or the [[Kuvasz]] are not easily trained because their stubborn nature prevents them from seeing the point of such commands as “sit” or “down”. [[Hounds]] may also suffer from this type of ranking. These dogs are bred to have more of a "pack" mentality with other dogs and less reliance on a master's direct commands. While they may not have the same kind of intelligence as a Border Collie, they were not bred to learn and obey commands quickly, but to think for themselves while trailing game. ===Human relationships=== [[Image:Iraq dog.jpg|right|thumb|A [[U.S. Army]] Staff Sgt. and his military working dog wait at a safe house before conducting an assault against insurgents in [[Buhriz]], [[Iraq]] on [[April 10]] [[2007]].]] Dogs are highly [[social animal]]s. This can account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations. These attributes have earned dogs a unique position in the realm of interspecies relationships despite being one of the most effective, voracious, and potentially dangerous predators. Dogs and humans at times co-operate in some of the most effective [[hunting]] in the animal world; in that context, dogs are [[superpredator]]s. The loyalty and devotion that dogs demonstrate as part of their natural instincts as pack animals closely mimics the human idea of love and friendship, leading many dog owners to view their pets as full-fledged family members. Conversely, dogs seem to view their human companions as members of their pack, and make few, if any, distinctions between their owners and fellow dogs. Dogs fill a variety of roles in [[human society]] and are often trained as [[working dog]]s. For dogs that do not have traditional jobs, a wide range of [[dog sports]] provide the opportunity to exhibit their natural skills. In many countries, the most common and perhaps most important role of dogs is as [[companion dog|companions]]. Dogs have lived and worked with humans in so many roles that their loyalty has earned them the unique [[sobriquet]] "man's best friend".<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.almostheaven-golden-retriever-rescue.org/old-drum.html | title = The Story of Old Drum | accessdate = 2006-11-29 | publisher = Cedarcroft Farm Bed & Breakfast - Warrensburg, MO }}</ref> However, some cultures consider dogs to be [[unclean animals|unclean]]. In some parts of the world, dogs are raised as [[livestock]] to produce [[dog meat]] for human consumption. In many places, consumption of dog meat is discouraged by social convention or [[Taboo food and drink|cultural taboo]]. ===Dog communication=== {{main|Dog communication}} ==Reproduction== [[Image:Licking the staffy pup.JPG|thumb|Dogs develop their own [[Dog society|societies]]. Puppies participate with their littermates in learning to relate to other dogs. Dogs learn to successfully relate to other dogs by keeping the peace, rather than by constantly fighting to reestablish this hierarchy.]] ===Differences from other canids=== Unlike most other canids, dogs are not [[monogamous]], and breeding in feral packs is not restricted to a dominant alpha pair (despite common belief, such things also occur in wolf packs<ref>Günther Bloch: Die Pizza-Hunde. ISBN 9783440109861</ref>). Male dogs are unusual among canids by the fact that they mostly play no role in raising their puppies, and do not kill the young of other females to increase their own reproductive success.<ref name="Evolution">{{cite book | author= Serpell, James| title=The Domestic Dog; its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people | url= https://archive.org/details/domesticdogitsev00serp| year=1995 | pages= p267 | id=0-521-42537-9 }}</ref> Dogs differ from wolves and most other large canid species by the fact that they do not regurgitate food for their young, nor the young of other dogs in the same territory.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> However, this difference was not observed in all domestic dogs. Regurgitating of food for the young as well as care for the young by the males has been observed in domestic dogs, dingos as well as in other feral or semi-feral dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females and direct choosing of only one mate has been observed even in those semi-feral dogs of direct domestic dog ancestry. So it is sometimes suggested, that the absence of this behavior was unknowingly caused by artificial selection by humans.<ref>Günther Bloch: Die Pizza-Hunde. ISBN 9783440109861</ref> <ref>Eberhard Trumler, Mit dem Hund auf du; Zum Verständnis seines Wesens und Verhaltens; 4. Auflage Januar 1996; R. Piper GmbH & Co. KG, München</ref> ===Life cycle=== {{main|Canine reproduction}} In domestic dogs, sexual maturity ([[puberty]]) begins to happen around age 6 to 12 months for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds. [[Adolescence]] for most domestic dogs is around 12 to 15 months, beyond which they are for the most part more adult than puppy. As with other domesticated species, [[domestication]] has selectively bred for higher [[libido]] and earlier and more frequent breeding cycles in dogs, than in their wild ancestors. Dogs remain reproductively active until old age. [[Image:Australian Shepherd puppy red merle.jpg|thumb|right|An Australian Shepherd Puppy Red Merle]] Most female dogs have their first [[estrous cycle]] between 6 and 12 months, although some larger breeds delay until as late as 2 years. Females experience estrous cycles biannually, during which her body prepares for [[pregnancy]], and at the peak she will come into [[estrus]], during which time she will be mentally and physically receptive to [[copulation]]. Dogs bear their litters roughly 56 to 72 days after [[fertilization]], although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six [[puppy|puppies]], though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. [[Toy dog]]s generally produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as 12 pups in each litter. ===Spaying and neutering=== {{Main|Spaying and neutering}} Neutering (spaying females and castrating males) refers to the [[Sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]] of animals, usually by removal of the male's [[testicle]]s or the female's [[ovary|ovaries]] and [[uterus]], in order to eliminate the ability to procreate, and reduce sex drive. Neutering has also been known to reduce aggression in male dogs, but has been shown to occasionally increase aggression in female dogs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Heidenberger E, Unshelm J |title=[Changes in the behavior of dogs after castration] |language=German |journal=Tierärztliche Praxis |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |year=1990 |pmid=2326799 |doi=}}</ref> [[Image:CatahoulaLitter wb.jpg|left|thumb|A [[Catahoula Leopard Dog|Catahoula Leopard]] mother nursing her litter of puppies.]] Animal control agencies in the United States and the [[ASPCA]] advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered so that they do not have undesired puppies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?pagename=adopt_spayneuter |title=Top 10 reasons to spay/neuter your pet |publisher=American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals |accessdate = 2007-05-16}}</ref> Because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries, puppies born to strays or as the result of accidental breedings often end up being killed in animal shelters. Neutering can also decrease or eliminate the risk of hormone-driven diseases such as mammary cancer, as well as undesired hormone-driven behaviors. However, certain medical problems are more likely after neutering, such as [[urinary incontinence]] in females<ref>{{cite journal |author=Arnold S |title=[Urinary incontinence in castrated bitches. Part 1: Significance, clinical aspects and etiopathogenesis] |language=German |journal=Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilkd. |volume=139 |issue=6 |pages=271–6 |year=1997 |pmid=9411733 |doi=}}</ref> and [[prostate cancer]] in males.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Johnston SD, Kamolpatana K, Root-Kustritz MV, Johnston GR |title=Prostatic disorders in the dog |journal=Anim. Reprod. Sci. |volume=60-61 |issue= |pages=405–15 |year=2000 |pmid=10844211 |doi=}}</ref> The hormonal changes involved with sterilization are likely to somewhat change the animal's personality, however, and some object to neutering as the sterilization could be carried out without the excision of organs. It is not essential for a female dog to either experience a heat cycle or have puppies before spaying, and likewise, a male dog does not need the experience of mating before castration. Female cats and dogs are seven times more likely to develop [[mammary tumor]]s if they are not spayed before their first [[estrus cycle|heat cycle]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Morrison, Wallace B.|title=Cancer in Dogs and Cats (1st ed.)|publisher=Williams and Wilkins|year=1998|id=ISBN 0-683-06105-4}}</ref> Dog food containing [[soybean]]s or soybean fractions have been found to contain [[phytoestrogens]] in levels that could have biological effects when ingested longterm.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cerundolo R, Court MH, Hao Q, Michel KE |title=Identification and concentration of soy phytoestrogens in commercial dog foods |journal=Am. J. Vet. Res. |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=592–6 |year=2004 |pmid=15141878 |doi=}}</ref> Gender-preservative surgeries such as vasectomy and tubal ligation are possible, but do not appear to be popular due to the continuation of gender-specific behaviors and disease risks. ===Overpopulation=== ====United States==== According to the Humane Society of the United States, 3–4 million dogs and cats are [[euthanasia|put down]] each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.<Ref> {{cite journal | quotes = Although the cause of pet overpopulation is multifaceted, failure of owners to spay and castrate their animals is a major contributing factor. | last = Mahlow | first = Jane C. | year = 1999 | title = Estimation of the proportions of dogs and cats that are surgically sterilized | journal = Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association (excerpt quoted by spayusa.org) | volume = 215 | pages = 640–643 | url = http://www.spayusa.org/main_directory/02-facts_and_education/stats_surveys/javma_articles/02dogs-cats-sterilized.asp | accessdate = 2006-11-30 }}</Ref> Local humane societies, SPCAs and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt animals from shelters instead of purchasing them. Several notable public figures have spoken out against animal over population, including [[Bob Barker#Animal rights|Bob Barker]]. On his [[game show]], ''[[The Price Is Right (U.S. game show)|The Price Is Right]]'', Barker stressed the problem at the end of every episode, saying: "Help control the pet population. Have your pets spayed or neutered." The current host, [[Drew Carey]], makes a similar plea at the conclusion of each episode. [[Image:July 2008 Colombia ;- 387.jpg|thumb|bottom|280px|none|Homeless dog in streets of Bogota Colombia]] ==Working, utility and assistance dogs== {{main|Working dog}} There are several types of working dogs: [[Image:Working dog edit.jpg|thumb|right|Working dogs most commonly are purebreds that had been bred for certain traits, however working [[mixed-breed dog]]s are not uncommon.]] * [[Assistance dog]]s which help the seeing and hearing-impaired. Others are trained to help those with epilepsy and psychiatric disorders, by detecting the onset of the condition so they can seek help. The typical assistance dog is a sociable breed such as a [[Labrador Retriever]]. * The [[detection dog]], which is a dog trained to and works at using its senses (almost always the sense of smell) to detect substances such as explosives or [[illegal drugs]]. * [[Guard dog]]s are trained for personal protection, or to protect property. These are commonly [[Doberman pinscher|Doberman Pinschers]], [[German shepherd|German Shepherds]] and [[Rottweiler]]s as well as dogs of other breeds that have protection instinct. * [[Herding dogs]] can be trained to help the herder to move the herded animals, such as [[sheep]]. [[Australian Cattle Dog]], [[Border Collie]], and [[German Shepherd]] are common herding breeds. * [[Hunting dog]]s can be trained to assist the hunter. [[Terrier]]s and [[retriever]]s are hunting breeds. * [[Police dogs]], typically German Shepherds, are trained to assist law enforcement officers. * [[Search and rescue dog|Search and Rescue dogs]] also known as SAR dogs, are specially trained to search for missing humans. The archetypal breed is the [[St. Bernard (dog)|St. Bernard]]. Nowadays, many dogs of other breeds, such as [[German Shepherd]] and [[Doberman Pinscher]] are trained to perform this task. * [[search and rescue dog|Rescue at sea dogs]] - [[Newfoundland (dog)|Newfoundland]] * [[Therapy dog]]s, with friendly and gentle temperaments, trained to provide comfort and affection to hospitalized and institutionalized patients. * The [[war dog]], used by the military to detect mines and enemy soldiers. * [[Livestock guardian dogs|Livestock Guardian dog]], are used to protect livestock in the range against predators and theft. [[Maremma Sheepdog]] and [[Anatolian Shepherd Dog]] are typical livestock guardians. ==Show and sport (competition) dogs== [[Image:German Shepherds WKC dogshow.jpg|thumb|[[German Shepherd Dog]]s at the [[Westminster Kennel Club]] dog show]] {{main|Dog sports}} Owners of dogs often enter them in competitions, whether show (breed conformation shows) or sports, including dog racing & dog sledding. The winners garner much prestige and prize money. These dogs are often bred specifically for competition, which may not be entirely beneficial for the breeds due to the magnification of hereditary defects. *[[Dog agility]] is a sport in which dogs complete a timed obstacle course. *[[Dogsled racing]] is a winter sport where a team of dogs, usually high performance mixed breed dogs called [[alaskan husky|Alaskan Huskies]] or [[Eurohound]]s, pull a sled and driver (called a [[mushing|musher]]). The [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]] is perhaps the most famous of these races. [[Dog sled]]ding is an ancient form of transportation and still a very effective way of moving freight across this type of terrain. *[[Dog racing]], almost always [[Greyhounds]], involves dogs racing at betting tracks in a sport not unlike [[horseracing]], reaching speeds of 40 miles per hour. Elsewhere, [[Dachshunds]] are often raced, as a humorous sidelight in charity events. *[[Dog fighting]] and [[Bait (dogs)|dog baiting]] are [[blood sports]] involving dogs. They are illegal in most jurisdictions, but are still performed underground. In some areas, the illegal practice is thriving.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12104472 |title=Illegal Dogfighting Rings Thrive in U.S. Cities |author=Brian Mann |date=[[July 20]], [[2007]] |publisher=National Public Radio |accessdate = 2007-10-07}}</ref> *[[Conformation show]]ing is a sport in which purebred dogs are shown and evaluated for how closely they match the ideal characteristics of the breed. The [[Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show]] is one of the most famous of this type of competition. ==Dog health== {{main|Dog health}} {{further|[[:Category:Dog health]]}} ===Morbidity (illness)=== Dogs are susceptible to various diseases, ailments, and poisons, some of which affect humans in the same way, others of which are unique to dogs. Dogs, like all mammals, are also susceptible to heat exhaustion when dealing with high levels of humidity and/or extreme temperatures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.dasnr.okstate.edu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=257&Itemid=103 |title=Summer heat can be tough on pets |accessdate = 2006-08-21 | first = Trisha | last = Gedon | date = [[2006-05-25]] | work = Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources | publisher = Oklahoma State University }}</ref> ====Diseases==== Infectious diseases commonly associated with dogs include [[rabies]] (hydrophobia), [[canine parvovirus]], and [[canine distemper]]. Inherited diseases of dogs can include a wide range from elbow or [[hip dysplasia]] and [[luxating patella|medial patellar luxation]] to [[Epilepsy in animals|epilepsy]] and [[pulmonic stenosis]]. Canines can get just about anything a human can get (excluding many infections which are species specific) like hypothyroidism, cancer, dental disease, heart disease, etc. Two serious medical conditions affecting dogs are [[pyometra]], affecting [[spay and neuter|unspayed]] females of all types and ages, and [[bloat]], which affects the larger breeds or deep chested dogs. Both of these are [[Acute (medical)|acute]] conditions, and can kill rapidly; owners of dogs which may be at risk should learn about such conditions as part of good animal care. {{see also|Vaccination of dogs}} [[Image:Terrier mixed-breed dog.jpg|thumb|[[Mixed-breed dog|First generation hybrids]] (such as this terrier mix) often are healthier than either parent due to the genetic phenomenon of [[heterosis]] or "hybrid vigor".]] ====Parasites==== Common external parasites are various species of [[flea]]s, [[tick]]s, and [[mites]]. Internal parasites include [[hookworm]]s, [[tapeworm]]s, [[roundworm]]s, and [[heartworms]]. See also [[CVBD]] (Canine Vector-Borne Diseases). ====Common physical disorders==== Some breeds of dogs are also prone to certain genetic ailments, such as [[hip dysplasia]], [[luxating patella]]s, [[cleft palate]], [[blindness]], or [[hearing impairment|deafness]]. Dogs are also susceptible to the same ailments that humans are, including [[Diabetes in cats and dogs|diabetes]], [[epilepsy]], [[cancer]], and [[arthritis]]. [[Gastric torsion]] and [[bloat]] is a dangerous problem in some large-chested breeds. ===Mortality (lifespan and causes of death)=== {{Main|Aging in dogs}} The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds. Based on questionnaire surveys of owners in the UK, Denmark, USA, and Canada, the median longevity of most dog breeds is between 10 and 13 years.<ref name="KC Survey">[http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/570 Kennel Club/British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee]. 2004. Purebred Dog Health Survey. Retrieved [[July 5]] [[2007]] </ref><ref name="Denmark Survey">Proschowsky, H. F., H. Rugbjerg, and A. K. Ersbell. 2003. Mortality of purebred and mixed-breed dogs in Denmark. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 58:63-74. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12628771&query_hl=5&itool=pubmed_docsum Online abstract].</ref><ref name="British Owners">Michell, A. R., 1999. Longevity of British breeds of dog and its relationships with sex, size, cardiovascular variables and disease. Veterinary Record 145:625-629. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10619607&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_docsum Online abstract].</ref><ref name="Cassidy Data">[http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/breeddata.htm Dog Longevity Web Site], Breed Data page. Compiled by K. M. Cassidy. Retrieved [[July 8]] [[2007]]</ref> The breed with the dubious distinction of the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including Miniature Bull Terrier, Bulldog, Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retriever, Bloodhound, Irish Wolfhound, Greater Swiss Mountain Dog, Great Dane, and Mastiff, are nearly as short-lived, with median longevities between 6 and 7 years.<ref name="Cassidy Data"/> On the other end of the spectrum, the longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodle, Border Terrier, Miniature Dachshund, Miniature Poodle, and Tibetan Spaniel, have median longevities between 14 and 15 years.<ref name="Cassidy Data"/> The median longevity of mixed breed dogs (average of all sizes) is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs (all breeds averaged).<ref name="British Owners"/><ref name="Denmark Survey"/><ref name="Cassidy Data"/><ref name="Vet School Data"> Patronek, G. J., D. J. Waters, and L. T. Glickman, 1997. Comparative longevity of pet dogs and humans: Implications for gerontology research. The Journals of Gerontology, 1997, 52A, 3: Health Module p. B171-B178. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9158552&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum Online abstract].</ref> As a rule of thumb, small breeds are longer-lived than large breeds, but some of the longest lived large breeds have median longevities nearly as long as those of the shortest lived small breeds, and some of the breeds with the shortest longevities are medium-sized.<ref name="Cassidy Weight">{{cite web |url=http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/weight_and_lifespan.htm |title=Dog Longevity |author=Dr. Kelly M. Cassidy |year=2007 |accessdate = 2007-10-04}}</ref> "Median longevity" refers to the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive. Individual dogs, even in breeds with low median longevities, may live well beyond the median. The dog widely reported to be the longest-lived on record is "[[Bluey (Australian cattle dog)|Bluey]]," purportedly born in 1910 in Australia. He died in 1939 at the age of 29.5 years. Bluey is usually identified as an [[Australian Cattle Dog]], but the first Australian Cattle Dog breed standard was written in 1902,<ref name="ACD Online">[http://www.australiancattledog.com/ Australian Cattle Dogs Online]- Retrieved [[July 17]] [[2007]]</ref> only eight years before Bluey's birth. It is unclear how closely Bluey was related to the breed as it exists today. The Bluey record is anecdotal and unverified.<ref name="AnAge">[http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Canis_familiaris AnAge entry for Canis familiaris AnAge Database]. Human Aging Genomic Resources. Retrieved [[July 17]] [[2007]]</ref> The longest verified records are of dogs living to 24 years.<ref name="AnAge"/> ====Predation==== In some areas where dogs and wolves are sympatric, dogs can be a major food source for wolves. Reports from [[Croatia]] indicate that dogs are killed more frequently than sheep. Wolves in Russia apparently limit feral dog populations. In [[Wisconsin]], more compensation has been paid for dog losses than livestock.<ref name="WOLVES">{{cite book | author= L. David Mech & Luigi Boitani | url = http://www.amazon.com/Wolves-Behavior-Conservation-David-Mech/dp/0226516962 | title=Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation | year=2001 | pages= p 448 | id= ISBN 0226516962 }}</ref> Some wolf pairs have been reported to predate on dogs by having one wolf lure the dog out into heavy brush where the second animal waits in ambush.<ref name="Graves">{{cite book | author = Graves, Will |url = http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/ | title = Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages | year = 2007 | pages = pp.222 | id = ISBN 1550593323}}</ref> In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to an extent where they have to be beaten off or killed.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/145big.shtml |title=Wolf at my door |accessdate = 2007-07-20 |publisher = BBC | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref> Coyotes have also been known to attack dogs. Approximately 3 to 5 pets attacked by coyotes, mostly dogs, are brought into the Animal Urgent Care hospital of South Orange County each week.<ref name="AOP">{{cite web | title = For coyotes, pets are prey | work = Greg Hardesty | publisher = Orange County Register | url = http://www.ocregister.com/ocr/sections/news/focus_in_depth/article_508026.php | accessdate = 2007-08-19}}</ref> [[Big cats]] have been recorded to kill dogs. [[Leopard]]s in particular are known to have a prediliction for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of the dog's size or ferocity.<ref name="Leopard">{{cite book | author = Jonathan & Angela Scott | title = Big Cat Diary: Leopard | year = 2006 | pages = pp.108 | id = ISBN 0007211813}}</ref> Unlike sympatric leopards, [[tiger]]s in India seldom prey on dogs, though in [[Manchuria]], [[Indochina]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]], tigers are reputed to kill dogs with the same vigour as leopards.<ref name="Perry">{{cite book | author = Perry, Richard | title = The World of the Tiger | year = 1965 | pages = pp.260 | id = ASIN: B0007DU2IU}}</ref> [[Striped hyena]]s are major predators of village dogs in [[Turkmenistan]], India and the [[Caucasus]].<ref name="Striped">{{cite web | url = http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm | title = Striped Hyaena ''Hyaena (Hyaena) hyaena'' (Linnaeus, 1758) | publisher = IUCN Species Survival Commission Hyaenidae Specialist Group | accessdate = 2008-05-21 | month = May | year = }}</ref> ===Diet=== ====Nutrition==== [[Image:Dog treats.jpg|thumb|right|200px|There are a great quantity of commercial foods and treats marketed for dogs, and not all are recommended as part of a balanced, healthy diet.]] There is some debate as to whether domestic dogs should be classified as [[omnivores]] or [[carnivores]], by diet. The classification in the Order [[Carnivora]] does not necessarily mean that a dog's diet must be restricted to [[meat]]; unlike an obligate carnivore, such as the [[cat]] family with its shorter [[small intestine]], a dog is neither dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to fulfill its basic dietary requirements. Dogs are able to healthily digest a variety of foods including [[vegetable]]s and [[cereal|grains]], and in fact dogs can consume a large proportion of these in their diet. Wild canines not only eat available plants to obtain [[essential amino acid]]s, but also obtain nutrients from vegetable matter from the stomach and intestinal contents of their [[herbivorous]] prey, which they usually consume. Domestic dogs can survive healthily on a reasonable and carefully designed [[vegetarian]] diet, particularly if [[egg (food)|eggs]] and [[milk]] products are included. Some sources suggest that a dog fed on a [[strict vegetarian]] diet without [[L-carnitine]] may develop [[dilated cardiomyopathy]],<ref>''Small animal internal medicine'', RW Nelson, Couto page 107</ref> however, L-carnitine is found in many [[nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[seed]]s, [[bean]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s and [[whole grain]]s. In the wild, dogs can survive on a vegetarian diet when animal prey is not available. Observation of extremely stressful conditions such as the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, and scientific studies of similar conditions has shown that high-protein (approximately 40%) diets including meat help prevent damage to [[muscle]] tissue in dogs and some other mammals. This level of protein corresponds to the percentage of protein found in the wild dog's diet when prey is abundant; higher levels of protein seem to confer no added benefit. Dogs frequently eat [[grass]], which is a harmless activity. Explanations abound, but rationales such as that it neutralizes [[acid]], or that dogs eat grass to induce [[vomiting]] to remove unwanted substances from their [[stomach]]s,<ref name="wonderquest">[http://www.wonderquest.com/DogsGrass.htm Why dogs eat grass.]</ref> are at best educated guesses. Dogs do vomit more readily than humans, as part of their typical feeding behavior of gulping down food then regurgitating indigestible material such as bones and fur. This behavior is typical of pack feeding in the wild, where the most important thing is to get as much of the kill as possible before others consume it all. Individual domestic dogs, however, may be very "picky" eaters, in the absence of this social pressure. Dogs may also appear to eat grass when they are just running the blades through their mouth to gather information. Their sense of smell and taste may act together to detect if other animals have walked through their area or urinated on the grass.<ref name="wonderquest" /> ====Dangerous substances==== *Human food. Some foods commonly enjoyed by humans are dangerous to dogs, including [[chocolate]] ([[Theobromine poisoning]]), [[onion]]s, [[grape]]s and [[raisin]]s,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.aspca.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=16645 | title = ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center Issues Nationwide Update: Raisins and Grapes Can Be Toxic To Dogs | accessmonthday = [[September 2]] | accessyear = [[2006]] | date = [[2004-07-06]] | work = ASPCA Press Releases | publisher = American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals }}</ref> some types of [[chewing gum|gum]], certain sweeteners<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wkyc.com/news/news_fullstory.asp?id=38879|title=Artificial sweetener poses deadly risk to dogs|publisher=WKYC-TV}}</ref> and [[Macadamia nut]]s. The only known dangerous substance in chocolate is [[cocoa]], so the danger of [[white chocolate]] is uncertain. The [[Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs|acute danger]] from grapes and raisins was discovered around 2000, and has slowly been publicized since then. The cause is not known. Small quantities will induce acute [[renal failure]]. [[Sultana (grape)|Sultanas]] and [[currants]] may also be dangerous. [[Alcoholic beverage]]s pose comparable hazards to dogs as they do to humans, but due to low body weight and lack of [[alcohol tolerance]] they are toxic in much smaller portions. *Plants. Plants such as [[caladium]], [[dieffenbachia]] and [[philodendron]] will cause [[throat]] irritations that will burn the throat going down as well as coming up. [[Hops]] are particularly dangerous and even small quantities can lead to [[malignant hyperthermia]].<ref>{{cite journal | first = K. L.| last = Duncan | coauthors = W. R. Hare and W. B. Buck | date = [[1997-01-01]] | title = Malignant hyperthermia-like reaction secondary to ingestion of hops in five dogs | journal = Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association | volume = 210 | issue = 1 | pages = 51–4 | pmid = 8977648}}</ref> [[Amaryllis]], [[daffodil]], [[english ivy]], [[Iris (plant)|iris]], and [[tulip]] (especially the bulbs) cause [[gastric]] irritation and sometimes [[central nervous system]] excitement followed by [[coma]], and, in severe cases, even death. Ingesting [[foxglove]], [[lily of the valley]], [[Ranunculaceae|larkspur]] and [[oleander]] can be life threatening because the [[cardiovascular]] system is affected. [[Yew]] is very dangerous because it affects the [[nervous system]]. Immediate veterinary treatment is required for dogs that ingest these. *Household poisons. Many household cleaners such as [[ammonia]], [[bleach]], [[disinfectants]], [[drain cleaner]], [[soap]]s, [[detergent]]s, and other cleaners, [[mothball]]s and [[matches]] are dangerous to dogs, as are cosmetics such as [[deodorant]]s, [[hair coloring]], [[nail polish]] and remover, [[permanent wave|home permanent]] lotion, and [[suntan lotion]]. Dogs find some poisons attractive, such as [[antifreeze]] (automotive coolant), [[snail bait|slug and snail bait]], [[insect]] bait, and [[rodent]] poisons. [[Antifreeze]] is insidious to dogs, either puddled or even partly cleaned residue, because of its sweet taste. A dog may pick up antifreeze on its fur and then lick it off. *Animal feces. Dogs occasionally eat their own feces, or the feces of other dogs and other species if available, such as cats, deer, cows, or horses. This is known as [[coprophagia]]. Some dogs develop preferences for one type over another. There is no definitive reason known, although boredom, hunger, and nutritional needs have been suggested. Eating cat feces is common, possibly because of the high protein content of cat food. Dogs eating cat feces from a litter box may lead to [[Toxoplasmosis]]. Dogs seem to have different preferences in relation to eating feces. Some are attracted to the stools of deer, cows, or horses.<ref> [http://www.petlibrary.co.uk/dog-care/why-do-dogs-eact-poop.html Why do dogs eat poop.]</ref> *Other risks. Human medications may be [[toxic]] to dogs, for example [[paracetamol]]/acetaminophen (Tylenol). [[Zinc]] toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of [[Cent (United States coin)|US cents]] minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe [[hemolytic anemia]].<ref>Stowe CM, Nelson R, Werdin R, et al: Zinc phosphide poisoning in dogs. JAVMA 173:270, 1978</ref> Some wet dog and cat food was recalled by [[Menu Foods]] in 2007 because it contained a dangerous substance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.menufoods.com/recall/index.html |title=Recall Information |accessdate = 2008-03-08 |format=HTML |publisher=Menu Foods Income Fund }}</ref> ===Dog abuse=== {{main|Cruelty to animals}} Cruelty to dogs refers to treatment that causes unacceptable suffering or [[harm]]. What qualifies as unacceptable suffering varies among countries and cultures. Cruelty can be passive, typified by simple neglect, or active, with malicious intent.<Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.pet-abuse.com/pages/animal_cruelty.php | title = Animal Cruelty | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | publisher = pet-abuse.com }}</Ref> Malicious treatment of a dog can lead to [[dog attack]]s upon not only the abuser but also innocent people. ==Dog meat for human consumption== {{Main article|Dog meat}} In some countries, certain dog breeds, apart from being kept as pets, are raised on farms and slaughtered for consumption. In countries where dogs are popular as household pets, consumption of dog meat is generally considered abhorrent. There are exceptions, such as [[Korea]], [[Switzerland]], and [[Vietnam]], where dogs are popular as both pets and meat.<ref>{{cite web | last = Arthurs | first = Clare | title = Vietnam's dog meat tradition | publisher = BBC | date = [[2001-12-31]] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1735647.stm | accessdate = 2006-10-10 }}</ref><ref name="SKBBC2">[[Stefan Gates]], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/cooking_in_the_danger_zone/6551385.stm "Stefan's diary: South Korea"], ''[[Cooking in the Danger Zone]]'', [[BBC Two]], [[1 May]] [[2007]].</ref><ref name=swissdogmeat>[http://www.rjkoehler.com/?p=460 "And you thought they just ate fondue"]</ref> Dog meat has been a source of food in China from at least the time of [[Confucius]], and possibly even before. Ancient writings from the [[Zhou Dynasty]] referred to the 'three beasts' (which were bred for food), including pig, goat, and dog. [[Mencius]], the philosopher, recommended dog as the tastiest of all meats. Dog meat is also consumed for allegedly salubrious effects: the [[Swiss]] rural cantons of [[Appenzell]] and [[St. Gallen]] are known to have had a tradition of eating dogs, curing dog meat into jerky and sausages, as well as using the lard for medicinal purposes.<ref name=swissdogmeat /> ==Dogs in religion== {{main|Dogs in religion}} Dogs have played a role in many religious traditions, including [[ancient Egyptian religion]], [[Chinese religion]], [[Hinduism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]. ==See also== {{portal|Dogs|Aussie-blacktri.jpg}} {{portal|Mammals|Okapi2.jpg}} * [[Bark (dog)]] * [[Dog king]] – Scandinavian tradition * [[Dog licence]] * [[Dog odor]] * [[Dog paddle]] – basic swimming stroke * [[Dog park]] * [[Fear of dogs]] * [[List of dog breeds]] * [[List of dogs]] * [[List of fictional dogs]] * [[List of most popular dog breeds]] * [[Subspecies of Canis lupus|Subspecies of ''Canis lupus'']] * [[Wolf-dog hybrid]] --> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Dog|Dog]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris. Disalin 13 Agustus 2008. {{reflist|2}} * Abrantes, Roger (1999). ''Dogs Home Alone''. Wakan Tanka, 46 pages. ISBN 0-9660484-2-3 (paperback). * A&E Television Networks (1998). ''Big Dogs, Little Dogs: The companion volume to the A&E special presentation'', A Lookout Book, GT Publishing. ISBN 1-57719-353-9 (hardcover). * Alderton, David (1984). ''The Dog'', Chartwell Books. ISBN 0-89009-786-0. * Bloch, Günther. ''Die Pizza-Hunde'' (in German), 2007, Franckh-Kosmos-Verlags GmbH & Co. KG, Stuttgart,ISBN 9783440109861 * Brewer, Douglas J. (2002) ''Dogs in Antiquity: Anubis to Cerberus: The Origins of the Domestic Dog'', Aris & Phillips ISBN 0-85668-704-9 * Coppinger, Raymond and Lorna Coppinger (2002). ''Dogs: A New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution'', University of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-11563-1 * Cunliffe, Juliette (2004). ''The Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds''. Parragon Publishing. ISBN 0-7525-8276-3. * Derr, Mark (2004). ''Dog's Best Friend: Annals of the Dog-Human Relationship''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14280-9 * Donaldson, Jéan (1997). ''The Culture Clash''. James & Kenneth Publishers. ISBN 1-888047-05-4 (paperback). * Fogle, Bruce, DVM (2000). ''The New Encyclopedia of the Dog''. Doring Kindersley (DK). ISBN 0-7894-6130-7. * Grenier, Roger (2000). ''The Difficulty of Being a Dog''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-30828-6 * Milani, Myrna M. (1986). ''The Body Language and Emotion of Dogs: A practical guide to the Physical and Behavioral Displays Owners and Dogs Exchange and How to Use Them to Create a Lasting Bond'', William Morrow, 283 pages. ISBN 0-688-12841-6 (trade paperback). * Pfaffenberger, Clare (1971). ''New Knowledge of Dog Behavior''. Wiley, ISBN 0-87605-704-0 (hardcover); Dogwise Publications, 2001, 208 pages, ISBN 1-929242-04-2 (paperback). * Savolainen, P. et al. (2002). Genetic Evidence for an éast Asian Origin of Domestic Dogs. ''Science'' '''298'''. 5598: 1610–1613. * Shook, Larry (1995). "Breeders Can Hazardous to Health", ''The Puppy Report: How to Select a Healthy, Happy Dog'', Chapter Two, pp.&nbsp;13–34. Ballantine, 130 pages, ISBN 0-345-38439-3 (mass market paperback); Globe Pequot, 1992, ISBN 1-55821-140-3 (hardcover; this is much chéaper should you buy). * Shook, Larry (1995). ''The Puppy Report: How to Select a Healthy, Happy Dog'', Chapter Four, "Hereditary Problems in Purebred Dogs", pp.&nbsp;57–72. Ballantine, 130 pages, ISBN 0-345-38439-3 (mass market paperback); Globe Pequot, 1992, ISBN 1-55821-140-3 (hardcover; this is much chéaper should you buy). * Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall (1993). ''The Hidden Life of Dogs'' (hardcover), A Peter Davison Book, Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-66958-8. * Verginelli, F. et al. (2005). Mitochondrial DNA from Prehistoric Canids Highlights Relationships Between Dogs and South-éast Européan Wolves. ''Mol. Biol. Evol.'' '''22''': 2541–2551. * Trumler, Eberhard. ''Mit dem Hund auf du; Zum Verständnis seines Wesens und Verhaltens'' (in German); 4. Auflage Januar 1996; R. Piper GmbH & Co. KG, München * ''Small animal internal medicine'', RW Nelson, Couto page 107 == Tumbu kaluar == {{sisterlinks}} {{Wikispecies}} * [http://www.akc.org/ American Kennel Club] * [http://www.ankc.aust.com/breed_list.html Australian National Kennel Club] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116235432/http://www.ankc.aust.com/breed_list.html |date=2006-11-16 }} * [http://www.ckc.ca/ Canadian Kennel Club] * [http://www.fci.be/home.asp?lang=en Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) - World Canine Organisation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061218004220/http://www.fci.be/home.asp?lang=en |date=2006-12-18 }} * [http://www.nzkc.org.nz/dogselect.html New Zealand Kennel Club] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105182612/http://www.nzkc.org.nz/dogselect.html |date=2009-11-05 }} * [http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/ The Kennel Club (UK)] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Anjing]] [[Kategori:Canis]] [[Kategori:Sato nyusuan]] 5t4i315xmpi6xd2801y9ol9k7e23er8 0 28563 711642 703485 2026-08-07T00:46:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711642 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Classical mechanics|cTopic=Fundamental concepts}} [[Gambar:Newton-Principia-Mathematica 1-500x700.jpg|thumb|200px|Kaca judul édisi munggaran hasil gawé Newton nu ngadéfinisikeun [[Hukum gerak Newton]].]] Dina [[fisika]], '''moméntum''' (dina hijian [[SI]] [[kilogram|kg]]·[[méter per detik|m/s]], atawa, nu satara, [[newton|N]]·[[detik|s]]) mangrupa hasil pakalian [[massa]] jeung [[laju]] hiji obyék (<math>p=mv</math>). Inyana kalan-kalan disebut salaku '''moméntum liniér''' pikeun ngabédakeun jeung jejer nu pakait ngeunaan [[moméntum sudut]] atawa [[moméntum puter]]. Moméntum liniér mangrupa hiji kuantitas [[véktor]] lantaran inyana boga arah tujuan sarta gedé. Moméntum sudut mangrupa hiji kuantitas [[véktor palsu]] lantaran inyana {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} it gains an additional sign flip under an [[improper rotation]]. The total momentum of any group of objects remains the same unless outside forces act on the objects (law of [[conservation of momentum]]). Momentum is a [[Conservation law|conserved]] quantity, méaning that the total momentum of any [[closed system]] (one not affected by external forces) cannot change. This concept is extended in the [[second law of thermodynamics]] and [[special relativity]]. == History of the concept == The word for the general concept of ''mōmentum'' was used in the [[Roman Republic]] primarily to méan "a movement, motion (as an indwelling force ...)." A fish was able to change velocity (''velocitas'') through the ''mōmentum'' of its tail.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lewis|first=Charleton T.|coauthors=Charles Short|work=A Latin Dictionary|publisher=Tufts University: The Perseus Project|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2329522|title=mōmentum|format=html|accessdate=2008-02-15}}</ref> The word is formed by an accretion of [[Suffix|suffices]] on the stem of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''movēre'', "to move." A ''movi-men-'' is the result of the ''movēre'' just as ''frag-men-'' is the result of ''frangere'', "to break." Extension by -to- obtains ''mōvimentum'' and ''fragmentum'', the former contracting to ''mōmentum''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Carl Darling|last=Buck|authorlink=Carl Darling Buck|title=Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-BTV-992|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, Illinois|date=1933|pages=pages 320, 321, 335}}</ref> The ''mōmentum'' was not méré ly the motion, which was ''mōtus'', but was the power residing in a moving object, captured by today's mathematical definitions. A ''mōtus'', "movement", was a stage in any sort of change,<ref>{{cite web|last=Lewis|first=Charleton T.|coauthors=Charles Short|work=A Latin Dictionary|publisher=Tufts University: The Perseus Project|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2329780|title=mōtus|format=html|accessdate=2008-02-15}}</ref> while ''velocitas'', "swiftness", captured only [[speed]]. The Romans, due to limitations inherent in the [[Roman numeral]] system,{{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}} were unable to go further with the perception.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} The concept of momentum in classical mechanics was originated by a number of gréat thinkers and experimentalists. The first of these was [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) ''circa'' 1000, who referred to [[Theory of impetus|impetus]] as proportional to [[weight]] times [[velocity]].<ref>A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), p. 477–482: {{quote|"Thus he considered impetus as proportional to weight times velocity. In other words, his conception of impetus comes very close to the concept of momentum of Newtonian mechanics."}}</ref> [[René Descartes]] later referred to ''mass times velocity'' as the ''fundamental force of motion''. [[Galileo]] in his [[Two New Sciences]] used the [[Italian language|Italian]] word "impeto." The question has been much debated as to what Sir [[Isaac Newton]]'s contribution to the concept was. Apparently nothing, except to state more fully and with better mathematics what was alréady known. The first and second of [[Newton's Laws of Motion]] had alréady been stated by [[John Wallis]] in his 1670 work, ''Mechanica slive De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus'': "the initial state of the body, either of rest or of motion, will persist" and "If the force is greater than the resistance, motion will result...."<ref>{{cite book|first=J.F.|last=Scott|title=The Mathematical Work of John Wallis, D.D., F.R.S.|url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicalwork0000scot|publisher=Chelsea Publishing Company|date=1981|id=ISBN 0-8284-0314-7|pages=page 111}}</ref> Wallis uses ''momentum'' and ''vis'' for force. Newton's "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" when it first came out in 1686 showed a similar casting around for words to use for the mathematical momentum. His Definition II<ref>Newton placed his definitions up front as did Wallis, with whom Newton can hardly fail to have been familiar.</ref> defines ''quantitas motus'', "quantity of motion," as "arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly", which identifies it as momentum.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ernst|last=Grimsehl|coauthor=Leonard Ary Woodward, Translator|title=A Textbook of Physics|publisher=Blackie & Son limited| date=1932|location=London, Glasgow|pages=page 78}}</ref> Thus when in Law II he refers to ''mutatio motus'', "change of motion," being proportional to the force impressed, he is generally taken to méan momentum and not motion.<ref>{{cite book|first=Aldo|last=Rescigno|title=Foundation of Pharmacokinetics|date=2003|is=ISBN 0-306-47704-1|location=New York|publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers|pages=page 19}}</ref> It remained only to assign a standard term to the quantity of motion. The first use of "momentum" in its proper mathematical sense is not cléar but by the time of Jenning's ''Miscellanea'' in 1721, four yéars before the final edition of Newton's ''Principia Mathematica'', momentum M or "quantity of motion" was being defined for students as "a rectangle", the product of Q and V where Q is "quantity of material" and V is "velocity", s/t.<ref>{{cite book|first=John|last=Jennings|title=Miscellanea in Usum Juventutis Academicae|publisher=R. Aikes & G. Dicey|date=1721|location=Northampton|pages=page 67}}</ref> == Linear momentum of a particle == [[Gambar:Relativity an apple in a lift.png|thumb|Newton's apple in Einstein's elevator, a frame of reference. In it the apple has no velocity or momentum; outside, it does.]] If an object is moving in any [[Frame of reference|reference frame]], then it has momentum in that frame. It is important to note that momentum is [[frame dependent]]. That is, the same object may have a certain momentum in one frame of reference, but a different amount in another frame. For example, a moving object has momentum in a reference frame fixed to a spot on the ground, while at the same time having 0 momentum in a reference frame attached to the object's [[center of mass]]. The amount of momentum that an object has depends on two physical quantities: the [[mass]] and the [[velocity]] of the moving object in the [[frame of reference]]. In physics, the usual symbol for momentum is a small bold '''p''' (bold because it is a [[vector (spatial)|vector]]); so this can be written: :<math>\mathbf{p}= m \mathbf{v}</math> where: :<math>\ \mathbf{p}</math> is the momentum :<math>\ m</math> is the mass :<math>\ \mathbf{v}</math> the velocity Example: a modél airplane of 1&nbsp;kg travelling due north at 1&nbsp;m/s in straight and level flight has a momentum of 1&nbsp;kg m/s due north méasured from the ground. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit it has a velocity and momentum of zero. According to [[Newton's second law]] the rate of change of the momentum of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on the particle and is in the direction of that force. In the case of constant mass, and velocities much less than the speed of light, this definition results in the equation :<math>\ \sum{\mathbf{F}} = {\mathrm{d}\mathbf{p} \over \mathrm{d}t} = m{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{v} \over \mathrm{d}t} = m\mathbf{a} </math> or just simply :<math>\mathbf{F}= m \mathbf{a}</math> where '''F''' is understood to be the [[Vector (spatial)|resultant]]. Example: a modél airplane of 1&nbsp;kg accelerates from rest to a velocity of 1&nbsp;m/s due north in 1 sec. The thrust required to produce this acceleration is 1 [[newton]]. The change in momentum is 1&nbsp;kg m/s. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit there is no change of momentum. Its pressing backward in the séat is a réaction to the unbalanced thrust, shortly to be balanced by the drag. == Linear momentum of a system of particles == === Relating to mass and velocity === The linéar momentum of a system of particles is the [[vector sum]] of the momenta of all the individual objects in the system. :<math>\mathbf{P}= \sum_{i = 1}^n m_i \mathbf{v}_i = m_1 \mathbf{v}_1 + m_2 \mathbf{v}_2 + m_3 \mathbf{v}_3 + \cdots + m_n \mathbf{v}_n </math> where :<math>\mathbf{P}</math> is the momentum of the particle system :<math>\ m_i</math> is the mass of object ''i'' :<math>\mathbf{v}_i</math> the vector velocity of object ''i'' :<math>\ n</math> is the number of objects in the system It can be shown that, in the [[center of mass frame]] the momentum of a system is zero. Additionally, the momentum in a frame of reference that is moving at a velocity '''v'''<sub>cm</sub> with respect to that frame is simply: :<math>\mathbf{P}= M\mathbf{v}_\text{cm}</math> where: :<math>M=\sum_{i = 1}^n m_i</math>. === Relating to force- General equations of motion === [[Gambar:Equation motion body.png|280px|right|thumb|Motion of a material body]] The linéar momentum of a system of particles can also be defined as the product of the total mass <math>\ M</math> of the system times the velocity of the center of mass <math>\mathbf{v}_{cm}</math> :<math>\ \sum{\mathbf{F}} = {\mathrm{d}\mathbf{P} \over \mathrm{d}t}= M \frac{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{v}_{cm}}{\mathrm{d}t}=M\mathbf{a}_{cm}</math> This is commonly known as [[Newton's second law]]. For a more general derivation using tensors, we consider a moving body (see Figure), assumed as a [[Continuum mechanics|continuum]], occupying a volume <math>\ V</math> at a time <math>\ t</math>, having a surface aréa <math>\ S</math>, with defined traction or surface forces <math>\ T_i^{(n)}</math> acting on every point of the body surface, body forces <math>\ F_i</math> per unit of volume on every point within the volume <math>\ V</math>, and a velocity field <math>\ v_i</math> prescribed throughout the body. Following the previous equation, The linéar momentum of the system is: :<math>\int_S T_i^{(n)}dS + \int_V F_i dV = \int_V \rho \frac{d v_i}{dt} \, dV</math> By definition the [[Stress (physics)|stress]] vector is <math>\ T_i^{(n)} =\sigma_{ij}n_j</math>, then :<math>\int_S \sigma_{ij}n_j \, dS + \int_V F_i \, dV = \int_V \rho \frac{d v_i}{dt} \, dV</math> Using the [[Divergence theorem|Gauss's divergency theorem]] to convert a surface integral to a volume integral gives :<math>\int_V \sigma_{ij,j} \, dV + \int_V F_i \, dV = \int_V \rho \frac{d v_i}{dt} \, dV</math> :<math>\int_V \sigma_{ij,j} + F_i - \rho \frac{d v_i}{dt}\, dV = 0</math> For an arbitrary volume the integrand itself must be zero, and we have the [[Cauchy momentum equation|Cauchy's equation of motion]] :<math> \sigma_{ij,j} + F_i = \rho \frac{d v_i}{dt}</math> If a system is in equilibrium, the change in momentum with respect to time is equal to 0, as there is no acceleration. :<math>\sum{\mathbf{F}} = {\mathrm{d}\mathbf{P} \over \mathrm{d}t}=\ M\mathbf{a}_{cm}= 0</math> or using tensors, :<math>\ \sigma_{ij,j} + F_i = 0</math> These are the equilibrium equations which are used in [[solid mechanics]] for solving problems of [[linear elasticity]]. In engineering notation, the equilibrium equations are expressed in [[Cartesian coordinates]] as : <math>\frac{\partial \sigma_x}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial \tau_{yx}}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial \tau_{zx}}{\partial z} + F_x = 0</math> : <math>\frac{\partial \tau_{xy}}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial \sigma_y}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial \tau_{zy}}{\partial z} + F_y = 0</math> : <math>\frac{\partial \tau_{xz}}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial \tau_{yz}}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial \sigma_z}{\partial z} + F_z = 0</math> == Conservation of linear momentum == The law of '''conservation of linéar momentum''' is a fundamental law of nature, and it states that the total momentum of a closed system of objects (which has no interactions with external agents) is constant. One of the consequences of this is that the [[center of mass]] of any [[physical system|system]] of [[physical body|objects]] will always continue with the same velocity unless acted on by a force from outside the system. Conservation of momentum is a mathematical consequence of the [[Homogeneity (physics)|homogeneity]] (shift [[symmetry]]) of space (position in space is the [[canonical conjugate]] quantity to momentum). So, momentum conservation can be philosophically stated as "nothing depends on location per se". In an isolated system (one where external forces are absent) the total momentum will be constant: this is implied by Newton's [[Inertia|first law of motion]]. Newton's third law of motion, the [[Newton's laws of motion#Newton.27s third law: law of reciprocal actions|law of reciprocal actions]], which dictates that the forces acting between systems are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, is due to the conservation of momentum. Since position in space is a vector quantity, momentum (being the [[canonical conjugate]] of position) is a vector quantity as well - it has direction. Thus, when a gun is fired, the final total momentum of the system (the gun and the bullet) is the vector sum of the momenta of these two objects. Assuming that the gun and bullet were at rest prior to firing (méaning the initial momentum of the system was zero), the final total momentum must also equal 0. In an isolated system with only two objects, the change in momentum of one object must be equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the other object. Mathematically, <math>\Delta \mathbf{p}_1 = -\Delta \mathbf{p}_2</math> Momentum has the special property that, in a [[closed system]], it is always conserved, even in [[collision]]s and separations caused by explosive forces. [[Kinetic energy]], on the other hand, is not conserved in collisions if they are inelastic. Since momentum is conserved it can be used to calculate an unknown velocity following a collision or a separation if all the other masses and velocities are known. A common problem in physics that requires the use of this fact is the collision of two particles. Since momentum is always conserved, the sum of the momenta before the collision must equal the sum of the momenta after the collision: :<math>m_1 \mathbf u_{1} + m_2 \mathbf u_{2} = m_1 \mathbf v_{1} + m_2 \mathbf v_{2} \,</math> where: :'''u''' signifies vector velocity before the collision :'''v''' signifies vector velocity after the collision. Usually, we either only know the velocities before or after a collision and would like to also find out the opposite. Correctly solving this problem méans you have to know what kind of collision took place. There are two basic kinds of collisions, both of which conserve momentum: *[[Elastic collision]]s conserve kinetic energy as well as total momentum before and after collision. *[[Inelastic collision]]s don't conserve kinetic energy, but total momentum before and after collision is conserved. ==== Elastic collisions ==== A collision between two [[Pool billiards|Pool]] balls is a good example of an ''almost'' totally elastic collision; a totally elastic collision exists only in théory. In addition to momentum being conserved when the two balls collide, the sum of kinetic energy before a collision must equal the sum of kinetic energy after: ::<math>\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} m_1 v_{1,i}^2 + \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} m_2 v_{2,i}^2 = \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} m_1 v_{1,f}^2 + \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} m_2 v_{2,f}^2 \,</math> Since the 1/2 factor is common to all the terms, it can be taken out right away. ===== Head-on collision (1 dimensional) ===== In the case of two objects colliding héad on we find that the final velocity ::<math> v_{1,f} = \left( \frac{m_1 - m_2}{m_1 + m_2} \right) v_{1,i} + \left( \frac{2 m_2}{m_1 + m_2} \right) v_{2,i} \,</math> ::<math> v_{2,f} = \left( \frac{2 m_1}{m_1 + m_2} \right) v_{1,i} + \left( \frac{m_2 - m_1}{m_1 + m_2} \right) v_{2,i} \,</math> which can then éasily be réarranged to ::<math>m_{1} \cdot v_{1,f} + m_{2} \cdot v_{2,f} = m_{1} \cdot v_{1,i} + m_{2} \cdot v_{2,i}\,</math> '''Special Case: m<sub>1</sub>>>m<sub>2</sub>''' Now consider the case when the mass of one body, say m<sub>1</sub>, is far gréater than that of the other, m<sub>2</sub> (m<sub>1</sub>>>m<sub>2</sub>). In that case m<sub>1</sub>+m<sub>2</sub> is approximately equal to m<sub>1</sub> and m<sub>1</sub>-m<sub>2</sub> is approximately equal to m<sub>1</sub>. Using these approximations, the above formula for <math>v_{2,\mathrm{f}}</math> reduces to <math>v_{2,\mathrm{f}}=2v_{1,\mathrm{i}}-v_{2,\mathrm{i}}</math>. Its physical interpretation is that in the case of a collision between two bodies, one of which is much more massive than the other, the lighter body ends up moving in the opposite direction with twice the original speed of the more massive body. '''Special Case: m<sub>1</sub>=m<sub>2</sub>''' Another special case is when the collision is between two bodies of equal mass. Say body m1 moving at velocity v<sub>1</sub> strikes body m<sub>2</sub> that is at rest (v<sub>2</sub>). Putting this case in the equation derived above we will see that after the collision, the body that was moving (m<sub>1</sub>) will start moving with velocity v<sub>2</sub> and the mass m<sub>2</sub> will start moving with velocity v<sub>1</sub>. So there will be an exchange of velocities. Now suppose one of the masses, say m<sub>2</sub>, was at rest. In that case after the collision the moving body, m<sub>1</sub>, will come to rest and the body that was at rest, m<sub>2</sub>, will start moving with the velocity that m<sub>1</sub> had before the collision. Note that all of these observations are for an [[elastic collision]]. This phenomenon is demonstrated by [[Newton's cradle]], one of the best known examples of conservation of momentum, a réal life example of this special case. ===== Multi-dimensional collisions ===== In the case of objects colliding in more than one dimension, as in oblique collisions, the velocity is resolved into orthogonal components with one component perpendicular to the plane of collision and the other component or components in the plane of collision. The velocity components in the plane of collision remain unchanged, while the velocity perpendicular to the plane of collision is calculated in the same way as the one-dimensional case. For example, in a two-dimensional collision, the momenta can be resolved into ''x'' and ''y'' components. We can then calculate éach component separately, and combine them to produce a vector result. The magnitude of this vector is the final momentum of the isolated system. See the [[elastic collision]] page for more details. <math>x=2a</math> ==== Inelastic collisions ==== A common example of a perfectly inelastic collision is when two snowballs collide and then ''stick'' together afterwards. This equation describes the conservation of momentum: ::<math>m_1 \mathbf v_{1,i} + m_2 \mathbf v_{2,i} = \left( m_1 + m_2 \right) \mathbf v_f \,</math> It can be shown that a perfectly inelastic collision is one in which the maximum amount of [[kinetic energy]] is converted into other forms. For instance, if both objects stick together after the collision and move with a final common velocity, one can always find a reference frame in which the objects are brought to rest by the collision and 100% of the kinetic energy is converted. This is true even in the relativistic case and utilized in [[particle accelerators]] to efficiently convert kinetic energy into new forms of [[mass-energy]] (i.e. to créate massive particles). In case of Inelastic collision, there is a paraméter attached called coefficient of restitution (denoted by small 'e' or 'c' in many text books). It is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation to relative velocity of approach. It is a ratio hence it is a dimensionless quantity. When we have an elastic collision the value of e (= coefficient of restitution) is 1, i.e. the relative velocity of approach is same as the relative velocity of separation of the colliding bodies. In an elastic collision the Kinetic energy of the system is conserved. When a collision is not elastic (e<1) it is an inelastic collision. In case of a perfectly inelastic collision the relative velocity of separation of the centre of masses of the colliding bodies is 0. Hence after collision the bodies stick together after collision. In case of an inelastic collision the loss of Kinetic energy is maximum as stated above. In all types of collision if no external force is acting on the system of colliding bodies, the momentum will always be preserved. ==== Explosions ==== An explosion occurs when an object is divided into two or more fragments due to a reléase of energy. Note that kinetic energy in a system of explosion is not conserved because it involves energy transformation. (i.e. kinetic energy changes into héat and sound energy) http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/momentum/u4l2e.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915105335/http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/momentum/u4l2e.html |date=2008-09-15 }} In the exploding cannon demonstration, total system momentum is conserved. The system consists of two objects - a cannon and a tennis ball. Before the explosion, the total momentum of the system is zero since the cannon and the tennis ball located inside of it are both at rest. After the explosion, the total momentum of the system must still be zero. If the ball acquires 50 units of forward momentum, then the cannon acquires 50 units of backwards momentum. The vector sum of the individual momenta of the two objects is 0. Total system momentum is conserved. See the [[inelastic collision]] page for more details. == Modern definitions of momentum == === Momentum in relativistic mechanics === In relativistic mechanics, in order to be conserved, momentum must be defined as: :<math> \mathbf{p} = \gamma m_0\mathbf{v} </math> where :<math>m_0\,</math> is the [[invariant mass]] of the object moving, :<math> \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}}</math> is the [[Lorentz factor]] :<math>v\,</math> is the relative velocity between an object and an observer :<math>c\,</math> is the [[speed of light]]. Relativistic momentum can also be written as invariant mass times the object's [[proper velocity]], defined as the rate of change of object position in the observer frame with respect to time elapsed on object clocks (i.e. object [[proper time]]). Relativistic momentum becomes Newtonian momentum: <math> m\mathbf{v} </math> at low speed <math> \big(\mathbf{v}/c \rightarrow 0 \big)</math>. [[image:Relativistic Dynamics.svg|thumb|right|450px|The diagram can serve as a useful mnemonic for remembering the above relations involving relativistic energy <math>E\,</math>, invariant mass <math>m_0\,</math>, and relativistic momentum <math>p\,</math>. Pléase note that in the notation used by the diagram's créator, the invariant mass <math>m\,</math> is subscripted with a zero, <math>m_0\,</math>. ]] Relativistic [[four-momentum]] as proposed by [[Albert Einstein]] arises from the invariance of [[four-vector]]s under Lorentzian translation. The four-momentum is defined as: :<math>\left( {E \over c} , p_x , p_y ,p_z \right)</math> where :<math>p_x\,</math> is the <math>x\,</math> component of the ''relativistic'' momentum, :<math>E \,</math> is the total energy of the system: :<math> E = \gamma m_0c^2 \,</math> The "length" of the vector is the mass times the speed of light, which is invariant across all reference frames: :<math>(E/c)^2 - p^2 = (m_0c)^2\,</math> '''Momentum of massless objects''' Objects without a rest mass, such as [[photon]]s, also carry momentum. The formula is: :<math>p = \frac{h}{\lambda} = \frac{E}{c} </math> where :<math>h\,</math> is [[Planck's constant]], :<math>\lambda\,</math> is the [[wavelength]] of the photon, :<math>E\,</math> is the [[energy]] the photon carries and :<math>c\,</math> is the [[speed of light]]. '''Generalization of momentum''' Momentum is the [[Noether charge]] of translational invariance. As such, even fields as well as other things can have momentum, not just particles. However, in [[curved space-time]] which is not asymptotically [[Minkowski space|Minkowski]], momentum isn't defined at all. === Momentum in quantum mechanics === {{further|[[Momentum operator]]}} In [[quantum mechanics]], momentum is defined as an [[operator (physics)|operator]] on the [[wave function]]. The [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg]] [[uncertainty principle]] defines limits on how accurately the momentum and position of a single observable system can be known at once. In quantum mechanics, position and momentum are [[canonical conjugate variables|conjugate variables]]. For a single particle with no [[electric charge]] and no [[spin (physics)|spin]], the momentum operator can be written in the position basis as :<math>\mathbf{p}={\hbar\over i}\nabla=-i\hbar\nabla</math> where: * <math>\nabla</math> is the [[gradient]] operator; * <math>\hbar</math> is the [[reduced Planck constant]]; * <math> i = \sqrt{-1} </math> is the [[imaginary unit]]. This is a commonly encountered form of the momentum operator, though not the most general one. === Momentum in electromagnetism === Electric and magnetic fields possess momentum regardless of whether they are static or they change in time. It is a gréat surprise for freshmen who are introduced to the well known fact of the pressure <math>{P}</math> of an electrostatic (magnetostatic) field upon a metal sphere, cylindrical capacity or ferromagnetic bar: :<math>P_{static} = {W}= \left[ {\epsilon_0 \epsilon}{\frac{{\mathbf E}^2 }{ {2}}} +{\frac{ 1 }{ {\mu_0 \mu} }} {\frac{{\mathbf B}^2}{{2}}} \right],</math> where <math>{ W}</math>, <math>{\mathbf E}</math>, <math>{\mathbf B}</math>, are electromagnetic energy density , electric and magnetic fields respectively. The electromagnetic pressure <math>{P}={W}</math> may be sufficiently high to explode capacity. Thus electric and magnetic fields do carry momentum. Light (visible, UV, radio) is an electromagnetic wave and also has momentum. Even though [[photons]] (the particle aspect of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum. This léads to applications such as the [[solar sail]]. Momentum is conserved in an electrodynamic system (it may change from momentum in the fields to mechanical momentum of moving parts). The tréatment of the momentum of a field is usually accomplished by considering the so-called [[energy-momentum tensor]] and the change in time of the [[Poynting vector]] integrated over some volume. This is a tensor field which has components related to the energy density and the momentum density. The definition canonical momentum corresponding to the momentum operator of quantum mechanics when it interacts with the electromagnetic field is, using the [[principle of least coupling]]: :<math>\mathbf P = m\mathbf v + q\mathbf A</math>, instéad of the customary :<math>\mathbf p = m\mathbf v</math>, where: :<math>\mathbf A</math> is the electromagnetic vector potential :<math>m</math> the charged particle's invariant mass :<math>\mathbf v</math> its velocity :<math>q</math> its charge. == Tempo ogé == * [[Conservation law]] * [[Force]] * [[Impulse]] * [[Kinetic energy]] * [[Moment map]] * [[Noether's theorem]] * [[Velocity]] == Catetan == {{reflist}} == Rujukan == * {{cite book|last=Halliday|first=David|coauthors=[[Robert Resnick]]|date=1960-2007|title=Fundamentals of Physics|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pages=Chapter 9}} * Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers'' (6 ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7 *Stenger, Victor J. (2000). ''Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes''. Prometheus Books. Chpt. 12 in particular. * Tipler, Paul (1998). ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics'' (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-492-6 * 'H C Verma' 'Concepts of Physics, Part 1' 'Bharti Bhawan' * For numericals refer 'IE Irodov','Problems in General Physics' == Tumbu luar == {{wiktionary|momentum}} * [http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch04/ch04.html Conservation of momentum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228195126/http://lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch04/ch04.html |date=2009-02-28 }} - A chapter from an online textbook * [http://www.analyzerxl.com/analyzerxl_functions_list.htm Demonstration of calculation of Momentum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913151851/http://www.analyzerxl.com/analyzerxl_functions_list.htm |date=2008-09-13 }} [[Kategori:Fisika]] [[Kategori:Konsép fisika dasar]] <!-- interwiki --> pv4jezy1g83dyj094wdrxley22xj3wd 0 28615 711688 675156 2026-08-07T01:34:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711688 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Ganitri | image=RudrakshaTree.jpg | image_caption=Hiji tangkal ganitri di Rishikesh |image2=RudrakhsaFruit.jpg |image2_caption=Buah dina tangkal ganitri | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Oxalidales]] | familia = [[Elaeocarpaceae]] | genus = ''[[Elaeocarpus]]'' | species = '''''E. ganitrus''''' | binomial = ''Elaeocarpus ganitrus'' | binomial_authority = ([[William Roxburgh|Roxb.]]) }} '''Ganitri'''; Jamitri (''Elaeocarpus ganitrus'') nyaéta ngaran tangkal anu sikina teuas kalawan beungeutna kawas anu kahakan cacing sarta ngabentuk rupa-rupa ukiran anu éndah. Di Cipagalo jeung Cipadung, [[Bandung]], ieu tatangkalan dijadikeun ngaran patempatan nyaéta Ciganitri. Kiwari, siki ganitri réa dimangpaatkeun pikeun hiasan kembang garing, sarta pikeun pangagem ageman Hindu mah siki ganitri téh dipaké pikeun sarana ibadah upamana waé dijadikeun tasbé.<ref name="LIPI">{{Cite book|title =Koleksi Kebun Raya Lombok| last= Putu Dharma, Saniyatun Mar'atus Solihah, Farid Kusmwantoro, Yuzammi| first= I Dewa| coauthors =Joko Ridho Witono, Syamsul Hidayat| year= 2017|page=30|location=Menteng Jakarta| publisher=LIPI Press| isbn=9789797999063|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten01heyn/page/98/mode/1up?view=theater}}</ref><ref name=”Luk”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Plants_with_Anti_Diabetes_Mellitus_Prope.html?hl=id&id=nQnYCwAAQBAJ#v=onepage&q=scoparia%20dulcis&f=false| title =Tanaman Obat & Jus utk Mengatasi Penyakit Jantung, Hipertensi, Kolesterol & StrokeLukas Tersono Adi| last =Lukas Tersono Adi| first =Ir. | publisher =Agromedia| location =Jakarta| year =2008|ISBN=9789790061958|pages =660}} Disungsi27 Maret 2023</ref> Di India, ieu tatangkalan dingaranan rudraksa. Ceuk sakaol, dina hiji waktu, [[cai]] panon Siwa ragrag, tuluy tumuwuh jadi tangkal rudraksa sarta sumebar di Naari Baratawarsa jeung sabudeureunana, satuluyna sumebar nepi ka kapuloan Indonésia, kalayan ngaran populerna téh génitri atawa genitri. [[Gambar:Fourteen-face-rudraksha.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Siki ganitri dihias emas]] Rudraksa, asalna ti kecap rudra (Siwa) sarta aksa (panon). Rudraksa éta buah kadeudeuh Siwa antukna dianggap suci. Siki panon Siwa ieu ku panganutna dipercaya bisa ngabérésihkeun dosa ku cara melong, nyagap atawa ngajadikeun sarana japa. Ku alatan éta, siki-siki éta diuntuy, dipaké pikeun japa mala. Japa hartina mindo kecap suci, sedengkeun mala nyaéta kecap séjén pikeun tasbé atawa rosario, untuyan siki-sikian, rukmi, mutiara, muté, merjan, atawa candana. Sajaba pangaruh kaagamaan, pikeun pamakéna, ganitri dipercaya bisa ngahasilkeun éfék biomédis sarta bioéléktromagnétik antukna ngahasilkeun éfék kaséhatan, kasegaran, sarta kabugeran. Ganitri ogé dipercaya bisa nyerep [[polutan]] antukna di sawatara jalan di Bandung dipelakan ganitri minangka tangkal nu mageran jalan. Indonésia mangrupa panghasil 70% kaperluan siki ganitri di dunya. Ajén ékonomina ngahontal ratusan miliyar rupiah. == Tempo ogé == * [http://newspaper.pikiran-rakyat.co.id/prprint.php?mib=beritadetail&id=29619]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.ommrudraksha.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728003746/http://www.ommrudraksha.com/ |date=2011-07-28 }} == Rujukan == * {{cite book |last=Stutley |first=Margaret|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography|url=https://archive.org/details/illustrateddicti0000stut_z3i6 |year=1985 |publisher=|location=|isbn= }} First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, ISBN 81-215-1087-2. * T. Bachtiar, Pikiran Rakyat, 26 Agustus 2008 [[Kategori: Elaeocarpaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Industri]] {{pondok}} ajhgkwhcc9g758s5ukzd9r09z5q269k 0 28763 711567 703804 2026-08-06T23:16:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711567 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Alpuket | image = Avocado fruitnfoliage.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Buah alpuket dina tangkalna, [[Pabukon Huntington]], California | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Laurales]] | familia = [[Lauraceae]] | genus = ''[[Persea]]'' | species = '''''P. americana''''' | binomial = ''Persea americana'' | binomial_authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]] }} '''Alpuket''' (''Persea americana'') (tina [[basa Nahuatl]] ''āhuacatl'') nyaéta tutuwuhan pituin [[Méksiko]] jeung [[Amérika Tengah]], kaasup kana [[tutuwuhan kembangan]] kulawarga [[Lauraceae]].<ref name=”Priyadi”>{{Cite book | title = Five Hundred Plant Species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: A Checklist Including Sundanese Names, Distribution, and Use| last = Hari Priyadi, Gen Takao, Irma Rahmawati, Bambang Supriyanto, Wim Ikbal Nursal, Ismail Rahman| first =Priyadi | publisher =CIFOR | location =Bogor| year =2010|ISBN=9786028693226 |pages = 1}}</ref><ref name=”Lut”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=uTKyDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=sato+sunda&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjo9P3M_JCGAxU6cGwGHVzeAr8Q6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=sato%20sunda&f=false| title =Kamus Genggam Bahasa SundaLuthfiyani| last =Luthfiyani| first =Lulu| publisher =Frasa Lingua| location =Jakarta| year =2016|ISBN=9786026475275|pages =23}} Disungsi25 Désémber 2024</ref> Ieu buah boga ajén ékonomi anu gedé, antukna loba dipelak di sakuliah dunya, utamana di wewengkon [[tropis]]. Daging buahna beyé, héjo semu konéng, loba ngandung [[lemak]] nu utamana [[lemak teu jenuh]]. Lian ti [[lemak]], ieu buah ogé euyeub [[serat pangan|serat]], [[vitamin]], jeung [[kalium]].<ref name=”Priyadi”/><ref name="Herbal">{{Cite book|title =Khasiat Tanaman Obat Herbal| last= Bagus Pratama| first= Aditya | coauthors =Firzatullah Dwiko R.| year= 2021|page=60|location=Jakarta| publisher=Pustaka Media| isbn=9786028214537|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=0yQ6EAAAQBAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover&hl=id&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> == Asal-usul == Alpuket geus lila pisan dipelak di [[Amérika]] Tengah jeung [[Amérika Kidul|Kidul]]. Di [[Chan Chan]], hiji kota kuna saméméh jaman [[Ingka]], kapanggih artéfak kendi ti taun [[900-an]] nu wujudna kawas alpuket<ref name = turtle>{{cite web | url = http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm | title = Avocado: The Early Roots of Avocado History | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2001-04-07 | last = Barry | first = PC | publisher = Canku Ota }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215142535/http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm |date=2007-12-15 }}</ref>, sedengkeun bukti tatanén di Méksiko paling henteu umurna geus 10.000 taunan<ref name = IF>{{cite web | url = http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm | title = Avocado History | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2007 | publisher = indexfresh.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225063117/http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm |date=2007-12-25 }}</ref>. ''Literatur'' paling kuna nu nyabit-nyabit alpuket di Éropah ditulis taun 1518/1519 karya [[Martín Fernández de Enciso]] ([[1470]]–[[1528]]): ''Suma de Geografía que Trata de Todas las Partidas y Provincias del Mundo''.<ref name = IF/><ref name = WCA>{{cite web | url = http://whatscookingamerica.net/avacado.htm | title = All About Avocados: History of the Hass Avocado | accessdate = 2008-05-13 | year = 2004 | first = Linda | last = Stradley}}</ref>. Catetan munggaran ngeunaan alpuket dina [[basa Inggris]] dijieun ku [[Hans Sloane]] taun [[1696]], dina bukuna ngeunaan tutuwuhan [[Jamaika]]. Ieu pepelakan dibawa ka [[Indonésia]] taun [[1750]], [[Brazil]] taun [[1809]], [[Levant]] taun [[1908]], jeung [[Afrika Kidul]] sarta [[Australia]] ahir abad ka-19<ref name = IF/>. === Étimologi === [[Gambar:Avacado444.jpg|250px|thumb|Alpuket nu cangkangna semu hideung.]] Kecap "alpuket" asalna tina kecap "avocado", nu béh dituna tina [[basa Nahuatl]] ''āhuacatl'' ("[[siki kanjut]]", dumasar kana bentuk buahna)<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=avocado Online Etymology Dictionary - Avocado]</ref>. Baheula, alpuket katelah salaku ''afrodisiak'', antukna tara didahar ku jalma anu can kawin atawa anu satia ka pamajikan. Ku bangsa [[Azték]], ieu buah disebut "buah kasuburan"<ref name = WCA/>. Di sababaraha nagara Amérika Kidul, kayaning [[Argéntina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chilé]], [[Péru]], jeung [[Uruguay]], ieu buah kawentar dina ngaran [[Quechua]]na, ''palta''. Di nagara-nagara nu maké [[basa Spanyol]], ieu buah disebut ''aguacate'', sedengkeun ku urang [[Portugis]] disebutna ''abacate''. ==Melak jeung ngarekahkeun== [[Image:Avocado Seedling.jpg|thumb|rigjt|150px|''Persea americana'', bibit alpuket katenpo akar jeung sikina] [[Image:2005avocado.PNG|thumb|Hasil bumi tina alpuket sadunya dina taun 2005]] {| style="width: 14em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Food and agriculture |- {{#if:Avocado.jpeg|<tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;">[[Image:Avocado.jpeg|100px]] {{#if:Avocado fruit (cv. 'Fuerte'); left: buah weuteuh, katuhu: kaayaan geus dibeulah|</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center">''Buah alpuket (cv. 'Fuerte'); kenca: whole, right: in section''|}} </td></tr>}} |- ! style="background:#e9e9e9;" | '''Country''' ! style="background:#e9e9e9;" | '''Quantity ([[Metric ton|Tm]])''' ! style="background:#e9e9e9;" | World Rank<sup>1</sup> |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Mexico | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right| 1,040,390 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right| 1 |- |Indonesia |align=right|263,575 |align=right|2 |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |United States of America | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|214,000 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|3 |- |Colombia |align=right|185,811 |align=right|4 |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Brazil | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|185,811 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|5 |- |Chile |align=right|163,000 |align=right|6 |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Dominican Republic | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|140,000 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|7 |- |- |Peru |align=right|102,000 |align=right|8 |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |China | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|85,000 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|9 |- |- |Ethiopia |align=right|81,500 |align=right|10 |- |- |colspan=3 style="background:#e9e9e9;" align=center|<small><sup>1</sup>Source: [[FAO]] (2004) [http://www.fao.org/es/ess/top/commodity.html;jsessionid=1FD7B1AF15B3ADE8D52C26E94FF4B1EE?item=572&lang=en&year=2005 Major Producers of Avocado]</small> |- |} </div> <!-- The tree grows to 20 [[metre]]s (65 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), with alternately arranged [[leaf|leaves]] 12–25 centimetres long. The [[flower]]s are inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, 5–10 millimetres wide. The [[pear]]-shaped fruit is 7–20 centimetres long, weighs between 100 and 1000 grams, and has a large central [[seed]], 5–6.4 centimeters long.<ref name="isbn0-9610184-1-0">{{cite book |author=Dowling, Curtis F.; Morton, Julia Frances |title=Fruits of warm climates |url=https://archive.org/details/fruitsofwarmclim0000mort |publisher=J.F. Morton |location=Miami, Fla |year=1987 |pages= |isbn=0-9610184-1-0 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> It is considered by many to be a [[drupe]], but is botanically classified as a [[berry]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://ucavo.ucr.edu/AvocadoWebSite+folder/AvocadoWebSite/General/FruitBerry.html | title = What Kind of Fruit is the Avocado? | last = Storey | first = WB | accessdate = 2008-05-13 | publisher = [[University of California]] }}{{waybackdate | site = http://ucavo.ucr.edu/AvocadoWebSite+folder/AvocadoWebSite/General/FruitBerry.html | date = 20070611191722}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ecoph17.htm#avocado | title = Fruits Of The Rose, Olive, Avocado & Mahagany Families - Laurel Family: Lauraceae | accessdate = 2008-05-13 | last = Armstrong | first = WP}}</ref> The [[subtropical]] species needs a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination. In particular, the West Indian race requires humidity and a tropical climate which is important in flowering. When even a mild frost occurs, some fruit may drop from the tree, reducing the yield, although the [[Hass avocado|Hass]] [[cultivar]] can tolerate temperatures down to −1°[[Celsius|C]]. The trees also need well aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep. Yield is reduced when the irrigation water is highly [[Salinity|saline]]. These soil and climate conditions are provided only in a few areas of the world, particularly in southern [[Spain]], the [[Levant]], [[South Africa]], [[Peru]], parts of central and northern [[Chile]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United States]], [[the Philippines]], [[Malaysia]], [[Central America]], and [[Mexico]], the center of origin and diversity of this species. Each region has different types of cultivars. Mexico is the largest producer of the Hass variety, with over 1 million tonnes produced annually. === Harvest and post-harvest === An average avocado tree produces about 120 avocados annually. Commercial orchards produce an average of 7 [[tonnes]] per [[hectare]] each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm | title = Avocado Production in Australia | last = Whiley | first = A | publisher = [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] | date = 2000-09-01 | accessdate = 2007-12-29}}</ref> [[Biennial bearing]] can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next. The avocado tree does not tolerate freezing temperatures, and can be grown only in subtropical or tropical climates. The avocado is a [[Climacteric_(biology)|climacteric]] fruit (the [[banana]] is another), which means that it matures on the tree but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 38 to 42°F (3.3 to 5.6°C) until they reach their final destination. Avocado must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground, and depending on the amount of oil they contain, their taste and texture may vary greatly. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick Hass-variety avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in a few days at [[room temperature]] (faster if stored with other fruits such as [[banana]]s, because of the influence of [[ethylene]] gas). Premium [[supermarkets]] sell pre-ripened avocados treated with synthetic [[ethylene]] to hasten the ripening process.<ref>[http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm Ethylene gas and produce]</ref> In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop; if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, however, it will fall to the ground. === Breeding === [[Image:Persea americana.jpg|thumb|right|150px|''P. americana'', avocado plant flowers]] The species is only partially able to [[self-pollination|self-pollinate]], because of [[dichogamy]] in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated via [[grafting]], having originated from random seedling plants or minor [[mutation]]s derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-[[pollination]] are reduced. That is the case for programs at the [[University of California, Riverside]], as well as the [[Agricultural research In Israel#The Agricultural Research Organization .28ARO.29|Volcani Centre]] and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in [[Chile]]. The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. There are two flowering types, "A" and "B". "A" cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. "B" varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning. :"A" cultivars: Hass, Gwen, Lamb Hass, Pinkerton, Reed. :"B" cultivars: Fuerte, Sharwil, Zutano, Bacon, Ettinger, Sir Prize, Walter Hole.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm | title = Agriculture Handbook | publisher = [[University of California]] | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213 | title = Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape | publisher = [[University of Florida]] | first = JH | last = Crane | coauthors = Balerdi CF, Maguire I | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2007-08-01 }}</ref> Certain cultivars, such as the Hass, have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. This heavy crop depletes stored carbohydrates, resulting in a reduced yield the following season, and thus the alternate bearing pattern becomes established. === Propagation and rootstocks === [[Image:GrowingAvocadoFromSeed.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Avocado is usually [[sowing|treated]] with a special technique to assist its sprouting process]] While an avocado propagated by seed can bear fruit, it takes roughly 4–6 years to do so, and the offspring is unlikely to resemble the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Thus, commercial orchards are planted using [[grafting|grafted]] trees and [[rootstock]]s. Rootstocks are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) and also [[layering]] (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing the young plants in a greenhouse, they are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar will then grow for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks have been selected for specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease caused by [[phytophthora]] (root rot). ===Diseases=== {{Main|List of avocado diseases}} Avocado trees are vulnerable to [[bacteria]]l, [[virus|viral]], [[fungus|fungal]] and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting and discoloration.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/names/avocado.asp | last = Ohr | first = HD | coauthors = Coffer MD & McMillan RT | title = Common Names of Plant Diseases | date = 2003-08-04 | accessdate = 2008-05-13 | publisher = American Phytopathological Society }}</ref> === Cultivation in California === The avocado was introduced from [[Mexico]] to the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[California]] in the 19th century, and has become an extremely successful [[cash crop]]. Ninety-five percent of United States avocado production is located in southern [[California]], with 60% in [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]].<ref name=CACFF>{{cite web | url = http://www.avocado.org/about/fun_facts | title = Avocado Fun Facts | publisher = California Avocado Commission | accessdate = 2008-06-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://kgkat.tripod.com/avocado.html | title = Avocado Toxicity | last = Clipsham | first = R | accessdate = 2007-12-29 }}</ref> Approximately 59,000 acres (approximately 24,000 hectares) of avocados are grown in California. [[Fallbrook, California]], claims the title of "Avocado Capital of the World", and both Fallbrook and [[Carpinteria, California]] host annual avocado festivals. ====Hass cultivar==== [[Image:Avacado white bg.jpg|thumb|150px|Two Hass avocado]] {{main|Hass avocado}} While dozens of [[cultivar]]s are grown in California, the [[Hass avocado]] (commonly misspelled "Haas") is the most common. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for the majority of cultivated avocados in California.<ref name = WCA/> All Hass avocado trees are genic copies of a single "mother tree" that was raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass.<ref name = IF/> According to Hass' family, Hass bought the seed from A.R. Rideout of Whittier, California, in 1926 and repeatedly attempted to graft productive branches onto pre-existing trees. Ultimately this succeeded in producing the Hass avocado, though the source tree of the graft is uncertain. Hass propagated the productive graft in his front yard in La Habra Heights, California, and [[patent]]ed the tree in [[1935]]. All Hass avocados can be traced back to grafts made from the original, successful graft tree. The "mother tree" died of [[root rot]] and was cut down in September, 2002; its former location is indicated with a [[commemorative plaque]].<ref name = WCA/> ===Other cultivars=== Other avocado cultivars include Bacon, Fuerte, Gwen, Pinkerton, Reed and Zutano. The fruit of the cultivar Florida, grown mostly outside California, is larger and rounder, with a smooth, medium-green skin, and a less-fatty, firmer and fibrous flesh. These are occasionally marketed as low-calorie avocados. ===Avocado-related trade war=== After the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) went into effect in 1994, Mexico tried exporting avocados to the USA. The U.S. government resisted, claiming that the trade would introduce [[fruit flies]] that would destroy California's crops. The Mexican government responded by inviting U.S. Department of Agriculture inspectors to Mexico, but the U.S. government declined, claiming fruit fly inspection is not feasible. The Mexican government then proposed to sell avocados only to the northeastern U.S. in the winter (fruit flies cannot withstand extreme cold). The U.S. government balked, but gave in when the Mexican government started throwing up barriers to [[United States|U.S.]] [[corn (maize)|corn]]. Legitimate pest invasion issues exist, as avocado pests originating in Mexico have made their way to California, including the [[persea mite]] and avocado [[thrips]]. These pests have increased pest control costs and made previously-relied-upon [[biological pest control|biological control]] less feasible. Other potentially disastrous pests, including a weevil, remain risks. Another argument is that the lower prices generated by the Mexican and Chilean imports would increase the popularity of avocados outside of California, thereby assuaging the loss of profits due to the new competition. Today avocados from Mexico are allowed in all 50 states. This is because USDA inspectors in Uruapan, Michoacán (the state where 90% of Hass avocados from Mexico are grown), have cut open and inspected millions of fruit, finding no problems. Imports from Mexico in the 2005-2006 season exceeded 130,000 [[tonne]]s.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/02/03/business/LA-FIN-ECO-Mexico-US-Avocados.php | title = Mexico praises lifting of last U.S. avocado import barriers | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2007-02-02 | publisher = International [[Herald Tribune]] }}</ref> Avocados are more expensive in the USA than in other countries, because those consumed in the USA are grown almost exclusively in California and Florida. California produces about 90% of the nation's avocado crop.<ref name=CACFF/> --> == Mangpaat == {{ajen gizi | name=Avocado, raw (edible parts) | kJ=670 | protein=2 g | fat=14.66 g | satfat=2.13 g | monofat=9.80 g | polyfat=1.82 g | carbs=8.53 g | fiber=6.7 g | sugars=0.66 g | iron_mg=0.55 | calcium_mg=12 | magnesium_mg=29 | phosphorus_mg=52 | potassium_mg=485 | zinc_mg=0.64 | vitC_mg=10 | pantothenic_mg=1.389 | vitB6_mg=0.257 | folate_ug=81 | thiamin_mg=0.067 | riboflavin_mg=0.130 | niacin_mg=1.738 | right=1 | source_usda=1 }} Buah alpuket hasil budidaya bentukna buleud nepi ka lonyod panjang, kelirna [[héjo|héjo kolot]] nepi ka [[coklat]] semu [[hideung]]. Kandungan [[lemak]]na onjoy batan bungbuahan séjén, nu lolobana [[lemak teu jenuh tunggal]]. Daging buah nu geus asak warnana konéng semu héjo nepi ka konéng emas. Mun kabuka jeung keuna ku udara, warnana bakal robah jadi coklat alatan [[oksidasi]]. Pikeun [[vegetarian]], alpuket kapaké pisan salaku gaganti daging ku sabab loba kandungan lemakna. === Ajén gizi === Kandungan lemak dina alpuket ampir 15%, nu lolobana [[lemak teu jenuh tunggal]]. Kandungan [[kalium]]na 60% leuwih loba batan [[cau]], euyeub [[vitamin-vitamin B]], [[vitamin E]], jeung [[vitamin K]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c20Tk.html | title = Avocados, raw, California | publisher = NutritionData.com | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | year = 2007 }}</ref>. Kandungan [[serat pangan|seratna]] paling punjul di antara bungbuahan - 25% serat leyur jeung 75% teu leyur<ref name="pmid12097685">{{cite journal |author=Naveh E, Werman MJ, Sabo E, Neeman I |title=Defatted avocado pulp reduces body weight and total hepatic fat but increases plasma cholesterol in male rats fed diets with cholesterol |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=132 |issue=7 |pages=2015–8 |year=2002 |pmid=12097685 |doi=}}</ref>. <!-- A fatty [[triol]] ([[fatty alcohol]]) with one [[double bond]], [[avocadene]] (16-heptadecene-1,2,4-triol), is found in avocado.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cyberlipid.org/simple/simp0003.htm#3 | title = FATTY ALCOHOLS: Unsaturated alcohols | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | publisher = Cyberlipid Center }}</ref> === As a houseplant === Avocado can be grown as a [[houseplant]] from seed. It can germinate in normal [[soil]] in a large pot or by suspending a washed pit (generally using [[toothpick]]s embedded in the sides) pointed-side up and filling the glass until the bottom quarter of the pit is covered. The pit will crack as it absorbs water and germinates, and should sprout in 4–6 weeks. When the roots and stem emerge from the seed, it can be planted in soil. Alternatively, [[vermicompost]] bins provide ideal conditions for germination of avocado pits. Once the pit sprouts a root transplant it to a pot containing a mixture of worm castings and potting soil. The stem should sprout within a month.<ref>{{cite book |title= Worms Eat My Garbage: How to Set Up & Maintain a Worm Composting System|last= Appelhof |first= Mary |authorlink= Mary Appelhof |year= 1997 |publisher= Flower Press |isbn= 978-0942256109 |pages= 162}}</ref> The young tree is amenable to pruning and training but will not normally bear fruit indoors without sufficient sunlight and a second plant to [[Pollination|cross-pollinate]]. ==Toxicity to animals== There is documented evidence that animals such as cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits, rats, birds, fish, horses and especially humans<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/pp/ppack.info?p_psn=238&p_type=all&p_sci=comm&p_x=px | title = Notes on poisoning: avocado | publisher = [[Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility]] | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2006-06-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://kgkat.tripod.com/avocado.html | title = Avocado Toxicity | last = Clipsham | first = R | accessdate = 2007=12-29 }}</ref> can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume the avocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit. The avocado fruit is poisonous to birds in some cases, so on a practical level feeding the fruit to birds should be avoided. Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative known as [[persin]], which in sufficient quantity can cause equine colic and, with lack of veterinary treatment, death.<ref name="pmid8581318">{{cite journal |author=Oelrichs PB, Ng JC, Seawright AA, Ward A, Schäffeler L, MacLeod JK |title=Isolation and identification of a compound from avocado (Persea americana) leaves which causes necrosis of the acinar epithelium of the lactating mammary gland and the myocardium |journal=Nat. Toxins |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=344–9 |year=1995 |pmid=8581318|doi=10.1002/nt.2620030504}}</ref> The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound. Negative effects in humans seem to be primarily in allergic individuals. ==Co-evolution== The avocado may be an example of an 'evolutionary anachronism', a fruit adapted for [[ecology|ecological]] relationship with now-[[Extinction|extinct]] large mammals (such as the giant [[ground sloth]] or the [[Gomphothere]]). Most large fleshy fruits serve the function of [[seed|seed dispersal]], accomplished by their consumption by large animals. Author Connie Barlow hypothesizes that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have [[Co-evolution|co-evolve]]d with [[Pleistocene megafauna]] to be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready to sprout. No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse avocado seeds in this fashion. When the avocado's hypothesized ecological partners disappeared the avocado likely would have gone extinct, or evolved a different fruit morphology, if human cultivation had not maintained this "ghost of evolution."<ref name="isbn0-465-00551-9">{{cite book |author=Barlow, Connie C. |title=The ghosts of evolution: nonsensical fruit, missing partners, and other ecological anachronisms |url=https://archive.org/details/ghostsofevolutio00conn |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-465-00551-9 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> --> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Persea americana}} {{wikispecies|Persea americana}} * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_33/lec_33.html Purdue horticultural lecture on Avocados with pictures of cultivation from fertilization to harvest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418013859/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_33/lec_33.html |date=2010-04-18 }} * [http://avocadosource.com/ Avocadosource.com] Online library of avocado reséarch papers. * [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/avocado.html California Rare Fruit Growers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107033301/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/avocado.html |date=2006-11-07 }}, avocados beyond ''Persea americana'' {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Lauraceae]] [[Kategori:Bungbuahan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar]] ialxd7fp9q42ipnhrkgeg72b13sd4re 0 29162 711605 675205 2026-08-07T00:08:02Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711605 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Taxobox | name = ''Peuteuy sélong'' | image = Leucaena_leucocephala.jpg | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Fabales]] | familia = [[Fabaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Mimosoideae]] | genus = ''[[Leucaena]]'' | species = '''''L. leucocephala''''' | binomial = ''Leucaena leucocephala'' | binomial_authority = ([[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lam.]]) [[deWit.]] }} '''Peuteuy sélong''' mangrupa [[tutuwuhan]] tropis anu leutik nu asalna ti [[Méksiko]].<ref name = Hughes>{{cite book | last = Hughes | first = Colin E. | authorlink = Colin E. Hughes | title = Monograph of Leucaena (Leguminosae-Mimosoideae) | url = https://archive.org/details/monographofleuca0055hugh | series = Systematic botany monographs v. 55 | year = 1998 | isbn = 091286155X }}</ref> Ieu tutuwuhan digunakeun pikeun rupa-rupa tujuan, saperti suluh jeung kadaharan sapopoé. Peutuey sélong geus dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngahasilkeun [[biomassa]]. Tutuwuhan ieu ogé éfisién pikeun [[fiksasi nitrogén]]. Dina taun 1970-an jeung 1980, peuteuy sélong dipromosikeun minangka "tutuwuhan ahéng" lantaran rupa-rupa kagunana.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Publicat/Gutt-shel/x5556e06.htm Gutteridge, Ross C., and H. Max Shelton. 1998. ''Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture''. Tropical Grassland Society of Australia, Inc., 2.1 "Leucaena leucocephala - the Most Widely Used Forage Tree Legume"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715130422/http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Publicat/Gutt-shel/x5556e06.htm |date=2016-07-15 }}</ref> Hiji kakurang ieu spésiés nyaéta kauduhna ku serangan [[sarangga]]. Dina taun 1980-an, aya kajadian kajadia musnahna ieu tangkal di wewengkon anu lega di [[Asia Tenggara]] akibat serangan sarangga [[Jumping plant louse|psyllids]].<ref>[http://www.odi.org.uk/nrp/odi_alleyfarming.html ODI - Alley Farming<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127024912/http://www.odi.org.uk/NRP/odi_alleyfarming.html |date=2007-11-27 }}</ref> == Sifat nu gancang nyebar == ''Peuteuy sélong'' kacida teu dipikahayang di sabagian wewengkon Taiwan, kapuloan Hawai jeung Fiji. Ieu tangkal tumuwuh kacida gancangna, sarta ngabentuk jumplukan anu padet anu ngaheurinan tuwuhan asli lianna.<ref>Kuo, Yau-Lun. "Ecological Characteristics of Three Invasive Plants (Leucaena Leucocephala, Mikania Micrantha, and Stachytarpheta Urticaefolia) in Southern Taiwan." 12 1 2003.http://www.agnet.org/library/eb/541/ (accessed 3 24 2008).</ref> == Ngaran dina basa-basa lian == * Basa Hawai''haole koa'' atawa ''koa haole'' * [[India]]: ''Subabul'' <!-- basa naon? --> * [[Basa Indonésia]]: ''petai cina'' * [[Basa Jawa]]: ''lamtoro'' atawa ''lamotorogung'' * [[Myanmar]]: ''Bawzagaing'' <!-- basa naon? --> * [[Thailand]]: ''krathin'' ({{lang-th|กระถิน}}); * [[Basa Tagalog]]:''ipil-ipil'' == Gallery == <gallery> Image:Subabool (Leucaena leucocephala) trunk in Kolkata W IMG 4306.jpg|tangkal di [[Kalkuta]], [[Bengala Kulon]], [[India]]. Image:Subabool (Leucaena leucocephala) flowers, green pods & leaves in Kolkata W IMG 4299.jpg|kembang, peuteuy jeung daun di [[Kalkuta]], [[Bengala Kulon]], [[India]]. Image:Subabool (Leucaena leucocephala) dried pods in Kolkata W IMG 4301.jpg‎|peuteuy garing di [[Kalkuta]], [[Bengala Kulon]], [[India]]. Image:Subabool (Leucaena leucocephala) dried pods & leaves at canopy in Kolkata W IMG 4307.jpg|peuteuy garing jeung daun dina kanopi di [[Kalkuta]], [[Bengala Kulon]], [[India]]. File:Leucaena leucocephala MHNT.BOT.2011.3.71.jpg|Leucaena leucocephala - muséum specimen </gallery> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu ka luar == * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Leucaena_leucocephala.html Handbook of Energy Crops at Purdue University: ''Leucaena leucocephala''] * [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?21959 Germplasm Resources Information Network, "''Leucaena leucocephala'' (Lam.) de Wit"] * [http://www.odi.org.uk/fpeg/publications/greyliterature/socialforestry/relwani/index.html Economics of Subabul Plantation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121205939/http://www.odi.org.uk/fpeg/publications/greyliterature/socialforestry/relwani/index.html |date=2008-01-21 }} In Hegde, N.G. and Abhyanker, P.D. (eds.) The Greening of Wastelands. Relwani, L.L. & Hegde, N.G. 1986. {{commons category|Leucaena leucocephala}} [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori:Fabaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Lalab]] 8w9ooir0hg1myv1p9obyaze0a71hl0o 0 29247 711768 666064 2026-08-07T03:47:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = ''Kapayang'' | image = Hodgsonia heteroclita fruit.jpg | image_width = frameless| image_caption = buah kapayang (''Hodgsonia heteroclita'') | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Cucurbitales]] | familia = [[Cucurbitaceae]] | subfamilia = Cucurbitoideae | tribus = Trichosantheae | subtribus = '''Hodgsoniinae''' | subtribus_authority = [[Charles Jeffrey|C. Jeffrey]] 1962 | genus = '''''Hodgsonia''''' | genus_authority = [[Hook.f.]] & [[Thomas Thomson (1817-1878)|Thomson]] 1853 | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = '''''Hodgsonia heteroclita'''''<br> '''''Hodgsonia macrocarpa''''' }} '''Kapayang''' atawa '''''Hodgsonia''''' mangrupa sabangsaning [[tuwuhan]] pineus leutik nu [[buah]]an nu kagolongkeun kana kulawarga [[Cucurbitaceae]]. ''Hodgsonia'' dijadikeun ngaran ieu tuwuhan pikeun ngahormat [[Brian Houghton Hodgson]] dina taun 1853 ku para ahli botani Inggris Joseph Dalton Hooker jeung Thomas Thomson (1817-1878), anu nalungtik ieu tuwuhan ku pangrojong Hodgson di [[Himalaya]]. ==Klasifikasi== *''Hodgsonia heteroclita'' ([[Roxb.]]) [[Hook.f.]] & [[Thomas Thomson (1817-1878)|Thomson]] 1853 *''Hodgsonia macrocarpa'' ([[Carl Ludwig Blume|Blume]]) [[Cogn.]] 1881 ==Ciri fisik== *Kembang kapayang mekar ngan pikeun waktu sapeuting, tuluy layu atawa gugur.<ref>Loewer p.175</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- | !''H. heteroclita'' !''H. macrocarpa'' |- |Daun |Biasana 5 |Biasana 3 |} ==Kaguna== ===Kadaharan=== Sanajan daging buah kapayang bisa didahar sarta taya hargana, sikina nu beunghar ku minyak mangrupa sumber kadaharan nu penting. Buahna nu biasa didahar atah-atah;<ref>Arora and Hardas p.560</ref> rada [[pait]], jigana dilantarankeun ku [[alkaloid]] atawa [[glukosa]] anu can dipikanyaho, tapi "aman pisan" pikeun didahar.<ref name="Hu names"/> Ilaharna, sikina dibeuleum saméméh didahar; loba urang gunung nu nganggap rasana ngeunah. Suku bangsa Naga di India ngasupkeun siki kapayang kana rupa-rupa sayur kari.<ref name="Changkija ">Changkija p.219</ref> ===Ubar=== Daun kapayang boga mangpaat pikeun ubar. Di Malaya, maké ieu daun pikeun ngubaran nyeri irung. Daunna digaringkeun jeung dibeuleum, sarta terus diseuseup ku irung, atawa peresan pucuk jeung daunna diperes tuluy caina diulaskeun kana tatu akibat gégélan sarangga. Daunna ogé bisa dikulub supaya ngahasilkeun cacai pikeun ngubaran nyeri irung atawa ngurangan panas tiris.<ref>Hu 1964 p.167, 171</ref> The ashes from burnt léaves of ''H. macrocarpa'' are also used to héal wounds.<ref>De Wilde & Duyfjes p.175</ref> Di wewengkon bangsa Naga, buah kapayang ditémpélkeun kana inféksi baktéri dina suku.<ref name="Changkija ">Changkija p.219</ref> Di Sarawak, minyak kapayang dipaké pikeun malur awak wanoja nu karék ngalahirkeun.<ref>Hu 1964 p.171</ref> Minyak kapayang ieu ogé dipaké bahan dasar dina pangobatan di India bagian wétan.<ref>Agarwal p.273</ref> ==Sajarah== ==Ngaran== [[Image:Hodgsonia heteroclita male.jpg|thumb|right|tuwuhan kapayang jalu]] *Di beulah kalér, ''H. heteroclita'': **India, [[Sikkim]] ([[Lepcha]]s): ''Kat'hior-pot'';<ref name="Hu names">Hu 1964 p.170</ref><ref>Hooker p.16</ref> [[Wewengkon Naga]]: ''Assa'';<ref name="Changkija ">Changkija p.219</ref> [[Kolasib]]: ''Khaum''<ref>Arora and Hardas p.559</ref> **Cina, [[Yunnan]]: ''You-zha-guo'' (油渣果)<ref name="Hu names" /><ref>Hu 2005 p.703</ref> **Bangladés: ''Makal'';<ref>Chowdhury p.94</ref> Wewengkon Sylhet: ''Goolur''<ref name="Hu names" /> **[[Viétnam]]: ''Béo, Ké bao, Muróp rùng, Dây sén''<ref name="Hu names" /> **[[Laos]]: ''Mak klung''<ref name="Hu names" /> *Di beulah kidul, ''H. macrocarpa'': **Thailand, Wilayah Pattani: ''Kāpā yê''<ref name="Hu names" /> **Malaysia, Tanjung Malaya: ''Akar kêpayang, Kêlêpayang, Pepayang, Teruah, Breuh''<ref name="Hu names" /> **Indonésia, pulo Jawa: ''Akar kêpayang'';<ref name="Hu names" /> ([[basa Sunda]]): ''Areuy picung, Céléng'';<ref name="Hu names" /> [[Sumatra]]: ''Bilungking, Kadam''<ref name="Hu names" /> *Basa bangsa [[Eropa]]: **([[Basa Inggris]]): ''biji kadam seed, kapayang,''<ref name="Hu names" />;<ref>USDA p.2-304</ref> **([[Basa Walanda]]): ''Kadamzaad''<ref name="Hu names" /> Sawatara ngaran ieu boga harti midua (ambigu). "Kapayang" bisa boga harti ''[[Pangium edule]]''. ==Rujukan== [[Image:Hodgsonia heteroclita female.jpg|thumb|right|''Hodgsonia heteroclita'' tangkal kamayang bikang]] <div class="references-small"> <references /> *{{cite book | author = Agarwal, Vishnu Saran | year = 2003 | title = Directory of Indian economic plants | location = Dehradun | publisher = Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh | id = ISBN 81-211-0289-8}} *{{cite journal | author = R.K. Arora and M.W. Hardas | year = 1977 | month = December | title = ''Hodgsonia heteroclita''—An oil-rich cucurbit | journal = J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 559&ndash;661}} *{{cite journal | author = W.J.J.O. de Wilde and B.E.E. Duyfjes | year = 2001 | title = Taxonomy of Hodgsonia (Cucurbitaceae), with a note on the ovules and seeds | journal = Blumea | volume = 46 | pages = 169&ndash;179}} *{{cite journal | last = Changkija | first = Sapu | year = 1999 | title = Folk Medicinal Plants of the Nagas in India | journal = Asian Folklore Studies | volume = 58 | issue = 1 | pages = 205&ndash;230 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0385-2342%281999%2958%3A1%3C205%3AFMPOTN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A | doi = 10.2307/1178894}} *{{cite web |last=Chowdhury |first=M. |year=1996 |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPS/PGRFA/pdf/banglade.pdf |title=Bangladesh country report |format=PDF |work=FAO international technical conference on plant genetic resources |accessdate=2006-05-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050111182548/http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPS/pgrfa/pdf/banglade.pdf |date=2005-01-11 }} *{{cite book | author = A.J.C. Grierson & D.G. Long | year = 1983 | title = Flora of Bhutan : including a record of plants from Sikkim | url = https://archive.org/details/floraofbhutanvol03ajcg3 | location = Edinburgh | publisher = Royal Botanic Garden | pages=263}} *{{cite book | last = Hooker | first = Joseph Dalton | year = 1855 | title = Illustrations of Himalayan plants | location = London | publisher = L. Reeve | pages = 15&ndash;23 | id = {{LCC|QK349.33|.H66|1855}} | url = http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/rarebooks/title.asp?relation=QK34933H661855 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090103122748/http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/rarebooks/title.asp?relation=QK34933H661855 |date=2009-01-03 }} *{{cite journal | author = Hsu Chien | year = 1963 | month = November | title = "Lard fruit" domesticated in China | journal = Euphytica | volume = 12 | iss = 3 | pages = 261&ndash;262 | url = http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&doi=10.1007/BF00027460 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *{{cite journal | author = Hu Shiu-ying | year = 1964 | title = The economic botany of Hodgsonia | journal = Econ. Bot. | volume = 18 | pages = 167&ndash;179}} *{{cite book | author = Hu Shiu-ying | year = 2005 | title = Food Plants of China | location = Hong Kong | publisher = Chinese University Press | pages = 703&ndash;704 | id = ISBN 962-201-860-2}} *{{cite book | last = Loewer | first = Peter | year = 2002 | title = The Evening Garden | url = https://archive.org/details/eveninggardenflo0000loew | publisher = Timber Press | id = ISBN 0-88192-532-2}} *{{cite web |author=USDA |url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/manuals/port/pdf_files/20Fruits_and_Vegetables.pdf |title=Regulating the Importation of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-05-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512003917/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/manuals/port/pdf_files/20Fruits_and_Vegetables.pdf |date=2006-05-12 }} </div> ==Tumbu ka luar== {{commons|Hodgsonia|Hodgsonia}} *[http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/mss/volume19/Cucurbitaceae-MO_coauthoringMar2008.htm eFlora of China at www.efloras.org]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Hodgsonia Pictures of Hodgsonia] *[http://www.unep-wcmc.org/index.html?http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/Taxonomy/tax-species-result.cfm?Genus=Hodgsonia&Species=macrocarpa&source=plants&tabname=all~main UN distribution information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930013653/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/index.html?http%3A%2F%2Fsea.unep-wcmc.org%2Fisdb%2FTaxonomy%2Ftax-species-result.cfm%3FGenus=Hodgsonia&Species=macrocarpa&source=plants&tabname=all~main |date=2007-09-30 }} *[http://www.ars-grin.gov/~sbmljw/cgi-bin/taxon.pl?19186 USDA taxonomy] [[Kategori:Cucurbitaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Sunda]] b6oh323zlexjvp1dj71vz9heg778mue 0 29456 711558 649918 2026-08-06T23:06:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711558 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Lemak}} Dina [[kimia]], utamana [[biokimia]], '''asam lemak''' nyaéta [[asam karboksilat]] anu ilaharna diwangun ku buntut/ranté [[alifatik]], boh nu [[kejenuhan (kimia)|jenuh]] atawa [[sanyawa teu jenuh|henteu]]. Asam lemak dijieun tina [[hidrolisis]] beungkeut [[éster]] dina lemak atawa minyak biologis (nyaéta [[trigliserida]]), ku cara ngaleupaskeun [[gliserol]] (baca [[oléokimia]]). Asam lemak téh asam monokarboksilat alifatik nu diturunkeun tina atawa dikandung dina bentuk éster lemak, minyak, atawa lilin sato (gajih) jeung tutuwuhan. Asam lemak alami biasana ngandung ranté 4-28 karbon (teu nyagak sarta jumlahna genap), boh jenuh atawa henteu. Istilah ieu ogé kadang ngawengku sakabéh asam karboksilat alifatik asiklik<ref name=iupac> {{cite book| url=http://goldbook.iupac.org/F02330.html |title= The Gold Book |series =IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology|edition= 2nd |year=1997| publisher = International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry| accessdate=2007-10-31| isbn=052151150X| author=Prayer Book,}}</ref>. Ku kituna, [[asam asetat]] gé jadi kaasup asam lemak, padahal bisa leyur dina cai alatan pondok pisan ranté karbonna. <!-- ==Types== [[Image:rasyslami.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Three dimensional representations of several fatty acids]] Fatty acids can be saturated and unsaturated, depending on [[double bond]]s. They differ in length as well. ===Saturated fatty acids=== Saturated fatty acids do not contain any [[double bond]]s or other [[functional group]]s along the chain. The term "saturated" refers to [[hydrogen]], in that all carbons (apart from the carboxylic acid [-COOH] group) contain as many hydrogens as possible. In other words, the omega (ω) end contains 3 hydrogens (CH<sub>3</sub>-), and each carbon within the chain contains 2 hydrogen atoms. Saturated fatty acids form straight chains and, as a result, can be packed together very tightly, allowing living organissms to store chemical energy very densely. The fatty tissues of animals contain large amounts of long-chain saturated fatty acids. In [[IUPAC nomenclature]], fatty acids have an [-''oic'' acid] suffix. In [[Naming convention|common nomenclature]], the suffix is usually -''ic''. The shortest descriptions of fatty acids include only the number of carbon atoms and double bonds in them (e.g., C18:0 or 18:0). [[Stearic acid|C18:0]] means that the carbon chain of the fatty acid consists of 18 carbon atoms, and there are no (zero) [[Covalent bond|double bonds]] in it, whereas [[Oleic acid|C18:1]] describes an 18-carbon chain with one [[Covalent bond|double bond]] in it. Each double bond can be in either a [[Geometric isomerism|cis-]] or [[Geometric isomerism|trans-]] conformation, and stands in a different position with respect to the ends of the fatty acid; therefore, not all C18:1s (for example) are identical. If there is one or more double bonds in the fatty acid, it is no longer considered saturated, but rather, mono- or polyunsaturated. Most commonly-occurring saturated fatty acids are of the following varieties: {| class="wikitable" |'''Common name''' || '''IUPAC name''' || '''Chemical structure''' || '''Abbr.''' || '''Melting point''' (°C) |- |[[Butyric acid|Butyric]] || Butanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>COOH || C4:0|| -8 |- |[[Caproic acid|Caproic]] || Hexanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>COOH || C6:0|| -3 |- |[[Caprylic acid|Caprylic]] || Octanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>6</sub>COOH || C8:0|| 16-17 |- |[[Capric acid|Capric]] || Decanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>8</sub>COOH || C10:0|| 31 |- |[[Lauric acid|Lauric]] || Dodecanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>10</sub>COOH || C12:0|| 44-46 |- |[[Myristic acid|Myristic]] || Tetradecanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>12</sub>COOH || C14:0|| 58.8 |- |[[Palmitic acid|Palmitic]] || Hexadecanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>14</sub>COOH || C16:0|| 63-64 |- |[[Stearic acid|Stearic]] || Octadecanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>16</sub>COOH || C18:0|| 69.9 |- |[[Arachidic acid|Arachidic]] || Eicosanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>18</sub>COOH || C20:0|| 75.5 |- |[[Behenic acid|Behenic]] || Docosanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>20</sub>COOH || C22:0|| 74-78 |- |[[Lignoceric acid|Lignoceric]] || Tetracosanoic acid || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>22</sub>COOH || C24:0|| |} ===Unsaturated fatty acids=== [[Image:Isomers of oleic acid.png|thumb|300px|right|Comparison of the ''trans'' isomer (top) and the ''cis''-isomer of [[oleic acid]].]] Unsaturated fatty acids are of similar form, except that one or more [[alkenyl]] functional groups exist along the chain, with each alkene substituting a single-[[chemical bond|bond]]ed " -CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-" part of the chain with a [[Covalent bond|double-bonded]] "-CH=CH-" portion (that is, a carbon double-bonded to another carbon). The two next carbon atoms in the chain that are bound to either side of the double bond can occur in a ''[[cis]]'' or ''[[trans]]'' configuration. ; ''cis'' : A ''cis'' configuration means that adjacent hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the ''cis'' isomer, causes the chain to bend and restricts the conformational freedom of the fatty acid. The more double bonds the chain has in the ''cis'' configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many ''cis'' bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations. For example, [[oleic acid]], with one double bond, has a "kink" in it, whereas [[linoleic acid]], with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. [[Alpha-linolenic acid]], with three double bonds, favors a hooked shape. The effect of this is that, in restricted environments, such as when fatty acids are part of a phospholipid in a lipid bilayer, or triglycerides in lipid droplets, cis bonds limit the ability of fatty acids to be closely packed, and therefore could affect the melting temperature of the membrane or of the fat. ; ''trans'' : A ''trans'' configuration, by contrast, means that the next two hydrogen atoms are bound to ''opposite'' sides of the double bond. As a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally-occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each double bond has 3''n'' carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the ''trans'' configuration (trans fats) are not found in nature and are the result of human processing (e.g., [[hydrogenation]]). The differences in geometry between the various types of unsaturated fatty acids, as well as between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, play an important role in biological processes, and in the construction of biological structures (such as cell membranes). ====Nomenclature==== There are several different systems of nomenclature in use for [[unsaturated compound|unsaturated]] fatty acids. The following table describes the most common systems. {| class="wikitable" |- !System !Example !Explanation |- !Trivial nomenclature |[[Palmitoleic acid]] |'''[[Trivial name]]s''' (or '''common names''') are non-systematic historical names which are the most frequent naming system used in literature. Most common fatty acids have trivial names in addition to their ''systematic names'' (see below). These names do not follow any pattern, but are concise and generally unambiguous. |- !Systematic nomenclature |[[Oleic acid|(9Z)-octadec-9-enoic acid]] |'''[[Systematic name]]s''' (or '''IUPAC names''') derive from the standard ''[[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry|IUPAC Rules for the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry]]'', published in 1979,<ref name="nomenclature-1979">{{cite book |title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0080223699 |author=Rigaudy, J. |coauthors=Klesney, S.P. |publisher=[[Pergamon]] |date=1979 |isbn=0080223699 |oclc=5008199}}</ref> along with a recommendation published specifically for lipids in 1977.<ref name="nomenclature-1977">{{cite journal |date=1977 |title=The Nomenclature of Lipids. Recommendations, 1976 |work=European Journal of Biochemistry |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=11–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1977.tb11778.x |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1977.tb11778.x |journal=European Journal of Biochemistry}}</ref> Counting begins from the [[carboxylic acid]] end. [[Double bond]]s are labelled with ''[[cis-trans isomerism|cis]]''-/''[[cis-trans isomerism|trans]]''- notation or ''[[E-Z notation|E]]''-/''[[E-Z notation|Z]]''- notation, where appropriate. This notation is generally more verbose than common nomenclature, but has the advantage of being more technically clear and descriptive. |- !Δ<sup>''x''</sup> nomenclature |[[Linoleic acid|''cis'',''cis''-Δ<sup>9</sup>,Δ<sup>12</sup>]] |In '''Δ<sup>''x''</sup>''' (or '''delta-''x''''') '''nomenclature''', each double bond is indicated by Δ<sup>''x''</sup>, where the double bond is located on the ''x''th carbon–carbon bond, counting from the carboxylic acid end. Each double bond is preceded by a ''[[cis-trans isomerism|cis]]''- or ''[[cis-trans isomerism|trans]]''- prefix, indicating the conformation of the molecule around the bond. For example, [[linoleic acid]] is designated . |- !''n''−''x'' nomenclature |[[Omega-3 fatty acid|''n''−3]] |'''''n''−''x''''' ('''''n'' minus ''x'''''; also '''ω−''x''''' or '''omega-''x''''') '''nomenclature''' does not provide names for individual compounds, but is a shorthand way to categorize fatty acids by their physiological properties. A double bond is located on the ''x''th carbon–carbon bond, counting from the terminal [[methyl]] carbon (designated as ''n'' or ω) toward the [[carbonyl]] carbon. For example, [[alpha-linolenic acid|α-Linolenic acid]] is classified as a [[omega-3 fatty acid|''n''−3]] or [[omega-3]] fatty acid, and so it shares properties with other compounds of this type. The ω−''x'' or omega-''x'' notation is common in popular literature, but [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] has deprecated it in favor of ''n''−''x'' notation in technical documents.<ref name="nomenclature-1979" /> The most commonly researched fatty acid types are [[omega-3 fatty acid|''n''−3]] and [[omega-6 fatty acid|''n''−6]], which have unique biological properties. |- !Lipid numbers |18:3<br />[[Gamma-linolenic acid|18:3,&nbsp;''n''−6]]<br />[[Alpha-linolenic acid|18:3,&nbsp;cis,cis,cis-Δ<sup>9</sup>,Δ<sup>12</sup>,Δ<sup>15</sup>]]<br /> |'''Lipid numbers''' take the form ''C'':''D'', where ''C'' is the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid and ''D'' is the number of double bonds in the fatty acid. This notation is ambiguous, as different fatty acids can have the same numbers. Consequently, this notation is usually paired with either a Δ<sup>''x''</sup> or ''n''−''x'' term.<ref name="nomenclature-1979" /> |} Examples of unsaturated fatty acids: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Common name || Chemical structure || Δ<sup>''x''</sup> || ''C'':''D'' || ''n''−''x'' |- |[[Myristoleic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>COOH || ''cis''-Δ<sup>9</sup> || 14:1 || ''n''−5 |- |[[Palmitoleic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>5</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>COOH || ''cis''-Δ<sup>9</sup> || 16:1 || ''n''−7 |- |[[Oleic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>COOH || ''cis''-Δ<sup>9</sup> || 18:1 || [[omega-9 fatty acid|''n''−9]] |- |[[Linoleic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>COOH || ''cis'',''cis''-Δ<sup>9</sup>,Δ<sup>12</sup> || 18:2 || [[omega-6 fatty acid|''n''−6]] |- |[[Alpha-linolenic acid|α-Linolenic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>COOH || ''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-Δ<sup>9</sup>,Δ<sup>12</sup>,Δ<sup>15</sup> || 18:3 || [[omega-3 fatty acid|''n''−3]] |- |[[Arachidonic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>COOH<sup>[http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Name=Arachidonic+Acid&Units=SI NIST]</sup> || ''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-Δ<sup>5</sup>Δ<sup>8</sup>,Δ<sup>11</sup>,Δ<sup>14</sup> || 20:4 || [[omega-6 fatty acid|''n''−6]] |- |[[Eicosapentaenoic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>COOH || ''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-Δ<sup>5</sup>,Δ<sup>8</sup>,Δ<sup>11</sup>,Δ<sup>14</sup>,Δ<sup>17</sup> || 20:5 || [[omega-3 fatty acid|''n''−3]] |- |[[Erucic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>11</sub>COOH || ''cis''-Δ<sup>13</sup> || 22:1 || [[omega-9 fatty acid|''n''−9]] |- |[[Docosahexaenoic acid]] || CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>COOH || ''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-Δ<sup>4</sup>,Δ<sup>7</sup>,Δ<sup>10</sup>,Δ<sup>13</sup>,Δ<sup>16</sup>,Δ<sup>19</sup> || 22:6 || [[omega-3 fatty acid|''n''−3]] |} ====Essential fatty acids==== {{main|Essential fatty acid}} The human body can produce all but two of the fatty acids it needs. These two, [[linoleic acid]] (LA acid) and [[alpha-linolenic acid]] (ALA), are widely distributed in plant oils. In addition, fish oils contain the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA) and [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA). Other marine oils, such as from seal, also contain significant amounts of [[docosapentaenoic acid]] (DPA), which is also an omega-3 fatty acid. Although the body to some extent can convert LA and LNA into these longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids, the omega-3 fatty acids found in marine oils help fulfill the requirement of essential fatty acids (and have been shown to have wholesome properties of their own). Since they cannot be made in the body from other substrates and must be supplied in food, they are called essential fatty acids. Mammals lack the ability to introduce double bonds in fatty acids beyond carbons 9 and 10. Hence linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid are essential fatty acids for humans. In the body, essential fatty acids are primarily used to produce hormone-like substances that regulate a wide range of functions, including blood pressure, blood clotting, blood lipid levels, the immune response, and the inflammation response to injury infection. Essential fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids and are the parent compounds of the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid series, respectively. They are essential in the human diet because there is no synthetic mechanism for them. Humans can easily make saturated fatty acids or monounsaturated fatty acids with a double bond at the omega-9 position, but do not have the enzymes necessary to introduce a double bond at the omega-3 position or omega-6 position. The essential fatty acids are important in several human body systems, including the immune system and in blood pressure regulation, since they are used to make compounds such as [[prostaglandin]]s. The brain has increased amounts of linolenic and alpha-linoleic acid derivatives. Changes in the levels and balance of these fatty acids due to a typical Western diet rich in omega-6 and poor in omega-3 fatty acids is alleged <ref>{{cite news |title= Study Links Brain Fatty Acid Levels To Depression |url= http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050525161319.htm |work= ScienceDaily |publisher= American Society For Biochemistry And Molecular Biology |location=Bethesda, MD |date= 2005-05-25|accessdate=2008-01-18 }}</ref> to be associated with [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and behavioral change, including violence. The actual connection, if any, is still under investigation. Further, changing to a diet richer in omega-3 fatty acids, or consumption of supplements to compensate for a dietary imbalance, has been associated with reduced violent behavior<ref name="prison">{{cite journal | author = C. Bernard Gesch, CQSW Sean M. Hammond, PhD Sarah E. Hampson, PhD Anita Eves, PhD Martin J. Crowder, PhD | year = 2002 | title = Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the antisocial behavior of young adult prisoners | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 181 | pages = 22–28 | url = http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/181/1/22 | accessdate = 2006-06-27 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.181.1.22 | pmid = 12091259 }} </ref> and increased attention span, but the mechanisms for the effect are still unclear. So far, at least three human studies have shown results that support this: two school studies{{Fact|date=February 2007}}<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alexandra J. Richardson and Paul Montgomery | year = 2005 | title = The Oxford-Durham study: a randomized controlled trial of dietary supplementation with fatty acids in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 115 | issue = 5 | pages = 1360–1366 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2004-2164 | pmid = 15867048 }} </ref> as well as a double blind study in a prison.<ref name="prison" /><ref>{{cite book | first = Felicity | last = Lawrence | year = 2004 | title = Not on the Label | url = https://archive.org/details/notonlabelwhatre0000lawr | editor = Kate Barker | pages = [https://archive.org/details/notonlabelwhatre0000lawr/page/213 213] | publisher = Penguin | isbn = 0-14-101566-7 | oclc = 224019274 55482837 55588726 57432047 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Using Fatty Acids for Enhancing Classroom Achievement | url = http://www.durhamtrial.org/ | accessmonthday = January | accessyear = 2004 }}</ref> Fatty acids play an important role in the life and death of cardiac cells because they are essential fuels for mechanical and electrical activities of the heart. <ref>{{cite journal | title=External blockade of the major cardiac delayed-rectifier K+ channel (Kv1.5) by polyunsaturated fatty acids | url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=43279&pageindex=1#page | format= |author= E Honoré, J Barhanin, B Attali, F Lesage, and M Lazdunski | journal= Proc Natl Acad Sci USA|year= 1994 March 1|volume= 91(5)|pages=1937–1941 | accessdate=2007-01-18 | pmid=8127910}} - see page 1 of this link</ref> <ref name="pmid16919517">{{cite journal |author=Reiffel JA, McDonald A |title=Antiarrhythmic effects of omega-3 fatty acids |journal=Am. J. Cardiol. |volume=98 |issue=4A |pages=50i–60i |year=2006 |pmid=16919517 |doi=10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.12.027}}</ref> <ref name="pmid17086218">{{cite journal |author=Landmark K, Alm CS |title=Alpha-linolenic acid, cardiovascular disease and sudden death |language=Norwegian |journal=Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. |volume=126 |issue=21 |pages=2792–4 |year=2006 |pmid=17086218 |doi= }}</ref> <ref name="pmid17091903">{{cite journal |author=Herbaut C |title=Omega-3 and health |language=French |journal=Rev Med Brux |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=S355–60 |year=2006 |pmid=17091903 |doi= }}</ref> ====Trans fatty acids==== {{main|Trans fat}} A [[trans fatty acid]] (commonly shortened to trans fat) is an unsaturated fatty acid molecule that contains a ''trans'' double bond between [[carbon]] atoms, which makes the molecule less 'kinked' in comparison to fatty acids with ''cis'' double bonds. These bonds are characteristically produced during industrial hydrogenation of plant oils. Research suggests that amounts of trans fats correlate with circulatory diseases such as [[atherosclerosis]] and [[coronary heart disease]] more than the same amount of non-trans fats, for reasons that are not fully understood. It is known, however, that trans fats raise the LDL (bad) cholesterol and lowers the HDL (good) cholestrol. They have also been shown to have other harmful effects such as increasing triglycerides and Lp(a) lipoproteins. It is also thought to cause more inflammation, which is thought to occur through damage to the cells lining of blood vessels. ===Long and short=== In addition to saturation, fatty acids are short, medium or long. *[[Short chain fatty acid]]s (SCFA) are [[fatty acids]] with [[aliphatic]] tails of less than eight [[carbons]]. *Medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) are [[fatty acids]] with [[aliphatic]] tails of 8–14 <ref name=lipidworld> [http://www.lipidworld.com/content/2/1/10 Short term effects of dietary medium-chain fatty acids and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fat metabolism of healthy volunteers] Christopher Beermann1, J Jelinek1, T Reinecker2, A Hauenschild2, G Boehm1 and H-U Klör2 </ref> [[carbons]], which can form [[medium chain triglycerides]]. *Long chain fatty acids (LCFA) are [[fatty acids]] with [[aliphatic]] tails of 16 [[carbons]] or more<ref name=lipidworld/>. When discussing [[essential fatty acid]]s, (EFA) a slightly different terminology applies. Short-chain EFA are 18 carbons long; long-chain EFA have 20 or more carbons.<ref name="Fats of Life">{{cite web |url=http://www.fatsoflife.com/fatsoflife/fat-basics.asp |title=Health Facts About Good Fats : The Basics : Omega-3s, Mono & Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids |accessdate=2007-12-12 |format= |work=Fats of Life Newsletter}}</ref> ==Free fatty acids== Fatty acids can be bound or attached to other molecules, such as in [[triglyceride]]s or [[phospholipid]]s. When they are not attached to other molecules, they are known as "free" fatty acids. The '''uncombined fatty acids''' or '''free fatty acids''' may come from the breakdown of a triglyceride into its components (fatty acids and glycerol). However as fats are insoluble in water they must be bound to appropriate regions in the plasma protein albumin for transport around the body. The levels of "free fatty acid" in the blood are limited by the number of albumin binding sites available. Free fatty acids are an important source of fuel for many tissues since they can yield relatively large quantities of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Many cell types can use either [[glucose]] or fatty acids for this purpose. In particular, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids. The brain cannot use fatty acids as a source of fuel; it relies on glucose, or on [[ketone bodies]]. Ketone bodies are produced in the liver by [[fatty acid metabolism]] during starvation, or during periods of low carbohydrate intake. == Fatty acids in dietary fats == The following table gives the fatty acid, vitamin E and cholesterol composition of some common dietary fats.<ref> {{cite book | title=McCance & Widdowson's the Composition of Foods | chapter=Fats and Oils | author=Food Standards Agency | publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry | year=1991 }}</ref> <ref> {{cite web | url=http://www.efn.org/~sundance/fats_and_oils.html | title=More Than You Wanted To Know About Fats/Oils | author=Ted Altar | accessdate=2006-08-31 | publisher=Sundance Natural Foods Online }} </ref> {| class="wikitable" | |+ ! !! Saturated !! Monounsaturated !! Polyunsaturated !! Cholesterol !! Vitamin E |- | || align="center" | g/100g || align="center" | g/100g || align="center" | g/100g || align="center" | mg/100g || align="center" | mg/100g |- | colspan="6" | '''''Animal fats''''' |- | [[Lard]] || align="right" | 40.8 || align="right" | 43.8 || align="right" | 9.6 || align="right" | 93 || align="right" | 0.00 |- | [[Butter]] || align="right" | 54.0 || align="right" | 19.8 || align="right" | 2.6 || align="right" | 230 || align="right" | 2.00 |- | colspan="6" | '''''Vegetable fats''''' |- | [[Coconut oil]] || align="right" | 85.2 || align="right" | 6.6 || align="right" | 1.7 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | .66 |- | [[Palm oil]] || align="right" | 45.3 || align="right" | 41.6 || align="right" | 8.3 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 33.12 |- | [[Cottonseed oil]] || align="right" | 25.5 || align="right" | 21.3 || align="right" | 48.1 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 42.77 |- | [[Wheat germ oil]] || align="right" | 18.8 || align="right" | 15.9 || align="right" | 60.7 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 136.65 |- | [[Soya oil]] || align="right" | 14.5 || align="right" | 23.2 || align="right" | 56.5 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 16.29 |- | [[Olive oil]] || align="right" | 14.0 || align="right" | 69.7 || align="right" | 11.2 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 5.10 |- | [[Corn oil]] || align="right" | 12.7 || align="right" | 24.7 || align="right" | 57.8 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 17.24 |- | [[Sunflower oil]] || align="right" | 11.9 || align="right" | 20.2 || align="right" | 63.0 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 49.0&nbsp; |- | [[Safflower oil]] || align="right" | 10.2 || align="right" | 12.6 || align="right" | 72.1 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 40.68 |- | [[Canola|Rapeseed/Canola oil]] || align="right" | 5.3 || align="right" | 64.3 || align="right" | 24.8 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 22.21 |} ==Acidity== Short chain carboxylic acids such as [[formic acid]] and [[acetic acid]] are miscible with water and dissociate to form reasonably strong acids ([[acid dissociation constant|pK<sub>a</sub>]] 3.77 and 4.76, respectively). Longer-chain fatty acids do not show a great change in pK<sub>a</sub>. [[Nonanoic acid]], for example, has a pK<sub>a</sub> of 4.96. However, as the chain length increases the solubility of the fatty acids in water decreases very rapidly, so that the longer-chain fatty acids have very little effect on the [[pH]] of a solution. The significance of their pK<sub>a</sub> values therefore has relevance only to the types of reactions in which they can take part. Even those fatty acids that are insoluble in water will dissolve in warm [[ethanol]], and can be [[titration|titrated]] with [[sodium hydroxide]] solution using [[phenolphthalein]] as an indicator to a pale-pink endpoint. This analysis is used to determine the free fatty acid content of fats, i.e., the proportion of the triglycerides that have been hydrolyzed. ==Reaction of fatty acids== Fatty acids react just like any other carboxylic acid, which means they can undergo [[esterification]] and acid-base reactions. [[Reduction (chemistry)|Reduction]] of fatty acids yields [[fatty alcohol]]s. Unsaturated fatty acids can also undergo addition reactions, most commonly [[hydrogenation]], which is used to convert vegetable oils into margarine. With partial hydrogenation, unsaturated fatty acids can be isomerized from ''cis'' to ''trans'' configuration. In the [[Varrentrapp reaction]] certain unsaturated fatty acids are cleaved in molten alkali, a reaction at one time of relevance to structure elucidation. ===Auto-oxidation and rancidity=== {{main|Rancidification}} Fatty acids at room temperature undergo a chemical change known as [[auto-oxidation]]. The fatty acid breaks down into [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[ketone]]s, [[aldehyde]]s, and smaller amounts of [[epoxide]]s and [[alcohol]]s. Heavy metals present at low levels in fats and oils promote auto-oxidation. Fats and oils often are treated with [[chelation|chelating agents]] such as [[citric acid]]. ==Circulation== ===Digestion and intake=== {{Main|Digestion#Fat digestion}} [[Short chain fatty acids|Short-]] and [[medium chain fatty acids]] are absorbed directly into the blood via intestine capillaries and travel through the [[portal vein]] just as other absorbed nutrients do. However, [[long chain fatty acids]] are too large to be directly released into the tiny intestine capillaries. Instead they are absorbed into the fatty walls of the intestine [[Intestinal villus|villi]] and reassembled again into [[triglycerides]]. The triglycerides are coated with [[cholesterol]] and protein (protein coat) into a compound called a [[chylomicron]]. Within the villi, the chylomicron enters a [[lymphatic]] capillary called a [[lacteal]], which merges into larger lymphatic vessels. It is transported via the lymphatic system and the [[thoracic duct]] up to a location near the heart (where the arteries and veins are larger). The thoracic duct empties the chylomicrons into the bloodstream via the left [[subclavian vein]]. At this point the chylomicrons can transport the triglycerides to where they are needed. ===Distribution=== {{Main|Blood fatty acids}} Blood fatty acids are in different forms in different stages in the blood circulation. They are taken in through the intestine in [[chylomicrons]], but also exist in [[very low density lipoprotein]]s (VLDL) and [[low density lipoprotein]]s (LDL) after processing in the liver. In addition, when released from [[adipocytes]], fatty acids exist in the blood as [[free fatty acids]]. --> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Fatty acid|Fatty acid]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris. Disalin 7 Oktober 2008. {{reflist}} == Baca ogé == {{Commons|Fatty acids}} * [[Asam lemak ésénsial]] * [[Lemak jenuh]] * [[Lemak teu jenuh]] * [[Sintésis asam lemak]] * [[Métabolismeu asam lemak]] * [[Minyak nabati]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.lipidlibrary.co.uk/ Lipid Library] * [http://intl.elsevierhealth.com/journals/plef/ ''Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes & Essential Fatty Acids'' Journal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012173913/http://intl.elsevierhealth.com/journals/plef/ |date=2007-10-12 }} {{Asam lemak}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Asam lemak]] [[Kategori:Gizi]] 3iajeig4dd7v2evhhfj3w7dmkhnrdji 0 29694 711819 690150 2026-08-07T05:14:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711819 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Strawberry Ice Cream with Strawberries 01.jpg|thumb|250px|És krim strobéri]] [[Gambar:Caramel Nut Ice Cream 01.jpg|thumb|250px|És krim [[karamél]]]] '''És krim''', '''éskrim''', atawa '''krim és''' ([[basa Inggris|Ing]]. '''''ice créam''''' nu asalna tina '''''iced créam''''') nyaéta katuangan beku nu dijieun tina [[produk susu]], nyaéta [[susu]] jeung [[krim]], dicampur [[bungbu]] jeung [[pangamis]]. Ieu campuran ditiiskeun sabari digalokeun maké ''mixer'' lalaunan ngarah henteu ngahasilkeun [[kristal]] [[és]] badag. Di [[Amérika Serikat|AS]], éskrim nu katelah "Philadelphia style" dijieun tina krim, gula, jeung bungbu rasa (bungbuahan)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epicurious.com/recipes/food/views/PEACH-ICE-CREAM-PHILADELPHIA-STYLE-101911 |title=Peach Ice Cream, Philadelphia Style |accessdate=2008-09-24 |publisher=CondéNet, Inc., reprinted from William Morrow and Co.'s ''The Ultimate Ice Cream Book'' |author=Weinstein, Bruce |year=1999 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025113728/http://www.epicurious.com/recipes/food/views/PEACH-ICE-CREAM-PHILADELPHIA-STYLE-101911 |date=2008-10-25 }}</ref>. Nu séjénna, éskrim "Prancis", dijieun maké [[endog]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Irma S. |last=Rombauer |coauthors=Marion R. Becker |authorlink=Irma S. Rombauer |year=1975 |title=[[The Joy of Cooking]] |isbn=9780672523854 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |location=[[Indianapolis, Indiana]]}}</ref>. <!--[[Frozen custard]], [[frozen yogurt]], [[sorbet]], [[gelato]], and other similar products are sometimes informally called ice cream, but governments generally regulate the commercial use of these terms based on quantities of ingredients.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idfa.org/facts/icmonth/page5.cfm |title=Ice Cream Labeling: What Does it all Mean? |accessdate=2008-08-09 |publisher=[[International Foodservice Distributors Association]]}}</ref> American federal labeling standards require ice cream to contain a minimum of 10% milk fat (about 7 grams (g) of fat per 1/2 cup [120 mL] serving) and 20% total milk solids by weight.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wisdairy.com/OtherDairyProductInfo/IceCream/Default.aspx |title=Ice Cream |accessdate=2008-08-09 |publisher=Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board |author=National Dairy Council |year=2000}}</ref> == Production == Before the development of modern refrigeration, ice cream was a luxury item reserved for special occasions. Making ice cream was quite laborious. Ice was cut from lakes and ponds during the winter and stored in large heaps, in holes in the ground, or in wood-frame [[Icehouse (building)|ice houses]], insulated by straw. Many farmers and plantation owners, including [[President of the United States|U.S. President]]s [[George Washington]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]], cut and stored ice in the winter for use in the summer. [[Frederic Tudor]] of Boston turned ice harvesting and shipping into big business, cutting ice in New England and shipping it around the world. Ice cream was made by hand in a large bowl placed inside a tub filled with ice and salt. This was called the pot-freezer method. French confectioners refined the pot-freezer method, making ice cream in a sorbtierre (a covered pail with a handle attached to the lid). In the pot-freezer method, the temperature of the ingredients is reduced by the mixture of crushed ice and [[salt]]. The salt water is cooled by the ice, and the action of the salt on the ice causes it to (partially) melt, absorbing [[latent heat]] and bringing the mixture below the freezing point of pure [[water]]. The immersed container can also make better thermal contact with the salty water and ice mixture than it could with ice alone. The hand-cranked churn, which also uses ice and salt for cooling, replaced the pot-freezer method. The exact origin of the hand-cranked freezer is unknown, but the first U.S. patent for one was #3254 issued to Nancy Johnson on [[September 9]], [[1843]]. The hand-cranked churn produced smoother ice cream than the pot freezer and did it quicker. Many inventors patented improvements on Johnson's design. In Europe and early America, ice cream was made and sold by small businesses, mostly confectioners and caterers. Jacob Fussell of [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], [[Maryland]] was the first to manufacture ice cream on a large scale. Fussell bought fresh dairy products from farmers in York County, Pennsylvania, and sold them in Baltimore. An unstable demand for his dairy products often left him with a surplus of cream, which he made into ice cream. He built his first ice cream factory in Seven Valleys, Pennsylvania, in 1851. Two years later, he moved his factory to Baltimore. Later, he opened factories in several other cities and taught the business to others, who operated their own plants. Mass production reduced the cost of ice cream and added to its popularity. [[Image:Gelatiera.jpg|thumb|250px|An electric ice cream maker]] The development of industrial [[refrigerator|refrigeration]] by [[Germany|German]] [[engineer]] [[Carl von Linde]] during the 1870s eliminated the need to cut and store natural ice and when the continuous-process freezer was perfected in 1926, it allowed commercial mass production of ice cream and the birth of the modern ice cream industry. The most common method for producing ice cream at home is to use an [[ice cream maker]], in modern times generally an electrical device that churns the ice cream mixture while cooled inside a household freezer, or using a solution of pre-frozen salt and water, which gradually melts while the ice cream freezes. Some more expensive models have an inbuilt freezing element. A newer method of making home-made ice cream is to add [[liquid nitrogen]] to the mixture while stirring it using a spoon or spatula. Some ice cream recipes call for making a custard, folding in whipped cream, and immediately freezing the mixture. == Commercial delivery == [[Image:Indonesia bike34.JPG|thumb|250px|A bicycle-based ice cream vendor in [[Indonesia]]]] Ice cream can be [[mass production|mass-produced]] and thus is widely available in developed parts of the world. Ice cream can be purchased in large [[carton]]s (vats and [[squround]]s) from supermarkets and grocery stores, in smaller quantities from ice cream shops, [[convenience store]]s, and [[milk bar]]s, and in individual servings from small carts or vans at public events. In Turkey and Australia, ice cream is sometimes sold to beach-goers from small powerboats equipped with chest freezers. Some ice cream distributors sell ice cream products from traveling refrigerated vans or carts (commonly referred to in the US as "[[ice cream van|ice cream truck]]s"), sometimes equipped with speakers playing children's music. Traditionally, ice cream vans in the United Kingdom make a music box noise rather than actual music. == Dietary == Ice cream may have the following composition: Greater than 10% milkfat and usually between 10% and as high as 16% fat in some premium ice creams: 9 to 12% milk solids-not-fat: this component, also known as the serum solids, contains the proteins (caseins and whey proteins) and carbohydrates (lactose) found in milk: 12 to 16% sweeteners: usually a combination of sucrose and glucose-based corn syrup sweeteners: 0.2 to 0.5% stabilizers and emulsifiers: 55% to 64% water which comes from the milk or other ingredients.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/icingr.html |title=Ice Cream Ingredients |accessdate=2008-08-09 |work=Dairy Science and Technology Education Series |first=H. Douglas |last=Goff |publisher=[[University of Guelph]]}}</ref> These compositions are percentage by weight. Since ice cream can contain as much as half air by volume, these numbers may be reduced by as much as half if cited by volume. In terms of dietary considerations, however, the percentages by weight are more relevant. Even the low fat products have high caloric content: Ben and Jerry's No Fat Vanilla Fudge contains 150 calories per half cup due to its high sugar content.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/columnnn/nn000725.html |title=Ice Cream - What's in a Scoop? |first=Pat |last=Kendall |accessdate=2008-08-09 |publisher=[[Colorado State University]] |date=2000-06-25}}</ref> == History == === Precursors of ice cream === Ancient civilizations have served ice for cold foods for thousands of years.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Mesopotamia]] has the earliest icehouses in existence, 4,000 years ago, beside the [[Euphrates|Euphrates River]], where the wealthy stored items to keep them cold.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The [[pharaoh]]s of [[Egypt]] had ice shipped to them.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In the fifth century BC, ancient [[Greeks]] sold snow cones mixed with honey and fruit in the markets of [[Athens]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Persians]], having mastered the storage of ice, ate chilled desserts well into summer.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Roman Emperor]] [[Nero]] (37–68) had ice brought from the mountains and combined with fruit toppings. These were some early chilled delicacies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Andrews |first=Tamra |year=2000 |title=Nectar and Ambrosia:An Encyclopedia of Food in World Mythology |isbn=9781576070369 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=[[Santa Barbara, California]] |oclc=224083021 44612908 pages=121}}</ref> Ancient [[Persians]] mastered the technique of storing ice inside giant naturally-cooled refrigerators known as [[yakhchal]]s. These structures kept ice brought in from the winter, or from nearby mountains, well into the summer. They worked by using tall [[windcatcher]]s that kept the sub-level storage space at frigid temperatures. In 400 BC, [[Persian Empire|Persians]] invented a special chilled pudding-like dish, made of [[rose water]] and [[vermicelli]] which was served to royalty during summers. The ice was mixed with [[saffron]], fruits, and various other flavors. The treat, widely made in [[Iran]] today, is called ''"[[faloodeh]]"'', and is made from starch (usually wheat), spun in a sieve-like machine which produces threads or drops of the batter, which are boiled in water. The mix is then frozen, and mixed with rose water and lemons, before serving.{{Fact|date=August 2008}} In 62 AD, the Roman emperor Nero sent slaves to the Apennine mountains to collect snow to be flavored with honey and nuts.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat asserts in her ''History of Food'', "the Chinese may be credited with inventing a device to make sorbets and ice cream. They poured a mixture of snow and [[potassium nitrate|saltpetre]] over the exteriors of containers filled with syrup, for, in the same way as salt raises the boiling-point of water, it lowers the freezing-point to below zero."<ref>{{cite book |first=Maguelonne |last=Toussaint-Samat |other=translated from the French by Anthea Bell |year=2005 |title=A history of food |isbn=9780631194972 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=[[Malden, Massachusetts]] |oclc=223367668 34109401 46978888 54663098 55534294 62287134 |pages=749–750}}</ref><ref name="fdtmlnQuoteToussaint-Samat">{{cite web |last=Olver |first=Lynne |date=2007-09-30 |url=http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodicecream.html |title=ice cream & ice |work=Food Timeline |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> (Toussaint does not provide historical documentation for this.) In the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the [[Hindu Kush]] to [[Delhi]] where it was used in fruit sorbets.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tannahill |first=Reay |year=1989 |title=Food in History |url=https://archive.org/details/foodinhistory00reay_0 |location=[[New York]] |publisher=[[Three Rivers Press]] |isbn=0-517-88404-6 |oclc=32450569 41417694 41448271}}</ref> When Italian duchess [[Catherine de' Medici]] married the duc d’Orléans in 1533, she is said to have brought with her Italian chefs who had recipes for flavored ices or sorbets and introduced them in France.<ref name="Cool">{{cite book |last=Powell |first=Marilyn |year=2005 |title=Cool: The Story of Ice Cream |url=http://www.penguin.ca/nf/Book/BookDisplay/0,,0_9780143052586,00.html?sym=EXC |location=[[Toronto]] |publisher=Penguin Canada |isbn=978-0-14-305258-6 |oclc=59136553}}</ref> One hundred years later, [[Charles I of England]] was supposedly so impressed by the "frozen snow" that he offered his own ice cream maker a lifetime [[pension]] in return for keeping the formula secret, so that ice cream could be a royal prerogative.<ref>{{cite web |last=Goff |first=H. Douglas |url=http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/ichist.html |title=Ice Cream History and Folklore |work=Dairy Science and Technology Education Series |publisher=[[University of Guelph]] |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> There is, however, no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century. The first recipe for flavored ices in French appears in 1674, in Nicholas Lemery’s ''Recueil de curiositéz rares et nouvelles de plus admirables effets de la nature''.<ref name="Cool"/> Recipes for ''sorbetti'' saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latini's ''Lo Scalco alla Moderna'' (The Modern Steward).<ref name="Cool"/> Recipes for flavored ices begin to appear in François Massialot's ''Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits'' starting with the 1692 edition. Massialot's recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. However, Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the fine consistency of sugar and snow.<ref name="Cool"/> === True ice cream === Ice cream recipes first appear in 18th century England and America. A recipe for ice cream was published in ''[[Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts]]'' in 1718.<ref>{{cite book |first=Mary |last=Eales |year=1985 |title=[[Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts]] |origyear=1718 |isbn=0-907325-25-4 |publisher=Prospect Books |location=London |oclc=228661650}}</ref> <blockquote> To ice CREAM. Take Tin Ice-Pots, fill them with any Sort of Cream you like, either plain or sweeten'd, or Fruit in it; shut your Pots very close; to six Pots you must allow eighteen or twenty Pound of Ice, breaking the Ice very small; there will be some great Pieces, which lay at the Bottom and Top: You must have a Pail, and lay some Straw at the Bottom; then lay in your Ice, and put in amongst it a Pound of Bay-Salt; set in your Pots of Cream, and lay Ice and Salt between every Pot, that they may not touch; but the Ice must lie round them on every Side; lay a good deal of Ice on the Top, cover the Pail with Straw, set it in a Cellar where no Sun or Light comes, it will be froze in four Hours, but it may stand longer; than take it out just as you use it; hold it in your Hand and it will slip out. When you wou'd freeze any Sort of Fruit, either Cherries, Rasberries, Currants, or Strawberries, fill your Tin-Pots with the Fruit, but as hollow as you can; put to them Lemmonade, made with Spring-Water and Lemmon-Juice sweeten'd; put enough in the Pots to make the Fruit hang together, and put them in Ice as you do Cream. </blockquote> The earliest reference to ice cream given by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] is from 1744, reprinted in a magazine in 1877. ''1744 in Pennsylvania Mag. Hist. & Biogr. (1877) I. 126 Among the rarities..was some fine ice cream, which, with the strawberries and milk, eat most deliciously.''<ref name=oed>"ice cream, n." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. 27 March 2008 <http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50110937>.</ref> The 1751 edition of ''[[Art of Cookery|The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy]]'' by [[Hannah Glasse]] features a recipe for ice cream. OED gives her recipe: ''H. GLASSE Art of Cookery (ed. 4) 333 (heading) To make Ice Cream..set it [sc. the cream] into the larger Bason. Fill it with Ice, and a Handful of Salt.''<ref name=oed/> 1768 saw the publication of ''L'Art de Bien Faire les Glaces d'Office'' by M. Emy, a cookbook devoted entirely to recipes for flavored ices and ice cream.<ref name="Cool"/> Ice cream was introduced to the United States by Quaker colonists who brought their ice cream recipes with them. Confectioners sold ice cream at their shops in New York and other cities during the colonial era. [[Ben Franklin]], [[George Washington]], and [[Thomas Jefferson]] were known to have regularly eaten and served ice cream. [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Dolley Madison]] is also closely associated with the early history of ice cream in the United States. One respected history of ice cream states that, as the wife of U.S. President [[James Madison]], she served ice cream at her husband's Inaugural Ball in 1813. Around 1832, [[Augustus Jackson]], an African American confectioner, not only created multiple ice cream recipes, but he also invented a superior technique to manufacture ice cream.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://inventors.about.com/od/ijstartinventors/a/AugustusJackson.htm |title=Augustus Jackson |first=Mary |last=Bellis |publisher=About.com |accessdate=2008-08-09 |work=Inventors}}</ref> In 1843, Nancy Johnson of Philadelphia was issued the first U.S. patent for a small-scale handcranked ice cream freezer. The invention of the [[ice cream soda]] gave Americans a new treat, adding to ice cream's popularity. This cold treat was probably invented by Robert Green in 1874, although there is no conclusive evidence to prove his claim. [[Image:icecreamsundaesinosaka.jpg|thumb|250px|Ice cream sundaes with fruit, nuts, and a wafer]] The [[sundae|ice cream sundae]] originated in the late 19th century. Several men claimed to have created the first sundae, but there is no conclusive evidence to back up any of their stories. Some sources say that the sundae was invented to circumvent [[blue law]]s, which forbade serving sodas on Sunday. Towns claiming to be the birthplace of the sundae include Buffalo, New York; Two Rivers, Wisconsin; Ithaca, New York; and Evanston, Illinois. Both the [[ice cream cone]] and [[banana split]] became popular in the early 20th century. Several food vendors claimed to have invented the ice cream cone at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, MO, and reliable evidence proves that the ice cream cone was popularized at the fair. However, Europeans were eating cones long before 1904.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historicfood.com/Ice%20Cream%20Cone.htm |title=An 1807 Ice Cream Cone: Discovery and Evidence |accessdate=2008-08-09 |first=Robert J. |last=Weir |publisher=Historic Food}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/IceCream/IceCreamCone.htm |title=History of Ice Cream Cone |first=Linda |last=Stradley |accessdate=2008-08-09 |publisher=What's Cooking America |year=2004 }}</ref> In the UK, ice cream remained an expensive and rare treat, until large quantities of ice began to be imported from [[Norway]] and the US in the mid Victorian era. A Swiss-Italian businessman, [[Carlo Gatti]], opened the first ice cream stall outside [[Charing Cross]] station in 1851, selling scoops of ice cream in shells for one penny.<ref>http://bordeaux-undiscovered.blogspot.com/2007/03/wine-flavoured-ice-cream.html</ref> The [[penny lick]] soon became popular, remaining on sale until banned in 1926,{{Fact|date=May 2007}} by which time it had been replaced by the [[ice cream cone]]. [[Image:G&Ds on little clarenden st.JPG|thumb|250px|left|George and Davis' Ice Cream Cafe on [[Little Clarendon Street]], [[Oxford]].]] The history of ice cream in the 20th century is one of great change and increases in availability and popularity. In the United States in the early 20th century, the [[ice cream soda]] was a popular treat at the [[soda shop]], the soda fountain, and the ice cream parlor. During [[Prohibition in the United States|American Prohibition]], the soda fountain to some extent replaced the outlawed alcohol establishments such as [[bar (establishment)|bar]]s and [[bar (establishment)|saloon]]s. Ice cream became popular throughout the world in the second half of the 20th century after cheap [[refrigeration]] became common. There was an explosion of ice cream stores and of flavors and types. Vendors often competed on the basis of variety. [[Howard Johnson's]] restaurants advertised "a world of 28 flavors." [[Baskin-Robbins]] made its 31 flavors ("one for every day of the month") the cornerstone of its marketing strategy. The company now boasts that it has developed over 1000 varieties. One important development in the 20th century was the introduction of [[soft serve|soft ice cream]]. A chemical research team in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] (of which a young [[Margaret Thatcher]] was a member)<ref>[http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page126.asp Margaret Thatcher]</ref> discovered a method of doubling the amount of air in ice cream, which allowed manufacturers to use less of the actual ingredients, thereby reducing costs. This ice cream was also popular amongst consumers who preferred the lighter texture, and most major ice cream brands now use this manufacturing process. {{Fact|date=March 2008}} It also made possible the soft ice cream machine in which a cone is filled beneath a [[Tap (valve)|spigot]] on order. In the United States, [[Dairy Queen]], [[Carvel]], and [[Tastee-Freez]] pioneered in establishing chains of soft-serve ice cream outlets. Technological innovations such as these have introduced various [[food additive]]s into ice cream, notably the stabilizing agent [[gluten]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/columnnn/nn030331.html |title=Gluten sensitivity more widespread than previously thought |publisher=Colorado State University Extension |author=Pat Kendall, Ph.D., R.D. |date=March 31, 2003}}</ref> to which some people have an [[gluten sensitivity|intolerance]]. Recent awareness of this issue has prompted a number of manufacturers to start producing gluten-free ice cream.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nestle.ca/haagen_dazs/en/Company/FAQ/index#Q13 |title=Haagen-Dazs: FAQ - Is Haagen Dazs Gluten Free? |publisher=[[Nestlé]]}}</ref> The 1980s saw a return of the older, thicker ice creams being sold as "premium" and "superpremium" varieties under brands such as [[Ben & Jerry's]] and [[Häagen-Dazs]]. == Ice cream throughout the world == === Argentina === The tradition of ice cream making was taken to [[Argentina]] by many Italian immigrants.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} Argentine ''helado'' (ice cream) is very similar to Italian [[gelato]], rather than American-style ice cream, and it has become one of the most popular desserts in the country. Among the most famous manufacturers are ''Freddo'', one of the oldest, ''Pérsico'' and ''Munchi's'', all of them located in [[Buenos Aires]]. However, each city has its own ''heladería'' (ice cream house) which offer creamy ice creams. There are hundreds of flavors but Argentina's most traditional and popular one is [[dulce de leche]], which has become a favorite abroad, especially in the US. === Australia and New Zealand === [[Image:IcecreamVanBatemansBayNSWAustralia.jpg|thumb|250px|An ice cream van at [[Batemans Bay, New South Wales]], Australia]] Per capita, [[Australia]]ns and [[New Zealand]]ers are among the leading ice cream consumers in the world, eating 18 liters and 20 liters each per year respectively, behind the [[United States]] where people eat 23 liters each per year.<ref name = "Ibisworld">{{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.ferret.com.au/articles/31/0c02a331.asp |title=Business Outlook: ice cream manufacturing (based on a report to be found through www.ibisworld.com.au) |publisher=Reed Business Information |accessdate=2006-03-03}}</ref> Brands include [[Streets (ice cream)|Streets]], [[Peters Ice Cream|Peters]], [[Sara Lee (corporation)|Sara Lee]], [[New Zealand Natural]], [[Cadbury plc|Cadbury]], and [[Baskin-Robbins]]. === Finland === The first ice cream manufacturer in Finland was the Italian Magi family, who opened the ''Helsingin jäätelötehdas'' in 1922 and ''Suomen Eskimo Oy''. Other manufacturers soon spawned, like ''Pietarsaaren jäätelötehdas'' (1928-2002). Finland's first ice cream bar opened at the [[Lasipalatsi]] in 1936, and at the same time another manufacturer, ''Maanviljelijäin Maitokeskus'' started their production. Today, the two largest ice cream manufacturers are [[Ingman]] and [[Nestlé]] (who bought [[Valio]]jäätelö). Finland is also the leading consumer of ice cream in Europe, with 13.7 liters per person in 2003.<ref>[http://www.mmmtike.fi/fi/index/tiedotteet/tiedotteet2004/040629_ravintotase03.html Tike web page on consumer habits]</ref> === France === In 1651, Italian Francesco dei Coltelli opened an ice cream café in [[Paris]] and the product became so popular that during the next 50 years another 250 cafés opened in Paris. Some "French Style" ice creams are made with butter in place of cream.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} === Germany === Italian ice cream parlors (''Eisdielen'') have been popular in [[Germany]] since the 1920s, when many Italians immigrated and set up business. As in Italy itself, ice cream is considered a traditional dessert and the ice cream at an Eisdiele is still mostly hand-made. === Ghana=== In 1962<ref>[http://www.fanmilk-gh.net/internet/index.php?CatId=87 :: Fan Milk Limited :: - The Company]</ref>, the popular Ghanaian treat FanMilk was created by the Fan Milk Limited company. FanIce comes in [[garden strawberry|strawberry]], [[chocolate]], and [[vanilla]]. FanMilk also makes additional products, though FanIce is the closest to Western ice cream. Pouches of FanIce and other FanMilk products can be bought from men on bikes equipped with chill boxes in any moderately sized town, and in cities large enough for grocery stores, FanMilk can be bought in tubs for eating at home. === Greece === Ice cream in its modern form is a relatively new invention. Ice treats have been enjoyed since ancient times. During the 5th century BC, ancient [[Greeks]] ate snow mixed with honey and fruit in the markets of Athens. The father of modern medicine, [[Hippocrates]], encouraged his Ancient Greek patients to eat ice ''"as it livens the lifejuices and increases the well-being."''<ref name="Norway"> {{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.norway.org/food/recipes/sorbet_and_ice_cream.htm |title=Norway - the official site in the United States |work=What's Cooking: (N)ice and cold |publisher=The Government of Norway et al. |accessdate=2006-11-04}}</ref> In the 4th century BC, it was well known that a favorite treat of [[Alexander the Great]] was snow ice mixed with honey and [[nectar]].<ref> {{cite web |year=2006 |url=http://www.readwritethink.org/calendar/calendar_day.asp?id=510 |title=ReadWriteThink |work=Commercial ice cream is first sold in the U.S. in 1786 |publisher=The International Reading Association (IRA), the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), and the Verizon Foundation |accessdate=2006-11-04}}</ref> In modern times Greek ice cream recipes have some unique flavors such as '''Pagoto Kaimaki''', ({{lang-el|Παγωτό Καϊμάκι}}), made from [[mastic]]-[[resin]] which gives it an almost chewy texture, and '''salepi''', used as a thickening agent to increase resistance to melting; both give the ice cream a unique taste; '''Olive Oil Ice Cream''' with [[ficus|figs]]; '''Pagoto Kataifi Chocolate''', ({{lang-el|Παγωτό Καταΐφι-κακάο}}), made from the shredded filo dough pastry that resembles angel's hair pasta or [[vermicelli]]; and '''Mavrodaphne Ice Cream''', ({{lang-el|Μαυροδάφνη Παγωτό}}), made from a Greek dessert wine. Fruity [[Spoon sweets|Greek Sweets of the Spoon]] are usually served as toppings with Greek-inspired ice cream flavors. === India and Pakistan === [[Kulfi]] is a traditional dessert that is much denser than traditional ice cream; it is also very popular and widely consumed in both countries. === Italy === [[Image:Italian ice cream.jpg|thumb|250px|Italian ice cream in [[Rome]]]] Ice cream is a traditional dessert in Italy. Much is still hand-made by individual gelateria in "produzione propria" ice cream shops. Italian ice cream or [[gelato]] is made from whole milk, eggs, sugar, and natural flavorings. Gelato typically contains 7-8% fat, less than ice cream's minimum of 10%. Before the cone became popular for serving ice cream, in English speaking countries, Italian street vendors would serve the ice cream in a small glass dish referred to as a "[[penny lick]]" or wrapped in waxed paper and known as a [[hokey pokey (ice cream)|hokey-pokey]] (possibly a corruption of the [[Italian language|Italian]] "ecco un poco" - "here is a little").<ref>{{cite web |title=Hokey Pokey and All That: The history of ice cream |author=Edmund Forte |url=http://www.edmundforte.co.uk/141633.html}} — Forte presents this and several alternative hypotheses.</ref> Some of the most known ice cream machine makers are Italian companies [[Carpigiani]], Crm-Telme, Corema-Telme, Technogel, Cattabriga, Matrix, and Promag. === Japan === [[Image:Mochi Ice Cream.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Mochi ice cream]] sold in Japan]] [[Image:Green téa ice cream.JPG|thumb|200px|upright|Japanese [[green tea]] ice cream with [[Red bean paste|anko]] sauce]] Ice cream is also a popular dessert in Japan, with almost two in five adults eating some at least once a week, according to a recent survey.<ref name="WhatJapanThinks">{{cite web |year=2007 |url=http://whatjapanthinks.com/2007/02/15/nearly-two-in-five-japanese-eat-ice-cream-every-week/ |title=What Japan Thinks - Japanese Opinion Polls Translated into English |work=Nearly two in five Japanese eat ice cream every week |accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Since 1999, the Japanese Ice Cream Association has been publishing the Ice Cream [[White paper|White Paper]] once a year, and the four most popular ice cream flavors in Japan has not changed (including their orders) since 1999 according to the Paper.<ref name="JICA">http://www.icecream.or.jp/data/hakusho05.html Japanese Ice Cream Association. ''Vanilla holds an unshakable top position in favorite ice cream flavors.'' Ice Cream White Paper 2006. Tokyo, Japan. Retrieved on 2006-10-21 (Japanese).</ref> The top four flavors are [[vanilla]], [[chocolate]], ''[[matcha]]'' (powdered [[green tea]]), and [[garden strawberry|strawberry]]. Other notable popular flavors are [[milk]], [[caramel]], and [[azuki bean|azuki]] (Red Bean) also according to the Paper.<ref name="JICA"/> ''Azuki'' is particularly favored by people in their 50s and older.<ref name="JICA"/> While ''matcha'' is a truly Japanese flavor favored by Japanese and well-known among non-Japanese outside of Japan, plum and ginger, tastes often presented as Japanese flavors outside of Japan, did not make the cut in the top 17 favorite flavor list in 2006.<ref name="JICA"/> In Japan, a soft serve ice cream is called [[soft serve|softcream]] which is also very popular. As a seasonal treat during the cherry blossom season, ice cream is available that is actually flavored with cherry blossoms. {{clr}} === Philippines === {{main|Sorbetes}} Sorbetes is a Filipino version for common ice cream usually peddled from carts that roam streets in the Philippines. This should not be confused with the known sorbet. It is also commonly called 'dirty ice cream' because it is sold along the streets exposing it to [[pollution]] and that the factory where it comes from is usually unknown; though it is not really "dirty" as the name implies. It is usually served with small wafer or sugar cones and recently, bread buns. === Turkey === See [[Dondurma]] for Turkish ice cream. === United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, per capita consumption of ice cream is 6 liters per year.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Much of the lower-priced ice cream sold, including that from some ice cream vans, has little milk or milk solids content, being made with [[vegetable fats and oils|vegetable oil]], usually [[hydrogenation|hydrogenated]] palm kernel oil. Ice cream sold as ''dairy ice cream'' must contain milk fat, and many companies make sure that ''dairy'' is prominently displayed on their packaging or businesses. The Ice Cream Alliance Ltd, a trade association for the UK ice cream industry, says that: "It is necessary for a manufacturer to be aware of the compositional requirements of the country in which he intends to sell his ice cream. In the UK, this is a minimum of 5% fat and a minimum of 2.5% milk protein. There is also an Italian ice cream dessert known as Tartufo. (Schedule 8, the Food Labelling Regulations 1996).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ice-cream.org/UPLOAD/ICAFACTSHEET4.PDF |title=Technical Fact Sheet No. 4 |format=pdf |publisher=The Ice Cream Alliance Ltd |accessdate=2006-11-04}}</ref> === United States === Ice cream is an extremely popular dessert in the United States. Americans consume about 15 quarts (more than 13 liters) of ice cream per person per year—the most in the world.<ref>about.com</ref> Although chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry are the traditional favorite flavors of ice cream, and once enjoyed roughly equal popularity, vanilla has grown to be far and away the most popular. According to the International Ice Cream Association (1994), supermarket sales of ice cream break down as follows: vanilla, 28%; fruit flavors, 15%; nut flavors, 13.5%; candy mix-in flavors, 12.5%; chocolate, 8%; cake and cookie flavors, 7.5%; Neapolitan, 7%; and coffee/mocha, 3%. Other flavors combine for 5.5%. Sales in ice cream parlors are more variable, as new flavors come and go, but about three times as many people call vanilla their favorite than chocolate, the runner-up. Federal government regulations pertaining to the process of making ice cream, allowable ingredients, and standards, may be found in Part 135 of Title 21 of the ''Code of Federal Regulations''<ref>[http://frwebgate2.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate.cgi?WAISdocID=76465419768+1+0+0&WAISaction=retrieve 21 CFR Part 135]</ref> As a rule, ice cream must contain not less than 10 percent milkfat, nor less than 10 percent nonfat milk solids.<ref>21 CFR § 135.110(a)(2).</ref> == Ice cream cone == [[Image:StrawberryIce.jpg|thumb|200px|Strawberry ice cream in a cone.]] {{main|Ice cream cone}} [[Image:Helados.jpg|thumb|250px|left|250px|]] ''Mrs Marshall's Cookery Book,'' published in 1888, endorsed serving ice cream in cones, but the idea definitely predated that. Agnes Marshall was a celebrated [[food writing|cookery writer]] of her day and helped to popularize ice cream. She patented and manufactured an ice cream maker and was the first person to suggest using liquefied gases to freeze ice cream after seeing a demonstration at the [[Royal Institution]]. Reliable evidence proves that ice cream cones were served in the 19th century, and their popularity increased greatly during the [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition|St. Louis World's Fair]] in 1904. According to legend, at the World's Fair an ice cream seller had run out of the cardboard dishes used to put ice cream scoops in, so they could not sell any more produce. Next door to the ice cream booth was a [[Syria]]n [[waffle]] booth, unsuccessful due to intense heat; the waffle maker offered to make cones by rolling up his waffles and the new product sold well, and was widely copied by other vendors.<ref>http://www.historicfood.com/Ice%20Cream%20Cone.htm</ref><ref>http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/IceCream/IceCreamCone.htm</ref> == Other frozen desserts == The following is a partial list of ice cream-like frozen desserts and snacks: [[Image:RaspberrySherbet.jpg|thumb|250px|Raspberry [[sherbet]].]] * [[Ais kacang]]: a dessert in [[Malaysia]] and Singapore made from shaved ice, syrup, and boiled red bean and topped with chocolate sauce and evaporated milk. * [[Dondurma]]: Turkish ice cream, made of [[salep]] and [[mastic]] [[resin]] * [[Frozen custard]]: at least 10% milk fat and at least 1.4% egg yolk and much less air beaten into it, similar to Gelato, fairly rare. Known in Italy as [[Semifreddo]]. * [[Frozen yogurt]]: a low fat or fat free alternative made with yogurt * [[Gelato]]: an Italian frozen dessert having a lower milk fat content than ice cream and stabilized with ingredients such as eggs. * [[Ice milk]]: less than 10% milk fat and lower sweetening content, once marketed as "ice milk" but now sold as ''low-fat ice cream'' in the United States. * [[Ice pop]] (or lolly): frozen fruit puree, fruit juice, or flavored sugar water on a stick or in a flexible plastic sleeve. * [[Kulfi]]: Believed to have been introduced to [[South Asia]] by the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] conquest in the 16th century; its origins trace back to the cold snacks and desserts of [[Arab]] and [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] cultures.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eater |first=Picky |year=2004 |url=http://news.asianweek.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=6d40974755251326755404c525e16478&this_category_id=171 |title=AsianWeek |work=Rice Noodles in Your Frozen Delights |publisher=Pan Asia Venture Capital Corporation |accessdate=2006-11-04}}{{Dead link|date=August 2008}}</ref> * [[Mellorine]]: non-dairy, with vegetable fat substituted for milk fat * [[Sherbet]]: 1-2% milk fat and sweeter than ice cream. * [[Sorbet]]: fruit puree with no [[dairy product]]s * [[Snow cone]]s, made from balls of crushed ice topped with sweet syrup served in a paper cone, are consumed in many parts of the world. The most common places to find snow cones in the United States are at [[amusement park]]s. * Maple [[toffee]]: A popular springtime treat in [[maple]]-growing areas is maple [[toffee]], where [[maple syrup]] boiled to a concentrated state is poured over fresh snow congealing in a toffee-like mass, and then eaten from a wooden stick used to pick it up from the snow. ==Using liquid nitrogen== [[Image:Dippin' Dots Rainbow Flavored Ice.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Dippin' Dots]] Flavored Ice Cream]] Using [[liquid nitrogen]] to freeze ice cream is an old idea and has been used for many years to harden ice cream. However, the use of liquid nitrogen in the primary freezing of ice cream, that is to effect the transition from the liquid to the frozen state without the use of a conventional ice cream freezer, has only recently started to see commercialization. Some commercial innovations have been documented in the National Cryogenic Society Magazine "Cold Facts".<ref>http://www.subzeroicecream.com/press/coldfacts2006.pdf</ref> The most noted brands are [[Dippin' Dots]],<ref>http://www.dippindots.com/home.html</ref> Blue Sky Creamery,<ref>http://www.blueskycreamery.com</ref> Project Creamery,<ref>http://www.projectcreamery.com</ref> and Sub Zero Cryo Creamery.<ref>http://www.subzeroicecream.com</ref> The preparation results in a column of white condensed water vapor cloud, reminiscent of popular depictions of [[witchcraft|witch]]es' cauldrons. The ice cream, dangerous to eat while still "steaming," is allowed to rest until the liquid nitrogen is completely vaporized. Sometimes ice cream is frozen to the sides of the container, and must be allowed to thaw. Making ice cream with liquid nitrogen has advantages over conventional freezing. Due to the rapid freezing, the [[crystal]] grains are smaller, giving the ice cream a creamier texture, and allowing one to get the same texture by using less milkfat. However, such ice crystals will grow very quickly via the processes of recrystallization thus obviating the original benefits unless steps are taken to inhibit ice crystal growth. --> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/selected-internet/icecream.html Selected Internet Resources --Ice Cream / Science Reference Section, Library of Congress] * [http://www.canalmuseum.org.uk/ice/icecream.htm History of Ice Cream] * [http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/IceCream/IceCreamHistory.htm Another History of Iced Beverages and Ice Cream] * [http://www.ice-cream-recipes.com/ice_cream_sculptures.htm Ice Cream sculptures] * [http://www.adailyscoop.com Ice Cream Reviews] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608003508/http://adailyscoop.com/ |date=2019-06-08 }} * [http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/icecream.html The Complete Guide To Ice Cream] * [http://www.zingersicecream.com/history.htm Ice cream history and "who really invented the ice cream cone?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120410050201/http://www.zingersicecream.com/history.htm |date=2012-04-10 }} * [http://www.polsci.wvu.edu/henry/icecream/icecream.html Cooking with Chemistry, Liquid Nitrogen Ice Cream] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011120051729/http://www.polsci.wvu.edu/henry/icecream/icecream.html |date=2001-11-20 }} * [http://www.howstuffworks.com/ice-cream.htm HowStuffWorks's How Ice-Cream Works.] * [http://www.ice-cream-recipes.com/ice_cream_comedy.htm Popular culture, Laurel & Hardy Sketch] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091022231007/http://geocities.com/Cag03/NovIceCr.html The words for ''Ice Cream'', the famous novelty song by Johnson, Moll and King, sung by Walter Williams (with Fred Waring's Pennsylvanians), which is the source of the refrain "I scream, you scream, we all scream, for ice cream!". A recording of their performance is available on Jasmine Music, ASIN: B0000659OZ, the title of the compilation is ''We All Scream for Ice Cream''.] * [http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/icstructure.html The Structure of Ice Cream] {{Commons|Ice cream}} {{dahareun-pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Es krim}} [[Kategori:Produk susu]] o7im9him45wi39zk4gro2nc0u1k4lj4 0 29714 711783 615537 2026-08-07T04:18:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711783 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Plasma getih''' nyaéta komponén [[cairan]] dina [[getih]], tempat suspénsina [[sél getih|sél-sél getih]]. Plasma dina getih téh 55% tina [[volume]]na, nu diwangun ku [[cai]] (90% volume) jeung [[protéin]], [[glukosa]], faktor koagulasi, [[ion]] [[mineral]], hormon, jeung [[karbon dioksida]] (plasma téh média utama angkutan hasil ékskrési). Plasma getih bisa diala ku cara basajan: getih seger diputer dina [[séntrifusa]] nepi ka sél-sélna ngendap dina dasar tabung. Plasma dibédakeun jeung [[sérum]], sabab sérum mah geus teu boga [[fibrinogén]] jeung faktor-faktor koagulasi<ref>{{cite book | last = Maton | first = Anthea | authorlink = | coauthors = Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright | title = Human Biology and Health | publisher = Prentice Hall | date = 1993 | location = Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA | pages = | url = https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-13-981176-1}}</ref>. == Plasma beku seger == [[Gambar:FreshFrozenPlasma.JPG|jmpl|kantong anu ngandung hiji unit plasma beku seger]] Plasma beku seger ("''fresh frozen plasma''", FFP) disiapkeun tina hiji [[unit]] getih nu diala ti hiji jalma. Plasma nu dibekukeun dina suhu (-40F) bisa disimpen sapuluh [[taun]] ti titimangsa disedotna. Istilah FFP kadang dipaké pikeun sakabéh produk plasma beku anu bisa ditransfusikeun, kaasup nu teu luyu jeung baku FFP. FFP ngandung sakabéh [[protéin]] jeung [[faktor koagulasi]] nu aya dina getih. <!--It is used to treat [[coagulopathy|coagulopathies]] from [[warfarin]] overdose, [[liver disease]], or dilutional coagulopathy. Other transfusable plasma is identical except that the coagulation factors are no longer considered completely [[viable]].<ref>[http://bloodbanker.com/plasma Blood Plasma Donation Centers Reviewed]</ref> This is particularly important for [[Factor VIII]] and [[hemophilia]], but these have been mostly replaced by more specific factor VIII concentrates in the developed world and true FFP is rarely used for that indication. Plasma which has been used as a source of [[Cryoprecipitate]] (Plasma, Cryoprecipitate Reduced) cannot be used for treatment of some coagulation problems but is still acceptable for many uses. ==Dried plasma== "Dried plasma" was developed and first used in [[World War II|WWII]]. Prior to the [[United States]]' involvement in the war, liquid plasma and [[whole blood]] were used. The "[[Blood for Britain]]" program during the early 1940s was quite successful (and popular in the United States) based in part on Dr. [[Charles Drew]]'s contribution. A large [[project]] was begun in August of the year 1940 to collect blood in [[New York City]] hospitals for the export of plasma to [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. Dr. Drew was appointed [[medical]] supervisor of the "Plasma for Britain" project. His notable contribution at this time was to transform the [[test tube]] methods of many blood [[research]]ers, including himself, into the first successful [[mass production]] techniques. Nonetheless, the decision was made to develop a [[dried]] plasma package for the [[armed forces]] as it would reduce breakage and make the transportation, packaging, and storage much simpler.<ref>[http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter1.htm Transfusion before World War I]</ref> The resulting [[Army]]-[[Navy]] dried plasma package came in two [[tin can]]s containing 400 [[Cubic centimetre|cc]] bottles. One bottle contained enough [[distilled water]] to completely reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three [[minute]]s, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four [[hour]]s.<ref> [http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter7.htm Plasma Equipment and Packaging, and Transfusion Equipment]</ref> Following the "Plasma for Britain" invention, Dr. Drew was named [[Executive director|director]] of the [[Red Cross]] [[blood bank]] and assistant director of the [[National Research Council]], in charge of blood collection for the United States Army and Navy. Dr. Drew argued against the armed forces [[directive]] that blood/plasma was to be separated by the [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]] of the [[blood donation|donor]]. Dr. Drew argued that there was no racial difference in [[human]] blood and that the [[policy]] would lead to needless [[death]]s as [[soldier]]s and [[sailor]]s were required to wait for "same race" blood. {{cite book | last = Hirsch | first = Eric | authorlink = Eric Donald Hirsch, Jr. | title = What Your 1st Grader Needs to Know: Fundamentals of a Good First-Grade Education | publisher = [[New York: Doubleday]] | series = pp 232-233 | year = 1991 | doi = | isbn = }} {{Fact|date=August 2008}} By the end of the war the [[American Red Cross]] had provided enough blood for over six million plasma packages. Most of the [[surplus]] plasma was returned to the United States for [[civilian]] use. [[Serum albumin]] replaced dried plasma for [[combat]] use during the [[Korean War]].<ref>[http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter11.htm The Plasma Program]</ref> --> == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Blood plasma|Blood plasma]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris. Disalin 22 Oktober 2008. {{reflist}} {{Getih}} {{biologi-pondok}} [[Kategori:Getih]] [[Kategori:Hématologi]] [[simple:Blood#Plasma]] 9aih07pwxoacl0bal23ri8fx5pe2ole 0 29742 711683 654374 2026-08-07T01:31:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711683 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{islam}} '''Piagam Madinah''' atawa '''Konstitusi Madinah''' ({{lang-ar|صحیفة المدینه}}) nyaéta piagam formal kasapukan antara [[Muhammad]] jeung suku-suku/kelompok sarta rundayan-rundayan gedé nu matuh di Yatsrib (ka dieunakeun katelah [[Madinah]]), utamana [[Muslim]], [[Yahudi]], jeung [[pagan]], nu dijieun kira taun [[622]].<ref>Baca: *Firestone (1999) kac. 118; *"Muhammad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref><ref>Watt. Muhammad at Medina jeung R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." ''Islamic Quarterly'' 8 (1964) kac. 4.</ref>. Di dinya dituliskeun ngeunaan dipungkasna papaséaan antarsuku [[Aus]] jeung [[Khazraj]] di Madinah, anu salajengna dituturkeun ku sababaraha hak jeung kawajiban pikeun masarakat Muslim, Yahudi, jeung pagan sangkan ngahiji dina hiji masarakat-[[Umat]]<ref>R. B. Serjeant, ''The Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: Analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called "Constitution of Medina." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 41, No. 1. 1978), page 4.</ref>. Nepi ka kiwari, euweuh kasapukan ngeunaan titimangsa ieu piagam, tapi sacara umum mah para sarjana satuju yén ieu piagam dijieun teu lila sanggeus [[hijrah]] ti [[Mekah]] taun 622<ref>Watt. ''Muhammad at Medina''. pp. 227-228 Watt argues that the initial agreement was shortly after the hijra and the document was amended at a later date specifically after the battle of Badr. Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina with the first treaty being written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so called 'Constitution of Medina'." in ''The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World'': Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. ''Annali dell’Islam, Volume I''. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. ''Skizzen und Vorabeiten'', IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad’s residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Wellhausen bases this judgement on three considerations; first Muhammad is very diffident about his own position, he accepts the Pagan tribes within the Umma, and maintains the Jewish clans as clients of the Ansars see Wellhausen, Excursus, p. 158. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within 5 months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." ''Israel Oriental Studies'' 4 (1974): p. 45.</ref>. Ieu sacara éféktif ngadegkeun nagara Islam, anu di antara katangtuanana nyaéta ngeunaan kaamanan masarakat, kabébasan boga ageman, peran Madinah salaku tempat suci (ngeureunan peperangan), kasalametan wanoja, hubungan raket antarsuku di Madinah, sistem pajeg pikeun ngarojong masarakat dina mangsa aya bancang pakéwuh, aturan-aturan ngeunaan hubungan pulitik jeung kakawasaan luar, sistem jaminan kasalametan pikeun unggal jalma, sistem pangadilan pikeun mémérés sengkéta, sarta ngatur [[diyat]] (gaganti [[kisos]]). == Kasang tukang == Dina taun-taun panungtungan di Mekah, Muhammad kadatangan utusan salaku wawakil ti sababaraha golongan Madinah. Éta utusan mundut anjeunna sangkan jadi pamingpin pikeun sakabéh masarakat<ref name="Cambridge39">Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', kac. 39</ref><ref name="Esp">Esposito (1998), kac. 17.</ref>. Di Yatsrib, salila saratus taun Arab jeung Yahudi teu weléh pagétréng<ref name="Cambridge39"/>. [[Kisos]] teu anggeus-anggeus, jangji damé bolay waé, pamustunganana kalah sakabéh suku ngilu paséa ([[Perang Bu'ats]]<ref name="Cambridge39"/>. Para pamingpin suku sapuk mundut Muhammad jadi panengah pikeun maranéhna, kalawan jaminan anjeunna bakal dijaga kasalametanana<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">Alford Welch, ''Muhammad'', [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]</ref>. Sanggeus hijrah ka Madinah, Muhammad nyusun ''Piagam Madinah'', "ngadegkeun hiji federasi" di antara dalapan suku/kelompok urang Madinah jeung Muslim nu hijrah ti Mekah, nu ngatur hak jeung kawajiban sakabh rahayat sarta hubungan antarkelompok di Madinah (kaasup antara masarakat Muslim jeung masarakat lianna, utamana Yahudi jeung '[[Ahli Kitab]]' lianna)<ref name="Cambridge39"/>. == Sumber == Para sarjana henteu kungsi manggih dokumén/naskah aslina, tapi ngarujuk ka sababaraha vérsi anu aya dina sababaraha [[Historiografi Islam bihari|rujukan Muslim bihari]], utamana dina naskah ''[[Sirah Rosululloh]]'' karya [[Ibnu Ishaq]] jeung ''Kitabul Amwal'' karya Sayyid al-Nas jeung Abu 'Ubaid. Ku para ahli, duanana dianggap oténtik. <!-- Montogmery Watt suggests that the constitution must have been written in the [[Muhammad in Medina|early Medinan period]]. He supports his view by arguing that had the document been drafted later, it would have had a favorable attitude towards Quraysh, and given Muhammad a prominent place. Hubert Grimme believes the Constitution was drafted in the post-[[Battle of Badr|Badr]] period, while Cetani argues that the document was complete before the [[Battle of Badr]].<ref>Watt (1956), p. 225-6</ref> According to R.B. Serjeant, verses 101-104 of sura 3 of the Qur'an make reference to the Constitution. He proposes that this section of the Qur'an underwent recension (a hypothesis first proposed by Richard Bell). In its first recension, this text sanctioned the establishment of a confederation. In its second, it admonished the Aws and Khazraj to abide by their treaty. In its third, in conjunction with the proceeding verses, it is an encouragement of Muhammad's adherents to face the Meccan forces they eventually fought at [[Uhud]]. He states that even if this proposal of three recensions be unacceptable, it must be affirmed that these verses make reference to the two different treaties.<ref>R. B. Serjeant, ''The Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: Analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called "Constitution of Medina." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 41, No. 1. 1978), page 8.</ref> --> == Analisis == Ceuk [[Bernard Lewis]], Piagam Madinah teu sarua jeung perjangjian modél jaman ayeuna, tapi mangrupa wawar atawa proklamasi unilateral ti Muhammad<ref>Bernard Lewis, "The Arabs in History," kac. 42.</ref>. Anu matak kataji, ieu konstitusi ngasupkeun Yahudi ka jero Umat. Yahudi jadi samasarakat jeung Muslim, padahal agamana séwang-séwangan<ref>Jonathan Berkey. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800''. Cambridge University Press.</ref>. Sarjana hukum L. Ali Khan nyebutkeun yén Piagam Madinah téh [[kontrak sosial]] nu diturunkeun tina kasapukan, lain tina ''fictional state of nature'' atawa ''veil of ignorance''-na [[John Rawls]]. Ieu [[kontrak]] diwangun dina konsép hiji [[masarakat]] anu rupa-rupa sukuna tapi hirup dina kakawasaan [[monotéisme|Pangéran]]<ref>[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=945458 ''Baca'']</ref>. [[Muhammad Tahirul Qadri]] nyusun buku nu dijudulan ''Constitutional Analysis of the Constitution of Madina'', nu medarkeun analisis Piagam Madinah. Anjeunna ngategorikeun artikel-artikelna dumasar konstitusi hukum modéren<ref>[http://www.research.com.pk/home/fmri/books/eng/mithaq/constitution_madina.pdf Constitution of Madina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228012744/http://www.research.com.pk/home/fmri/books/eng/mithaq/constitution_madina.pdf |date=2008-02-28 }}</ref>. Piagam Madinah ogé ngalembagakeun cara damé pikeun ngahijikeun kahirupan masarakat tanpa kudu asimilasi jadi hiji ageman, basa, atawa budaya<ref>{{cite book |last = Ramadan |first = Hisham M. |year = 2006 |title = Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary |publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |id = ISBN 0-7591-0990-7 }}</ref>. Dina ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', Welch nyebutkeun "The constitution reveals his [[Muhammad]]'s great diplomatic skills, for it allows the ideal that he cherished of an [[ummah]] (community) based clearly on a religious outlook to sink temporarily into the background and is shaped essentially by practical considerations." <ref>Welch, Encyclopedia of Islam, Muhammad article</ref> === Umat === Inti tina konsép umat (''ummah'') nyaéta konfederasi pulitik, nu di [[Tatar Arab|Arab]] jaman bihari mah taya lian ti [[téokrasi|téokratik]], tapi minculak ku sabab ayana rupa-rupa ageman. Serjéant nyebutkeun yén hal ieu henteu anéh, sabab ti saméméh [[Islam]] gé aya masarakat [[Kurés]] narima lambang-lambang [[Kristen]] dina [[Ka'bah]]<ref>R. B. Serjeant (1978). The Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: Analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called "Constitution of Medina." Bul. Sch. Oriental & African Studies. University of London. Vol. 41, No. 1: 4.</ref>. === Hak non-Muslim === Non-Muslim nu kawengku dina umat boga sababaraha hak<ref>Ahmed (1979), kac. 46-7</ref>: #Kaamanan (''dzimmi'') pikeun sakabéh golongan<ref>Artikel 15, sakumaha dicutat dina Ahmed (1979)</ref> #Warga non-Muslim boga hak pulitik & budaya anu sarua jeung Muslim, sarta bébas ngadegkeun agemanana séwang-séwangan<ref>Artikel 25, sakumaha dicutat dina Ahmed (1979)</ref>. #Non-Muslim ngilu béla nagara pikeun ngalawan musuh umat sarta ngilu udunan pikeun ngabéayaanana<ref>Artikel 37, sakumaha dicutat dina Ahmed (1979)</ref>. #Non-Muslim teu boga kawajiban pikeun ngilu perang kaagamaan Muslim<ref>Artikel 45, sakumaha dicutat dina Ahmed (1979)</ref> == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Constitution of Medina|Constitution of Medina]]''. Disalin 24 Oktober 2008. {{reflist}} == Baca ogé == *[[Bani Quraizah]] *[[Bani Qainuqah]] *[[Bani Nadir]] == Bacaan salajengna == *{{cite book |last = Ahmad |first = Barakat |authorlink = Barakat Ahmad |year = 1979 |title = Muhammad and the Jews |publisher = Vikas Publishing House }} *{{cite book |last = Karsh |first = Efraim |authorlink = Efraim Karsh |year = 2006 |title = Islamic Imperialism : A History |url = https://archive.org/details/islamicimperiali00kars |publisher = Yale University Press |id = ISBN 0-300-10603-3 }} *{{cite book |last = Watt |first = Montogomery |year = 1956 |title = Muhammad at Medina |url = https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp |publisher = Oxford University Press |id = }} *{{cite book |last= Wensinck |first = Arendt Jan |year = 1908 |title= Muhammad and the Jews of Medina |publisher=Leiden }} == Tumbu kaluar == *[http://www.constitution.org/cons/medina/kassim2.htm A Short note on Medina Charter] {{islam-pondok}} [[Kategori:Sajarah Islam]] rt6cbhb216bx951bcy1lko2yin42q1h 0 29837 711671 707264 2026-08-07T01:18:02Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711671 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width:22em; border-spacing:2px; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #aaa; float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size:88%;" |+ style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold; background:#333; color:white; padding:5px;" | Hajar Aswad |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Heee.jpeg|250px]]<br/>''Hajar Aswad anu dibingkai ku pérak di juru [[Ka'bah]].'' |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ngaran Arab | {{lang|ar|الحجر الأسود}} (''al-Ḥajar al-Aswad'') |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Hartosna | Batu Hideung |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Lokasi | Juru Wétan-Kidul [[Ka'bah]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Fungsi | Titik awal sarta ahir [[Thawaf]] |} '''Hajar Aswad''' ([[basa Arab|Ar.]] الحجر الأسود) nu hartina '''Batu Hideung''' nyaéta hiji batu anu ceuk tradisi [[Islam]] diaku ku para [[Muslim]] salaku titinggal [[Nabi Ibrahim]], sarta jauhna titinggal [[Nabi Adam]]. Ieu batu diperenahkeun di juru wétan [[Ka'bah]], kabuyutan kuna kiblatna [[solat]] Muslim, di tengah-tengah [[Masjidil Haram]] di [[Mekah]], [[Arab Saudi]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Biography of the Prophet|author=Sheikh Safi-ur-Rahman al-Mubarkpuri|id=ISBN 1591440718| date=2002|publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications}}</ref>. Diaméter ieu batu k.l. 30&nbsp;cm, diperenahkeun 1,5 m luhureun taneuh<ref name="SaudiCities-disrupted">{{cite web|author=SaudiCities - The Saudi Experience|title=Makkah - The Holy Mosque:The Black Stone|publisher=|accessmonthday=August 13|accessyear=2006|url=http://www.saudicities.com/mmosque.htm}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060527040025/http://saudicities.com/mmosque.htm |date=2006-05-27 }}</ref>. Dina jaman panengah, ieu batu beulah, ku kituna kiwari dipigura (maké [[pérak]]). Dina prakprakan [[Haji]], jamaah [[sunat|disunatkeun]] nyium Hajar Aswad, sakumaha anu dicontokeun ku [[Nabi-nabi Islam|Nabi]] [[Muhammad]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Your Door to Arabia|url=https://archive.org/details/yourdoortoarabia0000elli|last=Elliott|first=Jeri| year=1992|id=ISBN 0-473-01546-3}}</ref>. Mun teu kahontal, jamaah cukup ku nunjuk dina unggal kuriling anu tujuh ([[towaf]])<ref name=AtoZ>{{cite book | title=Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z | url=https://archive.org/details/hajjumrahfromtoz00moha | last = Mohamed | first= Mamdouh N. | year = 1996 | publisher=Amana Publications | id= ISBN 0-915957-54-X}}</ref>. == Asal-usul == === Jihat Islam === {{Islam}} Numutkeun tradisi Islam, Hajar Aswad anu tadina bodas nyacas ragrag ti [[Sawarga]] jaman [[Adam jeung Hawa]]. Tina bodas nyacas jadi hideung téh ku sabab nyerep dosa mangtaun-taun<ref>[[Shaykh Tabarsi]], ''Tafsir'', vol. 1, pp. 460, 468. Quoted in translation by Francis E. Peters, ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam'', p. 5. SUNY Press, 1994. ISBN 0791418766</ref>. Ieu batu lajeng kapendak ku Nabi Ibrahim nalika kuriak ngabangun deui Ka'bah, dianteurkeun ku [[Malaikat Jibril]]<ref name="glasse">Cyril Glasse, ''New Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 245. Rowman Altamira, 2001. ISBN 0759101906</ref>. Taun [[602]], mangsa Muhammad can diangkat jadi nabi, Ka'bah diropéa deui ku suku-suku di Mekah. Ku kituna, Hajar Aswad dipindahkeun heula ka tempat nu aman. Dina [[Shiroh Rosululloh]] karya [[Ibnu Ishaq]], dicaritakeun yén para pupuhu suku maséakeun saha nu pantes méré nahkeun deui Hajar Aswad kana Ka'bah. Muhammad anu dipercaya kajujuranana ku sakur suku-suku Mekah, dipénta néang jalan tengah pikeun mutuskeun ieu perkara. Pamanggih anjeunna anu basajan lajeng ditarima ku para pupuhu suku. Prakprakanana, Muhammad muka sarta ngamparkeun sorbanna, méré nahkeun Hajar Aswad luhureunana, sarta para pupuhu suku babarengan ngagotong éta sorban ka tempat rék diperenahkeunana Hajar Aswad. Sanggeus kitu, Muhammad kuanjeun ngangkat éta batu kana témbok di juru Ka'bah<ref>{{cite book| last = Guillaume| first = A.| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Life of Muhammad | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1955 | location = Oxford| doi = | id = }} pp. 84-87</ref><ref name=uscmsa>{{cite web|author=University of Southern California|title=The Prophet of Islam - His Biography|publisher=|accessdate=August 12|accessyear=2006|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/profbio.html}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721113854/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/profbio.html |date=2006-07-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch1s6.html|title=Muhammad's Birth and Forty Years prior to Prophethood|work=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Memoirs of the Noble Prophet|accessdate=2007-05-04|author=Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, translated by Issam Diab|date=1979}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020126105123/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch1s6.html |date=2002-01-26 }}</ref>. === Jihat séjén === Budaya [[Semit]] di Wétan Tengah boga tradisi ngagunakeun batu ahéng pikeun nyirian kabuyutan/tempat suci, pénoména nu kapanggih dina [[Bibel Yahudi]] jeung [[Qur'an]]<ref name="glasse" />. Grunebaum, dina ''Classical Islam'', nyebutkeun yén Ka'bah téh pangjugjugan jarah ti saméméh Islam nu bentuk aslina ukur wangunan batu. Tapi wangunan modél Ka'bah di Arab téh teu ukur hiji. Di kota [[Ghaiman]], Arab kidul aya "Batu beureum". Aya ogé "batu bodas" di 'Abalat (deukeut kota [[Tabala]], kidul Mekah). Intina, jaman bihari aya tradisi muja batu, gunung, formasi cadas, atawa tutuwuhan anu bentukna teu galib"<ref>Grunebaum, p. 24</ref>. Pasipatan fisik Hajar Aswad munggaran dipedar abad ka-19 jeung awal abad ka-20 ku urang Éropah nu ngumbara ka Arab. [[Johann Ludwig Burckhardt]], urang [[Swiss]] nu ngumbara ka Mekah taun [[1815]]-an medar Hajar Aswad dina bukuna ''Travels in Arabia'' ([[1829]]): {{cquote|''It is an irregular oval, about seven inches in diameter, with an undulating surface, composed of about a dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes, well joined together with a small quantity of cement, and perfectly well smoothed; it looks as if the whole had been broken into as many pieces by a violent blow, and then united again. It is very difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone which has been worn to its present surface by the millions of touches and kisses it has received. It appeared to me like a lava, containing several small extraneous particles of a whitish and of a yellow substance. Its colour is now a deep reddish brown approaching to black. It is surrounded on all sides by a border composed of a substance which I took to be a close cement of pitch and gravel of a similar, but not quite the same, brownish colour. This border serves to support its detached pieces; it is two or three inches in breadth, and rises a little above the surface of the stone. Both the border and the stone itself are encircled by a silver band, broader below than above, and on the two sides, with a considerable swelling below, as if a part of the stone were hidden under it. The lower part of the border is studded with silver nails.''}} Visiting the Kaaba in 1853, Sir [[Richard Francis Burton]] nu nganjang ka Ka'bah taun 1853 nyaritakeun: {{cquote|''The colour appeared to me black and metallic, and the centre of the stone was sunk about two inches below the metallic circle. Round the sides was a reddish brown cement, almost level with the metal, and sloping down to the middle of the stone. The band is now a massive arch of gold or silver gilt. I found the aperture in which the stone is, one span and three fingers broad.''<ref>Quoted in Thomas Patrick Hughes, ''A Dictionary of Islam'', p. 154. W. H. Allen & Co, 1885</ref>}} <!-- The Black Stone has been described variously as [[basalt]] [[lava]], an [[agate]], a piece of natural [[glass]] or - most popularly - a stony [[meteorite]]. It is evidently a hard rock, having survived so much handling. A significant clue to its nature is provided by an account of the Stone's recovery in 951 AD after it had been stolen 21 years earlier; according to a chronicler, the Stone was identified by its ability to float in water. If this account is accurate, it would rule out the Black Stone being an agate, basalt lava or stony meteorite, though it would be compatible with it being glass or [[pumice]].<ref name="bevan">Alex Bevan, John De Laeter, ''Meteorites: A Journey Through Space and Time'', pp. 14-15. UNSW Press, 2002. ISBN 086840490X</ref> It has been suggested that the Black Stone may be a glass fragment from the impact of a fragmented meteorite some 6,000 years ago at [[Wabar]], a site in the [[Rub' al Khali]] desert some 1,100 km east of Mecca. The craters at Wabar are notable for the presence of blocks of [[silica]] glass, fused by the heat of the impact and impregnated by beads of nickel-iron alloy from the meteorite (most of which was destroyed in the impact). Some of the glass blocks are made of shiny black glass with a white or yellow interior and gas-filled hollows, which allow them to float on water. Although scientists did not become aware of the [[Wabar craters]] until 1932, they were located near a caravan route from [[Oman]] and were very likely known to the inhabitants of the desert. The wider area was certainly well-known; in ancient Arabic poetry, Wabar or Ubar (also known as "[[Iram of the Pillars]]") was the site of a fabulous city that was destroyed by fire from the heavens because of the wickedness of its king. If the estimated age of the crater is accurate, it would have been well within the period of human habitation in Arabia and the impact itself may have been witnessed.<ref name="bevan" /> == Ritual role == The current ritual of the [[Hajj]] involves pilgrims attempting to kiss the Black Stone seven times (once for each circumambulation of the Kaaba), emulating the actions of Muhammad. When [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] (580-644), the second [[Caliph]], came to kiss the Stone, he said in front of all assembled: "''No doubt, I know that you are a stone and can neither harm anyone nor benefit anyone. Had I not seen Allah's Messenger [Muhammad] kissing you, I would not have kissed you.''"<ref>{{cite web|author=University of Southern California|title=Pilgrimage (Hajj)|publisher=|accessmonthday=August 12 |accessyear=2006|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/026.sbt.html#002.026.667}}</ref> Many Muslims follow Umar: they pay their respects to the Stone in a spirit of trust in [[Muhammad]], not with any belief in the Stone itself. This, however, does not indicate their disrespect to the Black Stone but their belief that harm and benefit are in the hands of God, and nothing else. In modern times, large crowds no longer make it practically possible for everyone to kiss the stone, so it is currently acceptable for pilgrims to simply point in the direction of the Stone on each of their circuits around the building. Some even say that the Stone is best considered simply as a marker, useful in keeping count of the ritual circumambulations ([[Hajj#Performing the Hajj|tawaf]]) one has performed.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Saudi Arabia Information Resource|title=The Holy City of Makkah|publisher=|accessmonthday=August 12 |accessyear=2006|url=http://www.saudinf.com/main/a83.htm}}</ref> Some Muslims also accept this [[hadith]], from [[Tirmidhi]], which asserts that at the Last Judgement ([[Qiyamah]]), the Black Stone will speak for those who kissed it: :"It was narrated that Ibn 'Abbas said: The Messenger of Allah said concerning the Stone: "By Allah, Allah will bring it forth on the Day of Resurrection, and it will have two eyes with which it will see and a tongue with which it will speak, and it will testify in favour of those who touched it in sincerity." "<ref>http://www.icct.org/Hajj/BlackStone.html</ref> Apart from the ritual role of the Black Stone, its black colour is deemed to symbolise the essential spiritual virtue of detachment and poverty for God (''[[faqr]]'') and the extinction of ego required to progress towards God (''[[qalb]]'').<ref name="glasse" /> == Beulah == The Black Stone is broken into a number of fragments, with varying accounts putting the number at between seven and fifteen, held together by a silver frame.<ref name="bevan" /> The damage appears to have occurred in several stages. Legend has it that during the [[siege of Mecca]] in [[683]], the Kaaba was ignited by a flaming arrow and the fire's heat cracked the Black Stone into three large parts and several smaller fragments.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} In [[930]], the Black Stone was seized by the [[Qarmatians]] and carried off to their base at [[Bahrain]]. According to the historian [[Al-Juwayni]], the Stone was returned in [[951]] under somewhat mysterious circumstances; wrapped in a sack, it was thrown into the Friday Mosque of [[Kufa]] accompanied by a note saying "By command we took it, and by command we have brought it back." Its abduction and removal caused further damage, breaking the stone into seven pieces.<ref name="glasse" /> Some Muslims believe the Black Stone should be less accessible to the general public, as a way of protecting such a relic. --> == Ritual Thawaf == Nyium Hajar Aswad mangrupikeun sunnah anu kacida dipikaasihna ku [[Nabi Muhammad saw.]]<ref>Syeikh Muhammad bin Shaleh al-Utsaimin, ''Yang Disenangi Nabi saw. dan Yang Tak Disenangi Nabi saw.'', (Jakarta: Pustaka al-Kautsar, 2005), kaca 425. [https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Yang_Disenangi_Nabi_saw_dan_Yang_Tak_Dis/xXa_QV6f0-gC?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=hajar+aswad&pg=PA425&printsec=frontcover URL Digital], diaksés 3 Pébruari 2026.</ref> Jamaah disunnahkeun pikeun: * Istilam: Ngusap atanapi nyium Hajar Aswad upami kaayaanna ngamungkinkeun. * Isyarat: Upami pinuh sarta teu tiasa nyium, jamaah cukup masihan isyarat ku dampal leungeun bari ngucapkeun ''"Bismillahi Allahu Akbar"''.<ref>H. Bobby Herwibowo & Indriya R. Dani, ''Panduan Pintar Manasik Haji dan Umrah'', (Jakarta: WahyuMedia, 2013), kaca 36. [https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Panduan_Pintar_Manasik_Haji_dan_Umrah/wXtxEQAAQBAJ?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=cara+istilam+hajar+aswad&pg=PA36&printsec=frontcover URL Digital], diaksés 3 Pébruari 2026.</ref> == Catetan == {{reflist}} == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Black Stone|Black Stone]]''. Disalin 30 Oktober 2008. * Grunebaum, G. E. von (1970). ''Classical Islam: A History 600 A.D. - 1258 A.D.''. Aldine Publishing Company. ISBN 202-15016-X * Sheikh Safi-ur-Rahman al-Mubarkpuri (2002). Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Séaled Nectar): Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 1591440718. * Elliott, Jeri (1992). ''Your Door to Arabia''. ISBN 0-473-01546-3. * Mohamed, Mamdouh N. (1996). ''Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z''. Amana Publications. ISBN 0-915957-54-X. * Time-Life Books (1988). ''Time Frame AD 600-800: The March of Islam'', ISBN 0-8094-6420-9. *{{cite journal|url=http://www.indigogroup.co.uk/edge/blstone.htm|title=The Black Stone - the Omphalos of the Goddess|author=Bob Trubshaw|journal=Mercian Mysteries|date=February 1993|issue=No. 14}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Black Stone}} *[http://www.bismikaallahuma.org/archives/2005/do-muslims-worship-the-black-stone-of-the-kaabah/ Do Muslims Worship The Black Stone of the Ka’abah?] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070404133458/http://www.saudicities.com/images/Pic00082.jpg Picture of the Black Stone] *[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197406/the.ka.bah.house.of.god.htm Information about the Kaaba and viewpoints regarding the status of the Black Stone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611152734/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197406/the.ka.bah.house.of.god.htm |date=2008-06-11 }} *[http://mb-soft.com/believe/txh/kaaba.htm General information about the Kaaba and the Black Stone] *[http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/hajjexp.htm Reflections from the Hajj, by S. Khan and A. Zahoor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505124349/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/hajjexp.htm |date=2021-05-05 }} {{coord|21|25|21.02|N|39|49|34.58|E|display=title}} {{islam-pondok}} [[Kategori:Sajarah Islam]] [[Kategori:Mekah]] [[Kategori:Haji]] {{Ibadah Haji}} kbdzs7ut3htot21gf0c0k3l8jlozaj0 0 30243 711712 492226 2026-08-07T02:19:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711712 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Lasers.jpeg|275px|thumb|right|Foton anu dipancarkeun dina ''berkas'' kohéren [[laser]]]] '''Foton''' nyaéta partikel éleménter dina fénomena [[Gelombang éléktromagnétik|éléktromagnétik]]. Biasana foton dianggap minangka nu mawa radiasi éléktromagnétik, kawas [[cahaya]], [[Gelombang éléktromagnétik#Gelombang radio|gelombang radio]], sarta [[Sinar X]]. Foton béda jeung [[partikel éleménter]] séjénna kawas [[éléktron]] jeung [[quark]], alatan manéhna henteu boga [[massa]] sarta dina [[rohangan hapa]] foton sok usik kalawan laju cahya, ''c''. Foton mibanda sipat [[gelombang]] ogé [[partikel]] ("dualisme gelombang-partikel"). Minangka gelombang, hiji foton tunggal sumebar di sakumna rohang sarta némbongkeun fénomena gelombang kawas [[réfraksi]] ku lénsa sarta interférensi déstruktif sabot gelombang kapantulkeun silih musnahkeun. Minangka partikel, foton ngan bisa interaksi jeung materi ku cara mindahkeun énergi sajumlah: :<math>E = \frac{hc}{\lambda},</math> di mana ''h'' nyaéta konstanta Planck, ''c'' nyaéta laju cahya, sarta \lambda nyaéta panjang gelombangna. Sajaba énergi, partikel foton ogé mawa moméntum sarta mibanda polarisasi. Foton nurut kana hukum [[mékanika kuantum]], anu hartina mindeng diménsi-diménsi kasebut henteu bisa diukur kalawan taliti. Biasana diménsi-diménsi kasebut didéfinisikeun minangka probabilitas pangukur polarisasi, perenah (posisi), atawa moméntum nu tangtu. Contona, sanajan hiji foton bisa ngaéksitasi hiji [[molekul]] nu tangtu, mindeng mustahil pikeun norah saméméhna molekul mana anu baris kaéksitasi. Gambaran foton minangka nu mawa [[radiasi éléktromagnétik]] ilahar dipaké ku para fisikawan. Tapi dina [[fisika téoritis]] hiji foton bisa dianggap minangka médiator pikin sagala rupa interaksi éléktromagnétik, kawas [[médan magnét]] sarta gaya tolak-tolakan antara muatan sajinis. Konsép modéren foton dimekarkeun sacara ''berangsur-angsur'' antara 1905-1917 ku [[Albert Einstein]]{{de}}{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = A| authorlink = Albert Einstein| year = 1905| title = Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt (trans. A Heuristic Modél of the Creation and Transformation of Light)| journal = [[Annalen der Physik]]| volume = 17| pages = 132–148}}. [[s:A Heuristic Modél of the Creation and Transformation of Light|Tarjamahan Basa Inggris]] sadia di [[Wikisource]].{{de}}{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = A| authorlink = Albert Einstein| year = 1909| title = Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung (trans. The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation)| journal = Physikalische Zeitschrift| volume = 10|pages = 817–825}}. [[s:The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation|Tarjamahan Basa Inggris]] sadia ti [[Wikisource]]. {{de}}{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = A| authorlink = Albert Einstein| year = 1916a| title = Strahlungs-emission und -absorption nach der Quantentheorie| journal = Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft| volume = 18| pages = 318}}{{de}}{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = A| authorlink = Albert Einstein| year = 1916b| title = Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung| journal = Mitteilungen der Physikalischen Geselschaft zu Zürich| volume = 16| pages = 47}} ogé ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'', '''18''', 121–128 (1917). pikeun ngécéskeun pengimeutan ékspériméntal anu henteu nyumponan modél klasik pikeun cahaya. Modél foton hususna merhitungkeun gumantungna énergi cahaya kana frékuénsi, sarta ngécéskeun kamampuh [[materi]] sarta radiasi éléktromagnétik pikeun aya dina [[kasaimbangan termal]]. Fisikawan séjén mecakan ngécéskeun anomali pangimeutan ieu ku ''modél semiklasik'', anu masih ngagunakeun [[persamaan Maxwell]] pikeun ngagambarkeun cahaya. Tapi dina modél ieu objék material anu mancarkeun sarta nyerep cahaya nu dikuantisasi. Sanajan modél-modél semiklasik ieu milu nyumbang dina mekarna [[mékanika kuantum]], percobaan-percobaan satuluyna ngabuktikeun [[hipotésis]] Einstein yén ''cahaya éta sorangan'' anu kakuantisasi. Kuantum cahaya nyaéta ''foton''. Konsép foton geus mawa kamajuan dina fisika téoretis sarta ékspériméntal, kawas [[laser]], [[kondénsasi Bose-einstein]], [[téori médan kuantum]], sarta interprétasi probabilistik ti mékanika kuantum. Nurutkeun modél standar fisika partikel, foton tanggung jawab dina mroduksi kabéh médan listrik sarta [[médan magnét]]. Konsép foton dilarapkeun dina réa widang kawas [[fotokimia]], mikroskopi résolusi luhur, sarta pangukuran jarak molekulér. Anyar-anyar ieu foton diulik minangka unsur [[komputer kuantum]] sarta pikeun aplikasi canggih dina komunikasi optik kawas [[kriptografi kuantum]] == Tata ngaran == Foton mimitina dingaranan '''kuantum cahaya''' (''das Lichtquant'') ku [[Albert Einstein]]. Ngaran modéren "photon" asalna tina kecap [[Basa Yunani]] pikeun cahaya ''{{polytonic|φῶς}}'', nu ditransliterasikeun jadi ''phôs'', sarta munggaran dipaké ku kimiawan fisik [[Gilbert N. Lewis]], anu medar téori spékulatif{{cite journal| last=Lewis| first = GN| authorlink = Gilbert N. Lewis| title = The conservation of photons|journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]]| year = 1926| volume = 118| pages = 874–875}} anu nyarita: foton "henteu bisa diciptakeun atawa dibinasakeun". Sanajan téori Lewis ieu henteu bisa ditarima alatan teu saluyu jeung hasil réa percobaan, ngaran anyarna ieu, ''photon'', gancang dipaké ku lolobana fisikawan. [[Isaac Asimov]] nyebutkeun [[Arthur Compton]] minangka jelema anu munggaran ngadéfinisikeun kuantum cahaya minangka foton dina taun 1927 [{{cite book| title = The Neutrino, Ghost Particle of the Atom| url = https://archive.org/details/neutrinoghostpar0000asim| author = Isaac Asimov| publisher = Doubleday| year = 1966 }}{{cite book| title = The Universe From Flat Earth To Quasar| author = Isaac Asimov| publisher = Avon Books| year = 1968| isbn =| url =https://archive.org/details/universefromflat0000isaa}} Dina fisika, foton biasana dilambangkan ku γ, abjad Yunani [[gamma]]. Simbol ieu jigana asalna tina [[sinar gamma]], anu kapanggih sarta dingaranan ku [[Paul Ulrich Villard|Villard]]{{cite journal| last = Villard| first = P| authorlink = Paul Ulrich Villard| year = 1900| title = Sur la réflexion et la réfraction des rayons cathodiques et des rayons déviables du radium| journal = Comptes Rendus| volume = 130| pages = 1010–1012}} {{fr icon}}{{cite journal| last = Villard| first = P| authorlink = Paul Ulrich Villard| year = 1900| title = Sur le rayonnement du radium| journal = Comptes Rendus| volume = 130| pages = 1178–1179}} {{fr icon}}, sarta dibuktikeun minangka salah sahiji wangun [[radiasi éléktromagnétik]] dina taun 1914 ku [[Ernest Rutherford]] jeung [[Edward Andrade]] {{cite journal| last = Rutherford| first = E| authorlink = Ernest Rutherford| coauthors = [[Edward Andrade|Andrade ENC]]| year = 1914| title = The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays from Radium B| journal = Philosophical Magazine| volume = 27|pages = 854–868}} Dina élmu [[kimia]] jeung [[rékayasa optik]], foton biasana dilambangkan ku h <math>\nu</math>, énergi foton, h nyaéta [[konstanta Planck]] sarta abjad Yunani <math>\nu</math> nyaéta [[frékuénsi]] foton. Rada arang kapanggih nyaéta foton dilambangkeun ku ''hf'', ''f'' di dieu ngalambangkeun frékuénsi. == Sipat-sipat fisik == [[Gambar:Electron-positron-scattering.svg|220px|thumb|right|[[Diagram Feynman]] patukeurna foton virtual (dilambangkan ku gurat gelombang sarta gamma, <math>\gamma</math>) antara sasiki [[positron]] jeung [[éléktron]].]] Foton henteu boga [[massa]]. Massa foton dipercaya persis enol, didasarkeun kana alesan-alesan téoritis sarta ékspériméntal. Sawaréh sumber ogé ngarujuk kana konsép [[massa rélativistik]], anu mangrupa énergi anu diukur dina [[hijian]] massa. Pikeun foton kalawan [[panjang gelombang]] λ atawa énergi ''E'', ieu téh h/λc atawa E/c<sup>2</sup>. Pamakéan istilah massa kawas ieu henteu deui ilahar dina pustaka ilmiah. Foton henteu mibanda [[muatan listrik]]{{cite journal| last = Kobychev| first = V V| coauthors = Popov, S B| year = 2005| title = Constraints on the photon charge from observations of extragalactic sources| journal = Astronomy Letters| volume = 31| pages = 147–151|doi = 10.1134/1.1883345 }}, sarta henteu murudul sacara spontan dina [[rohangan hapa]]. Hiji foton mibanda dua kaayaan polarisasi anu dimungkinkan, sarta bisa digambarkeun ku tilu paraméter: komponén-komponén [[véktor gelombang]], anu nangtukeun panjang gelombangna (<math>\lambda</math>) sarta arah rambatanana. Foton nyaéta "boson gauge'' pikeun [[éléktromagnétisme]], sarta ku sabab éta kabéh bilangan kuantum séjénna kawas [[bilangan lepton]], [[bilangan baryon]], jeung ''[[strangeness]]'' boga harga nu persis enol. Foton dipancarkeun dina réa prosés alamiah, contona sabot muatan digancangkeun [[laju]]na, waktu transisi molekulér, atomik atawa nuklir, ka tingkat énergi anu leuwih handap, atawa sabot hiji partikel jeung [[antipartikel]] tabrakan sarta silih musnahkeun. Fonton diserep dina prosés kalayan waktu mundur (time-reversed) anu patula-patali jeung anu geus disebut di luhur: contona dina produksi pasangan partikel-antipartikel, atawa dina transisi molekulér, atomik atawa nuklir, ka tingkat énergi anu leuwih luhur. Dina rohangan hapa, foton usik kalawan laju c ([[laju cahaya]]). Énergina E sarta [[moméntum]]na p dihubungkan ku persamaan <math>E = p c</math>, di mana p mangrupa harga moméntum. Minangka babandingan, persamaan nu patali jeung massa m nyaéta <math>E^{2} = c^{2} p^{2} + m^{2} c^{4}</math>, luyu jeung [[téori rélativitas husus]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Elektromagnetisme]] gokkuobroihquiz391bk1hj9mkc2cue 0 30275 711643 665638 2026-08-07T00:47:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711643 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Quark''' (dibaca {{IPA|kwɔː(r)k}}), sakumaha dijelaskeun dina [[modél baku]] dina [[fisika partikel]], babarengan jeung [[lepton]] dipercaya mangrupa [[partikel éleménter]] anu ngawangun kabéh materi. Gabungan sababaraha quark ngabentuk jinis-jinis partikel séjén, contona partikel jinis [[meson]] anu diwangun ku dua siki quark, partikel jinis [[baryon]] anu diwangun ku tilu jinis quark sarta anyar-anyar ieu kapanggih nyaéta pentaquark anu diwangun ku lima siki quark. Partikel-partikel kawas [[proton]] jeung [[neutron]] kaasup kana jinis baryon, sedengkeun [[éléktron]] lain kasusun ku quark tapi geus mangrupa hiji partikel éleménter anu kaasup kana jinis lepton. Aya genep jinis quark anu dibédakeun dumasar kana "[[rasa (fisika partikel)|rasa]]"-na, nyaéta [[quark up|up]], [[quark down|down]], [[quark charm|charm]], [[quark strange|strange]], [[quark top|top]] sarta [[quark bottom|bottom]]. [[Antipartikel]] quark disebut '''antiquark'''. Dina téori [[quantum chromodynamic]] unggal quark (up, down, charm, strange, top jeung bottom) mibanda tilu [[warna]] nyaéta [[beureum]], [[paul]] jeung [[héjo]], di mana hiji partikel ngan bisa dijieun ku paduan [[warna]] netral. == Tempo ogé == * [[modél quark]] * [[gaya-gaya fundaméntal]] * [[gluon]] * [[quantum chromodynamics]] * [[modél baku]] == Tumbu ka luar == === Rujukan === * {{cite book| author=[[David J. Griffiths|Griffiths, David J.]]| title=Introduction to Elementary Particles| url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780471615446| publisher=Wiley, John & Sons, Inc| year=1987| id=ISBN 0-471-60386-4}} * {{cite book| author=[[Bogdan Povh|Povh, Bogdan]]| title=Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts| publisher=Springer-verlag| year=1995| id=ISBN 0-387-59439-6}} * [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2005/listings/qxxx.html Particle Data Group on quarks] * [http://www-spires.fnal.gov/spires/find/hep/www?key=890022 A schematic modél of baryons and mesons, by Murray Gell-mann (1964)] * [http://www-cdf.fnal.gov/top_status/top.html Observation of the top quark at Fermilab] * [http://www.nanoreisen.de Nanoreisen-a very educational site on Quarks and many other things beyond the nanoscale.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202003925/https://nanoreisen.de/ |date=2021-12-02 }} * [http://www-sldnt.slac.stanford.edu/alr/standard_model.htm Standard Modél of Particle Physics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616054559/http://www-sldnt.slac.stanford.edu/alr/standard_model.htm |date=2012-06-16 }} * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Particles/quark.html Quarks] * [http://pdg.lbl.gov/quarkdance/ Quark dance] * [http://books.nap.edu/books/0309048931/html/245.html A Positron Named Priscilla] — A description of CERN’s experiment to count the families of quarks * [http://www.bartleby.com/61/67/Q0016700.html The original English word ''quark'' and its adaptation to particle physics] * [http://www.scribd.com/word/view/1025 An elementary popular introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118205050/http://www.scribd.com/word/view/1025 |date=2008-11-18 }} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Partikel éleménter|quark]] f3w3x6unpy5x52pmsbrz2rx5qafm7as 0 30292 711610 438355 2026-08-07T00:13:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711610 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''E = mc''2''' dina [[fisika|élmu fisika]] nyaéta hiji [[rumus]] anu penting sarta dipikawanoh, anu ngécéskeun persamaan harga antara [[énergi]] (''E'') jeung [[massa]] (''m''), anu disatarakan sacara langsung ngaliwatan luadrat tina hiji konstanta nyaéta [[laju cahaya]] dina [[rohangan hapa]] (c<sup>2</sup>): <math>E = mc^2 \!</math>, anu mana: * ''E'' = [[énergi]] ([[Joule|J]]) * ''m'' = [[massa]] ([[Kilogram|kg]]) * ''c'' = [[laju cahaya]] (m.s-1) Faktor c<sup>2</sup> boga harga 89.88 [[Awalan SI|P]]J/kg = 21.48 [[Ton#Hijian Énergi|Mt TNT]] pér kg = 149.3 pj/[[hijian massa atom|u]] = 931.5 [[Awalan SI|M]][[Élektronvolt|ev]]/u. Lamun énergi anu dimaksud dina [[persamaan]] di luhur nyaéta [[énergi cicing]], mangka massa anu patali nyaéta [[massa cicing]] ogé atawa [[massa invarian]]. == Sajarah sarta konsékuensina == [[Albert Einstein]] nurunkeun [[rumus]] ieu dumasar kana pengimeutan manéhna dina taun [[1905]] kana lampah [[obyék]] anu usik kalawan [[laju]] nu ngadeukeutan laju cahaya. Kacindekan kawéntar anu dijieun hasil tina pangameutan ieu téh yén massa hiji [[barang]] sabenerna nyaéta hiji [[ukuran]] tina [[kandungan énergi]] barang kasebut. Sabalikna, persamaan anu dimaksud nandakeun yén kabéh énergi anu aya dina [[sistem katutup]] mangaruhan massa cicing dina [[sistem]] éta. Nurutkeun persamaan ieu, jumlah [[énergi maksimum]] anu "bisa dibeunangkeun" tina hiji obyék pikeun ngalakonan [[gawé aktif]] nyaéta massa obyék dikalikeun kuadrat tina laju cahaya. Rumus ieu ogé dipaké pikeun ngukur badagna énergi anu dihasilkeun dina [[réaksi nuklir]]. Parobahan massa [[isotop]] saméméh sarta saenggeus réaksi nuklir diitung. Di mana jumlah massa anu leungit saenggeus réaksi nuklir (''Δm'') dikalikeun jeung kuadrat laju cahaya, hasilna sarua jeung [[énergi]] anu dileupaskeun dina réaksi nuklir kasebut. == Tempo ogé == * [[Réaksi nuklir]] == Rujukan == * {{cite book| author=Bodanis, David| title=E=mc²: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation| url=https://archive.org/details/emcbiographyofwo0000boda_h5z6| publisher=Berkley Trade| year=2001| id=ISBN 0-425-18164-2}} * {{cite book| author=Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph| title=Modern Physics (4th ed.)| publisher=W. H. Freeman| year=2002| id=ISBN 0-7167-4345-0}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/equivME/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CC7Sg41Bp-U Rékaman sora Einstein anu eusina guaran singget ngeunaan teori ieu] [[Kategori:Fisika]] 6j6i3hnkaevn9matzwfn9qp5m3wp3px 0 30370 711854 690136 2026-08-07T05:53:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711854 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="toccolours" style="margin-left: 1em; float:right; width: 25em;" |+ style="font-size:larger;" | '''Saturnus / Juhal / Tumpek''' [[File:Saturn symbol (bold).svg|24px|♄]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background: #001000;"| [[Gambar:Saturn (planet) large.jpg|frameless|center]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #ffc0c0; text-align:center;" | Karakteristik [[puteran]] ([[Epoch (astronomi)|Epoch]] [[J2000]]) |- |'''[[Sumbu Semi-mayor]]''' | 57.909.068 [[kilométer|km]]<br />(0,38709821 [[astronomical unit|AU]]) |- |'''[[Kuriling]] puteran'' | ??? [[téraméter|Tm]]<br />( ??? AU) |- |'''[[Ékséntrisitas puteran]]''' | 0,205 30294 |- |'''[[Perihelion]]''' | 46.001.210&nbsp;km<br />(0,30749909 AU) |- |'''[[Aphelion]]''' | 69.816.927&nbsp;km<br />(0.46669733) |- |'''[[Période Sinodik]]''' | 115.88 |- |'''[[laju puteran rata-rata]]''' | 47,87&nbsp;km/[[detik|s]] |- |'''[[Inklinasi]]''' | 7.005015818[[darajat (sudut)|°]]<br />(3,38° kana [[katulistiwa]] panonpoé) |- |'''[[Sudut garis lintang ti titik naék]]''' | 348,739 36° |- |'''[[Argumén périapsis]]''' | 114,207 83° |- |'''[[Satelit alami]]''' | Heneuweuh |- |&nbsp; |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #ffc0c0; text-align:center;" | Ciri-ciri fisik |- |'''Rata-rata radius''' | 2439,7 ± 1&nbsp;km (0,3829 Bumi) |- |'''[[Sensitivitas]]''' | <0.0006 |- |'''[[Lega]] lemah''' | 7.48×10<sup>7</sup> km<sup>2</sup> (0.108 Bumi) |- |'''[[Volume]]''' | 6,083×10<sup>10</sup> [[km<sup>3</sup>]] (0,054 Bumi) |- |'''[[Massa]]''' | 5,9736×10<sup>24</sup> kg |- |'''[[Kapadetan]]''' | 5,427 [[gram|g]]/[[cm&sup3;]] |- |'''Gravitasi [[katulistiwa]]''' | 3,7 [[m/s&sup2;]] <br />(0,38 [[gee]]) |- |'''[[Laju leupas]]''' | 4,25&nbsp;km/s |- |'''[[Poé sideris]]''' | 58 hari 15,5 jam |- ! align="left"| Laju muter | 10,892&nbsp;km/h = 465,11&nbsp;m/s<br />(di katulistiwa) |- |'''[[Kemiringan Sumbu]]''' | [[derajat (sudut)|0,01°]] |- |'''[[Kenaikan kanan]]<br />dari kutub utara''' | 281,01° (18 j 44 men 2 s) |- |'''[[Deklinasi]]''' | 61,45° |- |'''[[Albedo]]''' | 0.119 |- |'''[[suhu]] Permukaan'''<br />''' - min'''<br />''' - rata-rata'''<br />''' - maks''' |<br />??? [[kelvin|K]]<br />???<br />??? K |- |&nbsp; |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #ffc0c0; text-align:center;" | Kandungan udara |- | |- --> |} '''Saturnus''' (ᮞᮒᮥᮁᮔᮥᮞ᮪) atawa '''Juhal''' (ᮏᮥᮠᮜ᮪) atawa '''Tumpek''' (ᮒᮥᮙ᮪ᮕᮨᮊ᮪) nyaéta hiji [[planét]] anu perenahna di [[surya mandala]] di mana planét ieu kawentar minangka planét nu mibanda cingcin. Jarak Saturnus pohara jauh ti [[Panonpoé]]. Alatan éta pisan, Saturnus henteu pati caang katempo ti [[Bumi]]. Saturnus ngurilingan panonpoé dina waktu 29,46 taun. Saban 378 poé, Bumi, Saturnus, jeung Panonpoé baris aya dina hiji gurat lempeng. Sajaba muteran panonpoé, Saturnus ogé ngalakonan rotasi (muteran sumbuna sorangan) dina waktu anu pohara singket, nyaéta 13 jam 15 menit. Saturnus mibanda karapetan anu leutik alatan lolobana zat nu nyusunna mangrupa gas sarta cacai. Inti Saturnus ditorah kawangun ku batuan nu padet. [[Atmosfir]] Saturnus kasusun ku gas [[amonia]] jeung [[métana]]. Hal ieu tangtu henteu ngamungkinkeun ayana kahirupan di Saturnus. Cingcin (lélépén) Saturnus pohara unik. Aya rébuan lélépén anu ngalingkung planét ieu. Bahan nu ngabentuk lélépén ieu masih tacan kapaluruh. Para élmuwan boga pamadegan, yén lélépén éta mustahil dijieun ku lémpéngan nu padet alatan baris ancur ku [[gaya séntrifugal]]. Tapi, mustahil ogé dijieun ku zat nu éncér alatan gaya séntrifugal baris ngabalukarkeun timbulna lambak. Jadi, sajauh ieu, ditorah yén anu pangmungkinna nu nyusun lélépén éta téh gundukan-gundukan es météorit. Nepi ka taun 2006, Saturnus dipikanyaho mibanda 56 [[satelit alami]]. Tujuh di antarana cukup badag. Maranéhanana nyaéta [[Mimas]], [[Enceladus]], [[Tethys]], [[Dione]], [[Rhea]], [[Titan]] (Satelit pangbadagna kalayan ukuran leuwih badag ti planét Merkurius), sarta [[Iapetus]]. == Wangun fisik == [[Gambar:Saturn Earth Comparison.png|jmpl|ki|Ukuran Saturnus dibandingkeun jeung [[Bumi]].]] Saturnus mibanda wangun anu dempak di beulah kutub, sarta melendung di sabudeureun [[khatulistiwa]]. [[Diaméter]] katulistiwa Saturnus panjangna 120.536 [[kilométer|km]] (74.867 [[mil]]) di mana diaméter ti Kutub Kalér ka Kutub Kidul sajauh 108.728&nbsp;km (67.535 mil). Wangun anu dempak ieu dilantarankeun ku [[rotasi]]na anu pohara gancang, muter saban 10 jam 14 menit waktu [[Bumi]]. Saturnus nyaéta hiji-hijina Planét di [[surya mandala]] anu [[massa jinis]]na leuwih hampang batan cai. Sanajan inti Saturnus mibanda massa jinis anu leuwih beurat batan cai, planét ieu mibanda [[atmosfir]] anu ngandung gas, ku kituna massa jinis relatif planét ngan 0.69 g/cm³ (leuwih hampang batan cai), minangka hasilna, lamun Saturnus diteundeun di luhureun balong anu pinuh ku cai, Saturnus baris ngambang. === Atmosfer === [[Gambar:Saturn hexagonal north pole feature.jpg|jmpl|ki|Awan [[héksagonal]] kutub kalér anu munggaran kawénéhan ku [[Voyager 1]] sarta tungtungna dipastikeun ku [[Cassini-huygens|Cassini]].]] ==== Komposisi ==== Bagian luar atmosfir Saturnus dijieun tina 96.7% [[hidrogén]] sarta 3% [[hélium]], 0.2% [[métana]] sarta 0.02% [[amonia]]. Dina atmosfir Saturnus ogé aya saeutik kandungan [[asetiléna]], [[étana]] sarta [[fosfin]].[http://www.mira.org/fts0/planets/100/text/txt002x.htm Saturn]. MIRA. Retrieved on [[July 29]], [[2007]] ==== Awan ==== Awan Saturnus, kawas Yupiter, muter kalawan laju anu béda-béda gumantung kana perenah garis lintangna. Henteu kawas Yupiter, awan Saturnus leuwih poék sarta awan Saturnus leuwih rubak di katulistiwa. Awan Saturnus nu panghandapna dijieun tina cai és, sarta kalawan kandel kira-kira 10 [[kilométer]]. {{Suhu]] Saturnus cukup tiit, kalawan suhu 250 [[Kelvin|K]] (-10°[[Fahrenheit|F]], -23°[[Celsius|C]]). Awan di saluhureunana mibanda kandel 50 kilométer, dijieun tina és [[amonium hidrogénsulfida]] (simbol kimia: NH4HS), sarta di luhureun awan kasebut aya awan és [[amonia]] kalawan kandel 80 kilométer. Bagian pangluhurna dijieun tina gas [[hidrogén]] sarta [[hélium]], di mana kandelna kira-kira 200 sarta 270 kilométer. [[Aurora]] ogé dipikanyaho kabentuk ku [[mésosfir]] Saturnus. Suhu dina awan bagian luhur Saturnus pohara tiis, nyaéta satiis 98 K (-283&nbsp;°F, -175&nbsp;°C). Suhu dina awan bagian handap Saturnus leuwih panas batan anu di luar alatan panas anu dihasilkeun di bagian jero Saturn. Spinrad, Hyron. (2004). [http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/saturn_worldbook.html Saturn] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229031643/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/saturn_worldbook.html |date=2010-12-29 }}. [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]. Retrieved on [[July 29]], [[2007]] Angin Saturnus mangrupa salah sahiji ti angin panggancangna di [[Surya Mandala]], ngahontal kecepatan 500&nbsp;m/s (1.800&nbsp;km/h, 1.118&nbsp;mph),Hamilton, Calvin J. (1997). [http://www.solarviews.com/eng/vgrsat.htm Voyager Saturn Science Summary]. Retrieved on [[July 5]], [[2007]]. anu laér leuwih gancang batan angin anu aya di [[Bumi]]. Pesawat jomantara [[Voyager 1]] manggihan awan [[héksagonal]] deukeut kutub kalér Saturnus kira-kira dina garis bujur 78° beulah kalér. [[Cassini-huygens]] negeskeun hal ieu taun [[2006]]. Henteu kawas kutub kalér, kutub kidul henteu némbongkeun wangun awan héksagonal sarta anu narik ati, Cassini manggihan angin puyuh jiga [[siklon tropis]] nu kakonci di kutub kidul kalawan dingding panon anu écés. Panimuan ieu jadi catetan alatan euweuh planét séjén kajaba Bumi di surya mandala anu mibanda dingding panon. === Inti Planét === Inti Planét Saturnus sarua jeung inti planét [[Yupiter]]. Planét ieu mibanda inti planét di puseurna sarta pohara panas, [[suhu]]na ngahontal 15.000 [[Kelvin|K]] (26.540 [[Fahrenheit|°F]], 14.730 [[Celsius|°C]]). Inti Planét Saturnus pohara panas sarta mancarkeun panas kira-kira 21/2 kali leuwih rongkah batan jumlah [[énergi]] anu ditarima Saturnus ti [[Panonpoé]]. Inti Planét Saturnus sarua badagna jeung [[Bumi]], tapi jumlah massa jinisna leuwih badag. Di luhur inti Saturnus aya bagian anu leuwih ipis anu mangrupa [[hidrogén métalik]], kira-kira 30.000&nbsp;km (18.600 mil). Di luhureun bagian kasebut aya wewengkon cacai [[hidrogén]] sarta [[hélium]].[http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.286 Saturn]. National Maritime Musieum. (2007). Retrieved on [[July 29]], [[2007]]. Inti planét Saturnus téh beurat, kalawan [[massa]] kira-kira 9 nepi ka 22 kali leuwih beurat batan [[massa]] inti [[Bumi]].Fortney, Jonathan J. (2004). "[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/305/5689/1414 Looking into the Giant Planets]". ''Science'' '''305''' (5689): 1414-1415. Retrieved on [[April 30]], [[2007]]. === Medan gaya === Saturnus mibanda médan gaya alami anu leuwih leutik batan [[Yupiter]]. Médan gaya Saturnus unik alatan sumbuna simétris, henteu kawas planét séjénna. Saturnus ngahasilkeun [[gelombang radio]], ngan leutik teuing pikeun kawénéhan ti Bumi. Bulan boga Saturnus, [[Titan]] nguriling di bagian luar médan gaya Saturnus sarta muncratkeun [[Fisika plasma|plasma]] ka wewengkon atmosfir Titan anu anu di[[ion]]isasi.Russell, C. T.; Luhmann, J. G. (1997). [http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/personnel/russell/papers/sat_mag.html Saturn: Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119080948/http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/personnel/russell/papers/sat_mag.html |date=2019-01-19 }}. UCLA - IGPP Space Physics Center. Retrieved on [[July 29]], [[2007]]. == Rotasi jeung orbit == [[Gambar:Rotatingsaturnhexagon.gif|jmpl|ki|180px|Animasi awan héksagonal Saturnus.]] Jarak antara [[Panonpoé]] jeung Saturnus leuwih ti 1.4 [[milyar]] [[kilométer|km]], kira-kira 9 kali jarak antara [[Bumi]] jeung [[Panonpoé]]. Perlu waktu 29,46 taun Bumi pikeun Saturnus ngurilingan (ngorbit) [[Panonpoé]] anu dipikanyaho kalawan ngaran ''période orbit'' Saturnus. Saturnus mibanda période rotasi salila 10 jam 14 menit waktu Bumi. Tapi, Saturnus henteu ngalakonan rotasi anu konstan. Période rotasi Saturnus gumantung kana laju rotasi gelombang radio anu dikaluarkeun ku Saturnus. Pasawat jomantara [[Cassini-huygens]] manggihan yén pancaran radio ngalaunan, sarta période rotasi Saturnus ngaronjat naék. Henteu dipikanyaho hal naon anu ngabalukarkeun gelombang radio ieu ngalaunan. == Lélépén Saturnus == Saturnus kawentar alatan lélépén nu aya di planétna, anu jadi salah sahiji obyék nu bisa katempo pangahéngna dina sistem surya mandala. === Sajarah === Lélépén éta munggaran katempo ku [[Galileo Galilei]] dina taun [[1610]] ku cara noong maké [[teleskop]]. Manéhna saterusna nulis ka adipati [[Toscana]] yén "Saturnus henteu sosorangan, tapi diwangun ku tilu objék anu ampir paantel sarta henteu usik. Dina taun [[1612]] sudut lélépén nyanghareup pas kana [[bumi]] sarta lélépén kasebut teu katempo, sarta saterusna dina taun [[1613]] lélépén éta mecenghul deui, anu ngabalukarkeun Galiléo katalimbeng. Masalah lélépén éta masih jadi kapanasaran, ku kituna dina taun [[1655]] [[Christian Huygens]], noong Saturnus ngagunakeun teleskop anu leuwih kuat daya tempona batan teleskop anu dipaké ku Galiléo. Dina taun [[1675]] [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] nyindekkeun yén lélépén Saturnus sabenerna diwangun ku rupa-rupa lélépén anu leuwih leutik sarta aya [[rohang]] antara maranéhanana, bagian pangbadagna dingaranan Divisi Cassini. Dina taun [[1859]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]] mintonkeun yén lélépén kasebut henteu padet, tapi dijieun tina partikel-partikel leutik, anu masing-masing ngurilingan Saturnus, sarta lamun henteu ngurilingan planét kasebut, lélépén éta baris henteu stabil atawa papisah.[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Maxwell_Saturn.html James Clerk Maxwell on the nature of Saturn's rings]. Retrieved on [[July 6]], [[2007]]. [[James Keeler]] ngulik lélépén éta ngagunakeun [[spéktrométer]] dina taun [[1895]] anu ngabuktikeun yén téori Maxwell bener. === Wangun fisik lélépén Saturnus === [[Gambar:Saturn from Cassini Orbiter (2007-01-19).jpg|jmpl|ka|Saturnus anu katémbong ti pesawat jomantara Cassini warsih 2007.]] Lélépén Saturnus bisa ditoong ngagunakeun teleskop modéren nu daya toongna basajan atawa nu kuat. Lélépén ieu ngampar 6.630&nbsp;km nepi ka 120.700&nbsp;km di luhureun hatulistiwa Saturnus, sarta diwangun ku babatuan [[silikon dioksida]], [[oksida beusi]], sarta partikel és jeung batu. Aya dua téori ngeunaan asal lélépén Saturnus. Téori kahiji diusulkeun ku [[Édouard Roche]] dina abad ka-19, nganyatakeun yén lélépén kasebut mangrupa ruruntuk bulan Saturnus anu orbitna deukeut pisan jeung Saturnus antukna peupeus alatan kakuatan pasang surut. Kaol ti téori ieu nyaéta [[bulan]] kasebut peupeus alatan tubrukan jeung [[komét]] atawa [[asteroid]]. Téori kadua nganyatakeun lélépén kasebut asalna lain tina bulan Saturnus nu ancur, tapi titilar [[nébula]] nu ngawangun Saturnus. Téori ieu henteu ditarima mangsa kiwari disababkeun lélépén Saturnus dianggap henteu setabil lamun ngaliwatan période salila jutaan taun, sarta dianggap kakara kabentuk. Wahana angkasa ''Voyagers'' bisa nempo lélépén kasebut miboga struktur seni anu diwangun ku rébuan bagian nu leuwih leutik. Struktur ieu dipercaya kabentuk alatan tarikan gravitasi bulan-bulan Saturnus ngaliwatan sagala rupa cara. Sawaréh bagian dihasilkeun alatan bulan leutik anu ngaliwat kawas [[Pan]], sarta réa deui bagian anu tacan kapanggih, samentara sawaréh lélépén leutik katahan ku médan gravitas satelit leutik kawas [[Prometheus (bulan)|Prometheus]] jeung [[Pandora (bulan)|Pandora]]. Bagian séjén kabentuk alatan résonansi antara période orbit partikel di sawatara bagian jeung bulan anu leuwih badag anu perenahna leuwih laér. == Bulan == [[Gambar:Titan in natural color Cassini.jpg|150px|jmpl|ki|Titan, salah sahiji satelit boga Saturnus]] Saturnus mibanda 59 [[bulan]], 48 di antarana mibanda ngaran. salah sahiji tina bulan pangbadagna nyaéta Titan, leuwih badag ti planét [[Merkurius]] sarta hiji-hijina bulan di atmosfir anu mibanda atmosfir anu kandel. == Pangimeutan == === Pangimeutan dina jaman kuna === Saturnus geus dipikanyaho saprak jaman prasejarah.{{cite ramat |title = Saturn > Observing Saturn |url = http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.13852/viewPage/5 |publisher = [[National Maritime Musieum]] |accessdate = 2007-07-06}} Dina jaman kuna, planét ieu téh mangrupa planét panglaérna ti antara 5 planét anu dipikanyaho di surya mandala (kaasup Bumi) sarta dianggap sipat utama dina rupa-rupa mitologi. Dina mitologi [[Kakaisaran Romawi]], Déwa Saturnus nyaéta déwa tatanén jeung panén. Bangsa Romawi nganggap Saturnus sarua jeung Déwa Yunani Kronos. {{cite book|title=The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy|url=https://archive.org/details/historypracticeo0000evan|author=James Evans|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historypracticeo0000evan/page/296 296]-7}}. Dina astrologi [[Hindu]], aya 9 planét nu mana Surya Mandala dipikanyaho kalawan ngaran Navagraha. Saturnus, salah sahiji ti maranéhanana, dipikanyaho kalawan ngaran "Sani" atawa "Shani," hakim ti sakabéh Planét, sarta nangtukeun sakumnana lampah boh goréng boh alus anu dipigawe ku maranéhanana.{{cite ramat |title = Starry Night Times |url = http://www.starrynight.com/sntimes/2006/2006-01-full.html |accessdate = 2007-07-05 |date = 2006 |publisher = Imaginova Corp. }} Kabudayaan [[Tiongkok]] jeung [[Jepang]] kuna nyirian Saturnus minangka ''béntang Bumi'' (土星). Hal ieu dumasar kana 5 unsur anu sacara tradisional dipaké pikeun ngagolongkeun unsur alami. Urang [[Ibrani]] kuna nyebut Saturnus kalawan ngaran "Shabbathai". [[Malaékat]]na nyaéta Cassiel. Kapinterna, atawa jiwa méré mangpaat, nyaéta ''Agiel'' (layga), sarta jiwana (jiwa poék) nyaéta Zazel (lzaz). Urang [[Turki Usmania]] jeung urang [[Malayu]] méré ngaran "Zuhal", nu asalna tina [[basa Arab]] زحل. Pikeun nempo lélépén Saturnus diperlukeun saeutikna teleskop kalawan diaméter 75&nbsp;mm. Galiléo kungsi katalimbeng ku lélépén Saturnus sarta mikir yén Saturnus ceulian. [[Christian Huygens]] ngagunakeun teleskop kalawan daya toong anu leuwih badag sarta manéhna manggihan yén lélépén éta téh lélépén Saturnus. Huygens ogé manggihan bulan milik Saturnus, [[Titan]]. Henteu lila ti harita, [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] manggihan 4 bulan séjénna, [[Iapetus]], [[Rhea]], [[Tethys]] jeung [[Dione]]. Dina taun [[1675]], Cassini ogé manggihan rorongkrang anu disebut divisi Cassini.{{cite ramat |url = http://huygensgcms.gsfc.nasa.gov/Shistory.htm |title = Saturn: History of Discoveries |accessdate = 2007-07-15 |last = Micek |last = Catherine}} Saprak harita, euweuh timuan deui nepi ka taun [[1789]] sabot [[William Herschel]] manggihan 2 bulan lianna, [[Mimas]] jeung [[Enceladus]]. Bulan [[Hyperion]], anu mibanda résonansi orbit babarengan [[Titan]], kapanggih dina taun [[1848]] ku tim ti [[Britania Raya]]. Dina taun [[1899]], [[William Henry Pickering]] manggihan satelit [[Phoebe]]. Panalungtikan dina abad ka-20, negeskeun yén Titan mibanda atmosfer anu kandel, di mana Titan jadi bulan anu unik di antara bulan di [[Surya Mandala]] séjénna. === Pioneer 11 === Saturnus didatangan ku [[Pioneer 11]] dina bulan [[Séptember]] taun [[1979]]. Pioner 11 ngalayang 20.000 kilométer ti awan Saturnus bagian luar. Dihasilkeun gambar Saturnus sarta sawatara bulanana kalawan résolusi nu leutik. Resolusi gambar kasebut henteu alus pikeun nempo sipat pabeungeutan planét kasebut. Pasawat angkasa ogé nalungtik lélépén Saturnus, di antara timuan-timuanana, aya cincin-f sarta fakta yén lolongkrang hideung dina lélépén nu caang lamun ditempo ka arah panonpoé, dina kalimah séjén, maranéhanana lain material kosong. Pioneer 11 ogé ngukur suhu Titan.{{cite ramat |url = http://web.archive.org/web/20060130100401/http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/pioneer/PN10&11.html |title = The Pioneer 10 & 11 Spacecraft |accessdate=2007-07-05 |publisher = Mission Descriptions}} === Voyager === Dina bulan [[Nopémber]] taun [[1980]], [[Voyager 1]] ngadatangan Saturnus. Pasawat angkasa ieu ngirim gambar Planét Saturnus, lélépén jeung satelitna dina resolusi nu alus. Munggaran ditalungtik sipat pabeungeutan rupa-rupa bulanna. Voyager 1 ngalayang deukeut Titan, sarta ngaronjatkeun pangaweruh manusa ngeunaan [[Titan]], sajaba ti éta, Voyager 1 ogé ngabuktikeun yén atmosfir Titan henteu bisa diliwatan ku [[panjang gelombang]] cahaya, ku kituna, euweuh wincikan ngeunaan pabeungeutan Titan.{{cite ramat |url = http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/saturn/missions.html |title = Missions to Saturn |publisher = The Planetary Society |date = 2007 |accessdate = 2007-07-24}} Sataun satuluyna, dina bulan [[August]] taun [[1981]], [[Voyager 2]] neruskeun panalungtikan Saturnus. Leuwih réa dihasilkeun poto bulan-bulan Saturnus nu dicokot dina jarak deukeut. Tapi apes, mangsa ngalayang, kaméra satelit nyangked pikeun sawatara poé. Gravitasi Saturnus dipaké pikeun ngarahkeun arah pasawat angkasa luar kasebut nuju ka arah [[Uranus]]. Satelit kasebut manggihan sarta ngécéskeun sawatara satelit anyar anu nguriling deukeut lélépén Saturnus. Maranéhanana ogé manggihan lolongkrang leutik ''Maxwell'' jeung ''Keeler'' (lolongkrang nu legana 42&nbsp;km dina lélépén Saturnus). === Cassini === [[Gambar:Cassini Saturn Orbit Insertion.jpg|jmpl|ka|Gambaran Cassini anu keur ngurilingan Saturnus beunang nyieun seniman.]] Dina tanggal [[1 Juli]] [[2004]], pasawat angkasa luar [[Cassini–Huygens]] ngalakonan manuver ''SOI (Saturn Orbit Insertion)'' sarta ngasupan orbit Saturnus. Saméméh SOI, Cassini geus ngulik sistem ieu. Dina bulan [[Juni]] taun [[2004]], Cassini geus kakalayangan deukeut [[Phoebe]], sarta méré data jeung gambar kalawan resolusi nu alus. Lalampahan [[Cassini-huygens|Cassini]] ka bulan pangbadagna [[Titan]] hasil meunangkeun gambar talaga badag jeung basisir sarta sawatara pulo jeung pagunungan. Cassini ngabéréskeun 2 kali lalampahan ka Titan saméméh ngaluarkeun [[Cassini-huygens|satelit Huygens]] dina tanggal [[25 Désémber]] [[2004]]. Huygens turun ka beungeut Titan dina tanggal [[14 Januari]] [[2005]], ngirim data salila turun ka atmosfir sarta mangsa badarat. Salila taun [[2005]], Cassini ngalakonan sawatara lalampahan ka Titan jeung satelit anu ngandung és. Lalampahan Cassini ka Titan anu pamungkas dijadwalkan dina tanggal [[19 Juli]] [[2007]]. Saprak awal taun [[2005]], élmuan geus nalungtik guludug di Saturnus, anu kapanggih ku Cassini. Kakuatan guludug di Saturnus ditorah 1000 kali leuwih badag batan guludug di [[Bumi]]. Para élmuan percaya yén guludug ieu téh guludug pangkuatna anu kungsi katémbong.{{cite ramat |url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/02/060215090726.htm |title = Astronomers Find Giant Lightning Storm At Saturn |date = 2007 |accessdate = 2007-07-27 |publisher = Sciencedaily LLC}} Dina tanggal [[10 Maret]] [[2006]], NASA ngalaporkeun yén, ngaliwatan gambar, satelit Cassini manggihan fakta-fakta ngeunaan cai anu muncrat dina geiser di salah sahiji bulan Saturnus, [[Enceladus]]. Gambar kasebut ogé mintonkeun partikel cai kasebut dipancarkeun ogé tina és. Nurutkeun Dr. Andrew Ingersoll ti Institut Téknologi [[California]], "Bulan séjénna di surya mandala ngabogaan sagara cai anu katutup ku és. Bédana jeung di bumi, di dieu cairan cai moal leuwih ti 10 méter sahandapeun beungeut bulan."{{cite ramat |url = http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press-release-details.cfm?newsID=639 |title = NASA's Cassini Discovers Potential Liquid Water on Enceladus |accessdate = 2007-07-08 |date = March 9, 2006 |publisher = NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory |first = Michael |last = Pence}} Dina tanggal [[20 Séptember]] [[2006]], hiji poto ti satelit Cassini nimu lélépén Saturnus anu tacan kapanggih, di luar lélépén utama Saturnus anu leuwih caang sarta dina jero lélépén G jeung E. Lélépén ieu mangrupa hasil tina tabrakan [[météor]] jeung 2 bulan Saturnus.{{cite ramat |url = http://space.newscientist.com/channel/solar-system/cassini-huygens/dn10124-faint-new-ring-discovered-around-saturn.html |title = Faint new ring discovered around Saturn |accessdate = 2007-07-08 |date = Séptember 20, 2007 |last = Shiga |first = David |publisher = Newscientist.com}} Dina bulan [[Juli]] taun [[2006]], Cassini nimu bukti munggaran ayana talaga hidrokarbon deukeut kutub kalér Titan, anu dikonfirmasi dina bulan [[Januari]] taun [[2007]]. Dina bulan [[Maret]] taun [[2007]], sawatara gambar mintonkeun yén deukeut kutub kalér Titan aya "lautan" hidrokarbon, anu pangbadagna di mana legana ampir salega [[Laut Kaspia]].{{cite ramat |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6449081.stm |title = Probe reveals seas on Saturn moon |publisher = BBC |last = Rincon |first = Paul |accessdate = 2007-07-12 |date = March 14, 2007}} Dina taun [[2006]], satelit éta geus nimu sarta negeskeun 4 satelit anyar. Misi utama satelit ieu lekasan taun [[2008]] sabot pasawat luar angkasa ieu ngabéréskeun 74 misi ngurilingan orbit di sabudeureun planét. == Penglihatan pangalusna == [[Gambar:Saturnoppositions.png|jmpl|ka|Posisi-posisi Saturnus: 2001–2029]] Saturnus nyaéta planét panglaérna ti 5 planét anu panggampangna ditempo jeung panon buligir, sarta 4 planét séjénna nyaéta [[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Mars]], sarta [[Yupiter]] ([[Uranus]] sarta [[4 Vesta]] katémbong jeung panon buligir sabot langit gelap), sarta planét pamungkas anu dipikanyaho ku astronom mimiti nepi ka Uranus kapanggih taun[[1781]]. Saturnus mecenghul dina penglihatan panon buligir dina waktu langit peuting minangka titik caang sarta boga warna konéng. Bantuan optik (teleskop) digedéan sahenteuna 20X diperlukeun pikeun nempo lélépén Saturnus pikeun réa jelema. {{cite ramat |title = Saturn |url = http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.286 |publisher = National Maritime Musieum |accessdate = 2007-07-06}} Saturnus jadi udagan observasi sabot katémbong di langit, Saturnus sarta lélépénna pangalusna ditempo sabot planét éta aya dina posisi nu tangtu. Dina posisi tanggal [[13 Januari]] [[2005]], Saturnus mecenghul pangcaangna nepi ka taun2031 baris leuwih caang, utamana alatan orientasi anu alus ti [[Bumi]].{{cite ramat |url = http://77illinois.homestead.com/files/astro/planets3.html |title = The Planets 2001-2030 |accessdate = 2007-07-30 |date = May 2, 2004}} == Daptar pustaka == * {{ cite book| author = Karttunen, H.; Kröger, P.; ''et al.''| year = 2007| title =Fundaméntal Astronomy| location = New York| publisher = Springer, 5th edition| id=ISBN 3-540-34143-9 }} * {{ cite book| author = Lovett, L.; Horvath, J.; Cuzzi, J.| year = 2006| title =Saturn: A New View| url = https://archive.org/details/saturnnewview0000love| location = New York| publisher = Harry N. Abrams, Inc.| id=ISBN 0-8109-3090-0 }} * {{ cite book| author = Surya, Yohanes| title =Fisika éta Gampang| location = Jakarta| publisher = Grafindo, Erlangga }} == Tumbu luar == {{commonscat|Saturn (planét)}} * [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Saturn Introduction to Saturn] by NASA's Solar System Exploration * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturnfact.html Saturn Fact Sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106203847/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturnfact.html |date=2010-01-06 }}, by NASA * [http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/home/index.cfm Cassini-huygens mission] to Saturn, by NASA * [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/space_time/saturn/ Research News] about Saturn * [http://www.solarviews.com/eng/saturn.htm General information] about Saturn * [http://www.affs.org/html/studies_on_the_rings_of_saturn.html Studies on the Rings] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611212635/http://www.affs.org/html/studies_on_the_rings_of_saturn.html |date=2016-06-11 }} of Saturn [[manéhna:Saturno (planeta)]] {{suryamandala}} [[Kategori:Planét]] jf6npd2bqjuqj9o4znwzfamq0nwnim3 0 30749 711644 675932 2026-08-07T00:48:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711644 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Image:wireless network.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The notebook is connected to the wireless access point using a [[PC card]] wireless card.]] [[Image:WI-FI Range Diagram.svg|thumb|A diagram showing a Wi-Fi network]] '''Raramat wewengkon lokal tanpakabel''' ({{Lang-en|'''wireless local area network'''}}, '''wireless LAN''' atawa '''WLAN)''' nyaéta hiji [[raramat]] anu ngahubungkeun pakakas-pakakas ku cara distribusi tanpa kabel (umumna [[spéktrum sumebar]] (''spread spectrum'') atawa [[OFDM]]) tur ilaharna nyadiakeun hiji hubungan ngaliwatan hiji titik aksés ka internét nu leuwih lega. Ku cara ieu, nu maraké raramat boga mobilitas pikeun pundah-pindah dina sajeroeun wewengkon nu kawengkuna tur bisa kénéh kahubungkeun kana raramat. Kiwari standar téknologi 802.11b (anu biasa disebut Wi-fi) mindeng digunakeun pikeun ngawangun LAN. Tempat-tempat anu nyadiakeun sambungan LAN kalayan téknologi Wi-fi biasa disebut hotspot. Wireless LAN geus kasohor keur dipaké di imah alatan gmpangna instalasi tur ku beuki nambahna popularitas komputer [[laptop]]. Bisnis publik kawas kafé jeung mall geus mimiti nawarkeun aksés tanpa kabel ka palanggana, nu kadang-kadang gratis. ==Tanpakabel== {| class="wikitable" |- ! Istilah ! Harti / singkatan |- | LAN | Local Aréa Network; jaringan komputer nu basajan |- | Wireless | Jaringan Nirkabel |- | Wireless LAN | Jaringan komputer nu teu maké kabel |- | Wireless PAN | Personal aréa Network nu nyambung teu maké kabel. Teknologi nu dipaké nyaéta IRDA jeung Bluetooth. |- | Wireless card | Kartu ni dipaké keur ngadukung komputer supaya bias kahubung kana hiji jaringan |- | PCMCIA | Personal Computer Memory Card International Association |- | AP | Access Poin |- | SSID | Service Set Indentifier |} Ku kamajuan Jaman, teknologi komputer ogé ngahasilkeun teknologi anyar nu ngalengkepan kabutuhan jaman dina kabutuhan jaringan komputer nu ngadukung kana mobilitas sareng fleksibilitas. Wireless LAN mangrupa jaringan Komputer nu teu maké kabel tapi media transmisi na ngagunakeun frékuénsi radio ( RF) jeung infra red ( IR ). System ieu mangfaat upama upaya nyambungkeun jaringan komputer maké kabel atawa serat optic hésé atawa mahal. Pakakas nu dipaké dina jaringan ieu nyaéta komputer, laptop, telepon seluler, akses poin ( AP ),PCMCIA/LAN Card/wirelesscard jeung sajabana. ==Pakakas nu di pake dina WLAN== 1. Personal Komputer. - nyaéta Komputer anu biasa dipaké atawa aya ogé nu nyebut desk top 2. Laptop - Komputer jingjing nu bisa di babawa kamamana. Laptop nu modél anyar geus di lengkepan jeung fasilitas WLAN, tapi laptop nu heubeul kudu maké PCMCIA/Landcard/wireless card supaya bisa kahubung jeung jaringan. 3. Personal Computer memory Card International ( PCMCIA ). PCMCIA aya ogé nu nyebut LAN card aya ogé nu nyebut wireless Card. Pakakas ieu mangrupa pakakas nu ngahubungkeun laptop/komputer ka Access Poin. 4. Access Poin ( AP ). - Access Poin ( AP ) nyaéta pakakas nu dipaké dina WLAN keur ngirimkeun data ku jalana frequensi radio. Kagunaan acces poin ieu pikeun ngirim jeung narima data,ngarobah sinyal RF ( frékuénsi Radio ) jadi sinyal digital nu dihubungkeun kana pakakas jaringan komputer liana. Conto kagunaan Wireless LAN (WLAN ) nyaéta di mana waé urang bisa ngamangfaatkeun fasilitas internet bisa di bandara, di mall,warung kejo,kereta api jeung di tempat umum liana. Spesifikasi nu digunakeun dina wireless LAN nyaéta IEEE 802.11, anu di sebut ogé WiFi ( wireless Fidelity ) nyaéta standar nu ngatur dina masalah kecepatan akses data {| class="wikitable" |- ! Spesifikasi ! Speed ! frékuénsi band |- | 802.11a | 54Mb/s | 5&nbsp;GHz |- | 802.11b | 11Mb/s | 2.4&nbsp;GHz |- | 802.11g | 54 Mb/s | 2.4&nbsp;GHz |- | 802.11n | 100 Mb/s | 2.4&nbsp;GHz |} Sabenerna kagunaan teknologi wireless LAN sarua jeung teknologi jaringan komputer nu maké kabel ( wire LAN atawa Local Aréa Network ). Tehnologi wireless LAN nu ngagunakeun frékuénsi radio keur ngirim jeung narima data, tangtuna ngurangan kabutuhan hubungan nu maké kabel. Akibatna pamake nu miboga mobilitas jeung fleksibilitas gedé teu gumantung kana tempat jeung lokasi. Teknologi wireless LAN ogé bisa nyieun jaringan komputer di tempat nu hésé dihubungkeun ku jaringan kabel. == Tempo ogé == * [[Fixed wireless]] * [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)]] * [[Local area network]] * [[Wi-Fi array]] * [[Wireless access point]] * [[Wireless electronic devices and health]] * [[Wireless LAN client comparison]] * [[Wireless LAN Interoperability Forum]] * [[Wireless mesh network]] * [[Wireless network]] * [[Wireless LAN security]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Bacaan satuluyna == *{{cite book|title=Wireless Networking in the Developing World: A practical guide to planning and building low-cost telecommunications infrastructure|publisher=Hacker Friendly LLC|edition=2nd|pages=425|date=2007|url=http://wndw.net/pdf/wndw2-en/wndw2-ebook.pdf}} * {{cite book | first=Jim | last= Geier | title=Wireless LANs | url=https://archive.org/details/wirelesslans0000geie | publisher=Sams; | year=2001 | isbn=0672320584}} * {{cite book | title=The Wireless Internet Explained | url=https://archive.org/details/wirelessinternet0000rhot | publisher=Digital Press | year=2001 | first=John | last=Rhoton | isbn=1555582575}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Wireless Lan}} [[Kategori:Raramat wewengkon lokal]] [[Kategori:Raramat tanpa kabel]] su7sxa4wk38lq3swhfzlnltsle4xc48 0 30792 711836 625120 2026-08-07T05:32:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711836 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kacamatan | nami=Ambarawa | peta=[[Gambar:Locator Kecamatan Ambarawa.png|120px]] | dati2=Kabupatén | nami dati2=Semarang | lega=28,22 km² | pangeusi=58.767 jiwa (2012) | kalurahan=2/8 | nami camat=Drs. Arief Budianto | kapadetan=2.082 jiwa/km² | propinsi=Jawa Tengah }} [[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Het fort Willem I met een begraafplaats op de voorgrond TMnr 3728-442.jpg|jmpl|300px|Bénténg Willem I (taun 1865-1872)]] [[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De Chinese wijk te Ambarawa Semarang TMnr 10020851.jpg|jmpl|300px|Wewengkonn Pacinan di Ambarawa (taun 1880)]] '''Ambarawa''' nyaéta salah sahiji [[kacamatan]] di [[Kabupatén Semarang]], [[Propinsi]] [[Jawa Tengah]], [[Indonésia]]. == Profil Pamaréntahan == === Babagéan Administratif === === Sajarah === Dina mangsa karajaan-karajaan [[Mataram]] ([[Amangkurat II]]) ieu wewengkon ngaranna '''Limbarawa'''. Baheulana mah Ambarawa téh kungsi jadi ibu kota Kabupatén Semarang. Kiwari mah ibu kotana [[Ungaran]]. Ambarawa disebut ogé kota [[Palagan Ambarawa]], tur aya Musieum Palagan Ambarawa, [[Musieum Karéta Api Ambarawa]] katut [[Bénténg Willem I]]. <!-- Ambarawa menghubungkan penting adalah memberikan jalur rel [[Jalur rel gigi|bergerigi]] kereta api yang menghubungkan seluruh wilayah Jawa Tengah hingga Yogyakarta melalui Magelang. Jalur [[Semarang]]-Ambarawa-[[Magelang]] adalah sepenuhnya operasional sampai 1977. Sekarang merupakan situs ''[[Museum Kereta Api Ambarawa]]''. Ambarawa adalah lokasi penguburan kamp Jepang di mana lebih dari 15.000 orang Eropa telah dilaksanakan selama [[masa penjajahan Jepang]]. Setelah Jepang menyerah dan ketika [[Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia]], pertempuran pecah di daerah Ambarawa pada tanggal 20 November 1945 antara pasukan Inggris yang mengevakuasi di tanah jajahan Eropa dan Republik Indonesia. Di sebelah Tenggara Kota Ambarawa ada sebuah Rawa yg dikenal dengan sebutan Rawa Pening. Asal muasal rawa tersebut menurut geologist J. Van Bemellen, Rawapening merupakan cekungan danau tektonik, yang terjadi dari peristiwa tektonik gravitasi, yaitu pergeseran akibat gaya berat, yang mengakibatkan Gunung Telomoyo Purba, yang dikenal sebagai Gunung Soropati, sobek dan menghasilkan sesar Klegung yang sekarang sudah tidak aktif lagi. Pada Masa Pra-sejarah, sisi timur Gunung Soropati bergeser ke arah timur laut, sehingga daerah antara Gunung Telomoyo dan Pegunungan Payungrong mengalami depresi. Akibatnya, bagian kaki dasarnya patah dan terlipat, sehingga membentuk cekungan yang terisi air hujan dan menghasilkan banyak mata air dari patahan aquifer. Cekungan inilah yang dikenal sebagai Rawapening. Rawa ini menjadi sumber air utama Sungai Tuntang, yang bermuara ke Laut Jawa. Nah. Pada tahun 1921-1923, Pemerintah Hindia Belanda membendung aliran air yang keluar dari Rawapening, dengan membangun Bendung Gerak Jelok (lebar 43,25 m dengan 6 pintu radial) pada bagian hulu Sungai Tuntang, untuk dialirkan ke turbin PLTA Jelok dan Timo yang berkapasitas 25 MW (Damar Kumala, 2010).. ==Profil Daérah== ===Wates Wilayah=== ===Géografis=== ===Démografi=== ===Transportasi=== --> == Desa == [[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De weg naar Banjoebiroe in Ambarawa TMnr 10021097.jpg|jmpl|300px|Jalan ti Ambarawa ka [[Banyubiru, Ambarawa, Semarang|Banyubiru]] (taun 1920-an)]] <!-- === Ngampin === {{main|Ngampin, Ambarawa, Semarang}} Ngampin terletak paling barat wilayah Kecamatan Ambarawa, berbatasan dengan Kecamatan [[Jambu]]. Pusat desa (kantor balai desa) terletak di depan rumah Mbah Tajib, pada titik 7° 15' 48.8" LS dan 110° 23' 17.7" BT, yaitu tepat 2 km sebelah barat titik nol Ambarawa, atau 40 km dari kota [[Semarang]]. Ketinggian pada titik ini adalah 486 m di atas permukaan air laut. Bentuk fisiografis wilayah Desa Ngampin secara garis besar dapat dibagi dalam 3 bagian; bagian selatan (rel kereta api sampai batas selatan desa) fisiografi datar dengan lereng rata-rata < 3%, dengan penggunaan lahan utama sawah tadah hujan dan irigasi sederhana. Sebagian kecil lahan kering dan kebun campuran. Bagian tengah (antara rel kereta api dan jalan raya) fisiografi berombak sampai bergelombang dengan lereng 3-15%. Penggunaan lahan utama pemukiman, kebun campuran dan pertanian lahan kering. Bagian utara (jalan raya sampai batas utara desa), fisiografi bergelombang, berbukit sampai bergunung dengan lereng > 15%. Penggunaan lahan utama pertanian lahan kering di batas utara, serta pemukiman dan kebun campuran di sekitar jalan raya. Di sepanjang jalan raya Semarang-Yogya di dekat Kantor Kejaksaan Negeri dan Pengadilan Negeri Ambarawa, berjajar para pedagang serabi khas Ambarawa. Dulu hanya muncul di bulan Sya'ban, tetapi sekarang setiap hari warung-warung itu buka dan ramai dikunjungi para pengendara sambil melepas lelah. Tak jauh dari situ juga berjajar para penjual buah durian, yang merupakan hasil pertanian dari desa Brongkol Banyubiru sehingga disebut Durian Brongkol. === Lodoyong === {{main|Lodoyong, Ambarawa, Semarang}} Lodoyong terletak di tengah kota Ambarawa, terdiri dari beberapa kampung (RW), yaitu Pandean, Sanggrahan, Lodoyong, Losari, Warung Lanang dan Bugisan. Kampung Pandean merupakan sentra pandai besi yang memproduksi alat-alat pertanian secara tradisional. Sampai sekarang industri kecil ini masih bertahan, meskipun jumlahnya semakin menyusut dari tahun ke tahun.Di Pandean dulu juga ada pabrik payung kertas terbesar di Jawa Tengah, tetapi sekarang sudah tutup. Kelurahan Lodoyong berbatasan dengan desa Panjang di sebelah barat, desa Kranggan di sebelah utara, desa Kupang di sebelah Timur dan desa Pojoksari di sebelah selatan. Di Kelurahan Lodoyong ada toko dan pabrik roti yang cukup terkenal yaitu toko Pauline di Jl Sudirman, jalan raya Semarang-Yogya. Kantor Kelurahan Lodoyong terletak di Pandean,depan Kantor Yayasan Gotong Royong Ambarawa.Ada juga percetakan dan alat tulis serta fotocopy yaitu Toko "Lima - Lima". Beberapa sekolah yang ada di Lodoyong antara lain: Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini Islam Terpadu (PAUD IT) Ibnu Mas'ud, SDN Lodoyong I, SDN Lodoyong II, SD Kanisius Lodoyong, SDN Lodoyong III, SDN Sudirman, SMPN 2 Ambarawa,dan STM Dr. Cipto. SDN Lodoyong II dulunya adalah sekolah untuk anak-anak etnis Tionghoa yang disebut Tjong Hwa Tjong Hwe (THTH). Dulu di situ sering diadakan perayaan tradisional Tionghoa yang melibatkan Barongsai. Sangat disayangkan gedung sekolah yang sudah tua tersebut kurang terawat karena tidak ada biaya perawatan dari Pemerintah. Di wilayah kelurahan Lodoyong juga berdiri Rumah Sakit Umum (RSU)Ambarawa dan Markas Batalyon Kavaleri dengan lapangannya yang sekarang ada patung Jendral Sudirman. Di lapangan itu setiap tahun diadakan upacara untuk memperingati Hari Infanteri pada tanggal 15 Desember, yang merujuk pada peristiwa perang besar antara TNI dengan sekutu di Ambarawa pada bulan Desember 1945. === Kranggan === {{main|Kranggan, Ambarawa, Semarang}} Kelurahan Kranggan berada di sebelah utara Lodoyong dan berada di tengah kota Ambarawa. Di sini berdiri Kantor Kawedanan Ambarawa yang sekarang menjadi kantor kecamatan. Sebagai catatan, Ambarawa dahulu merupakan kawedanan yang terdiri dari kecamatan Ambarawa, Banyubiru, Bawen, Jambu dan Sumowono.Di pendopo kawedanan pada tahun 70-80-an sering menjadi tempat acara pentas seni, termasuk pementasan pelawak Basiyo, dari kelompok Dagelan Mataram Yogyakarta. Di Kranggan juga terdapat Masjid Agung Mujahidin, masjid terbesar di Ambarawa. Pada tahun 70-80 an, pada bulan Ramadhan, Masjid ini sangat meriah. Menjelang buka puasa banyak pengunjung ingin menyaksikan pelontaran "bom udara" sebagai tanda sudah masuk waktu buka. Waktu subuh juga ramai, setelah salat, para jamah biasanya jalan-jalan keliling kota. Saat ini, setiap ahad pagi setelah shalat subuh berjamaah dilakukan pengajian rutin. Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk mensyiarkan Islam secara kontinu. Di dekat Masjid Mujahidin ada Balai Islam yang banyak dimanfaatkan untuk kegiatan pengajian Remaja Islam Ambarawa, namun saat ini bangunan tersebut sudah tidak banyak dimanfaatkan lagi. Di kelurahan Kranggan terdapat beberapa kampung seperti Kranggan, Jagalan, Bodean, Patoman, Kauman, Kepatihan. Di Kranggan ada bangunan Taman Kanak-kanak (TK) Kartika Siwi, yang sekarang sudah menjadi Balai Desa Kranggan. Sedangkan TK Kartika Siwi telah dipindahkan ke sebuah bangunan di belakang Kantor Kecamatan Ambarawa. Selain TK Kartika Siwi, ada SD Negeri Kranggan 1 Ambarawa, yang merupakan gabungan dari SDN Kranggan 1 dan SDN Kranggan 2, terletak di Jln. Dr. Cipto. Masih di jalan yang sama, terdapat SMP-SMU Taman Siswa; juga Sekolah Kristen Lentera (SKL) yang melayani anak-anak TK, SD dan SMP sesuai anugerah-Nya yang zaman dulu dikenal sebagai Sekolah Kristen Giri Margo ( www.lentera.org ). Sedangkan Madrasah Ibtidaiyah (MI) Kranggan terdapat di kampung Jagalan. Di kelurahan ini juga terdapat satu pasar tradisional, yaitu pasar Suroboyo. === Kupang === {{main|Kupang, Ambarawa, Semarang}} Wilayah Kalurahan Kupang sangat luas meliputi beberapa kampung antara lain: Kupang Lor, Kupang Kidul, Kupang Sewan, Kupang Pete,Kupang Tengah, Kupang Tegal Bulu, Kupang Dalangan,Kupang Rengas,Kupang Jetis,Kupang Sari,KUpang Dukuh dll. Di Kupang terdapat pasar tradisional terbesar di Ambarawa yaitu [[pasar Projo]].Pasar ini dulu pernah terbakar dan kemudian dibangun lagi oleh Pemerintah. Sekarang di dekat pasar Projo sudah bermunculan pasar modern seperti Laris, Alfamart dll. Di depan pasar Projo terdapat terminal angkot, hal ini yang membuat jalan di depan pasar Projo yang merupakan jalan raya Semarang-Yogya selalu macet. Apalagi pada hari Lebaran, kemacetan kendaraan biasanya sangat panjang. Wacana pembangunan Jalur Lingkar Selatan Ambarawa yang dahulu merupakan sebuah wacana,kini telah direalisasikan oleh Pemerintah melalui Dinas Terkait yakni Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum melalui Dinas Bina Marga telah dilaksanakan pengerjaan Pengadaan Jalur Lingkar Selatan Ambarawa oleh PT Duta Graha Indah Kontraktor dalam Negeri asal Jakarta.Jalur Lingkara Selatan (JLS) Ambarawa yang dimulai dari STA 0.00 di titik sebelah barat arah Magelang dari terminal Bawen membentang ke arah Selatan Kota Ambarawa melintas Perbukitan dan Perkampungan Tapak Bimo ke Selatan melintas Persawahan di kawasan pertanian sekitar Rawa Pening membelok ke arah Barat menuju Ngampin melalui persawahan dan berakhir pada jalan utama Semarang - Jogja . Sekolah-sekolah yang ada di Kupang antara lain: SD Negeri Kupang 1, 2, 3, 4, SMP Negeri 2 Ambarawa, SMP Islam Sudirman, SMA Negeri Ambarawa di Watu Ngorok dan SMA Islam Sudirman yang sekarang menjadi SMA RSBI (Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional). Pada bulan Ramadhan, di SMA Sudirman sering diadakan pesantren kilat untuk para remaja Islam.Di Kupang Kidul ada Sego goreng Dawam dan nasi soto ayam bu moel yang rasanya top abis. Ada pula Es Puding Bang Adi yang rasanya seger abis. Jangan dilupakan pula ada SMP 5 Ambarawa yang juga merupakan tetangga dari SMK Islam Sudirman. SMP 5 Ambarawa sudah 7 tahun ada di Ambarawa dengan jumlah siswa yang memadai dengan 12 kelas.Meski banyak orang Ambarawa yang belum tahu SMP 5 Ambarawa, namun jangan salah..prestasinya tidak ketinggalan dari SMP lain bahkan Desember tahun 2008 merintis diadakannya pelatihan jurnalistik dengan narasumber wartawan Suara Merdeka. Dengan pemandangan yang indah dan tempat yang tidak berada di pinggir jalan maka SMP 5 sangat kondusif untuk kegiatan pembelajaran. === Panjang === {{main|Panjang, Ambarawa, Semarang}} Sebelum tahun 2004, Kantor Kecamatan Ambarawa berada di Kelurahan Panjang. Di Panjang pula terdapat Gereja Santo Yusuf Ambarawa yang dikenal dengan istilah Gereja "Jago" karena di puncak dari gereja ini terdapat penangkal petir yang berbentuk ayam jago, [[Museum Palagan]], [[Museum Kereta Api]], Gedung Pemuda, [[Terminal Bus Ambarawa]] dan Masjid Agung Palagan Ambarawa. Di kelurahan ini terdapat beberapa sekolah antara lain: SD Negeri Panjang 1, 2 dan 3. SMP Pangudi Luhur Ambarawa. SMK Masehi PSAK Ambarawa. Selain itu di Kelurahan Panjang terdapat Rumah Sakit Bina Kasih, rumah sakit milik [[Mundjirin_ES | Bupati Mundjirin]] yang diperuntukkan untuk Ibu dan Anak. Disini dikenal adanya Sungai Panjang / Kali Panjang. Kali Panjang merupakan sungai yang melintasi Ambarawa dan mengalir menuju Waduk [[rawa pening]]. === Pojoksari === {{main|Pojoksari, Ambarawa, Semarang}} Desa Pojoksari terletak di bagian selatan kota Ambarawa dan berbatasan dengan Kecamatan Banyubiru.Masyarakat Desa pojoksari hampir sebagian besar adalah Petani, mereka menggantungkan hidupnya dari bercocok tanam di sawah ladang mereka yang subur. Dulu ada tempat pengolahan kompos dari Rawa Pening, tapi sekarang lahannya sudah berubah menjadi perumahan. Sangat disayangkan jika dulunya adalah lahan subur persawahan yang punya kontribusi menyediakan beras untuk keperluan penduduk Ambarawa dan sekitarnya harus berubah menjadi perumahan. Di kelurahan ini terdapat beberapa sekolah antara lain: TK Pojoksari, SDN Pojoksari, dan SMP Negeri 4 Ambarawa yang berada di lingkungan Rejosari berdekatan dengan Perum Medis RSUD Ambarawa. Sedangkan PAUD B&B dan SDIT Ar-Rohmah Ambarawa berada di Pojoksari sebelum perumahan yang dulunya lahan pengolahan kompos. Saat ini wilayah Pojoksari menjadi lebih ramai lagi dengan adanya Jalan Lingkar Ambarawa. Jalan ini merupakan jalan alternatif Joglosemar lewat pinggir kota Ambarawa mulai dari Ngampin, Pojoksari, Bejalen, Tambakboyo, dan berakhir sampai sebelum terminal Bawen. Perempatan Pojoksari menjadi salah satu perempatan dengan lampu bangjo (traffic light) di Ambarawa yang cukup ramai pada jam masuk dan pulang sekolah maupun kantor. === Baran === Desa Baran terletak di sebelah utara pusat kota menuju arah Bandungan. Desa ini berbatasan dengan desa Kranggan dan Jetis. Di desa ini terdapat Gelanggang Olah Raga (GOR) Ambirawa Raga yang letaknya berada satu kompleks dengan Pura satu-satunya tempat ibadah umat Hindu di daerah sekitar. GOR ini memiliki fasilitas olah raga yang cukup lengkap seperti lapangan basket, lapangan tennis dan gedung bulu tangkis serta taman bermain anak-anak yang ramai dikunjungi pada saat akhir pekan. === Bejalen === {{main|Bejalen, Ambarawa, Semarang}} === Pasekan === {{utama|Pasekan, Ambarawa, Semarang}} === Tambakboyo === {{utama|Tambakboyo, Ambarawa, Semarang}} Tambakboyo merupakan salah sebuah Kelurahan yang berada di kecamatan Ambarawa,terdiri dari 8(delapan)Desa yakni Desa Tambakboyo,Desa Tambaksari,Desa Tambakrejo,Desa Katang,Desa Busungan,Desa Karanganyar,Desa Rengas,dan Rawa Asri ( Perumahan ).Kelurahan Tambakboyo berada di sebelah timur Kota Ambarawa tepatnya sebelah Tenggara dan Timur Kelurahan Kupang.Kelurahan Tambakboyo dipimpin oleh seorang Lurah bernama Endang Moerwani Asri, SSos,yang merupakan warga pribumu Kelurahan Tambakboyo.Kelurahan Tambakboyo kini pada sebagian wilayahnya terlintasi jalur lingkar Selatan Ambarawa di bagian Timur wilayahnya dan Bagian Selatan di sekitar Rawa Pening. Sebagian besar penduduk Tambakboyo adalah pemeluk Islam,sebagian Nasrani dan minoritas Hindu dan Aliran Kepercayaan lainnya. Mata pencaharian penduduknya beragam dari petani,nelayan,pedagang,wirausahawan,kantoran,buruh pabrik,pegawai negeri,guru,dan sebagainya. Di wilayah kelurahan Tambakboyo tepatnya di Tambaksari terdapat Press body motor Budi Jaya. Di wilayan Kelurahan Tambakboyo terdapat beberapa Sekolah antara lain TK R.A Tambakboyo,SD N Tambakboyo 1,SDN Tambakboyo 2,Sekolah Luar Biasa,SMK Dr. Tjipto Ambarawa. ==Poténsi== ===Pertanian=== ===Perkebunan=== ===Wisata=== --> == Rujukan == * {{cite book | last =Tuner | first =Peter | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Java | publisher =Lonely Planet | date =1997 | location =[[Melbourne]] | pages =306–307 | url = | doi = | id = ISBN 0-86442-314-4 }} * {{cite book | last =McMillan| first =Richard | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The British Occupation of Indonésia 1945-1946| publisher =Routledge | date =2005 | location =[[Melbourne]] | pages =306–307 | url =https://archive.org/details/britishoccupatio0000mcmi| doi = | id = ISBN 0-415-35551-6 }} {{Kabupatén Semarang}} <!--{{Ambarawa, Semarang}}--> {{Kacamatan-pondok}} [[Kategori:Kacamatan di Jawa Tengah|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Kategori:Kacamatan di Kabupatén Banjarnegara|{{PAGENAME}}]] ri7ey6lspanw17ezpknbwtxurbfmc0w 0 30805 711754 678217 2026-08-07T03:27:45Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711754 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alloh''' (Allōhu) (''' الله''', [[Aksara Sunda Baku|Aksara Sunda]]: '''ᮃᮜᮣᮧᮂ''') nyaéta kecap dina [[basa Arab]] anu ngarujuk ka '''Pangéran''' atawa Gusti ". Kecap ieu leuwih dipikawanoh minangka sebutan pangéran ku panganut ageman [[Islam]]. Kecap ieu sorangan digolongan ku para pamaké basa arab salaku kecap anu umum pikeun nyebutkeun pangéran, leupas ti ageman maranéhanana, kaasup panganut [[Yahudi]] sarta [[Kristen]] Arab. Balukarna, kecap ieu dipaké dina tarjamahan kitab suci ageman [[Kristen]] jeung [[Yahudi]] anu maké bahasa Arab, sakumaha ogé tarjamahan [[Alkitab]] dina basa [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Turki]]. Alloh disebutkeun leuwih ti 2000 kali dina Qur'an [http://www.dudung.net/index.php?naon=cari&pilihan=1&keyword=allah&awal=2175]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. == Jenengan Alloh == Dumasar katerangan: ''Allaahu ismun li dzaatil wajibul wujuud'' nu hartina: Alloh téh hiji ngaran hiji al anu pasti aya di mana ayana (éksisténsi). Jadi écés Alloh téh hiji ngaran hiji hal anu wajib pikeun dilayanan kalayan sebenar-benarna, alatan dumasar katerangan: ''Allaahu ismun li dzaati ma'budi bi haqq'' hartina: Allah éta téh hiji ngaran hiji hal anu wajib dilayanan (ma'budi) kalayan sebenar-benarna pangladén (ibadah). hanca == Etimologi == Sawatara teori mecakan menganalisa etimologi ti kecap "Alloh". Salah sahijina ngomong yén kecap Allāh (الله) asalna ti gabungan ti kecap al- (sang) sarta ʾilāh (pangéran) ku kituna hartosna "Sang Pangéran". Tapi téori ieu nyalahan basa sarta kaidah basa Arab. Wangun ma'rifat (definitif) ti ilah nyaéta al-ilah, lain Alloh. Ku kituna kecap al-ilah dipikawanoh dina basa Arab. Pamakéan kecap kasebut contona ku Abul A'la al-maududi dina ''Mushthalahatul Arba'ah fil Qur'an'' (h. 13) sarta Syaikh Abdul Qadir Syaibah Hamad dina ''al-adyan wal Furuq wal Dzahibul Mu'ashirah'' (h. 54). Kadua nu nulis kasebut lainna ngagunakeun kecap Alloh, melainkan al-ilah minangka wangun ma'rifat ti ilah. Dina basa Arabpun dipikawanoh kaidah, saban isim (kecap barang atawa kecap sipat) nakiroh (umum) anu miboga wangun mutsanna (dua) sarta loba, mangka isim ma'rifat kecap itupun miboga wangun mutsanna sarta loba. Hal ieu henteu lumaku pikeun kecap Alloh, kecap ieu henteu miboga wangun ma'rifat mutsanna sarta loba. Sedengkeun kecap ilah miboga wangun ma'rifat boh mutsanna (nyaéta al-ilahani boh al-ilahaini) atawa loba (nyaéta al-alihah). Ku kituna kecap al-ilah sarta Alloh nyaéta dua kecap anu nu béda.{{id}}Ahmad Husnan. ''Meluruskan Pamikiran Pakar Muslim''. Al Husna, Surakarta. Citakan Kahiji, Muharram 1425 H / Méi 2005 M. h. 25-27. Téori séjén ngomong kecap ieu asalna ti kecap [[basa Aram]] Alāhā.{{en}}Encyclopaedia of Islam, ''Alloh'' [[Cendekiawan muslim]] sakapeung menerjemahkan Alloh jadi "''God''" dina [[basa Inggris]]. Tapi kitu, sawaréh anu séjén ngomong yén Alloh henteu pikeun ditarjamahkeun, kalayan berargumen yén kecap kasebut husus sarta agung ku kituna kudu dijaga, henteu mibanda wangun loba sarta génder (béda jeung God anu mibanda wangun loba ''Gods'' sarta wangun feminin ''Goddess'' dina basa inggris). Isu ieu jadi penting dina usaha penerjemahan [[Al Qur'an]]. == Tipografi == Kecap ''Allāh'' sok ditulis tanpa [[alif]] pikeun ngedalkeun vowel ''ā''. Ieu disebabkan alatan éjahan Arab mangsa katukang ngawalan tanpa [[alif]] pikeun ngeja ''ā''. Tapi, pikeun diucapkan sacara vokal, ''alif'' leutik sok ditambahkeun di luhur tanda saddah pikeun negeskeun prononsiasi kasebut. == Alloh dina Islam == {{Islam}} Dina Islam, Alloh nyaéta hiji-hijina pangéran (tanpa sekutu) {{quran-usc|112|1}}, sang panyipta, pangéran ti [[Ibrahim|Ibrohim]], [[Ismail]], [[Ishaq]] sarta [[Yakub]], sakumaha ogé pangéran ti [[Musa]], [[Dawud]], [[Sulaiman]], [[Isa]] sarta [[Muhammad]] ﷺ. Nurutkeun F.E. Peters, " Al Qur'an nyatakeun {{Quran-usc|29|46}}, Muslim memercayai, sarta sejarawan nyatujuan, yén Muhammad sarta pamiluna menyembah pangéran anu sarua jeung anu disembah Yahudi". Allah-nya Al Qur'an nyaéta pangéran sang panyipta anu aya dina carita Ibrahim. Peters ngomong yén Al Qur'an ngagambarkeun Alloh leuwih ngawasa sarta laér dibandingkeun jeung Yahweh, sarta ogé mangrupa pangéran universal, henteu kawas Yahweh anu leuwih deukeut jeung bangsa Israél.{{en}}F.E. Peters, ''Islam'', p.&nbsp;4, Princeton University Press, 2003. Dina talari Islam disebutkeun aya 99 ngaran pikeun Alloh ([[Asmaul husna|Asma'ul Husna]]), dicokot ti ngaran-ngaran anu dipaké Al Qur'an pikeun ngarujuk ka Alloh. {{en}}{{cite book|last=Bentley|first=David|coauthors=|title=The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book|url=https://archive.org/details/99beautifulnames0000bent|publisher=William Carey Library|year=1999|month=Sept.|isbn=0-87808-299-9 }} di antara ngaran-ngaran kasebut nyaéta: * Al Malikul Mulk (Raja diraja, Maharaja) * Al Hayy (Maha Hirup) * Al Muhyii (Maha Méré Kahirupan) === Frase anu ngandung Alloh === Conto kecap-kecap anu ngagunakeun kecap Alloh: * [[Laa ilaaha illallaah|Lā ilāha illalōh]] (euweuh pangéran sajaba Alloh) * [[Allaahu Akbar|Allōhu Akbar]] (الله أكبر) (Alloh maha badag) * [[Bismillaah|Bismillāh]] (بسم الله ) (Kalayan ngaran Alloh) * [[In syaa Allaah|In syā Allōh]] (إن شاء الله) (Lamun Alloh menghendaki) * [[Maa syaa Allaah|Maa syā Allōh]] (ما شاء الله) (Kecap anu biasana diucapkan lamun nempo hiji hal anu ahéng (ganjil) sakapeung digantian kalayan kecap "subhan Alloh") * [[Subhanallaah|Subhanallōh]] (سبحان الله) (Maha suci Alloh) * [[Alhamdu li llaah|Alhamdu li llāh]] (الحمد لله) (Sagala puji pikeun Alloh) * [[Allahu a'lam|Allōhu a'lam]] (الله أعلم) (Alloh maha nyaho) * [[Jazakallohu khoiron|Jazakallōhu khōyron]] (جزاك الله خيراً; kedalan pernyataan hatur nuhun anu sabenerna hartosna "Muga Alloh méré balesan anu alus ka anjeun") === Ayana Alloh === Para Imam anu opat geus sapuk yén Rahmat Alloh Subhanahu wa ta'alla aya di luhur [['Arsy]][http://www.dudung.net/index.php?naon=cari&pilihan=1&keyword=arsy%20&awal=0]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} teuaya saurang ogé ti makhluk anu sarupa sareung mantena. {{cite ramat|url=http://www.mediamuslim.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2&Itemid=9|title=Pamahaman Ngeunaan "Di manakah Alloh?"}} {{clear}} == Rujukan == [[manéhna:Alloh]] [[Kategori:Alloh| ]] [[Kategori:Islam]] {{islam-stub}} 9sm1uix5jhuvjml0shsc0aaxnzn26t0 0 30807 711590 496905 2026-08-06T23:45:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711590 wikitext text/x-wiki {{drugbox | | width = 200 | image = Adrenaline_chemical_structure.png | image2 = Epinephrine-3d-CPK.png |imagename=''(R)''-(–)-<small>L</small>-Epinéfrin atawa ''(R)''-(–)-<small>L</small>-adrénalin |IUPAC_name = ''(R)''-4-(1-hidroksi-<br />2-(métilamino)étil)bénzéna-1,2-diol |CAS_number = 51-43-4 |ChemSpiderID = 5611 |ATC_prefix = A01 |ATC_suffix = AD01 |ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|B02|BC09}} {{ATC|C01|CA24}} {{ATC|R01|AA14}} {{ATC|R03|AA01}} {{ATC|S01|EA01}} |PubChem = 838 |DrugBank = APRD00450 |C = 9 | H = 13 | N = 1 | O = 3 |molecular_weight = 183.204 g/mol |bioavailability = Nil (oral) |metabolism = ''[[synapse|adrenergic synapse]]'' ([[Monoamina oksidaseu|MAO]] jeung [[Katékol-O-métil transferaseu|COMT]]) |elimination_half-life = 2 menit |excretion = Urin |pregnancy_AU = A |pregnancy_US = C |legal_AU = S4 |legal_US = Ngan-Rx |legal_UK = POM |routes_of_administration = [[intravéna|IV]], [[intramuskular|IM]], [[solobong éndotrahéa|éndotrahéa]], [[injéksi intrakardiak|IC]] }} '''Epinéfrin''' (ogé katelah '''adrénalin'''; ''baca [[#Terminologi|Terminologi]]'') nyaéta [[hormon]] jeung [[neurotransmiter]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Berecek, K. H. and Brody, M. J.|title=Evidence for a neurotransmitter role for epinephrine derived from the adrenal medulla|journal=Heart and Circulatory Physiology|volume=242|issue=4|pages=H593-H601|year=1982}}</ref> nu boga pancén dina [[réspon lawan-atawa-ngejat|réspon "lawan atawa ngejat"]] dina [[sistem saraf simpatétik]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cannon, W. B.|journal=Am. J. Physiol.|volume=89|pages=84-107|year=1929}}</ref>, hiji sanyawa [[katékolamina]], [[monoamina]] [[simpatomimetik]] nu dihasilkeun ku [[kelenjar adrénal]] tina [[asam amino]] [[fénilalanin]] jeung [[tirosin]]. Istilah ''épinéfrin'' diturunkeun tina akar [[basa Yunani]] ''epi-'' jeung ''nephros'', nu hartina ''dina [[ginjal]]'', nujul ka perenah anatomis kelenjarna. Akar [[basa Latén]] ''ad-'' jeung ''renes'' ngandung harti nu sarupa, ku kituna aya istilah ''adrénalin''. Kimiawan Jepang [[Jokichi Takamine]] jeung asisténna Keizo Uenaka sacara mandiri ngudar épinéfrin taun [[1900]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Yamashima T |title=Jokichi Takamine (1854–1922), the samurai chemist, and his work on adrenalin |journal=J Med Biogr |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=95–102 |year=2003 |pmid=12717538}}</ref><ref name="pmid10454061">{{cite journal |author=Bennett M |title=One hundred years of adrenaline: the discovery of autoreceptors |journal=Clin Auton Res |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=145–59 |year=1999 |pmid=10454061 |doi=10.1007/BF02281628}}</ref>. Taun [[1901]] Takamine bisa ngisolasi jeung ngamurnikeun ieu hormon tina kelenjar adrénal [[domba]] jeung [[sapi]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Takamine J |title=The isolation of the active principle of the suprarenal gland |work=The Journal of Physiology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Great Britain |year=1901 |pages=xxix-xxx |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xVEq06Ym6qcC&pg=RA1-PR29#PRA1-PR29,M1 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>. Epinéfrin munggaran disintésis ku [[Friedrich Stolz]] jeung [[Henry Drysdale Dakin]], séwang-séwangan taun [[1904]]<ref name="pmid10454061"/>. <!-- ==Triggers== Epinephrine is a powerful action, "[[Fight-or-flight response|fight or flight]]", hormone and also plays a central role in the short-term [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] reaction. It is released from the adrenal glands when danger threatens or in an emergency, hence an [[Adrenaline rush]]. Such triggers may be threatening, exciting, or environmental [[stressor]] conditions such as high [[noise health effects|noise]] levels, or [[over-illumination|bright light]] and high ambient temperature (''see [[Fight-or-flight response]]'').{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} ==Actions in the body== When in the bloodstream, it rapidly prepares the body for action in emergency situations. The hormone boosts the supply of [[oxygen]] and [[glucose]] to the [[brain]] and [[muscle]]s, while suppressing other non-emergency bodily processes ([[digestion]] in particular).{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} It increases [[heart rate]] and [[stroke volume]], dilates the [[pupil]]s, and constricts [[arterioles]] in the skin and [[gastrointestinal tract]] while dilating arterioles in [[skeletal muscles]]. It elevates the [[blood sugar]] level by increasing [[catabolism]] of [[glycogen]] to glucose in the liver, and at the same time begins the breakdown of [[lipid]]s in [[adipocyte|fat cells]]. Like some other stress hormones, epinephrine has a suppressive effect on the [[immune system]].<ref name="omd">[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?epinephrine Epinephrine] - Online Medical Dictionary</ref> Although epinephrine does not have any psychoactive effects, stress or arousal also releases [[norepinephrine]] in the brain. Norepinephrine has similar actions in the body, but is also psychoactive.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} The type of action in various [[cell types]] depends on their expression of adrenergic receptors.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} ==Mechanism of action== [[Image:G protein signal transduction (epinephrin pathway).png|thumb|250px|β-adrenergic receptors]] :''Further reading: [[adrenergic receptor]]'' Epinephrine's actions are mediated through adrenergic receptors. Epinephrine is a non-selective agonist of all adrenergic receptors. It activates α<sub>1</sub>, α<sub>2</sub>, β<sub>1</sub>, and β<sub>2</sub> receptors to different extents.<ref name=pharmnemonics>{{Cite book | author=Shen, Howard | title=Illustrated Pharmacology Memory Cards: PharMnemonics | date=2008 | publisher=Minireview | isbn=1-59541-101-1 | pages=4}}</ref> Specific functions include: * It binds to ''α<sub>1</sub> receptors'' of [[liver]] cells, which activate [[inositol-phospholipid signaling pathway]], signaling the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase kinase (inactivating and activating them, respectively), leading to the latter activating another enzyme—glycogen phosphorylase—which catalises breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis) so as to release glucose to the bloodstream. Simultaneously protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) is inactivated, as in the active state PP1 would reverse all the previous phosphorylations. * Epinephrine also activates ''β-adrenergic receptors'' of the liver and muscle cells, thereby activating the [[adenylate cyclase]] signaling pathway, which will in turn increase [[glycogenolysis]]. β<sub>2</sub> receptors are found primarily in [[skeletal muscle]] blood vessels where they trigger [[vasodilation]]. However, α-adrenergic receptors are found in most [[smooth muscle]]s and [[Intestine|splanchnic]] vessels, and epinephrine triggers [[vasoconstriction]] in those vessels.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} Epinephrine is used as a [[medication|drug]] to treat [[cardiac arrest]] and other [[cardiac dysrhythmia]]s resulting in diminished or absent [[cardiac output]]; its action is to increase peripheral resistance via [[alpha adrenergic receptor|α<sub>1</sub>-adrenoceptor]] [[vasoconstriction]], so that blood is shunted to the body's core, and the [[beta adrenergic receptor|β<sub>1</sub>-adrenoceptor]] response which is increased cardiac rate and output (the speed and pronouncement of heart beats). This beneficial action comes with a significant negative consequence—increased cardiac irritability—which may lead to additional complications immediately following an otherwise successful resuscitation. Alternatives to this treatment include [[vasopressin]], a powerful [[antidiuretic]] which also increases peripheral vascular resistance leading to blood shunting via vasoconstriction, but without the attendant increase in myocardial irritability.<ref name="omd" /> Due to its suppressive effect on the immune system, epinephrine is the drug of choice for treating [[anaphylaxis]]. It is also useful in treating [[sepsis]]. Allergy patients undergoing [[immunotherapy]] may receive an epinephrine rinse before the allergen extract is administered, thus reducing the immune response to the administered allergen. It is also used as a [[bronchodilator]] for [[asthma]] if specific [[beta2-adrenergic receptor agonist|beta<sub>2</sub>-adrenergic receptor agonist]]s are unavailable or ineffective.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} Because of various expression of α1 or β2-receptors, depending on the patient, administration of epinephrine may ''raise'' or ''lower'' blood pressure, depending whether or not the net increase or decrease in peripheral resistance can balance the positive [[inotropic]] and [[chronotropic]] effects of epinephrine on the heart, effects which respectively increase the [[contractility]] and [[heart rate|rate]] of the heart.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} Epinephrine can also be found in some brands of nasal spray. Its use in this form is to open air passages, however short-term this use may be.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} [[Image:Catecholamines biosynthesis.svg|thumb|250px|Epinephrine is synthesized from norepinephrine in a synthetic pathway shared by all catecholamines.]] Epinephrine is synthesized from [[norepinephrine]] in a synthetic pathway shared by all catecholamines, including [[L-dopa]], [[dopamine]], norepinephrine, and epinephrine.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} Epinephrine is synthesized via methylation of the primary distal amine of [[norepinephrine]] by [[phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase]] (PNMT) in the [[cytosol]] of [[adrenergic neuron]]s and cells of the [[adrenal medulla]] (so-called [[chromaffin cell]]s). PNMT is only found in the cytosol of cells of adrenal medullary cells. PNMT uses [[S-Adenosylmethionine|''S''-adenosylmethionine]] (SAMe) as a cofactor to donate the [[methyl]] group to norepinephrine, creating epinephrine.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} For norepinephrine to be acted upon by PNMT in the cytosol, it must first be shipped out of [[chromaffin granule|granules]] of the chromaffin cells. This may occur via the catecholamine-H<sup>+</sup> exchanger [[VMAT1]]. VMAT1 is also responsible for transporting newly synthesized epinephrine from the cytosol back into chromaffin granules in preparation for release.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} ==Regulation== Epinephrine synthesis is solely under the control of the [[central nervous system]] (CNS). Several levels of regulation dominate epinephrine synthesis.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} [[Adrenocorticotropic hormone]] (ACTH) and the [[sympathetic nervous system]] stimulate the synthesis of epinephrine precursors by enhancing the activity of enzymes involved in catecholamine synthesis. The specific enzymes are [[tyrosine hydroxylase]] in the synthesis of [[Levodopa|dopa]] and enzyme [[dopamine-β-hydroxylase]] in the synthesis of [[norepinephrine]].{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} ACTH also stimulates the [[adrenal cortex]] to release [[cortisol]], which increases the expression of PNMT in chromaffin cells, enhancing epinephrine synthesis. This is most often done in response to stress.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} The sympathetic nervous system, acting via [[splanchnic nerve]]s to the adrenal medulla, stimulates the release of epinephrine. [[Acetylcholine]] released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on [[nicotinic acetylcholine receptor]]s, causing cell depolarization and an influx of [[calcium]] through [[voltage-gated calcium channel]]s. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and thus the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} Epinephrine (as with norepinephrine) does exert [[negative feedback]] to [[down-regulate]] its own synthesis at the presynaptic alpha-2 adrenergic receptor.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} A [[pheochromocytoma]] is a tumor of the adrenal gland (or, rarely, the ganglia of the [[sympathetic nervous system]]), which results in the uncontrolled secretion of catecholamines, usually epinephrine.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} In liver cells, epinephrine binds to the β-Adrenergic receptor which changes conformation and helps Gs, a G protein, exchange GDP to GTP. This trimeric G protein dissociates to Gs alpha and Gs beta/gamma subunits. Gs alpha binds to adenyl cyclase thus converting ATP into Cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP binds to the regulatory subunit of Protein Kinase A: Protein kinase A phosphorylates Phosphorylase Kinase. Meanwhile, Gs beta/gamma binds to the calcium channel and allows calcium ions to enter the cytoplasm. Calcium ions bind to calmodulin proteins, a protein present in all eukaryotic cells, which then binds to Phosphorylase Kinase and finishes its activation. Phosphorylase Kinase phosphorylates Phosphorylase which then phosphorylates glycogen and converts it to glucose-6-phosphate.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} ==Terminology== This chemical is widely referred to as ''adrenaline'' outside of the United States; however, the [[United States Approved Name]] and [[International Nonproprietary Name]] for this chemical is ''epinephrine''. ''Epinephrine'' was chosen because ''adrenaline'' bore too much similarity to the [[Parke-Davis|Parke, Davis & Co]] [[List of misused trademarks|trademark]] ''Adrenalin'' (without the "e"), which was registered in the United States. The [[British Approved Name]] and [[European Pharmacopoeia]] term for this chemical is ''adrenaline'', and is indeed now one of the few differences between the INN and BAN systems of names.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} Amongst American health professionals and scientists, the term epinephrine is used over adrenaline. However, it should be noted that pharmaceuticals that mimic the effects of epinephrine are often called ''adrenergics'', and receptors for epinephrine are called adrenergic receptors or adrenoceptors. == Isomers == Natural epinephrine is the ''(R)''-(−)-<small>L</small>-epinephrine [[stereoisomer]].{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} ==Therapeutic use== [[Image:Adrenalin Ampulle.jpg|thumb|Epinephrine [[ampule]], 1 mg (Suprarenin)]] ===Autoinjectors=== Epinephrine is now also used in [[EpiPen]]s and [[Twinject]]s. EpiPens are long narrow [[autoinjector]]s that administer epinephrine, [[Twinject]]s are similar but contain two doses of epinephrine. It is also used in medicines and usually the Epinephrine is extracted from adrenal glands of hogs, cattle, and sheep.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} Though both ''EpiPen'' and ''Twinject'' are trademark names, common usage of the terms are drifting toward the [[Genericized trademark|generic context]] of any epinephrine autoinjector.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} ===Preparations=== Aqueous preparations of adrenaline are obtained by use of [[hydrochloric acid]] or [[tartaric acid]], because in the absence of acid medium, it undergoes oxidation.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} Borate salt is used in ophthalmology.{{Fact|April 2009|date=April 2009}} ===Side effects and drug interactions=== Adverse reactions to epinephrine include [[palpitation]]s, [[tachycardia]], [[arrhythmia]], [[anxiety]], [[headache]], [[tremor]], [[hypertension]], and acute [[pulmonary edema]].<ref> [http://stress.about.com/od/stressmanagementglossary/g/Epinephrine.htm About.com] - "The Definition of Epinephrine"</ref> Use is contraindicated for patients on non-selective [[beta blocker|β-blockers]] because severe hypertension and even [[cerebral hemorrhage]] may result.<ref name=pharmnemonics /> ==Adrenaline Junkie== Adrenaline Junkie is a term used to describe somebody who appears to be addicted to epinephrine ([[endogenous]]) and are sometimes described as getting "high" off of life. The term Adrenaline Junkie was popularly used in the 1991 movie [[Point Break]] for people who enjoy dangerous activities (such as [[extreme sports]]) for the adrenaline rush. Adrenaline junkies appear to favor stressful activities for the release of epinephrine as a stress response. Whether or not the positive response is caused specifically by epinephrine is difficult to determine as other things like the endogenous [[opioid]] painkillers such as the [[endorphins]] are also released during the fight-or-flight response.<ref>[http://stress.about.com/od/situationalstress/a/adrenaline0528.htm What Is An Adrenaline Junkie? What Can You Do If You Are One?]By Elizabeth Scott, M.S.(Updated: November 1, 2007)About.com Health's Disease and Condition content is reviewed by the Medical Review Board</ref><ref>[http://changingminds.org/explanations/brain/fight_flight.htm Fight-or-Flight reaction] - Explanations - Brain - ChangingMinds.org</ref> --> == Baca ogé == {{Commonscat|Epinephrine|Epinephrine}} *[[Anafilaksis]] *[[Adrénokrom]] *[[Katékol-O-métil transferaseu]] *[[Reséptor adrénérgis]] == Rujukan == === Catetan === {{reflist}} === Rujukan umum === *{{cite book | author = Boron WF, Boulpaep EL | title = Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approach | url = https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000boro | publisher = Elsevier/Saunders | location = Philadelphia, PA| year = 2005 | isbn = 1-4160-2328-3 | oclc = 56191776}} *{{cite book | author = Voet D, Voet J | title = Biochemistry | url = https://archive.org/details/biochemistrythree0000voet |edition=3rd |publisher = Wiley| location = USA| year = 2004 | isbn = 0-471-19350-x | oclc = 154657578}} {{Hormon}} [[Kategori:Sanyawa aromatik]] [[Kategori:Hormon]] [[Kategori:Katékolamina]] [[Kategori:Neurotransmiter]] [[Kategori:Brongkodilator]] toj56pv8bfzb960fncqez5ngfi7foe5 0 30860 711696 703923 2026-08-07T01:46:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711696 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Henry Wallis - The Death of Chatterton.jpg|thumb|right|320px|Lukisan panyajak romantik [[Inggris]] [[Thomas Chatterton]], nu dianggap nelasan manéh ku racun arsénik taun [[1770]].]] '''Maéhan manéh''' nyaéta peta maéhan diri sorangan, kalawan alesan nu rupa-rupa: [[wirang]], rumasa boga salah, pegat harepan, [[kasakit anu kacida]], teu kuat nandangan hirup anu lara balangsak, diganggayong ku kasusah anu taya anggeusna, atawa kaayaan séjén anu teu dipiharep. Catetan [[WHO]] nyebutkeun yén unggal taunna aya sayuta jalma nelasan manéh, ku kituna jadi salah sahiji sabab utama pati pikeun umur rumaja jeung sawawa méméh 35 taun<ref>[http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1071203.html CIS: UN Body Takes On Rising Suicide Rates]</ref>. Anu teu nepi ka paéhna bisa ngahontal angka 20 yuta<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bertolote JM, Fleischmann A |title=Suicide and psychiatric diagnosis: a worldwide perspective |journal=World Psychiatry |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=181–5 |year=2002 |month=October |pmid=16946849 |pmc=1489848 }}</ref>. Peta nelasan manéh bisa ditempo tina sababaraha jihat, utamana [[agama]], [[kahormatan]], jeung [[ajén hirup]]. Dina ajaran [[Islam]] (jeung [[millah Ibrohim]] lianna), nelasan manéh téh kaasup dosa gedé. Di dunya Kulon, ieu peta kaasup [[kajahatan]]. Urang [[Jepang]] boga adat [[seppuku]], hiji cara nelasan manéh anu pangnyerina, minangka peta pikeun nebus kasalahan atawa kagagalan, atawa minangka bentuk protés dina jaman [[samurai]]. Dina dunya militér/perang, nelasan manéh dipaké minangka [[kamikazé]] atawa pikeun [[bom nelasan manéh|ngabom]]. Dina adat Hindu, aya [[sati]] pikeun randa nu ditinggalkeun maot ku salaki, boh ku kahayang sorangan atawa kapaksa ku kahayang kulawarga<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/news/words/general/020807_witn.shtml Indian woman commits sati suicide ]</ref>. [[Eutanasia]], nelasan manéh ku cara médis, nepi ka kiwari masih dipadungdengkeun nalika nyanghareupan sababaraha rupa kasakit parna. Ngorbankeun manéh pikeun nyalametkeun nu séjén teu dianggap nelasan manéh, ku sabab tujuanana pikeun nyalametkeun nu séjén. Tina jihat kadokteran, nelasan manéh téh raket tumalina jeung [[kawaluyaan méntal]]. Tarékah nelasan manéh kadang bisa dihartikeun "ménta tulung" jeung kahayang dipiroséa, atawa ngedalkeun peunggasna harepan atawa kahayang leupas tina kasusah, lain meleg-meleg hayang paéh<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euro.who.int/document/MNH/ebrief07.pdf|title=WHO Europe - Suicide Prevention|date=2005-01-15|accessdate=2008-09-16|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|format=PDF|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/20080216000607/www.euro.who.int/document/MNH/ebrief07.pdf|archivedate=2008-02-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216000607/http://www.euro.who.int/document/MNH/ebrief07.pdf |date=2008-02-16 }}</ref>. Nu nyobaan nelasan manéh lolobana teu hasil dina sakali, sabab nu biasana nepi ka maot téh sanggeus sababaraha kali nyobaan<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shaffer D |title=The epidemiology of teen suicide: an examination of risk factors |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=49 |issue=Suppl |pages=36–41 |year=1988 |month=September |pmid=3047106 }}</ref>. == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Suicide|Suicide]]'' (disalin 4 Agustus 2009) {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book |author=Gambotto, Antonella |title=[[The Eclipse: A Memoir of Suicide]] |publisher=Broken Ankle Books |location=Australia |year=2004 |pages=197pgs |isbn=0-975-1075-1-8|oclc= |doi=}} * {{cite book |author=Jamison, Kay Redfield |title=Night Falls Fast: Understanding Suicide |url=https://archive.org/details/nightfallsfastun00jami |publisher=Vintage |location=New York |year=2000 |pages=448pgs}} * {{cite book |author=Simpson, George Gaylord; Durkheim, Emile |title=Suicide: a study in sociology |publisher=Free Press |location=New York |year=1997 |pages= |isbn=0-684-83632-7 |oclc= |doi=}} * {{cite book |author=McDowell, Eugene E.; Stillion, Judith M. |title=Suicide across the life span: premature exits |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Washington, DC |year=1996 |pages= |isbn=1-56032-304-3 |oclc= |doi=}} * {{cite book |author=Stone, Geo |title=Suicide and attempted suicide |publisher=Carroll & Graf |location=New York, NY |year=2001 |pages= |isbn=0-7867-0940-5 |oclc= |doi=}} * {{cite book |author=Hakim, David |title=Man Down [http://cinesourcemagazine.com/index.php?/site/dhakim_fa/man_down/ CineSource Magazine] |year=2008}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.theovernight.org/ American Foundation for Suicide Prevention] * [http://www.stampoutsuicide.org.uk/ Stamp Out Suicide!] Sumberdaya émbaran pikeun nu di Inggris jeung Irlandia {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Sosiologi]] thbxma03sbqsa5woxrh3tb00z1anojl 0 30913 711661 711377 2026-08-07T01:10:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711661 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox emas}} '''Emas''' atawa '''kancana''' nyaéta [[unsur kimia]] nu lambangna '''Au''' ({{lang-la|aurum}}) kalawan [[nomer atom]] 79. Ieu [[logam mulya]] geus ti bihari boga ajén anu luhur, boh pikeun [[perhiasan]], [[patung]], atawa papaés wangunan/ornaméntasi. Di alam, ieu logam kapanggih dina bentuk guruntulan atawa 'bijih' dina babatuan, dina [[véna (géologi)|urat]], jeung dina [[déposit aluvial]]. Emas fisikna padet, lemes, hérang, sarta leuleus, pangleuleusna ti antara logam-logam murni anu aya. Nu murni kelirna konéng caang, ngagurilap matak ngirut, katambah ku watekna anu henteu ngarandapan ka bakar/oksidasi ku [[hawa]] atawa [[cai]]. Dina widang ékonomi, emas dipaké dina sistem [[dinar]] jeung [[sistem Bretton Woods]].<ref name=”Kom”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Ensiklopedia_Pelajar_dan_Umum.html?hl=id&id=jeC7B8RjuX8C#v=onepage&q=batu%20apung%20adalah&f=false| title =Ensiklopedia Pelajar dan UmumKomandoko| last =Komandoko| first =Gamal | publisher =Pustaka Widyatama| location =Jakarta| year =2010|ISBN=9789796103713|pages =83}} Disungsi24 Januari 2023</ref> Dina tungtung taun 2006, emas nu geus kungsi dikali salila ieu kira-kira nepi ka 158.000 ton<ref name="World Gold Council">{{cite web | url=http://www.invest.gold.org/sites/en/why_gold/demand_and_supply/ | title=World Gold Council | accessdate=2008-07-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511212013/http://www.invest.gold.org/sites/en/why_gold/demand_and_supply/ |date=2008-05-11 }}</ref> (sarua jeung kubus ukuran 20,2 méter). Di industri modéren, emas dipaké dina [[éléktronik]] jeung ''kedokteran'' huntu , ku sabab watekna anu tahan korosi [[rédoks|oksidatif]] sarta alus ''konduktivitas'' [[listrik]]na. Sacara kimia, emas kaasup [[logam transisi]] nu bisa jadi [[kation]] [[trivalén]] jeung [[univalén]]. Dina [[kaayaan baku suhu jeung tekanan|STP]], emas bisa jadi [[asam kloroaurat]] mun diréaksikeun jeung ''[[aqua regia]]'' (campuran asam), atawa jeung larutan basa [[sianida]]. Emas bisa leyur dina [[raksa (unsur)|raksa]], ngabentuk aloy [[amalgam (kimia)|amalgam]] tanpa ngalaman réaksi kimia. Dina pemurnian, emas bisa dipisahkeun ti logam lian ku sabab emas henteu bisa leyur dina [[asam nitrat]] nu bisa ngaleyurkeun [[pérak]] jeung [[logam basa]] (téhnik "''inquartation and parting''"). Asam nitrat geus ti baheula dipaké pikeun mariksa aya/henteuna emas, malah kiwari istilah "uji asam" ("''acid test''") jadi baku utama dina pamariksaan emas. == Pasipatan == Emas téh logam anu istiméwa; sa[[gram]] emas bisa diamparkeun jadi lambar anu legana saméter pasagi. Lambaranana bisa ipis pisan nepi ka ampir tembus cahya. Cahya anu tembus katembongna [[biru]] semu [[héjo]], ku sabab emas mantulkeun cahya [[konéng]] jeung [[beureum]].<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/9.html| title =Gold: causes of color| accessdate=2009-06-06}}</ref> Lambaran emas ogé mantulkeun cahya infrabeureum, ku kituna dipaké taméng infrabeureum dina pakéan tahan panas jeung pakéan luar angkasa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Suiting up for space: the evolution of the space suit |url=https://archive.org/details/suitingupforspac0000lloy |last=Mallan |first=Lloyd |year=1971 |publisher=John Day Co |isbn=978-0381981501 |page=[https://archive.org/details/suitingupforspac0000lloy/page/216 216]|accessdate=24 September 2009}}</ref> Emas bisa ngabentuk campuran/aloy jeung logam lianna, utamana pikeun ngarobah pasipatan métalurgina, ngatur [[titik lééh]], atawa pikeun ngahasilkeun kelir anu éksotik.<ref name=coloredgold/> <center><gallery widths="230px"> File:Native gold nuggets.jpg|[[Bijih emas]] File:Zlato 2.jpg|Emas di alam File:Ag-Au-Cu-colours-english.svg|Rupa-rupa kelir campuran Ag-Au-Cu </gallery></center> == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Gold|Gold]]'' (disalin 19 Agustus 2009) {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == *Faulk W & Taylor G (1979). An Immunocolloid Method for the Electron Microscope. ''Immunochemistry'' '''8''': 1081–1083. *Kodak (2006). ''Toning black-and-white materials''. Technical Data/Reference sheet G-23, Méi 2006 [http://www.kodak.com/global/en/professional/support/techPubs/g23/g23.pdf ]. *Roth J, Bendayan M, Orci L (1980). FITC-Protein A-Gold Complex for Light and Electron Microscopic Immunocytochemistry. ''J. Histochemistry and Cytochemistry'' '''28''': 55–57. *World Gold Council, Jewellery Technology, [http://www.utilisegold.com/jewellery_technology/colours/colour_alloys/ Jewellery Alloys] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619061619/http://www.utilisegold.com/jewellery_technology/colours/colour_alloys/ |date=2008-06-19 }} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|gold}} *[http://www.lateralscience.co.uk/gold/auriferous.html ''Getting Gold'' 1898 book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612192416/http://www.lateralscience.co.uk/gold/auriferous.html |date=2016-06-12 }} *[http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/other/mining/techdocs/gold.pdf Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of Gold] *[http://www.pniok.de/au.htm Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029163833/http://www.pniok.de/au.htm |date=2012-10-29 }} *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Au/index.html WebElements.com — Gold]{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{Tabél périodik}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Emas]] [[Kategori:Unsur kimia]] [[Kategori:Konduktor listrik]] [[Kategori:Logam mulya]] [[Kategori:Logam transisi]] [[Kategori :logam]] t75mo1gfdoi5bjml5uvlaj08hullir4 0 30921 711782 711290 2026-08-07T04:18:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711782 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Sphalerite4.jpg|thumb|Spalerit (ZnS)]] '''Séng''' (tina {{lang-de|Zink}}) nyaéta [[unsur kimia]] [[logam]] nu dilambangan '''Zn''' kalawan [[nomer atom]] 30. Ieu unsur aya dina baris kahiji [[logam transisi]] dina [[unsur golongan 12|golongan 12]] [[tabél periodik]]. Sacara kimia, séng sarupa jeung [[magnésium]] ku sabab ukuran [[ion]]na sarua sarta boga [[bilangan oksidasi]] +2. Dina kulit [[Bumi]], séng téh unsur ka-24 panglobana, dina bentuk lima rupa [[isotop]] stabil. Bijih anu panglobana digali nyaéta dina bentuk [[spalerit]] atawa [[séng sulfida]], kapanggih loba pisan di [[Australia]], [[Kanada]], jeung [[Amérika Serikat]]. [[Aloy]] séng jeung [[tembaga]] anu katelah [[kuningan]], sahanteuna geus dipaké ti abad ka-10 SM. Dina skala gedé, masarakat [[India]] geus bisa ngahasilkeun séng (teu murni) ti [[abad ka-13]], anapon bangsa-bangsa [[Éropah]] kakara wanoh jeung ieu logam [[abad ka-16]]. Para [[alkémi]]s ngaduruk séng pikeun nyieun anu katelah "''philosopher's wool''" atawa "''white snow''". Taun [[1800]], [[Luigi Galvani]] jeung [[Alessandro Volta]] medarkeun pasipatan éléktrokimia séng. Kiwari, ieu logam utamana dipaké pikeun [[galvanisasi]] baja ngarah tahan tai hiang. Lian ti éta, séng ogé dipaké dina [[batré]], [[séng karbonat]] jeung [[séng glukonat]] pikeun suplemén katuangan, [[séng klorida]] dina déodoran, [[séng pirition]] dina [[sampo]] anti-[[ketombé]], [[séng sulfida]] dina cét luminesens, sarta séng métil atawa séng diétil di laboratorium organik. Séng téh kaasup [[zat gizi mikro|mineral ésénsial]]<ref name=Hambridge2007>{{cite journal|author=Hambidge, K. M. and Krebs, N. F.|title=Zinc deficiency: a special challenge|journal=J. Nutr.|volume=137|page=1101|year=2007|pmid=17374687}}</ref>, [[défisiénsi séng|défisiénsina]] karandapan ku 2 miliar jalma di nagara-nagara nu keur mekar, anu tumali jeung rupa-rupa kasakit<ref name=Prasad2003/>. Mun kaalaman ku barudak, tumuwuhna bisa kaganggu, telat sawawa sacara séksual, gampang katarajang inféksi, jeung diaré nu unggal taunna ngabalukarkeun maotna 800.000 budak<ref name=Hambridge2007/>. Dina biokimia, loba pisan [[énzim]] anu ngandung atom séng dina [[gugus prostétik]]na, misalna baé [[alkohol dehidrogénaseu]] di [[manusa]]. Sabalikna, asupan séng anu kaleuleuwihi bisa ngabalukarkeun [[ataksia]], [[défisiénsi tembaga]], jeung matak létoy kana awak. == Catetan == <references group=note/> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Zinc|Zinc]]'' (disalin 20 Agustus 2009) {{reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin|2}} * <!-- Ch -->{{cite book |title=Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge |year=1901 |last=Chambers |first=William and Robert |edition=Revised |location=London and Edinburgh |publisher=J. B. Lippincott Company |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Rz8oAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 |ref=CITEREFChambers1901 }} * <!-- Co -->{{cite book |last=Cotton|first=F. Albert |coauthors=Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred |title=Advanced Inorganic Chemistry |edition=6th |year=1999 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |location=New York |isbn=0-471-199957-5 |ref=CITEREFCotton1999}} * <!-- CRC -->{{cite book |author=CRC contributors |title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |editor=David R. Lide |edition=87th |year=2006 |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-0487-3 |ref=CITEREFCRC2006}} * <!-- Em -->{{cite book |title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |last=Emsley |first=John |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |location=Oxford, England, UK |isbn=0-19-850340-7 |chapter=Zinc |pages=499–505 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC |ref=CITEREFEmsley2001}} * <!-- Gr -->{{cite book |last=Greenwood |first=N. N. |coauthors=Earnshaw, A. |title=Chemistry of the Elements |edition=2nd |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |location=Oxford |year=1997 |isbn=0750633654 |ref=CITEREFGreenwood1997}} * <!-- He -->{{cite book |last=Heiserman |first=David L. |title=Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds |location=New York |publisher=TAB Books |isbn=0-8306-3018-X |chapter=Element 30: Zinc |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=24l-Cpal9oIC&pgis=1 |ref=CITEREFHeiserman1992 |year=1992 }} * <!-- Le -->{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp |publisher=Reinhold Book Corporation |location=New York |year=1968 |editor=Clifford A. Hampel |id=LCCN 68-29938 |last=Lehto |first=R. S. |isbn=0-442-15598-0 |chapter=Zinc |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp/page/822 822]–830 |ref=CITEREFLehto1968 }} * <!-- NRC -->{{cite book |publisher=National Academies Press |author=[[United States National Research Council]], Institute of Medicine. |year=2000 |title=Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc |pages=442–455 |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10026 |ref=CITEREFNRC2000 }} * <!-- Sw -->{{cite book |title=Guide to the Elements |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetoelements00stwe |edition=Revised |first=Albert |last=Stwertka |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |chapter=Zinc |isbn=0195080831 |ref=CITEREFStwertka1998 }} * <!-- We -->{{cite book |last=Weeks |first=Mary Elvira |year=1933 |title=The Discovery of the Elements |publisher=Journal of Chemical Education |location=Easton, PA |chapter=III. Some Eighteenth-Century Metals |isbn=0766138720 |ref=CITEREFWeeks1933 }} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Zinc}} * [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Zn/index.html WebElements.com – Zinc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516062709/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Zn/index.html |date=2008-05-16 }} * [http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/zn.html History & Etymology of Zinc] * [http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/zinc/ Statistics and Information from the U.S. Geological Survey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428161824/http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/zinc/ |date=2007-04-28 }} * [http://www.organic-chemistry.org/chemicals/reductions/zinc-zn.shtm Reducing Agents > Zinc] * [http://www.zinc.org American Zinc Association] Information about the uses and properties of zinc. * [http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ZI/zinc.html Outline safety data for zinc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070521001731/http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ZI/zinc.html |date=2007-05-21 }} {{tabél périodik}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Unsur kimia]] [[Kategori:Logam transisi]] [[Kategori:Séng]] 563pw4l1tc2egfbhuekfu874dj9jozn 0 30938 711525 707208 2026-08-06T22:16:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711525 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Sucrose 3Dprojection.png|thumb|[[Proyéksi Haworth]] molekul sukrosa.]] '''Sukrosa''' ('''gula méja''', ogé disebut '''sakarosa''') nyaéta [[disakarida]] [[glukosa]] jeung [[fruktosa]] nu disambungkeun ku [[beungkeut glikosida]] α (alfa) 1,2 kalawan [[rumus molekul]] C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>. Ngaran sistematikna β-D-fruktofuranosil-(2→1)-α-D-glukopiranosida (ditungtungan "-osida", ku sabab lain [[gula peréduksi]]). Ieu karbohidrat ngan dihasilkeun ku [[tutuwuhan]], penting pisan salaku asupan pikeun bangsa sato. == Pasipatan fisik jeung kimia == [[Image:Sucrose.gif|left|thumb|250px|Animasi sukrosa]] Sukrosa murni ilaharna disadiakeun dina bentuk tipung bodas, tanpa bau, kristalin, kalawan rasa anu amis: gula pikeun tuang leueut. Sukrosa sacara umum diala tina sumber-sumber alami, tapi bisa ogé dijieun sacara kimiawi (munggaran ku [[Raymond Lemieux]] taun [[1953]]<ref name = "Lemieux">{{cite journal | last = Lemieux | first = RU | coauthors = Huber, G | title = A chemical synthesis of sucrose | journal = J. Amer. Chem. Soc. | volume = 75 | issue = 16 | pages = 4118–4118 | date = 1953 | doi = 10.1021/ja01112a545 }} </ref>). <!-- Like other [[carbohydrates]], sucrose has a [[hydrogen]] to [[oxygen]] ratio of 2:1. It consists of two [[monosaccharides]], α-[[glucose]] and [[fructose]], joined by a [[glycosidic bond]] between carbon atom 1 of the glucose unit and carbon atom 2 of the fructose unit. What is notable about sucrose is that unlike most disaccharides, the glycosidic bond is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not between the reducing end of one and the nonreducing end of the other. The effect of this inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units. Since it contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a nonreducing sugar. Acidic hydrolysis can be used in laboratories to achieve the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose. Sucrose melts and decomposes at {{convert|186|°C}} to form [[caramel]], and when combusted produces [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]]. Water breaks down sucrose by [[hydrolysis]], however the process is so gradual that it could sit in solution for years with negligible change. If the [[enzyme]] [[sucrase]] is added however, the reaction will proceed rapidly. Reacting sucrose with [[sulfuric acid]] dehydrates the sucrose and forms the element [[carbon]], as demonstrated in the following equation: :C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> [[catalyst]] → 12 C + 11 H<sub>2</sub>O ==Commercial production and use== {{main|Sugar}} Sucrose is the most common food [[sweetener]], although it has been replaced in American industrial food production by other sweeteners such as [[high-fructose corn syrup|fructose syrup]]s or combinations of functional ingredients and high intensity sweeteners. This is due to the subsidization of domestic sugar by the US government and an import tariff on foreign sugar, raising the price of sucrose to levels above those of the rest of the world. <ref>http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/news.aspx?id=92869</ref><ref>http://www.accidentalhedonist.com/index.php/2006/01/24/tariffs_and_subsidies_the_literal_cost_o</ref> This makes HFCS more cost efficient for many sweetener applications. Sugar is also used in the manufacturing of an amateur rocket motor propellant called [[rocket candy]]. In that propellant it is the fuel with [[potassium nitrate]] as the oxidizer. Sucrose is the most important sugar in [[plants]], and can be found in the [[phloem]] sap. It is generally extracted from [[sugar cane]] or [[sugar beet]] and then purified and crystallized. Other (minor) commercial sources are sweet [[sorghum]] and [[sugar maple]]s. Sucrose is ubiquitous in food preparations due to both its [[sweetness]] and its functional properties; it is important to the structure of many foods including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy canes, ice cream and sorbets, and also assists in the preservation of foods. As such it is common in many processed and so-called “[[junk food]]s.” ==Sugar as a macronutrient== [[Image:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Granulated sucrose]] In mammals, sucrose is readily [[digestion|digested]] in the [[stomach]] into its component sugars, by acidic [[hydrolysis]]. This step is performed by a [[glycoside hydrolase]], which catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose to the monosaccharides glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose are rapidly absorbed into the [[bloodstream]] in the [[small intestine]]. Undigested sucrose passing into the intestine is also broken down by [[sucrase]] or isomaltase [[glycoside hydrolases]], which are located in the [[cell membrane|membrane]] of the [[microvilli]] lining the [[duodenum]]. These products are also transferred rapidly into the bloodstream. Sucrose is digested by the enzyme [[invertase]] in [[bacteria]] and some [[animals]]. ===In human nutrition=== Sucrose is an easily assimilated [[nutrient|macronutrient]] that provides a quick source of energy to the body, provoking a rapid rise in [[blood glucose]] upon ingestion. Overconsumption of sucrose has been linked with some adverse [[health effects]]. The most common is [[dental caries]] or [[tooth decay]], in which oral bacteria convert sugars (including sucrose) from food into acids that attack tooth enamel. Sucrose, as a pure [[carbohydrate]], has an [[energy]] content of 3.94 [[kilocalorie]]s per gram (or 17 [[kilojoule]]s per gram). When a large amount of foods that contain a high percentage of sucrose is consumed, beneficial nutrients can be displaced from the diet, which can contribute to an increased risk for chronic disease. It has been suggested that sucrose-containing drinks may be linked to the development of obesity and [[insulin resistance]].<ref>Ten, S. & Maclaren, N. (2004). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15181020&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum Insulin resistance syndrome in children]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004 Jun;89(6):2526-39.</ref> Although most soft drinks in the USA are now made with [[high fructose corn syrup]], not sucrose, this makes little functional difference, since [[high fructose corn syrup]] contains fructose and glucose in a similar ratio to that produced metabolically from sucrose. The rapidity with which sucrose raises blood glucose can cause problems for people suffering from defects in glucose metabolism, such as persons with [[hypoglycemia]] or [[diabetes mellitus]]. Sucrose can contribute to the development of [[metabolic syndrome]].<ref>Aguilera, A.A., et al. (2004). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15157941&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum Effects of fish oil on hypertension, plasma lipids, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in rats with sucrose-induced metabolic syndrome.]. J Nutr Biochem. 2004 Jun;15(6):350-7.</ref> In an experiment with rats that were fed a diet one-third of which was sucrose, the sucrose first elevated blood levels of [[triglyceride]]s, which induced [[visceral]] fat and ultimately resulted in [[insulin resistance]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Satoshi Fukuchi | title=Role of Fatty Acid Composition in the Development of Metabolic Disorders in Sucrose-Induced Obese Rats | journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine | year=2004 | volume=229 | issue=6 | pages= 486&ndash;493 | url=http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/229/6/486 | pmid=15169967 | month=Jun | day=01}}</ref> Another study found that rats fed sucrose-rich diets developed [[hypertriglyceridemia|high triglycerides]], [[hyperglycemia]], and [[insulin resistance]].<ref>Lombardo, Y.B., et al. (1996). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=8969287&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum Long-term administration of a sucrose-rich diet to normal rats: relationship between metabolic and hormonal profiles and morphological changes in the endocrine pancreas]. Metabolism. 1996 Dec;45(12):1527-32.</ref> --> == Baca ogé == *[[Karbohidrat]] *[[Gula]] *[[Gula dina arak]] *[[Kimia karbohidrat]] == Rujukan == === Catetan === {{reflist}} === Rujukan umum === *''[[:en:Sucrose|Sucrose]]'' (dicutat 27 Agustus 2009) *{{cite book | first=J. | last=Yudkin | coauthors=Edelman, J., Hough, L. | title=Sugar - Chemical, Biological and Nutritional Aspects of Sucrose | url=https://archive.org/details/sugarchemicalbio0000unse | publisher=The Butterworth Group | year=1973 | isbn=0-408-70172-2}} == Tumbu kaluar == *[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Sucrose Computational Chemistry Wiki] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060527111618/http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Sucrose |date=2006-05-27 }} *[http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/2carb/app.html Nomenclature of Carbohydrates] *[http://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/graphics/gallery/sucroses.html 3d Images of Sucrose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217005917/http://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/graphics/gallery/sucroses.html |date=2008-12-17 }} *[http://www.jamesyawn.com James Yawn's Website on Rocket Candy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524171434/http://www.jamesyawn.com/ |date=2019-05-24 }} *[http://www.sucropedia.com Sugar Industry Encyclopedia]{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{Karbohidrat}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Karbohidrat]] [[Kategori:Kimia karbohidrat]] [[Kategori:Disakarida]] [[Kategori:Gula]] 6vavjx4sri149gkzlcv4yr6e2h6kmx9 0 30964 711772 495016 2026-08-07T03:51:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Carbonic anhydrase 1CA2 active site.png|thumb|250px|right|Sisi aktif métaloprotéin (métaloénzim) [[karbonat anhidrase]]: koordinasi diwangun ku tilu résidu [[histidin]] ([[kayas]]), [[hidroksida]] ([[beureum]] jeung [[bodas]]), sarta ion [[séng]] ([[bungur]]).]] '''Métaloprotéin''' nyaéta istilah generik pikeun [[protéin]] anu ngandung [[kofaktor (biokimia)|kofaktor]] [[ion]] [[logam]]<ref name=AS>{{cite book |last=Shriver |first=D.F.|coauthors=Atkins, P.W.|title=Inorganic chemistry|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=1999|edition=ka-3.|chapter=Chapter 19, Bioinorganic chemistry|ISBN=019 850330x }}</ref>, nu gunana dina [[sél (biologi)|sél]] rupa-rupa, kayaning [[énzim]], protéin angkutan (''transport'') jeung simpenan (''storage''), sarta protéin [[transduksi sinyal]]. Malah, saparapat nepi ka sapertilu ti sakabéh protéin butuh logam pikeun ngajalankeun fungsina<ref>{{cite journal |author=Waldron KJ, Robinson NJ |title=How do bacterial cells ensure that metalloproteins get the correct metal? |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–35 |year=2009 |month=Januari |pmid=19079350 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro2057}}</ref>. Ion logam ilaharna dibeungkeut ku atom [[nitrogén]], [[oksigén]], atawa [[walirang]] nu aya dina [[asam amino]] nu ngawangun ranté [[péptida|polipéptida]] jeung/atawa ligan [[makrosiklik]] nu aya dina protéin. Ku ayana ion logam, métaloénzim bisa ngajalankeun fungsina salaku—misalna -- [[réaksi rédoks]] nu teu bisa lumangsung ukur ku ayana [[gugus fungsi|gugus-gugus fungsi]] nu aya dina asam amino<ref>{{cite book|last=Messerschmidt|first=A|coauthors=Huber, R.;Wieghardt,K.;Poulos, T.|title=Handbook of Metalloproteins|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofmetall0004albr|publisher=Wiley|date=2001|isbn= 0-471-62743-7}}</ref>. <!-- == Storage and transport metalloproteins == === Oxygen carriers === [[Hemoglobin]], which is the principal oxygen carrier in humans has four sub-units in which the iron(II) ion is coordinated by the planar, macrocyclic ligand [[porphyrin|protoporphyrin IX]] (PIX) and the [[imidazole]] nitrogen atom of a [[histidine]] residue. The sixth coordination site contains a water molecule or a dioxygen molecule. [[myoglobin]] has only one such unit. The active site is located in an [[hydrophobic]] pocket. This is important as, without it, the iron(II) would be irreveribly oxidised to iron(III). The [[stability constants of complexes|equilibrium constant]] for the formation of HbO<sub>2</sub> is such that oxygen is taken up or released depending on the [[partial pressure]] of oxygen in the lungs or in muscle. In hemoglobin the four sub-units show a cooperativity effect which allows for easy oxygen transfer from hemoglobin to myoglobin.<ref name=GE1/> In both [[hemoglobin]] and [[myoglobin]] it is sometimes incorrectly stated that the oxygenated species contains iron(III). It is now known that the [[diamagnetic]] nature of these species is due to the fact that the iron(II) is in the [[low-spin]] state. In oxyhemoglobin the iron atom is located in the plane of the porphyrin ring, but in the [[paramagnetic]] deoxyhemoglobin the iron atom lies above the plane of the ring. <ref name=GE1>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw}} Fig.25.7, p 1100 illustrates the structure of deoxyhemoglobin</ref> The change in spin state is a cooperative effect of higher [[Crystal field theory|crystal field splitting]] and smaller ionic radius of Fe<sup>2+</sup> in the oxy- moiety. [[Hemerythrin]] is another iron-containing oxygen carrier. The oxygen binding site is a binuclear iron center. The iron atoms are coordinated to the protein through the carboxylate side chains of a glutamate and aspartate and five histidine residues. The uptake of O<sub>2</sub> by hemerythrin is accompanied by two-electron oxidation of the reduced binuclear center to produce bound peroxide (OOH-). The mechanism of oxygen uptake and release have been worked out in detail.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Stenkamp, R.E. | title=Dioxygen and hemerythrin | journal=Chem. Rev. | year=1994 | volume=94 | pages=715–726 | doi=10.1021/cr00027a008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Wirstam M., Lippard, S.J., Friesner R.A. | title=Reversioble Dioxygen Binding to Hemerythrin | journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. | year=2003 | volume=125 | pages=3980–3987 | doi=10.1021/ja017692r}}</ref> [[Hemocyanin]]s carry oxygen in the blood of most [[molluscs]], and some [[arthropods]] such as the [[horseshoe crab]]. They are second only to hemoglobin in biological popularity of use in oxygen transport. On oxygenation the two copper(I) atoms at the active site are oxidised to copper(II) and the dioxygen molecules is reduced to peroxide, O<sub>2</sub><sup>2-</sup>.<ref name=Karlin>{{cite journal | author = K. D. Karlin, R. W. Cruse, Y. Gultneh, A. Farooq, J. C. Hayes and J. Zubieta | title = Dioxygen-copper reactivity. Reversible binding of O2 and CO to a phenoxo-bridged dicopper(I) complex | year = 1987 | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | volume = 109 | issue = 9 | pages = 2668–2679 | doi=10.1021/ja00243a019}}</ref><ref name = Kitajima>{{cite journal | author = N. Kitajima, K. Fujisawa, C. Fujimoto, Y. Morooka, S. Hashimoto, T. Kitagawa, K. Toriumi, K. Tatsumi and A. Nakamura | title = A new model for dioxygen binding in hemocyanin. Synthesis, characterization, and molecular structure of the μ-η2:η2 peroxo dinuclear copper(II) complexes, [Cu(HB(3,5-R2pz)3)]2(O2) (R = isopropyl and Ph) | year = 1992 | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | volume = 114 | issue = 4 | pages = 1277–1291 | doi=10.1021/ja00030a025}}</ref> ===Cytochromes=== {{main|cytochrome}} [[Oxidation]] and [[reduction]] are reactions are not common in organic chemistry as few organic molecules can act as oxidizing or reducing agents. Iron(II), on the other hand, can easily be oxidized to iron(III). This functionality is used in [[cytochrome]]s which function as electron-tranfer vectors. The iron atom in most cytochromes is contained in a [[heme]] group. The differences between those cytochromes lies in the different side-chains. For instance Cytochrome a has a [[heme a]] prosthetic group and cytochrome b has a [[heme b]] prosthetic group. These differences result in different Fe<sup>2+</sup>/Fe<sup>3+</sup> [[redox potential]]s such that various cytochromes are involved in the [[mitochondrial]] electron transport chain.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=G.R.|coauthors=Pettigrew, G.W.|title=Cytochrome c:structural and physicochemical aspects |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |date=1990}}</ref> [[Cytochrome P450]] enzymes perform the function of inserting an oxygen atom into a C—H bond, an oxidation reaction.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Ubiquitous Roles of Cytochrome450 Proteins|editor=Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K.O. Sigel|publisher=Wiley|date=2007|series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=3|isbn=978-0-470-01672-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ortiz de Montellano |first=P.R. |title=Cytochrome P450 Structure, Mechanism, and Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/cytochromep450st0000unse_s1a5 |publisher=Springer |date=2005 |edition=3rd. |isbn= 978-0-306-48324-0}}</ref> [[Image:Rubredoxin.png|thumb|130px| rubredoxin active site.]] === Rubredoxin=== {{main|Iron-sulfur protein}} [[Rubredoxin]] is an electron-carrier found in sulfur-metabolizing [[bacteria]] and [[archaea]]. The active site contains an iron ion which is coordinated by the sulphur atoms of four [[cysteine]] residues forming an almost regular tetrahedron. Rubredoxins perform one-electron transfer processes. The oxidation state of the iron atom changes between the +2 and +3 states. In both oxidation states the metal is [[high spin]], which helps to minimize structural changes. ===Iron storage and transfer=== Iron is stored as iron(III) in [[ferritin]]. The exact nature of the binding site has not yet been determined. The iron appears to be present as an [[hydrolysis]] product such as FeO(OH). Iron is transported by [[transferrin]] whose binding site consists of two tyrosines, one aspartic acid and one histidine.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anderson BF, Baker HM, Dodson EJ, ''et al.'' |title=Structure of human lactoferrin at 3.2-A resolution |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=84 |issue=7 |pages=1769–73 |year=1987 |month=April |pmid=3470756 |pmc=304522 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3470756}}</ref> The human body has no mechanism for iron excretion. This can lead to iron-overload problems in patients treated with blood transfusions, as, for instance, with β-[[thallasemia]]. ===Ceruloplasmin=== {{main|ceruloplasmin}} Ceruloplasmin is the major copper-carrying protein in the blood. Ceruloplasmin exhibits oxidase activity, which is associated with possible oxidation of Fe<sup>2+</sup> (ferrous iron) into Fe<sup>3+</sup> (ferric iron), therefore assisting in its transport in the plasma in association with transferrin, which can only carry iron in the ferric state. ==Metalloenzymes== Metalloenzymes all have one feature in common, namely, that the metal ion is bound to the protein with one labile coordination site. As with all enzymes, the shape of the active site is crucial. The metal ion is usually located in a pocket whose shape fits the substrate. The metal ion catalyzes reactions which are difficult to achieve in [[organic chemistry]]. === Carbonic anhydrase === :CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O {{eqm}} H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> This reaction is very slow in the absence of a catalyst, but quite fast in the presence of the [[hydroxide]] ion :CO<sub>2</sub> + OH<sup>-</sup> {{eqm}} HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> A reaction similar to this is almost instantaneaous with [[carbonic anhydrase]]. The structure of the active site in carbonic anhydrases is well-known from a number of crystal structures. It consists of a zinc ion coordinated by three [[imidazole]] nitrogen atoms from three [[histidine]] units. The fourth coordination site is occupied by a water molecule. The coordination sphere of the zinc ion is approximately tetrahedral. The positively charged zinc ion polarizes the coordinated water molecule and [[nucleophilic]] attack by the negatively charged hydoxide portion on carbon dioxide (carbonic anhydride) proceeds rapidly. The catalytic cycle produces the bicarbonate ion and the hydrogen ion<ref name=AS/> as the equilibrium :H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> {{eqm}} HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> + H<sup>+</sup> favours dissociation of [[carbonic acid]] at biological pH values.<ref name="Lindskog_1997">{{cite journal | author = Lindskog S | title = Structure and mechanism of carbonic anhydrase | journal = Pharmacol. Ther. | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–20 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9336012 | doi = 10.1016/S0163-7258(96)00198-2 }}</ref> === Vitamin B12-dependent enzymes === [[Vitamin B12]] catalyzes the tranfer of methyl (-CH<sub>3</sub>) groups between two molecules, which involves the breaking of C-C bonds, a process that is energetically expensive in organic reactions. The metal ion lowers the [[activation energy]] for the process by forming a transient Co-CH<sub>3</sub> bond.<ref>{{cite book|title=Metal-carbon bonds in enzymes and cofactors |editor=Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K.O. Sigel|publisher=Wiley|date=2008|series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=6|isbn=978-1-84755-915-9}}</ref> The structure of the coenzyme was famously determined by [[Dorothy Hodgkin]] and co-workers, for which she received a [[Nobel prize]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1964 | publisher = Nobelprize.org | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/index.html|accessdate=2008-10-06}}</ref> It constists of a cobalt(II) ion coordinated by four nitrogen atoms of a [[corrin]] rings and a fifth Nitrogen atom from an imidazole group. In the resting state there is a Co—C σ bond with the 5' carbon atom of [[adenosine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hodgkin |first=D.C.|date=1965|journal=Proc. Roy. Soc. A|volume=288|pages=294–305 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1965.0219 |title=The Structure of the Corrin Nucleus from X-ray Analysis}}</ref> This is a naturally occurring [[organometallic]] compound, which explains its function in trans-methylation reactions, such as the reaction carried out by [[5-Methyltetrahydrofolate-homocysteine methyltransferase|methionine synthase]]. ===Nitrogenase (nitrogen fixation)=== The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is a very energy-intensive process, as it involves breaking the very stable [[triple bond]] between the nitrogen atoms. The enzyme [[nitrogenase]] is one of the few enzymes that can catalyze the process. The enzyme occurs in certain [[Rhizobium (genus)|bacteria]]. There are three components to its action: a molybdenum atom at the active site, [[Iron-sulfur cluster]]s which are involved in transporting the electrons needed to reduce the nitrogen and an abundant energy source. The energy is provided by a [[symbiotic]] relationship between the bacteria and a host plant, often a [[legume]]. The relationship is symbiotic because the plant supplies the energy by [[photosynthesis]] and benefits by obtaining the fixed nitrogen. The reaction may be written symbollically as :N<sub>2</sub> +16 Mg[[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] +8e<sup>-</sup> → 2NH<sub>3</sub> + 16 Mg[[ADP]] +16 P<sub>i</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> where P<sub>i</sub> stands for inorganic phosphate. The precise structure of the active site has been difficult to determine. It appears to contain a MoFe<sub>7</sub>S<sub>8</sub> cluster which is able to bind the dinitrogen molecule and, presumably, enable the reduction process to begin.<ref>{{cite book|last=Orme-Johnson|first=W.H.|title=Molybdenum enzymes, cofactors and model systems|editor=Steifel, E.I; Coucouvannis, D.; Newton, D.C.|publisher=American Chemical Society|location=Washington, DC|date=1993|series=Advances in chemystry, Symposium series no. 535|pages=257}}</ref> The electrons are transported by the associated "P" cluster, which contains two cubical Fe<sub>4</sub>S<sub>4</sub> clusters joined by sulphur bridges.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chan|first=M.K.|coauthors=Kim, J.; Rees, D.C.|date=1993|journal=Science|volume=260|pages=792|doi=10.1126/science.8484118|title=The nitrogenase FeMo-cofactor and P-cluster pair: 2.2 A resolution structures|pmid=8484118}}</ref> === SuperOxide Dismutase === [[Image:SOD.gif|thumb|250px|Structure of the monomeric unit of human superoxide dismutase 2]] The [[superoxide]] ion, O<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup> is generated in biological systems by reduction of molecular oxygen. It has an unpaired electron, so it behaves as a [[free radical]]. It is a powerful [[oxidising agent]]. These properties render the superoxide ion very toxic and are deployed to advantage by [[phagocytes]] to kill invading micro organisms. Otherwise, the superoxide ion must be destroyed before it does unwanted damage in a cell. The [[superoxide dismutase]] enzymes perform this function very efficiently.<ref>{{cite book|last=Packer|first=L. (editor)|title=Superoxide Dismutase: 349 (Methods in Enzymology)|url=https://archive.org/details/superoxidedismut0349unse|publisher=Academic Press|date=2002|ISBN=0121822524}}</ref> The formal oxidation state of the oxygen atoms is ½. In solutions at neutral [[pH]], the superoxide ion [[disproportionates]] to molecular oxygen and [[hydrogen peroxide]]. :2 O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> + 2 H<sup>+</sup> → O<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> In biology this type of reaction is call a [[dismutation]] reaction. It involves both oxidation and reduction of superoxide ions. The [[superoxide dismutase]] group of enzymes, abbreviated as SOD, increase the rate of reaction to near the diffusion limited rate.<ref name="isbn3-540-32680-4">{{cite book | author = Heinrich, Peter; Georg Löffler; Petro E. Petrides | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Biochemie und Pathobiochemie (Springer-Lehrbuch) (German Edition) | edition = | language = | publisher = Springer | location = Berlin | year = 2006 | origyear = | pages = 123 | quote = | isbn = 3-540-32680-4 | oclc = | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}</ref> The key to the action of these enzymes is a metal ion with variable oxidation state which can act as either an oxidizing agent or as a reducing agent. :Oxidation: M<sup>(n+1)+</sup> + O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> → M<sup>n+</sup> + O<sub>2</sub> :Reduction: M<sup>n+</sup> + O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> + 2H<sup>+</sup> → M<sup>(n+1)+</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. In human SOD the active metal is copper, as Cu<sup>2+</sup> or Cu<sup>+</sup>, coordinated tetrahedrally by four histidine residues. This enzyme also contains zinc ions. Other [[isozyme]]s may contain iron, manganese or nickel. Ni-SOD is particularly interesting as it involves nickel(III), an unusual oxidation state for this element. The active site Ni geometry cycles from square planar Ni(II), with thiolate (Cys2 and Cys6) and backbone nitrogen (His1 and Cys2) ligands, to square pyramidal Ni(III) with an added axial His1 side chain ligand. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Barondeau |first=D.P.|coauthors=Kassmann C.J.; Bruns C.K.; Tainer J.A.; Getzoff E.D.|date=2004|title=Nickel superoxide dismutase structure and mechanism|journal=Biochemistry|volume= 43|issue=25|pages=8038-8047|doi=1021/bi0496081 |pmid=15209499}}</ref> === Chlorophyll === {{main|chlorophyll}} Chlorophyll plays a crucial role in [[photosynthesis]]. In contains a magnesium enclosed in a [[chlorin]] ring. However, the magnesium ion is not directly involved in the photosynthetic function and can be replaced by other divalent ions with a little loss of activity. Rather, the photon is absorbed by the chlorin ring, whose electronic structure is well-adapted for its purpose Initially the absorption of a photon causes an electron to be excited into a singlet state of the Q band. This is the reason why chlorophyll is green. The excited state undergoes an [[intersystem crossing]] from the [[singlet state]] to a [[triplet state]] in which there are two electrons with parallel spin. This species is, effectively, a [[free radical]], and is very reactive and allows an electron to be transferred to acceptors which are adjacent to the chlorophyll in the [[chloroplast]]. In the process chlorophyll is oxydised. Later in the phosynthetic cycle it reduced by accepting an electron and the final oxidation product is molecular oxygen whose atoms come from water molecules. ==Signal-transduction metalloproteins== ===Calmodulin=== [[Calmodulin]] is an example of a signal-transduction protein. It is a small protein which contains four [[EF-hand]] motifs, each of which can bind a Ca<sup>2+</sup> ion. In an EF-hand loop the calcium ion is coordinated in a pentagonal bipyramidal configuration. Six [[Glutamic acid]] and [[Aspartic acid]] residues involved in the binding are in positions 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 of the polypeptide chain. At position 12 there is a glutamate or aspartate ligand which behaves as a (bidentate ligand), providing two oxygen atoms. The ninth residue in the loop is necessarily [[glycine]] due to the conformational requirements of the backbone. The coordination sphere of the calcium ion contains only carboxylate oxygen atoms and no nitrogen atoms. This is consistent with the [[hsab|hard]] nature of the calcium ion. The protein has two approximately symmetrical domains, separated by a flexible "hinge" region. Binding of calcium causes a conformational change to occur in the protein. Calmodulin participates in an intracellular signalling system by acting as a diffusible second messenger to the initial stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Stevens FC | title = Calmodulin: an introduction | journal = Can. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. | volume = 61 | issue = 8 | pages = 906–10 | year = 1983 | pmid = 6313166 | doi = | issn = }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Chin D, Means AR | title = Calmodulin: a prototypical calcium sensor | journal = Trends Cell Biol. | volume = 10 | issue = 8 | pages = 322–8 | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1016/S0962-8924(00)01800-6 }}</ref> [[Image:Zinc finger rendered.png|thumb|300px|right|Cartoon representation of the zinc finger motif of proteins, consisting of an [[alpha helix|α helix]] and an antiparallel [[Beta sheet|β sheet]]. The [[zinc]] ion (green) is coordinated by two [[histidine]] residues and two [[cysteine]] residues.]] ===Transcription factors=== Many [[transcription factor]]s contain a structure known as a [[zinc finger]], this is a structural module where a region of protein folds around a zinc ion. The zinc does not directly contact the [[DNA]] that these proteins bind to, instead the cofactor is essential for the stability of the tightly-folded protein chain.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Berg JM |title=Zinc finger domains: hypotheses and current knowledge |journal=Annu Rev Biophys Biophys Chem |volume=19 |pages=405–21 |year=1990 |pmid=2114117 |doi=10.1146/annurev.bb.19.060190.002201}}</ref> In these proteins the zinc ion is usually coordinated by pairs of cysteine and histidine side chains. --> == Métaloénzim lianna == {| class="wikitable" |- !Ion!!Conto énzim nu ngandung ieu ion |- ||[[Magnésium]] || [[Glukosa 6-fosfatase]]<br />[[Héksokinase]]<br />[[DNA polimérase]] |- ||[[Vanadium]]||[[vanabin]] |- ||[[Mangan]]|| [[arginase]] |- ||[[Beusi]]|| [[Katalase]]<br />[[Hidrogénase]]<br />[[IRE-BP]]<br />[[Akonitase]] |- ||[[Nikel]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Nickel and Its Surprising Impact in Nature|editor=Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K.O. Sigel|publisher=Wiley|date=2008|series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=2|isbn=978-0-470-01671-8}}</ref> || [[Uréase]]<br />[[Hidrogénase]] |- ||[[Tambaga]] || [[Sitokrom oksidase]]<br />[[Plastosianin]]<br />[[Lakase]] |- ||[[Séng]] || [[Alkohol dehidrogénase]]<br />[[karboksipéptidase]]<br />[[Aminopéptidase]] |- ||[[Molibdénum]] || [[Nitrat réduktase]] |- ||[[Sélénium]] || [[Glutation peroksidase]] |- ||Rupa-rupa||[[Métalotionéin]]<br />[[Fosfatase]] |} == Baca ogé == * [[Kimia bioanorganik]] * [[Koénzim]] * [[Kofaktor (biokimia)|Kofaktor]] * [[Hémoprotéin]] * [[Gugus prostétik]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons category|Metalloproteins}} * {{MeshName|Metalloprotein}} {{kofaktor énzim}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Métaloprotéin]] 2qme5dxderm3jyvqc1051vbefsdhhzx 0 30986 711524 674647 2026-08-06T22:16:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711524 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:SeanConneryJune08.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Sean Connery]] sebagai pemeran pertama karakter James Bond.]] [[Gambar:PierceBrosnanCannesPhoto2.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Pierce Brosnan]] sebagai pemeran James Bond kelima.]] '''''James Bond 007''''' (leuwih terkenal ku sebatan '''''[[James Bond (karakter)|James Bond]]''''', '''''Agen 007''''' atanapi '''''JB''''') mangrupa salahsa hiji karakter [[fiksi]] nu diciptakeun taun 1953 ku panulis Inggris, [[Ian Fleming]], di mana karakter ieu saterasna muncul dina dua belas novel daring dua koleksi carita pondok versi asli.<ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/2006/understanding007.html Understanding 007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104170128/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/2006/understanding007.html |date=2010-11-04 }}. Retrieved 6 June 2007.</ref> Karakter ieu teras dipaké dina waralaba media film terlaris jeung tersukses di dunya sampai ka kiwari, dimimiti taun 1962 dina ''[[Dr. No (film)|Dr. No]]''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Copyright 1998-2007 |url=http://www.mi6.co.uk/sections/movies/index.php3 |title=MI6:: The Home Of James Bond 007 |publisher=Mi6.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2009-01-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=By |url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117971747.html?categoryid=1236&cs=1 |title='Harry Potter' toots box office horn - Entertainment News, Los Angeles, Media - Variety |publisher=Variety.com |date=2008-12-30 |accessdate=2009-01-06}}</ref><ref name="jamesbond1">[http://www.jamesbond007.se/quantum_of_solace_pr_stockholm.asp Agent James Bond 007 - Quantum of Solace]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Saatos Fleming tilar dunya di taun 1964, panulisan novel James Bond diteraskeun ku [[Kingsley Amis]] (sabagai [[Robert Markham]]), [[John Pearson]], [[John Gardner]], [[Raymond Benson]] jeung [[Sebastian Faulks]]. Salain ti eta, [[Christopher Wood]] menovelisasi dua film janten novel, [[Charlie Higson]] menulis carita tentang Young James Bond, sareng beberapa penulis lain meunang hak kapercayaan keur ngembangkeun carita James Bond non-resmi.<ref>{{cite news |author=Copyright 1998-2007 |url=http://www.mi6.co.uk/sections/literary/index.php3 |title=MI6:: The Home Of James Bond 007 |publisher=Mi6.co.uk |date=1953-04-13 |accessdate=2009-01-06 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530131951/http://www.mi6.co.uk/sections/literary/index.php3 |date=2019-05-30 }}</ref> Aya 22 film nu dirilis jeung kaasup dina seri produksi "resmi" [[EON Productions]], nu terakhir jeung paling anyar nyaéta ''[[Quantum of Solace]]'' nu dirilis kaping [[31 Oktober]] [[2008]] (keur kawasan [[Inggris]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7206997.stm |title=BBC NEWS &#124; Entertainment &#124; New Bond film title is confirmed |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-01-24 |accessdate=2009-01-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7304920.stm |title=BBC NEWS &#124; Entertainment &#124; Next Bond film gets early release |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-03-19 |accessdate=2009-01-06}}</ref> Salain ti versi éoN, pihak produser lain ogé nyobaan ngadamel sareng ngembangkeu carita James Bond dina beberapa variasi, nyaéta dina sandiwara radio, komik, dan vidéo game. Film-film produksi éoN Productions disebat ogé sabagai film resmi (official), saatos hak produksinya dipeser ku produser [[Harry Saltzman]] di akhir 1950-an.<ref>{{cite book |last=Winder |first=Simon |year=2006 |title=The Man Who Saved Britain |url=https://archive.org/details/manwhosavedbrita0000wind_b3d6 |publisher=Picador |isbn=0-330-43954-5}}</ref> == Sejarah dan inspirasi == [[James Bond (karakter)|Komandan Sir James Bond]], ([[Order of St Michael and St George|KCMG]], [[Royal Naval Reserve|RNVR]]) nyaéta mangrupa saorang agen rahasia intelejen Inggris ([[Secret Intelligence Service]], disingkat SIS, atanapi disebat ogé sabagai MI6). Anjeunna diciptakan di sasih Januari 1952 ku jurnalis Inggris, Ian Fleming ketika anjeunna sedang berlibur di Jamaika. Nami James Bond dicandak tina saorang ahli burung asal AS, ogé tina saorang pengamat manuk ti Karibia.<ref>{{cite book | last = Chancellor | first = Henry | year = 2005 | title = James Bond: The Man and His World | url = https://archive.org/details/jamesbondmanhisw0000chan | publisher = John Murray | isbn = 0-7195-6815-3}}</ref> [[Gambar:Roger_Moore.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Roger Moore]], pemeran ketiga James Bond setelah [[George Lazenby]].]] Kolot James Bond nyaéta Andrew Bond, saorang [[Skotlandia]], jeung Monique Delacroix nu asalna ti Canton de Vaud, [[Swiss]]. Asal ti kaduana disebatkeun dina ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service (film)|On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]''. Fleming nambihkeun unsur Skotlandia ka James Bond saatos anjeunna ninggali karakter [[Sean Connery]] dina ''Dr. No''. Samentara karakter Swiss ditambihkeun ku sabab Ian Fleming masih kénéh miboga darah Swiss.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zacharek |first=Stephanie |url=http://salon.com/books/feature/2006/11/25/fleming/ |title=Bond, by the book &#124; Salon Books |publisher=Salon.com |date=2006-11-25 |accessdate=2009-01-06}}</ref> Hiji rencana, tapi gagal diréalisasikeun, sempat Fleming pikirkeun nyaéta nulis sebuah novel Bond nu nyaritakeun asal usul ibunda Bond. Dina biografi fiksi tentang agen 007, John Péarson méré poéan lahir Bond di [[11 November]] [[1920]] (Hari Gencatan Senjata). Bagian awal dina film "[[For Your Eyes Only]]" méré katerangan yén istrina James Bond lahir di 1943. Dina ''[[You Only Live Twice (film)|You Only Live Twice]]'' Tanaka nerangkeun ka Bond bahwa ia babar di Yéar of the Rat (1924/25 atanapi 1912/13). Dina novel ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'', slogan kulawarga Bond nyaéta "Orbis non sufficit" ("The world is not enough" – Dunia saja tidaklah cukup).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~tmf20/bond.shtml|title=Biography of the Literary James Bond}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914133220/http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~tmf20/bond.shtml |date=2009-09-14 }}</ref> == Novel dan sejenisnya == Bulan Februari 1952, Ian Fleming mimitian nulis James Bond. Saat itu anjeunna sedang ngajabat sabagai manajer keur harian Kemsley, nu mangrupakan induk perusahaan ti The Daily Express di London. Sateuacan narima tawaran jabatan manajer, Fleming sempet ngajukeun salah satu syarat, nyaéta dua sasih liburan dina sataun dina kontrak kerjanya tersebut. Ketika anjeunna ngadapatkeun waktos berliburnya tersebut, anjeunna lantas milih Jamaika, di mana akhirnya anjeunna nemukeun inspirasi keur nulis James Bond. Antara 1953 sampai hari wafatna di taun 1964, Fleming atos nulis jeung nerbitkeun 12 novel jeung hiji carita pendek (hijina deui diterbitkeun saatos wafatna Fleming). Salanjutna kalanjutan novel James Bond ditulis ku [[Kingsley Amis]] (sabagai [[Robert Markham]]), [[John Gardner]], [[Charlie Higson]], [[Raymond Benson]], nu kemudian janten orang non-Inggris pertama nu janten pangarang James Bond (Benson berasal ti [[Amerika Serikat|AS]]). Hiji deui kisah lain, judulna ''The Young Bond series'' dimimiti taun 2005 ku [[Charlie Higson]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://commanderbond.net/article/2677 | title = Charlie Higson interview with CommanderBond.net | work = The Charlie Higson CBn Interview | accessdate = February 23 2005 | dateformat = mdy }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203194642/http://commanderbond.net/article/2677 |date=2007-02-03 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Benson | first = Raymond | year = 1984 | title = The James Bond Bedside Companion | url = https://archive.org/details/jamesbondbedside0000bens_v0x9 | publisher = Dodd, Mead | isbn = 1-4011-0284-0 }}</ref> Bulan Juli 2007, diumumkeun bahwa [[Sebastian Faulks]] atos ngadapet izin keur nulis beberapa novel James Bond anyar, salah sahijina keur ngenang 100 taun kalahiran Ian Fleming. Buku 100 taun Fleming tersebut berjudul ''[[Devil May Care]]'', diterbitkan jeung dirilis sacara resmi kaping 27 Mei 2008. === Novel Ian Fleming === {| class="wikitable" border="1" |- style="vertical-align: top;" | * [[1953]] ''[[Casino Royale (novel)|Casino Royale]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[Casino Royale (novel)|Casino Royale]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= 213 |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 13 April |year= 1953 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1954]] ''[[Live and Let Die (novel)|Live and Let Die]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[Live and Let Die (novel)|Live and Let Die]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= 234 |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 5 April |year= 1954 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1955]] ''[[Moonraker (novel)|Moonraker]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[Moonraker (novel)|Moonraker]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 7 April |year= 1955 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1956]] ''[[Diamonds Are Forever (novel)|Diamonds Are Forever]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[Diamonds Are Forever (novel)|Diamonds Are Forever]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 26 March |year= 1956 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1957]] ''[[From Russia with Love (novel)|From Russia with Love]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[From Russia with Love (novel)|From Russia with Love]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 8 April |year= 1957 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1958]] ''[[Dr. No (novel)|Dr. No]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[Dr. No (novel)|Dr. No]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 31 March |year= 1958 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1959]] ''[[Goldfinger (novel)|Goldfinger]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[Goldfinger (novel)|Goldfinger]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 23 March |year= 1959 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> | * [[1960]] ''[[For Your Eyes Only (kumpulan cerita pendek)|For Your Eyes Only]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[For Your Eyes Only (short story collection)|For Your Eyes Only]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 11 April |year= 1960 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> - cerita pendek * [[1961]] ''[[Thunderball (novel)|Thunderball]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[Thunderball (novel)|Thunderball]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 27 March |year= 1961 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1962]] ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me (novel)|The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[The Spy Who Loved Me (novel)|The Spy Who Loved Me]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 16 April |year= 1962 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1963]] ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service (novel)|On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[On Her Majesty's Secret Service (novel)|On Her Majesty's Secret Service]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 1 April |year= 1963 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1964]] ''[[You Only Live Twice (novel)|You Only Live Twice]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[You Only Live Twice (novel)|You Only Live Twice]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 16 March |year= 1964 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1965]] ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun (novel)|The Man with the Golden Gun]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[The Man with the Golden Gun (novel)|The Man with the Golden Gun]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= 1 April |year= 1965 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> * [[1966]] ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Fleming |first= Ian |title= [[Octopussy and The Living Daylights]] |series= James Bond |url= http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Inc. |page= |publisher= [[Jonathan Cape]] |month= |year= 1966 |isbn= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }}</ref> - cerita pendek |} == Adaptasi == === Produksi EON === Film buatan éoN Productions dimimiti taun 1962 ku Dr. No. Saterasna sampai ka kiwari tos aya 22 film nu dirilis ku éoN Productions. Film-film buatan éoN Productions disebat sabagai film resmi, ku sabab hak film éta tos dipeser ku produser Harry Saltzman sejak akhir 1950-an. <!--DO NOT add the column for North American box office, the films are not an American franchise. Also note that the films are still being released in other countries. Any such addition will be reverted, so do not waste your time.--> <!--DO NOT add Never Say Never Again or the 1967 Casino Royale to this list. They are unofficial films and are listed in the unofficial films list, below! Any such addition will be reverted, so do not waste your time.--> {| class="wikitable" border="1" |- !width="20"|Nomor !width="240"|Judul !taun !width="110"|Aktor !width="140"|Sutradara !Total Box Office !Anggaran !Penyesuaian Inflasi {{br}} Total Box Office** |- |align=center|'''1''' |''[[Dr. No (film)|Dr. No]]'' |[[1962]] |rowspan="5" align="center"|[[Sean Connery]] |rowspan="2" align="center"|[[Terence Young]] |align=right|$59.600.000 |align=right|$1.200.000 |align=right|$425.488.741 |- |align=center|'''2''' |''[[From Russia with Love (film)|From Russia with Love]]'' |[[1963]] |align=right|$78.900.000 |align=right|$2.500.000 |align=right|$555.909.803 |- |align=center|'''3''' |''[[Goldfinger (film)|Goldfinger]]'' |[[1964]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Guy Hamilton]] |align=right|$124.900.000 |align=right|$3.500.000 |align=right|$868.659.354 |- |align=center|'''4''' |''[[Thunderball (film)|Thunderball]]'' |[[1965]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Terence Young]] |align=right|$141.200.000 |align=right|$11.000.000 |align=right|$966.435.555 |- <!--DO NOT add The 1967 Casino Royale to this list. It is an unofficial film and is listed in the unofficial films list, below!--> |align=center|'''5''' |''[[You Only Live Twice (film)|You Only Live Twice]]'' |[[1967]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Lewis Gilbert]] |align=right|$111.600.000 |align=right|$9.500.000 |align=right|$720.388.023 |- |align=center|'''6''' |''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service (film)|On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' |[[1969]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[George Lazenby]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Peter R. Hunt]] |align=right|$87.400.000 |align=right|$7.000.000 |align=right|$513.445.231 |- |align=center|'''7''' |''[[Diamonds Are Forever (film)|Diamonds Are Forever]]'' |[[1971]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Sean Connery]] |rowspan="3" align="center"|[[Guy Hamilton]] |align=right|$116.000.000 |align=right|$7.200.000 |align=right|$617.520.987 |- |align=center|'''8''' |''[[Live and Let Die (film)|Live and Let Die]]'' |[[1973]] |rowspan="7" align="center"|[[Roger Moore]] |align=right|$161.800.000 |align=right|$12.000.000 |align=right|$785.677.477 |- |align=center|'''9''' |''[[The Man with the Golden Gun (film)|The Man with the Golden Gun]]'' |[[1974]] |align=right|$97.600.000 |align=right|$13.000.000 |align=right|$426.826.774 |- |align=center|'''10''' |''[[The Spy Who Loved Me (film)|The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' |[[1977]] |rowspan="2" align="center"|[[Lewis Gilbert]] |align=right|$187.300.000 |align=right|$28.000.000 |align=right|$666.367.656 |- |align=center|'''11''' |''[[Moonraker (film)|Moonraker]]'' |[[1979]] |align=right|$210.300.000 |align=right|$34.000.000 |align=right|$624.527.272 |- |align=center|'''12''' |''[[For Your Eyes Only (film)|For Your Eyes Only]]'' |[[1981]] |rowspan="5" align="center"|[[John Glen]] |align=right|$202.800.000 |align=right|$28.000.000 |align=right|$481.005.579 |- |align=center|'''13''' |''[[Octopussy]]'' |[[1983]] |align=right|$187.500.000 |align=right|$27.500.000 |align=right|$405.873.493 |- <!--DO NOT add Never Say Never Again to this list. It is an unofficial film and is listed in the unofficial films list, below!--> |align=center|'''14''' |''[[A View to a Kill]]'' |[[1985]] |align=right|$157.800.000 |align=right|$30.000.000 |align=right|$316.186.616 |- |align=center|'''15''' |''[[The Living Daylights]]'' |[[1987]] |rowspan="2" align="center"|[[Timothy Dalton]] |align=right|$191.200.000 |align=right|$40.000.000 |align=right|$362.876.056 |- |align=center|'''16''' |''[[Licence to Kill]]'' |[[1989]] |align=right|$156.200.000 |align=right|$42.000.000 |align=right|$271.586.451 |- |align=center|'''17''' |''[[GoldenEye]]'' |[[1995]] |rowspan="4" align="center"|[[Pierce Brosnan]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Martin Campbell]] |align=right|$353.400.000 |align=right|$60.000.000 |align=right|$499.954.330 |- |align=center|'''18''' |''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'' |[[1997]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Roger Spottiswoode]] |align=right|$346.600.000 |align=right|$110.000.000 |align=right|$465.588.535 |- |align=center|'''19''' |''[[The World Is Not Enough]]'' |[[1999]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Michael Apted]] |align=right|$390.000.000 |align=right|$135.000.000 |align=right|$504.705.882 |- |align=center|'''20''' |''[[Die Another Day]]'' |[[2002]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Lee Tamahori]] |align=right|$456.000.000 |align=right|$142.000.000 |align=right|$546.490.272 |- |align=center|'''21''' |''[[Casino Royale (film 2006)|Casino Royale]]'' |[[2006]] |rowspan="2" align="center"|[[Daniel Craig]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Martin Campbell]] |align=right|$599.200.000 |align=right|$150.000.000 |align=right|$640.803.677 |- |align=center|'''22''' |''[[Quantum of Solace]]'' |[[2008]] |rowspan="1" align="center"|[[Marc Forster]] |align=right|$515.588.687 |align=right|$230.000.000 |align=right|$515.588.687 |- |'''Total''' |'''''Film 1-22''''' | | | |align=right|'''$4.739.157.447''' |align=right|'''$1.123.000.000''' |align=right|'''$11.615.711.960''' |} </center> <nowiki>*</nowiki> ''Data kaping 6 Mei 2007 (sumber - [http://commanderbond.net/article/3904 commanderbond.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519005145/http://commanderbond.net/article/3904 |date=2009-05-19 }}).''{{br}} <nowiki>**</nowiki> ''Data ngarujuk kana kurs dollar taun 2008, tepatna kaping 24 Maret 2008, sumber dari Consumer Price Index.''{{br}} <nowiki>***</nowiki> ''Semua data dina Dollar AS''<ref>[http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/series/JamesBond.php Bond franchise Box Office numbers], [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/franchises/chart/?id=jamesbond.htm], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060614220501/http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/1967/0CARO.html Casino Royale Box Office numbers (1967)], [http://www.freewebs.com/moonrakerbondstation2/index.htm Box Office numbers + Inflation]</ref> === Sanes EON-Productions === Salain produksi éoN, aya ogé sababarahiji carita James Bond dina bentuk sandiwara radio, film TV sareng film layar lebar nu dijieun ku produser lain. {| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" |- !width="20"|taun !width="240"|Judul !Type !width="110"|Aktor !Total Box Office !Anggaran !Penyesuaian Inflasi {{br}} Total Box Office** |- |1954 |''[[Casino Royale (Climax!)|Casino Royale]]'' |Episode TV |[[Barry Nelson]] |align=right|n/a |align=right|$25.000 |align=right|n/a |- |1956 |''[[Moonraker (novel)|Moonraker]]'' |Radio |[[Bob Holness]] |align=right|n/a |align=right| |align=right|n/a |- |[[1967]] |''[[Casino Royale (film 1967)|Casino Royale]]'' |Film |[[David Niven]] |align=right|$44.400.000 |align=right|$12.000.000 |align=right|$286.605.987 |- |[[1983]] |''[[Never Say Never Again]]'' |Film |[[Sean Connery]] |align=right|$160.000.000 |align=right|$36.000.000 |align=right|$346.345.380 |- |1990 |''[[You Only Live Twice (novel)|You Only Live Twice]]'' |Radio |[[Michael Jayston]] |align=right|n/a |align=right| |align=right|n/a |- |1991 |''[[James Bond Jr.]]'' |Serial kartun TV |[[Corey Burton]] |align=right|n/a |align=right| |align=right|n/a |- |2008 |''[[Dr. No (novel)|Dr. No]]'' |Radio |[[Toby Stephens]] |align=right|n/a |align=right| |align=right|n/a |- |'''Total''' | | | |align=right|'''$204.400.000''' |align=right|'''$48.000.000''' |align=right|'''$602.860.000''' |} </center> == Aktor == === Produksi resmi EON === * [[Sean Connery]] (1962-1967; 1971) – genep film * [[George Lazenby]] (1969) – hiji film * [[Roger Moore]] (1973-1985) – tujuh film * [[Timothy Dalton]] (1987-1989) – dua film * [[Pierce Brosnan]] (1995-2002) – opat film * [[Daniel Craig]] (2006-…) – sampai kiwari kakarek dua film === Produksi non-resmi === * [[Barry Nelson]] - 1954 * [[Bob Holness]] - 1956 * [[David Niven]] - 1967 * [[Sean Connery]] - 1983 * [[Michael Jayston]] - 1990 * [[Corey Burton]] - 1991 * [[Toby Stephens]] – 2008 == Catatan kaki == <div class="reflist4" style="height: 300px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px noprint" > {{reflist|2}} </div> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Wikiquote}} {{commons|James Bond}} {{portal}} ;Website resmi: * {{en}}[http://www.jamesbond.com/ Situs resmi James Bond] * {{en}}[http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ Pusat penerbitan novel Ian Fleming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613124446/http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/ |date=2017-06-13 }} * {{en}}[http://www.youngbond.com/ Situs resmi Young Bond] * {{en}}[http://www.pinewoodgroup.com/ Pinewood Studios – rumah dari James Bond] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128072515/http://www.pinewoodgroup.com/ |date=2011-01-28 }} * {{en}}[http://www.007stage.com/ Website resmi Pinewood Studios Albert R. Broccoli 007 Stage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930160508/http://www.007stage.com/ |date=2011-09-30 }} * {{en}}[http://www.30AU.co.uk/ Ian Fleming's 'Red Indians' - 30AU - Literatur James Bond Wartime unit] ;Website non-resmi: * {{en}}[http://www.007james.com/ 007James – Situsnya Mr. Bond, James Bond] * {{en}}[http://mi6.co.uk/ MI6 – Rumah dari James Bond] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906114842/http://www.mi6.co.uk./ |date=2008-09-06 }} [[Kategori:Fiksi]] [[Kategori:James Bond]] fjy120dey1o4tz04f09q92qkywkrjnv 0 31048 711707 657488 2026-08-07T02:09:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711707 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Pert chart colored.gif|thumb|309px|Grafik raramat PERT tina hiji proyek tujuh bulan kalayan lima kajadian penting (10 tepi ka 50) jeung genep kagiatan (A tepi ka F).]] '''Program '''(atawa '''Project''')''' Evaluation and Review Technique''', ilaharna disingget '''PERT''', nyaéta hiji modél [[manajemen proyek]] di dirarancang keur nganalisis tur nunjukkeun tugas nu kalibet pikeun ngarengsekeun hiji [[proyek]]. == Sawangan == PERT nyaéta hiji cara keur nganalisis tugas-tugas dina raraga ngarengsekeun hiji proyek, hususna wanci nu dibutuhkeun keur ngarengsekeun éta tugas, sarta ngidentifikasikeun wanci pangsaeutikna pikeun ngarengsekun sakabe proyek. PERT dimekarkeun utamana keur ngabasajankeun rarancang jeung jadwal tina hiji proyek kompleks nu gedé. PERT bisa ngahijikeun kahenteupastian ku jalan ngamungkinkeun ngajadwal hiji proyek sok sanajan henteu nyaho sagemblengna detil jeung lilana sakabéh aktivitas. PERT leuwih mangrupa hiji tehnik nu orientasi kana event tinimbang orientasi kana mitembeyan jeung rengsena, tur dipaké dina hiji proyek nalika wanci mangrupa faktor utama tinimbang béaya. Diterapkeun kana infrastruktur nu kacida gedéna, saharitaeun, kompleks, jeung henteu rutin sarta proyek-proyek panalungtikan jeung Pangembangan. modél proyek ieu harita mangrupa modél munggaran dina golonganana, binangkitna deui manajemen saintifik, nu kapanggih ku Frederick Taylor "[[Taylorisme]]" jeung dihadéan ku Henry Ford "[[Fordisme]]". [[Critical path method]] [[Pausahaan DuPont]] kapanggih dina wanci nu ampir sarua jeung PERT. <!-- ==Conventions== * A '''PERT chart''' is a tool that '''facilitates''' decision making; The first draft of a PERT chart will number its '''events''' sequentially in 10s (10, 20, 30, etc.) to allow the later insertion of additional events. * Two consecutive events in a PERT chart are linked by '''activities''', which are conventionally represented as arrows in the diagram above. * The events are presented in a logical sequence and no activity can commence until its immediately preceding event is completed. * The planner decides which milestones should be PERT events and also decides their “proper” sequence. * A PERT chart may have multiple pages with many sub-tasks. PERT is valuable to manage where multiple tasks are going simultaneously to reduce the redundancy ==Terminology== * A ''PERT event'': is a point that marks the start or completion of one or more tasks. It consumes '''no time''', and uses '''no resources'''. It marks the completion of one or more tasks, and is not “reached” until '''all''' of the activities leading to that event have been completed. * A ''predecessor event'': an event (or events) that immediately precedes some other event without any other events intervening. It may be the consequence of more than one activity. * A ''successor event'': an event (or events) that immediately follows some other event without any other events intervening. It may be the consequence of more than one activity. * A ''PERT activity'': is the actual performance of a task. It consumes '''time''', it requires '''resources''' (such as labour, materials, space, machinery), and it can be understood as representing the time, effort, and resources required to move from one event to another. A PERT activity cannot be completed until the event preceding it has occurred. * ''Optimistic time'' ('''O'''): the minimum possible time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything proceeds better than is normally expected * ''Pessimistic time'' ('''P'''): the maximum possible time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything goes wrong (but excluding major catastrophes). * ''Most likely time'' ('''M'''): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything proceeds as normal. * ''Expected time'' ('''T<sub>E</sub>'''): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything proceeds as normal (the implication being that the expected time is the average time the task would require if the task were repeated on a number of occasions over an extended period of time). ::: '''T<sub>E</sub>''' = ('''O''' + '''4M''' + '''P''') ÷ '''6''' * ''[[Float (project management)|Float]] or [[Float (project management)|Slack]]'' is the amount of time that a task in a project network can be delayed without causing a delay - Subsequent tasks – ('''free float''') or Project Completion – ('''total float''') * ''[[critical path method|Critical Path]]'': the longest possible continuous pathway taken from the initial event to the terminal event. It determines the total calendar time required for the project; and, therefore, any time delays along the critical path will delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the same amount. * ''Critical Activity'': An activity that has total float equal to zero. Activity with zero float does not mean it is on the critical path. * ''[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lead#Verb_2 Lead] time'': the time by which a ''predecessor event'' must be completed in order to allow sufficient time for the activities that must elapse before a specific PERT event reaches completion. * ''Lag time'': the earliest time by which a ''successor event'' can follow a specific PERT event. * ''Slack'': the '''slack''' of an event is a measure of the excess time and resources available in achieving this event. '''Positive slack(+)''' would indicate ''ahead of schedule''; '''negative slack''' would indicate ''behind schedule''; and '''zero slack''' would indicate ''on schedule''. * ''[[critical path method|Fast tracking]]'': performing more critical activities in parallel * ''[[critical path method|Crashing critical path]]'': Shortening duration of critical activities ==Implementing PERT== The first step to scheduling the project is to determine the tasks that the project requires and the order in which they must be completed. The order may be easy to record for some tasks (''e.g.'' When building a house, the land must be graded before the foundation can be laid) while difficult for others (There are two areas that need to be graded, but there are only enough bulldozers to do one). Additionally, the time estimates usually reflect the normal, non-rushed time. Many times, the time required to execute the task can be reduced for an additional cost or a reduction in the quality. In the following example there are seven tasks, labeled ''A'' through ''G''. Some tasks can be done concurrently (''A'' and ''B'') while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete (''C'' cannot begin until ''A'' is complete). Additionally, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic time estimate (''O''), the most likely or normal time estimate (''M''), and the pessimistic time estimate (''P''). The expected time (''T<sub>E</sub>'') is computed using the formula (''O'' + 4''M'' + ''P'')/6. {| class="wikitable" !rowspan="2" | Activity !rowspan="2" | Predecessor !colspan="3" | Time estimates !rowspan="2" | Expected time |- ! Opt. (''O'') ! Normal (''M'') ! Pess. (''P'') |- | ''A'' | — | 2 | 4 | 6 | 4.00 |- | ''B'' | — | 3 | 5 | 9 | 5.33 |- | ''C'' | ''A'' | 4 | 5 | 7 | 5.17 |- | ''D'' | ''A'' | 4 | 6 | 10 | 6.33 |- | ''E'' | ''B'', ''C'' | 4 | 5 | 7 | 5.17 |- | ''F'' | ''D'' | 3 | 4 | 8 | 4.50 |- | ''G'' | ''E'' | 3 | 5 | 8 | 5.17 |} Once this step is complete, one can draw a [[Gantt chart]] or a network diagram. :[[Image:pert example gantt chart.gif|frame|none|A Gantt chart created using [[Microsoft Project]] (MSP). Note (1) the [[critical path method|critical path]] is in red, (2) the [[Float (project management)|slack]] is the black lines connected to non-critical activities, (3) since Saturday and Sunday are not work days and are thus excluded from the schedule, some bars on the Gantt chart are longer if they cut through a weekend.]] :[[Image:Pert example gantt chart.png|frame|none|A Gantt chart created using [[OmniPlan]]. Note (1) the [[critical path method|critical path]] is highlighted, (2) the [[Float (project management)|slack]] is not specifically indicated on task 5 (d), though it can be observed on tasks 3 and 7 (b and f), (3) since weekends are indicated by a thin vertical line, and take up no additional space on the work calendar, bars on the Gantt chart are not longer or shorter when they do or don't carry over a weekend.]] A network diagram can be created by hand or by using diagram software. There are two types of network diagrams, activity on arrow ([[Arrow Diagramming Method|AOA]]) and activity on node ([[Precedence Diagram Method|AON]]). Activity on node diagrams are generally easier to create and interpret. To create an AON diagram, it is recommended (but not required) to start with a node named ''start''. This <nowiki>"activity"</nowiki> has a duration of zero (0). Then you draw each activity that does not have a predecessor activity (''a'' and ''b'' in this example) and connect them with an arrow from start to each node. Next, since both ''c'' and ''d'' list ''a'' as a predecessor activity, their nodes are drawn with arrows coming from ''a''. Activity ''e'' is listed with ''b'' and ''c'' as predecessor activities, so node ''e'' is drawn with arrows coming from both ''b'' and ''c'', signifying that ''e'' cannot begin until both ''b'' and ''c'' have been completed. Activity ''f'' has ''d'' as a predecessor activity, so an arrow is drawn connecting the activities. Likewise, an arrow is drawn from ''e'' to ''g''. Since there are no activities that come after ''f'' or ''g'', it is recommended (but again not required) to connect them to a node labeled ''finish''. :[[Image:pert example network diagram.gif|frame|none|A network diagram created using [[Microsoft Project]] (MSP). Note the [[critical path method|critical path]] is in red.]] :[[Image:pert example node legend.GIF|frame|right|A node like this one (from [[Microsoft Visio]]) can be used to display the activity name, duration, ES, EF, LS, LF, and slack.]] By itself, the network diagram pictured above does not give much more information than a Gantt chart; however, it can be expanded to display more information. The most common information shown is: # The activity name # The normal duration time # The early start time (ES) # The early finish time (EF) # The late start time (LS) # The late finish time (LF) # The [[float (project management)|slack]] In order to determine this information it is assumed that the activities and normal duration times are given. The first step is to determine the ES and EF. The ES is defined as the maximum EF of all predecessor activities, unless the activity in question is the first activity, for which the ES is zero (0). The EF is the ES plus the task duration (EF = ES + duration). *The ES for ''start'' is zero since it is the first activity. Since the duration is zero, the EF is also zero. This EF is used as the ES for ''a'' and ''b''. *The ES for ''a'' is zero. The duration (4 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of four. This EF is used as the ES for ''c'' and ''d''. *The ES for ''b'' is zero. The duration (5.33 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 5.33. *The ES for ''c'' is four. The duration (5.17 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 9.17. *The ES for ''d'' is four. The duration (6.33 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 10.33. This EF is used as the ES for ''f''. *The ES for ''e'' is the greatest EF of its predecessor activities (''b'' and ''c''). Since ''b'' has an EF of 5.33 and ''c'' has an EF of 9.17, the ES of ''e'' is 9.17. The duration (5.17 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 14.34. This EF is used as the ES for ''g''. *The ES for ''f'' is 10.33. The duration (4.5 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 14.83. *The ES for ''g'' is 14.34. The duration (5.17 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 19.51. *The ES for ''finish'' is the greatest EF of its predecessor activities (''f'' and ''g''). Since ''f'' has an EF of 14.83 and ''g'' has an EF of 19.51, the ES of ''finish'' is 19.51. ''Finish'' is a milestone (and therefore has a duration of zero), so the EF is also 19.51. Barring any [[Theory of Constraints|unforeseen events]], the project should take 19.51 work days to complete. The next step is to determine the late start (LS) and late finish (LF) of each activity. This will eventually show if there are activities that have [[float (project management)|slack]]. The LF is defined as the minimum LS of all successor activities, unless the activity is the last activity, for which the LF equals the EF. The LS is the LF minus the task duration (LS = LF - duration). *The LF for ''finish'' is equal to the EF (19.51 work days) since it is the last activity in the project. Since the duration is zero, the LS is also 19.51 work days. This will be used as the LF for ''f'' and ''g''. *The LF for ''g'' is 19.51 work days. The duration (5.17 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 14.34 work days. This will be used as the LF for ''e''. *The LF for ''f'' is 19.51 work days. The duration (4.5 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 15.01 work days. This will be used as the LF for ''d''. *The LF for ''e'' is 14.34 work days. The duration (5.17 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 9.17 work days. This will be used as the LF for ''b'' and ''c''. *The LF for ''d'' is 15.01 work days. The duration (6.33 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 8.68 work days. *The LF for ''c'' is 9.17 work days. The duration (5.17 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 4 work days. *The LF for ''b'' is 9.17 work days. The duration (5.33 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 3.84 work days. *The LF for ''a'' is the minimum LS of its successor activities. Since ''c'' has an LS of 4 work days and ''d'' has an LS of 8.68 work days, the LF for ''a'' is 4 work days. The duration (4 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 0 work days. *The LF for ''start'' is the minimum LS of its successor activities. Since ''a'' has an LS of 0 work days and ''b'' has an LS of 3.84 work days, the LS is 0 work days. The next step is to determine the [[critical path method|critical path]] and if any activities have [[float (project management)|slack]]. The critical path is the path that takes the '''longest''' to complete. To determine the path times, add the task durations for all available paths. Activities that have slack can be delayed without changing the overall time of the project. Slack is computed in one of two ways, slack = LF - EF ''or'' slack = LS - ES. Activities that are on the critical path have a slack of zero (0). *The duration of path ''adf'' is 14.83 work days. *The duration of path ''aceg'' is 19.51 work days. *The duration of path ''beg'' is 15.67 work days. The critical path is ''aceg'' and the critical time is 19.51 work days. It is important to note that there can be more than one critical path (in a project more complex than this example) or that the critical path can change. For example, let's say that activities ''d'' and ''f'' take their pessimistic (b) times to complete instead of their expected (T<sub>E</sub>) times. The critical path is now ''adf'' and the critical time is 22 work days. On the other hand, if activity ''c'' can be reduced to one work day, the path time for ''aceg'' is reduced to 15.34 work days, which is slightly less than the time of the new critical path, ''beg'' (15.67 work days). Assuming these scenarios do not happen, the slack for each activity can now be determined. *''Start'' and ''finish'' are milestones and by definition have no duration, therefore they can have no slack (0 work days). *The activities on the critical path by definition have a slack of zero; however, it is always a good idea to check the math anyway when drawing by hand. ** LF<sub>a</sub> - EF<sub>a</sub> = 4 - 4 = 0 ** LF<sub>c</sub> - EF<sub>c</sub> = 9.17 - 9.17 = 0 ** LF<sub>e</sub> - EF<sub>e</sub> = 14.34 - 14.34 = 0 ** LF<sub>g</sub> - EF<sub>g</sub> = 19.51 - 19.51 = 0 *Activity ''b'' has an LF of 9.17 and an EF of 5.33, so the slack is 3.84 work days. *Activity ''d'' has an LF of 15.01 and an EF of 10.33, so the slack is 4.68 work days. *Activity ''f'' has an LF of 19.51 and an EF of 14.83, so the slack is 4.68 work days. Therefore, activity ''b'' can be delayed almost 4 work days without delaying the project. Likewise, activity ''d'' '''or''' activity ''f'' can be delayed 4.68 work days without delaying the project (alternatively, ''d'' and ''f'' can be delayed 2.34 work days each). :[[Image:pert example network diagram visio.gif|thumb|800px|left|A completed network diagram created using [[Microsoft Visio]]. Note the [[critical path method|critical path]] is in red.]] {{clear}} --> == Tempo ogé == * [[Activity diagram]] * [[Beta distribution]] * [[Critical Path Method]] * [[Float (project management)]] * [[Gantt chart]] * [[Project network]] * [[Project management]] * [[Project planning]] * [[Triangular distribution]] * [[PRINCE2]] == Rujukan == {{Unreferenced|date=September 2008}} == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book | author = Project Management Institute | title = A Guide To The Project Management Body Of Knowledge | url = https://archive.org/details/guidetoprojectma00proj | year = 2003 | edition = 3rd ed. | publisher = Project Management Institute | isbn = 1-930699-45-X }} * {{cite book | first = Ted | last = Klastorin | title = Project Management: Tools and Trade-offs | url = https://archive.org/details/projectmanagemen0000klas | year = 2003 | edition = 3rd ed. | publisher = Wiley | isbn = 978-0471413844 }} * {{cite book | first = Harold | last = Kerzner | year = 2003 | title = Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling | url = https://archive.org/details/projectmanagemen0000haro_q5w9 | edition = 8th Ed. | publisher = Wiley | isbn = 0-471-22577-0 }} * {{cite book | first = Dragan Z. | last = Milosevic | year = 2003 | title = Project Management ToolBox: Tools and Techniques for the Practicing Project Manager | url = https://archive.org/details/projectmanagemen0000milo | publisher = Wiley | isbn = 978-0471208228 }} * {{cite book | author = Lev Virine & Michael Trumper | year = 2007 | title = [http://www.projectdecisions.org Project Decisions: The Art and Science] | publisher = Management Concepts | isbn = 978-1567262179 }} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commonscat|PERT charts}} * [http://www.netmba.com/operations/project/pert More explanation of PERT] * [http://www.visionarytools.com/decision-making/3-point-estimating.htm 3 Point Estimating Tutorial on VisionaryTools.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090405124606/http://www.visionarytools.com/decision-making/3-point-estimating.htm |date=2009-04-05 }} [[Kategori:Téori raramat]] [[Kategori:Diagram]] [[Kategori:Evaluasi]] [[Kategori:Manajemén proyék]] [[Kategori:Produksi jeung manufaktur]] [[Kategori:Rékayasa sistim]] [[Kategori:Booz Allen Hamilton]] 8hapwwhq3g28t38s2ltajcv29i69ccf 0 31116 711565 710634 2026-08-06T23:14:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711565 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Unreferenced}} {{Infobox President | honorific-prefix= | name=Soeharto | nationality= | image=President Suharto, 1993.jpg | order=Presiden Indonesia | office= | term_start= 12 Maret 1967 | term_end=21 Mei 1998 | predecessor=[[Soekarno]] | successor=[[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]] | order2=Sekretaris Jendral Gerakan Non Blok | term_start2= 7 September 1992 | term_end2=20 Oktober 1995 | predecessor2=[[Dobrica Ćosić]] | successor2=[[Ernesto Samper Pizano]] | birth_date={{birth date|1921|6|8}} | birth_place=[[Kemusuk]], [[Yogyakarta]], [[Indonesia]] | death_date= {{death date and age|2008|1|27|1921|6|8}} | death_place= [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]] | religion=[[Islam]] | spouse=[[Siti Hartinah]] (d. 1996) | children=[[Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana|Siti Hardiyanti Hastuti]]<br />Sigit Harjojudanto<br />Bambang Trihatmodjo<br />Siti Hediyati Hariyadi<br />[[Tommy Suharto|Hutomo Mandala Putra]]<br />Siti Hutami Endang Adiningsih | party=[[Partey Golkar]] | vicepresident= [[Hamengkubuwono IX]]<br />[[Adam Malik]]<br />[[Umar Wirahadikusumah]]<br />[[Sudharmono]]<br />[[Try Sutrisno]]<br />[[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]] | occupation=[[Militer]], [[Politikus]] | signature= Suharto signature.svg }} '''Soeharto''' ({{lahirmati|Dusun [[Kemusuk]], Desa [[Argomulyo, Sedayu, Bantul|Argomulyo]], Kecamatan [[Sedayu, Bantul|Sedayu]], [[Kabupaten Bantul|Bantul]], [[Yogyakarta]]|8|6|1921|[[Jakarta]]|27|1|2008}}) nyaéta présidén Indonesia kadua nu ngajabat ti taun 1967 dugi ka 1998. ==Daftar pustaka== * {{cite news |date=22 February 2006 |title=Two former strongmen, Soeharto-Lee Kuan Yew meet again |publisher=ANTARA |access-date=22 February 2006 |url=http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 |archive-date=25 March 2007 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070325054315/http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 }} * {{cite book |last=Aarons |first=Mark |date=2008 |chapter=Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA69 |editor1=David A. Blumenthal |editor2=Timothy L. H. McCormack |title=The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? |series=International Humanitarian Law |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |isbn=978-9004156913 }} * {{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Benedict R. |last2=McVey |date=2009 |first2=Ruth T. |title=A Preliminary Analysis of 1 October 1965 Coup in Indonesia |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9786028397520 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVcwPV3NvDMC }} * {{cite news |date=19 October 1965 |title=Army in Jakarta Imposes a Ban on Communists |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=registration |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1965/10/19/archives/army-in-jakarta-imposes-a-ban-on-communists-extent-of-order-unclear.html |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829193148/https://www.nytimes.com/1965/10/19/archives/army-in-jakarta-imposes-a-ban-on-communists-extent-of-order-unclear.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Aspinall |first=Ed |date=October–December 1996 |title=What happened before the riots? |newspaper=[[Inside Indonesia]] |issue=48 |archive-date=5 May 2005 |url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit48/ed.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050505222646/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit48/ed.htm }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050505222646/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit48/ed.htm |date=5 May 2005 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Aspinall |editor1-first=Ed |editor2-last=Klinken |editor2-first=Gerry van |editor3-last=Feith |editor3-first=Herb |date=1999 |title=The Last Days of President Suharto |location=[[Clayton, Victoria|Clayton AU-VIC]] |publisher=Monash Asia Institute |isbn=073261175X}} *{{cite book |last1=Bevins |first1=Vincent |title= [[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |date=2020 |publisher= [[PublicAffairs]] |isbn= 978-1541742406}} * {{cite news| title=Attorney general doubts Soeharto can be prosecuted |work=The Jakarta Post| date=27 May 2005}} * {{cite book| first = William| last = Blum| date = 1995| title = Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II| publisher = Common Courage Press| location = Monroe, Me.| isbn = 1-56751-052-3| url = https://archive.org/details/killinghopeusmil00blum_0}} * ''[http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/nb/1997/nb9722.htm Camdessus Commends Indonesian Actions]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109110205/http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/nb/1997/nb9722.htm |date=9 November 2016 }}''. Press Release. [[International Monetary Fund]]. (31 October 1997) * {{cite web| title=CIA Stalling State Department Histories| work=The National Security Archive| url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/| access-date=23 May 2005| archive-date=8 March 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308035956/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/| url-status=live}} * {{cite news| last=Colmey| first=John| title=The Family Firm| date=24 May 1999| publisher=TIME Asia| url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010208155758/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=8 February 2001}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010208155758/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html |date=8 February 2001 }} * {{cite book |last=Conboy |first=Kenneth J. |date=2003 |title=Kopassus: Inside Indonesia's Special Forces |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789799589880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |access-date=20 April 2021 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323145048/https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |url-status=live }} * Robert Cribb, "Genocide in Indonesia,1965–1966". Journal of Genocide Research no.2:219–239, 2001. * {{cite book |last=Elson |first=Robert E. |date=2001 |title = Suharto: A Political Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/suhartopolitical0000elso |location=Cambridge UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-77326-1}} * {{cite book |last=Dijk |first=Kees van |date=2001 |title=A country in despair : Indonesia between 1997 and 2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/countryindespair0000unse |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=9789067181600 }} * {{cite book |last=Friend |first=Theodore |date=2003 |title=Indonesian Destinies |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-01834-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo |url-access=registration }} * {{cite web | title=H.AMDT.647 (A003): An amendment to prohibit any funds appropriated in the bill to be used for military education and training assistance to Indonesia | url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: | publisher=THOMAS (Library of Congress) | access-date=4 February 2006 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113050730/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: | archive-date=13 January 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113050730/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: |date=13 January 2016 }} * {{cite book| last=Hughes |first=John |title=The End of Sukarno – A Coup that Misfired: A Purge that Ran Wild| publisher=Archipelago Press|date=2002 | orig-year=1976| isbn=981-4068-65-9}} * {{cite news |title=Indonesia: Arrests, torture and intimidation: The Government's response to its critics |date=27 November 1996 |publisher=Amnesty International |url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-idn/index&start=391 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109023133/http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-idn/index |archive-date=9 November 2005 }} * {{cite web | title=Indonesia Economic | work=Commanding Heights | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/id/id_economic.html | access-date=23 May 2005 | archive-date=24 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224182929/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/id/id_economic.html | url-status=live }} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Cabinet Faces Challenge|work=The New York Times| date=16 December 1965}} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Leftist Out As Army Chief| work=[[New York Times]]| date=15 October 1965}} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Cabinet Faces Challenge| work=The New York Times| date=16 December 1965}} * {{cite news| last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Oliver |first2=James| name-list-style=amp | title=MI6 Spread Lies to Put Killer in Power| work=The Independent |location=UK| date=16 April 2000}} * {{cite book| last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Oliver |first2=James |title=Britain's Secret Propaganda War| publisher=Sutton Pub Ltd|date=1999| isbn=0-7509-1668-0}} * {{cite book|last=McDonald |first=H. |author-link=Hamish McDonald |date=1980 |title=Suharto's Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/suhartoindonesia0000mcdo |location=[[Blackburn, Victoria|Blackburn]] AU|publisher=Fontana Books |isbn=0-00-635721-0}} * {{cite book|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=2018|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-57469-4|access-date=21 November 2021|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608032221/https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|url-status=live}} *{{cite news |date=1993 |title=Public Expenditures, Prices and the Poor |publisher=World Bank |url=http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/2f56edbf2ef22ff185256b2100754284?OpenDocument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323210822/http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/2f56edbf2ef22ff185256b2100754284?OpenDocument |archive-date=23 March 2007 }} * {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |date=1991 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1300 |edition=2nd |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-333-57690-X}} * {{cite book |last=Rock |first=Michael T. |date=2003 |title=The Politics of Development Policy and Development Policy Reform |others=William Davidson Institute Working Paper Number 632 |publisher=The University of Michigan Business School |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/40018/wp632.pdf?sequence=3 |access-date=11 June 2013 |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212120254/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/40018/wp632.pdf?sequence=3 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Purdey |first=Jemma |date=2006 |title=Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia, 1996–1999 |location=[[Honolulu]] HI |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=9780824830571}} *{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Geoffrey B. |date=2018 |title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965-66 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=9781400888863 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW0wDwAAQBAJ }} * John Roosa, Pretext for Mass Murder: 30 September Movement & Suharto's Coup D'état. The University of Wisconsin Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-299-22034-1}}. * {{cite news| last=Simpson| first=Brad| title=Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice"| date=9 July 2004| publisher=National Security Archive| url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm| access-date=17 June 2005| archive-date=5 February 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205191327/http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm| url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Adam |date=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=9780813388816 |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw }} * {{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Bradley |date=2010 |title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 |url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |location= |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0804771825 |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213245/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213245/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |date=25 June 2018 }} * {{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm| title=Suharto tops corruption rankings| work=BBC News| date=25 March 2004| access-date=4 February 2006| archive-date=13 November 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113042444/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm| url-status=live}} * {{cite news| title=Sukarno Removes His Defense Chief| work=[[New York Times]]| date=22 February 1966}} * {{cite news| title=Tapol Troubles: When Will They End?| date=April–June 1999| publisher=Inside Indonesia| url=http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305190845/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view| archive-date=5 March 2012| df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305190845/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view |date=5 March 2012 }} * {{cite book| author=Pramoedya Ananta Toer| title=The Mute's Soliloquy: A Memoir| url=https://archive.org/details/mutessoliloquyme0000toer| publisher=Penguin|date=2000| isbn=0-14-028904-6}} * {{cite web| title=United Nations High Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/97: Situation in East Timor| url=http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument| publisher=United Nations| access-date=4 February 2006| archive-date=4 February 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204035327/http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument| url-status=live}} *{{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |date=2005 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521542623 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri }} * {{cite book |last=Wanandi |first=Jusuf |author-link=Jusuf Wanandi |date=2012 |title=Shades of Grey: A Political Memoir of Modern Indonesia 1965–1998 |url=https://archive.org/details/shadesofgreypoli0000wana |location=Singapore |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789793780924 }} * {{cite book| title=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA| last=Weiner| first=Tim| publisher=Doubleday| place=New York|date=2007| isbn=978-3-596-17865-0| chapter=Chapter 15, CIA and Indonesia| title-link=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA}} * {{cite journal| last1=Wertheim| first1=W.F.| title=Whose plot?-New light on the 1965 events| journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia|date=1979| volume=9| issue=2| pages=197–215| doi=10.1080/00472337985390191}} * {{cite book |last=Wiranto |author-link=Wiranto |date=2011 |title=7 Tahun Menggali Pemikiran dan Tindakan Pak Harto 1991–1997 |trans-title=7 Years Exploring the Thoughts and Actions of Pak Harto 1991–1997 |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Citra Kharisma Bunda |isbn=9786028112123}} {{start box}} {{s-off}} {{succession box | title=Presiden Indonesia | before=[[Sukarno]] | after=[[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]] | years=1945 - 1967 }} {{succession box | title=Sekretaris Jendral<br> Gerakan Non Blok | before=[[Dobrica Ćosić]] | after=[[Ernesto Samper Pizano]] | years=1992 - 1995 }} {{end box}} {{Presiden Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Inohong Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Présidén Indonésia]] asxs1h2dk43urjlztmqsqvkpgk7s612 0 31204 711820 673078 2026-08-07T05:16:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711820 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Code division multiple access''' ('''CDMA''') is a [[channel access method]] utilized by various radio communication technologies. It should not be confused with the [[List of mobile phone standards|mobile phone standards]] called [[IS-95|cdmaOne]] and [[CDMA2000]] (which are often referred to as simply "CDMA"), which use CDMA as an underlying [[channel access method]]. One of the basic concepts in data communication is the idéa of allowing several transmitters to send information simultanéously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] of different frequencies. This concept is called [[multiplexing]]. CDMA employs [[spread-spectrum]] technology and a special coding scheme (where éach transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, [[time division multiple access]] ('''TDMA''') divides access by [[time]], while [[frequency-division multiple access]] ('''FDMA''') divides it by [[frequency]]. CDMA is a form of [[spread spectrum|"spread-spectrum"]] signaling, since the modulated coded signal has a much higher [[Bandwidth (computing)|data bandwidth]] than the data being communicated. An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which péople wish to communicate with éach other. To avoid confusion, péople could take turns spéaking (time division), spéak at different pitches (frequency division), or spéak in different languages (code division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where péople spéaking the same language can understand éach other, but not other péople. Similarly, in radio CDMA, éach group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can understand éach other. == Kagunaan == [[Gambar:Au CDMA 1X WIN W31SAII gravelly silver expansion.jpg|thumb|Telepon seluler CDMA]] * Panggunaan aplikasi mimiti pikeun CDMA nyaéta dina [[GPS]]. * Standar [[Qualcomm]] [[IS-95]], dipasarkeun sebagei [[CdmaOne]] * Standar [[Qualcomm]] [[IS-2000]], dipasarkeun sebagei [[CDMA2000]]. Standar ieu dipaké ku sabaraha pausahaan telepon seluler. * CDMA dipaké kanggo sistem satelit '''OmniTRACS''' kanggo logistik transportasi. == Tahap dina modulasi CDMA == CDMA is a spréad spectrum multiple access<ref>{{cite book | first = Valeri | last = Ipatov | year = 2005 | title = Spread Spectrum and CDMA | url = https://archive.org/details/spreadspectrumcd0000ipat | edition = | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Ltd | isbn = }}</ref> technique. A spréad spectrum technique is one which spréads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. Spréading code is a pseudo-random code which has a narrow [[Ambiguity function]] unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is simply logically [[XOR]] (exclusive OR) added with the faster code. The figure shows how spréad spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of <math>T_{b}</math> is XOR added with the code signal with pulse duration of <math>T_{c}</math>. (Note: [[Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] is proportional to <math>1/T</math> where <math>T</math> = bit time) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is <math>1/T_{b}</math> and the bandwidth of the spréad spectrum signal is <math>1/T_{c}</math>. Since <math>T_{c}</math> is much smaller than <math>T_{b}</math>, the bandwidth of the spréad spectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio <math>T_{b}/T_{c}</math> is called spréading factor or processing gain and determines to certain extent the upper limit of total number of users supported simultanéously by a base station<ref>{{cite book | first = Vern A. | last = Dubendorf | year = 2003 | title = Wireless Data Technologies | url = https://archive.org/details/wirelessdatatech0000dube | edition = | publisher = John Wiley (Pondan Tua)& Sons, Ltd | isbn = }}</ref> [[Gambar:Generation of CDMA.jpg.jpg|Generation of a CDMA signal]] éach user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems. The best performance will occur when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user and the signals of other users. The separation of the signals is made by [[Cross-correlation|correlating]] the received signal with the locally generated code of the desired user. If the signal matches the desired user's code then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If the desired user's code has nothing in common with the signal the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross correlation. If the code is correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should be as close to zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-path interference.<ref>{{cite web | last= | first= | title=CDMA Spectrum | publisher= | year= | work= | url=http://www.activexperts.com/asmssrvr/cellular/cdmaspectrum/ | accessdate=2008-04-29 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707081548/http://www.activexperts.com/asmssrvr/cellular/cdmaspectrum/ |date=2011-07-07 }}</ref> In general, CDMA belongs to two basic categories: synchronous (orthogonal codes) and asynchronous (pseudorandom codes). === Code Division Multiplexing (''Synchronous'' CDMA) === Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties of [[orthogonality]] between [[coordinate vector|vectors]] representing the data strings. For example, binary string "1011" is represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by taking their [[dot product]], by summing the products of their respective components. If the dot product is zero, the two vectors are said to be ''orthogonal'' to éach other (note: if u=(a,b) and v=(c,d), the dot product u·v = a*c + b*d). Some properties of the dot product aid understanding of how [[W-CDMA]] works. If vectors ''a'' and ''b'' are orthogonal, then :<math>\mathbf{a}\cdot(\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=||\mathbf{a}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}= ||a||^2+0,</math> :<math>\mathbf{a}\cdot(-\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=-||\mathbf{a}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad-\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}= -||a||^2+0,</math> :<math>\mathbf{b}\cdot(\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=||\mathbf{b}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b}= 0+||b||^2,</math> :<math>\mathbf{b}\cdot(\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{b})=-||\mathbf{b}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b}=0 -||b||^2.</math> éach user in synchronous CDMA uses a code orthogonal to the others' codes to modulate their signal. An example of four mutually orthogonal digital signals is shown in the figure. Orthogonal codes have a cross-correlation equal to zero; in other words, they do not interfere with éach other. In the case of IS-95 64 bit Walsh codes are used to encode the signal to separate different users. Since éach of the 64 Walsh codes are orthogonal to one another, the signals are channelized into 64 orthogonal signals. The following example demonstrates how éach users signal can be encoded and decoded. ==== Conto ==== Start with a set of vectors that are mutually [[Orthogonality|orthogonal]]. (Although mutual orthogonality is the only condition, these vectors are usually constructed for éase of decoding, for example columns or rows from [[Walsh matrix|Walsh matrices]].) An example of orthogonal functions is shown in the picture on the left. These vectors will be assigned to individual users and are called the "code", "[[Chip (CDMA)|chipping]] code" or "chip code". In the interest of brevity, the rest of this example uses codes (v) with only 2 digits. [[Gambar:Cdma orthogonal signals.png|thumb|left|An example of four mutually orthogonal digital signals.]] éach user is associated with a different code, say '''v'''. If the data to be transmitted is a digital zero, then the actual bits transmitted will be '''–v''', and if the data to be transmitted is a digital one, then the actual bits transmitted will be '''v'''. For example, if '''v'''=(1,–1), and the data that the user wishes to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1) this would correspond to ('''v''', '''–v''', '''v''', '''v''') which is then constructed in binary as ((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,–1),(1,–1)). For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector the ''transmitted vector''. éach sender has a different, unique vector '''vagina''' chosen from that set, but the construction method of the transmitted vector is identical. Now, due to physical properties of interference, if two signals at a point are in phase, they add to give twice the amplitude of éach signal, but if they are out of phase, they "subtract" and give a signal that is the difference of the amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modélled by the addition of the transmission vectors, component by component. If sender0 has code (1,–1) and data (1,0,1,1), and sender1 has code (1,1) and data (0,0,1,1), and both senders transmit simultanéously, then this table describes the coding steps: {|style="border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; background-color:#f7f8ff" |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Step |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Encode sender0 |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Encode sender1 |- |0 |vector0=(1,–1), data0=(1,0,1,1)=(v,–v,v,v) |vector1=(1,1), data1=(0,0,1,1)=(–v,–v,v,v) |- |1 |encode0=vector0.data0 |encode1=vector1.data1 |- |2 |encode0=(1,–1).(1,–1,1,1) |encode1=(1,1).(–1,–1,1,1) |- |3 |encode0=((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,–1),(1,–1)) |encode1=((–1,–1),(–1,–1),(1,1),(1,1)) |- |4 |signal0=(1,–1,–1,1,1,–1,1,–1) |signal1=(–1,–1,–1,–1,1,1,1,1) |} Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same time into the air, they add to produce the raw signal:<br /> (1,–1,–1,1,1,–1,1,–1) + (–1,–1,–1,–1,1,1,1,1) = (0,–2,–2,0,2,0,2,0) This raw signal is called an interference pattern. The receiver then extracts an intelligible signal for any known sender by combining the sender's code with the interference pattern, the receiver combines it with the codes of the senders. The following table explains how this works and shows that the signals do not interfere with one another: {|style="border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; background-color:#f7f8ff" |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Step |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Decode sender0 |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Decode sender1 |- |0 |vector0=(1,–1), pattern=(0,–2,–2,0,2,0,2,0) |vector1=(1,1), pattern=(0,–2,–2,0,2,0,2,0) |- |1 |decode0=pattern.vector0 |decode1=pattern.vector1 |- |2 |decode0=((0,–2),(–2,0),(2,0),(2,0)).(1,–1) |decode1=((0,–2),(–2,0),(2,0),(2,0)).(1,1) |- |3 |decode0=((0+2),(–2+0),(2+0),(2+0)) |decode1=((0–2),(–2+0),(2+0),(2+0)) |- |4 |data0=(2,–2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1) |data1=(–2,–2,2,2)=(0,0,1,1) |} Further, after decoding, all values gréater than 0 are interpreted as 1 while all values less than zero are interpreted as 0. For example, after decoding, data0 is (2,–2,2,2), but the receiver interprets this as (1,0,1,1). We can also consider what would happen if a receiver tries to decode a signal when the user has not sent any information. Assume signal0=(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1) is transmitted alone. The following table shows the decode at the receiver: {|style="border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; background-color:#f7f8ff" |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Step |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Decode sender0 |align=center bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Decode sender1 |- |0 |vector0=(1,–1), pattern=(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1) |vector1=(1,1), pattern=(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1) |- |1 |decode0=pattern.vector0 |decode1=pattern.vector1 |- |2 |decode0=((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,-1),(1,-1)).(1,–1) |decode1=((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,-1),(1,-1)).(1,1) |- |3 |decode0=((1+1),(–1-1),(1+1),(1+1)) |decode1=((1–1),(–1+1),(1-1),(1-1)) |- |4 |data0=(2,–2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1) |data1=(0,0,0,0) |} When the receiver attempts to decode the signal using sender1’s code, the data is all zeros, therefore the cross correlation is equal to zero and it is cléar that sender1 did not transmit any data. === Asynchronous CDMA === {{see also|Direct-sequence spread spectrum}} The previous example of orthogonal Walsh sequences describes how 2 users can be multiplexed together in a synchronous system, a technique that is commonly referred to as Code Division Multiplexing (CDM). The set of 4 Walsh sequences shown in the figure will afford up to 4 users, and in general, an NxN Walsh matrix can be used to multiplex N users. Multiplexing requires all of the users to be coordinated so that éach transmits their assigned sequence '''v''' (or the complement, -'''v''') so that they arrive at the receiver at exactly the same time. Thus, this technique finds use in base-to-mobile links, where all of the transmissions originate from the same transmitter and can be perfectly coordinated. On the other hand, the mobile-to-base links cannot be precisely coordinated, particularly due to the mobility of the handsets, and require a somewhat different approach. Since it is not mathematically possible to créate signature sequences that are orthogonal for arbitrarily random starting points, unique "pseudo-random" or "pseudo-noise" (PN) sequences are used in ''Asynchronous'' CDMA systems. A PN code is a binary sequence that appéars random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by intended receivers. These PN codes are used to encode and decode a user's signal in Asynchronous CDMA in the same manner as the orthogonal codes in synchronous CDMA (shown in the example above). These PN sequences are statistically uncorrelated, and the sum of a large number of PN sequences results in Multiple Access Interference (MAI) that is approximated by a Gaussian noise process (following the "[[central limit theorem]]" in statistics). If all of the users are received with the same power level, then the variance (e.g., the noise power) of the MAI incréases in direct proportion to the number of users. In other words, unlike synchronous CDMA, the signals of other users will appéar as noise to the signal of interest and interfere slightly with the desired signal in proportion to number of users. All forms of CDMA use [[spread spectrum]] [[process gain]] to allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted signals. Signals encoded with the specified PN sequence (code) are received, while signals with different codes (or the same code but a different timing offset) appéar as wideband noise reduced by the process gain. Since éach user generates MAI, controlling the signal strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters. A CDM (Synchronous CDMA), TDMA or FDMA receiver can in théory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals using different codes, time slots or frequency channels due to the orthogonality of these systems. This is not true for Asynchronous CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is only partial. If any or all of the unwanted signals are much stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it. This léads to a general requirement in any Asynchronous CDMA system to approximately match the various signal power levels as seen at the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a fast closed-loop power control scheme to tightly control éach mobile's transmit power. See [[Near-far problem]] for further information on this problem. === Advantages of Asynchronous CDMA over other techniques === 1. '''Efficient Practical utilization of Fixed Frequency Spectrum''' Asynchronous CDMA's main advantage over CDM (''Synchronous'' CDMA), TDMA and FDMA is that it can use the spectrum more efficiently in mobile telephony applications. (''In theory, CDMA, TDMA and FDMA have exactly the same spectral efficiency but practically, each has its own challenges – power control in the case of CDMA, timing in the case of TDMA, and frequency generation/filtering in the case of FDMA.'') TDMA systems must carefully synchronize the transmission times of all the users to ensure that they are received in the correct timeslot and do not cause interference. Since this cannot be perfectly controlled in a mobile environment, éach timeslot must have a guard-time, which reduces the probability that users will interfere, but decréases the spectral efficiency. Similarly, FDMA systems must use a guard-band between adjacent channels, due to the unpredictable [[doppler shift]] of the signal spectrum which occurs due to the user's mobility. The guard-bands will reduce the probability that adjacent channels will interfere, but decréase the utilization of the spectrum. 2. '''Flexible Allocation of Resources''' Asynchronous CDMA offers a key advantage in the flexible allocation of resources i.e. allocation of a PN codes to active users. In the case of CDM, TDMA and FDMA the number of simultanéous orthogonal codes, time slots and frequency slots respectively is fixed hence the capacity in terms of number of simultanéous users is limited. There are a fixed number of orthogonal codes, timeslots or frequency bands that can be allocated for CDM, TDMA and FDMA systems, which remain underutilized due to the bursty nature of telephony and packetized data transmissions. There is no strict limit to the number of users that can be supported in an ''Asynchronous'' CDMA system, only a practical limit governed by the desired bit error probability, since the SIR (Signal to Interference Ratio) varies inversely with the number of users. In a bursty traffic environment like mobile telephony, the advantage afforded by Asynchronous CDMA is that the performance (bit error rate) is allowed to fluctuate randomly, with an average value determined by the number of users times the percentage of utilization. Suppose there are 2N users that only talk half of the time, then 2N users can be accommodated with the same ''average'' bit error probability as N users that talk all of the time. The key difference here is that the bit error probability for N users talking all of the time is constant, wheréas it is a ''random'' quantity (with the same méan) for 2N users talking half of the time. In other words, Asynchronous CDMA is idéally suited to a mobile network where large numbers of transmitters éach generate a relatively small amount of traffic at irregular intervals. CDM (''Synchronous'' CDMA), TDMA and FDMA systems cannot recover the underutilized resources inherent to bursty traffic due to the fixed number of [[orthogonal]] codes, time slots or frequency channels that can be assigned to individual transmitters. For instance, if there are N time slots in a TDMA system and 2N users that talk half of the time, then half of the time there will be more than N users needing to use more than N timeslots. Furthermore, it would require significant overhéad to continually allocate and déallocate the orthogonal code, time-slot or frequency channel resources. By comparison, Asynchronous CDMA transmitters simply send when they have something to say, and go off the air when they don't, keeping the same PN signature sequence as long as they are connected to the system. 3. '''Privacy protection in Spréad Spectrum CDMA due to anti-jamming (Anjing) capabilities of PN sequences''' === Panyebaran spektrum karakteristik CDMA === Most modulation schemes try to minimize the bandwidth of this signal since bandwidth is a limited resource. However, spréad spectrum techniques use a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude gréater than the minimum required signal bandwidth. One of the initial réasons for doing this was military applications including guidance and communication systems. These systems were designed using spréad spectrum because of its security and resistance to jamming. Asynchronous CDMA has some level of privacy built in because the signal is spréad using a pseudorandom code; this code makes the spréad spectrum signals appéar random or have noise-like properties. A receiver cannot demodulate this transmission without knowledge of the pseudorandom sequence used to encode the data. CDMA is also resistant to jamming. A jamming signal only has a finite amount of power available to jam the signal. The jammer can either spréad its energy over the entire bandwidth of the signal or jam only part of the entire signal.<ref>{{cite book | first = Bernard | last = Sklar | year = 2001 | title = Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications | edition = Second | publisher = Prentice-Hall PTR. | isbn = }}</ref> CDMA can also effectively reject narrowband interference. Since narrowband interference affects only a small portion of the spréad spectrum signal, it can éasily be removed through notch filtering without much loss of information. [[Convolution encoding]] and [[interleaving]] can be used to assist in recovering this lost data. CDMA signals are also resistant to multipath fading. Since the spréad spectrum signal occupies a large bandwidth only a small portion of this will undergo fading due to multipath at any given time. Like the narrowband interference this will result in only a small loss of data and can be overcome. Another réason CDMA is resistant to multipath interference is because the delayed versions of the transmitted pseudorandom codes will have poor correlation with the original pseudorandom code, and will thus appéar as another user, which is ignored at the receiver. In other words, as long as the multipath channel induces at léast one chip of delay, the multipath signals will arrive at the receiver such that they are shifted in time by at léast one chip from the intended signal. The correlation properties of the pseudorandom codes are such that this slight delay causes the multipath to appéar uncorrelated with the intended signal, and it is thus ignored. Some CDMA devices use a [[rake receiver]], which exploits multipath delay components to improve the performance of the system. A rake receiver combines the information from several correlators, éach one tuned to a different path delay, producing a stronger version of the signal than a simple receiver with a single correlator tuned to the path delay of the strongest signal. <ref>{{cite book | first = Theodore S. | last = Rappaport | year = 2002 | title = Wireless Communications, Principles and Practice | edition = | publisher = Prentice-Hall, Inc | isbn = }}</ref> Frequency reuse is the ability to reuse the same radio channel frequency at other cell sites within a cellular system. In the FDMA and TDMA systems frequency planning is an important consideration. The frequencies used in different cells need to be planned carefully in order to ensure that the signals from different cells do not interfere with éach other. In a CDMA system the same frequency can be used in every cell because channelization is done using the pseudorandom codes. Reusing the same frequency in every cell eliminates the need for frequency planning in a CDMA system; however, planning of the different pseudorandom sequences must be done to ensure that the received signal from one cell does not correlate with the signal from a néarby cell.<ref name = "xtsphp">{{cite book | first = Lawrence, Richard, Romans | last = Harte, Levine, Kikta | year = 2002 | title = 3G Wireless Demystified | edition = | publisher = McGraw-Hill | isbn = }}</ref> Since adjacent cells use the same frequencies, CDMA systems have the ability to perform soft handoffs. Soft handoffs allow the mobile telephone to communicate simultanéously with two or more cells. The best signal quality is selected until the handoff is complete. This is different from hard handoffs utilized in other cellular systems. In a hard handoff situation, as the mobile telephone approaches a handoff, signal strength may vary abruptly. In contrast, CDMA systems use the soft handoff, which is undetectable and provides a more reliable and higher quality signal.<ref name = "xtsphp"/> == Tingal == {{commonscat|CDMA}} * [[Near-far problem]] * [[IS-95|cdmaOne]] * [[CDMA2000]] * [[Orthogonal variable spreading factor]] (OVSF), an implementation of CDMA * [[Pseudorandom noise]] * [[Spread spectrum]] == Referensi == * {{cite book | first = Andrew J. | last = Viterbi | year = 1995 | title = CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication | url = https://archive.org/details/cdmaprinciplesof0000vite | edition = 1st | publisher = Prentice Hall PTR | isbn = 0201633744 }} * {{cite web | author= | title=Telecom Resources - CDMA | publisher= | year=undated | work=Telecom Resources | url= http://www.freewebs.com/telecomm/cdma.html | accessdate=2006-04-09 }} * {{cite web | last=Lohninger | first = Hans | title=Direct Sequence CDMA Simulation | publisher= | year=2005-12-17 | work=Learning by Simulations | url= http://www.vias.org/simulations/simusoft_dscdma.html | accessdate=2006-04-09 }} * {{cite web | last= | first= | title=CDMA Spectrum | publisher= | year= | work= | url=http://www.activexperts.com/asmssrvr/cellular/cdmaspectrum/ | accessdate=2008-04-29 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707081548/http://www.activexperts.com/asmssrvr/cellular/cdmaspectrum/ |date=2011-07-07 }} == Catetan == {{reflist}} == Loka luar == * [http://www.gocdma.com.pk/low/index.php CDMA Overview & Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229195225/http://gocdma.com.pk/low/index.php |date=2009-12-29 }} * [http://people.seas.harvard.edu/~jones/cscie129/nu_lectures/lecture7/hedy/lemarr.htm The Birth of Spread Spectrum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827101441/http://people.seas.harvard.edu/~jones/cscie129/nu_lectures/lecture7/hedy/lemarr.htm |date=2009-08-27 }} * [http://www.telecomspace.com/cdma.html CDMA Overview & Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416204621/http://www.telecomspace.com/cdma.html |date=2009-04-16 }} * [http://softtechinfo.com/telecom/cdma.html CDMA - Directory & Informational Resource] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416184949/http://www.softtechinfo.com/telecom/cdma.html |date=2009-04-16 }} * [http://www.marcus-spectrum.com/SSHistory.htm Civil Spread Spectrum History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805123525/http://www.marcus-spectrum.com/SSHistory.htm |date=2009-08-05 }} * [http://www.cdg.org/ CDMA Development Group] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208014615/http://www.cdg.org/ |date=2011-02-08 }} {{Pausahaan Telepon Usik di Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Code division multiple access| ]] [[Kategori:Multiplexing]] [[Kategori:Radio resource management]] 4jn8mnshf7kkc4qvzz3ujigdkwomxir 0 32155 711670 684839 2026-08-07T01:17:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711670 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox President | honorific-prefix = Dr.(H.C.). Drs. H. | name = {{PAGENAME}} | image = Hatta-1.jpg | office = Wakil Présidén Indonésia | order = 1 | term_start = [[18 Agustus]] [[1945]] | term_end = [[1 Desember]] [[1956]] | president = [[Soekarno]] | predecessor = ''Henteu aya'' | successor = [[Hamengkubuwono IX|Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX]] | office2 = Perdana Menteri Indonesia | order2 = 3 | term_start2 = [[29 Januari]] [[1948]] | term_end2 = [[5 September]] [[1950]] | president2 = [[Sukarno|Soekarno]] | predecessor2 = [[Amir Sjarifuddin]] | successor2 = [[Muhammad Natsir]] | office3 = Menteri Pertahanan Republik Indonesia|Menteri Pertahanan | order3 = 4 | term_start3 = [[29 Januari]] [[1948]] | term_end3 = [[4 Agustus]] [[1949]] | president3 = | predecessor3 = | successor3 = | birth_date = [[12 Agustus]] [[1902]] | birth_place = [[Bukittinggi]], [[Sumatera Barat]] | death_date = [[14 Maret]] [[1980]]<br /> (yuswa 77) | death_place = [[Jakarta]] | nationality = [[Indonesia]] | party = Non Partéy | spouse = [[Rahmi Rachim]] | children = [[Meutia Hatta]] <br /> [[Gemala Hatta]] <br /> [[Halida Hatta]] | profession = | religion = [[Islam]] | signature = Signature of Mohammad Hatta.png }} Dr.(H.C.) Drs. H. '''Mohammad Hatta''', atawa populér minangka '''Bung Hatta''' (lahir di Bukittinggi, [[Sumatra Barat|Sumatera Kulon]], 12 Agustus 1902 – pupus di [[Jakarta]], 14 Maret 1980, dina umur 77 warsih) nyaéta saurang pajoang, nagarawan, sarta ogé Wawakil Présidén Indonésia anu kahiji. <!--Ia mundur dari jabatan wakil presiden pada tahun 1956, karena berselisih dengan Presiden Soekarno.--> Bung Hatta ogé dipikawanoh minangka ''Bapa Koperasi Indonésia''. [[Bandara Internasional Soekarno-Hatta|Bandara Internasional Jakarta]] ngagunakeun ngaranna pikeun ngahormatan jasana minangka salah saurang proklamator kamerdikaan Indonésia. salah sahiji anak awéwé anjeunna, Meutia Hatta, nyekel kalungguhan Menteri Nagara Pemberdayaan Awéwé dina Kabinét Indonésia Bersatu lulugu Présidén [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]. <!--Ia dimakamkan di Tanah Kusir, Jakarta.--> == Kasang Tukang jeung Riwayat Atikan == Hatta lahir ti kulawarga [[ulama]] [[Minangkabau]], [[Sumatera Kulon]]. Ngaran paméré kolotna mah nyaéta Muhammad Athar. Hatta sakola di Sekolah Melayu, [[Bukittinggi]] sarta dina taun [[1913]]-[[1916]] anjeunna nuluykeun sakolana ka ''Europeesche Lagere School'' (ELS) di [[Padang]]. Waktu umurna 13 taun, Hatta geus lulus ujian asup ka HBS (satingkat SMA) di [[Batavia]] (kiwari [[Jakarta]]), ngan indungna hayang Hatta tetep cicing di Padang lantaran umurna nu kalintang ngora kénéh. Ahirna Bung Hatta nuluykeun sakolana ka MULO di [[Padang]]. Dina taun [[1919]], anjeunna indit ka Batavia pikeun nyuprih élmu di Sekolah Tinggi Dagang ''Prins Hendrik School''. Anjeunna nganggeuskeun sakolana kalawan hasil nu kacida hadéna. Dina taun [[1921]], Bung Hatta indit ka [[Rotterdam]], [[Walanda]] pikeun diajar élmu dagang/bisnis di Nederland Handelshogeschool (bahasa inggris: Rotterdam School of Commerce, kiwari jadi [[Universitas Erasmus]]). Di [[Walanda]] anjeunna cicing salila 11 taun.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mohammad Hatta: memoir : terbitan khusus satu abad Bung Hatta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzRwAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hatta:+Memoir&q=Hatta:+Memoir&hl=id|publisher=Yayasan Hatta|date=2002|isbn=978-979-97081-0-6|language=id|first=Mohammad|last=Hatta}}</ref> Tanggal [[27 Nopember]] [[1956]], Bung Hatta nyangking gelar kehormatan akademis nyaéta Doctor Honoris Causa dina [[Élmu Hukum]] ti [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] di [[Yogyakarta]], kalawan pidato pengukuhan anu judulna ''Lampau dan Datang''. Nalika umurna 15 taun, Hatta naratas karir salaku aktivis organisasi, salaku juru simpen Jong Sumatranen Bond Cabang [[Padang]]. Kasadaran politik Hatta beuki ngaronjat lantaran kabiasaanana ngaluuhan ceramah-ceramah atawa lawungan-lawungan politik. Salah sahiji inohong politik nu jadi idola keur Hatta nyaéta [[Abdul Muis]]. Di [[Batavia]], Hatta ogé aktif di Jong Sumatranen Bond Pusat salaku juru simpen. Basa di [[Walanda]], anjeunna ilubiung dina [[Perhimpunan Hindia]] (''Indische Vereeniging''). Harita téh keur jaman mekarna iklim pergerakan di ''Indische Vereeniging''. Saméméhna, ''Indische Vereeniging'' nu ngadeg dina taun [[1908]] ngan saukur hiji lawungan antar palajar di [[Indonésia]]. Tapi Indische Vereeniging robah sanggeus ayana tilu inohong Indische Partij ([[Suwardi Suryaningrat]], [[Ernest Douwes Dekker]], jeung [[Tjipto Mangunkusumo]]) di [[Walanda]] dina taun [[1913]] salaku jalma nu dipiceun lantaran tulisan-tulisanana di média massa nu anti pamaréntah. == Réferénsi == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |author = Arniati Prasedyawati Herkusumo | title = Chuo Sangi-in: Dewan Pertimbang Pusat Pada Masa Pendudukan Jepang|language = Indonesian |trans-title = Chuo Sangi-in: The Central Advisory Council during the Japanese Occupation | publisher =PT. Rosda Jayaputra |location = Jakarta, Indonesia| year = 1982 }} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1961 | orig-year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal |title=In Memoriam: Mohammad Hatta (1902–1980) |last=Kahin | first = George Mc. T | journal=Indonesia | volume = 30|year=1980 |pages=113–120 | url= https://cip.cornell.edu/DPubS?service=Repository&version=1.0&verb=Disseminate&view=body&content-type=pdf_1&handle=seap.indo/1107014423#}} * {{Cite book | last = Mrazek | first = Rudolf | title =Sjahrir: politics in exile in Indonesia | publisher = (SEAP Cornel South East Asia program | year = 1994 | isbn = 0-87727-713-3 }} * {{Cite book |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=The Co-operative Movement in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/cooperativemovem00hatt |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y. |year=1957}} * {{Cite journal |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=Colonialism and the Danger of War |journal=Asian Survey |volume=1| issue=9| pages=10–14 |date=November 1961 |doi=10.2307/3023504 |jstor=3023504}} * {{Cite journal |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=One Indonesian View of the Malaysia Issue |journal=Asian Survey |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=139–143 |date=March 1965 |doi=10.2307/2642403 |jstor=2642403}} * {{Cite journal | first = Klaas | last = Stutje |title=To Maintain an Independent Course: Inter-war Indonesian Nationalism and International Communism on a Dutch-European Stage |journal= Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies| volume = 39|year=2015 | issue = 3 |pages=204–220 | doi = 10.1080/03096564.2015.1101298 | s2cid = 146939108 |language= nl}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_m3c8| publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book | last = Sudarmanto| first = Y.B. | title = Jejak-Jejak Pahlawan dari Sultan Agung hingga Syekh Yusuf (The Footsteps of Heroes from Sultan Agung to Syekh Yusuf) | publisher = Grasindo |location = Jakarta | year = 1996 | language = id | isbn =979-553-111-5}} * {{Cite book | last = Weismann | first = Itzchak | title = The Naqshbandiyya: Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition | year = 2009 | publisher = Routledge | location = Abingdon-on-Thames | isbn = 978-0-415-48992-8 }} {{Refend}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1902]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1980]] [[Kategori:Inohong Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Indonésia]] go8196xobwxbp52fo0du1u3iwqv7i6n 0 32550 711747 705862 2026-08-07T03:19:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711747 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gräfenberg Spot''', mindeng disebut '''G-Spot''', nyaéta hiji daérah dina [[vagina]] nu gedéna saukuran kacang buncis<ref name="time1982"/>. Loba awéwé nu ngalaporkeun yén G-Spot mangrupa [[erogenous zone]] nu waktu dirangsang bakal ngalantarankeun hiji dorongan sahwat nu gedé, [[orgasme]] nu kacida kuatna sarta [[éjakulasi wanoja]].<ref name="Ladas">{{cite book |last=Ladas |first=AK |coauthors=Whipple, B; Perry, JD |title=The G-Spot and other discoveries about human sexuality |url=https://archive.org/details/gspototherrecent00lada |publisher=Holt, Rinehart, and Winston |location=New York |year=1982 |isbn=0440130409}}</ref> Gräfenberg Spot ilaharna aya dina sainci tepikeun ka tilu inci (2.5 to 7.6&nbsp;cm) saluhureun pinding vagina béh hareup antara bukaan vagina jeung [[urétra]]<ref name="sex101"/> tur mangrupa daérah sénsitif nu mangrupa bagéan tina [[#prostat wanoja|prostat wanoja]].<ref name="the-clitoris.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.the-clitoris.com/f_html/ejacula.htm |title=Female Ejaculation, the G-Spot, and the Female Prostate Gland |work= |accessdate=2010-05-09}}</ref> Sok sanajan G-Spot téh geus ditalungtik ti taun 1940-an,<ref name="TheNakedWoman"/> kahanteupanujuan tetep mucunghul aya ngeunaan aya henteuna G-Spot minangka hiji struktur, définisi katut lokasi nu béda ti nu liana.<ref name="Hines">{{cite web |url=http://www.drgspot.net/Hines.htm |title=The G-Spot: A modern gynecological myth |work= |accessdate=2010-05-09}}</ref><ref name="AJOG"/> Panalungtikan di Inggris taun 2009 British nyindekkeun yén ayana G-Spot téh henteu kabuktian tur kacida subjéktifna, nu ngan ukur dumasar kana kuisionér katut pangalaman pribadi.<ref name="BBC8439000"/> Aya ogé hipotésis yén G-Spot téh cenah mah mangrupa papanjangan tina [[itil]] tur ieu pisan nu nyababkeun orgasme vagina.<ref name="Masters and Johnson">{{cite book |last=Federation of Feminist Women’s Health Centers |year=1991 |title=A New View of a Woman’s Body |publisher= Feminist Heath Press |pages=46 |isbn=0-929945-0-2}}</ref><ref name="O'Connell"/> Panalungtikan liana nu maké [[ultrasound]], geus manggihan bukti fisiologis ngeunaan G-Spot dina wanoja nu ngalaporkeun kungsi orgasme nalika saresmi.<ref name="Aquila"/><ref name="CNNreal"/> [[Psikolog]] seksual méré perhatian yén wanoja bisa dianggap boga gangguan lamun henteu bisa manggihan G-Spot-na sorangan.<ref name="BBCGspotDetected">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7254523.stm |title=BBC NEWS &#124; Health &#124; Female G spot 'can be detected' |format= |work=html |accessdate=2010-01-03 | date=2008-02-20}}</ref> Wanoja ngalakukeun prosedur [[bedah palastik]] nu disebut [[nguatkeun G-Spot]] pikeun nambahan sensitivitasna.<ref name="TheNakedWoman"/> <!-- ==Origin== The term "G-Spot" was coined by Addiego ''et al.'' in 1981,<ref name="Addiego"/> after the German [[Gynecology|gynecologist]] [[Ernst Gräfenberg]],<ref>{{cite journal|year=1950|journal=International Journal of Sexology|volume=3|issue=3|pages=145–148|title=The role of urethra in female orgasm|author=Ernest Gräfenberg|url=http://www.landman-psychology.com/284/sexuality/grafenberg-gspot.htm}}</ref> even though his 1940s research was dedicated to urethral stimulation and not internal vaginal wall stimulation. The concept entered popular culture after the publication of ''[[The G Spot and Other Recent Discoveries About Human Sexuality]]'' by Ladas ''et al.'' in 1982,<ref name="Ladas"/> but it was criticized immediately by leading gynecologists.<ref name="time1982">{{cite journal |date = September 13, 1982 |title =In Search of the Perfect G |journal =[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,951842-1,00.html}}</ref> They denied its existence as it is not easily found if not aroused and autopsy studies missed this. After the G-Spot was demonstrated for their observation they changed their minds.<ref name="TheNakedWoman"/> An anonymous questionnaire was distributed to 2350 professional women in the United States and Canada with a subsequent 55% return rate. Of these respondents, 40% reported having a fluid release (ejaculation) at the moment of orgasm. Further, 82% of the women who reported the sensitive area (Gräfenberg Spot) also reported ejaculation with their orgasms. A number of variables were associated with this perceived existence of female ejaculation.<ref>{{cite journal |author =Darling, CA; Davidson, JK; Conway-Welch, C.|year =1990 |title =Female ejaculation: perceived origins, the Grafenberg spot/area, and sexual responsiveness. |journal = Arch Sex Behav |volume =19 |pages =29–47 |doi =10.1007/BF01541824 |pmid =2327894 |issue =1}}</ref> While not disputing vaginal responsiveness to stimulation, gynecologists and doctors continue to be skeptical of the existence of a distinct anatomical feature in the G-Spot rub zone.<ref name="time1982"/><ref name = AJOG>{{cite web|url = http://pt.wkhealth.com/pt/re/ajog/abstract.00000447-200108000-00016.htm;jsessionid=JRxHThBXZJqHPC2BRT5MQphBgHxpSYQ9LFKhLhG6vJMLQFJTK121!-749683226!181195629!8091!-1|format = abstract|title = The G-Spot: A modern gynecologic myth. |last = Hines|first = Terence M.|date = August 2001|work = Clinical Opinion: American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 185(2)|pages = pages 359–362|accessdate = 6 November 2008}}</ref><ref name = Delvin>{{cite web |url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/healthyliving/gspot.htm|title=The G-Spot|accessdate=5 November 2008 |work=Healthy Living|last = Delvin |first = David|coauthors = Christine Webber|publisher = NetDoctor.co.uk|date=May 2008}}</ref> ==Female prostate== {{See also|Skene's gland|Urethral sponge}} In 2001, the [[International Federation of Associations of Anatomists|Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology]] accepted ''female prostate'' as an accurate term for the [[Skene's gland]] found in the G-Spot area along the walls of the [[urethra]].<ref name="the-clitoris.com"/> The male [[prostate]] is biologically [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] to the female G-Spot, which was first hypothesized by [[Regnier de Graaf]] in 1672 where he observed that the secretions (female ejaculation) by the women's G-Spot "lubricates their sexual parts in agreeable fashion during coitus."<ref name="the-clitoris.com"/> The prostate in men has been unofficially called the male G-Spot because it can also be used as an erogenous zone.<ref name="about.com">{{cite web |url=http://sexuality.about.com/od/analplay/ht/htprostate.htm |title=How to Find and Stimulate the Prostate – Exploring Anal Play for Men |work= |accessdate=2010-05-09}}</ref> It is located about 50&nbsp;[[millimeter|mm]] (2&nbsp;in) along the front wall of the [[anus]], and when aroused it is a walnut-shaped swelling. Links between G-Spot sensitivity and female ejaculation led to the idea that non-urine female ejaculate may originate from the Skene's gland. Tissue examination showed 15 prostate-specific antigens in the gland,<ref>{{cite journal |author =Tepper, Sl; Jagirdar, J; Heath, D; Geller, SA. |year =1984 |title =Homology between the female paraurethral (Skene's) glands and the prostate. |journal =Arch Pathol Lab Med. |volume =108 |pages =423–425 |pmid =6546868 |issue =5}}</ref> leading to a trend of calling the Skene's glands the female [[prostate]].<ref>{{cite journal |author =Zaviacic, M; Ablin, RJ. |year =2000 |title =The female prostate and prostate-specific antigen. Immunohistochemical localization, implications for this prostate marker in women, and reasons for using the term “prostate in the human female. |journal =Histol Histopathol |volume =15 |pages =131–142 |pmid =10668204 |issue =1}}</ref> Consequently, it has been argued that the G-Spot is a system of [[gland]]s and [[duct (anatomy)|ducts]] located within the anterior (front) wall of the vagina about one centimeter from the surface.<ref name="BrooksCole">{{cite book |last=Crooks |first=R |coauthors=Baur, K |title=Our Sexuality |url=https://archive.org/details/oursexuality00croo |publisher= Brooks/Cole |location=California |year=1999 |isbn=0495813478}}</ref> A similar approach has linked the G-spot with the [[urethral sponge]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://womenshealth.about.com/cs/sexuality/a/clitoraltruthin.htm|title= "The Clitoral Truth": An Interview With Author Rebecca Chalker|publisher=About.com: Women's Health|author=Tracee Cornforth|year=2004}}</ref> The enzyme [[CGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5|PDE5]] (involved with [[erectile dysfunction]]) has been associated with the G-Spot area.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nicola Jones|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn2495|title= Bigger is better when it comes to the G-Spot|date=3 July 2002|journal=New Scientist}}</ref> Several researchers consider the connection between the Skene's gland and the G-Spot to be weak.<ref name="Hines"/><ref name="santos">{{cite journal |author=Santos, F Taboga, S. |year=2003 |title=Female prostate: a review about biological repercussions of this gland in humans and rodents. |journal=Animal Reproduction. |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages= 3–18}}</ref> They contend that Skene's gland does not appear to have receptors for touch stimulation, and that there is no direct evidence for its involvement.<ref name="Alzate">{{cite journal |author =Alzate H Hoch Z |year =1986 |title =The "G spot" and "female ejaculation": a current appraisal. |journal =J Sex Marital Ther. |volume =12 |issue =3 |pages =211–20 |pmid =3531529}}</ref> ==Sexual stimulation and studies== The G-Spot is typically located about 50 to 80&nbsp;mm (2 to 3&nbsp;in) inside the vagina, on the front wall.<ref name="TheNakedWoman">{{cite book |author=Morris, Desmond |title=The Naked Woman: A Study of the Female Body |publisher=Thomas Dunne Books |location=New York |year=2004 |pages=211–212 |isbn=0-312-33852-X}}</ref> For some women, stimulating the G-Spot creates a more intense orgasm than clitoral stimulation.<ref name="sex101"/><ref name="Newsbeat">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/hi/health/newsid_7345000/7345799.stm |title=BBC - Newsbeat - Health - G Shot 'helps women in search of orgasm' |format= |work= BBC News|accessdate=2010-05-02 | date=2008-04-14}}</ref> The G-Spot needs direct [[Sexual stimulation|stimulation]], especially with firm moves and constant pressure as it is ~1&nbsp;cm below the surface.<ref name="BrooksCole"/> Stimulating the G-Spot through sexual penetration, especially in the [[missionary position]],<ref name="TheNakedWoman"/> is difficult to achieve because of the special angle at which penetration must occur. It is claimed that the best G-Spot stimulation is achieved by using both manual stimulation and sexual intercourse.<ref name="sex101">[http://www.sexinfo101.com/pw_gspot.shtml G spot stimulation] SexInfo 101. Retrieved on 2010-03-09</ref> ===Methodology=== Two primary methods have been used to define and locate the G-Spot as a sensitive area in the vagina:<ref name="Hines"/> *self-reported levels of arousal during stimulation *stimulation of the G-Spot leads to [[female ejaculation]] Studies using ultrasound have also been used to identify physiological differences between women<ref name="Aquila"/> and changes to the G-Spot region during sex.<ref name="CNNreal"/> ===Findings===--> <!--Place studies in chronological order.--><!-- In a published case study of one woman, it was reported that stimulation of the [[anterior]] vaginal wall made the area grow by fifty percent and that self-reported levels of arousal/orgasm were "deeper" when the G-Spot was stimulated.<ref name="Addiego">{{cite journal |author =Addiego, F; Belzer, EG; Comolli, J; Moger, W; Perry, JD; Whipple, B. |year =1981|title =Female ejaculation: a case study. |journal =Journal of Sex Research |volume =17 |issue =1|pages =13–21 |doi =10.1080/00224498109551094}}</ref> Another study examined eleven women by [[palpate|palpating]] the entire vagina in a clockwise fashion, and reported a specific response to stimulation of the anterior vaginal wall in four of the women.<ref>{{cite journal |author =Goldberg, DC; Whipple, B; Fishkin, RE; Waxman H; Fink PJ; Wiesberg M. |year =1983 |title =The Grafenberg Spot and female ejaculation: a review of initial hypotheses. |journal =J Sex Marital Ther. |volume =9 |pages =27–37 |pmid =6686614 |issue =1}}</ref> Researchers at the [[University of L'Aquila]] have found, using ultrasonography, that women who experience vaginal orgasm are statistically more likely to have thicker tissue in the anterior vaginal wall.<ref name="Aquila">{{cite journal |author=Gravina GL, Brandetti F, Martini P, ''et al.'' |title=Measurement of the Thickness of the Urethrovaginal Space in Women with or without Vaginal Orgasm |journal=J Sex Med |volume= 5|issue= 3|pages=610|year=2008 |pmid=18221286 |doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00739.x}}</ref> The researchers believe these findings make it possible for women to have a rapid test to confirm whether or not they have a G-Spot.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ian |last=Sample |title=The elusive G-Spot really does exist, say researchers |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/feb/21/medicalresearch.sciencenews |publisher =The Guardian |date= 21 February 2008|accessdate=3 September 2008 | location=London}}</ref> A French study in late 2009 examined a small number of women with ultrasound as they had intercourse, by examining changes in the vagina they found physiological evidence of the G-Spot. The findings are under review by the ''[[Journal of Sexual Medicine]]''.<ref name="CNNreal">{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/01/05/g.spot.sex.women/index.html |title=Finding the G-spot: Is it real? - CNN.com |work= |accessdate=2010-05-02 | date=2010-01-05}}</ref> There is some research suggesting that G-Spot and [[clitoris|clitoral]] orgasms are of the same origin. [[Masters and Johnson]] were the first to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia, determining that all orgasms are of clitoral origin.<ref name="Masters and Johnson"/> Dr. Tim Spector hypothesizes thicker tissue in the G-Spot area may be part of the clitoris and is not a separate erogenous zone.<ref name="BBCGspotDetected"/> Supporting these conclusions is a 2005 study investigating the size of the clitoris – it found clitoral tissue extends considerably inside the vagina. This discovery indicates clitoral and vaginal orgasms are produced by the same internal source.<ref name="O'Connell">{{cite journal |author=O'Connell HE, Sanjeevan KV, Hutson JM |title=Anatomy of the clitoris |journal=The Journal of Urology |volume=174 |issue=4 Pt 1 |pages=1189–95 |year=2005 |month=October |pmid=16145367 |laysummary=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5013866.stm |laysource=[[BBC News]] |laydate=11 June 2006 |doi=10.1097/01.ju.0000173639.38898.cd}}</ref> The main researcher of the studies, Australian [[Urology|urologist]] Dr. Helen O'Connell, asserts that this interconnected relationship is the physiological explanation for the conjectured G-Spot and experience of vaginal orgasm, taking into account the stimulation of the internal parts of the clitoris during vaginal penetration. "The vaginal wall is, in fact, the clitoris," said O'Connell. "If you lift the skin off the vagina on the side walls, you get the bulbs of the clitoris – triangular, crescental masses of erectile tissue."<ref name="O'Connell"/> ===Criticism=== G-Spot proponents are criticized for giving too much credence to [[anecdotal evidence]], and for questionable investigative methods: for instance, the studies which have yielded positive evidence for a precisely located G-Spot involve small participant samples.<ref name="Hines">{{cite journal |author =Hines, T |year =2001 |month =August |title =The G-Spot: A modern gynecologic myth |journal =Am J Obstet Gynecol |volume =185 |issue =2 |pages =359–62 | pmid = 11518892 |doi =10.1067/mob.2001.115995}}</ref> Scientific examinations of vaginal wall innervation have generally shown that there is no single area with a greater density of nerve endings.<ref name="Hines"/> A recent study of 110 [[biopsy]] specimens drawn from 21 women concluded with the absence of a vaginal locus with greater nerve density.<ref>{{cite journal |author = Pauls, R; Mutema, G; Segal, J; Silva, WA; Kleeman, S; Dryfhout, Ma V; Karram, M.|year =2006 |month =November |title =A prospective study examining the anatomic distribution of nerve density in the human vagina. |journal = J Sex Med |volume =3 |issue =6 |pages =979–87 | pmid = 17100930 |doi = 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2006.00325.x}}</ref> However, while neither the area of the anterior vaginal wall where the G-Spot is said to be located nor the [[Skene's gland]] appear to possess them, the [[urethral sponge]], which is thought by some to be homologous to the G-Spot, does contain sensitive nerve endings as well as [[erectile tissue]]. It should also be noted that sensitivity is not determined by neuron density alone: other factors include the branching patterns of neuron terminals and cross or collateral innervation of neurons.<ref name="pmid10651316">{{cite journal |author=Babmindra VP, Novozhilova AP, Bragina TA, ''et al.'' |title=The structural bases of the regulation of neuron sensitivity |journal=Neurosci. Behav. Physiol. |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=615–20 |year=1999 |pmid=10651316 |doi= 10.1007/BF02462474|url=http://resources.metapress.com/pdf-preview.axd?code=q6h325761132q014&size=largest |accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref> The existence of the G-Spot was questioned by a team at [[King's College London]] in late 2009. They acquired the largest sample size to date of 1,800 women – who are pairs of twins – and found they did not report a similar G-Spot in a questionnaire, suggesting its existence is subjective.<ref name="TimesOnline">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/article6973971.ece |title=What an anti-climax: G-Spot is a myth - Times Online |work= The Times|author=Lois Rogers |accessdate=2010-01-03 | location=London | date=2010-01-03}}</ref> Study co-author Dr. Andrea Burri believes: "It is irresponsible to claim the existence of an entity that has never been proven and pressurise women and men too."<ref name="BBC8439000">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8439000.stm |title=BBC News - The G-spot 'doesn't appear to exist', say researchers |work= |accessdate=2010-01-04 | date=2010-01-04}}</ref> Burri also stated one of the reasons for the research was to remove feelings of "inadequacy or underachievement" for women who feared they lacked a G-Spot.<ref name="YvonneRoberts">{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jan/05/g-spot-women-study |title=The real G-spot myth &#124; Yvonne Roberts &#124; Comment is free &#124; guardian.co.uk |format= |work= The Guardian|accessdate=2010-05-02 | location=London | date=2010-01-05}}</ref> Dr. Whipple dismissed the findings, commenting that twins have different sexual partners and techniques, and that the study did not properly account for lesbian or bisexual women.<ref name="TimesOnline"/> Sexual psychologists are concerned about the promotion of the G-Spot, as it could lead to women feeling "dysfunctional" if they do not experience it. Dr. Petra Boynton, a British scientist who has written extensively on this debate,<ref name="drpetra">[http://www.drpetra.co.uk/blog/where-have-all-the-g-spots-gone/ Where have all the g spots gone?] - Dr Petra Boynton</ref> states:<ref name="BBCGspotDetected"/> <blockquote>We're all different. Some women will have a certain area within the vagina which will be very sensitive, and some won't{{mdash}}but they won't necessarily be in the area called the G-Spot. If a woman spends all her time worrying about whether she is normal, or has a G-Spot or not, she will focus on just one area, and ignore everything else. It's telling people that there is a single, best way to have sex, which isn't the right thing to do.</blockquote> The ''Journal of Sexual Medicine'' is planning a debate and publications from both sides of the G-Spot issue.<ref name="TimesOnline"/> ==Sex toys== One of the most common [[sex toy]]s used in G-Spot stimulation is the specially designed [[G-Spot vibrator]]. This is a [[phallus]]-like vibrator that has a curved tip which makes G-Spot stimulation very easy. The head of the G-Spot vibrator has a special form and it is a little curved in order to ease the stimulation of the G-Spot. The level of [[Sexual intercourse|penetration]] when using this sex toy depends on every woman because the [[physiology]] is not the same in two individuals. The effect of the G-Spot stimulation, no matter which way this is done, may be enhanced by stimulation of the other erogenous zones in a woman's body. These may include the clitoris and [[Labium (genitalia)|labia]].<ref>[http://www.gspotstimulation.net/ All about stimulation of the G-spot] Retrieved on 2010-03-09</ref> These toys are made of the same materials that the regular vibrators are made of including silicone, jelly, rubber or any combination of them. --> ==Tempo ogé== {{Portal|Séksualitas}} * [[Human female sexuality]] * [[Human sexuality]] * ''[[The G Spot and Other Recent Discoveries About Human Sexuality]]'' (book) ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== * [http://sexuality.about.com/od/gspotfemaleejaculation/a/whatisgspot.htm About.com – Sexuality, "What is the G-Spot?", Cory Silverberg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102033321/http://sexuality.about.com/od/gspotfemaleejaculation/a/whatisgspot.htm |date=2007-01-02 }} * [http://sexuality.about.com/od/anatomyresponse/ht/findyourgspot.htm About.com – How to Locate Your G Spot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710054616/http://sexuality.about.com/od/anatomyresponse/ht/findyourgspot.htm |date=2017-07-10 }} * [http://www.the-clitoris.com/f_html/ejacula.htm The-Clitoris.com – Female Ejaculation, the Female Prostate, and The G-Spot] {{Female reproductive system}} {{Sex}} {{DEFAULTSORT:G-Spot}} [[Kategori:Sistim baranahan awéwé]] 9r5he5qjkwh3ah1ml59hpnwt38d1gvg 0 32874 711587 711088 2026-08-06T23:43:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711587 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox |image = Baobab Adansonia digitata.jpg |image_width = 275px |image_caption = Tangkal ki tambleg Afrika (''[[Adansonia digitata]]'') di [[Bagamoyo]], [[Tanzania]], deukeut [[Kaole|ruruntuk Kaole]] |regnum = [[Plant]]ae |unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] |ordo = [[Malvales]] |familia = [[Malvaceae]] |subfamilia = [[Bombacoideae]] |genus = '''''Adansonia''''' |genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name="GRIN">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?167 |title=Genus: ''Adansonia'' L. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United State Department of Agriculture |date=2008-11-12 |accessdate=2011-01-14}}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = Spésiés |subdivision = Baca [[#Spésiés|Bab spésiés]] }} '''''Adansonia''''', '''baobab''', atawa nu di [[Pasundan]] katelah '''ki tambleg''' nyaéta génus dalapan [[spésiés]] tangkal pituin [[Madagaskar]] (genep spésiés), [[Afrika]] jeung [[Semenangjung Arab]] (hiji spésiés), jeung [[Australia]] (hiji spésiés). == Pedaran == Ukuran tangkal ki tambleg bisa ngahontal 5–30 m, anapon diaméter batangna 7–11 m. [[Ki tambleg Glencoe]] - spésimén [[ki tambleg Afrika]] di [[Propinsi Limpopo]], [[Afrika Kidul]], dianggap conto bungkeuleukan nu pangbadagna, kurilingna nepi ka 47 m<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bigbaobab.co.za/baobab.html |title=Big Baobab Facts |accessdate=2008-01-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106151314/http://www.bigbaobab.co.za/baobab.html |date=2008-01-06 }}</ref>. Diaméterna kira-kira 15,9 m. Ceuk sakaol, umur ki tambleg bisa nepi ka rébuan taun, tapi teu bisa dipastikeun. == Spésiés == [[Gambar:Adansonia digitata (Baobab)- young tree in Hyderabad W IMG 8273.jpg|thumb|190px|Ki tambleg ''[[Adansonia digitata]]'' ngora di [[Hyderabad, India]].]] * ''[[Adansonia digitata]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]</small> – Ki tambleg Afrika ([[Afrika]] kulon, wétan ngalér, tengah, jeung kidul, sarta di [[Oman]] jeung [[Yaman]] di [[Semenanjung Arab]], [[Asia]]) * ''[[Adansonia grandidieri]]'' <small>[[Henri Ernest Baillon|Baill.]]</small> – Ki tambleg Grandidier ([[Madagaskar]]) * ''[[Adansonia gregorii]]'' <small>[[Ferdinand von Mueller|F.Muell.]]</small> (sin. ''A. gibbosa'') – Ki tambleg Australia (Australia kulon ngalér) * ''[[Adansonia madagascariensis]]'' <small>Baill.</small> – Ki tambleg Madagaskar (Madagascar) * ''[[Adansonia perrieri]]'' <small>[[René Paul Raymond Capuron|Capuron]]</small> – Ki tambleg Perrier (Madagaskar kalér) * ''[[Adansonia rubrostipa]]'' <small>[[Henri Lucien Jumelle|Jum.]] & [[Joseph Marie Henry Alfred Perrier de la Bâthie|H.Perrier]]</small> (sin. ''A. fony'') – Ki tambleg Fony (Madagaskar) * ''[[Adansonia suarezensis]]'' <small>H.Perrier</small> – Ki tambleg Suarez (Diego Suarez, Madagaskar) * ''[[Adansonia za]]'' <small>Baill.</small> – Ki tambleg Za (Madagaskar)<ref name="GRINSpecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?167 |title=GRIN Species Records of ''Adansonia'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United State Department of Agriculture |accessdate=2011-01-14}}</ref> == Nyerep cai == Ki tambleg neundeun [[cai]] dina kaina nu 'bareuh' (nepi ka 120.000 l)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Baobab tree in Senegal |url=http://www.senegal-online.com/anglais/parcs-faune-flore/baobab.htm |accessdate=2008-10-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004233417/http://www.senegal-online.com/anglais/parcs-faune-flore/baobab.htm |date=2008-10-04 }}</ref>. == Mangpaat == [[Gambar:Baobab seeds.jpg|thumb|left|187px|Panjang buahna 18 cm]] Ti 2008, ki tambleg mimiti diulik pikeun kaperluan konsumsi<ref name=biov>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bioversityinternational.org/index.php?itemid=1166|title=Scientists predict African fruit trees could help solve major public health problem|accessdate=2008-10-01|publisher=Bioversity International}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20070813225151/http://news.bioversityinternational.org/index.php?itemid=1166 |date=2007-08-13 }}</ref><ref>Hills S. [http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Financial-Industry/Baobab-goes-for-GRAS-ahead-of-2010-World-Cup "Baobab goes for GRAS ahead of 2010 World Cup"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527050103/http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Financial-Industry/Baobab-goes-for-GRAS-ahead-of-2010-World-Cup |date=2010-05-27 }} FoodNavigator.com-USA, 30 Séptémber 2008</ref>. Di Afrika ([[Malawi]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwé]], jeung [[Sahel]]), daunna biasa didahar salaku lalab atah atawa tipung nu digaringkeun. Di [[Nigéria]], daunna nu katelah kuka sok diangeun<ref>http://blog.notcutts.co.uk/latest-articles/2010/9/13/the-oldest-trees-in-the-world.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812155627/http://blog.notcutts.co.uk/latest-articles/2010/9/13/the-oldest-trees-in-the-world.html |date=2011-08-12 }} – The oldest trees in the world (access date 2010-09-13)</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=April 2011}}. Kandungan giji buahna kaitung onjoy, ku sabab [[vitamin C]]-na leuwih loba batan [[jeruk]] jeung [[kalsium]]na leuwih loba batan susu sapi<ref name=bbcnew>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7506997.stm|title=New exotic fruit to hit UK shops|accessdate=2008-07-15|publisher= BBC | date=2008-07-15}}</ref>. Daging buahna dibubur atawa dicampur jeung susu, atawa dijus<ref name=bbcnew/>. Di Zimbabwé, buah nu dina [[basa Shona]] katelah mawuyu geus ti baheula biasa didahar. Buahna ogé bisa dijieun [[krim tartar]]<ref name=geoim>{{Cite web|url=http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/Geoimages/Johnson/Biomes/BiomesAfrica/Baobabtree.html|title=Baobab tree -- a miracle of nature|accessdate=2010-02-12|publisher=Geo-Images Project|date=October 2000}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131143239/http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/Geoimages/Johnson/Biomes/BiomesAfrica/Baobabtree.html |date=2010-01-31 }}</ref>. Siki ki tambleg biasa dipaké keur pangentel [[sop]], tapi ogé bisa [[férméntasi (pangan)|dipeuyeum]] jadi [[bungbu]], di[[sangray]], atawa digiling diala [[minyak sayur|minyakna]]. == Galeri == <gallery> Image:baobabtre b3599.jpg|''Adansonia digitata'', [[Taman Nasional Tarangire]] di [[Tanzania]] Image:Baobab Avenue 1.JPG|''[[Adansonia grandidieri]]'', [[Jalan Raya Ki Tambleg]], Madagaskar Image:Derby boab, Western Australia.jpg|''[[Adansonia gregorii]]'' di [[Australia]] Image:Baobab Flowers.jpg|Kembang ki tambleg di Mulund, [[Mumbai, India]] </gallery> == Rujukan == * The Baobab's official website, [http://www.baobab.com/ Baobab] (en) {{Reflist|2}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{Commons category|Adansonia}} {{Wikispecies|Adansonia}} {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/106351598260879 | last1 = Baum | first1 = D. A. | last2 = Small | first2 = R. L. | last3 = Wendel | first3 = J. F. | year = 1998 | title = Biogeography and floral evolution of baobabs (Adansonia, Bombacaceae) as inferred from multiple data sets | url = | journal = Systematic Biology | volume = 47 | issue = 2| pages = 181–207 | pmid = 12064226 }} * Braun, K. (1900) ''Beiträge zur Anatomie der Adansonia digitata L.'' F. Reinhardt, Universitäts-Buchdruckerei, Basel, [http://worldcat.org/oclc/15926986 OCLC 15926986] * {{Cite book |last=Colin |first= Tudge |title= The Tree: A Natural History of What Trees Are, How They Live, and Why They Matter |url=https://archive.org/details/treenaturalhisto00tudg |year=2006, 2005 |edition= 1st U.S. |publisher=Crown Publishers |location=New York, NY |isbn=1-4000-5036-7 |oclc=64336118}} * {{Cite book |last=Lowe |first= Pat |title= The Boab Tree |year= |edition= |publisher=Lothian |location=Port Melbourne, Australia |isbn=0-85091-912-6 |oclc=39079651}} * {{Cite book |last=Pakenham |first= Thomas |title= The Remarkable Baobab |url=https://archive.org/details/remarkablebaobab0000thom |year=2004 |edition= 1st American |publisher=Norton |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-393-05989-8 |oclc=56844554}} * {{Cite book |last=Watson |first= Rupert |title= The African Baobab |url=https://archive.org/details/africanbaobab0000wats |year=2007 |publisher= Struik; New Holland |location=Cape Town, South Africa; London, England |isbn= 978-1-77007-430-9 |oclc=163617611}} * {{Cite book |last=Wickens |first= G. E. |coauthors=Lowe, Pat |title= The Baobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia |year=2008 |publisher= Springer Verlag |location=Berlin, Germany; New York, NY |isbn=978-1-4020-6430-2 |oclc=166358049}} {{Refend}} [[Kategori:Adansonia]] [[Kategori:Malvaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Tropis]] 98n9uebjmr7bkmeq4gm8n9ery1hz2nw 0 32912 711830 681209 2026-08-07T05:28:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711830 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info nagara Butan}} '''Butan''' ([[basa Dzongkha|Dzongkha]]: {{lang |dz|འབྲུག་ཡུལ་}}; [[Alihaksara Wylie]]: ''ʼbrug-yul''{{nbsp|2}}"Druk Yul"), resmina '''Karajaan Butan''', nyaéta hiji [[nagara daulat|nagara]] nu [[nagara nu dilingkung|dilingkung]] di [[Asia Kidul]], aya di wewengkon wétan [[Himalaya]]. Butan wawatesan jeung [[Cina]] di kalér sarta [[India]] di kidul, wétan, jeung kulon. Leuwih ka kulonna aya [[Nepal]], dipisahkeun ku nagara bagian India, [[Sikkim]]. Leuwih ka kidulna aya [[Bangladés]], dipisahkeun ku nagara bagian India, [[Assam]] jeung [[Benggala Kulon]]. Ibu kota Butan sareng kota panggedéna nyaéta [[Thimphu]]. Butan aya salaku wewengkon ti sababaraha karajaan nepi ka awal abad ka-17 nalika [[Lama]] sarta pamingpin militér [[Shabdrung]] [[Ngawang Namgyal]] nu kabur ti panarajangan kaagamaan di [[Tibét]], ngahijikeun wewengkon Butan sarta melak hiji cicirén Butan nu béda. Teras dina awal abad ka-20, Butan tepang jeung [[Kakaisaran Britania]] sarta miboga hubungan bilateral nu kiat jeung India sanggeus kamerdikaanna. Dina taun 2006, dumasar kana survéy sadunya, ''[[Business Week]]'' nyimpen Butan salaku [[nagara nu pangbagjana]] sa-Asia sarta ka-8 sadunya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm |title=The World's Happiest Countries |publisher=Business Week |date=2006-10-11 |accessdate=2009-04-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090426174928/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm? |archivedate=26 April 2009 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025024213/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm |date=2006-10-25 }}</ref> Lemah Butan kasusun ti dataran [[subtropis]] di kidul nepi ka daratan luhur Himalaya [[sub-alpen]] di kalér, di mana sababaraha titik miboga kaluhuran leuwih ti {{j|{{convert|7000|m|ft}}}}. Lega wewengkonna dilaporkeun kira-kira {{convert|46500|km2|abbr=on}} taun 1997<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/08fyp.pdf |title=8th Five Year Plan (1997–2002) |format=PDF |publisher=[[Pamaréntah Butan]] |year=1997 |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190503/http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/08fyp.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> and {{convert|38394|km2|sqmi}} in 2002.<ref name=FYP9>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/5yp09_main.pdf |title=9th Five Year Plan (2002–2007) |publisher=Pamaréntah Karajaan Bhutan |year=2002 |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060614/http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/5yp09_main.pdf |date=2012-03-20 }}</ref><ref name=official>{{cite web |url=http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/government/aboutbhutan.php |title=Portal Nasional Butan |publisher=Departemén Ténologi Informasi Butan |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423102833/http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/government/aboutbhutan.php |date=2012-04-23 }}</ref> Agama nasional Butan nyaéta [[Budha Vajrayana]] sarta pangeusina, diperkirakeun jumlahna méh 750.000 jiwa,<ref name=clock/> utamina ngagem [[Budha]]. [[Hindu]] mangrupa agama nu panggedéna kadua.<ref>"Bhutan." ''World Almanac & Book Of Facts'' (2008): 752-753. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Dés. 2011.</ref> Taun 2008, Butan ngarobih wangun nagara ti [[monarki absolut]] ka [[monarki konstitusional]] jeung miboga pamilihan umum kahijina. Butan mangrupa anggota ti [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] sareng [[Asosiasi Asia Kidul pikeun Sabilulungan Wewengkon]] (SAARC) sarta minangka tuan rumah pikeun [[Daptar patepungan SAARC|Patepungan SAARC XVI]] dina April 2010. == Étimologi == Kecap nu mirip jeung Butan{{spaced ndash}}kaasup ''Bottanthis'', ''Bottan'', jeung ''Bottanter''{{spaced ndash}}mimiti muncul dina peta Éropa sabundeureun 1580-an. ''Six Voyages'' taun 1676 beunangna [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier]] minangka nu kahiji anu nyutat ngaran ''Boutan''. Tapi, dina sadaya kasus, katingalna ngaran-ngaran ieu dipaké sanés pikeun Butan modéren ieu tapi pikeun [[Tibét (1912–1951)|Karajaan Tibét]]. Bébéda modéren antara duanana mimiti ku ékspedisi [[George Bogle (diplomat)|Bogle]] taun 1774{{mdash}}sadar kana bébéda antara 2 wewengkon éta, ogé budayana jeung pamaréntahanna. Teras laporan ahirna pikeun [[East India Company]] (EIC, Pasarikatan Dagang Inggris di Hindia Wétan) sacara resmi ngajukeun ngaran karajaanna [[Druk Desi]] salaku "Boutan" sarta nu [[Panchen Lama]] salaku "Tibét". Survéyor jéndral EIC, [[James Rennell]], kahijina nga-Inggris-keun ngaran Perancis éta kana "Bootan" sarta teras ngapopulérkeun yén Butan jeung Tibét téh béda.<ref name="Kuensel">[http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_history_europe.php "History of Bhutan: How Europe heard about Bhutan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216090138/http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_history_europe.php |date=2012-02-16 }}. ''Kuensel''. 24 August 2003. Diaksés 28 Sépt 2011.</ref> Asal ngaran "Butan" sacara pastina heunteu terang, sanajan kamungkinan gedéna, ngaran ieu diturunkeun ti [[éndonim]] dina [[basa Tibét Heubeul]], ''Bod'', dipaké pikeun [[Tibét Raya]]. Sacara tradisional, ngaran éta dipaké dina basa [[Sangsakarta]] ''Bhoṭa-anta'' (भोट-अन्त, "ahir [[Tibét]]"), nunjukkeun lokasi Butan di wewengkon pakidulan plato jeung kabudayaan Tibét.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Cultural History of Bhutan |volume=1 |first=Balaram |last=Chakravarti |publisher=Hilltop |year=1979 |page=7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6VxuAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref><ref name="Names&Histories">Taylor, Isaac. ''[http://www.archive.org/details/namesandtheirhi00taylgoog Names and Their Histories; a Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature]''. Gale Research Co. (Detroit), 1898. Diaksés 24 Séptémber 2011.</ref> Sacara lokalna, Butan kawanoh dina loba ngaran. Cutatan di Dunya Kulon nu pangkolotna ngeunaan Butan, ''Relação'' 1627 [[masarakat Yésus|Yésuit]] [[Karajaan Portugal|Portugis]] [[Estêvão Cacella]] jeung [[João Cabral]], nyutat ngaranna dina raloba rupa salaku ''Cambirasi'' (di antara [[Koch Bihar]]<ref>Cacella, Estêvão. Trans. by Baillie, Luiza Maria. [http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_01_01_01.pdf "Laporan di mana Rama Father Estevao Cacella ti Masarakat Yésus Ngintun ka Rama Alberto Laercio, Pangurus pikeun Propinsi Malabar, India Wétan, ngeunaan Lalampahanna ka Katay, nepi Anjeunna Sumping di Karajaan Bhotanta"] (1627). Diaksés 28 Séptémber 2011.</ref>), ''Potente'', jeung ''Mon'' (éndonim pikeun Tibét beulah kidul).<ref name="Kuensel"/> Kahiji kalina hiji Karajaan Butan nu bener muncul dina peta urang Kulon, dina ngaran lokalna nyaéta "Broukpa".<ref name="Kuensel"/> Ngaran lian misalna ''Lho Mon'' ("Pakidulan Poék"), ''Lho Tsendenjong'' ("Pakidulan [[Cypress]]"), ''Lhomen Khazhi'' ("Pakidulan 4 Padeukeutan"), sarta ''Lho Men Jong'' ("Pakidulan [[apotek hirup|Ubar Hirup]]").<ref>{{cite book |title=Beneath Blossom Rain: Discovering Bhutan on the Toughest Trek in the World |series=Outdoor Lives |first=Kevin |last=Grange |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2011 |isbn=0-8032-3433-3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bWco7DY94fsC|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZvrWAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01 |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife |volume=2 |series=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East |first=William M. |last=Clements |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-32849-8 |page=105}}</ref> == Sajarah == {{utama|Sajarah Butan|Gurat wanci sajarah Butan}} Pakakas, pakarang, [[gajah|gagajah]]an, sarta wangunan tina batu ngabuktikeun yén Butan dieusian kira-kira saprak taun [[abada ka-20 SM|2000 SM]], sanajan euweuh cutatan ti jaman éta. Sajarawan miboga téori yén nagara ''Lhomon'' ("poék kidul"), atanapi ''Monyul'' ("Lemah Poék", sesebutan nu ngarah kana [[urang Monpa|Monpa]], [[urang pribumi]] Butan) bisa jadi enggeus aya antawis 500 SM jeung 600 M. Ngaran ''Lhomon Tsendenjong'' (Nagara [[Cendana]]), jeung ''Lhomon Khashi'', atanapi Mon Kidul (nagara 4 padeukeutan), dipanggih dina hikayat-hikayat Butan jeung Tibét kuna.<ref name=WIAS>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldinstituteforasianstudies.org/buthan.html|title=Bhutan|publisher=World Institute for Asian Studies|date=2006-08-21|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref><ref name=CS0>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Origins and Early Settlement, A.D. 600–1600|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> [[File:Cloud-hidden, whereabouts unknown (Paro, Bhutan).jpg|thumb|left|[[Dzong]] di [[Lebak Paro]], diwangun taun 1646]] Agama Budha kahiji kalina disebarkeun di Butan dina abad ka-7 M. Raja Tibét, [[Songtsän Gampo]]<ref name=Padel>{{cite book|title=Tigers in Red Weather: a Quest for the Last Wild Tigers|first=Ruth|last=Padel|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|year=2006|isbn=0-8027-1544-3|pages=139–40|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zYLJp0X04mUC|accessdate=2011-08-21}}</ref> (maréntah 627–649), nu pindah agama ka Budha, ngalegakeun Kakaisaran Tibét nepi ka Sikkim jeung Butan,<ref>Sailen Debnath, Essays on Cultural History of North Bengal, ISBN 9788186860427; & Sailen Debnath, The Dooars in Historical Transition, ISBN 9788186860441</ref> maréntahkeun diwangunna 2 kuil Budha, di [[Bumthang (kota)|Bumthang]] di Butan bagian tengah sarta di Kyichu (deukeut [[Paro, Butan|Paro]]) di [[Lebak Paro]].<ref name=CS1>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Arrival of Buddhism|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Agama Budha disebarkeun luas<ref name=Padel/> dina taun 746<ref name=Hattaway>{{cite book|title=Peoples of the Buddhist World: a Christian Prayer Diary|first=Paul|last=Hattaway|publisher=William Carey Library|year=2004|isbn=0-87808-361-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OzEOKNPsv2EC|page=30|accessdate=2011-08-20}}</ref> jaman pamaréntahan Raja Sindhu Rāja (''ogé'' Künjom;<ref name=Rennie>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sHAnAtNrUQoC|title=Bhutan: Ways of Knowing|first1=Frank|last1=Rennie|first2=Robin|last2=Mason|publisher=IAP|pages=18, 58|year=2008|isbn=1-59311-734-5|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Sendha Gyab; Chakhar Gyalpo), saurang raja [[urang India|India]] dina pangasingan nu ngawangun pamaréntahan di Bumthang jeung Istana Chakhar Gutho Palace.<ref name=HBB>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yA9uAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Bhutan Based on Buddhism|first=C. T.|last=Dorji|publisher=Sangay Xam, Prominent Publishers|year=1994|isbn=81-86239-01-4|accessdate=2011-08-12}}</ref>{{rp|35}} <ref name=Harding>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rlxdncBwpbgC|title=The Life and Revelations of Pema Lingpa|first1=Padma-gliṅ-pa (Gter-ston)|first2=Sarah|last2=Harding|editor=Harding, Sarah|publisher=Snow Lion Publications|year=2003|isbn=1-55939-194-4|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref>{{rp|13}} [[File:Tashigang Dzong 111120.jpg|thumb|Dzong Trashigang, diwangun taun 1659.]] Ulama Budha [[Padmasambhava|Padma Sambhava]] (kawanoh ogé salaku [[Guru Rinpoche]]) sumping ka Butan dina taun 747.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=18,963,0,0,1,0 |title=Taktshang: a Buddhist Legend |first=Kinley |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |work=Buddhist Channel |date=2005-03-30 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Sajarah awal Butan kalobaanana teu terang ku sabab raloba cutatan sajarah ancur nalika ibu kota heubeul, [[Punakha]], kaduruk dina taun 1827. Di abad ka-10, kaayaan pulitik Butan loba dipangaruhan ku sajarah kaagamaanna. Rupa-rupa aliran Budha muncul nu didukung ku rupa-rupa pamingpin militér [[Mongol]]. Sanggeus teuleumna [[Dinasti Yuan]] dina abad ka-14, aliran-aliran ieu silih sihung pikeun dominasi sacara pulitik jeung kaagamaan, nu teras ngarah kana unggulna aliran [[Druk]]pa di abad ka-16.<ref name=CS1/><ref name=CS4>{{country study |country=Bhutan |abbr=bt |editor=Savada, Andrea Matles |year=1991 |section=Rivalry among the Sects |author=Worden, Robert L |pd=yes}}</ref> Nepi ka awal abad ka-17, Butan aya salaku wewengkon ti sababaraha karajaan leutik, nepi ka dihijikeun ku Lama Tibét sarta paminpin militér [[Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal]] nu kabur ti panarajangan kaagamaan di Tibét. Pikeun ngalindungan nagarana ti panarajangan Tibét, Namgyal ngawangun hiji jaringan ''[[dzong]]'' (bénténg), jeung nyusun [[Tsa Yig]], hiji undang-undang nu nyieun raja-raja lokal aya dina pangawasaan séntral. Loba ''dzong'' masih aya jeung minangka puseur kaagamaan sarta pamaréntahan distrik. [[Masarakat Yésus|Yésuit]] [[urang Portugis|Portugis]] [[Estêvão Cacella]] jeung [[João Cabral]] kacutat minangka urang Éropa kahiji nu sumping ka Butan, dina lalampahan ka Tibét. Aranjeunna tepang jeung Ngawang Namgyal, ningalikeun pakarang seuneu, [[mésiu]], hiji [[téléskop]], sarta nawiskeun pitulunh dina perang ngalawan Tibét. Nanging Shabdrung teu nampi tawaran éta. Sanggeus ngawengi méh 8 bulan, Cacella nyerat hiji surat nu panjang ti [[Kuil Chagri]] ngeunaan lalampahan anjeunna. Surat ieu mangrupa hiji ti saeutik cutatan ngeunaan Shabdrung.<ref name=LP>{{cite book|title=Bhutan |series=Country Guides |first1=Lindsay |last1=Brown |first2=Stan |last2=Armington |edition=3 |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |year=2007 |pages=26, 36 |isbn=1-74059-529-7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s-L8NUlW_QgC |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jesuit on the Roof of the World: Ippolito Desideri's Mission to Eighteenth-Century Tibet |first=Trent |last=Pomplun |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=0-19-537786-9 |page=49 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-3iG4p85PHgC |accessdate=2011-10-19}}</ref> Sanggeus maotna Ngawang Namgyal taun 1651, warta ngeunaan maotna éta dirusiahkeun pikeun 54 taun. Teras sanggeus ngagabung sajaman, Butan peupeus kana papaséaan jero nagri. Taun 1711, Butan perang jeung [[Kakaisaran Mughal]] sarta [[Subedar]]na, nu ngarebut [[Koch Bihar]] di kidul. Nalika karusuhan sanggeusna, Tibét teu hasil narajang Butan taun 1714.<ref name=CS3>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Administrative Integration and Conflict with Tibet, 1651–1728|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Dina abad ka-18, Butan narajang jeung ngajajah Karajaan [[distrik Cooch Behar|Cooch Behar]] di kidul. Taun 1772, Cooch Behar mundut ka [[Sarikat Dagang Hindia Wétan Britania|Sarikat Dagang Hindia Wétan]] [[Karajaan Britania Raya|Britania]] nu teras nulungan dina ngusir Butan sarta narajang Butan dina taun 1774. Hiji pajangjian karapihan ditandatanganan di mana Butan satuju pikeun mulih deui ka wewengkonna saméméh taun 1730. Tatapi, karapihan kaayaanna leuleus. Patempuran perwatesan jeung [[India Birtania|Britania]] lanjut sababaraha taun senggeusna. Patempuran-patempuran ieu ahirna ngarah ka [[Perang Duar]] (1864–1865), ngarebutkeun kadali kana [[Duar]] [[Benggala]]. Sanggeus Butan éléh dina perang éta, [[Pajangjian Sinchula]] ditandatanganan antawis [[India Britania]] jeung Butan. Salaku bagian ti [[pamulihan paska-perang]], Duar dibéré ka [[Britania Raya|Britania]] pikeun dana injeuman Rs. 50.000. Pajangjian ieu ngeureunkeun sagala karusuhan antawis India Britania jeung Butan. Dina taun 1870-an, papaséaan antawis [[Paro, Butan|Paro]] jeung [[Tongsa]] ngarah ka perang sadulur di Butan, sarta teras diangkatna [[Ugyen Wangchuck]], ''ponlop'' (gubernur) Tongsa. Ti basis kakiatanna di Butan bagian tengah, Ugyen Wangchuck ngéléhkeun musuh pulitikna sarta ngahijikeun nagara dina sababraha perang sadulur jeung pemberontakan taun 1882–1885.<ref name=CS2>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=British Intrusion, 1772–1907|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Dina taun 1907, taun nu penting pikeun nagara Butan, Ugyen Wangchuck dipilih salaku raja ku hiji majelis ti pandita-pandita luhur Budha, pajabat pamaréntahan, jeung pamingpin-pamingpin kulawarga ageung. Pamaréntah Britania gancang ngakuan kadaulatan monarki anyar ieu, sarta teras dina taun 1910, Butan nanndatanganan [[Pajangjian Punakha]], pakta aliansi nu méré Britania kakawsaan kana hubungan luar nagri Butan. Hartina, Butan diperlakukeun salaku [[nagara bagian kabangsawanan]] India. Dina praktikna, pajangjian ieu boga pangaruh nu saeutik, ku Butan ogé dumasar sajarahna sipatna teu gaul jeung dunya luar, sarta katingalna heunteu mangaruha hubungan tradisional antawis Butan jeung Tibét. Sanggeus [[Dominion India|Sarikat India]] miboga [[Kamerdikaan India|kamerdikaan]] ti Britania Raya dina 15 Agustus 1947, Butan mangrupa salah sahiji ti nagara-nagara kahiji nu ngakuan kamerdikaan India. Dina 8 Agustus 1949, hiji pajangjian nu mirip jeung Pajangjian Punakha ditandatanganan bareng India.<ref name=WIAS/> Taun 1953, Raja [[Jigme Dorji Wangchuck]] ngadegkeun badan législatif nagara mangrupa [[Majelis Nasional]] kalawan 130 anggota dina tujuan pikeun ngawangun pamaréntahan nu leuwih démokratis. Dina taun 1965, anjeunna nyusun hiji Déwan Panaséhat Karajaan, sarta taun 1968 anjeunna ngawangun hiji kabinét. Taun 1971, Butan gabung ka [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], sanggeus nyekel status anggota panénjo dina 3 taun. Dina bulan Juli 1972, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] naék tahta dina yuswa 16 taun sanggeus ramana, Dorji Wangchuck, maot. ===Réformasi pulitik jeung modérenisasi=== {{seealso|Hukum Bhutan|Undang-Undang Dasar Bhutan}} Raja [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] mikawanohkeun sababaraha réformasi pulitik, mindahkeun raloba kakawasaan pamaréntahanna ka Déwan Mentri Kabinét sarta ngijinkeun ayana [[pamakzulan]] Raja ku 2 per 3 anggota Majelis Nasional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.democracy-international.org/fileadmin/di/pdf/papers/di-bhutan.pdf|last=Hoffman|first=Klus|title=Democratization from Above: The Case of Bhutan|format=PDF|date=2006-04-01|accessdate=2010-04-24}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003014927/http://www.democracy-international.org/fileadmin/di/pdf/papers/di-bhutan.pdf |date=2006-10-03 }}</ref> Dina taun 1999, pamaréntah ngahupus larangan dina [[televisi]] jeung [[Internét]], nyieun Butan salah sahiji ti nagara nu karak mimiti maké televisi. Dina biantarana, anjeunna nyarios yén televisi mangrupa léngkah penting dina [[modérenisasi]] Butan sarta mangrupa panyumbang gedé pikeun [[Kabagjaan Nasional Bruto]] nagara (Butan mangrupa sahiji-hijina nagara nu ngukur kabagjaan),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Larmer|first=Brook|year=2008|month=March|title= Bhutan's Enlightened Experiment|work=ngm.nationalgeographic.com|journal=National Geographic|issn=0027-9358|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/03/bhutan/larmer-text/2|accessdate=2010-06-19}}</ref> tatapi miélingkeun yén "panyalahgunaan" televisi bisa ngahupus ajén-ajén tradisi Butan.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Cathy|last1=Scott-Clark|first2=Adrian|last2=Levy|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,975769,00.html|title=Fast Forward into Trouble|publisher=The Guardian|date=2003-06-14|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Hiji [[undang-undang dasar]] nu anyar dipikawanohkeun dina awal taun 2005. Dina bualn Désémber 2005, Raja Jigme Singye Wangchuck ngabéwarakeun yén anjeunna badé [[abdikasi|masihan]] tahtana ka putrana dina taun 2008. 14 Désémber 2006, anjeunna ngumumkeun yén abdikasi badé dilaksanakeun dina wanci deukeut. Hal ieu dimiluan ku [[Pamilihan umum di Butan|pamilihan umum parlemén]] nu kahiji dina bulan [[Pamilihan umum Déwan Nasional Butan 2007–2008|Désémber 2007]] jeung [[pamilihan umum Butan 2008|Maret 2008]]. Dina 6 Nopémber 2008, [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], putra pangluhurna ti Raja [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], diangkat minangka Raja.<ref>{{cite web|first=Nitasha|last=Kaul|title=Bhutan Crowns a Jewel|work=UPI Asia|publisher=United Press International|url=http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962|date=2008-11-10|accessdate=2011-06-19|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110615005027/http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962|archivedate=15 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->|deadurl=no}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615005027/http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962 |date=2011-06-15 }}</ref> ==Pulitik jeung pamaréntahan== [[File:Tashichoedzong-Bhutan-2001.JPG|250px|thumb|Pamandangan [[Dzong Tashichhoe]], [[Thimphu]], puseur pamaréntahan Butan saprak 1952.]] {{utama|Pulitik Butan}} Sistim pulitik Butan geus robah ti [[monarki absolut]] kana [[monarki konstitusional]]. Taun 1999, Raja Butan ka-4, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], nyieun hiji lembaga nu ngaranna [[Lhengye Zhungtshog]] (Déwan Para Mentri). ''[[Druk Gyalpo]]'' (Raja Druk Yul) minangka [[pupuhu nagara]]. [[Kakawasaan éksekutif]] dilaksanakeun ku Lhengye Zhungtshog, déwan para mentri. [[Kakawasaan législatif]] dilaksanakeun ku [[pamaréntah]] jeung [[Tshogdu]] (Majelis Nasional). Dina kaping 17 Désémber 2005, Raja Jigme Singye Wangchuck ngabéwarakeun yén pamilihan umum nu munggaran bakal dilaksanakeun taun 2008 jeung anjeunna badé masihan tahtana ka putra makutana nyaéta putrana nu pangluhurna.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gelay Jamtsho|author2=Keys to Bhutan|url=http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_king_speech.php|title=His Majesty the King's Historic National Day Address – 2005|publisher=Keystobhutan.com|date=2008-10-31|accessdate=2009-04-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213023237/http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_king_speech.php |date=2008-02-13 }}</ref> Raja [[Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck]] nampi tahta dina kaping 14 Désémber 2006. Anjeunna dipaparin Makuta Gagak Butan dina upacara di Thimphu kaping 6 Nopémber 2008, ku kitu janten pamingpin monarki nu panganomna sadunya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7521429.stm|title=Bhutan King to be Crowned at Last|publisher=BBC News online|date=2008-07-23|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Sistim pulitik nu anyar miboga majelis luhur jeung majelis handap, nu saterasna miboga dasar kana afiliasi partéy pulitik. [[Pamilihan umum Déwan Nasional Butan 2007–2008|Pamilihan umum]] pikeun majelis luhur ([[Déwan Nasional Butan|Déwan Nasional]]) dilaksanakeun kaping 31 Désémber 2007, samentara [[Pamilihan umum Butan 2008|pamilihan umum]] pikeun [[Majelis Nasional Butan|Majelis Nasional]] (majelis handap) dilaksanekun kaping 24 Maret 2008. 2 partéy pulitik, [[Partéy Démokrasi Rahayat (Butan)|Partéy Démokrasi Rahayat]] (PDR) nu dipingpin ku [[Sangay Ngedup]], sareng Partéy [[Druk Phuensum Tshogpa]] (DPT) nu dipingpin ku [[Jigmi Thinley]], marebutkeun 47 korsi di Majelis Nasional. Druk Phuensum Tshogpa unggul dina pamilihan umum, ngawasaan 45 ti 47 korsi di majelis.<ref>{{cite web|first=Aradhana|last=Sharma|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080044949&ch=3/25/2008%2012:28:00%20AM|title=Royalist Party Wins Election in Bhutan|publisher=NDTV.com|date=2008-03-25|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> [[Kakawasaan yudikatif]] dilaksanakeun ku [[Mahkamah]] Butan. [[Hakim Agung]]na nyaéta pupuhu [[administrasi publik|administratif]] [[lembaga yudikatif]] nagara. ===Hak asasi manusa=== ====Papaséaan étnis==== [[File:Lotshampa refugees in Beldangi Camp.jpg|thumb|Urang katurunan Nepal ti Butan nu ngungsi ka Nepal dina awal 1990-an.]] Taun 1990-an, Butan ngusir atanapi maksa méh 1 per 5 pangeusina ku alesan pikeun ngajaga idéntitas budaya Budha Mahayana Tibét-na, nyebut yén maranéhna anu diusir téh pangeusi ilégal.<ref name=theweek11>{{cite web |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511104731/http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |archivedate=2011-05-11 |url=http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |title=Family Portrait of Bhutan Nepalis in USA |publisher=The Week Republica |date=2011-04-15 |accessdate=2011-04-19 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511104731/http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref><ref name=CIDCM/><ref name=unhcr08/> Kaputusan ieu boga dasar yén étnis minoritas Nepal nu tumuwuhna gancang bisi ngawasaan nagara, ngulang kajadian nu sarua nu nyababkeun bubarna Karajaan Sikkim taun 1975. [[Lhotshampas]], pihak nu teu satuju kana pamikiran éta, diperkirakeun jadi tujuan panyiksaan jeung panahanan,<ref name="hrw.org">Frelick, Bill. ''For Bhutan's Refugees, There's no Place Like Home.'' Human Rights Watch. Mar 3 2011. Web. Dec 30 2011. http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/03/30/bhutan-s-refugees-there-s-no-place-home</ref> ngakibatkeun unjuk rasa dina 1990-an. Saterasna, pasukan kaamanan Butan mimiti ngusir urang-urang sanggeus nyieun maranéhna ngabatalkeun klaim imah jeung lemburna. Ku lantaran karusuhan nu lumangsung, Urang Butan katurunan Nepal, mayoritasna ngagem agama Hindu, kaluar. Numutkeun [[UNHCR]], langkung ti 107.000 [[Pangungsi Butan]] ngeusi 7 kémah pangungsian di [[Nepal]] beulah wétan sarta geus didokuméntasi dina taun 2008.<ref name=unhcr08>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=47a30dc82&query=bhutan|title=Refugees from Bhutan Poised for New Start|publisher=UNHCR|date=2008-02-01|accessdate=2011-04-19| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110510005625/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=47a30dc82&query=bhutan| archivedate= 10 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ngeunaan bener heunteuna sadaya pangeusi kémah téh pangungsi diragukeun sabab UNHCR heunteu mariksa pangeusi-pangeusi awal sacara bener.<ref>{{cite web|last=Casella|first=Alexander|title=Nepal Finally Waves off Refugees|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KL15Ad03.html|publisher=Asia Times Online}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923190108/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KL15Ad03.html |date=2015-09-23 }}, 15 Désémber 2009</ref> Sarana di jero pangungsian, nu kacutat leuwih alus ti batan wewengkon sabundereunana, ngarojong masarakat Nepal asup ka pangungsian. Sanggues raloba taun di pangungsian, raloba pangeusi ayeuna pindah ka nagara lian saperti Kanada, Norwégia, Britania Raya, Australia, jeung Amérika Sarikat salaku pangungsi. [[Amérika Sarikat]] nyutat 30.870 pangungsi ti taun kauangan 2008 nepi ka 2010.<ref>''Reguee Arrival Data.'' Departemén Kaséhatan jeung Palayanan Kamanusaan Amérika Sarikat. 3 Nopémber 2011. Web. 30 Désémber 2011. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/refugee_arrival_data.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111207045007/http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/refugee_arrival_data.htm |date=2011-12-07 }}</ref> Pamaréntah heunteu ngijinkeun dibéréna status kawarganagaraan pikeun pangungsi Butan, ku kituna raloba pangungsi heunteu miboga status kawarganagaraan.<ref name=hrr/> Urusan birokrasi nu riweuh dipaké alesan pikeun ngahalangan kulawarga <!--- "relatives" disebutkeun di en.wikpedia -->maranéhna miboga kartu idéntitas jeung hak sora.<ref name=hrr/> Butan nganggap partéy pulitik ti pangungsi-pangungsi ieu heunteu sah sarta mangrupa kelompok téroris.<ref name=hrr/> Kelompok hak asasi manusa nyebutkeun yén pamaréntah mangaruhan hak asasi individu ku cara ngaatur yén sadaya warga, kaasup anggota étnis minoritas ieu, maké pakéan tradisionalna étnis mayoritas di tempat umum. Nanging, pamaréntah sacara kawates nerapkeun aturan ieu ukur di wangunan kaagaamaan Budha, kantor pamaréntahan, sakola, pajabat pamaréntah, sarta parayaan-parayaan umum.<ref name=hrr>[http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/sca/136086.htm], U.S. Department of State, February 25, 2009</ref> ====Kabébasan agama==== [[Budha Mahayana]] mangrupa dasar warisan kaagamaan nagara, tapi undang-undang ngarojong kabébasan agama.<ref name=hrr/> == Militér jeung hubungan luar nagri == {{utama|Militér Butan|Hubungan luar nagri Butan}} [[Angkatan Pakarang Karajaan Butan]] mangrupa angkatan pakarang Butan. Lembaga militér ieu ngawengku [[Pasukan Pangaman Karajaan Bhutan|Pangaman Karajaan]] sareng [[Kapulisian Karajaan Butan]]. Kaanggotaan militér sipatna sukaréla. Yuswa minimal pikeun asup ka militér nyaéta 18 taun. Jumlah personil kira-kira 16.000 urang, nu dilatih ku [[Angkatan Darat India]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Arun |last=Bhattacharjee |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/EL19Df04.html |title=Bhutan Army Sees Action at Last |publisher=Atimes.com |date=2003-12-19 |accessdate=2009-04-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121042613/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/EL19Df04.html |date=2016-11-21 }}</ref> Angkatan Pakarang Karajaan Butan miboga dana alokasi taunan kira-kira [[dolar Amérika Sarikat|$]]13,7 yuta (1,8% [[Produk doméstik bruto|PDB]]). Minangka [[nagara nu dilingkung]], Butan heunteu miboga angkatan laut. Butan ogé teu boga angkatan udara atanapi korps udara angkatan darat. Angkatan pakarangna ngandalkeun Komando Udara Wétan ti [[Angkatan Udara India]] pikeun pitulungan. Butan miboga hubungan ékonomi, stratégi, jeung militér nu kiat jeung tatanggana, India.<ref>[http://www.ndtv.com/video/player/exclusive/bhutan-pm-india-is-closest-ally/33779 Bhutan PM: India is closest ally, NDTV, July 16, 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.thebhutanese.bt/pm-stresses-on-importance-of-foreign-relations/ PM stresses on importance of foreign relations, The Bhutanese, 12 Julu 2012]</ref> Taun 2007, Butan jeung India nandatanganan hiji pajangjian anyar ngijinkeun Butan ngawasaan hubungan luar nagrina. Pajangjian ieu ngahupus kaayaan nu diakibatkeun ku pajangjian satacanna taun 1949. Pajangjian nu satacanna éta ayuen kadang-kadang ogé dijadikeun alesan pikeun kadali India kana hubungan luar nagri Bhutan, nanging pamaréntah Butan ngadali sadaya hubungan luar nagrina, kaasup sababaraha maslaah di mana India miboga perhatosan, kawas status wates Butan jeung [[Cina]].<!--Library of Congress|Foreign Relations--> Butan miboga hubungan diplomatik sateng 21 nagara sarta [[Uni Éropa]] sarta mibboga misi di India, [[Bangladés]], [[Thailand]], jeung [[Kuwait]]. Butan miboga 2 misi [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]], hiji di New York sarta hiji di [[Jénéwa]]. Ngan India jeung Bangladés nu miboga kadutaan pangeusi di Butan, samentara Thailand miboga kantor konsulat di Butan. [[File:Bhutan CIA WFB 2010 map.png|thumb|Peta Butan némbongkeun watesna jeung Cina sarta India sakumaha dina taun 2012.]] Ku hiji pasatujuan nu lila, warga nagara India jeung Butan tiasa sumping ka masing-masing nagara tanpa [[paspor]] atanapi [[visa]], ukur butuh kartu idéntitas nagarana. Warga Butan ogé tiasa gawé di india tanpa palarangan hukum. Butan teu boga hubungan diplomatik resmi jeung tatangga kalérna, [[Républik Rahayat Cina]], sanajan paturakan kunjungan dina raloba tingkat pernah aya. Pasatujuan bilateral nu kahiji antawis Cina jeung Butan ditandatanganan dina taun 1998. Butan ogé miboga konsulat husus di [[Makau]] jeung [[Hong Kong]]. Wates Butan jeung Cina kalobaanana heunteu di[[démarkasi]] sarta ku kituna aya papaséaan di sababaraha tempat. Kira-kira 269 kilométer pasagi aya dina sawala antawis kadua nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=7833 |title=Indo-Bhutan Border Finalised |first=Samten |last=Wangchuk |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2006-12-13 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Dina 13 Nopémber 2005, prajurit Cina asup ka wewengkon papaséaan antara Cina jeung Butan, sarta mimiti ngawangun jalan jeung sasak.<ref name=dispcb/> Perdana Mentri Luar Nagri Butan, [[Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk|Khandu Wangchuk]] ngomongkeun masalah ieu jeung pamaréntah Cina sanggeus masalah ieu diomongkeun di parlemén Butan. Balesanna, Juru Carios Kamentrian Luar Nagri Cina, [[Qin Gang]] nyebatkeun yén wates éta masih aya dina papaséaan sarta kadua pihak tetep ngalajengkeun diskusi nu rapih jeung hadé pikeun nangtukeun solusina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.china.com/zh_cn/domestic/945/20051201/12906175.html|title=中国不丹同意平等友好协商早日解决边界问题 |trans_title=China and Bhutan Agree to Equal and Amicable Talks in Order to Resolve the Border Issue Quickly|language=Chinese|publisher=News.china.com|date=2005-12-01|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Pajabat intélijen India nyebatkeun yén délégasi Cina di Butan nngomong ka Butan yén Butan téh "''overreacting''." Hiji koran Butan ''Kuensel'' nuliskeun yén Cina bisa maké jalanan éta pikeun alesan klaim Cina sapanjang wates éta.<ref name=dispcb>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871,000500020006.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060824075647/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871,000500020006.htm|archivedate=2006-08-24|title=Alarm over Chinese Incursion|first=Pramod|last=Giri|publisher=Web.archive.org|date=2005-10-28|accessdate=2009-04-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229111417/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871%2C000500020006.htm |date=2007-12-29 }}</ref> Dina 8 Pébruari 2007, Pajangjian Kasababaturan India-Butan dirévisi. Pajangjian 1949, Pasal 2 nyebtkeun: "Pamaréntah India heunteu ngalaksanakeun sagala campur tangan dina administrasi jero nagri Butan. Pamaréntah Butan salaku bagianna, satuju pikeun dipandu dina naséhat Pamaréntah India ngeunaan hubungan luar nagrina." Dina pajangjian nu enggeus dirévisi ayeuna katulis "Pikeun ngajaga hubungan sababaturan jeung sabilulungan nu parantos aya antawis Butan jeung India, Pamaréntah Karjaaan Butan sareng Pamaréntah Républik India bakal gawé bareng sacara husus dina masalah perkawis kaayaan nasionalna. Kadua pamaréntah heunteu tiasa mangpaatkeun wewengkonna pikeun kagiatan anu ngancem kaamanan jeung kaayaan nasional kadua nagara." Pajangjian nu enggeus dirévisi ieu ogé ngawengku kalimah pamuka ieu: "Negaskeun kamerdikaan, kadaulatan, sarta intregitas nasional masing-masing pihak", hiji kaayaan nu euweuh dina vérsi saméméhna. Pajangjian Kasababaturan India-Butan 2007 negaskeun status Butan salaku nagara nu merdika jeung daulat. Butan miboga [[hubungan luar nagri Butan|hubungan diplomatik]] sareng sababraha nagara [[Asia]] jeung [[Éropa]], [[Kanada]], jeung [[Brasil]]. Nagara lian, saperti [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung [[Britania Raya]], heunteu miboga hubungan diplomatik resmi jeung Butan, tapi miboga hubungan teu resmi (informal) langkung kadutaan masing-masing nagara di [[New Delhi]] sarta konsulat husus Butan di [[London]] jeung [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/2010/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=18408 |title=Bhutan establishes ties with Spain |first=Gyalsten K |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] |date=2011-02-15 |accessdate=2011-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.embassiesabroad.com/embassies-of/Bhutan#18596 |title=Overseas Embassies and Consulates of Bhutan |work=Go Abroad.com |accessdate=2011-03-29 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309070142/http://www.embassiesabroad.com/embassies-of/Bhutan#18596 |date=2009-03-09 }}</ref><ref name=state>{{cite web|url=http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html|title=Bhutan Country Specific Information|work=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=2008-03-24|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080328065136/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html|archivedate=28 March 2008 <!--DASHBot-->|deadurl=no}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328065136/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html |date=2008-03-28 }}</ref> ==Géografi== [[File:HaaValley.jpg|thumb|left|Lebak Haa.]] [[File:Bhutan topo en.jpg|thumb|Peta topografis Bhutan.]] [[File:GangkharPuensum3.jpg|thumb|[[Gangkhar Puensum]] ti Ura La, Butan.]] {{utama|Géografi Butan}} Butan aya di léréng kidul jeung wétan [[Himalaya]], dilingkung ku [[Wewengkon Otonom Tibét]], Cina di kalér jeung nagara bagian [[Sikkim]], [[Benggala Kulon]], [[Assam]], jeung [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India di kulon jeung kidul. Butan aya di antara gurat lintang [[26 lintang kalér|26°]] sarta [[29 lintang kalér|29°N]], serta [[88 méridian wétan|88°]] sarta [[93 méridian wétan|93°]] méridian wétan. Wewengkonna ngawengku utamina [[pagunungan di Butan|pagunungan]] diliwatan ku walungan, nu ngawangun lebak nu jero. Tingkat kaluhuran antara {{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on}} di suku pasir di pakidulan nepi ka leuwih ti {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Karagaman géografis ieu ditambih jeung karagaman iklim miboga pangaruh kana ralobana karagaman hayati jeung ékosistem Butan.<ref name=official/> Wewengkon kalér nagara diwangun ti hiji wilayah [[Padang jukut jwung rungkun alpen Hiimalaya Wétan]], ngaluhur ka pagunungan glasial kalawan iklim nu tiis pisan di titik-titik puncakna. Raloba titik puncak di kalér aya dina kaluhuran leuwih ti {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}} ti beungeut laut. Titik pangluhurna di Butan nyaéta [[Gangkhar Puensum]] dina {{convert|7570|m|ft}}, nu mana minangka [[puncak pangluhurna nu teu pernah didaki]] sadunya.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Titik panghandapna nyaéta {{convert|98|m|ft|abbr=on}}, di lebak di [[Drangme Chhu]], di mana aya walungan nu misahkeun Butan jeung India.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Kalawan walungan nu ngalir ti salju, lebak alpen di wewengkon ieu nyadiaakeun [[padang jukut]] pikeun angon, dipiara ku masarakat pangangon ngumbara nu nyumebar. [[Pagunungan Hideung (Butan)|Pagunungan Hideung]] di bagian tengah Butan ngawangun hiji wates antara 2 walungan utama Butan: [[Walungan Mo Chhu]] sarta [[Walungan Drangme Chhu]]. Puncak-puncak Pagunungan Hideung aya antara {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} nepi ka {{convert|4925|m|ft|abbr=on}} luhureun beungeut laut. Leuwung di pagunungan Butan beulah tengah kasusun ti [[leuweung koniféra sub-alpen Himalaya Wétan]] di beulah luhur sarta [[leuwung tutuwuhan kembang Himalaya Wétan]] di beulah handap pagunungan. Leuwugn di wewengkon tengah nyadiakeun mayoritas produksi leuweung Butan. Walungan [[Walungan Torsa|Torsa]], [[Walungan Raidak|Raidak]], [[Walungan Sankosh|Sankosh]], jeung [[Walungan Manas|Manas]] mangrupa walungan-walungan utama Butan, ngalir ngaliwatan wewengkon ieu. Kalobaannana warga ngeusian daratan luhur bagian tengah. Di beulah kidul, aya [[Papasiran Shiwalik]] nu ditutupan ku [[leuweung tutuwuhan kembang sub-tropis Himalaya]] nu padet, lebak walungan aluvial, sarta pagunungan nepi ka {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} luhureun beungeut laut. Bagian handap pasir turun nepi ka dataran sub-tropis [[Duars]]. Kalobaannana bagian Duars aya di India, sanajan hiji sela kalawan lébar {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} nepi ka {{convert|15|km|mi|abbr=on}} manjang nepi ka Butan. Duars di Butan dibagi kana 2 bagian: kalér jeung kidul. Duars kalér, nu wawatesan jeung suku papasiran Himalaya, rupana kagurat, ngawangun léréng-léréng, jeung taneuh nu saat jeung ngabeulah kalawan tutuwuhan nu padet sarta raloba margasatwa. Duars kidul taneuhna subu5, kalawan sabana, leuwung nu padet, sarta cinyusu. Walungan-walungan, nu sumberna ti salju atanapi hujan muson, ngalir ka [[Walungan Brahmaputra]] di India. Data nu dirilis ku Kamentrian Tatanén némbongkeun yén Butan miboga tutupan leuwung saluas 64% dina Oktober 2005. Iklim di Butan dipangaruhan ku kaluhuranana. Ti iklim sub-tropis di kidul nepi ka [[iklim sedeng]] di daratan luhur sarta iklim [[iklim kutub|jenis kutub]], kalawan salju sapanjang taun di kalér. Butan miboga 5 rupa usum: panas, [[muson]], gugur, tiis, jeung semi. Butran beulah kulon miboga hujan muson nu leuwih loba. Butan beulah kidul miboga usum panas nu lembap jeung panas sarta usum tiis nu tiis. Butan beulah tengah jeung wétan iklimna sedeng sarta leuwih saat ti batan beulah kulon, kalawan usum panas nu haneut sarta usum tiis nu tiis.<!--Library of Congress|Geography--> {{Geographic location | Centre={{Flagicon|Butan}} Butan | North={{Flagicon|Cina}} [[Cina]] | East={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] | South={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] | West={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] }} == Kaayaan hayati == [[File:Takin, Thimphu mini-zoo.jpg|thumb|[[Takin]], [[sato nasional]] Butan.]] {{see also|Daptar mamalia di Butan}} Butan nanda tanganan [[Konvénsi Kaanékaragaman Biologi]] dina 11 Juni 1992, sarta jadi bagian ti konvénsi éta dina 25 Agustus 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |title=List of Parties |date=|accessdate=8 Désémber 2012}}</ref> Butan teras nyieun hiji [[Rancangan Aksi Kaanékaragaman Hayati|Rancangan Aksi jeung Stratégi Kaanékaragaman Hayati Nasional]], kalawan 2 révisi, nu mana nu panganyarna ditarima ku konvénsi dina 4 Pébruari 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/bt/bt-nbsap-v3-en.pdf |title=Biodiversity Action Plan 2009 |date=|accessdate=9 Désémber 2012}}</ref> ===Sasatoan=== Butan miboga rupa-rupa primata, saperti spésiés langka kawas [[langur emas]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=1990|title=Primates in Bhutan |journal=Oryx |volume=24 |page=125}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=1992|title=Golden langur – Distribution Confusion|journal=Oryx|volume=26|pages=172–173}}</ref> Hiji varian makaka Assam, nu dianggaep ku sababaraha otoritas salaku hiji spésiés anyar, ''Macaca munzala'', kacutat di Butan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2008|title=Primates of Bhutan and Observations of Hybrid Langurs|journal=Primate Conservation|volume=23|pages=65–73}}</ref> [[Lodaya Benggala]], [[badak India]], [[macan dahan]], [[kelenci Assam]], jeung [[ontohod sloth]] hirup di daratan handap tropis jeung leuwung kai kandel di kidul. Di wewengkon iklim sedeng, [[langur kulawu]], lodaya, [[maung tutul India]], [[goral]], jeung [[serow]] tiasa dipanggih dina leuwung campuran koniféra, camara, jeung tutuwuhan kembang. Tutuwuhan buah jeung awi nyadiakeun habitat pikeun [[ontohod hideung Himalaya]], [[panda beureum]], [[bajing]], [[uncal sambar]], [[bagong]], jeung [[mencek]]. Wewengkon alpen di Pagunungan Himalaya di kalér mangrupa habitat pikeun [[maung tutul salju]], [[domba paul]], [[marmot]], [[ajag Tibét]], [[antelop]], [[uncal kasturi Himalaya]], jeung [[sato nasional]] Butan, [[takin]]. Munding cai liar ngeusian Butan beulah kidul kalawan populasi nu saeutik.<ref>{{cite book|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2010 |title=The Vanishing Herds: Wild Water Buffalo|publisher=Gibbon Books & The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India|location=Guwahati, India}}</ref> Leuwih ti 770 spésiés manuk enggeus kacutat hirup di Butan. Spésiés kaancem, [[meri jangjang bodas]], karak sababaraha taun ditambahkeun ka daptar manuk di Butan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2007|title=White-winged duck ''Cairina (=Asarcornis) scutulata'' and Blue-tailed Bee-eater ''Merops philippinus'': two new country records for Bhutan.|journal=Forktail|volume=23|pages=153–155}}</ref> ===Konsérvasi=== {{seealso|Masalah lingkungan di Butan}} {{utama|Daptar suaka alam di Butan}} {{Annotated image |caption = [[Suaka alam di Bhutan]] dina warna ungu; [[Wildlife corridor|biological corridor]] dina warna héjo. |image-width=300 |width=300 |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Bhutan protected areas location map.png|300px default [[File:Bhutan protected areas location map.png]] desc none </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|63|57|<small>[[Taman Nasional Jigme Dorji|Jigme Dorji]]</small>}} {{Annotation|75|80|<small>''[[Suaka Alam Motithang Takin|Motithang]]''</small>}} {{Annotation|116|50|<small>[[Kebon Raya Pangélingan Wangchuck|Wangchuck]]</small>}} {{Annotation|220|65|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Bumdeling|Bumdeling]]</small>}} {{Annotation|150|90|<small>[[Taman Nasional Thrumshingla|Thrumshingla]]</small>}} {{Annotation|264|138|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Khaling|Khaling]]</small>}} {{Annotation|20|100|<small>[[Suaka Alam Torsa|Torsa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|115|110|<small>[[Taman Nasional Jigme Singye Wangchuck|Jigme Singye]]</small>}} {{Annotation|75|145|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Phibsoo|Phibsoo]]</small>}} {{Annotation|150|140|<small>[[Taman Nasional Karajaan Manas|Manas]]</small>}} {{Annotation|250|100|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Sakteng|Sakteng]]</small>}} }} [[Himalaya]] Wétan kawanoh salaku titik puncak [[biodivérsitas]] sarta mangrupa salah sahiji ti 234 [[wewengkon ékologi]] istiméwa sadunya ti analisis [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] antara taun 1995 jeung 1997. Butan dianggep salaku modél inisiatif [[konsérvasi]]. Nagara ieu enggeus pernah narima pujian internasional ti usaha ngamumulé kaanékarupaan hayatina. Butan nangtukeun yén saeutikna 60% wewengkon daratna katutup ku [[leuweung]], kalawan 40%<ref name=BTF1>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/parks-of-bhutan|title=Parks of Bhutan|work=Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online|publisher=Bhutan Trust Fund|accessdate=2011-03-26}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217080833/http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/parks-of-bhutan/ |date=2016-12-17 }}</ref><ref name=BTF2>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/about-bhutan-trust-fund/the-organisation|title=The Organisation|work=Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online|publisher=Bhutan Trust Fund|accessdate=2011-03-26}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329063448/http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/about-bhutan-trust-fund/the-organisation |date=2010-03-29 }}</ref> wewengkon nagarana pikeun taman nasional, suaka alam, jeung wewengkon tangtayungan lianna. [[File:DholeT.zoo.jpg|thumb|200px|Nepi ka taun 2010, [[pamangsa apéks]] Asia anu pangrawanna tina [[kapunahan]] nyaéta ''[[dhole]]''. Diperkirakeun kirang ti 2.500 ékor anu kasésa sadunya.]] Sanajan kaayaan alam Butan ralobana masih alus, pamaréntah ngumumkeun yén konsérvasi masih kénéh dipertimbangkeun sarta mangrupa salah sahiji tujuan nasional pikeun sababaraha taun jagana. Anceman pikeun kahirupan alam di Butan enggeus mimiti katingal, saperti tekenan pangeusi, modérenisasi tatanén, moro tanpa ijin, pawangunan PLTA, tambang, industrialisasi, urbanisasi, panataan limbah jeung runtah, pariwisata, papaséaan lemah pikeun pawangunan jalan sarta pangaruh infrastruktur sosial jeung ékonomi lianna. Dina kanyataanana, wates wewengkon tangtayungan jeung wewengkon pamukiman anu pacampur-campur ngarah kana masalah lian. Sasatoan kalindung asup ka lemah tatanén warga, ngaruksak tatangkalan jeung maéhan angon. Ku kituna, Butan nyieun hiji rancangan pawangunan pager alarm tanaga surya, munara panénjo, jeung lampu sorot, sarta nyadiakeun pangan sasatoan jeung tempat uyah di luar pamukiman warga sangkan sasatoan heunteu asup.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/addressing-human-wildlife-conflict|title=Addressing Human-Wildlife Conflict|first=Jigme|last=Wangchuk|publisher=[[Bhutan Observer]] online|date=2011-07-08|accessdate=2011-07-13}}</ref> Harga pasaran supa ''[[Ophiocordyceps sinensis]]'' anu dicandak ti alam nyababkeun pamangpaatan leuwih anu sesah diorganisasikeun.<ref>P.F. Cannon, N.L. Hywel-Jones, N. Maczey, L. Norbu, Tshitila, T. Samdup & P. Lhendup, ''Steps towards sustainable harvest of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Bhutan'' Biodivers. Conserv. 18: 2263-2281 (2009).</ref> == Ékonomi == [[File:10 Ngultrum Vorderseite.jpg|thumb|Mata uang Butan nyaéta [[Ngultrum]].]] [[File:Tree map export 2009 Bhutan.jpeg|thumb|Babagian ékspor Butan.]] {{utama|Ékonomi Butan}} Mata uang Butan nyaéta [[Ngultrum]], nu peunteunna [[Ajén tukeur katangtu|disaruakeun]] jeung [[Rupee India]]. Rupee India ogé ditarima salaku [[alat tukeur sah]] di Butan. Sanajan ékonomi Butan mangrupa salah sahiji anu pangleutikna sadunya, ékonomi Butan enggues tumuwuh dina sababaraha taun ieu, 8% dina 2005 sarta 14% dina 2006. Taun 2007, ékonomi Butan mangrupa anu ka-2 panggancangna tumuwuhna sadunya, kalawan tingkat tumuwuh ékonomi taunan 22,4%. Kaayaan ieu disababkeun utamina ku proyék agung [[Proyék Pambangkit Listrik Tanaga Cai Tala|PLTA]] [[Tala, Butan|Tala]]. Nepi ka Maret 2006, [[pamasukan per kapita]] Butan nyaéta US$1,321. Ékonomi Butan utamina aya dina kagiatan [[tatanén di Butan|tatanén]], kaleuweungan, pariwisata, jeung panjualan [[tanaga hidroéléktrik]] ka India. Kagiatan tatanén mangrupa pagawéan utami ti leuwih ti 80 persén wargi Butan. Kagiatan [[agraris]]na utamina mangrupa [[tatanén subsistén]] jeung [[kaingonan]]. Karajinan leungeun, utaminan tinunan jeung banda kaagamaan, mangrupa [[industri désa]] leutik. Wewengkon anu robah-robah ti pasir jeung pagunungan nyababkeun pawangunan jalan jeung [[infrastruktur]] lianna sesah jeung awis. Hal ieu ditambah ku euweuhna aksés sagara nyababkeun Butan hésé miboga kauntungan signifikan ti padagangan banda produksina. Butan heunteu miboga [[angkutan rél|karéta]], sanajan [[Indian Railways]] ngarencanakeun nyambungkeun wewengkon Butan beulah kidul jeung jaringan karéta di India dina hiji pasatujuan anu ditandatanganan dina Januari 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050126/main5.htm |first=Rajeev |last=Sharma |title=MoUs with Bhutan on Rail Links, Power Projects |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |date=2011-01-25 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Butan jeung India nandatanganan hiji pasatujuan 'dagang bébas' dina 2008, anu ngijinkeun impor jeung ékspor Butan ti jeung ka nagara lian tiasa transit di India tanpa [[béa cukai]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htm |title=MEMBER INFORMATION: India and the WTO |publisher=[[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) |accessdate=2009-04-23| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090422224717/http://www.wto.org/english/theWTO_e/countries_e/india_e.htm| archivedate= 22 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Butan miboga hubungan padagangan jeung wewengkon [[Wewengkon Otonom Tibét|Tibét]] nepi ka taun 1960, nalika Butan nutup watesna jeung Cina sanggeus raloba pangungsi anu asup ka Butan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JA12Ad02.html |title=In Bhutan, China and India Collide |first=Mohan |last=Balaji |date=2008-01-12 |accessdate=2010-10-03 |publisher=[[Asia Times]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509184053/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JA12Ad02.html |date=2008-05-09 }}</ref> Pamasukan leuwih ti [[Ngultrum|Nu]] 100.000 [[per taun]] dikeunakeun pajak, tapi ngan saeutik wajib pajak anu minuhan sarat éta. TInkgat inflasi Butan diperkirakeun aya dina tingkat 3% dina taun 2003. Butan miboga [[Produk Doméstik Bruto]] kira-kira [[dolar Amérika Sarikat|$AS]] 2,913 milyar <!-- (disaruakeun jeung [[Purchasing Power Parity]])-->. Pamasukan per kapita kira-kira $1.400,{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}}. Pamasukan pamaréntah totalna $272 yuta, sanajan pangaluaranna sagedé $350 yuta. 60 persén <!---CIA factbook|CIA-economy---> pangaluaran nagara, dibayar ku Kamentrian Luar Nagri India.<ref group=note>Kamentrian Luar Nagri India nyadiakeun pitulung kauangan ka nagara taanggana dina "gawé bareng sacara téhnis jeung ékonomi jeung nagara lianna sarta kamajuan pikeun pamaréntahan nagara luar."</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |title=BUDGET |publisher=The Tribune (India) online |accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Ékspor Butan, utamina tanaga listrik, [[kapulaga]], [[gips]], [[kai]], karajinan, semén, bubuahan, batu mulia, jeung [[rempah]], total [[Euro|€]]128 yuta (perk. 2000). Sanajan kitu, tingkat imporna nyaéta €164 yuta, ngarah kana [[défisit]]. Komoditas impor utama ngawengku [[béngsin]] jeung [[minyak bumi]], [[pangan]], [[mesin]], kandaraan, kaén, jeung [[béas]]. Mitra utama ékspor Butan's nyaéta India, ngawengku 58,6% ti total éksporna. [[Hong Kong]] (30,1%) jeung [[Bangladés]] (7,3%) nyaéta 2 mitra ékspor salajengna.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Ku sabab watesna jeung Tibét ditutup, padagangan antara Butan jeung Cina ayeuna méh euweuh. == Babagian administratif ==<!--Kahubugn jeung Citakan:Ngeunaan Butan--> {{utama|Distrik di Butan|Blok di Butan|Undang-Undang Pamaréntahan Lokal Butan 2009}} Butan dibagi kana 20 ''[[dzongkhag]]'' (distrik), diparéntah ku hiji lembaga anu disebut ''Dzongkhag Tshogdu''. Di sababaraha ''[[thromde]]'' (kalurahan), tingkat adiministrasi di handapeunana aya kahubung langusng jeung administrasi Dzongkhag. Kalobaanana daérah, ''[[gewog]]'' padésaan (blok désa) diparéntah ku hiji lembaha anu disebut ''Gewog Tshogde''.<ref name=LGA09>{{cite web |url=http://www.nab.gov.bt/downloadsact/Dzo74.pdf |format=PDF |title=Undang-Undang Pamaréntahan Lokal Butan 2009 |publisher=[[Pamaréntah Butan]] |date=2009-09-11 |accessdate=2011-01-20 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162642/http://www.nab.gov.bt/downloadsact/Dzo74.pdf |date=2011-07-06 }}</ref> Thromde (kalurahan) milih ''Thrompon'' salaku pamingpin sarta wakil Thromde éta di Dzongkhag Tshogdu. Gewog ogé milih pamingpin anu disebut ''gup'', wakilna disebut ''mangmi'', anu ogé minangka wakil di Dzongkhag Thshogdu. Pikeun perkawis pamilihan umum, daérah pamilihan di Butan nyaéta ''[[chiwog]]'', babagian ti gewog anu ditangtukeun ku Komisi Pamilihan Umum.<ref name=LGA09/> {{Annotated image |caption = [[Distrik di Butan]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |title=Delimitation |publisher=Komisi Pamilihan Umum, [[Pamaréntah Butan]] |year=2011 |accessdate=2011-07-31 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110720105402/http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |archivedate=20 July 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720105402/http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref> |image- style="width:300px;" |width=300 |float=right |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Bhutan location map.svg|320px default [[File:Bhutan location map.svg]] desc none # </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|160|65|<small>[[Distrik Bumthang|Bumthang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|63|145|<small>[[Distrik Chukha|Chukha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|90|130|<small>[[Distrik Dagana|Dagana]]</small>}} {{Annotation|95|45|<small>[[Distrik Gasa|Gasa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|40|110|<small>[[Distrik Haa|Haa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|200|55|<small>[[Distrik Lhuntse|Lhuntse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|207|120|<small>[[Distrik Mongar|Mongar]]</small>}} {{Annotation|50|82|<small>[[Distrik Paro|Paro]]</small>}} {{Annotation|215|135|<small>[[Distrik Pemagatshel|Pema-<br>gatshel]]</small>}} {{Annotation|87|73|<small>[[Distrik Punakha|Punakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|260|145|<small>[[Distrik Samdrup Jongkhar|Samdrup Jongkhar]]</small>}} {{Annotation|15|140|<small>[[Distrik Samtse|Samtse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|135|155|<small>[[Distrik Sarpang|Sarpang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|40|60|<small>[[Distrik Thimphu|Thimphu]]</small>}} {{Annotation|250|110|<small>[[Distrik Trashigang|Trashigang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|240|80|<small>[[Distrik Trashiyangtse|Trashiyangtse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|145|100|<small>[[Distrik Trongsa|Trongsa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|125|140|<small>[[Distrik Tsirang|Tsirang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|105|90|<small>[[Distrik Wangdue Phodrang|Wangdue<br>Phodrang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|160|130|<small>[[Distrik Zhemgang|Zhemgang]]</small>}} }} {{col|2}} # [[Distrik Bumthang|Bumthang]] # [[Distrik Chukha|Chukha]] (''Chhukha'') # [[Distrik Dagana|Dagana]] # [[Distrik Gasa|Gasa]] # [[Distrik Haa|Haa]] # [[Distrik Lhuntse|Lhuntse]] # [[Distrik Mongar|Mongar]] # [[Distrik Paro|Paro]] # [[Distrik Pemagatshel|Pemagatshel]] (''Pemagatsel'') # [[Distrik Punakha|Punakha]] # [[Distrik Samdrup Jongkhar|Samdrup Jongkhar]] # [[Distrik Samtse|Samtse]] (''Samchi'') # [[Distrik Sarpang|Sarpang]] (''Sarbhang'') # [[Distrik Thimphu|Thimphu]] # [[Distrik Trashigang|Trashigang]] (''Tashigang'') # [[Distrik Trashiyangtse|Trashiyangtse]] # [[Distrik Trongsa|Trongsa]] (''Tongsa'') # [[Distrik Tsirang|Tsirang]] (''Chirang'') # [[Distrik Wangdue Phodrang|Wangdue Phodrang]] (''Wangdi Phodrang'') # [[Distrik Zhemgang|Zhemgang]] (''Shemgang'') </div> == Dayeuh jeung kota == {{utama|Daptar kota di Butan}} * [[Thimphu]], ibu kota jeung kota panggedéna di Butan. * [[Damphu, Tsirang|Damphu]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Tsirang]]. * [[Jakar]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Bumthang]] sarta lokasi di mana Buddha asup ka Butan. * [[Mongar]], puseur padagangan di Butan beulah wétan. * [[Paro, Butan|Paro]], lokasi [[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]]. * [[Phuentsholing]], puseur padagangan Butan. * [[Punakha]], ibu kota heubeul. * [[Samdrup Jongkhar]], kota wates jeung India. * [[Trashigang]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Trashigang]], distrik anu panglobana pangeusina di Butan. {{Largest cities of Bhutan}} == Démografi == {{Historical populations |type= |footnote= Source: <small>http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ Angka taun 2005 heunteu ngawengku pangeusi teu tetep jeung migran</small> |1969 |930614 |1980 |1165000 |1991 |1375400 |2005 |634982 }} [[File:Bhutanese people.jpg|thumb|left|Urang Butan keur maké pakéan nasional dina Parayaan Wangdi Phodrang.]] {{utama|Démografi Butan}} Urang Butan utamina disusun ku Urang [[Ngalop]] (Butan Kulon) jeung [[urang Sharchop|Sharchop]] (Butan Wétan). Urang [[Lhotshampa]] (urang kidul) nyaéta kelompok urang anu hétérogén kalawan komposisi utama urang katurunan [[Urang Nepal|Nepal]]. Urang Lhotshampa dianggep ngawasaan 45% total pangeusi Butan dina sénsus taun 1988<ref name="bns">http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116201719/http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ |date=2011-11-16 }}</ref>. Dina awal jaman 1970-an, pernikahan campuran antawis Urang jeung and masarakat Butan utama dirojong ku pamaréntah. Tatapi dina ahir jaman 1980-an, pamaréntah Butan ngaluarkeun kira-kira 108.000 Urang Lhotshampa ti wewengkonna ka kémah-kémah pangungsian.<ref name="hrw.org"/> Tingkat [[beunta hurup]] di Butan nyaéta 59,5%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=BTN |title=Report: Data Profile |publisher=World Bank |year=2008 |accessdate=2009-04-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080801053414/http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=BTN |archivedate=2008-08-01}}</ref> Butan miboga yuswa médian 24,8 taun.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html CIA World Factbook: Bhutan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228202246/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |date=2010-12-28 }}</ref> Tingkat [[harepan hirup]] nyaéta 62,2 taun (61 lalaki, 64,5 awéwé). Rasio jenis kelamin nyaéta 1.070 lalaki per 1.000 awéwé.<!---CIA factbook|CIA-4---> ===Agama=== {{bar box |title=Agama di Butan |left1=agama |right1=perséntase |float=right |bars = {{bar percent|Buddha|gold|76}} {{bar percent|Hindu|purple|23}} {{bar percent|Lianna|black|1}} }} [[File:Takstan-monastery.jpg|thumb|''Taktshang Goemba'' di Butan, [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=27.491884,89.363544&spn=0.011706,0.026157&t=h&z=16&vpsrc=6&lci=com.panoramio.all aya dina gawir saluhur 900 méter]]] {{utama|Agama di Butan}} Diperkirakeun antawis dua per tilu jeung tilu per opat populasi Butan ngagem [[Buddha Vajrayana]], nu mangrupa [[agama nagara]]. Kirang leuwih saperopat nepi ka sapertilu populasi ngagem [[Hindu]]. Pangagem agama lian ngawengku kirang ti 1% populasi.<ref name=USDOS>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007–Bhutan|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2007-09-14|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm|accessdate=2008-01-06| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080109063821/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm| archivedate= 9 Januari 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Aturan undang-undang anu ayeuna ngarojong kana [[kabébasan agama]]; tatapi [[proselytism]] dilarang ku hiji kawijakan pamaréntah<ref name=USDOS/> sarta tina interpretasi yudikatif [[Undang-Undang Dasar Butan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/main-news/pastor-sentenced-to-3-yrs-in-prison|title=Pastor Sentenced to Three Years in Prison|work=Bhutan News Service|publisher=Bhutan News Service|date=2010-12-12|accessdate=2011-01-25}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216034352/http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/main-news/pastor-sentenced-to-3-yrs-in-prison/ |date=2010-12-16 }}</ref> Agama Buddha dipikawanohkeun ka Butan dina abad ka-7 maséhi. Raja Tibét [[Songtsän Gampo]] (ngajabat 627–649), maréntahkeun diwangunna 2 wihara Buddha, di [[Bumthang (kota)|Bumthang]] Jampa Lhakhang di Butan bagian tengah jeung di Kyichu Lhakhang (di deukeut [[Paro, Butan|Paro]]) di [[Lebak Paro]].<ref name="CS1"/> ===Basa=== {{utama|Basa di Butan}} {{Annotated image |caption=[[Basa di Butan]] |image- style="width:300px;" |width=300 |float=left |image-bg-color=#F4E2BA |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Languages of Bhutan.svg|300px default [[File:Languages of Bhutan with labels.svg]] desc none # Dots and long names in small, Dzongkha in big </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|50|65|'''[[Basa Dzongkha]]'''}} {{Annotation|149|73|<small>'''[[Basa Bumthang|Bumthang]]'''</small>}} {{Annotation|174|16|<small>[[Basa Kurtöp|Kurtöp]]</small>}} {{Annotation|204|42|<small>[[Basa Dzala|Dzala]]</small>}} {{Annotation|231|28|<small>[[Basa Khams Tibét|Khampa Tibét]]</small>}} {{Annotation|122|42|<small>[[Lakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|100|81|<small>[[Nyenkha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|136|91|<small>[['Olekha|'Olekha (Monpa)]]</small>}} {{Annotation|165|56|<small>[[Basa Brokkat|Brokkat]]</small>}} {{Annotation|207|61|<small>[[Chocangacakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|213|90|<small>[[Basa Chali|Chali]]</small>}} {{Annotation|222|80|<small>[[Basa Dakpa|Dakpa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|275|75|<small>[[Basa Brokpa|Brokpa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|264|138|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|10|118|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|120|123|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|53|113|<small>[[Basa Lepcha|Lepcha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|58|126|<small>[[Basa Lhokpu|Lhokpu]]</small>}} {{Annotation|165|111|<small>[[Basa Kheng|Kheng]]</small>}} {{Annotation|192|119|<small>[[Basa Gongduk|Gongduk]]</small>}} {{Annotation|228|100|<small>'''[[Basa Tshangla|Tshangla]]<br>[[Basa Tshangla|(Sharchopkha)]]'''</small>}} }} Basa resmi nagara nyaéta Basa Butan ([[Basa Dzongkha|Dzongkha]]), salah sahiji ti 53 basa di [[rungkun basa Tibét]]. Aksarana anu disebut ''Chhokey'', sarungkun jeung aksara Tibét klasik. Di sakola-sakola, Basa Inggris mangrupa basa panganteur pangatikan sedengkeun Dzongkha diajar salaku basa nasional. [[Ethnologue]] nulis 24 basa anu kiwari dipaké di Butan, sadayana mangrupa bagian tu [[rungkun basa Tibet-Burma]], iwal [[Basa Nepal]] anu asup kana [[rungkun basa Indo-Arya]]. Nepi ka taun 1980-an, pamaréntah ngarojong pangajaran Basa Nepal di sakola-sakola di Butan beulah kidul. Tapi, sanggeus karusuhan pakarang, Basa Nepal dikaluarkeun ti kurikulum. Saméméh 1980-an, [[Lhotshampa]] (masarakat panyatur Basa Nepal), utamina ngeusian Butan beulah kidul, ngawengku kira-kira 30% populasi Butan.<ref name=CIDCM>{{cite web |title=MAR {{!}} Data |2=Assessment for Lhotshampas in Bhutan |url=http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=76001 |work=Database |publisher=Puseur Pamekaran Internasional jeung Manajemén Konflik [[Universitas Maryland]] |accessdate=2011-08-09 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622213816/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=76001 |date=2012-06-22 }}</ref> == Budaya == [[File:Bhutanese thanka of Mt. Meru and the Buddhist Universe.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Thanka]]'' [[Gunung Meru (mitos)|Gunung Meru]] jeung jagad Buddha (abad ka-19, [[Tongsa|Dzong Tongsa]], Tongsa, Butan).]] [[File:Bhutan-masked-dance.jpg|thumb|200px|''Chaam'', sacara taunan dipéntaskeun dina parayaan kaagamaan.]] {{utama|Budaya Butan}} Butan miboga loba budaya khas anu sacara umum masih asli lantaran isolasi Butan ti dunya luar nepi ka awal 1960-an. Tradisi Butan patali jeung pangaruh agama Buddha.<ref>Kharat, Rajesh. "Bhutan's Security Scenario." ''Contemporary South Asia'' 13.2 (2004): 171-185. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref><ref>Martin Regg, Cohn. "Lost horizon." ''Toronto Star'' (Canada) n.d.: Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref> [[Hindu]] mangrupa agama dominan anu kadua di Butan, utamina di pakidulan.<ref>Zurick, David. "Gross National Happiness And Environmental Status In Bhutan." ''Geographical Review'' 96.4 (2006): 657-681. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref> The government is incréasingly making efforts to preserve and sustain the current culture and traditions of the country. ku sabab kaayaan alam jeung warisan budayana anu saeutik kapangaruh ti luar, Butan disebut ogé salaku ''[[Shangri-la]] Pangahirna''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/edens/bhutan|title=Bhutan – the Last Shangri La|publisher=PBS online|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> [[Sangu]], [[soba]], jeung [[jagong]] mangrupa kadaharan utama dina [[kulinér Butan]]. Kadaharan lianna aya ogé saperti daging [[daging babi]], [[daging sapi|sapi]], [[yak]], [[hayam]], jeung [[daging domba|domba]]. [[Produk susu]], saperti [[mantéga]] and kiju ti yak jeung [[sapi]], ogé populér. Inuman populér contona [[entéh mantéga]], [[entéh]], ''[[ara (inuman)|ara]]'', jeung [[bir]]. Butan mangrupa nagara kahiji di dunya anu ngalarang dijualna [[bako]] liwat [[Undang-Undang Pangadalian Bako Butan 2010|UU Bako 2010]].<ref name=LP/> [[Arsitéktur Butan]] mangrupa arsitéktur karuhun anu khas. Arsitéktur tradisionalna heunteu maké paku boh rangkay beusi dina ngajieunana.<ref name=LP/><ref>{{cite book|title=Earth Architecture |first=Ronald |last=Rael |publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |year=2008 |isbn=1-56898-767-6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BsLAeifqe4EC |page=92 |accessdate=2011-10-31}}</ref><ref name=bbc98>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profile/54627.stm |title=Country profile – Bhutan: a land frozen in time |date=1998-02-09 |publisher=BBC News online |accessdate=2010-10-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101111083203/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profile/54627.stm| archivedate= 11 Nopémber 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Salah sahiji wangunan cicirén Butan nyaéta wangunan bénténg anu disebut ''[[dzong]]''. Ti jaman kuna, dzong dipaké salaku puseur pamaréntahan jeung kaagamaan di wewengkonna.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Amundsen |first=Ingun B |url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_05_02.pdf |format=PDF |title=On Bhutanese and Tibetan Dzongs |journal=Journal of Bhutan Studies |volume=5 |edition=Winter |year=2001 |pages=8–41 |accessdate=2011-10-19 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005194330/http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_05_02.pdf |date=2011-10-05 }} ([http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/journals/jbs/ JBS])</ref> [[Universitas Texas El Paso]] ti Amérika Sarikat maké gaya arsitéktur Butan dina wangunan kampusna, kitu ogé ku sababaraha wangunan lian di kota [[El Paso]].<ref>{{cite web|work=UTEP Handbook of Operations |title=1.1 University History|url=http://admin.utep.edu/Default.aspx?PageContentMode=1&tabid=30289|publisher=University of Texas, El Paso|accessdate=2011-09-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110723225636/http://admin.utep.edu/Default.aspx?PageContentMode=1&tabid=30289| archivedate= 23 Juli 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Butan miboga [[poé peré di Butan|loba poé peré]], kalobaanana mangrupa parayaan tradisional usuman, sékulér, jeung kaagamaan. Di antarana saperti [[Dongzhi|titik balik panonpoé]] (kira-kira 1 Januari, dumasar [[kalénder bulan]]), Taun Anyar (kalénder bulan, Pébruari atanapi Maret), tepang taun Raja, sarta poé pangistrénana, ahir resmi usum [[muson]] (22 Séptémber), Poé Nasional (17 Désémber), sareng rupa-rupa parayaan Buddha jeung Hindu. [[Musik Butan]] sacara umum dibagi kana varian tradisional jeung modéren. Musik tradisional mangrupa musik kaagamaan jeung rahayat, saperti ''[[zhungdra]]'' jeung ''[[boedra]]''.<ref name=Greenwood>{{cite book|title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East |volume=2 |first=William M. |last=Clements |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-32849-8 |pages=106–110 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZvrWAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> Musik modéren saperti ''[[rigsar]]'' dimaénkeun ku alat musik campuran antara instrumén tradisional jeung organ listrik, nu tiasa ditulusuran balik ka jaman awal 1990-an. Musik ieu némbongkeun pangaruh ti musik populér India, hiji campuran ti musik tradisional jeung pangaruh musik populér Kulon.<ref name=k1>{{cite web|accessdate=2011-10-16 |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=2420 |first=Ugyen |last=Penjor |title=From Ngesem Ngesem to Khu Khu Khu&nbsp;... Rigsar music woos local music fans |date=2003-01-19 |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |accessdate=2011-10-16 |url=http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_music01a.html |title=Rigsar Dranyen |work=RAOnline |date=2011-06-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717012409/http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_music01a.html |date=2012-07-17 }}</ref> Dina kulawarga Butan, warisan ilaharna dipasihan ka gurat katurunan awéwé ti batan ka lalaki. Budak awéwé bakal diwariskeun imah kolotna. Budak lalaki dipiharep sangkan tiasa nyieun kahirupanna sorangan sarta remenna pindah ka imah pamajikanana. [[Nikah ku bogoh]] ilahar di wewengkon kota, tapi tradisi [[perjodohan]] masih kénéh umum di wewengkon désa. Sanajan teu umum, [[poligami]] dianggep biasa, malah ogé sok janten cara pikeun ngajaga harta tetep dina kulawarga.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sikkim and Bhutan|publisher=Vikas Publications, Indian Council for Cultural Relations |first=V.H. |last=Coelho |year=1970 |accessdate=2011-09-01 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KD0KAQAAIAAJ |page=82}}</ref> Raja saméméhna, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], anu ngabdikasi taun 2006, miboga 4 prameswari, anu sadayana sadulur. Raja anu ayeuna, [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], nikah jeung [[Jetsun Pema]], 21, masarakat biasa sarta putrina saurang pilot. == Olahraga == [[File:Bhutan archery.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Stadion Changlimithang]] keur dipaké pawai.]] Olahraga nasional Butan nyaéta [[panahan]], sarta pasanggiri dilaksanakeun sacara régulér ku raloba désa. Panahanna béda jeung standar [[cabang olimpiade|olimpiade]] saperti panempatan sasaran sarta kaayaan sakurilingna. 2 sasaran ditempatkeun kapisah 100 méter. Pamaén manah ti hiji ujung lapangan ka ujung lianna. Unggal pamaén dina hiji tim manah 2 panah per babak. Panahan tradisional Butan mangrupa acara masarakat sarta pasanggiri diatur antara désa, kota, jeung tim. Usaha pikeun ngaganggu musuh saperti nangtung di deukeutna sasaran atanapi moyokan pamanah. ''Khuru'' mangrupa olahraga lian anu ogé populér, di mana anak panah kai kalawan ujung mangrupa paku 10&nbsp;cm dialungkeun ka sasaran 10 nepi ka 20 méter jauhna. Olahraga tradisional lianna nyaéta ''[[Digor (olahraga)|Digor]]''. Olahraga lian saperti [[krikét]] miboga popularitas di Butan, utamina sanggeus dipikawanohkeunana saluran televisi ti India. [[Tim nasional krikét Butan]] mangrupa salah sahiji ti tim afiliasi anu suksés. Conto lianna di antarana [[maén bal]]. Taun 2002, tim nasional maén bal Butan maén ngalawan [[Montserrat]], nu disebut salaku [[Final nu Lian]]; pertandinganna dilaksanakeun dina poé anu sarua jeung pertandingan Brasil ngalawan Jérman dina [[Final Piala Dunya FIFA 2002|final Piala Dunya]]. Pertandingan éta dilaksanakeun di [[Stadion Changlimithang]] di Thimpu. == Atikan == Butan miboga hiji universitas kalawan 11 kampus konstituén anu kasebar sanagara, [[Universitas Karajaan Butan]]. == Patalimarga jeung Angkutan == {{utama|Angkutan di Butan}} ===Udara=== [[Gambar:Paro Airport.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]]. Bandar udara internasional sahiji-hijina di Butan.]] [[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]] nyaéta bandar udara internasional sahiji-hijina di Butan. Aya ogé bandar udara doméstik saperti [[Bandar Udara Yongphulla]] di [[Trashigang]] nu mimiti dirénovasi taun 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=13325 |title=Domestic Air Service to Take Wing Soon |first=Tshering |last=Palden |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2009-09-01 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Aya rancangan pikeun ngawangun sababaraha bandar udara doméstik deui di Butan saperti di [[Bathpalathang]], [[Distrik Bumthang]] jeung di [[Gelephu]], [[Distrik Sarpang]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=14069 |title=Two Domestic Airports by 2010 |first=Gyalsten K |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2009-11-26 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> ===Rél jeung karéta=== Butan heunteu miboga [[angkutan rél]]. Sanajan kitu, Butan enggeus nyieun hiji pasatujuan jeung India dina ngahubungkeun Butan beulah kidul jeung jaringan rél India kalawan ngawangun rél karéta {{convert|11|mi|0|adj=on}}, {{RailGauge|1676mm}} [[lébar jalur karéta India|trak India]], antara Hashimara di Benggala Kulon jeung Toribari di Butan. Konstruksi rél ngaliwatan Satali, Bharna Bari, jeung Dalsingpara dibayar ku India.<ref name="times2009">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6970997.ece |work=The Times |date=2009-12-30 |title=Isolated Buddhist kingdom of Bhutan to get its first railway link |first=Jeremy |last=Page |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd |accessdate=2011-06-10 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ===Jalan=== [[Jalan Lateral]] mangrupa jalan utama nu ngahubungkeun Butan beulah wétan jeung kulon, nyambungkeun [[Phuentsholing]] di kidul-kulon ka [[Trashigang]] di wétan. Di antarana, Jalan Lateral ngaliwatan [[Wangdue Phodrang]], [[Trongsa]], sarta puseur pamukiman lianna. Jalan Lateral ogé miboga cabang ka [[Thimphu]] sarta kota utama lianna saperti [[Paro, Butan|Paro]] jeung [[Punakha]]. Jalan Lateral jeung jalan lianna di Butan miboga kualitas anu kirang ku lantaran kaayaan permukaannana, gawir, tikungan, cuaca, jeung longsor.<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond the Sky and the Earth: A Journey into Bhutan|first=Jamie|last=Zeppa|publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]]|year=2000|isbn=1-57322-815-X|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=383rWqWgga8C}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=4775|title=Icy Roads Claim Lives|publisher=[[Kuensel]] online|date=2004-12-04|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=16502|title=Landslide at Dzong Viewpoint|first=Samten|last=Yeshi|publisher=[[Kuensel]] online|date=2010-08-24|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == {{portal|Géografi|Asia|Asia Kidul|Himalaya|SAARC|Butan}} * [[Ihtisar Butan]] * [[Asia Kidul]] * [[Thimpu]] {{clear}} == Cutatan == {{reflist|group=note}} {{clear}} == Rujukan== {{col|2}} {{reflist}} </div> ; Sitasi lianna * {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |title=CIA — The World Factbook |work=cia.gov |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=2011-05-26 |accessdate=2011-06-22 |ref={{harvid|CIA—The World Factbook}} |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110623034614/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |archivedate=23 June 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228202246/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |date=2010-12-28 }} == Bacaan leuwih lajengna == {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book |last=Osmani |first=Siddiqur R. |coauthors=Bajracharya, B.B.; Tenzing, S.; Wangyal, T. |title=Macroeconomics of Poverty Reduction: The Case Study of Bhutan |publisher=UNDP |year=2007 |edition=2 |location=Colombo |page=302 |url=http://www.bt.undp.org/assets/files/publication/Macroeco_cs_for_Bhutan.pdf |format=PDF |isbn=978-955-1416-00-3 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728143237/http://www.bt.undp.org/assets/files/publication/Macroeco_cs_for_Bhutan.pdf |date=2011-07-28 }} * {{cite book|last=Wangchhuk |first=Lily |title=Facts About Bhutan: The Land of the Thunder Dragon |publisher=Absolute Bhutan Books| year=2008 |location=Thimphu |isbn=99936-760-0-4}} * {{cite web |title=A Hidden and Mysterious Kingdom |work=Toplum Postasi |url=http://www.toplumpostasi.net/index.php/cat/9/col/85/art/1026/PageName/English |accessdate=2006-06-14 }} * {{cite news |title=A New Measure of Well-Being From a Happy Little Kingdom |work=The New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/04/science/04happ.html?ex=1129089600&en=de859301f49c121d&ei=5070&emc=eta1 |accessdate=2005-10-04 |first=Andrew C. |last=Revkin |date=2005-10-04 }} * {{cite web |title=Border tension pushes MEA allocation |work=The Tribune, Chandigarh |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |accessdate=2005-09-08 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050722073624/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |archivedate=22 July 2005 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Bhutan |publisher=MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568123/Bhutan.html |accessdate=2005-09-08 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQ2kjMZ |archivedate=2009-10-31 |deadurl=yes }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028031131/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568123/Bhutan.html |date=2009-10-28 }} * {{cite web |title=Bhutan-China Relations |work=Bhutan News Online |url=http://www.bhutannewsonline.com/bhutan_china.html |accessdate=2005-09-08 }} * {{cite web |title=BTI 2008 — Bhutan Country Report |work= |location=Gütersloh |publisher=Bertelsmann Stiftung |year=2007 |url=http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/index.php?id=1393&tt_news=&type=98&L=1 |accessdate=2008-12-11 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224045249/http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/index.php?id=1393&tt_news=&type=98&L=1 |date=2012-02-24 }}— [http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/fileadmin/pdf/Gutachten_BTI_2008/ASO/Bhutan.pdf PDF version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217110834/http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/fileadmin/pdf/Gutachten_BTI_2008/ASO/Bhutan.pdf |date=2008-12-17 }} * {{cite book |author=A.P. Agarwala |title=Sikkim and Bhutan |publisher=Nest and Wings |year=2003 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Xnw-2sU1KMoC |accessdate=2011-09-01 |isbn=81-7824-008-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Datta-Ray |first=Sunanda K. |authorlink=Sunanda K. Datta-Ray |title=Smash and Grab: The Annexation of Sikkim |publisher=Vikas |year=1984 |isbn=0-7069-2509-2 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RCMuAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01 }} * {{cite book|author=Foning, A.R. |title=Lepcha, My Vanishing Tribe |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=1987 |isbn=81-207-0685-4}} * {{cite book|author=Rose, Leo |title=The Nepali Ethnic Community in the Northeast of the Subcontinent |publisher=University of California, Berkeley}} * {{cite book|author=Napoli, Lisa |title=Radio Shangri-La: What I Learned in Bhutan, the Happiest Kingdom on Earth |url=https://archive.org/details/radioshangrilawh0000napo |publisher=Crown |year=2011 |isbn=0-307-45302-2}} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar== {{Sister project links|voy=Bhutan}} * [http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/ Bhutan.gov.bt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230224419/http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/ |date=2005-12-30 }} - Portal resmi Pamaréntah Butan * {{CIA World Factbook link|bt|Bhutan}} * [http://www.library.gov.bt/misc/bhutan-links.html Bhutan Links] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410084644/http://www.library.gov.bt/misc/bhutan-links.html |date=2009-04-10 }} di [[Perpustakaan Nasional Butan]]. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12480707 Bhutan profile], [[BBC News]]. * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bhutan.htm Bhutan] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. * [http://www.bhutanrebirth.com/ Bhutan portal] di [[Bhutan Telecom]]. * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64215/Bhutan Bhutan], éntri ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. * {{Dmoz|Regional/Asia/Bhutan|Butan}} * {{Wikiatlas|Bhutan|Butan}} * [http://www.tourism.gov.bt/ Déwan Pariwisata Butan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041211095328/http://www.tourism.gov.bt/ |date=2004-12-11 }} {{Bhutan topics}} {{Countries and Territories of South Asia}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation}} {{Monarchies}} [[Kategori:Butan| ]] [[Kategori:Monarki konstitusional]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota Asosiasi Asia Kidul pikeun Sabilulungan Wewengkon]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Kidul]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu ngadeg taun 1949]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] ttbqykb7vadnkgc9dwsaxbkwti3eovv 0 33503 711742 419574 2026-08-07T03:10:02Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711742 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Téstostéron''' nyaéta [[hormon stéroid]] ti golongan [[androgén]] nu kapanggih di [[mamalia]], réptil<ref name="pmid16326949">{{cite journal | author = Cox RM, John-Alder HB | title = Testosterone has opposite effects on male growth in lizards (''Sceloporus'' spp.) with opposite patterns of sexual size dimorphism | journal = J. Exp. Biol. | volume = 208 | issue = Pt 24 | pages = 4679–87 | year = 2005 | month = Désémber | pmid = 16326949 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.01948 | url = | issn = }}</ref> birds,<ref name="pmid16671011">{{cite journal | author = Reed WL, Clark ME, Parker PG, Raouf SA, Arguedas N, Monk DS, Snajdr E, Nolan V, Ketterson ED | title = Physiological effects on demography: a long-term experimental study of testosterone's effects on fitness | journal = Am. Nat. | volume = 167 | issue = 5 | pages = 667–83 | year = 2006 | month = Méi | pmid = 16671011 | doi = 10.1086/503054 | laysummary = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083618.htm | laysource = ScienceDaily }}</ref>, jeung [[vertebrata]] lianna. Di mamalia, téstostéron utamana disékrési dina [[siki kanjut|téstis]] [[jalu]] jeung [[ovarium]] [[bikang]], sarta saeutik ti [[kelenjar adrénal]]. Ieu jat kaasup [[hormon]] séks utama pikeun jalu sarta kaasup [[stéroid anabolik]]. Pikeun lalaki, téstostéron téh minangka konci pikeun kamekaran jaringan réproduksi lalaki, kayaning téstis jeung prostat, sarta ngadorong ciri-ciri séksual sekundér sarupaning [[otot]] anu onjoy, massa [[tulang]], jeung tumuwuhna [[rambut|bulu]] awak<ref name="Mooradian_ 1987">{{cite journal | author = Mooradian AD, Morley JE, Korenman SG | title = Biological actions of androgens | journal = Endocr. Rev. | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–28 | year = 1987 | month = Pébruari | pmid = 3549275 | doi = 10.1210/edrv-8-1-1 | url = | issn = }}</ref>. Lian ti éta, téstostéron ogé ésénsial pikeun kawaluyaan awak<ref name="pmid19707253">{{cite journal | author = Bassil N, Alkaade S, Morley JE | title = The benefits and risks of testosterone replacement therapy: a review | journal = Ther. Clin. Risk Manag. | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | pages = 427–48 | year = 2009 | month = Juni | pmid = 19707253 | pmc = 2701485 | doi = | url = | issn = }}</ref> jeung nyegah [[ostéoporosis]]<ref name="pmid19011293">{{cite journal | author = Tuck SP, Francis RM | title = Testosterone, bone and osteoporosis | journal = Front. Horm. Res. | volume = 37 | issue = | pages = 123–32 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19011293 | doi = 10.1159/000176049 | url = | issn = }}</ref>. Rata-rata, awak lalaki anu geus sawawa ngahasilkeun téstostéron sapuluh tikelna awak awéwé, tapi [[awéwé]] leuwih sénsitip ka ieu hormon<ref name="isbn0-07-135739-4">{{cite book | author = Dabbs M, Dabbs JM | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Heroes, rogues, and lovers: testosterone and behavior | edition = | language = | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | origyear = | pages = | quote = | isbn = 0-07-135739-4 | oclc = | doi = | url =https://archive.org/details/heroesrogueslove0000dabb| accessdate = }}</ref>. Téstostéron dihasilkeun ku ampir sakabéh vertebrata. [[Lauk]] ngahasilkeun bentuk anu rada béda anu disebut [[11-ketotéstostéron]]<ref name="isbn0-87893-617-3">{{cite book | author = Nelson, Randy F. | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = An introduction to behavioral endocrinology | edition = | language = | publisher = Sinauer Associates | location = Sunderland, Mass | year = 2005 | origyear = | pages = [https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe03ednels_k6g0/page/143 143] | quote = | isbn = 0-87893-617-3 | oclc = | doi = | url =https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe03ednels_k6g0| accessdate = }}</ref>, anapon [[serangga]] ngahasilkeun [[ékdison]]<ref name="De_Loof_2006">{{cite journal | last = De Loof A | title = Ecdysteroids: the overlooked sex steroids of insects? Males: the black box | journal = Insect Science | year = 2006 | month = Oktober | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 325–338 | doi = 10.1111/j.1744-7917.2006.00101.x | first1 = Arnold}}</ref>. == Rujukan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Androgén]] [[Kategori:Hormon téstis]] [[Kategori:Hormon ovarium]] [[Kategori:Stéroid anabolik]] [[Kategori:Hormon manusa]] [[Kategori:Téstostéron]] ns6h0lzjly5qqglw8xzt2yve99y6qb1 0 33719 711601 475251 2026-08-07T00:04:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711601 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:MercyBrownGravestone.jpg|thumb|Batu nisan Mercy Brown]] '''Insidén vampir Mercy Brown''', nu lumangsung dina [[1892]], nyaéta salah sahiji kasus kondang ngeunaan pangalian mayat nu diduga [[vampir]]. Di [[Exeter, Rhode Island]], kulawarga Géorge jeung Mary Brown mibanda saruntuyan inféksi [[tuberkulosis]] dina ahir abad ka-19. Wanci éta, tuberkulosis disebut "panyakit paru-paru" jeung mangrupa panyakit nu maotkeun jeung nyingsieuneun. Sang indung, Mary, mangrupa nu kahiji maot akibat panyakit éta, dimiluan dina taun [[1888]] ku murangkalih awéwé cikalna, Mary Olive. Dua taun saterusna, dina [[1890]], putrana, Edwin, ogé nuju teu damang. Dina taun [[1891]], murangkalih nu lian, Mercy, mibanda panyakit éta jeung maot dina Januari [[1892]]. Dia dikubur di pamakaman [[Garéja Baptis di Exeter]]. Réréncangan jeung tatanggi percaya yén salah sahiji anggota kulawarga téh vampir jeung nyababkeun Edwin geuring. Hal ieu cocog jeung kapercayaan yén ralobana maot dina hiji kulawarga diakibatkeun ku aktivitas [[jurig]]. Panyakit paru-paru wanci éta kirang dipahaman jeung dipatalikeun jeung mitos. Géorge Brown diolo sangkan ngali makam kuluwargana. Anjeunna ngalaksanakeunna kalawan dibantos ku sababaraha wargi dina [[17 Maret]] 1892. Mayat Mary jeung Mary Olive katinggal aya paburukan tapi mayat Mercy méh teu robih jeung aya getih di jajantungna. Ieu ngakibatkeun para wargi nganggap yén Mercy téh vampir jeung nyababkan panyakit Edwin. Padahal, hawa [[New England]] nu tiis ngajadikeun taneuhna hésé ditembus, janten mayat Mercy lila burukna. Jajantung Mercy dicandak, diduruk, jeung lebuna dicampur jeung cai. Cai campuran étu teras dileueutkeun ka Edwin, nu maot dua bulan saterasna. == Sastra == Insidén Mercy Brown minangka inspirasi ka [[Caitlín R. Kiernan]] pikeun carita pondokna, "So Runs the World Away." Kasus étu ogé disebutkeun dina "The Shunned House" karangan [[H.P. Lovecraft]]. == Réferénsi == * {{cite book | last = Bell | first =Michael E. | title = Food for the Dead - On the Trail of New England's Vampires | url = https://archive.org/details/foodfordead00mich | publisher =Carrol & Graf Publishers | date =2001 | location =New York | isbn =0-7867-089909 | author = link = | page =338 pages }} * {{cite video | people =Connecticut Public Television | title =Vampires in New England | medium = TV Documentary | publisher = | location = | date =1996 }} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.oddthingsiveseen.com/2007/12/grave-of-mercy-brown-vampire.html O.T.I.S.(Odd Things I’ve Seen): A Firsthand Account of Mercy Brown’s Grave] [[Kategori:Maot akibat tuberkulosis]] [[Kategori:Carita rahayat Amerika]] [[Kategori:Vampir]] [[Kategori:Exeter, Rhode Island]] [[Kategori:Washington County, Rhode Island]] [[Kategori:Kajadian]] 20jp2nonn98sd0ghjhz81q8qc1t408b 0 33751 711593 660026 2026-08-06T23:47:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711593 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Writer |name=Francesco Petrarca |image=Altichiero,_ritratto_di_Francesco_Petrarca.jpg |imagesize=150px |caption=Francesco Petrarca |pseudonym= |birthdate={{Birth date|1304|7|20}} |birthplace=[[Arezzo]], [[Tuscany]], [[Italia]] |deathdate={{Death date and age|1374|7|19|1304|7|20|df=yes}} |deathplace=[[Arquà Petrarca]], [[Veneto]], [[Italia]] |occupation=[[Humanisme Renaisans|Humanis Renaisans]] |nationality=Italia |period=[[Renaisans Awal]]}} '''Francesco Petrarca ''' ([[20 Juli]] [[1304]] - [[19 Juli]] [[1374]]) nyaéta hiji [[cendekiawan]] jeung [[panyair]] [[Italia]]. Anjeunna ogé minangka salah sahiji [[Humanisme Renaisans|humanis]] nu pangawalna. Petrarca mindeng disebut "Bapa Humanisme".<ref>[http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=15299 this review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025064803/http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=15299 |date=2012-10-25 }} of Carol Quillen's ''Rereading the Renaissance''</ref> Dina abad ka-16, [[Pietro Bembo]] nyieun modél pikeun [[basa Italia]] modérn dumasar kana karya-karya Petrarca. Sonéta-sonéta Petrarca dipuji jeung ditiru di sakabéh Eropa dina wanci Renaisans jeung minangka modél pikeun sajak liris. Anjeunna ogé katelah salaku salah sahiji nu kahiji mekarkeun konsép [[Jaman Kapoékan (historiografi)|Jaman Kapoékan]]. == Catetan suku == {{reflist}} == Réferénsi == {{Refbegin}} *Bartlett, Kenneth R. (1992). ''The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance; a Source Book''. Lexington: D.C. Héath and Company. ISBN 0-669-20900-7 *[[Morris Bishop|Bishop, Morris]] (1961). "Petrarch." In [[J. H. Plumb]] (Ed.), ''Renaissance Profiles'', pp.&nbsp;1–17. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-131162-6 . *Hanawalt, A. Barbara. "The Middle Ages:An Illustrated History" pp.&nbsp;131–132 [[Oxford University Press]] New York 1998 *Kallendorf, Craig. "The Historical Petrarch," The American Historical Review, Vol 101, No. 1 (Feb. 1996): <130-141.> {{Refend}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{Refbegin|2}} *Bernardo, Aldo (1983). "Petrarch." In ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]'', volume 9. *Hollway-Calthrop, Henry. (1907). [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0Y9dzDlLqgfgW4PU6OS1Pg&id=4dNYA_MLAC8C ''Petrarch: His Life and Times''], Methuen. From [[Google Books]]. *Kohl, Benjamin G. (1978). "Francesco Petrarcha: Introduction; How a Ruler Ought to Govern His State," in ''The Earthly Republic: Italian Humanists on Government and Society'', ed. Benjamin G. Kohl and Ronald G. Witt, 25-78. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1097-2 *Nauert, Charles G. (2006). ''Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe: Second Edition''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54781-4 *Rawski, Conrad H. (1991). ''Petrarch's Remedies for Fortune Fair and Foul'' A modérn English Translation of ''De remediis utriusque Fortune'', with a Commentary. ISBN 0-253-34849-8 *[[James Harvey Robinson|Robinson, James Harvey]] (1898). [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0HLpZLHqqCH6e5LQBVf_4g&id=Qxh4bzCdScIC ''Petrarch, the First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters''] Harvard University *{{cite book |author=Kirkham, Victoria and Armando Maggi. |title=Petrarch: A Critical Guide to the Complete Works |url=https://archive.org/details/petrarchcritical0000unse |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |pages= |isbn=9780226437415}} * N. Mann, ''Petrarca'' [Ediz. orig. Oxford University Press (1984)] – Ediz. ital. a cura di G. Alessio e L. Carlo Rossi – Premessa di G. Velli, LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 1993, ISBN 88-7916-021-4 * ''Il «Canzoniere» di Francesco Petrarca. La Critica Contemporanea'', G. Barbarisi e C. Berra (edd.), LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 1992, ISBN 88-7916-005-2 * G. Baldassari, ''Unum in locum. Strategie macrotestuali nel Petrarca politico'', LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 2006, ISBN 88-7916-309-4 * Francesco Petrarca, ''Rerum vulgarium Fragmenta. Edizione critica di Giuseppe Savoca'', Olschki, Firenze, 2008, ISBN 978-88-222-5744-4 * Giuseppe Savoca, ''Il ''Canzoniere'' di Petrarca. Tra codicologia ed ecdotica'', Olschki, Firenze, 2008, ISBN 978-88-222-5805-2 * Roberta Antognini, ''Il progetto autobiografico delle "Familiares" di Petrarca'', LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 2008, ISBN 978-88-7916-396-5 {{Refend}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1304]] [[Kategori:Nu maot taun 1374]] [[Kategori:Panyerat Italia]] [[Kategori:Sajarawan Italia]] [[Kategori:Humanis Renaisans]] {{biografi-stub}} ff6ck2qohgyvjfj1zig6ql626dwhg24 0 33816 711656 710575 2026-08-07T01:03:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711656 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Former Country |conventional_long_name = Sri Wijaya |common_name = Sriwijaya |native_name = Kadatuan Sriwijaya |continent = pindah ti Kategori:Asia ka Asia Tenggara |region = Asia Tenggara (Asia Kidul Wétan) |country = Kamboja, Indonésia, Malaysia, Singapura, Thailand |religion = [[Buda Mahayana]], [[Animismeu]] jeung [[Hindu]] |p1 = Kantoli |p2 = Sailéndra |s1 = Dharmasraya |s2 = Karaijaan Singapura |year_start = 650 |year_end = 1377 |date_start = |date_end = |event_start = Ékspédisi jeung ékspansi Dapunta Hyang, ([[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]]) |event_end = Taluk ka [[Singasari]] 1288, [[Majapait]] mungkas baruntakna Sriwijaya taun 1377 |image_coat = |symbol_type = |image_map = Srivijaya Empire.svg |image_map_caption = Lega maksimeum Kakaisaran Sriwijaya kurang leuwih abad ka-8 kalayan runtuyan ékspédisi jeung ékspansina |capital = * [[Palémbang]] <br/> * Jawa Tengah (mangsa [[Sailéndra]] awal) * [[Chaiya]] (ibu kota régional) * [[Jambi]] (mangsa katompérnakeun) |common_languages = [[Malayu Buhun]], [[Sangsakerta]] |government_type = Karajaan |title_leader = Maharaja |leader1 = Jayanasa |year_leader1 = Kira-kira taun 683 |leader2 = Dharmasetu |year_leader2 = Kira-kira taun 775 |leader3 = Samaratunga |year_leader3 = Kira-kira taun 792 |leader4 = Balaputra |year_leader4 = Kira-kira taun 835 |leader5 = [[Sri Culamanivarmadeva]] |year_leader5 = Kira-kira taun 988 |currency = Koin emas jeung perak murni |category= |today = {{flag|Indonesia}}<br>{{flag|Malaysia}}<br>{{flag|Philippines}}<br>{{flag|Singapore}}<br>{{flag|Thailand}} |footnotes = }} '''Sriwijaya''' (atawa disebut ogé '''Srivijaya'''; Thai: ศรีวิชัย atawa "Ṣ̄rī wichạy") nyaéta salah sahiji kamaharakaan maritim anu kungsi ngadeg di [[pulo]] [[Sumatera]] jeung loba méré pangaruh di [[Nusantara]] kalawan wewengkon kakawasaanna ti [[Kamboja]], [[Thailand]] [[Kidul]], Semenanjung Malaya, [[Sumatera]], [[Jawa]], jeung basisir [[Kalimantan]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cœdés|first=George|authorlink=George Cœdés|title=Les inscriptions malaises de Çrivijaya|journal =Bulletin de l'Ecole français d'Extrême-Orient (BEFEO) |year=1930|volume=30||issue=||pages=29-80}}</ref><ref name="end">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://archive.org/details/earlykingdomsofi0000muno|doi= |id= ISBN 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> Dina [[basa]] Sansekerta, ''sri'' artina "gurilap" atawa "burinyay", jeung ''wijaya'' artina "menang" atawa "kajayaan",<ref name="end" /> ku kituna ngaran Sriwijaya boga makna "kajayaan anu gumilang". Bukti munggaran ngeunaan ayana karajaan ieu asalna ti [[abad ka-7]]; saurang pandita ti [[Tiongkok]] I Tsing, nuliskeun yén anjeunna datang ka Sriwijaya [[taun]] [[671]] jeung dumuk salila [[6]] [[bulan]].<ref>Gabriel Ferrand, (1922), ''L’Empire Sumatranais de Crivijaya'', Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, “Textes Chinois”</ref><ref name="Takakusu">Junjiro Takakusu, (1896), ''A record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago AD 671-695, by I-tsing'', Oxford, London.</ref> Salajengna prasasti nu pangkolotna ngeunaan Sriwijaya ogé dina [[abad ka-7]], nyaéta [[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]] di Palembang, taun [[682]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Casparis |first=J.G.|authorlink=Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis|title=Indonesian palaeography: a history of writing in Indonesia from the beginnings to C. A, Part 1500 |year=1975 |publisher=E. J. Brill |id=ISBN 90-04-04172-9 }}</ref> Mundurna pangaruh Sriwijaya ka wewengkon handapna dimimitian ku sabab sababaraha perang <ref name="end" /> di antarana serangan ti raja Dharmawangsa Teguh ti [[Jawa]] di taun [[990]], jeung taun [[1025]] serangan Rajendra Chola I ti Koromandel, salajengna taun [[1183]] kakawasaan Sriwijaya di handap pangaruh karajaan Dharmasraya.<ref name="Muljana">{{cite book |last=Muljana|first=Slamet|authorlink=Slamet Muljana|title= Sriwijaya|url=https://archive.org/details/Sriwijaya|editor= F.W. Stapel|publisher=PT. LKiS Pelangi Aksara|year=2006 |location= |pages=|id=ISBN 978-979-8451-62-1 }}</ref><ref name="Suwarno">{{Citation | last =Suwarno| first = Suwarno| coauthors =P.J.| year = 1993| title =Pancasila budaya bangsa Indonesia: penelitian Pancasila dengan pendekatan, historis, filosofis & sosio-yuridis kenegaraan|page=18|location=Jakarta| publisher =Kanisius| isbn =9789794139677| Url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=x-A0wy95LUQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=budaya&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB3OyS66_oAhXKyTgGHZwZBesQ6AEIUTAG#v=onepage&q=budaya&f=false}}</ref> Sanggeus runtag, karajaan ieu dipohokeun jeung éksisténsina dipikanyaho liwat publikasi taun [[1918]] ti ahli [[sajarah]] [[Perancis]] Géorge Cœdés ti ''École française d'Extrême-Orient''.<ref name="Cœdés">{{cite journal |last=Cœdés|first=George|authorlink=George Cœdés|title=Le Royaume de Çriwijaya|journal =Bulletin de l'Ecole français d'Extrême-Orient|year=1918|volume=18||issue=6||pages=1-36}}</ref> == Catetan [[sajarah]] == Euweuh catetan leuwih jero ngeunaan Sriwijaya dina [[sajarah]] [[Indonesia]]; Ingetan nu kapopohokeun diwangun deui ku sarjana asing. euweuh urang [[Indonesia]] modérn anu nguping ngeunaan Sriwijaya nepi taun [[1920]]-an, nalika sarjana [[Perancis]] Géorge Cœdés ngawanohkeun pamanggihna dina koran [[basa Walanda]] jeung [[basa Indonesia]].<ref name="TAYLOR">{{cite book |last=Taylor|first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2003 |location= New Haven and London|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|doi= |pages=|id= ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref> Coedés ngebrehkeun yén referensi Tiongkok ka "San-fo-ts'i", sateuacanna dibaca "Sribhoja", sarta sababaraha [[prasasti]] dina [[basa]] Malayu Kuna ngarujuk ka kaisar nu sarua.<ref>{{cite book |last=Krom|first=N.J.|chapter= Het Hindoe-tijdperk |title= Geschiedenis van Nederlandsch Indië|editor= F.W. Stapel|publisher=N.V. U.M. Joost van den Vondel|year=1938 |location= Amsterdam|url= |doi= |pages= vol. I p. 149|id= }}</ref> Sriwijaya jadi perlambang kaagungan [[Sumatera]] awal, jeung karajaan badag [[Nusantara]] iwal Majapahit di [[Jawa]] Wétan. Dina [[abad ka-20]], dua karajaan éta jadi referensi ku kaom nasionalis pikeun nunjukkeun yén [[Indonésia]] mangrupa hiji nagara sateuacan [[Hindia Walanda]].<ref name="TAYLOR"/> Sriwijaya disebut ku sababaraha ngaran. Urang Tionghoa nyebutna ''Shih-li-fo-shih'' atawa ''San-fo-ts'i'' atawa ''San Fo Qi''. Dina basa Sansekerta jeung Pali, karajaan Sriwijaya disebut ''Yavadesh'' jeung ''Javadeh''. Bangsa Arab nyebutna ''Zabaj'' jeung Khmer nyebutna ''Malayu''. Loba ngaran mangrupa alesan séjén kunaon Sriwijaya hésé kapanggih.<ref name="end" /> Iwal ti peta Claudius Ptolemaeus kapanggih katerangan ngeunaan ayana 3 [[pulo]] ''Sabadeibei'' nu mungkin aya pakaitna jeung Sriwijaya.<ref name="Muljana"/> Dina taun [[1993]], Pierre-Yves Manguin ngalakukeun ''observasi'' jeung méré sawangan yén puseur Sriwijaya ayana di ''Sungai'' Musi antara Bukit Seguntang jeung Sabokingking (nu ayana di provinsi [[Sumatera]] Kidul kiwari).<ref name="end" /> Namung sateuacanna Soekmono nyawang yén puseur Sriwijaya ayana di wewengkon sehiliran Batang Hari, antara Muara Sabak nepi ka Muara Tembesi (di provinsi [[Jambi]] kiwari),<ref name="Muljana"/> kalawan catetan Karajaan Melayu teu di kawasan eta, lamun Malayu di kawasan éta, condong ka pamadegan Moens,<ref name="Soekmono2">{{cite book |last=Soekmono|first=R.|authorlink=Soekmono |title=Pengantar sejarah kebudayaan Indonesia 2|year=2002 |publisher=Kanisius |id=ISBN 979-413-290-X }}</ref> anu sateuacanna oé geus boga sawangan yén puseur karajaan Sriwijaya aya di kawasan [[Candi]] Muara Takus (provinsi [[Riau]] kiwari), kalawan asumsi nunjuk ka lalampahan dina catetan I Tsing,<ref name="Poesponegoro">Marwati Djoened Poesponegoro, Nugroho Notosusanto, (1992), ''Sejarah nasional Indonesia: Jaman kuna'', PT Balai Pustaka, ISBN 979-407-408-X</ref> sarta hal ieu bisa ogé dikaitkeun jeung warta ngeunaan diadegkeunna candi nu disembahkeun ku raja Sriwijaya (''Se li chu la wu ni fu ma tian hwa'' atawa Sri Cudamaniwarmadewa) taun [[1003]] ka kaisar [[Cina]] anu dingaranan ''cheng tien wan shou'' ([[Candi]] Bungsu, salah sahiji bagéan [[candi]] nu ayana di Muara Takus).<ref>''Forgotten Kingdoms in Sumatra'', Brill Archive</ref> Namung nu pasti dina mangsa kakawasaan Rajendra Chola I, dumasar prasasti Tanjore, Sriwijaya puseur dayeuhna di ''Kadaram'' (Kedah kiwari).<ref name="Muljana"/> == Pangwangunan jeung Kamekaran == Teu acan aya bukti fisik ngeunaan Sriwijaya anu kapanggih.<ref name="TAYLOR"/> Karajaan ieu jadi puseur niaga jeung mangrupa nagara maritim, namung karajaan ieu teu ngagedéan kakawasaana si luar wilayah kapuloan [[Asia Tenggara]]. Sababaraha ahli masih madungdengkeun kawasan nu jadi puseur pamaréntahan Sriwijaya, salian éta mungkin karajaan ieu biasa mindahkeun puseur pamaréntahanna, namung kawasan nu jadi puseur dayeuh angger diparéntah langsung ku pangawasa, sedengkeun wewengkon pangrojongna diparentah ku dātu. [[Gambar:Candi Gumpung Muarojambi.jpg|left|thumb|[[Candi]] Gumpung, [[candi]] Buddha di Muaro Jambi, Karajaan Melayu anu ditaklukeun ku Sriwijaya.]] [[Gambar:Chaiya Wat Kaew.jpg|left|thumb|Puing Wat ([[Candi]]) Kaew anu asalna ti zaman Sriwijaya di Chaiya, [[Thailand]] Selatan.]] [[Gambar:Borobudur Northwest View.jpg|left|thumb|[[Candi]] Borobudur, pangwangunanna diréngsékeun di masa Samaratungga]] Kakaisaran Sriwijaya geus aya ti [[671]] saluyu jeung catetan I Tsing, di prasasti Kedukan Bukit di taun [[682]] dipikanyaho imperium ieu di handap kapamingpinan Dapunta Hyang. Di [[abad ka-7]] ieu, urang Tionghoa nyatet yén aya [[2|dua]] karajaan nyaéta ''Malayu'' jeung ''Kedah'' jadi bagéan kamaharajaan Sriwijaya.<ref name="end" /> Dumasar prasasti Kota Kapur anu angkana taun [[686]] kapanggih di pulo Bangka, kamaharajaan ieu geus ngawasa bagéan kidul [[Sumatera]], [[pulo]] Bangka jeung Belitung, nepi ka [[Lampung]]. [[Prasasti]] ieu ogé nyabutkeun yén Sri Jayanasa geus nyieun ekspedisi militer keur ngahukum ''Bhumi [[Jawa]]'' anu teu babakti ka Sriwijaya, kajadian ieu babarengan jeung runtagna [[Tarumanagara]] di [[Jawa Kulon]] jeung Holing (Kalingga) di [[Jawa Tengah]] nu kamungkinan sabab serangan Sriwijaya. Sriwijaya mekar jeung bisa ngandalikeun jalur paniagaan mariti di Selat Malaka, [[Selat Sunda]], Laut [[China]] Kidul, Laut [[Jawa]], jeung Selat Karimata. Ekspansi karajaan ieu ka Jawa jeung Semenanjung Malaya, ngajadikeun Sriwijaya ngontrol dua puseur paniagaan utama di [[Asia Tenggara]]. Dumasar observasi, kapanggih sésa [[candi]]-[[candi]] Sriwijaya di [[Thailand]] jeung [[Kamboja]]. Di [[abad ka-7]], palabuan Cham di beulah wetan Indochina mulai ngalihkeun loba padagang ti Sriwijaya. Keur nyegah hal éta, Maharaja Dharmasetu nyieun serangan ka dayeuh-dayeuh basisir Indochina. Dayeuh Indrapura di sisi sungai Mekong, di mimiti [[abad ka-8]] aya di handap kakawasaan Sriwijaya. Sriwijaya neruskeun dominasi ka [[Kamboja]], nepi raja Khmer Jayawarman II, nu ngadegkeun imperium Khmer, megatkeun hubungan jeung Sriwijaya di [[abad]] nu sarua.<ref name="end" /> Di ahir [[abad ka-8]] karajaan di [[Jawa]] Holing aya di handap kakawasaan Sriwijaya. Nurutkeun catetan, dina mangsa éta ogé wangsa Sailendra migrasi ka [[Jawa Tengah]] jeung boga kawasa di dinya. Di abad ieu oge, Langkasuka di semenanjung Melayu jadi bagéan karajaan.<ref name="end" /> Di masa salajengna, Pan Pan jeung Trambralinga, nu ayana di beulah kalér Langkasuka, ogé aya di handap pangaruh Sriwijaya. Sanggeus Dharmasetu, Samaratungga jadi panerus karajaan. Anjeunna ngawasa dina périodeu [[792]] nepi [[835]]. Teu jiga Dharmasetu nu ekspansionis, Samaratungga teu ngalakukeun ekspansi militer, namung leuwih milih keur nguatkeun pangawasaan Sriwijaya di [[Jawa]]. Salila masa kapamingpinanna, anjeunna ngawangun [[Candi]] Borobudur di [[Jawa Tengah]] nu réngsé di taun [[825]].<ref name="end" /> == Agama == [[Gambar:Muara Takus temple.jpg|thumb|[[Candi]] Muara Takus, salah sahiji kawasan anu dianggep salaku puseur dayeuh Sriwijaya.]] Salaku puseur pangajaran Buddha Vajrayana, Sriwijaya ngirut loba paziarah jeung sarjana ti [[nagara]]-[[nagara]] [[Asia]]. Antarana nyaéta pandita ti Tiongkok I Tsing, anu ngalakukeun kunjungan ka [[Sumatera]] dina lalampahan studina di Universitas Nalanda, [[India]], di taun [[671]] jeung [[695]], I Tsing ngalaporkeun yén Sriwijaya jadi imah keur sarjana Buddha nepi ka jadi puseur pangajaran [[agama]] Buddha. Sémah anu datang ka [[pulo]] ieu nyebatkeun yén koin [[emas]] geus digunakeun di basisir karajaan. Salian ti ajaran Buddha aliran, Buddha Hinayana jeung Buddha Mahayana ogé ngilu mekar di Sriwijaya. Nepi ka ahir [[abad ka-10]], ''Atiśa'', saurang sarjana Buddha asal Benggala anu boga peran dina ngamekarkeun Buddha Vajrayana di Tibet dina kertas gawéna ''Durbodhāloka'' nyebutkeun ditulis dina mangsa pamarétahan Sri Cudamani Warmadewa pangawasa ''Sriwijayanagara'' di ''Malayagiri'' di ''Suvarnadvipa''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cœdés|first=George|authorlink=George Cœdés|title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1996|id=ISBN 0-8248-0368-X}}</ref> Karajaan Sriwijaya loba dipangaruhan ku [[budaya]] [[India]], mimitina ku [[budaya]] [[Hindu]] salajengna diturut ku agama Buddha. Raja-raja Sriwijaya ngawasaan kapuloan Melayu ngaliwatan niaga jeung naklukeun ti [[abad ka-7]] nepi [[abad ka-9]], sacara langsung ngilu ngembangkeun [[basa]] Melayu sarta kabudayaanna di [[Nusantara]]. <blockquote class="toccolours" style="text-align:justify; width:45%; margin:0 0em 1em .25em; float:right; padding: 10px; display:table; margin-left:10px;">".... loba raja jeung pamingpin anu aya di pulo-pulo di Laut Kidul percaya jeung ngajén Buddha, dihaté aranjeunna geus kapelak kahadéan. Di jero benteng dayeuh Sriwijaya dipinuhan leuwih ti [[1000]] biksu Buddha, anu diajar kalawan tekun jeung ngamalkeunna kalawan hadé...Lamun biarawan [[China]] hayang ka [[India]] keur diajar “Sabda”, leuwih hadé aranjeunna dumuk heula di dieu salila sataun atawa dua taun keur neuleuman élmuna sateuacan dilanjutkeun di [[India]]".<p style="text-align: right;">— Gambaran Sriwijaya nurutkeun I Tsing.<ref name="Takakusu"/></blockquote> Mungkin ogé yén Sriwijaya nu kamahsyur salaku bandar puseur paniagaan di [[Asia Tenggara]], tangtu waé ngirut minat padagang jeung ulama [[muslim]] ti Timur Tengah, nepi ka sababaraha karajaan nu mimitina mangrupa bagéan Sriwijaya, salajengna tumuwuh jadi cikal-bakal karajaan-karajaan [[Islam]] di [[Sumatera]], nalika lemahna pangaruh Sriwijaya.<ref name="end" /> Aya sumber nu nyebutkeun, ku sabab pangaruh [[muslim]] Arab anu loba datang jeung niaga di Sriwijaya, ku kituna saurang raja Sriwijaya anu ngaranna Sri Indrawarman di taun [[718]] disebutkeun yén anjeunna asup [[Islam]] <ref>{{cite book |first=H. Zainal Abidin |last=Ahmad|title=Ilmu politik Islam V, Sejarah Islam dan Umatnya sampai sekarang|publisher=Bulan Bintang|year=1979}}</ref> atawa sahenteuna kairut keur diajar [[Islam]] jeung kabudayaan Arab, nepi ka mungkin kahirupan sosial Sriwijaya nyaéta masarakat sosial anu di jerona aya masarakat Buddha jeung [[Muslim]] sakaligus. Kacatet sababaraha kali raja Sriwijaya ngirim surat ka khalifah [[Islam]] di Damaskus, [[Suriah]]. Dina salah sahiji naskah surat anu ditujukeun ka khalifah Umar bin Abdul Aziz ([[717]]-[[720]]) eusina paménta ka khalifah sangkan ngirimkeun da’i ka istana Sriwijaya.<ref name="Prof">{{cite book |last=Prof. Dr. Azyumardi Azra, MA.,|title=Jaringan Ulama Timur Tengah dan Kepulauan Nusantara Abad XVII & XVIII|publisher=Mizan|year=1994|location=Jakarta}}</ref> == [[Budaya]] == Dumasar sababaraha sumber [[sajarah]], hiji masarakat anu kompleks jeung kosmopolitan anu dipangaruhan ku alam pikir Buddha Wajrayana digambarkeun mekar di puseur dayeuh Sriwijaya. Sababaraha prasasti Siddhayatra [[abad ka-7]] saperti [[Prasasti]] Talang Tuwo ngagambarkeun ritual Buddha anu ngaberkatan kajadian pinuh berkah nyaéta peresmian Taman Sriketra, anugerah Maharaja Sriwijaya keur rahayatna. [[Prasasti Telaga Batu]] ngagambarkeun karumitan jeung tingkatan jabatan pajabat karajaan, iwal ti éta [[Prasasti]] Kota Kapur nyebutkeun kagagahan balatentara Sriwijaya di handap [[Jawa]]. Sakabéh [[prasasti]] éta ngagunakeun [[Basa]] Melayu Kuno, [[basa]] anu digunakeun ku Sriwijaya nyaéta leluhur [[Basa]] Melayu jeung [[Basa Indonesia]] modérn. Ti [[abad ka-7]], [[basa]] Melayu Kuno geus digunakeun di [[Nusantara]] ditandaan kalawan kapanggihna sababaraha [[prasasti]] Sriwijaya jeung sababaraha [[prasasti]] [[basa]] Melayu Kuno di tempat séjén, saperti anu kapanggih di [[pulo Jawa]]. Hubungan dagang anu dilakukeun salaku bangsa [[Nusantara]] jadi wahana nyebarkeun [[basa]] Melayu, ku sabab [[basa]] ieu jadi alat [[komunikasi]] keur kaom padagang. Ti dinya, [[basa]] Melayu jadi ''lingua franca'' sarta digunakeun sacara luas ku loba panutur di kapuloan [[Nusantara]].<ref>[http://melayuonline.com/eng/researcher/dig/16/bambang-budi-utomo Melayu Online: Bambang Budi Utomo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005220517/http://melayuonline.com/eng/researcher/dig/16/bambang-budi-utomo |date=2011-10-05 }}</ref> Sanajan disebut mibanda kakuatan [[ekonomi]] jeung kaperkasaan militer, Sriwijaya ngan ninggalkeun saeutik patilasan purbakala di jajantung nagarana di [[Sumatera]], béda jeung episode Sriwijaya di [[Jawa Tengah]] nalika kapamingpinan wangsa Syailendra anu loba ngawangun monumen badag; saperti [[Candi]] Kalasan, [[Candi]] Sewu, jeung Borobudur. [[Candi]]-[[candi]] Buddha anu asalna ti masa Sriwijaya di [[Sumatera]] di antarana [[Candi]] Muaro [[Jambi]], [[Candi]] Muara Takus, jeung Biaro Bahal, tatapi teu saperti [[candi]] périodeu [[Jawa Tengah]] anu dijieun ti [[batu]] [[andesit]], [[candi]] di [[Sumatera]] dijieun ti bata [[beureum]]. Sababaraha arca sipatna Buddhisme, saperti sababaraha [[arca]] Buddha jeung Bodhisatva Awalokiteswara kapanggih di Bukit Seguntang, Palembang<ref>[http://www.epalembang.com/lang/en/travel-tourism/landmarks/bukit-siguntang/ Bukit Siguntang] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304222750/http://www.epalembang.com/lang/en/travel-tourism/landmarks/bukit-siguntang/ |date=2012-03-04 }}</ref>, Jambi<ref>Titik Temu, Jejak Peradaban di Tepi Batanghari, Photograph and artifact exhibition of Muara Jambi Archaeological site, Bentara Budaya Jakarta, 9-11 November 2006</ref>, Bidor, Perak,<ref>[http://exhibitions.nlb.gov.sg/kaalachakra/art_and_Architecture1.htm KaalaChaKra, Early Indian Influences in Southeast Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720113310/http://exhibitions.nlb.gov.sg/kaalachakra/art_and_Architecture1.htm |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref> jeung Chaiya<ref>[http://www.bridgemanart.com/image/Srivijaya-7th-13th-Century/Avalokitesvara-figure-from-the-Srivijaya-Period-found-in-Chaiya-Thailand-9th-10th-century-bronze/6680daf37df64243a2cf59d12ea94fb0?key=%20Bangkok%20Thailand&thumb=x150&num=15&page=14 Bridgeman: Avalokitesvara figure from the Srivijaya Period, found in Chaiya, Thailand, 9th-10th century (bronze)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930092211/http://www.bridgemanart.com/image/Srivijaya-7th-13th-Century/Avalokitesvara-figure-from-the-Srivijaya-Period-found-in-Chaiya-Thailand-9th-10th-century-bronze/6680daf37df64243a2cf59d12ea94fb0?key=%20Bangkok%20Thailand&thumb=x150&num=15&page=14 |date=2011-09-30 }}</ref>. Sakabéh arca-arca ieu nampilkeun kaagrengan jeung langgam nu sarua saperti "Seni Sriwijaya" atawa "Langgam/Gaya Sriwijaya" anu nembongkeun kamiripan ku langgam Amarawati India jeung langgam Syailendra Jawa (di [[abad ka-8]] nepi [[abad ka-9]]).<ref>[http://www.thailandsworld.com/index.cfm?p=183 Srivijaya Art In Thailand] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060707103338/http://www.thailandsworld.com/index.cfm?p=183 |date=2006-07-07 }}</ref> == Paniagaan == Di dunya paniagaan, Sriwijaya jadi pangatur padagangan ti [[India]] jeung Tiondkok, nyaéta ngawasaan selat Malaka jeung [[selat Sunda]]. Urang [[Saudi Arabia|Arab]] nyatet yén Sriwijaya mibanda komoditas nu loba nyaéta kapur barus, kayu gaharu, cengkeh, pala, kapulaga, gading, [[emas]] sarta timah anu nyieun raja Sriwijaya sabeunghar raja-raja di [[India]]..<ref name="Poesponegoro"/> Kabeunghatan anu loba geus ngamungkinkeun Sriwijaya meuli kasetiaan vassal-vassalnya di sakabéh [[Asia Tenggara]]. Salian ngajalin hubungan dagang jeung [[India]] sarta Tiongkok, Sriwijaya ogé ngajalin paniagaan jeung taneuh Arab, ngamungkinkeun utusan Maharaja Sri Indrawarman anu nganteurkeun [[surat]] ka khalifah Umar bin Abdul-Aziz ti Bani Umayyah taun [[718]] balik deui ka Sriwijaya kalawan mawa hadian 'Zanji'' (budak wanita berkulit hitam), sarta ti kronik Tiongkok disebutkeun ''Shih-li-fo-shih'' kalawan rajana ''Shih-li-t-'o-pa-mo'' (Sri Indrawarman) di taun [[724]] ngirimkeun hadiah keur kaisar [[China]], mangrupa ''ts'engchi'' (maksudna sarua jeung ''Zanji'' dina basa Arab).<ref name="Azra">{{cite book |last=Azra|first=Azyumardi|authorlink=Azyumardi Azra|title=Islam in the Indonesian world: an account of institutional formation|publisher=Mizan Pustaka|year=2006|id= ISBN 979-433-430-8}}</ref> Dina mimiti [[abad ka-10]], di antara runtagna dinasti Tang jeung naékna dinasti Song, padagangan jeung luar [[nagara]] cukup ramé, utamana Fujian, Karajaan Min jeung Karajaan Nan Han kalawan [[nagara]] beungharna Guangdong. Sriwijaya meunang kauntungan ti padagangan ieu.<ref name="Azra" /> == Relasi jeung Kakuatan Regional == [[Gambar:Borom That Chaiya.jpg|upright|thumb|right|Pagoda Borom That gaya Sriwijaya di Chaiya, [[Thailand]].]] Keur nguatkeun posisina di luhun pangawasaan di kawasan di [[Asia Tenggara]], Sriwijaya ngajalin hubungan diplomasi kalawan Kaisar [[Cina]], jeung sacara kaatus nganteurkeun utusan jeung upeti.<ref>Oliver W. Wolters, (1967), ''Early Indonesian Commerce: a study of the origins of Śrīvijaya'', Cornell University Press, Ithaca.</ref> Dina mangsa awal Karajaan Khmer mangrupa daérah jajahan Sriwijaya. Loba ahli sajarah ngaklaim yén Chaiya, di provinsi Surat Thani, [[Thailand]] Kidul, salaku puseur dayeuh karajaan éta, pangaruh Sriwijaya katempo dina wangunan pagoda Borom That anu gayana Sriwijaya. Nepi ka runtagna Sriwijaya, Chaiya kabagi jadi tilu dayeuh nyaéta (Mueang) Chaiya, Thatong (Kanchanadit), jeung Khirirat Nikhom. Sriwijaya ogé deukeut jeung karajaan Pala di Benggala, dina [[prasasti]] Nalanda angkana [[860]] nyatet yén raja Balaputradewa ngadedikasikeun hiji biara ka Nalanda. Relasi jeung dinasti Chola ti kidul [[India]] ogé deukeut pisan, ti [[Prasasti]] Leiden disebatkeun yén raja Sriwijaya di ''Kataha'' Sri Mara-Vijayottunggawarman geus ngawangun hiji vihara anu dingaranan ku ''Vihara Culamanivarmma'', namung jadi goréng sanggeus Rajendra Chola I naék tahta anu ngalakukeun serangan di [[abad ka-11]]. Tuluy hubungan ieu balik deui ka mangsa Kulothunga Chola I, di dinya raja Sriwijaya di Kadaram ngirimkeun utusan nu ménta dikaluarkeunna bagéan ti dinasti Chola, ti kronik Tiongkok nyebutkeun yén Kulothunga Chola I (''Ti-hua-ka-lo'') salaku raja San-fo-ts'i ngabantuan renovasi candi deukeut Kanton di taun [[1079]], dina mangsa dinasti Song [[candi]] ieu disebut ku ngaran ''Tien Ching Kuan'' jeung di mangsa dinasti Yuan disebut ku ngaran ''Yuan Miau Kwan''.<ref name="Muljana"/> == Mangsa Kaemasan == [[Gambar:Avalokiteçvara, Malayu Srivijaya style.jpg|left|thumb|[[Arca]] emas Avalokiteçvara gaya Malayu-Sriwijaya, kapanggih di Rantaukapastuo, Muarabulian, [[Jambi]], [[Indonésia]].]] Kamaharajaan Sriwijaya nyirikeun karajaan maritim, ngandelkeun hégemoni dina tanaga armada lautna dina ngawasaan alur palayaran, jalur padagangan, ngawasaan jeung ngawangun sababaraha kawasan stratégis salaku pangkalan armadana dina ngawas, ngalindungi kapal dagang, nagih cukai sarta keur ngajaga wilayah kadaulatan jeung kakawasaanna..<ref>{{cite book |last=Pramono|first=Djoko |title=Budaya bahari|publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama|year=2005|id=ISBN 979-22-1351-1}}</ref> [[Gambar:Borobudur ship.JPG|200px|right|thumb|Model kapal taun [[800-an|800-an Masehi]] anu aya dina candi Borobudur]] Dina catetan sajarah jeung bukti arkeologi, dina [[abad ka-9]] Sriwijaya geus ngalakukeun kolonisasi di sakabeh karajaan-karajaan [[Asia Tenggara]], antarana: [[Sumatera]], [[Jawa]], Semenanjung Malaya, [[Thailand]], [[Kamboja]], [[Vietnam]],<ref name="end" /> jeung [[Filipina]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Rasul|first=Jainal D.|title=Agonies and Dreams: The Filipino Muslims and Other Minorities"|publisher=CARE Minorities|year=2003|location=Quezon City|url= |doi= |pages=pages 77|id=}}</ref> Dominasi di [[Selat Malaka]] jeung [[Selat Sunda]], ngajadikeun Sriwijaya salaku pangawas rute padagangan rempah jeung padagangan lokal anu meunang bayaran ti unggal kapal anu ngaliwat. Sriwijaya ngaakumulasikeun kabeungharanna salaku palabuan jeung gudang padagangan anu ngalayanan pasar Tiongkok jeung [[India]]. Sriwijaya ogé disebut boga peran ngaruntagkeun karajaan Medang di [[Jawa]], dina prasasti Pucangan disebutkeunn salaku kajadian ''Mahapralaya'' nyaéta kajadian runtagna istana Medang di [[Jawa Timur]], ''Haji Wurawari'' ti ''Lwaram'' anu kamungkinan mangrupa raja handapeun Sriwijaya, dina taun [[1006]] atawa [[1016]] nyerang jeung nyababkeun kabunuhna raja Medang pamungkas. Dharmawangsa Teguh.<ref name="Muljana"/> == Ambang Wates Sriwijaya == Taun [[1017]] jeung [[1025]], Rajendra Chola I, raja ti dinasti Chola di Pantai Koromandel, [[India]] kidul, ngirim ekspedisi [[laut]] keur nyerang Sriwijaya, dumasar [[prasasti]] Tanjore taun [[1030]], karajaan Chola geus naklukkeun wewengkon – wewengkon koloni Sriwijaya, sakaligus meunang ngalawan raja Sriwijaya nu boga kawasa dina mangsa éta Sangrama-Vijayottunggawarman. Salila sababaraha dekade saterusna, sakabeh imperium Sriwijaya geus aya dina pangaruh dina Chola. Sanajan kitu Rajendra Chola I geus méré lolongkrang ka raja-raja anu ditaklukeunna keur tetep boga kawasa salila tetep taluk ka anjeunna.<ref>Sastri K. A. N., (1935). ''The Cholas''. University of Madras.</ref> Hal ieu bisa dipatalikeun jeung ayana warta utusanna ''San-fo-ts'i'' ka Cina taun [[1028]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kulke |first=H. |authorlink= |coauthors=Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, V.|title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: reflections on Chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |year=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian |location= |id=ISBN 981-230-936-5 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="float:right;margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;font-size:90%" !colspan="2" style="background:#FFD700;" | Kawasan Sriwijaya dina prasasti Tanjore |- ! Ngaran kawasan !! Katerangan |- | Pannai || Kerajaan Pannai |- | Malaiyur || Kerajaan Melayu |- | Mayirudingam || |- | Ilangasogam || Langkasuka |- | Mappappalam || |- | Mevilimbangam || |- | Valaippanduru || |- | Takkolam || |- | Madamalingam || Tambralingga |- | Ilamuri-Desam || Lamuri |- | Nakkavaram || Nikobar |- | Kadaram || Kedah |} Namung dina mangsa ieu Sriwijaya dianggep geus jadi bagéan ti dinasti Chola, ti kronik Tiongkok nyebutkeun yén dina taun [[1079]] Kulothunga Chola I (''Ti-hua-ka-lo'') raja dinasti Chola disebut ogé salaku raja San-fo-ts'i, anu salajengna ngirimkeun utusan keur ngabantuan renovasi candi deukeut Kanton. Salajengna dina warta [[Cina]] anu judulna ''Sung Hui Yao'' disebutkeun yén karajaan San-fo-tsi dina taun [[1082]] masih ngirimkeun utusan dina mangsa Cina di handap pamaréntahan Kaisar Yuan Fong. Duta besar éta ogé nepikeun [[surat]] ti raja ''Kien-pi'' handapeun San-fo-tsi, anu mangrupa [[surat]] ti putri raja anu dipasrahkeun urusan nagara san-fo-tsi, sarta nyerahkeun [[227]] tahil perhiasan, rumbia, sarta 13 baju. Salajengna ogé ngirimkeun utusan di taun [[1088]].<ref name="end" /> Pangaruh invasi Rajendra Chola I, ka hegemoni Sriwijaya kalawan raja-raja handapeunna ngaheureutan, sababaraha daerah handapan ngaleupaskeun manéh, nepin ka muncul Dharmasraya salaku kakuatan anyar anu salajengna ngawasaan deui wilayah jajahan Sriwijaya mimiti ti kawasan Semenajung Malaya, [[Sumatera]], sampai [[Jawa]] bagian barat. Dumasar sumber Tiongkok dina buku ''Chu-fan-chi''<ref>{{cite book |last=Hirth |first=F. |authorlink= |coauthors=Rockhill, W.W. |title=Chao Ju-kua, His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteen centuries, entitled Chu-fan-chi |year=1911 |publisher=St Petersburg}}.</ref> anu ditulis di taun 1178, ''Chou-Ju-Kua'' ngajelaskeun yén di kapuloan [[Asia Tenggara]] aya dua karajaan anu kacida kuat sarta beunghar, nyaéta San-fo-ts'i jeung Cho-po ([[Jawa]]). Di [[Jawa]] anjeunna manggihan yén rahayatna ngagem [[agama]] Buddha jeung [[Hindu]], sedengkeun rahayat San-fo-ts'i ngagem Buddha, jeung boga 15 daerah handapan nyaéta; ''Si-lan'' ([[Kamboja]]), ''Tan-ma-ling'' (Tambralingga, Ligor, kidul [[Thailand]]), ''Kia-lo-hi'' (Grahi, Chaiya kiwari, kidul [[Thailand]]), ''Ling-ya-si-kia'' (Langkasuka), ''Kilantan'' (Kelantan), ''Pong-fong'' (Pahang), ''Tong-ya-nong'' (Terengganu), ''Fo-lo-an'' (muara sungai Dungun daerah Terengganu kiwari), ''Ji-lo-t'ing'' (Cherating, pantai timur semenanjung malaya), ''Ts'ien-mai'' (Semawe, pantai timur semenanjung malaya), ''Pa-t'a'' (Sungai Paka, pantai timur Semenanjung Malaya), ''Lan-wu-li'' (Lamuri di [[Aceh]]), ''Pa-lin-fong'' (Palembang), ''Kien-pi'' ([[Jambi]]), jeung sabagéan ''Sin-t'o'' ([[Sunda]]).<ref name="Muljana">Slamet Muljana, 2006, ''Sriwijaya'', Yogyakarta: LKIS.</ref><ref name="Soekmono2"/> Namung, istilah ''San-fo-tsi'' utamana dina taun [[1178]] teu identik jeung Sriwijaya, tatapi geus identik jeung jeung Dharmasraya, ti 15 nagara handapan San-fo-tsi éta mangrupa daptar jajahan karajaan Dharmasraya, sanajan sumber Tiongkok geus nyebatkeun San-fo-tsi salaku karajaan anu aya di kawasan laut Cina Selatan. Hal ieu kusabab dina Pararaton geus nyebutkeun Malayu, disebutkeun Kertanagara Raja Singhasari ngirim hiji ekspedisi Pamalayu atawa ''Pamalayu'', jeung saterusna mere Arca Amoghapasa ka raja Melayu, Srimat Tribhuwanaraja Mauli Warmadewa di kabupaten Dharmasraya sakumaha anu katulis dina prasasti Padang Roco. Kajadian ieu salajengna dihubungkeun jeung manuskrip anu aya di prasasti Grahi. Kitu ogé dina Nagarakertagama, anu ngadadarkeun ngeunaan daérah jajahan Majapahit anu geus teu nyebutkeun deui ngaran Sriwijaya keur kawasan anu sateuacanna mangrupa kawasan Sriwijaya. == Struktur Pamaréntahan == Wangun hiji nagara dina dimensi struktur otoritas politik Sriwijaya bisa dilacak ti sababaraha prasasti anu nyangkem informasi penting ngeunaan ''kadātuan'', ''vanua'', ''samaryyāda'', ''mandala'' jeung ''bhūmi''.<ref name="Kulke">{{cite journal |last=Kulke |first=H. |title=Kadātuan Śrīvijaya’—Empire or Kraton of Śrīvijaya? A Reassessment of the Epigraphic Data |year=1993 |journal=Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extreme Orient |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=159-180}}</ref> ''Kadātuan'' bisa ngabogaan makna kawasan ''datuk'', (''tanah rumah'') padumukan ''bini hāji'', geus disimpen ''[[emas]]'' jeung hasil cukai (''drawy'') salaku kawasan anu kudu dijaga. Kadātuan ieu dilingkung ku ''vanua'', anu bisa dianggep salaku kawasan kota ti Sriwijaya anu di jerona aya ''vihara'' keur tempat ibadah masarakatna. ''Kadātuan'' jeung ''vanua'' ieu mangrupa hiji kawasan inti keur Sriwijaya éta sorangan. Nurutkeun Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis, ''samaryyāda'' mangrupa kawasan anu pagigir-gigir jeung ''vanua'', anu kahubung jeung jalan husus (''samaryyāda-patha'') anu bisa boga maksud kawasan jero. Sedengkeun ''mandala'' mangrupa hiji kawasan otonom ti ''bhūmi'' anu aya dina pangaruh kakawasaan ''kadātuan'' Sriwijaya.<ref name="Kulke" /> Pangawasa Sriwijaya disebut ''Dapunta Hyang'' atawa ''Maharaja'', jeung dina wilayah raja aya dina wilayah raja anu ngentep seureuh ''yuvarāja'' (putra mahkota), ''pratiyuvarāja'' (putra mahkota kadua) jeung ''rājakumāra'' (pewaris salajengna).<ref name="Caspa">Casparis, J.C., ([[1956]]), ''Prasasti Indonesia II: Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th century A.D.'', Vol. II. Bandung: Masa Baru.</ref> Prasasti Telaga Batu loba nyebutkeun jabatan dina struktur pamaréntahan karajaan dina mangsa Sriwijaya. == Hubungan jeung dinasti Sailendra == Munculna hubungan antara Sriwijaya jeung Wangsa Sailendra dimimitian kusabab ngaran ''Śailendravamśa'' dina sababaraha [[prasasti]] di antarana dina [[prasasti]] Kalasan di [[pulo]] [[Jawa]], prasasti Ligor di kidul [[Thailand]], jeung [[prasasti]] Nalanda di [[India]]. Iwal ti éta dina [[prasasti]] Sojomerto kapendak [[ngaran]] ''Dapunta Selendra''. Najan asal-usulna dinasti ieu masih jadi padungdengan nepi ka kiwari.<ref name="Poesponegoro"/> Majumdar boga pamadegan dinasti Sailendra ieu aya di Sriwijaya (Swarnadwipa) jeung Medang ([[Jawa]]), kaduanana asalna ti Kalinga di kidul [[India]].<ref name="Majumdar">{{cite journal |last=Majumdar|first=R.C.,|authorlink=|title=Le rois Çriwijaya de Suvarnadvipa|journal =Bulletin de l'Ecole français d'Extrême-Orient|year=1933|volume=XXXIII||issue=||pages=121-144}}</ref> Salajengna Moens nambahkeun kadatangan Dapunta Hyang ka Palembang, nyababkeun salah sahiji kulawarga dina dinasti ieu pindah ka [[Jawa]].<ref name="Moens">{{cite journal |last=Moensr|first=J.L.,|authorlink=|title=Çriwijaya, Yāva en Katāha|journal =TBG|year=1937|volume=LXXVII||issue=||pages=317-487}}</ref> Iwal ti éta Poerbatjaraka nyawang yén ieu dinasti asalna ti [[Nusantara]], dumasar [[Carita Parahiyangan]]<ref name="Poerbatjaraka">{{cite journal |last=Poerbatjaraka|first=R.N.,|authorlink=|title=Çriwijaya, de Çailendra-en de Sanjāyavança|journal =BKI|year=1956|volume=114||issue=||pages=254-264}}</ref> salajengna dikaitkeun jeung sababaraha [[prasasti]] di [[Jawa]] anu basana Malayu Kuna di antarana Prasasti Sojomerto.<ref name="Boechari">{{cite journal |last=Boechari|first=|authorlink=|title=Preliminary report on the discovery of an Old malay inscription at Sojomerto |journal =MISI|year=1966|volume=III||issue=||pages=241-251}}</ref> == Raja anu Maréntah == Para Maharaja Sriwijaya<ref name="end" /><ref name="Muljana">Slamet Muljana, 2006, ''Sriwijaya'', Yogyakarta: LKIS.</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" width="90%" !width="70px"|Taun !width="140px"|[[Ngaran]] Raja !width="140px"|Ibukota !width="400px"|[[Prasasti]], catetan ngirim utusan ka Tiongkok sarta kajadian |- |[[671]] |Dapunta Hyang atawa <br />Sri Jayanasa |Srivijaya Shih-li-fo-shih | Catetan lalampahan I Tsing di taun [[671]]-[[685]], naklukeun Malayu, naklukeun [[Jawa]] [[Prasasti]] Kedukan Bukit ([[683]]), [[Prasasti]] Talang Tuo ([[684]]), [[Prasasti]] Kota Kapur ([[686]]), [[Prasasti]] Karang Brahi jeung [[Prasasti]] Palas Pasemah |- |[[702]] |Sri Indrawarman Shih-li-t-'o-pa-mo |Sriwijaya Shih-li-fo-shih |Utusan ka Tiongkok [[702]]-[[716]], [[724]] Utusan ka Khalifah Muawiyah I jeung Khalifah Umar bin Abdul Aziz |- |[[728]] |Rudra Vikraman Liéou-t'eng-wei-kong |Sriwijaya Shih-li-fo-shih |Utusan ka Tiongkok [[728]]-[[742]] |- |[[743]]-[[774]] | | |Teu acan aya warta dina mangsa ieu |- |[[775]] |Wisnu (raja)|Sri Maharaja |Sriwijaya |Prasasti Ligor B taun [[775]] di Nakhon Si Thammarat, kidul [[Thailand]] jeung naklukeun [[Kamboja]] |- | | |Pindah ka [[Jawa]] ([[Jawa Tengah]] atawa [[Yogyakarta]]) |Wangsa Syailendra ngagantikeun Wangsa Sanjaya |- |[[778]] |Dharanindra atawa<br /> Rakai Panangkaran |[[Jawa]] |[[Prasasti]] Kelurak [[782]] di gigireun kalér kompleks [[Candi]] Prambanan [[Prasasti]] Kalasan taun [[778]] di [[Candi]] Kalasan |- |[[782]] |Samaragrawira atawa <br /> Rakai Warak |[[Jawa]] |[[Prasasti]] Nalanda jeung [[prasasti]] Mantyasih taun [[907]] |- |[[792]] |Samaratungga atawa<br /> Rakai Garung |[[Jawa]] |[[Prasasti]] Karang Tengah taun [[824]], [[825]] ngaréngsékeun pangwangunan [[candi]] Borobudur |- |[[840]] | | |Kabinangkitan Wangsa Sanjaya, Rakai Pikatan |- |[[856]] |Balaputradewa |Suwarnadwipa |Leungitna kakawasaan di [[Jawa]], sarta balik deui ka Suwarnadwipa [[Prasasti]] Nalanda taun [[860]], [[India]] |- |[[861]]-[[959]] | | |Teu acan aya warta di périodeu ieu |- |[[960]] |Sri Udayaditya Warmadewa Se-li-hou-ta-hia-li-tan |Sriwijaya San-fo-ts'i |Utusan ka Tiongkok [[960]], & [[962]] |- |[[980]] | | |Utusan ka Tiongkok [[980]] & [[983]]: kalawan raja, ''Hie-tche'' (Haji) |- |988 |Sri Cudamani Warmadewa Se-li-chu-la-wu-ni-fu-ma-tian-hwa |Sriwijaya Malayagiri (Suwarnadwipa) San-fo-ts'i |990 Jawa yerang Sriwijaya, Catetan ''Atiśa'',<br /> Utusan ka Tiongkok 988-992-1003,<br /> pangwangunan candi keur kaisar Cina anu dibéré ngaran <br />''cheng tien wan shou'' |- |1008 |Sri Mara-Vijayottunggawarman Se-li-ma-la-pi |San-fo-ts'i Kataha |Prasasti Leiden & utusan ka Tiongkok 1008 |- |1017 | | |Utusan San-fo-ts'i ke Tiongkok 1017: kalawan raja, ''Ha-ch'i-su-wa-ch'a-p'u'' <br />(''Haji Sumatrabhumi'' (?)); gelar ''haji'' biasana keur ''raja bawahan'' |- |1025 |Sangrama-Vijayottunggawarman |Sriwijaya Kadaram |Diserang ku Rajendra Chola I jeung jadi tawanan Prasasti Tanjore tarikh 1030 dina candi Rajaraja, Tanjore, India |- |1030 | | |Dihandap Dinasti Chola ti Koromandel |- |1079 | | |Utusan San-fo-ts'i kalawan raja [[Kulothunga Chola I]] (''Ti-hua-ka-lo'') ka Tiongkok 1079 mantuan renovasi candi Tien Ching di Kuang Cho (deukeut Kanton) |- |1082 | | |Utusan San-fo-ts'i ti ''Kien-pi'' (Jambi) ka Tiongkok 1082 jeung 1088 |- |1089-1177 | | |Teu acan aya warta |- |1178 | | |Laporan ''Chou-Ju-Kua'' dina buku ''Chu-fan-chi'' eusina daptar koloni San-fo-ts'i |- |1183 |Srimat Trailokyaraja Maulibhusana Warmadewa |Dharmasraya |Dihandap Dinasti Mauli, Karajaan Melayu, Prasasti Grahi taun 1183 di kidul [[Thailand]] |} == Warisan Sajarah == Sanajan Srwijaya ngan nyésakeun saeutik titinggal arkéologi sarta dipohokeun ti émutan masarakat pangrojongna, papanggihan deui kamaharajaan bahari ieu ku Coedés di taun [[1920]]-an geus ngabangkitkeun kasadaran yén hiji wangung persatuan politik raya, mangrupa kamaharajaan anu eusina gabungan karajaan-karajaan bahari, kungsi ngadep, tumuwuh, sarta jaya di mangsa bihari.<ref name="nya">{{cite book |title=Strategic Centrality: Indonesia's changing role in ASEAN |last=Smith |first=A.L. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2000 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location=Singapore |isbn=981-230-103-8 |page=9 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C-IZCcEuX30C&pg=PA9&dq=Srivijaya+source+of+Indonesia+pride&cd=6#v=onepage&q=Srivijaya%20source%20of%20Indonesia%20pride&f=false/Strategic Centrality: Indonesia's changing role in ASEAN |accessdate=}}</ref> Warisan penting Sriwijaya nyaéta basana. Salila mangabad-abad kamekaran kakuatan [[ekonomi]] sarta kaperkasaan militérna, Sriwijaya boga peran badag ti nyebarna pamaké [[Basa]] Malayu Kuna di [[Nusantara]]. Sahenteuna di kawasan basisir. [[Basa]] ieu jadi [[basa]] gawé atawa [[basa]] anu fungsina salaku panghubung (''lingua franca'') digunakeun di sababaraha bandar jeung pasar kawasan [[Nusantara]].<ref name="sea.lib.niu.edu">[http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/malay.html Southeast Asia Digital Library: About Malay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710201133/http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/malay.html |date=2010-07-10 }}</ref> Sumebarna [[basa]] Melayu Kuna ieu mungkin geus muka sarta méré jalan keur [[Basa]] Melayu salaku [[basa]] nasional [[Malaysia]], jeung [[Basa Indonesia]] salaku basa “pemersatu” [[Indonesia]] kiwari.<ref name="sea.lib.niu.edu"/> Di sagigireun Majapahit, kaum nasionalis [[Indonesia]] ogé ngagungkeun Sriwijaya salaku sumber kabagjaan jeung bukti kajayaan mangsa bihari [[Indonesia]].<ref name="nya"/> Kajayaan Sriwijaya geus jadi sumber kabagjaan nasinal sarta identitas daérah, hususna keur masarakat [[kota]] Palembang, provinsi [[Sumatera Selatan]], kaagungan Sriwijaya geus jadi inspirasi seni budaya, saperti lagu jeung tarian tradisional Gending Sriwijaya. Hal anu sarua ogé lumaku ka masarakat kidul [[Thailand]] anu nyiptakeun tarian ''Sevichai'' dumasar kana kaanggunan seni [[budaya]] Sriwijaya. Di [[Indonesia]], ngaran Sriwijaya geus digunakeun sarta diabadikeun salaku ngaran jalan di sababaraha [[kota]], sarta ngaran ieu digunakeun ku Universitas Sriwijaya anu diadegkeun taun [[1960]] di Palembang. Kitu ogé Komando Daerah Militer II/Sriwijaya (unit komando militer), PT Pupuk Sriwijaya (Perusahaan Pupuk di Sumatera Selatan), Sriwijaya Post (Surat kabar harian di Palembang), Sriwijaya TV, Sriwijaya Air (maskapai penerbangan), Stadion Gelora Sriwijaya, jeung Sriwijaya Football Club (Klab sepak bola Palembang), sakabéh dingaranan kitu keur ngahormatan, ngamuliakeun, sarta ngarayakeun kamaharajaan Sriwijaya anu agung. <gallery> Gambar:KedukanBukit001.jpg|[[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]] Gambar:Prasasti Kota Kapur.jpg|Prasasti Kota Kapur Gambar:Talang Tuo Inscription.jpg|Prasasti Talang Tuo Gambar:Telaga Batu inscription.JPG|[[Prasasti Telaga Batu]] Gambar:Southeast Asia trade route map XIIcentury.jpg|Peta Abad XII-XIII </gallery> == Catetan == {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu luar == * {{id}} [http://history.melayuonline.com/?a=c3NWL29QTS9VenVwRnRCb20%3D= Kerajaan Sriwijaya di MelayuOnline.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313065110/http://history.melayuonline.com/?a=c3nwl29qts9venvwrnrcb20== |date=2016-03-13 }} * {{id}} [http://arkeologi.palembang.go.id/ Balai Arkeologi Palembang dan Sriwijaya Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223013428/http://arkeologi.palembang.go.id/ |date=2015-12-23 }} * {{en}} [http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/hindu.htm Sejarah Melayu, Buddhist Empires] * {{en}} [http://epress.anu.edu.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile_devices/ch15s05.html Śrīwijaya: A Centre of Learning?] {{featured article}} {{Artikel Geulis}} [[Kategori:Karajaan Sriwijaya]] [[Kategori:Karajaan di Sumatera]] hibk98n73cq6yfvzd16g3fqvae2p783 0 34151 711795 679050 2026-08-07T04:33:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711795 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox |name=Hayam |image= Male and female chicken sitting together.jpg |image_width=200px |image_caption= Hayam jago jeung hayam bikang |regnum=[[Animalia]] |phylum = [[Chordata]] |classis = [[Aves]] |ordo=[[Galliformes]] |familia=[[Phasianidae]] |genus=''[[Gallus]]'' |species=''[[Gallus gallus|G. gallus]]'' |subspecies='''''G. g. domesticus''''' |trinomial=''Gallus gallus domesticus''|author=[[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]|date = [[1758]] }} '''Hayam''' (dialék Banten: '''Kotok''') (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') nyaéta sato ingu sabangsa [[manuk]] anu hirupna sapopoé dina taneuh.<ref name="sumber1">R.A Darnadibrata, .Kamus Basa Sunda. Kiblat 2006. Bandung.</ref>Anakna disebut '''Ciak''' atawa '''Pitik'''. Aya rupa-rupa hayam anu dipikawanoh saperti : hayam jago, hayam danten, hayam jajangkar, hayam kotok, jeung hayam bikang.<ref name="sumber1"/> Ngaran hayam ditangtukeun dumasar kana buluna, asalna, jeung gawéna.<ref name="sumber1"/><ref name=“Jonathan Rigg”>{{Cite book | title =A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| first =Jonathan | last =Rigg| publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen| location =Jakarta| year =1862|ISBN='-}}</ref> ==Sipat Biologis jeung Habitat== Hayam téh sato [[omnivora]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ideas-4-pets.com/pages-infopages/pages_id-24/index.html |title=Info on Chicken Care |accessdate=April 14, 2015 |publisher=ideas4pets }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002012307/http://www.ideas-4-pets.com/pages-infopages/pages_id-24/index.html |date=October 2, 2008 }}</ref> Dina pangencaran, hayam sok kokoréh dina taneuh nyiar sarupaning sisikian, [[serangga]] jeung [[sato]] nu rada gedé kayaning [[kadal]], [[oray]] leutik atawa anak [[beurit]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gworrell.freeyellow.com/chickenfaq.html|title=Frequently asked questions about chickens & eggs|accessdate=August 13, 2008|publisher=Ferry Landing Farm & Apiary|author=Gerard P.Worrell AKA "Farmer Jerry"}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916202420/http://gworrell.freeyellow.com/chickenfaq.html |date=September 16, 2008 }}</ref> Hayam bisa hirup nepika 5-10 taun, gumantung kana prosés [[réproduksi]]na.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ruleworks.co.uk/cgi-bin/TUfaq.exe?Guide=Poultry&Category=Poultry%20-%20General#q9 |title=The Poultry Guide - A to Z and FAQs |publisher=Ruleworks.co.uk |accessdate=April 14, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128085141/http://ruleworks.co.uk/cgi-bin/TUfaq.exe?Guide=Poultry&Category=Poultry%20-%20General#q9 |date=November 28, 2010 }}</ref> Hayam pangkolotna di dunya, paéh dina umur 16 taun ku sabab gagal jantung, nurutkeun kana [[Guinness World Records]].<ref>Smith, Jamon. [http://www.tuscaloosanews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060806/NEWS/608060400/1007/NEWS02 Tuscaloosanews.com "World’s oldest chicken starred in magic shows, was on 'Tonight Show’"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106125747/http://www.tuscaloosanews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060806/NEWS/608060400/1007/NEWS02 |date=2015-11-06 }}, ''[[Tuscaloosa News]]'' (Alabama, Amérika Sarikat). Diaksés 14 April 2015.</ref> ===Kalakuan=== ====Kalakuan Sosial==== Hayam téh [[manuk]] nu resep nyobat tur hirup babarengan dina kelompok. Hayam boga deudeukeutan komunal pikeun [[sileungleum|nyileungleuman]] [[endog]] jeung ngagedékeunana. Hayam nyorangan dina kelompok bakal ngadominasi nu séjénna, sarta hayam nu dominan miboga prioritas pikeun aksés parab jeung tempat nyayang. Mindahkeun hayam jago atawa hayam bikang tina kelompok téh bisa ngalantarankeun gangguan témporér pikeun susunan sosial, nika susunan kakawasaan anyar diadegkeun. Nambahkeun hayam, komona mah anak hayam, kana kelompok anu aya bisa nyumebabkeun hayam téh diadu jeung cidera.<ref>{{cite web|author=Stonehead |url=http://stonehead.wordpress.com/2006/06/28/introducing-new-hens-to-a-flock/ |title=Introducing new hens to a flock « Musings from a Stonehead |publisher=Stonehead.wordpress.com |accessdate=14 April, 2015}}</ref> ====Begér==== Hayam jago nu begér umumna mah sok ngigel puputeran di deukeut hayam bikangna, dibarengan ku nurun-nurunkeun jang-jangna.<ref name="grandin69">{{cite book |title= Animals in Translation|url= https://archive.org/details/animalsintransla00gran|last= Grandin|first= Temple|authorlink= Temple Grandin|author2=Johnson, Catherine|year= 2005|publisher= Scribner|location= New York, New York|isbn= 0-7432-4769-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/animalsintransla00gran/page/69 69]–71}}</ref> Tarékah ieu téh pikeun mancing hayam bikang.<ref name="grandin69"/> ====Nyayang jeung Ngendog==== Hayam bikang bakal mindeng cicing di sayang nu geus aya endogan, sanajan éta endogna téh endog hayam séjén. Hayam umumna nendeun endogna di tempat nu matuh. ====Nyileungleuman==== Dina kaayaan alami, umumna mah hayam bikang sok cindeten dina sayang nepi ka bérés ngendog, tuluy ngamegarkeun sakabéh endog éta. Kitu ogé jeung hayam negeri. Hayam nu cicing bakal eureun ng[[endog]], minangka gantina bakal fokus kana prosés nyileungleuman ([[inkubasi]]). Sayang nu pinuh ku [[endog]] biasana paling loba <u>+</u> 12 siki. Ciri-ciri hayam nyilingleum biasana sok cindeten dina sayang, narajang atawa macok dina kaayaan mertahakeun saupamana kaganggu atawa dipindahkeun. Keur nyileungleum mah hayam jarang ninggalkeun sayang boh pikeun dahar atawa nginum. Samarian cicing, hayam mertahankeun sayangna supaya aya dina [[suhu]] jeung kalembapan nu angger, sarta muter-muter [[endog]] sacara tartil dina bagian munggaran nyileungleuman. ====Pamegaran==== Dina ahir waktu nyileunleuman (<u>+</u> 21 poé)<ref name="grandin69"/> endog, lamun subur, bakal megar. Prosés ngembangna endog téh baréng jeung prosés nyileungleuman, jadi sakabéh endog téh bakal megar bareng, paling béda ogé sapoé 2 poéan. Sanajan anu diteundeun kana sayang téh aya nu kurang atawa leuwih ti 2 minggu. ===Émbriologi=== Taun [[2006]], para ahli ngayakeun panalungtikéan yéh moyangna sakabéh manuk téh "asalna" tina hayam [[gén resesif]], ''talpid2'', jeung kanyahoan yén rahang émbrio dimimitian ku pangwangunan huntu, sakumaha nu kapanggih dina fosil manuk purba. John Fallon, pangawas proyék, ngedalkeun yén hayam téh mibanda "...mertahankeun pangabisa pikeun nyieun huntu, dina kaayaan tinangtu... ."<ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=1666805 Scientists Find Chickens Retain Ancient Ability to Grow Teeth] Ammu Kannampilly, [[ABC News]], Diaksés 14 April 2015.</ref> == Jenis-jenis Hayam == [[File:Yogyakarta Indonesia Taman-Sari-Roaster-02.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Hayam katé]] Dina kahirupan masarakat [[sunda]], hayam téh dikelompokkeun jadi babaraha jenis. di antarana: * [[Hayam Jabrig]], nyaéta hayam anu sukuna buluan * [[Hayam Borontok]], nyaéta hayam anu buluna totol-totol bodas dina bulu beureum * [[Hayam Katé]], nyaéta hayam leutik siga [[japati]] * [[Hayam Kedu]], nyaéta hayam nu mindeng ngendogna, asalna ti désa [[Kedu]] kacamatan [[Parakan kedu]] * [[Hayam Lisung]], nyaéta hayam lindeuk nu sok karalang-kuriling dipipir [[imah]] baé tara ngaprak jauh * [[Hayam Mutiara]], nyaéta sabangsa hayam anu dina buluna kulawu totol-totol bodas sagedé-gedé [[mutiara]] * [[Hayam kumupu]], nyaéta anak hayam anu kakara megar buluna siga kapuk kénéh * [[Hayam Renggé]], nyaéta hayam anu buluna siga bulu hiris ([[ucing]]) * [[Hayam Pelung]], nyaéta hayam jago ti [[Cianjur]] nu kongkorokna ngagoronggong laun jeung melung, haya, ieu lain pikeun didahar tapi pikeun dipiara wungkul * [[Hayam Tukung]], nyaéta hayam anu euweuh buntutna lebah buntut buluna siga batok nangkub * [[Hayam Turundul]], nyaéta hayam gundul atawa buluna saeutik pisan * [[Hayam Carambang]], nyaéta hayam nu buluna hideung tapi loba totol-totol bodas * [[Hayam Camani]], nyaéta hayam [[hideung]] anu nepi ka kulit, daging ogé tulangna hideung.<ref name="sumber1" /> Hayam ogé miboga jenis hayam aduan, nyaéta hayam anu sok dipaké ngadu hayam.<ref name="sumber2">{{id}}Hj.Patimah,spk. Ensiklopedi Sunda : Alam, Manusia dan Budaya termasuk Budaya Cirebonan dan Betawi. PT Dunia Pustaka Jaya. Jakarta 2000.</ref> Ciri-ciri hayam aduan bisa ditempo tina pamatuk, mata, bulu, jeung sisikna.<ref name="sumber2" /> Pamatuk hayam aduan anu hadé disebut [[péot jaramieun]], matana pétét, bulu jangjangna kudu nutupan nepi ka tunggir, [[cékér]]na kudu capit hurangeun nyaéta miboga capit jiga [[hurang]], [[tulang]] dadana kudu nepi ka deukeut [[telih]],.<ref name="sumber2" /> Béda jeung [[hayam jago]], [[hayam jago]] anu hadé miboga sora anu panjang sedengkeun hayam aduan sorana kudu pondok.<ref name="sumber2" /> Hayam adu tara sagawayah dileupaskeun bareng jeung hayam-hayam sjénna tapi kudu aya dina kandang ranggap.<ref name="sumber2" /> ku cara rutin hayam adu dimandian tuluy dipoyan sangkan kuat, jeung deui hayam aduan ulah sagawayah dibéré nyatu naon baé kudu anu aya gizian.<ref name="sumber2" /> ==Rujukan== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Phasianidae]] [[Kategori:Sato ingon]] 6ryz2wei5f6w0erwmd9lfouqwraypf5 0 34211 711812 675842 2026-08-07T04:55:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711812 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Pikeun kagunaan lian ti "Moldova" tempo [[Moldova (disambiguasi)]]'' {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''Republica Moldova'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Moldova |common_name = Moldova | image_map = Location Moldova Europe.png | map_caption = Lokasi '''Moldova''' (héjo)<br /> di buana Éropa (kulawu kolot) |national_anthem = ''[[Limba noastră]]''{{spaces|2}}<br />''Basa Urang''</small><!--Source: http://moldrpcv.tripod.com/id26.html--> |image_flag = Flag of Moldova.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Moldova.svg |capital = [[Kishinév]] |latd=47 |latm=0 |latNS=N |longd=28 |longm=55 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Kishinév]] |official_languages = [[Basa Moldova|Moldova]] |regional_languages = [[Basa Gagauz|Gagauz]], [[Basa Rusia|Rusia]], [[Basa Ukraina|Ukraina]], jeung [[Basa Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] |demonym = [[Bangsa Moldova|Moldova]] |government_type = [[Rapublik parleménter]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Moldova|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Maia Sandu]] (Майя Санду |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Menteri Moldova|Perdana Menteri]] |leader_name2 = [[Natalia Gavrilița]] (Наталья Гаврилица) |leader_title3 = Pupuhu parlemén |leader_name3 = [[Igor Grosu]] (Игорь Гросу) |sovereignty_type = Konsolidasi |established_event1 = Déklarasi kadaulatan |established_date1 = 23 Juni 1990 |established_event2 = Déklarasi kamerdékaan (ti [[Uni Soviét]]) |established_date2 = <br /> 27 Agustus 1991{{smallsup|2}} |area = 33,846 <!-- Diakui 25 Desember 1991 http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08132.pdf --> |areami² = 13,067 |area_rank = 139 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |percent_water = 1.4 |population_estimate = 3.560.430 (teu kaasup [[Transnistria]] jeung [[Bender, Moldova|Bender]]) |population_estimate_year = 1 Januari 2011<ref>[http://www.statistica.md/index.php?l=en National Bureau of Statistics of Moldova] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091113142639/http://www.statistica.md/index.php?l=en |date=2009-11-13 }}</ref><ref>[http://pridnestrovie.net/facts.html#population 2004 census of Transnistrian region] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423231113/http://pridnestrovie.net/facts.html#population |date=2006-04-23 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = 129<sup>3</sup> |population_census = 3.383.332<sup>4</sup> |population_census_year = 2004 |population_density_km2 = 121,9 |population_density_sq_mi = 316 |population_density_rank = 87 |GDP_PPP_year = 2009 |GDP_PPP = $10.141 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=921&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=72&pr.y=13|title=Moldova|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2010-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504024644/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=921&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=72&pr.y=13 |date=2011-05-04 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2.842<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = 2009 |GDP_nominal = $5.403 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1.514<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.708 |HDI_rank = 111th |HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">medium</span> |Gini = 37.1 <!-- http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08132.pdf --> |Gini_year = 2007 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">medium</span> |currency = [[Leu Moldova]] |currency_code = MDL |time_zone = [[Wanci Éropa Wétan|EET]] |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = [[Wanci Usum Panas Éropa Wétan|EEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +3 |drives_on = Tengen |cctld = [[.md]] |calling_code = 373 }} '''Républik Moldova''' ({{lang-ro|Republica Moldova}}) mangrupa [[nagara]] nu aya di antara [[Rumania]] jeung [[Ukraina]], di [[Éropa Wétan]]. Moldova teu miboga aksés ka [[laut]]. Dina jaman baheula, Moldova mangrupa bagian ti [[Dacia]], nu labuh ka kawasa [[Romawi]]. Kalobaannana ti wewengkon Moldova mangrupa bagian ti [[Kapangéranan Moldavia]] dina abad patengahan. Bagian wétan kapangéranan ieu teras dianéksasi ku [[Kakaisaran Rusia]] dina taun [[1812]] jeung wewengkon ieu kawanoh minangka [[Bessarabia]]. Nalika pambubaran Kakaisaran Rusia taun 1917, [[Républik Démokratik Moldavia]] diwangun, nu saterasna ngagabung jeung [[Romania Raya]] dina taun [[1918]]. Dina taun [[1940]], Bessarabia [[pangawasaan Soviét di Bessarabia jeung Bukovina Kalér|dikawasaan]] ku [[Uni Soviét]], jeung dibagi antara [[Républik Sosialis Soviét Ukraina]] jeung [[Républik Sosialis Soviét Moldova]]. Kalawan labuhna Soviét taun [[1991]], Moldova ngadéklarasikeun kamerdékaanna. Nagara ieu mangrupa nagara démokrasi parleménter, kalawan présidén salaku pupuhu nagara jeung perdana menteri salaku pupuhu pamaréntahan. Moldova mangrupa anggota PBB, [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Organisasi Pikeun Kaamanan jeung Sabilulungan di Éropa|OSCE]], [[GUAM]], [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], [[Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation|BSEC]], jeung organisasi internasional lianna. Moldova ayeuna ngusahakeun sangakan ngagabung ka [[Uni Éropa]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.moldpres.md/default.asp?Lang=en&ID=68715|title= Moldova will prove that it can and has chances to become EU member,|publisher= Moldpress News Agency|date= June 19, 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193244/http://www.moldpres.md/default.asp?Lang=en |date=March 3, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://social.moldova.org/news/40-eng.html|title= Moldova-EU Action Plan Approved by European Commission|publisher= moldova.org|date= 14 December 2004|accessdate= 2 Juli 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113175537/http://social.moldova.org/news/40-eng.html |date=13 January 2009 }}</ref> Kira-kira ¼ padumuk Moldova masih hirup kalawan pangasilan kirang ti $2 per poé.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDI_2008_EN_Tables.pdf Human development indices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520061654/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDI_2008_EN_Tables.pdf |date=2020-05-20 }}</ref> == Sajarah == {{utama|Sajarah Moldova}} [[Gambar:Humorstefan.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ştefan III ti Moldavia]], pangéran [[Kapangéranan Moldavia|Moldavia]] antara taun 1457 nepi ka 1504.]] Dina jaman [[Néolitik]], wewengkon Moldova mangrupa puseur [[paradaban Cucuteni-Trypillia]]. Paradaban nu lumangsung ti taun 5500 nepi ka 2750 SM ieu geus nyaho [[tatanén]], [[ingon]], [[pamoroan]], jeung [[gagarabah]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Constantinescu | first = Bogdan | authorlink = http://www.ad-astra.ro/whoswho/view_profile.php?user_id=1210%E2%8C%A9=ro | last2 = Bugoi | first2 = Roxana | author2-link = http://www.nipne.ro/research/publications/publications03-07.php?user=131 | last3 = Pantos | first3 = Emmanuel | last4 = Popovici | first4 = Dragomir | title = Phase and chemical composition analysis of pigments used in Cucuteni Neolithic painted ceramics | journal = Documenta Praehistorica | volume = XXXIV | pages = 281–288 | publisher = Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana | location = Ljubljana | date = 2007 | url = http://193.2.104.55/documenta/pdf34/DPConstantinescu34.pdf | issn = 1408-967X | oclc = 41553667 | accessdate = 29 November 2009 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20110514095641/http://193.2.104.55/documenta/pdf34/DPConstantinescu34.pdf | archivedate = 14 May 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514095641/http://193.2.104.55/documenta/pdf34/DPConstantinescu34.pdf |date=14 May 2011 }}</ref> Dina [[éra klasik]], [[bangsa Dacia]] nyicingan wewengkon Moldova. Antara [[abad ka-1]] nepi ka [[abad ka-7]], wewengkon ieu dikawasa ku [[Kakaisaran Romawi]]. Lantaran aya dina rute antara [[Asia]] jeung [[Éropa]], wewengkon Moldova modérn ditarajang turut-tumurut ku séé [[Goth]], [[Hun]], [[Avar]], [[Magyar]], [[Pecheneg]], [[Cuman]], jeung [[Mongol]]. Dina taun [[1359]], [[Kapangéranan Moldavia]] diwangun. Kapangéranan ieu minangka ''[[tributary]]'' [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] kalawan hak otonomi internal taun [[1538]]. Liwat [[Traktat Bukares 1812]], Utsmaniyah masihan wewengkon wétan Moldavia (katelah minangka [[Bessarabia]]) ka [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]]. Bagian kulon Moldavia (nu sanés wewengkon Moldova modérn) tetep minangka kapangéranan otonom, jeung dina taun [[1859]] bareng jeung [[Wallachia]] ngawangun [[Karajaan Romania]]. Sanggeus [[Révolusi Rusia 1917]], [[Républik Démokratik Moldavia]] diproklamasikeun. Salajengna, républik ieu ngahiji jeung [[Romania Raya]] taun [[1918]]. Dina [[28 Juni]] [[1940]], basa [[Perang Dunya II]], Romania narima [[ultimatum Soviét Juni 1940|ultimatum ti Uni Soviét]].<ref name="ultimatum">{{cite book|url=http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm|archivedate=2007-11-13|title=Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940|author=Ioan Scurtu, Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu|language=Romanian|publisher=University of Bucharest|year=2002}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm |date=2007-11-13 }}</ref> Romania kapaksa [[Panjajahan Soviét di Bessarabia jeung Bukovina Kalér|masihan]] [[Bessarabia]] jeung [[Bukovina Kalér]] ka Soviét pikeun nyingkahan perang.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nagy-Talavera|first=Nicolas M.|title=Green Shirts and Others: a History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_817918515|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1970|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_817918515/page/305 305]}}</ref> Ku Soviét, wewengkon éta teras dibagi antara [[Républik Sosialis Soviét Ukraina]] jeung [[Républik Sosialis Soviét Moldova]]. Dina taun [[1991]], Uni Soviét éléh, jeung Moldova ngadéklarasikeun kamerdékaanna dina [[27 Agustus]] [[1991]]. Dina Séptémber [[1990]], pamaréntahan séparatis diwangun di [[Transnistria]] (wewengkon Moldova). Sanggeus [[Perang Transnistria|perang taun [[1992]]]], Transnistria sacara ''de facto'' merdéka, tapi euweuh anggota PBB nu ngakuan kamerdékaanna. == Politik jeung pamaréntahan == [[Gambar:Parlament_Building_Moldova.jpg|thumb|left|[[Parlemén Moldova]].]] Moldova ngalaksanakeun pamaréntahan républik [[parleménter]] nu [[démokratis]] jeung [[démokrasi répréséntatif|répréséntatif]]. [[Konstitusi Moldova (1994)|Konstitusi Moldova 1994]] ngatur lumangsungna pamaréntahan.<ref name='const'>Parliament of the Republic of Moldova. [http://xiv.parlament.md/en/legalfoundation/constitution/t1/ The Constitution of the Republic of Moldova] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501153715/http://xiv.parlament.md/en/legalfoundation/constitution/t1/ |date=2008-05-01 }} 2000. Diakses pada 11-14, 2007.</ref> Badan législatif Moldova nyaéta [[Parlemén Moldova]] (''{{lang|ro|Parlament}}''), nu miboga 101 korsi jeung anggotana dipilih saban opat taun. Pupuhu nagara Moldova nyaéta [[présidén Moldova|présidén]], nu dipilih ku parlemén. Présidén bisa nunjuk [[perdana menteri Moldova|perdana menteri]] nu kagungan tugas salaku pupuhu pamaréntahan jeung bisa nunjuk kabinét. Institusi yudikatif dilaksanakeun ku [[Pangadilan Konstitusional Moldova]]. === Hubungan luar nagri === Sanggeus miboga kamerdékaanna, Moldova mimiti muka hubungan jeung nagara-nagara Éropa. Moldova ngagabung ka [[Déwan Éropa]], [[PBB]], [[OSCE]], [[North Atlantic Cooperation Council|NACC]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[IMF]], [[Bank Dunya]], [[Francophonie]], jeung ''[[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]]''. Moldova ogé ngusahakeun néang paréngséan rapih dina konflik di [[Transnistria]] kalawan ménta bantosan médiasi internasional. == Géografi == [[Gambar:Dniester in Moldova, 2004.jpg|thumb|left|Pamandangan lebak [[Dniester]]]] Moldova mangrupa nagara nu aya di [[Éropa Wétan]]. Posisi Moldova aya dina koordinat 45°28' - 48°28' kalér jeung 26°40' - 30°06' wétan.<ref name="allmoldova"/> Luas nagara Moldova nyaéta 33.843&nbsp;km², kalawan luas wewengkon daratan kira-kira 33.371&nbsp;km² jeung luas caina 472&nbsp;km².<ref name="allmoldova">[http://www.allmoldova.com/en/moldova/info/geography.html Moldova’s geography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116083540/http://allmoldova.com/en/moldova/info/geography.html |date=2010-01-16 }}, allmoldova.com</ref> Kalobaannana ti wewengkon Moldova aya di antara dua walungan, nyaéta [[Walungan Dniester]] jeung [[Walungan Prut|Prut]]. Wates kulon Moldova diwangun ku walungan Prut, samentara walungan utama di wétan nyaéta Dniester nu ngalir ti kalér ka kidul. Nagri ieu teu boga aksés ka laut sanajan aya di deukeut [[Laut Hideung]]. Kalobaannana ti wewengkon Moldova loba papasiran, tapi kaluhuran teu pernah leuwih ti {{convert|430|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. Puncak pangluhurna di Moldova nyaéta [[Dealul Bălăneşti|Pasir Bălăneşti]]. Papasiran di Moldova mangrupa bagian ti Dataran Luhur Moldavia, nu sacara géologis asalna téh ti [[Pagunungan Carpathia]]. Di kidul Moldova aya dataran handap nu disebut [[dataran handap Bugeac|dataran Bugeac]]. Moldova miboga 745 rupa taneuh, jeung 75% di antarana ''[[chernozem]]'', 10% taneuh leuweung soklat jeung kulawu, 7% taneuh dataran caah jeung padang jukut, sarta 8% mangrupa rupa taneuh nu séjén.<ref name="allmoldova"/> 53% taneuh Moldova dipaké pikeun ngawuluju taneuh, 14% pikeun tatanén gandum, 13% pikeun ladang [[pastura]], 9% leuweung jeung 11% sésana pikeun kagunaan kagunaan lian.<ref name="allmoldova"/> Végétasi utama Moldova nyaéta [[stépa leuweung]], nu diwangun ti tegal jeung leuweung.<ref>[http://www.biotica-moldova.org/ECO-NET/part6-2-2.htm Concept of National Ecological Network of the Republic of Moldova] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123031541/http://www.biotica-moldova.org/ECO-NET/part6-2-2.htm |date=2015-11-23 }}</ref> Dina abad ka-19, wewengkon leuweung Moldova ngirang drastis lantaran dikonvérsi kana lahan tatanén. Di Moldova aya kira-kira 2.300 rupa [[tutuwuhan]], 68 rupa [[mamalia]], 270 rupa [[manuk]] jeung kira-kira 10.000 rupa [[invértébrata]]. Moldova miboga lahan tatanén nu alus, tapi ngan miboga saeutik sumber daya mineral.<ref>{{cite news |first = Ina |last = Dimireva |author = |coauthors = |url = http://www.eubusiness.com/europe/moldova/econ |title = Moldova: Economy Overview |work = |publisher = EUbusiness |pages = |page = |date = 8 Maret 2008 |accessdate = 3 Juni 2008 |quote = }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712062606/http://www.eubusiness.com/europe/moldova/econ |date=2010-07-12 }}</ref> Sumber daya alam Moldova mangrupa material wangunan, bahan atah semén, kaca, jeung beusi. Di nagara ieu aya ogé saeutik lahan minyak jeung gas.<ref name="allmoldova"/> == Babagian administratif == [[Gambar:moldadm.png|thumb|350px|Babagian administratif Moldova.]] Moldova kabagi kana 32 distrik (''raionul''), tiga munisipalitas ([[Bălţi]], [[Kishinev]], [[Bender, Moldova|Bender]]) jeung dua wewengkon otonom ([[Gagauzia]] jeung [[Transnistria]]). Aya 65 kota jeung 917 komune di Moldova. Di handap ieu nyaéta daptar distrik di Moldova: {| | * [[Raionul Anenii Noi|Anenii Noi]] * [[Raionul Basarabeasca|Basarabeasca]] * [[Raionul Briceni|Briceni]] * [[Raionul Cahul|Cahul]] * [[Raionul Cantemir|Cantemir]] * [[Raionul Călăraşi|Călăraşi]] * [[Raionul Căuşeni|Căuşeni]] * [[Raionul Cimişlia|Cimişlia]] * [[Raionul Criuleni|Criuleni]] * [[Raionul Donduşeni|Donduşeni]] * [[Raionul Drochia|Drochia]] * [[Raionul Dubăsari|Dubăsari]] * [[Raionul Edineţ|Edineţ]] * [[Raionul Făleşti|Făleşti]] * [[Raionul Floreşti|Floreşti]] * [[Raionul Glodeni|Glodeni]] | * [[Raionul Hînceşti|Hînceşti]] * [[Raionul Ialoveni|Ialoveni]] * [[Raionul Leova|Leova]] * [[Raionul Nisporeni|Nisporeni]] * [[Raionul Ocniţa|Ocniţa]] * [[Raionul Orhei|Orhei]] * [[Raionul Rezina|Rezina]] * [[Raionul Rîşcani|Rîşcani]] * [[Raionul Sîngerei|Sîngerei]] * [[Raionul Soroca|Soroca]] * [[Raionul Străşeni|Străşeni]] * [[Raionul Şoldăneşti|Şoldăneşti]] * [[Raionul Ştefan Vodă|Ştefan Vodă]] * [[Raionul Taraclia|Taraclia]] * [[Raionul Teleneşti|Teleneşti]] * [[Raionul Ungheni|Ungheni]] |} Status ahir Transnistria masih dipaséaan sabab pamaréntah puseur heunteu ngawasaan wewengkon éta. {{Raionul Moldova}} == Ékonomi == {{utama|Ékonomi Moldova}} [[Gambar:MD 1 leu av.jpg|thumb|right|[[Leu Moldova]].]] Kalawan [[PDB per kapita]] ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) $2.842,<ref name=imf2/> Moldova mangrupa nagara nu pangmiskinna di [[Éropa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/030-53410-103-04-16-903-20090403STO53395-2009-13-04-2009/default_en.htm |title=Europe's poorest country Moldova holds election |publisher=Europarl.europa.eu |date=2009-04-13 |accessdate=2009-10-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821144842/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/030-53410-103-04-16-903-20090403STO53395-2009-13-04-2009/default_en.htm |date=2009-08-21 }}</ref> Moldova teu miboga sumber daya mineral nu gedé, janten ékonomina ngagantung kana [[agrikultur]]. Taneuh nu subur jeung iklim nu sedeng ngajadikeun Moldova salaku panyuplai utama produk agrikultur di Éropa Tenggara. Nagara ieu katelah kana ''[[wine]]''-na. Moldova miboga lahan anggur saluas 147.000 [[héktar]]. Nagri ieu kedah ngimpor [[minyak bumi]], [[batu bara]], jeung [[gas alam]] pikeun minuhan kabutuhan énerginya. Kalobaannana ti sumber daya diimpor ti [[Rusia]]. Moldova masih ngusahakeun néangan invéstor dina widang énergi.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.inogate.org|title= INOGATE website}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118080914/http://www.inogate.org/ |date=2019-11-18 }}</ref> Di Moldova, aya jalur karéta api sapanjang {{convert|1138|km|mi|abbr=on}} jeung jalan bébas sapanjang {{convert|12730|km|mi|0|abbr=on|disp=s}}. Jalan asup utama ka Moldova liwat udara nyaéta [[Bandar Udara Internasional Kishinev]]. == Démografi == [[Gambar:Harta etnica a Republicii Moldova - 2004.jpg|thumb|350|Komposisi étno-linguistik Moldova taun 2004]] Dumasar kana sénsus taun 2004,<ref name="2004census">{{Ro}} [http://www.statistica.md/recensamint.php?lang=ro National Bureau of Statistics of Moldova] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118142423/http://www.statistica.md/recensamint.php?lang=ro |date=2008-11-18 }}</ref> Moldova dikira-kira miboga populasi 3.938.679 jiwa (kaasup Transnistria jeung Bender). 69.62% ti padumuk Moldova mangrupa [[bangsa Moldova]]. Étnis lian di Moldova nyaéta [[bangsa Ukraina|Ukraina]] (11.23%), [[bangsa Rusia|Rusia]] (9.39%), [[Gagauz]] (3.85%), [[bangsa Romania|Romania]] (1.87%), [[bangsa Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] (2.02%), [[urang Rom|Rom]] (0.32%), [[Yahudi]] (0.12%)<ref>Jewish Virtual Library: "[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/moldova.html Moldova] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051103012648/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/moldova.html |date=2005-11-03 }}".</ref>, [[bangsa Polandia|Polandia]] (0.11%), jeung sababaraha grup étnis lianna (1.46%). Konstitusi Moldova nyebutkeun yén basa resmi Républik Moldova nyaéta [[basa Moldova]], jeung panulisanna dumasar kana [[aksara Latin]],<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web|url= http://xiv.parlament.md/en/legalfoundation/constitution/t1/|title= Article 13, line 1 - of Constitution of Republic of Moldova}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501153715/http://xiv.parlament.md/en/legalfoundation/constitution/t1/ |date=2008-05-01 }}</ref> samentara déklarasi kamerdékaan Moldova nyebutkeun yén basa resmi Moldova nyaéta [[basa Romania]].<ref>{{Ro}} [http://www.moldova-suverana.md/index.php?start_from=&ucat=7&subaction=showfull&id=1156426235&archive=1156767681& Declaraţia de independenţa a Republicii Moldova] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205095219/http://www.moldova-suverana.md/index.php?start_from=&ucat=7&subaction=showfull&id=1156426235&archive=1156767681& |date=2008-02-05 }}, [[Moldova Suverană]]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070224120109/http://ec.europa.eu/translation/language_aids/recognition/field_guide_main_languages_of_europe_en.pdf A Field Guide to the Main Languages of Europe - Spot that language and how to tell them apart], on the website of the [[European Commission]]</ref> Aya kontrovérsi ngeunaan idéntitas étnis Moldova. Sababaraha ahli satuju yén basa Moldova jeung Romania mangrupa basa nu sarua. Pamikiran ieu ogé diageman ku sababaraha politikus Moldova.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.realitatea.net/marian-lupu--romana-si-moldoveneasca-sunt-aceeasi-limba_288666.html |title=Marian Lupu: Româna şi moldoveneasca sunt aceeaşi limbă |publisher=Realitatea .NET |date= |accessdate=2009-10-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222141515/http://www.realitatea.net/marian-lupu--romana-si-moldoveneasca-sunt-aceeasi-limba_288666.html |date=2015-12-22 }}</ref> Dina 29 Séptémber 2009, Perdana Menteri Moldova [[Vlad Filat]] janten pamingpin Moldova kahiji nu sacara kabuka nyebatkeun yén basana nyaéta "basa Romania.<ref>[http://www.rferl.org/content/Moldovan_Premier_Wants_Clear_EU_Perspective_Financial_Aid/1839909.html In Brussels on September 29, Filat became the first Moldovan leader in a decade to publicly announce abroad that his language is "Romanian"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909074401/http://www.rferl.org/content/Moldovan_Premier_Wants_Clear_EU_Perspective_Financial_Aid/1839909.html |date=2010-09-09 }}</ref> [[Basa Rusia]] diberé status "basa pikeun komunikasi antarétnis" di Moldova. Dina praktikna, basa ieu sacara luas digunakeun dina masarakat jeung pamaréntahan.<ref name="conceptia">{{Ro}} "[https://web.archive.org/web/20040520102307/http://www.parlament.md/download/laws/ro/546-XV-19.12.2003.doc Concepţia politicii naţionale a Republicii Moldova]" [[Parlemen Moldova]]</ref> [[Basa Gagauz]] jeung [[basa Ukraina|Ukraina]] miboga jumlah panyatur nu lumayan loba. Agama nu loba diageman di Moldova nyaéta [[Garéja Ortodoks Wétan|Ortodoks Wétan]] (93.3%). 2% populasi Moldova ngageman agama [[Protéstan]], 1.2% agama lian, 0.9% [[iréligius]] jeung 0.4% [[atéis]].<ref name="2004census"/> == Budaya == {{utama|Budaya Moldova}} [[Gambar:Stamp of Moldova 221.gif|thumb|upright|Hiji perangko Moldova.]] Budaya Moldova mangrupa campuran ti [[budaya Romania]] jeung [[budaya Soviét|Soviét]]. Idéntitas budaya Romania sorangan kawangun ti pangaruh budaya [[Romawi]] jeung [[Dacia]], dibeungharan ku pangaruh budaya [[Slavia]] dina abad patengahan.<ref name=influences>{{cite book|title=Romania: Borderland of Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/romaniaborderlan0000boia|author=Lucian Boia, James Christian Brown|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2001|isbn=9781861891037|pages=[https://archive.org/details/romaniaborderlan0000boia/page/13 13], 36–40}}</ref> Figur penting dina kamekaran budaya Moldova nyaéta [[Varlaam]], [[Dosoftei]], [[Grigore Ureche]], [[Miron Costin]], [[Petru Movilă]], [[Nicolae Milescu|Nicolae Milescu-Spãtaru]], [[Dimitrie Cantemir]], [[Ion Neculce]], [[Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni]], [[Alexandru Hîjdău]], [[Alexandru Donici]], [[Constantin Stamati]], [[Costache Negruzzi]], [[Bogdan P. Hasdeu]], [[Ion Creangă]], jeung [[Mihai Eminescu]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar nagara]] * [[Uni Soviét]] == Catetan suku == {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{sisterlinks|Moldova}} * {{en}} [http://www.moldova.md/en/start/ Loka resmi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080201104525/http://www.moldova.md/en/start/ |date=2008-02-01 }} * {{en}} [http://gov.gov.md/en/start/ Loka resmi pamaréntahan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223083347/http://gov.gov.md/en/start/ |date=2009-12-23 }} * {{en}} [http://www.parlament.md/en.html Loka resmi parlemén] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218163523/http://www.parlament.md/en.html |date=2008-12-18 }} * {{en}} {{CIA World Factbook link|md|Moldova}} {{wikivoyage|Moldova}} [[Kategori:Moldova| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Éropa Wétan]] 5mj4g3vr3gcjzkj4epi23dugwz3mgke 0 34276 711537 679443 2026-08-06T22:40:45Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711537 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''România'' |conventional_long_name = Romania |common_name = Romania |image_flag = Flag of Romania.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Romania.svg |image_map = EU-Romania.svg |map_caption = {{map_caption |location_color=héjo |region=[[Éropa]] |region_color=kulawu kolot |subregion=[[Uni Éropa]] |subregion_color=héjo ngora |legend=EU-Romania.svg}} |national_anthem = <span style="line-height:1.25em;">''[[Deşteaptă-te, române!]]''</span> |official_languages = [[Basa Romania|Romania]] |ethnic_groups = 89.5% Romania, 6.6% [[Hungaria]], 2.5% [[Urang Rom|Rom]], 1.4% grup minoritas lianna |government_type = Républik kahijian semi-présidénsial |capital = [[Bukares]]&nbsp;(''Bucureşti'') |latd = 44 |latm = 25 |latNS = N |longd = 26 |longm = 06 |longEW = E |largest_city = Bukares |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Romania|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Menteri Romania|Perdana Menteri]] |leader_name1 = [[:ro:Klaus Iohannis|Klaus Iohannis]] |leader_name2 = [[:ro:Nicolae Ciuca|Nicolae Ciuca]] |area_rank = 82 |area_magnitude = 1_E+11 |area = 238.391 |areami² = 92.043 |percent_water = 3 |population_estimate_year = 2021 |population_estimate = {{Nts|19186201}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/poprez_ian2021r.pdf|title=Populația rezidentă la 1 Ianuarie 2021|language=ro|trans-title=The usually resident population on 1 January 2021|publisher=[[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)|National Institute of Statistics]]|website=Insse.ro|access-date=3 December 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114072541/https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/poprez_ian2021r.pdf |date=14 November 2021 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = 61 |population_census_year = 2021 |population_census = 20,121,641<ref name="CensusRef" /> |population_density_km2 = 80.4 |population_density_sq_mi = 218.6 |population_density_rank = 136 |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP = $653.903&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEORO"/> |GDP_PPP_rank = 36 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $33,833<ref name="IMFWEORO"/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 44 |GDP_nominal = $289.130&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEORO">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021 Edition |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=3 December 2021 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407050829/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April |date=7 April 2021 }}</ref> |GDP_nominal_rank = 46 |GDP_nominal_year = 2021 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $14,968<ref name="IMFWEORO" /> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 56t |HDI_year = 2019 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.828 |HDI_rank = 63 |HDI_category = <span style="color:green;">luhur</span> |Gini = 33.8 |Gini_year = 2020 |Gini_rank = 21 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#090;">handap</span> |legislature = [[Parlemén Romania|Parlemén]] |upper_house = [[Sénat Romania|Sénat]] |established_event1 = [[Transilvania]] |established_date1 = Abad ka-10 |established_event2 = [[Wallachia]] |established_date2 = 1290 |established_event3 = [[Moldavia]] |established_date3 = 1346 |established_event4 = [[Mihai Viteazul|Unifikasi kahiji]] |established_date4 = 1599 |established_event5 = Réunifikasi [[Alexander Ioan Cuza|Wallachia jeung Moldavia]] |established_date5 = 24 Januari 1859 |established_event6 = Pangakuan kamerdékaan ti [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] |established_date6 = 13 Juli 1878 |established_event7 = Unifikasi sareng Transilvania |established_date7 = 1 Désémber 1918 |accessionEUdate = 1 Januari 2007 |currency = [[Leu Romania|Leu]] (L) |currency_code = RON |time_zone = [[Wanci Éropa Wétan|EET]] |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = [[Wanci Usum Panas Éropa Wétan|EEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +3 |drives_on = tengen |cctld = [[.ro]] [[.eu]] |calling_code = 40 |footnotes = }} '''Romania''' (ogé diéja '''Rumania''' atawa '''Roumania'''; {{lang-ro|România}}) nyaéta nagara nu aya di [[Éropa Tenggara]], di bagian kalér [[Samenanjung Balkan]] jeung tepung wates sareng [[Laut Hideung]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm|title=North Atlantic Treaty Organization|publisher=NATO|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525123235/http://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm |date=2017-05-25 }}</ref> Méh sakabéh [[délta Donau|délta walungan Donau]] aya di wewengkon Romania. Nagara ieu tepung wates sareng [[Hungaria]] jeung [[Sérbia]] di kulon, [[Ukraina]] jeung [[Moldova]] di wétan-kalér, jeung [[Bulgaria]] di kidul. Sajarah nyatetan yén [[bangsa Dacia]], [[Kakaisaran Romawi]], [[Kakaisaran Bulgaria]], [[Karajaan Hungaria]], jeung [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] pernah ngawasaan wewengkon ieu. Salaku hiji nagara, Romania diwangun dina taun 1859 ti panghijian wewengkon [[Moldavia]] jeung [[Wallachia]], nu miboga pangakuan internasional dina taun 1878. Dina taun 1918, [[Transilvania]], [[Bukovina]], jeung [[Bessarabia]] ngadéklarasikeun ngagabung sareng Romania. Dina ahir [[Perang Dunya II]], [[Uni Soviét]] ngawasaan sabagian daérahna (kira-kira ngawengku sakabéh daérah [[Moldova]] ayeuna) jeung Romania minangka anggota [[Pakta Warsawa]]. Kalawan labuhna [[Tirai Beusi]] dina taun [[Révolusi Romania 1989|1989]], Romania ngamimitian réformasi politik jeung ékonomi. Dina ngalawan masalah ékonomi pasca-révolusi, nagara ieu maké pajak handap dina taun 2005 jeung ngagabung ka [[Uni Éropa]] dina 1 Januari 2007. Sanajan tingkat pamasukan Romania kaasup salah sahiji nu panghandapna di Uni Éropa, réformasi geus ningkatkeun kamekaran ékonomina. Romania kiwari kaasup nagara nu miboga pamasukan nengah ka luhur. Romania mangrupa nagara kalawan téritori nu pangluasna ka-9 jeung jumlah padumuk nu panggedéna ka-7 di Uni Éropa.<ref name=population>{{Citeweb|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|title=Romanian Statistical Yearbook|year=2007|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/en/cp2.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Ibu kota jeung kota nu panggedéna nyaéta kota [[Bukares]] ({{lang-ro|Bucureşti}}), nu ogé mangrupa kota nu panggedéna ka-6 di Uni Éropa. [[Sibiu]], hiji kota di Transilvania, dina taun 2007 kapilih minangka [[Ibu kota Kabudayaan Éropa]].<ref>{{citeweb|publisher=The Selection Panel for the European Capital of Culture (ECOC) 2007|title=Report on the Nominations from Luxembourg and Romania for the European Capital of Culture 2007|date=2004-04-05|url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/pdf/doc670_en.pdf|format=pdf|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Romania gabung ka [[NATO]] dina kaping 29 Maret 2004, jeung ogé mangrupa anggota ti [[Uni Latin]], [[Francophonie]], [[OSCE]], jeung [[Komunitas Nagara-nagara pamaké basa Portugis|CPLP]]. Nagara ieu méangrupakeun nagara kahijian semi-présidénsial. == Sajarah == === Sajarah awal === Sésa-sésa manusa modérn nu pangkolotna di Éropa geus dipanggih di "[[Peştera cu Oase]]", Romania.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Trinkaus|first =E.|title=Early Modern Human Cranial remains from the Peştera cu Oase|journal =Journal of Human Evolution|volume=45|pages=245–253|year=2003| accessdate=2008-01-10|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2003.08.003}}</ref> Titiinggalan éta kira-kira umurna 42.000 taun, jeung meureunan téh sésa-sésa ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' awal nu asup ka buana Éropa,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zilhão|first=João|title=Neanderthals and Moderns Mixed and It Matters|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology|volume =15|pages=183–195|date=|year=2006|accessdate=2008-01-10|doi=10.1002/evan.20110}}</ref> tapi bukti tinulis kahiji ngeunaan manusa nu ngadumuk di wewengkon Romania asalna ti [[Herodotus]], nu dina bukuna [[Historia (Herodotus)|Historia]] volume IV dina taun 440 SM nulis ngeunaan kaayaan séké-séké [[Getae]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Herodotus|author-link =Herodotus|translation =William Beloe|title =The Ancient History of Herodotus By Herodotus|digitized =Google Book Search|pages =213–217|publisher =Derby & Jackson|year =1859|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=sfHsgNIZum0C&pg=PA215&lpg=PA215&dq=herodotus+dacians+darius&source=web&ots=G4uX7Mnsqb&sig=kYPtXH157JEzuk7V618EreDadqY&hl=en|accessdate =2008-01-10}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211091917/https://books.google.com/books?id=sfHsgNIZum0C&pg=PA215&lpg=PA215&dq=herodotus+dacians+darius&source=web&ots=G4uX7Mnsqb&sig=kYPtXH157JEzuk7V618EreDadqY&hl=en |date=2023-02-11 }}</ref> [[Bangsa Dacia]], nu dianggap bagian ti Getae, mangrupa cabang ti bangsa [[Trakia]] nu nyicingan wewengkon [[Dacia]] (aya di Romania modérn, [[Moldova]], jeung [[Bulgaria]] kalér). Karajaan Dacia miboga puncak kajayaanna dina jaman Raja [[Burebista]] kira-kira taun 82 SM. Sanggeus Dacia narajang propinsi [[Moesia]] [[Romawi]] dina taun 87, Kaisar [[Trajan]]us ngayakeun [[Perang Dacia]] nu réngsé kalawan meunangna bangsa Romawi taun 106. Akibat kameunangan éta, Dacia robah kana propinsi [[Dacia Romawi]].<ref>{{Citeweb|title =Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions|publisher =De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors|url =http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#s-inx|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Lobana bijih beusi, emas, jeung pérak nu dipanggih di propinsi éta<ref>{{citeweb|title=Dacia-Province of the Roman Empire|publisher =United Nations of Roma Victor|url =http://www.unrv.com/provinces/dacia.php|text="and were found in great quantities in the [[Western Carpathians]]. After Trajan's conquest, he brought back to Rome over 165 tons of gold and 330 tons of silver"|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> ngakibatkeun bangsa Romawi ngalaksanakeun kolonisasi kana wewengkon Dacia.<ref>{{citebook|last=Deletant|first=Dennis|title=Colloquial Romanian|publisher=Routledge|year=1995|location=New York|pages =1|isbn=9780415129008}}</ref> Prosés kolonisasi mawa sarta basa [[Latin Vulgar]] nu nyababkeun dimimitianna période romanisasi, nu salajengna bakal ngahasilkeun basa proto-[[basa Romania|Romania]].<ref>{{citebook|last=Matley|first=Ian| title=Romania; a Profile |publisher=Praeger|year=1970|pages=85}}</ref><ref>{{citebook|last=Giurescu|first=Constantin C.|title=The Making of the Romanian People and Language|publisher=Meridiane Publishing House|year=1972|location=Bucharest|pages=43, 98–101,141}}</ref> Dina abad ka-3 séké-séké pangumbara kawas bangsa [[Goth]] loba ngalaksanakeun invasi, jadina maksa bangsa Romawi kira-kira taun 271 mundur ti Dacia, jeung nyieunanna propinsi kahiji nu ditinggalkeun ku Romawi.<ref>{{citebook|last=Eutropius|authorlink=Eutropius|coauthors=Justin, Cornelius Nepos|title=Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History|publisher=George Bell and Sons|year=1886|location=London|url=http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220200338/http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm |date=2009-02-20 }}</ref><ref>{{citeweb|last=Watkins|first=Thayer|title=The Economic History of the Western Roman Empire|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/barbarians.htm|quote="The Emperor Aurelian recognized the realities of the military situation in Dacia and around 271 A.D. withdrew Roman troops from Dacia leaving it to the Goths. The Danube once again became the northern frontier of the Roman Empire in eastern Europe"|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> === Abad patengahan === [[Image:Bran Castle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Istana Bran]] diwangun dina taun 1212, jeung leuwih katelah minangka ''Istana Drakula'']] Sanggeus Romawi ninggalkeun Dacia, wewengkon éta, sacara tumurut, ditarajang ku séké [[Goth]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Jordanes|authorlink=Jordanes|title=Getica, sive, De Origine Actibusque Gothorum|year=551 A.D.|location=Constantinople|url=http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/Goths/Goths1.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007203824/http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/Goths/Goths1.htm |date=2008-10-07 }}</ref> teras ku séké [[Hun]] dina abad ka-4,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Iliescu| first=Vl.|last2=Paschale| first2=Chronicon| title=Fontes Historiae Daco-Romanae|volume=II|pages=363, 587|place=Bucureşti|year=1970}}</ref> jeung dipipilu ku séké-séké nomaden nu séjén kawas séké [[Gepid]],<ref name=gepids/><ref>{{Cite web|first=István|last=Bóna|editor-last=Köpeczi|editor-first=Béla|title=History of Transylvania: II.3. The Kingdom of the Gepids|volume=1|publisher=Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor=[[Columbia University Press]]|location=New York|year=2001|url=http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/33.html|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206094220/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/33.html |date=2008-12-06 }}</ref> [[Avar]],<ref>{{Cite web| first = István| last = Bóna| editor-last = Köpeczi| editor-first = Béla| title = History of Transylvania: II.4. The Period of the Avar Rule| volume = 1| publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences| distributor = Columbia University Press| location = New York| year = 2001| url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/41.html| accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193756/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/41.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> [[Bulgar]],<ref name=gepids>{{cite book|last=Teodor|first=Dan Gh.|title=Istoria României de la începuturi până în secolul al VIII-lea|year =1995|location =Bucureşti|pages=294–325 |volume=2}}</ref> [[Pecheneg]],<ref>{{cite book| last =Constantine VII| first =Porphyrogenitus| authorlink =Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus| title =Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio| date =| location =Constantinople| url =http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/constp.html| accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023071109/http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/constp.html |date=2008-10-23 }}</ref> jeung [[Cuman]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Xenopol|first =Alexandru D.|title =Histoire des Roumains|place=Paris|year =1896|volume =i|pages=168}}</ref> Bangsa Romania salajengna kabagi dina tilu wewengkon kapangéranan nu béda: [[Wallachia]] ({{lang-ro|Ţara Românească}}), [[Moldavia]] ({{lang-ro|Moldova}}), jeung [[Transilvania]]. Transilvania jadi bagian ti [[Karajaan Hongaria]] dina abad ka-11,<ref>{{Cite web|first = László|last = Makkai|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: III. Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526)|volume = 1|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|location = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/57.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193801/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/57.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> jeung miboga kamerdékaanna salaku [[Kapangéranan Transilvania]] ti abad ka-16<ref>{{Cite web|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: IV. The First Period of the Principality of Transylvania (1526–1606)|volume = 1|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|location = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/97.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193819/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/97.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> nepi ka taun 1711.<ref>{{citebook|first = Ágnes R.|last = Várkonyi|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: VI. The Last Decades of the Independent Principality (1660–1711)|volume = 2|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|place = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/221.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430052120/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/221.html |date=2008-04-30 }}</ref> Kapangéranan Romania lianna ngalawan ancaman [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] dina abad ka-14.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Ştefănescu|first =Ştefan |title =Istoria medie a României|year =1991|location =Bucharest|volume =I|pages=114}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last =Predescu|first =Lucian |title =Enciclopedia Cugetarea|year =1940}}</ref> [[File:Mihai 1600.png|thumb|250px|left|Moldavia, Wallachia, jeung Transilvania dina ahir abad ka-16]] Dina taun 1541, sakabéh [[samenanjung Balkan]] jeung méh sakabéh [[Hongaria]] jadi bagian ti Kasultanan Utsmaniyah. Sabalikna, Moldavia, Wallachia, jeung Transilvania jadi bagian ti ''[[suzerainty]]'' Utsmaniyah, kalawan hak otonomi internal. Kapangéranan Wallachia, Moldavia, jeung Transilvania dipingpin ku pangéran Wallachia, [[Mihai Viteazul]], dina taun 1600. Mihai Vitéazul nyobian rék ngahijikeun tilu kapangéranan éta,<ref>{{cite journal|language =Romanian|last =Rezachevici|first =Constantin|title =Mihai Viteazul: itinerariul moldovean|year =2000|journal =Magazin istoric|issue =5|url =http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926231040/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm |date=2007-09-26 }}</ref> tapi kasempetan unifikasi hancur ku sabab rajapati Mihai ku tentara Austria. Sanggeus pupusna, salaku nagara ''vassal'', Moldavia jeung Wallachia geus miboga otonomi internal pinuh, nu ahirna leungit dina abad ka-18. Dina taun 1699, Transilvania jadi daérah kakaisaran Austria sanggeus meunangna Austria ti Turki dina [[Perang Turki Raya]]. Austria ngalaksanakeun paluasan kakawasaan lianna ka wewengkon Wallachia jeung Moldavia, jeung [[Kakaisaran Rusia]] ngawasaan [[Bessarabia]] taun 1812. === Kamerdékaan jeung Monarki === [[Image:Romanians before WW1.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Wewengkon nu dicicingan bangsa Romania saméméh Perang Dunya I]] Dina période kakawasaan [[Austria-Hongaria]] di Transilvania, jeung ''suzerainty'' Utsmaniyah di Wallachia jeung Moldavia, status bangsa Romania nyaéta [[Supplex Libellus Valachorum|padumuk kelas dua]] (atawa malah sanés padumuk)<ref>{{citeweb|publisher =GenealogyRO Group|title =The Magyarization Process|url= http://www.genealogy.ro/cont/13.htm |accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> di wewengkon tempat bangsa aranjeunna jadi bangsa mayoritas.<ref>{{citebook |last =Kocsis |first =Karoly |last2 =Kocsis-Hodosi |first2 =Eszter |year =1999 |title =Ethnic structure of the population on the present territory of Transylvania (1880-1992) |url =http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hmcb/Tab14.htm |accessdate =2008-08-31 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222171134/http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hmcb/Tab14.htm |date=2008-02-22 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kocsis |first =Karoly|last2 =Kocsis-Hodosi |first2 =Eszter|title =Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin|url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicgeographyo0000karo |year =2001|pages =[https://archive.org/details/ethnicgeographyo0000karo/page/102 102]|publisher =Simon Publications|isbn =193131375X}}</ref> Di sababraha kota di Transilvania, kawas [[Braşov]], bangsa Romania dilarang tinggal di jeroeun témbok kota.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Prodan|first =David |title =Supplex Libellus Valachorum= Or, The Politicle Struggle of Romanians in Transylvania During the 18th Century|publisher=Academy of Social Republic of Romania|year =1971|location =Bucharest}}</ref> Sanggeus gagalna [[Révolusi 1848]], nagara-nagara gedé teu ngadukung usaha unifikasi Romania, jadina aranjeunna kapaksa joang sorangan ngalawan Kasultanan Utsmaniyah. Éléktor di Moldavia jeung Wallachia milih [[Alexander John Cuza|Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] minangka pangéran (''[[Domnitor]]'' dina [[basa Romania]]) dina taun 1859.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Bobango|first =Gerald J|title =The emergence of the Romanian national State|url =https://archive.org/details/emergenceofroman0000boba|publisher =Boulder|year =1979|location =New York|isbn = 9780914710516}}</ref> Pamilihan Alexandru Ioan Cuza minangka ''domnitor'' hasil ngahijikeun Wallachia jeung Moldavia minangka Romania, tapi Transilvania masih encan kénéh kaasup kana wewengkon Romania. Di Transilvania, bangsa Hungaria aya di kelas luhur, jadina bangsa Romania ngamimitian palawanan ka Hongaria. Dina kudéta taun 1866, [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza|Cuza]] diasingkeun jeung digantikeun ku Pangéran Karl ti [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]], nu katelah minangka [[Pangéran Karol ti Romania]]. Dina [[Perang Rusia-Turki 1877-78]], Romania ngadukung Rusia,<ref>{{Citeweb|language|Russian|title =San Stefano Preliminary Treaty|year =1878|url =http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/FOREIGN/stefano.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> jeung dina [[Traktat Berlin 1878]], kamerdékaan Romania diakuan.<ref>{{Cite book|work=Internet Modern History Sourcebook|title=The Treaty of Berlin, 1878 - Excerpts on the Balkans|date=July 13, 1878|place=Berlin|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html|accessdate=2008-08-31|publisher=Fordham University}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608120300/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html |date=2008-06-08 }}</ref> Gagantina, Romania méré tilu distrik kidul di [[Bessarabia]] ka Rusia jeung meunangan wewengkon [[Dobrogea]]. Dina taun 1881, kapangéranan robah kana karajaan. Période 1878-1914 mangrupa période kastabilan jeung kamajuan pikeun Romania. Dina [[Perang Balkan Kadua]], Romania ngagabung jeung [[Yunani]], [[Sérbia]], [[Monténégro]], jeung [[Turki]] ngalawan [[Bulgaria]], jeung dina [[Traktat Bukares (1913)]], Romania miboga kakawasaan dina wewengkon [[Dobrogea Kidul]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Anderson|first =Frank Maloy|last2 =Hershey|first2 =Amos Shartle|title =Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870-1914|url =https://archive.org/details/handbookfordipl00hersgoog|publisher =Government Printing Office|year =1918|location =Washington D.C.}}</ref> === Perang Dunya === Dina Agustus 1914, basa [[Perang Dunya I]], Romania ngumumkeun nétral. Dua taun saterasna, dina tekenan Sakutu (utamana Perancis nu hayang muka front anyar), dina 14/27 Agustus 1916, Romania gabung ka Sakutu jeung ngadéklarasikeun perang ka [[Austria-Hongaria]]. Lantaran kitu, liwat [[Traktat Bukares (1916)|konvénsi militér rahasia]], Sakutu jangji méré dukungan ka Romania dina usaha ngahijikeun sadaya rahayat Romania.<ref>{{Cite web|last =Horne|first =Charles F.|year =Horne|title =Ion Bratianu's Declaration of War Delivered to the Austrian Minister in Romania on August 28, 1916|volume =V|publisher =Source Records of the Great War|url =http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/romaniawardeclaration.htm|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207045455/http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/romaniawardeclaration.htm |date=2008-12-07 }}</ref> [[Kampanye Romania (Perang Dunya I)|Kampanye militér Romania]] ahir kalawan karusuhan pikeun Romania sabab [[Blok Séntral]] nalukkeun 2/3 téritori Romania dina wanci opat bulan, tapi [[Moldavia]] tetep aya dina kawasa Romania sanggeus invasi eureun dina taun 1917. Dina ahir perang, Austria-Hongaria jeung Kakaisaran Rusia ngalaman disintegrasi, jadina [[Bessarabia]], [[Bukovina]], jeung [[Transilvania]] ngadéklarasikeun panghijian jeung [[Karajaan Romania]]. [[File:Romania1941.png|thumb|right|250px]] Dina [[Perang Dunya Kadua]], Romania ngadéklarasikeun nétral deui, tapi dina 28 Juni 1940, Romania narima [[ultimatum Soviét Juni 1940|ultimatum ti Uni Soviét]].<ref name="ultimatum">{{cite book|url=http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm|archivedate=2007-11-13|title=Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940|author=Ioan Scurtu, Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu|language=Romanian|publisher=University of Bucharest|year=2002}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm |date=2007-11-13 }}</ref> Dina tekenan [[Mosow]] jeung [[Bérlin]], Romania kapaksa mundur ti [[Bessarabia]] jeung [[Bukovina Kalér]] pikeun nyingkahan perang.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nagy-Talavera|first=Nicolas M.|title=Green Shirts and Others: a History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_817918515|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1970|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_817918515/page/n322 305]}}</ref> Kajadian ieu, ditambih ku sababaraha faktor nu lian, nyieunan pamaréntah Romania gabung ka [[Blok Poros]]. Akibat kaputusan blok Poros, [[Dobrogea]] kidul dibéré ka Bulgaria, samentara Hongaria miboga [[Transilvania|Transilvania Kalér]].<ref>{{citejournal|author=M. Broszat|language=German|title=Deutschland — Ungarn — Rumänien. Entwicklung und Grundfaktoren nationalsozialistischer Hegemonial- und Bündnispolitik 1938-1941|journal=[[Historische Zeitschrift]]|issue=206|year=1968|pages=552–553}}</ref> Dina perang, Romania mangrupa sumber minyak nu penting pikeun [[Jérman Nazi|Nazi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2worldwar2.com/mistakes.htm#ploesti|title=The Biggest Mistakes In World War 2:Ploesti - the most important target|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918013749/http://www.2worldwar2.com/mistakes.htm#ploesti |date=2008-09-18 }}</ref> jadina Sakutu [[Operasi Tidal Wave|ngalaksanakeun pamboman]]. Sanggeus [[Operasi Barbarossa|invasi Jérman ka Uni Soviét]], Romania ngarebut deui Bessarabia jeung Bukovina Kalér ti Soviét. Sanggeus Raja [[Mihai I ti Romania]] diistrénan jeung ngalabuhkeun [[Ion Antonescu]], Romania ngagabung ka Sakutu, tapi lakuannna dina nalukkeun Jérman Nazi teu diakuan ku [[Konferénsi Parapihan Paris]] taun 1947.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/5/38D4D252-BE7E-4943-A6A9-4E3C1B32A05F.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070930033400/http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/5/38D4D252-BE7E-4943-A6A9-4E3C1B32A05F.html|archivedate=2007-09-30|title=World War II – 60 Years After: Former Romanian Monarch Remembers Decision To Switch Sides|author=Eugen Tomiuc|date=May 6, 2005|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Wates kulon Romania balik deui kawas saméméhna, tapi Bukovina Kalér jeung Bessarabia tetep dikawasaan ku Soviet. === Komunisme === Dina taun 1947, kaum komunis maksa Raja Mihai I lungsur jeung angkat ninggalkeun nagara. Romania diproklamasikeun minangka [[républik rahayat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html|publisher=CIA - The World Factbook|title=Romania|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515163205/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html |date=2020-05-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ed-u.com/ro.html|title=Romania - Country Background and Profile|publisher=ed-u.com|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210194350/http://www.ed-u.com/ro.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> Romania tetep aya dina [[Panjajahan Soviét di Romania|panjajahan militér]] jeung [[SovRoms|kontrol ékonomi]] Uni Soviét nepi ka ahir taun 1950-an. Dina période ieu, sumber daya Romania diserep<ref>{{Cite web|first=Carmen|last=Rîjnoveanu|title=Romania's Policy of Autonomy in the Context of the Sino-Soviet Conflict|year=2003|pages=1|publisher=Czech Republic Military History Institute, Militärgeschichtliches Forscheungamt|url=http://www.servicehistorique.sga.defense.gouv.fr/07autredossiers/groupetravailhistoiremilitaire/pdfs/2003-gthm.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624195137/http://www.servicehistorique.sga.defense.gouv.fr/07autredossiers/groupetravailhistoiremilitaire/pdfs/2003-gthm.pdf |date=2008-06-24 }}</ref> ku pausahaan Soviét-Romania ([[SovRoms]]).<ref>{{Citebook|last=Roper|first=Stephen D.|title=Romania: The Unfinished Revolution|place=London|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|isbn=9058230279|pages=18}}</ref><ref>{{Citebook|last=Cioroianu|first=Adrian|author-link=Adrian Cioroianu|title="On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"|language=Romanian|publisher=Editura Curtea Veche|year =2005|location=Bucharest|pages=68–73|isbn=9736691756}}</ref> [[Image:Nicolae Ceaușescu (1988).jpg|thumb|left|[[Nicolae Ceauşescu]]]] Pamaréntahan komunis ngawangun rézim nu utamana dilaksanakeun liwat [[Securitate]] (pulisi rasiah anyar). Aranjeunna ngalaksanakeun kampanye pikeun maraéhan "musuh nagara", jadina aya rajapati atawa ditangkepna individu-individu ku alesan politik jeung ékonomi.<ref>{{Citebook|last =Caraza|first =Grigore|title =Aiud însângerat|publisher =Editura Vremea XXI|year=2004|volume=Chapter IV|isbn=9736450503|language=Romanian}}</ref> Hukuman ngawengku déportasi, pangasingan internal, gawé paksa, atawa dipanjarakeun. Catetan sajarah nyatet rupa-rupa kasus panyiksaan jeung rajapati, boh ka musuh politik atawa rahayat biasa.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cicerone Ioniţoiu|title=Victimele terorii comuniste. Arestaţi, torturaţi, întemniţaţi, ucişi. Dicţionar|publisher=Editura Maşina de scris|location=Bucharest|year=2000 |isbn= 973-99994-2-5|language=Romanian}}</ref> Dina taun 1965, [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] mimita ngawasa jeung ngalaksanakeun kawijakan indepénden, kawas jadi sahiji-hijina nagara [[Pakta Warsawa]] nu teu satuju kana invasi Soviét ka [[Cékoslowakia]] taun 1968, neruskeun hubungan ka [[Israél]] sanggeus [[Perang Genep Poé]] tahn 1967, sarta muka hubungan diplomatik jeung ékonomi sareng [[Jérman Kulon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/75.htm|publisher=Country Studies.us|title=Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705191547/http://countrystudies.us/romania/75.htm |date=2009-07-05 }}</ref> Romania ogé miboga hubungan nu deukeut kalawan nagara-nagara [[Dunya Arab|Arab]], nyieun Romania maénkeun laku penting dina prosés parapihan [[Israél]]–[[Mesir]] jeung Israél–[[Organisasi Pambébasan Paléstina|Paléstina]].<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/80.htm |publisher=countrystudies.us| title=Middle East policies in Communist Romania|publisher=Country Studies.us|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Ku sabab hutang luar nagri Romania naék drastis antara taun 1977 nepi ka 1981 (ti 3 nepi ka 10 miliar dollar AS),<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deletant|first=Dennis|title=New Evidence on Romania and the Warsaw Pact, 1955-1989|publisher=Cold War International History Project e-Dossier Series|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=16367&group_id=13349|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029113345/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=16367&group_id=13349 |date=2008-10-29 }}</ref> pangaruh organisasi monetér internasional kawas [[IMF]] jeung [[Bank Dunya]] ningkat, nu teu cocog jeung kawijakan [[autarki]] Nicolae Céauşescu. Anjeunna ngusahakeun mayar hutang kalawan netepkeun kawijakan nu miskinkeun rahayat jeung nyieun ékonomi Romania leuleus. Salian ti éta, anjeunna ngaluasan kakawasaan [[Securitate]]. Akibatna, popularitas Céauşescu ngirang, nu ahir kalawan labuhna Céauşescu dina [[Révolusi Romania 1989]]. === Romania kiwari === Sanggeus [[Perang Tiis]] ahir, Romania mekarkeun hubungan nu leuwih deukeut sareng [[Eropa Kulon]]. Romania ngagabung ka [[NATO]] dina taun 2004, jeung jadi tuan bumi [[patepungan Puncak Bukares 2008|patepungan puncak NATO di Bukares taun 2008]].<ref>{{Cite news|title =NATO update: NATO welcomes seven new members|url =http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2004/04-april/e0402a.htm|publisher =NATO|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911134550/http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2004/04-april/e0402a.htm |date=2008-09-11 }}</ref> Romania ogé gabung ka [[Uni Éropa]] dina 1 Januari 2007.<ref>{{Cite news|title=EU approves Bulgaria and Romania|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5380024.stm|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203223404/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5380024.stm |date=2008-12-03 }}</ref> Sabab kahéséan hirup sanggeus déprési ékonomi taun 1990-an, muncul [[diaspora Romania|diaspora]] gedé Romania. Tujuan émigrasi utama nyaéta [[Spanyol]], [[Italia]], [[Austria]], [[Jérman]], [[Britania Raya]], [[Kanada]], jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name=diaspora>{{cite web|url= http://www.focus-migration.de/index.php?id=2515&L=1|title= Romania|accessdate= 2008-08-28|publisher= focus-migration.de}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207131655/http://focus-migration.de/index.php?id=2515&L=1 |date=2009-02-07 }}</ref> == Politik jeung pamaréntahan == [[Konstitusi Romania]] dijieun dumasar kana [[Konstitusi Perancis]]<ref name="Europaworld">{{cite book|encyclopedia=The Europa World Year Book|year=2007|volume=2|edition=48|publisher=Routledge|location=London and New York|title=Romania|pages=3734–3759|isbn=9781857434125}}</ref> jeung ditarima liwat réferéndum nasional dina 8 Désémber 1991.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Hiji panyandakan sora nu diayakeun dina Oktober 2003 narima 79 amandemén konstitusi, nyieunannna cocog jeung législasi Uni Éropa.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Romania téh mangrupa [[républik]] [[démokrasi|démokratis]] multipartéy. Fungsi éksekutif dilaksanakeun ku présidén jeung perdana menteri. [[Présidén Romania]] dipilih liwat pamilihan umum saban lima taun. Présidén nunjuk [[Perdana Menteri Romania|perdana menteri]], nu mingpin pamaréntahan.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Présidén hirup di [[Istana Cotroceni]], samentara Perdana Menteri jeung pamaréntahan Romania kantorna di [[Istana Victoria]]. Cabang [[législatif]] pamaréntahan Romania, nu kawanoh minangka [[Parlemén Romania|Parlemén]] (''Parlamentul României''), diwangun ti dua majelis, ''Senat'' ([[Sénat]]), nu miboga 137 anggota (dina 2005), jeung ''[[Camera Deputaţilor]]'' (majelis handap), nu miboga 332 anggota (dina 2004). Anggota ti dua majelis ieu dipilih saban opat taun. Institusi nu pangluhurna dina sistem hukum Romania nyaéta [[Pangadilan Luhur Kasasi jeung Kaadilan]] (''Înalta Curte de Casaţie şi Justiţie''), nu mangrupa mahkamah ageung Romania.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.scj.ro/monogr_en.asp|publisher=High Court of Cassation and Justice - —Romania|title=Presentation|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Sistem hukum di Romania loba kapangaruh ku hukum di Perancis.<ref name="Europaworld"/><ref>{{citeweb|url=http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps35389/2000//legal_system.html|title=Romanian Legal system|publisher=CIA Factbook|year=2000|accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref> == Hubungan luar nagri == Ti Désémber 1989, Romania terus ngiatan hubungan sareng Kulon, utamana jeung Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Éropa. Romania ngagabung ka ''[[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]'' (NATO) dina 29 Maret 2004, Uni Éropa dina 1 Januari 2007, [[Dana Monetér Internasional]] jeung [[Bank Dunya]] dina taun 1972, jeung ngagabung ogé ka [[World Trade Organization]]. Pamaréntah Romania ayeuna ngusahakan ngiatan hubungan jeung nagara-nagara [[Eropa Wétan]] (utamana [[Moldova]], [[Ukraina]], jeung [[Géorgia]]).<ref name=mae>{{cite web|title=Foreign Policy Priorities of Romania for 2008|language=Romanian|url=http://www.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id=35181&idlnk=1&cat=3|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914103728/http://www.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id=35181&idlnk=1&cat=3 |date=2008-09-14 }}</ref> Romania ogé ngadéklarasikeun dukunganna ka [[Turki]], [[Kroasia]], jeung [[Moldova]] pikeun gabung ka Uni Éropa. Dina Désémber 2005, Présidén, [[Traian Băsescu]], jeung [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat]], [[Condoleezza Rice]], nandatanganan pasatujuan nu ngijinkeun hadirna militér AS di sababaraha fasilitas Romania, utamana di bagian wétan nagara.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35722.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title=Background Note: Romania - U.S.-Romanian Relations}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610072904/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35722.htm |date=2009-06-10 }}</ref> Dina Méi 2009, Sekretaris Nagara AS, [[Hillary Clinton]], nyebutkeun yén "Romania mangrupa salah sahiji batur nu paling dipercaya jeung paling dihormat ku Amérika Sarikat".<ref>http://www.bucharestherald.com/politics/34-politics/3116-hillary-clinton-romania-one-of-the-most-trustworthy-and-respectable-partners-of-the-usa- {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512144240/http://www.bucharestherald.com/politics/34-politics/3116-hillary-clinton-romania-one-of-the-most-trustworthy-and-respectable-partners-of-the-usa- |date=2009-05-12 }}</ref> Hubungan diplomatik antara Romania jeung Moldova jadi istiméwa<ref name=mae/> sabab duanana miboga basa jeung sajarah nu sarua. [[Gerakan pikeun unifikasi Romania jeung Moldova]] muncul dina awal taun 1990-an sanggeus kadua nagara bébas ti kakawasaan komunis,<ref name=cfis>{{cite journal|url=http://studint.ong.ro/moldova.htm|title=Romania'S Relations With The Republic Of Moldova|author=Gabriel Andreescu, Valentin Stan, Renate Weber|journal=International Studies|publisher=Center for International Studies|date=1994-10-30|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223003657/http://studint.ong.ro/moldova.htm |date=2008-02-23 }}</ref> tapi leungit sabab pamaréntah Moldova nu anyar hayang tetep merdika ti Romania.<ref name=Ihrig>{{cite web|url=http://www.desk.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/download/es_5_Ihrig.pdf|format=PDF|title=Rediscovering History, Rediscovering Ultimate Truth|author=Stefan Ihrig|accessdate=2008-09-17}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001165700/http://www.desk.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/download/es_5_Ihrig.pdf |date=2008-10-01 }}</ref> Romania katarik jeung Moldova jeung sacara resmi nolak [[Pakta Molotov-Ribbentrop]], pajangjian nu nyababkeun direbutna sabagian wewengkon Romania ku [[Uni Soviét]]<ref name=cfis/>. Tapi dua nagara ieu teu bisa tepung ka pasatujuan dina pajangjian bilateral.<ref>{{cite news|http://www.romanianewswatch.com/2007/12/moldova-urging-romania-to-sign-basic.html|title=Moldova urging Romania to sign basic political treaty|publisher=Romania News Watch|accessdate=2008-08-28|date=2007-12-16}}</ref> == Militér == Angkatan Pakarang Romania diwangun ti angkatan darat, laut, jeung udara, jeung dipingpin ku [[panglima pangluhurna]]. Présidén Romania mangrupa panglima nu pangluhurna ti angkatan pakarang dina masa perang. Romania miboga 90.000 tentara.<ref>{{cite press release|publisher=Ministry of National Defense of Romania|url=http://www.mapn.ro/briefing/030122/030121conf.htm|title=Press conference|date=2003-01-21|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403205407/http://www.mapn.ro/briefing/030122/030121conf.htm |date=2008-04-03 }}</ref> Romania miboga anggaran patahanan 2.05% ti [[Produk Doméstik Bruto|PDB]], nyaéta kira-kira 2.9 miliar dollar, tapi tentara Romania bakal ngagunakeun kira-kira 11 miliar dollar dina 2006 2011 pikeun modérnisasi jeung akuisisi palengkepan anyar.<ref name="ZF">{{citeweb|url= http://www.zf.ro/articol_99920/bugetul_mapn__2_05__din_pib__in_2007.html |title=MoND Budget as of 2007|publisher=''[[Ziarul Financiar]]''|date=2006-10-30|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Angkatan pakarang Romania geus kalibet dina sababaraha perang, kawas misi [[NATO]] di [[Apganistan]]. == Babagian administratif == [[Image:Romanian license plate codes.png|thumb|right|500px|Babagian administratif di Romania]] Romania dibagi kana 41 ''judeţe'', sarupa [[propinsi]], ditambih munisipalitas [[Bukares]] (Bucureşti). Saban judeţe miboga déwan judeţe (''consiliu judeţean''), nu boga tanggung jawab pamaréntahan daérah. Judeţe dibagi kana kota (tung. ''oraş'', jam. ''oraşe'') jeung komune (tung. ''comună'', jam. ''comune''). Aya 319 kota jeung 2686 komune di Romania.<ref name="total">{{cite report|language=ro|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|format=PDF|chapter=1.8|title=Administrative Organisation of Romanian Territory, on December 31, 2005|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> Saban kota jeung komune miboga walikota (''primar'') jeung déwan daérah (''consiliu local''). Ieu daptar judeţe/propinsi Romania (alfabétis): {| | * [[Propinsi Alba|Alba]] * [[Propinsi Arad|Arad]] * [[Propinsi Argeş|Argeş]] * [[Propinsi Bacău|Bacău]] * [[Propinsi Bihor|Bihor]] * [[Propinsi Bistriţa-Năsăud|Bistriţa-Năsăud]] * [[Propinsi Botoşani|Botoşani]] * [[Propinsi Braşov|Braşov]] * [[Propinsi Brăila|Brăila]] * [[Propinsi Buzău|Buzău]] * [[Propinsi Caraş-Severin|Caraş-Severin]] * [[Propinsi Călăraşi|Călăraşi]] * [[Propinsi Cluj|Cluj]] * [[Propinsi Constanţa|Constanţa]] * [[Propinsi Covasna|Covasna]] * [[Propinsi Dâmboviţa|Dâmboviţa]] * [[Propinsi Dolj|Dolj]] * [[Propinsi Galaţi|Galaţi]] * [[Propinsi Giurgiu|Giurgiu]] * [[Propinsi Gorj|Gorj]] * [[Propinsi Harghita|Harghita]] | * [[Propinsi Hunedoara|Hunedoara]] * [[Propinsi Ialomiţa|Ialomiţa]] * [[Propinsi Iaşi|Iaşi]] * [[Propinsi Ilfov|Ilfov]] * [[Propinsi Maramureş|Maramureş]] * [[Propinsi Mehedinţi|Mehedinţi]] * [[Propinsi Mureş|Mureş]] * [[Propinsi Neamţ|Neamţ]] * [[Propinsi Olt|Olt]] * [[Propinsi Prahova|Prahova]] * [[Propinsi Satu Mare|Satu Mare]] * [[Propinsi Sălaj|Sălaj]] * [[Propinsi Sibiu|Sibiu]] * [[Propinsi Suceava|Suceava]] * [[Propinsi Teleorman|Teleorman]] * [[Propinsi Timiş|Timiş]] * [[Propinsi Tulcea|Tulcea]] * [[Propinsi Vaslui|Vaslui]] * [[Propinsi Vâlcea|Vâlcea]] * [[Propinsi Vrancea|Vrancea]] |} == Géografi == [[Gambar:Physical map of Romania.jpg|thumb|250px|Peta topografi Romania]] Kalawan téritori saluas {{convert|238391|km2|sqmi|}}, Romania mangrupa nagara nu pangluasna di [[Eropa Tenggara]] jeung nu panggedéna ka-12 di Éropa.<ref name="statistical">{{cite web|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|title=Geography, Meteorology and Environment|date=2004|publisher=Romanian Statistical Yearbook|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> Kalobaannana ti wates Romania jeung Serbia sarta [[Bulgaria]] diwangun ti [[Walungan Donau]]. Walungan Donau ngalir ka [[Laut Hideung]] liwat wewengkon Romania, ngawangun [[Délta Donau]], délta nu panggedéna kadua di Éropa, nu jadi [[Situs Warisan Dunya UNESCO]].<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588|title=Danube Delta|publisher=UNESCO's World Heritage Center|accessdate=2008-01-09}}</ref> Walungan penting lian nyaéta [[Walungan Siret|Siret]], [[Walungan Olt|Olt]] jenung [[Walungan Mureş|Mureş]].<ref name="statistical"/> Topografi Romania dibagi antara pagunungan, papasiran, jeung dataran handap. [[Pagunungan Carpathia]] ngadominasi puseur Romania, kalawan 14 puncakna nu nepi ka kaluhuran leuwih ti 2.000 méter.<ref name="statistical"/> Gunung nu pangluhurna di Romania nyaéta [[Puncak Moldoveanu]] ({{convert|2544|m|ft|disp=s|abbr=on}}). Di Romania kidul bagian tengah, pagunungan robah ka papasiran. Divérsitas géografi nyababkeun divérsitas flora jeung fauna di Romania.<ref name="statistical"/> === Ékosistem === [[Image:Retezat-bucura-peleaga.jpg|thumb|250px|Danau glasial di [[Taman Nasional Retezat]]]] 47% wewengkon Romania diwangun ti ékosistem natural jeung semi-natural.<ref name=biodiversity>{{citeweb|url=http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/romania/robiodiv.htm|title=Romania's Biodiversity|publisher=Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection of Romania|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Ku sabab méh saparo leuweung di Romania (13% téritori) geus diatur pikeun konsérvasi [[Daérah Aliran Walungan]] tinimbang produksi, Romania miboga salah sahiji wewengkon leuweung nu panggedéna di Éropa.<ref name=biodiversity/> Aya kira-kira {{convert|10000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} wewengkon nu dilindung di Romania.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.envir.ee/programmid/pharecd/soes/romania/html/biodiversity/ariiprot/protarea.htm|title=Protected Areas in Romania|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> [[Délta Donau|Cagar Biosfer Donau]] mangrupa komplék lahan baseuh nu panggedéna jeung paling saeutik diruksak di Éropa, ngawengku wewengkon saluas {{convert|5800|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.envir.ee/programmid/pharecd/soes/romania/html/biodiversity/ariiprot/delta.htm|title=Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Pentingna biodivérsitas di Délta Donau geus diakuan di dunya, jadina didéklarasikeun minangka [[Situs Warisan Dunya UNESCO]] dina Désémber 1991.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588|title=Danube Delta|publisher=UNESCO's World Heritage Center|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Aya dua cagar biosfer lian di Romania, nyaéta [[Taman Nasional Retezat]] jeung [[Pagunungan Rodna|Taman Nasional Rodna]]. === Flora jeung fauna === [[Image:Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG|250px|left|thumb|[[Pelikan]] di Délta Donau]] Di Romania aya 3.700 spésiés tutuwuhan. 23 geus disebutkeun minangka monumén alam, 74 spésiés hilang, 39 spésiés kaancam, 171 spésiés pikacilakaeun, jeung 1.253 spésiés dianggap langka.<ref name="flora">{{cite web|url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/romania/soe2000/rom/cap5/ff.htm|title=Flora si fauna salbatica|publisher=enrin.grida.no|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223142209/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/romania/soe2000/rom/cap5/ff.htm |date=2009-02-23 }}</ref> Tilu zona végetasi utama di Romania nyaéta zona alpine, zona leuweung, jeung zona stépa. Végetasi nyebar dumasar kana karakteristik taneuh, iklim, jeung kaluhuran. Fauna di Romania diwangun ti 33.792 spésiés, 33.085 spésiés mangrupa [[invértébrata]] jeung 707 spésiés mangrupa [[vértébrata]].<ref name="flora"/> Spésiés vértébrata diwangun ti 191 spésiés lauk, 20 spésiés ampibi, 30 spésiés réptil, 364 spésiés manuk, jeung 102 spésiés mamalia.<ref name="flora"/> Fauna nyebar dumasar kana rupa végétasi di mana maranéhna aya. === Iklim === Romania miboga iklim transisional antara [[iklim sedeng]] jeung [[iklim kontinéntal|kontinéntal]]. Rarata suhu di Romania nyaéta 11&nbsp;°C (52&nbsp;°F) di kidul jeung {{convert|8|°C}} di kalér.<ref name=climate>{{citeweb|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/34.htm|title=Romania: Climate|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Suhu pangpanasna nu pernah dicatet nyaéta {{convert|44.5|°C}} di [[Ion Sion]] 1951 jeung suhu pangtiisna nu pernah dicatet nyaéta -38.5 (−37&nbsp;°F) di [[Bod, Braşov|Bod]] 1942.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.romaniatourism.com/climate.html|title=Romania: climate|publisher=Climate|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Di Romania aya opat usum, nyaéta usum semi, panas, gugur, jeung tiis. Usum panas biasana haneut pisan atawa panas, kalawan rarata suhu dibukares kira-kira {{convert|28|°C}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.wordtravels.com/Travelguide/Countries/Romania/Climate/|title=The monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest|publisher=WorldTravels|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Usum semi boga ciri isuk jeung peuting nu tiis, jeung siang nu haneut. Usum gugur boga ciri garing jeung tiis, upami usum tiis miobga rarata suhu nu pangpanasna teu leuwih ti {{convert|2|°C}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://clic.npolar.no/disc/disc_datasets_metadata.php?s=0&desc=1&table=Datasets&id=DISC_GCMD_GGD30&tag=All&Category=&WCRP=&Location=All&stype=phrase&limit=10&q=|title=Permafrost Monitoring and Prediction in Southern Carpathians, Romania|publisher=CliC International Project Office (CIPO)|date=2004-12-22|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Rarata curah hujan di pagunungan kulon Romania nyaéta {{convert|750|mm|in|abbr=on}} per taun. Di wewengkon kidul bagian tengah (sakurilingeun Bukares), tingkat curah hujan nepi ka {{convert|600|mm|in|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|language=Romanian|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|format=PDF|title=The 2004 Yearbook|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> ari di Délta Donau, curah hujan leutik pisan, kalawan rarata 370&nbsp;mm. == Démografi == [[Image:Romania harta etnica 2011.PNG|350px|thumb|Peta pasebaran étnis di Romania dina taun 2011]] Dumasar kana sénsus taun 2002, Romania miboga populasi 21.698.181 jeung kira-kira bakal ngirang. 89.5% padumuk Romania mangrupa [[bangsa Romania]]. Étnis minoritas nu panggedéna nyaéta [[Hungar]], nu ngawangun 6.6% populasi jeung [[urang Rom|Rom]] nu ngawangun 2.46% populasi. Dumasar kana sénsus resmi, 535.250 urang Rom tinggal di Romania. Hungar, nu mangrupa minoritas di [[Transilvania]], jadi mayoritas di county [[County Harghita|Harghita]] jeung [[County Covasna|Covasna]]. [[Bangsa Ukraina]], [[Bangsa Jérman|Jérman]], [[Lipovan]], [[Bangsa Turki|Turki]], [[Tatar]], [[Bangsa Sérbia|Sérbia]], [[Bangsa Slowakia|Slowakia]], [[Bangsa Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Bangsa Kroasia|Kroasia]], [[Bangsa Yunani|Yunani]], [[Bangsa Rusia|Rusia]], [[Yahudi]], [[Bangsa Céko|Céko]], [[Bangsa Polandia|Polandia]], [[Bangsa Italia|Italia]], [[Bangsa Arménia|Arménia]], jeung sababaraha grup étnis lianna ngawangun 1.4% populasi.<ref name="census">{{cite report|url=http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html|title=Official site of the results of the 2002 Census|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325223653/http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html%23 |date=2008-03-25 }}</ref> Basa resmi Romania nyaéta [[basa Romania]]. Basa Romania mangrupa basa asli pikeun 91% padumuk Romania, jeung [[basa Hongaria]] sareng [[Rom]] minangka basa minoritas nu pangpentingna, dipaké ku 6.7% jeung 1.1% padumuk.<ref name="census" /> Di tempat étnis minoritas ngawangun 20% populasi, basa minoritas éta bisa dipaké dina administrasi jeung hukum. [[Basa Inggris]] jeung [[Basa Perancis|Perancis]] mangrupa basa asing utama nu diajarkeun di sakola-sakola. Basa Inggris digunakeun ku 5 yuta padumuk Romania, Perancis ku 4–5 yuta<sup>[''nu bener?'']</sup> padumuk, jeung Jérman, Italia, jeung Spanyol dipaké ku 1–2 yuta padumuk.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.anis.ro/index.php?page=afaceri&sec=afaceri_avantaje&lang=ro|title=Outsourcing IT în România|language=Romanian|publisher=Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Saméméhna, basa Perancis mangrupa basa asing utama di Romania, tapi basa Inggris geus ngagantina. Basa Jérman diajarkeun di Transilvania lantaran kakawasaan Austria-Hongaria di propinsi ieu sebelumnya. Romania mangrupa [[nagara sékulér]], jadina teu boga agama nasional. Agama nu loba diagem nyaéta [[Garéja Orthodox Romania]] (86.7%). Agama penting lianna nyaéta [[Katolik Roma]] (4.7%), [[Protéstan]] (3.7%), [[Garéja Péntakosta|Péntakosta]] (1.5%), jeung [[Garéja Katolik-Yunani Romania]] (0.9%).<ref name="census" /> [[Islam]] ogé diagem jeung museur di [[Dobrogea]]. Salian ti Islam, agama [[Yahudi]] ogé diagem ku sabagian padumuk Romania. == Atikan == [[Image:Bucharest university.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Universitas Bukares]]]] Ti Révolusi Romania 1989, sistem atikan Romania terus diréformasi.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=UNESCO|url=http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_1.html|title=The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002165335/http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_1.html |date=2008-10-02 }}</ref> Dumasar kana Undang-Undang Atikan nu dipaké dina taun 1995, sistem atikan diatur ku [[Kamentrian Atikan jeung Panalungtikan Romania|Kamentrian Atikan jeung Panalungtikan]]. [[TK]] mangrupa atika opsional pikeun barudak nu yuswana 3 nepi ka 6 taun. Sakola dimimiti dina yuswa 7 taun (kadang-kadang 6), jeung wajib nepi ka kelas 10 (dina yuswa kira-kira 16 atawa 17).<ref>{{cite report|publisher=UNESCO|url=http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_2.html|title=The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001200457/http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_2.html |date=2008-10-01 }}</ref> Dumasar kana [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]], dina taun 2006 euweuh universitas di Romania nu asup ka 500 universitas nu pangalusna di dunya.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2006/ARWU2006FULLLIST-BY%20RANK%20(PDF).pdf|format=pdf|title=Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205043418/http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2006/ARWU2006FULLLIST-BY%20RANK%20(PDF).pdf |date=2012-02-05 }}</ref> Dilaporkeun yén universitas nu pangalusna di Romania, [[Universitas Bukares]] ngan miboga peunteun saparo ti universitas nu miboga tingkat ka-500.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=Asociaţia Ad Astra a cercetătorilor rom âni|author=Răzvan Florian|url=http://www.ad-astra.ro/journal/8/florian_shanghai_romania.pdf|format=pdf|title=Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings|location=Cluj-Napoca, România|pages=7–9|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023140037/http://www.ad-astra.ro/journal/8/florian_shanghai_romania.pdf |date=2006-10-23 }}</ref> == Ékonomi == [[Image:MittalSteelGalati200607.jpg|thumb|250px|Pabrik baja [[ArcelorMittal]] di [[Galaţi]]]] Kalawan [[Produk Doméstik Bruto|PDB]] $264 miliar jeung [[PDB per kapita]] ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) $12.285<ref>{{citeweb|url= http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2013&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=968&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPCPIPCH&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=87&pr1.y=12 |title=IMF World Economic Outlook April 2008 - Central and Eastern Europe|month=April | year=2008|publisher=IMF|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> dina taun 2008, Romania mangrupa nagara kalawan pamasukan nengah ka luhur<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Upper_middle_income|publisher=World Bank|title=Country Classification Groups|year=2005|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> jeung geus jadi bagian ti Uni Éropa ti 1 Januari 2007. Sanggeus rézim komunis labuh dina taun 1989, nagara ieu ngalaman dékade panurunan jeung kateustabilan ékonomi, disababkeun ku labuhna basis industri jeung kirangnya réformasi struktural, tapi ti taun 2000, ékonomi Romania robah kana ékonomi kalawan kastabilan [[ékonomi makro]], jeung ciri kamekaran ékonomi luhur, tingkat pangangguran handap jeung ngirangna [[inflasi]]. Dina taun 2006, Romania nyitak kamekaran ékonomi 7.7%, salah sahiji nu panggedéna di Éropa.<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/pib/pibr06.pdf|format=PDF|title=GDP in 2006|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Kamekaran ékonomi turun ka 6.1% dina taun 2007,<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|title=World Bank: In 2008 Romania will have an economic growth of 5.9%|url=http://www.romanialibera.ro/a115093/banca-mondiala-in-2008-romania-va-avea-o-crestere-economica-de-5-9.html|accessdate=2008-01-13}}</ref> tapi nepi ka 8.9% dina salapan bulan awal taun 2008. Kamekaran ékonomi labuh ka 2.9% dina triwulan ka-4 jeung kamekaran ékonomi Romania dina taun 2008 jadi 7.1%. Hal ieu disababkeun ku ayana [[krisis finansial global 2008-2009|krisis finansial global]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.curierulnational.ro/Economie/2009-03-05/Cresterea+economica+din+2008+a+franat+brusc+in+T+4|title=Creşterea economică din 2008 a frânat brusc în T 4|work=Curierul National|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030004320/http://www.curierulnational.ro/Economie/2009-03-05/Cresterea%20economica%20din%202008%20a%20franat%20brusc%20in%20T%204 |date=2009-10-30 }}</ref> Romania miboga tingkat pangangguran 3.9% dina Séptémber 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/lunar_indicatori/a07/sic09r07.pdf|format=PDF|title=Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007|publisher=National Institute of Statistics of Romania|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827223300/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/lunar_indicatori/a07/sic09r07.pdf |date=2008-08-27 }}</ref> nu lumayan handap lamjun dibandingkeun jeung nagara Éropa lianna, kawas [[Polandia]], Perancis, Jérman, jeung Spanyol. Utang luar nagri Romania ogé lumayan handap, kalawan jumlah 20.3% ti PDB.<ref name="CIA">{{citeweb|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html|title=Romania|publisher=CIA World Factbook|year=2006|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Tingkat ékspor Romania ogé terus ningkat dina sababaraha taun ieu, kalawan komoditas nu diékspor nyaéta tékstil, mesin industri, pakakas éléktronik, produk [[métalurgi]], bahan atah, mobil, pakakas hipu, farmasi, bahan kimia, jeung produk agrikultur (bungbuahan, sayur, jeung kembang). Romania loba ngalaksanakeun dagang sareng nagara-nagara Uni Éropa, kalawan Jérman jeung Italia salaku mitra dagang nu panggedéna, tapi Romania ngalaman défisit dagang nu gedé, nu ningkat 50% dina taun 2007.<ref name=economywatch>{{citeweb|url=http://romaniaeconomywatch.blogspot.com/2007/11/romania-trade-balance-september-2007.html|title=Romania at A Glance - January 2008|publisher=Romania Economy Watch|year=2008|month=January|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Sanggeus privatisasi jeung réformasi dina ahir taun 1990-an jeung awal 2000-an, intervénsi pamaréntah dina ékonomi Romania leuwih handap dibandingkeun nagara-nagara Éropa lianna.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Romania|title=Index of Economic Freedom: Romania|publisher=heritage.org|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Dina taun 2005, pamaréntah ngagentos [[sistem pajak progrésif]] Romania jadi [[sistem pajak tetep]] 16%, jadina Romania miboga tanggung jawab fiskal nu panghandapna di Uni Éropa,<ref>{{cite report|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_06/2-26062007-EN-AP.PDF|format=pdf|title=Taxation trends in the EU|publisher=[[Eurostat]]|date=2007-06-26|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628064604/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_06/2-26062007-EN-AP.PDF |date=2007-06-28 }}</ref> faktor nu ngabantu tumuwuhna séktor swasta. Ékonomi Romania leuwih ngagantung dina jasa (55% ti PDB), sanajan industri (35% ti PDB) jeung agrikultur (15% ti PDB) ogé boga pangaruh. Salian ti étu, 32% padumuk Romania gawé dina séktor agrikultur jeung produksi.<ref name="CIA" /> Ti taun 2000, Romania geus narik perhatosan invéstor ti luar nagri jeung jadi tujuan invéstasi nu panggedéna di Éropa Tengah jeung Tenggara. Dina taun 2006, jumlah total arus asup ''[[foreign direct investment]]'' di Romania nyaéta €8.3 miliar.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.portalino.it/nuke/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=20346 |title=Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> == Transportasi == [[Image:Romania-drumuri.svg|right|thumb|250px|Peta jaringan jalan di Romania]] Ku lantaran lokasina, Romania mangrupa simpangan pikeun patukeran ékonomi internasional di [[Eropa]], tapi lantaran kirangna invéstasi, pangurusan jeung paropéaan infrastruktur transportasi Romania teu minuhan kabutuhan pasar jeung katinggal ti [[Eropa Kulon]].<ref name="drumuri">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnadnr.ro/pagina.php?idg=20|title=Prezentarea generală a reţelei de drumuri|publisher=cnadnr.ro|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211132511/http://www.cnadnr.ro/pagina.php?idg=20 |date=2010-02-11 }}</ref> Tapi, kondisi ieu terus ngabener jeung standar [[jaringan transportasi Trans-Eropa]] terus diudag. Sababaraha proyék geus dimimitian kalawan dana ti [[Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-Accession]] (ISPA) jeung injeuman ti [[International Financial Institutions]] ([[Bank Dunya]], [[IMF]], jsb.). Bank Dunya ngira-ngira yén jaringan rél karéta api nu aya di Romania dina taun 2004 nepi ka 22.298&nbsp;km, nyieunanna jaringan karéta api nu panggedéna ka-4 di Éropa.<ref name="cai ferate">{{citeweb|url=http://www.cfr.ro/jf/romana/0208/retea.htm|title=Reteaua feroviara|language=Romanian|publisher=cfr.to|accessdate=2009-09-06}}</ref> == Budaya == [[Image:Iasi cultural palace.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Istana Budaya (Iaşi)|Istana Budaya]] di [[Iaşi]] diwangun antara taun 1906 jeung 1925.]] Romania miboga budaya nu unik, nu kacipta ti géografi jeung sajarahna. Idéntitas Romania mimiti kawangun ti pangaruh budaya [[Romawi]] jeung [[Dacia]]. Ti abad patengahan, pangaruh budaya muncul ti [[bangsa Slavia]] nu migrasi di deukeut Romania.<ref name=influences>{{cite book|title=Romania: Borderland of Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/romaniaborderlan0000boia|author=Lucian Boia, James Christian Brown|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2001|isbn=9781861891037|pages=[https://archive.org/details/romaniaborderlan0000boia/page/13 13], 36–40}}</ref> Budaya modérn Romania mekar dina pangaruh [[budaya Kulon]], utamana [[budaya Perancis|Perancis]]<ref name=iciculture/> jeung [[budaya Jérman|Jérman]].<ref name=iciculture>{{cite web|url=http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/cultural_aspects.html|title=Cultural aspects|publisher=National Institute for Research & Development in Informatics, Romania|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307182620/http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/cultural_aspects.html |date=2008-03-07 }}</ref> === Seni jeung sastra === Sastra Romania mimiti évolusi sanggeus [[révolusi Wallachia 1848]]. Murid Romania mimiti neuleuman di Perancis, Italia, jeung Jérman. Filsafat Jérman jeung budaya Perancis kaintegrasi kana sastra Romania modérn jeung muncul inohong kawas [[Mihai Eminescu]], [[George Coşbuc]], jeung [[Ioan Slavici]]. Sanajan aranjeunna kirang kasohor di luar Romania, aranjeunna diapresiasikeun pisan di Romania sahah nyieun sastra Romania. Di antara aranjeunna, Eminescu dianggap salaku panyair Romania nu pangpentingna, jeung karyana masih dipikaresep, utamana puisi ''[[Luceafărul]]''.<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|url=http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/l_eminescu.html|title=Mihai Eminescu|publisher=National Institute for Research & Development in Informatics, Romania|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Panulis lian nu méré kontribusi dina abad ka-19 nyaéta [[Mihail Kogălniceanu]], [[Vasile Alecsandri]], [[Nicolae Bălcescu]], [[Ion Luca Caragiale]], jeung [[Ion Creangă]]. Awal abad ka-20 dianggap minangka jaman kajayaan budaya Romania.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/romanian/articles/TheRomanianCulturalDebateOfTheSummer.html|title=Romanian Cultural Debate of the Summer: Romanian Intellectuals and Their Status Groups|publisher=Romanian Club @ Columbia University|author=Mona Momescu|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624212717/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/romanian/articles/TheRomanianCulturalDebateOfTheSummer.html |date=2016-06-24 }}</ref> Inohong penting nu geus mangaruhan budaya dunya nyaéta [[Constantin Brâncuşi]], figur utama gerakan modérn, panaratas abstraksi jeung panganyar skulptur dunya.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.brancusi.com/bio.html|title=Constantin Brâncuşi's bio|publisher=Brancusi.com|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Salah sahiji karyana, "''[[Bird in Space]]''" , kajual $27.5 yuta dina taun 2005.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://antiquesandthearts.com/AW-2005-05-10-12-15-39p1.htm|title=Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000|publisher=Antiques and the Arts Online|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref><ref>{{citeweb|url=http://crib.mae.ro/index.php?lang=en&id=31&s=15441&arhiva=true|publisher=Romanian Information Center in Brussels|title=November 9, The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when “Bird in Space” was sold for USD 27.5 M|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Dina période antar perang dunya, inohong kawas [[Tudor Arghezi]], [[Lucian Blaga]], [[Eugen Lovinescu]], [[Ion Barbu]], [[Liviu Rebreanu]] ngusahakeun nyinkronisasikeun sastra Romania jeung sastra Éropa. [[George Enescu]], panembang Romania nu kasohor, ogé asalna ti période ini.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.enescusociety.org/georgeenescu.php|title=George Enescu, the composer|publisher=International Enescu Society|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Sanggeus perang dunya réngsé, komunisme mawa panyénsoran gedé. Kabébasan nepikeun pamikiran dilarang, tapi inohong kawas [[Gellu Naum]], [[Nichita Stănescu]], jeung [[Marin Sorescu]] hasil lolos ti panyénsoran, jeung mangrupa pamingpin "Renaissance" leutik pikeun sastra Romania.<ref>{{citebook|last=Ştefănescu|first=Alex.|title=Nichita Stănescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands|language=Romanian|publisher=Maşina de scris|year=1999|pages=8|isbn=9789739929745}}</ref> samentara teu loba karya nu hasil lolos ka dunya internasional lantaran panyénsoran, karya figur kawas [[Constantin Noica]], [[Paul Goma]], jeung [[Mircea Cărtărescu]] dipublikasikeun di luar nagri sanajan aranjeunna dipanjarakeun lantaran rupa-rupa alesan politik. Sababaraha senima milih ninggalkeun nagara jeung nyumbang karyana dina pangasingan, kawas [[Eugen Ionescu]], [[Mircea Eliade]], jeung [[Emil Cioran]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar nagara]] == Catetan suku == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{sisterlinks}} * {{en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20061004115558/http://www.gov.ro/engleza/ Loka resmi pamaréntah Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.presidency.ro/?lang=en Présidén Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.senat.ro/ Sénat Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?id=103&idl=2 Camera Deputaţilor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207033814/http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?id=103&idl=2 |date=2006-12-07 }} (majelis handap di parlemén) * {{en}} [http://www.mtromania.ro/page.html?lg=eng Kamentrian Pariwisata] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305192745/http://www.mtromania.ro/page.html?lg=eng |date=2005-03-05 }} * {{ro}} [http://www.mae.ro/index.php?lang=en Kamentrian Luar Nagri] {{nagara-geo-stub}} {{Artikel Geulis}} {{Éropa}}<br/> {{Laut Hideung}}<br/> {{Uni Éropa}}<br/> {{Déwan Éropa}}<br/> {{NATO}}<br/> {{OSCE}}<br/> {{WTO}}<br/> {{Uni Latin}}<br/> {{La Francophonie}} [[Kategori:Romania| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Éropa Wétan]] lzz09xtkuzsym6q3v5rokownem864ar 0 34322 711806 710949 2026-08-07T04:44:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711806 wikitext text/x-wiki {{geulis}} [[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Poserende Minangkabause mannen TMnr 10005045.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Raksukan has séké Minangkabau di taun [[1900-an]]]]'''Minangkabau''' atawa nu sok disingget '''Minang''' ([[Jawi]]: ميناڠكاباو) nyaéta kelompok etnik [[Nusantara]] nu basana Minang jeung ngajungjung ageman Minangkabau. Wewengkon ageman kabudayaanna ngawengku [[Sumatera Barat]], sabeulah ti [[Riau]], bagéan kalér Bengkulu, bagéan kulon [[Jambi]], bagéan kidul [[Sumatera Utara]], barat daya [[Aceh]], ogé Negeri Sembilan di [[Malaysia]].<ref>Josselin de Jong, P.E. de, (1960), ''Minangkabau and Negeri Sembilan: Socio-Political Structure in Indonesia'', Jakarta: Bhartara</ref> Dina paguneman masarakat, urang Minang sok disebut '''orang Padang''', nempo ka ngaran [[puseur dayeuh]] Sumatera Barat nyaéta dayeuh Padang. Namung masarakat ieu biasana bakal nyebut kelompokna ku sebutan [[:min:Urang Minang|'''urang awak''']] (maksudna sarua jeung urang Minang éta sorangan).<ref>Kingsbury, D., Aveling, H., (2003), ''Autonomy and disintegration in Indonesia'', Routledge, ISBN 0-415-29737-0</ref> Nurutkeun A.A. Navis, Minangkabau leuwih ka kultur etnis ti salah sahiji rungkun Malayu nu mekar jeung badag sabab sistim monarki,<ref name="Navis-A">Navis, A.A., (1984), ''Alam Terkembang Jadi Guru: Adat dan Kebudayaan Minangkabau'', Jakarta: PT. Grafiti Pers.</ref> sarta ngagem sistim adat anu khas, anu dicirikeun ku sistim kakulawargaan ngaliwatan jalur awéwé atawa matrilinéal,<ref name="Datuk">Batuah, A. Dt. & Madjoindo, A. Dt., (1959), ''Tambo Minangkabau dan Adatnya'', Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.</ref> sanajan budayana ogé kacida kuat diwarnaan ku ageman agama Islam, sedengkeun [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]], sanggeus ngalakukeun ekspedisi ka alas Minangkabau perenahna kalungguhan Karajaan Pagaruyung, nyebatkeun yén Minangkabau nyaéta sumber kakuatan jeung asak séké sélér Malayu, anu salajengna masarakatna sumebar ka Kapuloan Timur.<ref name="MalayIdentity2001">{{cite journal|last=Reid|first=Anthony| journal=[[Journal of Southeast Asian Studies]]|title=Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities| volume=32|issue=3|year=2001|pages=295–313|url=|doi=10.1017/S0022463401000157}}</ref> Kiwari masarakat Minang mangrupa masarakat anu ngagem matrilinéal pangbadagna saalam buana.<ref>Evers, Hans-Dieter, Korff, Rüdiger, (2000), ''Southeast Asian Urbanism'', LIT Verlag Münster, Ed.2nd , hlm.188, ISBN 3-8258-4021-2</ref><ref>Ong, Aihwa, Peletz, Michael G., (1995), ''Bewitching women, pious men: gender and body politics in Southeast Asia'', University of California Press, hlm. 51, ISBN 0-520-08861-1</ref> Iwal ti éta, etnik ieu ogé geus nerapkeun sistem proto-demokrasi ti mangsa pra-Hindu kalawan ayana kabeungkeut rapetna adat keur nangtukeun hal-hal penting jeung pasualan hukum. Prinsip adat Minangkabau kaserat singkat dina kekecapan ''Adat basandi syara', syara' basandi Kitabullah'' (Adat sendina hukum, hukum sendina Al-Qur’an) anu artina adatpanutanna ajaran Islam.<ref>Jones, Gavin W., Chee, Heng Leng, and Mohamad, Maznah, (2009), ''Muslim-Non-Muslim Marriage: Political and Cultural Contestations in Southeast Asia'', Chaptep 6:'' Not Muslim, Not Minangkabau, Interreligious Marriage and its Culture Impact in Minangkabau Society by Mina Elvira'', Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, ISBN 978-981-230-874-0</ref> Urang Minangkabau kacida punjulna dina paniagaan, salaku profesional jeung intelektual. Aranjeunna mangrupa nu turunan agung ti tradisi buhun Karajaan Malayu jeung [[Karajaan Sriwijaya]] anu resep dagang jeung dinamis.<ref name="GRAVES_p1">{{cite book | last =Graves | first =Elizabeth E. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Minangkabau Response to Dutch Colonial Rule Nineteenth Century | publisher =Cornell Modern Indonesia Project #60 | date =1981 | location =Itacha, NY | url = | doi = | isbn = | page =1}}</ref> Hampir satengah jumlah sadaya anggota masarakat ieu aya di parantauan. Lolobana aya di dayeuh badag saperti [[Jakarta]], [[Bandung]], [[Pekanbaru]], [[Medan]], [[Batam]], [[Palembang]], dan [[Surabaya]]. Di luar wilayah Indonésia, etnis Minang looba aya di Negeri Sembilan, [[Malaysia]] jeung [[Singapura]]. Masarakat Minang ngabogaan masakan has anu populer ku sebutan [[masakan Padang]], jeung dipikaresep di [[Indonesia]] ogé nepi ka mancanegara.<ref>Ramli, Andriati, (2008), ''Masakan Padang: Populer & Lezat'', Niaga Swadaya, ISBN 978-979-1477-09-3.</ref> == Etimologi == [[Gambar:Sumatra Ethnic Groups Map en.svg|thumb|left|209px|Peta anu nunjukkeun wewengkon sumebarna kelompok etnis Minangkabau di pulo Sumatera.]] Ngaran Minangkabau asalna ti kecap, ''minang'' jeung ''kabau''. Ngaran ieu dipakaitkeun jeung hiji sasakala has Minang anu dipikawanoh di jero Tambo. Ti tambo éta, ceunah dina hiji mangsa aya hiji karajaan asing (biasa disebut salaku Majapahit) anu datang ti laut anu barik naklukeun. Keur nyegah perang, masarakat ngusulkeun keur ngadu munding. Pasukan asing nyapukan jeung nyadiakeun hiji munding anu badag jeung agresif, sedengkeun masarakat nyadiakeun hiji énéng anu lapar jeung dibéré péso ditandukna. Dina perang, énéng anu lapar éta nyangka munding badang éta indungna. Ku kituna énéng éta lulumpatan néangan susu jeung tandukna nepi ka motong beuteung munding nu badag éa. Punjulna énéng éta ngainspirasikeun masarakat keur maké ngaran ''Minangkabau'',<ref>Djamaris, Edwar, (1991), ''Tambo Minangkabau'', Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.</ref> anu asalna ti ungkara 'Manang kabau' (artina menang kerbau). Ngaran ''Minangkabau'' ogé digunakeun keur nyebutkeun hiji nagari, nya éa Nagari Minangkabau anu ayana di kecamatan Sungayang, kabupaten Tanah Datar, provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]]. Dina catetan sajarah Karajaan Majapahit, ''Nagarakretagama''<ref>Brandes, J.L.A., (1902), ''Nāgarakrětāgama; Lofdicht van Prapanjtja op koning Radjasanagara, Hajam Wuruk, van Madjapahit, naar het eenige daarvan bekende handschrift, aangetroffen in de puri te Tjakranagara op Lombok''.</ref> taun 1365 M, ogé geus aya nyebutkeun ngaran '''Minangkabwa''' salaku salah sahiji ti negeri Malayu anu ditaklukeunna. Sedengkan ngaran "Minang" (karajaan Minanga) éta sorangan geus disebutkeun di [[Prasasti Kedukan Bukit]] taun [[682]] Masehi jeung basana Sansekerta. Dina [[prasasti]] éta nyebutkeun yén pangadeg [[Karajaan Sriwijaya]] anu ngaranna ''Dapunta Hyang'' angkat ti "Minānga" ....<ref>Cœdés, George, (1930), ''Les inscriptions malaises de Çrivijaya'',BEFEO</ref> Sababaraha ahli anu ngarujuk ti sumber prasasti éta ngaduga, kecap barik ka-4 (...minānga) jeung ka-5 (tāmvan....) sabenerna kagabung, nrpi ka jadi '''mināngatāmvan''' jeung ditransliterasi kalawan ma’na ''walungan kembar''. Walungan kembar maksadna dipercaya nunjuk ka papanggihna dua aliran Walungan Kamparm nyaéta ''Kampar Kénca'' jeung ''Kampar Katuhu''.<ref>Purbatjaraka, R.M. Ngabehi, (1952), ''Riwajat Indonesia'', I, Djakarta: Jajasan Pembangunan.</ref> Namung pamadegan ieu ditolak ku Casparis, anu ngabuktikeun yén "tāmvan" teu aya patalina jeung "panggih", sabab kecap ''panggih'' jeung ''muara'' ogé kapanggih di prasasti-prasasti titinggal zaman [[Karajaan Sriwijaya]] nu séjénna.<ref>Casparis, J.G. de, (1956), ''Prasasti Indonesia II'', Dinas Purbakala Republik Indonesia, Bandung: Masa Baru.</ref> Ku kituna kecap ''Minanga'' ngadeg sorangan jeung identik jeung sebutan ''Minang'' éta sorangan. [[Gambar:Flag of Minang.svg|thumb|Bendera atawa ''merawa'' anu dipaké ku sélér-sélér Minangkabau]] == Asal-usul == Ti tambo anu geus ditarima sacara tungturunan, nyaritakeun yén karuhun maranéhna asalna ti Iskandar Zulkarnain. Najan tambo éta teu kasusun sacara sistematis jeung leuwih ka sasakala babanding fakta sarta leuwih ngarujuk ka hiji karya sastra anu geus boga masarakat awam.<ref name="Navis-A"/> Masarakat Minang mangrupa bagéan ti masarakat ''Deutro Melayu'' (Melayu Ngora) anu ngalakukeun migrasi ti daratan China Selatan ka pulo [[Sumatera]] di 2.500-2.000 taun baheula. Disawang kelompok masarakat ieu asup ti arah wétan pulo Sumatera, nyusur aliran Kampar nepi ka dataran luhur anu disebut ''darek'' jeung jadi kampung urang Minangkabau.<ref>Graves (1981), p. 4.</ref> Sababaraha wewengkon ''darek'' ieu salajengna ngawentuk samacem konfederasi anu dipikawanoh ku ngaran ''luhak'', anu disebut ogé ku ngaran ''Luhak nan Tigo'', anu kasusun ti ''Luhak Limo Puluah'', ''Luhak Agam'', jeung ''Luhak Tanah Datar''.<ref name="Datuk"/> Dina mangsa pamarétahan Hindia-Walanda, wewengkon ''luhak'' ieu jadi wewengkon reitorial pamaréntahan anu disebut ''afdeling'', dipupuhuan ku salah saurang ''residen'' jeung ku masarakat Minangkabau disebut ku ngaran ''Tuan Luhak''.<ref name="Navis-A"/> Saluyu jeung kamekaran jeung tumuwuhna masarakat, masarakat Minangkabau sumebar ka kawasan darek nu lian sarta ngawangun sababaraha kawasan anu tangtu jadi kawasan ''rantau''. Konsep rantau keur urang Minang mangrupa hiji kawasan anu jadi panto asup ka alam Minangkabau. Rantau ogé boga fungsi salaku tempat néangan kahirupan, kawasan padagangan. Rantau di Minangkabau dipikawanoh ku ''Rantau nan duo'' kabagi ku ''Rantau di Hilia'' (kawasan basisir wétan) jeung ''Rantau di Mudiak'' (kawasan basisir kulon). == Agama == Masarakat Minang kiwari pangagem agama Islam, lamun aya masarakatna kaluar ti agama islam (''murtad''), sacara langsung anu aya patalina dianggap kaluar ti masarakat Minang, dina istilahna disebut "dibuang sapanjang adat". Agama Islam disawang asup ngaliwatan kawasan basisir wétan, sanajan aya anggapan ti basisir kulon, utamana di kawasan Pariaman, namung kawasan ''Arcat'' (Aru dan Rokan) sarta Inderagiri anu aya di basisir wétan ogé geus jadi kawasan palabuan Minangkabau, jeung walungan Kampar, sarta Batang Kuantan nu huluna di kawasan alas Minangkabau. Sarta hal ieu ogé dipatalikeun jeung sesebutan ''Urang Siak'' ngarujuk ka jalma-jalma anu ahli jeung tekun dina agama Islam, masih tetep dipaké di dataran luhur Minangkabau. Sateuacan [[Islam]] ditarima sacara luas, masarakat ieu ti sababaraha bukti arkéologis nunjukkeun kungsi ngagem agama Buddha utamana di mangsa [[Karajaan Sriwijaya]], Dharmasraya, nepi ka mangsa pamaréntahan Adityawarman jeung anakna Ananggawarman. Salajengna parobahan struktur karajaan jeung munculna Karajaan Pagaruyung anu geus ngadopsi [[Islam]] dini sistim pamaréntahanna, najan nepi abad ke-16, ''Suma Oriental'' masih nyebutkeun ti 3 raja Minangkabau ngan hiji nu geus ngagem [[Islam]]. == Adat jeung Budaya == [[Gambar:Randai1.ogv|thumb|Hiji pintonan Randai]] Adat jeung budaya Minangkabau ngaguratkeun ka indung (matrilinéal), pihak awéwé boga hak salaku pawaris harta pusaka jeung duduluran. Nurutkeun tambo, sistim adat Minangkabau nu mimiti diwanohkeun ku dua urang duduluran, Datuk Perpatih Nan Sebatang jeung Datuk Ketumanggungan. Datuk Perpatih ngawariskeun sistim adat Bodi Caniago anu demokratis, sedengkeun Datuk Ketumanggungan ngawariskeun sistim adat Koto Piliang anu aristokratis. Dina lalampahanna, dua sistim ieu dipikawanoh ku ''kelarasan'' ieu anu silih eusi jeung ngawangun sistim masarakat Minangkabau. Dina masarakat Minangkabau, aya tilu pancang anu ngawangun jeung ngajaga kautuhan budaya sarta adat istiadat. Maranéhna nyaéta alim ulama, cerdik pandai, jeung ninik mamak, anu dipikawanoh ku ''Tali nan Tigo Sapilin''. Tilu-tiluna silih lengkepan dina posisi nu sarua luhurna. Dina masarakat Minangkabau anu demokratis jeung egaliter, sakabéh urusan masarakat dimusyawarahkeun ku katilu unsur éta sacara mufakat.<ref name="W">{{cite book | last =Westenenk | first =L. C. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =De Minangkabausche Nagari | publisher =Visser | year =1918 | location =Weltevreden | url = | doi = | isbn = | page =59}}</ref> === Basa === Basa Minangkabau mangrupa salah sahiji cabang basa Austronesia. Sanajan aya beda pamadegan ngeunaan patalina [[basa Minangkabau]] jeung basa Melayu, aya anu nganggap basa anu dituturkeun masarakat ieu salaku bagéan ti dialék Melayu, sabab lobana sasaruaan wanda kecap jeung wangun tuturan ti jerona, iwal ti éta justru nganggap basa ieu mangrupa basa mandiri anu beda jeung Melayu sarta aya ogé anu nyebutkeun basa Minangkabau mangrupa basa proto-Melayu.<ref>Simanjuntak, Mengantar, (1982), ''Aspek bahasa dan pengajaran'', Sarjana Enterprise.</ref><ref>Garry, J., Carl R., Rubino, G., (2001), ''Facts about the world's languages: an encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present'', H.W. Wilson, ISBN 0-8242-0970-2.</ref> Lian ti éta di masarakat panutur basa Minang éta sorangan ogé geus aya sababaraha ragem dialék gumantung ka wewengkonna sewang-sewangan.<ref>Medan, Tamsin, (1985), ''Bahasa Minangkabau dialek Kubuang Tigo Baleh'', Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.</ref><ref>Nadra, (2006), ''Rekonstruksi bahasa Minangkabau'', Andalas University Press, ISBN 979-3364-55-6.</ref> === Kasenian === Masarakat Minangkabau ngabogaan sababaraha ragem atraksi jeung kasenian, saperti tari-tarian anu biasa ditampilkeun dina pesta adat atawa nikahkeun. Di antara tari-tarian éta misalna ''Tari Pasambahan'' mangrupa tarian anu dipintonkeun boga maksud salaku ucapan pangbagéa wilujeng sumping atawa rasa hormat ka tamu istiméwa anu karek nepi, salajengna ''Tari Piring'' mangrupa wanda tarian kalawan gerak gancang ti pangibingna baru mawa piring di dampal leungeunna sewang-sewangan, anu dipirig ku lagu nu dipaénkeun ku ''talempong'' jeugn ''saluang''. ''Silek'' atawa Silat Minangkabau mangrupa hiji senu bela diri tradisional has Minangkabau ieu anu geus mekar ti bahaeula. Iwal ti éa, aya ogé tarian anu campur jeung ''silek'' anu disebut ku ''randai''. Randai biasa pirig ku kakawihan atawa disebut ogé ku ''sijobang'',<ref>Phillips, Nigel, (1981), ''Sijobang: sung narrative poetry of West Sumatra'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-23737-6.</ref> dina randai ieu aya seni drama dumasar skenario.<ref>Pauka K., (1998), ''Theater and martial arts in West Sumatra: Randai and silek of the Minangkabau'', Ohio University Press, ISBN 978-0-89680-205-6.</ref> Di sagigireun étam Minangkabau ogé punjul dina seni kekecapan. Aya tilu genre seni kekecapan, nyaéta ''pasambahan'', indang, jeung salawat dulang. Seni kekecapan atawa silat lidah, leuwih munjulkeun kekecapan sindiran, kiasan, ibarat, alegori, metafora, jeung aphorisme. Dina seni kekecapan saurang diajarkeun pikeun mertahankeun kahormatan jeung harga diri tampa ngagunakeun sanjata jeung kontak fisik.<ref>Suryadi (2010), ''Masa Depan Seni Bersilat Lidah Minangkabau'', Padang Ekspres.</ref> [[Gambar:Rumah Gadang.jpg|right|thumb|Rumah Gadang]] === Rumah adat === [[Gambar:Minangkabau wedding 2.jpg|thumb|Pakéan adat anu dipaké ku pangantén di Minangkabau]] [[Gambar:Girls in traditional minang bride costumes in a carnival.jpg|thumb|150px|Pakéan awéwé Minang dina pesta adat atawa nikahan.]] Rumah adat Minangkabau disebut ''Rumah Gadang'', anu biasana diwangun di luhur taneuh kulawarga induk dina adat sacara tuturunan.<ref>Graves, Elizabeth E., (2007), ''Asal-usul elite Minangkabau modern: respons terhadap kolonial Belanda abad XIX/XX'', Jakarta:Yayasan Obor Indonesia, ISBN 978-979-461-661-1.</ref> Imah Gadang ieu dijieun ngawangun opat pasagi panjang jeung dibagi ku dua bagéan hareup jeung tukang.<ref>Azinar Sayuti, Rifai Abu, (1985), ''Sistem ekonomi tradisional sebagai perwujudan tanggapan aktif manusia terhadap lingkungan daerah Sumatera Barat'', hlm. 202, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Kebudayaan Daerah.</ref> Umumna bahan kayu, jeung saliwat katingal saperti wangun imah panggung kalawan hateup anu has, nonjol saperti tanduk munding anu biasa disebut ''gonjong''<ref>Navis, A.A., ''Cerita Rakyat dari Sumatera Barat 3'', Grasindo, ISBN 979-759-551-X.</ref> jeung baheulana hateup ieu bahanna ijuk sateuacan diganti ku hateup seng. Namung ngan awéwé jeung salakina, sarta anak-anakna anu cicing di imah gadang. Sedengkeun lalaki kaum anu geus ngabogaan istri cicing di imah istrina. Lamun lalaki anggota kaum nu teu acan nikah, biasana saré di surau. Surau biasana diadegkeun teu jauh ti komplek imah gadang éta, iwal ti fungdina salaku tempat ibadah, ogé fungsina salaku tempat cicing lalaki nu geus dewasa mung teu acan nikah. Salian éta dina budaya Minangkabau, teu sakabéh kawasan diijinan ngadegkeun ''Rumah Gadang'', ngan dina kawasan anu geus statusna nagari hungkul, imah adat diijinan diadegkeun. === Nikahan === Di adat budaya Minangkabau, nikahan mangrupa salah sahiji kajadian penting dina siklus kahirupan, jeung mangrupa mangsa alihan anu kacida aya artina dina ngawangun kelompok leutik kulawarga anyar ngalanjut tungturunan. Keur lalaki Minang, nikahan ogé jadi proses keur asup ka lingkungan anyar, nyaéta kulawarga istrina. Sedengkeun keur pihak awéwé, jadi salah sahiji proses dina nambahan anggota di komunitas rumah gadang aranjeunna. Dina prosesi nikahan adat Minangkabau, biasa disebut ''baralek'', boga sababaraha tahapan anu umum dilakukeun. Dikawitan ku ''maminang'' (ngalamar), ''manjapuik marapulai'' (ngajemput calon salaki), nepi ka ''basandiang'' (resepsi). Sanggeus ''maminang'' jeung muncul kasapukan ''manantuan hari'' (nangtukeun poé nikahan), ku kituna salajengna dilanjutkeun ku nikahan sacara Islam anu biasana dilakukeun di Masigit, sateuacan dua calon resepsi. Di nagari nu tangtu sateuacan ''ijab kabul'' di hareupeun panghulu atawa ''tuan kadi'', salon salaki bakal dibéré gelar anyar salaku sebutan gaganti ngaran leutikna.<ref>{{cite book | last =Idris | first =Soewardi | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Sekitar Adat Minangkabau | publisher =Kulik-Kulik Alang, Himpunan Eks-Siswa SMP Negeri Solok Masa Revolusi, 1946-1949, | year =2004 | location =Jakarta | url = | doi = | isbn = | page = }}</ref> Salajengna masarakat bakal nyebutna kalawan gelar anyar. Gelar sebutan éta biasana dimimitian ku ''sutan'', ''bagindo'' atawa ''sidi'' di kawasan basisir. Sedengkeun di kawasan ''luhak limo puluah'', méré gelar ieu teu lumaku. == Sosial kamasarakatan == === Séké Sélér === Bangsa dina tatanan masarakat Minangkabau mangrupa basis ti organisasi sosial sakaligus tempat perang kakawasaan anu fundamental. Wangenan mimiti ''suku'' dina Basa Minang bisa boga maksud ''satu per-empat'', nepi ka lamun dipatalikeun jeung nangtungkeun hiji nagari di Minangkabau, bisa disebutkeun sampurna lamun geus kawengku ku komposisi opat suku anu nyicingan tempat éta. Salajengna, unggal suku dina tradisi Minang, diéntép ti gurat pancakaki anu sarua ti indung jeung disawang ti hiji tungturunan karuhun anu sarua.<ref name="Datuk" /> Salain salaku basis pulitik, sélér ogé mangrupa basis ti unit-unit ekonomi. Kabeungharan ditangtukeun ku kapamilikan taneuh kulawarga. Harta, jeung sumber-sumber hasil séjénna anu sakabéhna dipikawanoh salaku harta pusaka. Harta pusaka mangrupa milik babarengan ti sakabéh anggota kaum-kulawarga. Harta pusaka teu bisa dijualbeuli jeung teu jadi milik pribadi. Harta pusaka samacem dana jaminan babarengan keur ngajaga anggota kaum-kulawarga ti kamalaratan. Lamun aya anggota kulawarga anu ngalaman kasusaha atawa meunang bala, ku kituna harta pusaka bisa digadékeun. Sélér kabagi ka sababaraha cabang kulawarga anu leuwih leutik atawa disebut ''payuang'' (payung). Aya ogé unit anu pangleutikna sanggeus ''sapayuang'' disebut ''saparuik''. salah sahiji ''paruik'' (beuteung) biasana cicing di hiji rumah gadang sacara babarengan.<ref name="de Jong_p10">{{cite book | last =de Jong | first =P.E de Josselin | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Minangkabau and Negeri Sembilan: Socio-Political structure in Indonesia | publisher =Bhartara | date =1960 | location =Djakarta | url = | doi = | isbn = | page =10}}</ref> === Nagari === Daerah Minangkabau kasusun ti sababaraha nagari. Nagari ieu mangrupa daerah otonomi kalawan kakawasaan luhur di Minangkabau. Teu aya kakawasaan sosial jeung pulitik séjénna nu bisa turut campur adat di hiji nagari. Nagari anu béda bakal ngabogaan sipat adat anu béda. Unggal nagari dipingpin ku salah sahiji dewan anu kawengku ti pupuhu adat ti sakabéh sélér anu aya di nagari éta. Dewan ieu disebut salaku Kerapatan Adat Nagari (KAN). Jeung hasil musyawarah jeung mufakat dina dewan ieu hiji kaputusan jeung aturan anu ngabeungkeut keur nagari anu dihasilkeun. Faktor utama anu nangtukeun dinamika masarakat Minangkabau nyaéta ayana kompetisi anu konstan antar nagari, kaum kulawarga, jeung individu keur meunangkeun status jeung prestise.<ref>Graves (1981), p. 11.</ref> Ku kituna unggal sirah kaum bakal lomba keur ngaronjatkeun prestise kaum-kulawargana jeung néangan kabeungharan (dagang) sarta nyakolakeun anggota kaum ka tingkat anu pangluhurna. Dina ngawangun hiji nagari ti baheulana geus dipikawanoh ku istilah wejangan anu aya di masarakat adat Minang éta sorangan nyaéta ''Dari Taratak manjadi Dusun, dari Dusun manjadi Koto, dari Koto manjadi Nagari, Nagari ba Panghulu''. Jadi dina sistim administrasi pamaréntahan di Minang dimimitian ti struktur pangrendahna disebutkeun ku ''Taratak'', salajengna mekar jadi ''Dusun'', salajengna mekar jadi ''Koto'' jeung salajengna mekar jadi ''Nagari''. Biasana unggal nagari diwangun minimal geus kawengku ku 4 sélér anu ngadomisili kawasan éta.<ref name="Datuk" /> sirah kaum bakal lomba keur ngaronjatkeun prestise kaum-kulawargana jeung néangan kabeungharan (dagang) sarta nyakolakeun anggota kaum ka tingkat anu pangluhurna. Dina ngawangun hiji nagari ti baheulana geus dipikawanoh ku istilah wejangan anu aya di masarakat adat Minang éta sorangan nyaéta ''Dari Taratak manjadi Dusun, dari Dusun manjadi Koto, dari Koto manjadi Nagari, Nagari ba Panghulu''. Jadi dina sistim administrasi pamaréntahan di Minang dimimitian ti struktur pangrendahna disebutkeun ku ''Taratak'', salajengna mekar jadi ''Dusun'', salajengna mekar jadi ''Koto'' jeung salajengna mekar jadi ''Nagari''. Biasana unggal nagari diwangun minimal geus kawengku ku 4 sélér anu ngadomisili kawasan éta.<ref name="Datuk" /> === Panghulu === Panghulu atawa biasa anu dibéré gelar kalawan datuk, mangrupa pupuhu kaum kulawarga anu diangkat ku anggota kulawarga keur sakabéh problem kaum. Panghulu biasana lalaki anu kapilih di antara anggota kaum lalaki séjénna. Unggal kaum-kulawarga bakal milih lalaki anu mahér dina nyarita, wijaksana, jeung paham ka adat, keur ngadiukan kalungguhan posisi ieu. Hal ieu dilantarankeun anjeunna boga tanggung jawab ngurus sakabéh wakil kaum dina masarakat nagari. Unggal panghulu ngadeg sajajar jeung panghulu nu séjénna, nepi ka dina rapat nagari sakabéh panghulu anu diwakilan unggal kaum boga niléy sarua. Saluyu jeung nambahna anggota kaum, sarta masalah jeung konflik intern anu muncul, ku kitu sakapeung dina hiji kulawarga posisi kapanghuluan ieu dipecah jadi dua. Atawa sabalikna, anggota kaum anu makin saeutik jumlahna, sok bakal ngagabungkeun gelar kapanghuluan ka kulawarga séjénna anu sabangsa.<ref>{{cite book | last =Stibbe | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Het Soekoebestuur in de Padangsche Bovenlanden | publisher = | date =1869 | location = | url = | doi = | isbn = | page =33}}</ref> Hal ieu ngakibatkeun robahna jumlah panghulu dina hiji nagari. Ngabogaan panghulu anu ngawakilan sora kaum dina rapat nagari, mangrupa hiji prestise jeung harga diri. Nepi unggal kaum bakal usaha sakuatna keur panghuluna sorangan. Kaum-kulawarga anu gelarna kapanghuluanna geus lila kalipet, bakal usaha ngarojatkeun deui posisina ti néangan kabeungharan keur "meuli" gelar panghuluna anu geus lila runtag. Ngadegna panghulu ngaluar biaya badag, nepi ka tekenan keur ngadegkeun panghulu sok muncul ti kulawarga beunghar.<ref>Graves (1981), p. 25.</ref> [[Gambar:Pagaruyung.jpg|thumb|left|Istano Pagaruyung hiji legitimasi institusi karajaan di suku Minangkabau]] === Karajaan === Dina laporan Hubert Joseph Jéan Lambert de Stuers<ref name="Stuers">Laporan kepada Gubernur Jendral, 30 Agustus 1825, ''Exhibitum'', 24 Agustus 1826, No. 41.</ref> ka pamaréntah Hindia-Walanda, nyebatkeun yén di alas Minangkabau, teu kungsi aya kakawasan paméntahan puseur di handapeun saurang raja. Ngan aya nagari-nagari leutik nu mirip jeung pamaréntahan polis-polis di mangsa Yunani kuno.<ref>{{cite book | first=Robert Johnson | last=Bonner | coauthors= | title=Aspects of Athenian democracy Vol 11 | publisher=University of California Press | year=1933 | isbn= |pages='''25-86'''}}</ref> Mung ti sababaraha [[prasasti]] anu kapanggih di alas Minangkabau, sarta ti tambo nu aya di masarakat, etnis Minangkabau kungsi aya di hiji sistem karajaan anu kuat kalawan daerah kakawasaan ngawengku pulo Sumatera ogé nepi ka Semenanjung Malaya. Sababaraha nu aya wewengkon Minangkabau antarana Karajaan Dharmasraya, Karajaan Pagaruyung, jeung Karajaan Inderapura. == Minangkabau parantauan == Minangkabau parantauan mangrupa istilah keur urang Minang anu hirup di luar provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]]. Parantauan mangrupa proses interaksi masarakat Minangkabau jeung dunya luar. Kagiatan ieu mangrupa hiji lalampahan pangalaman jeung géografis, kalawan ninggalkeun kampungna keur néangan kahadéan hirup di nagara batur. Kulawarga anu geus heubeul ngabogaan traidisi rantau, biasana ngabogaan dulur di unggal dayeuh di Indonésia jeung Malaysia. Kulawarga anu pangkuatna dina ngamekarkeun tradisi rantau biasana dating ti kulawarga pangrajin-pangrajin, jeung nu nungtut élmu agama.<ref>Graves (1981), p. 40.</ref> Nu ngarantau biasana geus angkat ngarantau ti umur welasan taun, boh salaku padagang atawa nungtut élmu. Keur sabagéan badag masarakat Minangkabau, ngarantau mangrupa salah sahiji cara anu idéal keur ngahontal kasuksesan. Kalawan ngarantau ogé prestise jeung kahormatan individu di tengah lingkungan adatna. Ti parantauan, unggal nu ngarantau biasana ngirimkeun sabagéan hasilna ka kampongna keur diinvestasikeun dina usaha kulawargana, nyaéta ngalobaan sawah, nyepeng kendali ngolah lahan, atawa ngajemput sawah-sawah anu digadékeun. Artos ti unggal nu ngarantau biasana ogé dipaké keur ngarenovasi sarana-sarana nagari, saperti masigit, jalan, atawa gawir sawah. === Jumlah parantau === Etos ngarantau urang Minangkabau kacida luhurna, nepi ka disawang pangluhurna di Indonésia. Ti hasil studi anu kungsi dilakukeun ku Mochtar Naim, ti taun 1961 aya nepi ka 32% urang Minang anu domisilina di luar Sumatera Barat. Salajengna di taun 1971 jumlahna nambah jadi 44%.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |last=Naim|first=Mochtar|title=Merantau, Minangkabau Voluntary Migration, University of Singapore}}</ref> Dumasar sensus taun 2010, etnis Minang anu dumuk di Sumatera Barat jumlahna 4,2 juta jiwa, kalawan disawang nepi ka sabagéan urang Minang aya di parantauan. Mobilitas migrasi urang Minangkabau kalawan proporsi badag aya di rentang antara taun 1958 nepi ka taun 1978, di dinya leuwih ti 80% parantau anu netep di luar Minang geus kaluar ti Minang ti mangsa colonial Walanda.<ref name="Kato2">{{cite book |title=Adat Minangkabau dan merantau dalam perspektif sejarah |last= Kato |first=Tsuyoshi |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher=PT Balai Pustaka |location= |isbn=979-690-360-1 |page= |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> Nempo data éa, ku kituna aya parobahan nu kacida badag di etos ngarantau urang Minangkabau dibandingkeun sélér nu lian di Indonésia. Sabab nurutkeun sensus taun 1930, parantau Minangkabau ngan 10,5% di handap suku Bawéan (35,9%), Batak (14,3%) jeung Banjar (14,2 %). Naming teu aya angka pasti ngeunaan jumlah urang Minang di parantauan. Angka-angka anu ditampilkeun dina itungan, biasana ngan ngasupkeun parantau anu lahir di Sumatera Barat. Naming can ngawengku turunan-turunan Minang anu geus sababaraha generasi ngajrek di parantauan. Para parantau Minang, hamper sakabéhna aya di dayeuh-dayeuh badag Indonésia jeung Malaysia. Di sababaraha dayeuh, jumlah urang Minang kacida lobana nepi ka jadi mayoritas. Di Pekanbaru, parantau Minang jumlahna 37,7% ti sakabéh masarakat kota, jeung jadi etnis pangbadagna di dayeuh éta.<ref>[http://bappeda.pekanbaru.go.id/artikel/1/peran-budaya-melayu-dan-kewirausahaan/page/2/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407100152/http://bappeda.pekanbaru.go.id/artikel/1/peran-budaya-melayu-dan-kewirausahaan/page/2/ |date=2014-04-07 }} ''Peran Budaya Melayu dan Kewirausahaan''. Bappeda Kota Pekanbaru</ref> Jumlah ieu ngalaman panurunan lamun dibandingkeun jeung taun 1971 anu nepi ka 65%.<ref>Barbara Watson Andaya, Recreating a Vision. Daratan and Kepulauan in Historical Context, 1997, p.503</ref> Di dayeuh séjénna, jumlah urang Minangkabau nepi ka 10% atawa leuwih ti sakabéh panduduk dayeuh éta nyaéta Takengon (25,9%), Sigli (25,4%), Tanjung Pinang (20%), Binjai (16,6), Sibolga (16,6%), Sabang (15,9%), Gunungsitoli (14,5%), Tanjung Balai (13,9%), [[Medan]] (13,5%), Padang Sidempuan (13,3%), Palembang (10%), sarta Jakarta (10%).<ref name="ReferenceA"/> === Gelombang rantau === Ngarantau di etnis Minang geus lumangsung geus lila. Sajarah nyatet migrasi nu munggaran di abad ka-7, di mana loba padagang-padagang emas anu asalna ti alas Minangkabau ngalakukeun padagangan di muara Jambi, jeung kalibet di pangwangunan Karajaan Malayu.<ref>{{cite book | last =Munoz | first =Paul Michel | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula | publisher = | date =2006 | location = | url =https://archive.org/details/earlykingdomsofi0000muno| doi = | isbn = | page = }}</ref> Migrasi badag kajadian di abad ka-14, di dinya loba kulawarga Minang anu pindah ka basisir wétan Sumatera. Maranéhna nyieun koloni-koloni dagang di Kabupaten batubara, Kabupaten Pelalawan, nepi ka lintas laut ka Penang jeung Negeri Sembilan, [[Malaysia]]. Babarengan jeung ombak rantau Minang loba anu netep di Meulaboh, Aceh tempat tungturunan Minang anu dipikawanoh ku sebutan Aneuk Jamee; Barus, Mandailing Natal, nepi ka Bengkulu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dobbin|first=Christine|title=Gejolak Ekonomi, Kebangkitan Islam, dan Gerakan Paderi, Minangkabau 1784 – 1847}}</ref> Sanggeus Kasultanan Malaka dicekel ku Portugis di taun 1511, loba kulawarga Minangkabau anu pindah ka Sulawesi Selatan. Maranéhna jadi pangrojong Karajaan Gowa, salaku padagang jeung administrator karajaan. Datuk Makotta jeung istrina Tuan Sitti, salaku cikal bakal kulawarga Minangkabau di Sulawesi.<ref>{{cite|url=http://www.rajaalihaji.com/id/article.php?a=YURIL3c%3D=|title=Melayu-Bugis-Melayu dalam Arus Balik Sejarah|publisher=www.rajaalihaji.com|date=24 December 2008|accessdate=22 July 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215145304/http://www.rajaalihaji.com/id/article.php?a=YURIL3c%3D= |date=15 February 2021 }}</ref> Ombak migrasi salajengna kajadian di abad ka-18, nyaéta nalika Minangkabau ngabogaan hak istimewa keur nyicingan kawasan Karajaan Siak. Dina mangsa panjajagan Hindia-Walanda, migrasi badag deui kajadian di taun 1920, nalika pakebonan bako di Deli Serdang, Sumatera Timur mimiti dinuka. Dina mangsa kamerdikaan, Minang parantauan loba nyicingan dayeuh badag di Jawa, di taun 1961 jumlah parantau Minang utamana di Jakarta ngaronjat jadi 18,7 dibandingkeun jeung tingkat kamekaran panduduk dayeuh nu ngan 3,7 kali,<ref>{{cite book |title=Religion, politics, and economic behaviour in Java: the Kudus cigarette industry |last=Castles |first=Lance |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1967 |publisher=Yale University |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-AJP-354|accessdate=}}</ref> jeung dina taun 1971 etnis ieu disawang jumlahna geus 10% ti jumlah panduduk Jakarta mangsa harita.<ref name="Syam" /> Kiwari Minang parantauan geus kasebar di nagara-nagara luar nagri. === Parantauan intelektual === Di ahir abad ka-18, loba mahasiswa Minang anu ngarantau ka Mekkah keur neuleuman agama Islam, di antarana Haji Miskin, Haji Piobang, jeung Haji SUmanik. Nepina di lemah cai, aranjeunna jadi panyokong kuat gerakan Paderi jeung nyebarluaskeun pamikiran Islam anu murni di sakabéh Minangkabau jeung mandailing. Ombak kadua parantauan ka Timur Tengah kajadian di awal abad ka-20, anu dimotoran ku Abdul Karim Amrullah, syékh Tahir Kalaluddin Al-Azhari, Muhammad Jamil Jambek, jeung syékh Ahmad Khatib al-Minangkabawi. Salian Timur Tengah, mahasiswa Minangkabau ogé loba nu ka Eropa. Maranéhna nyaéta Abdoel Rivai, Muhammad Hatta, Sutan Syahrir, Roestam Effendi, jeung Nazir Pamuntjak. Intelektual séjén, Tan Malaka hirup ngumbara di dalapan nagara Eropa jeung Asia, ngawangun jaringan gerakan kamerdikaan Asia. Sakabéh mahasiswa Minang éta, anu ngarantau di Eropa ti abad ka-19, jadi pajoang kamerdikaan jeung nu ngadegkeun Républik Indonésia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Poeze|first=Harry A|title=In het Land van de Overheerser: Indonesiër in Nederland 1600-1950}}</ref> === Sabab ngarantau === ==== Faktor budaya ==== Aya loba pedaran dina fenomena ieu, salah sahiji sababna nyaéta sistim matrilinéal. Ku sistim ieu, pangawasaan harta pusaka dicepeng ku kaum awéwé sedengkeun hak kaum lalaki dina hal ieu leutik pisan. Salian ti éta, sanggeus akil baligh lalaki teu meunang saré di imah kolotna, sabab imah ngan keur kaum awéwé jeung salakina, sarta anak-anakna. Unggal nu ngarantau balik deui ka kampungna, biasana bakal nyaritakeun pangalaman ngarantau ka barudak kampungna. Daya irut kahirupan nu ngarantau ieu nu boga pangaruh di masarakat Minangkabau ti leutik kénéh. Saha waé nu teu pernah nyoba ngarantau, ku kituna manéhna sok dihina ku babaturanna.<ref>{{cite book | last =Radjab | first =Muhammad | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Semasa Ketjil di Kampung (1913-1928): Autobiografi Seorang Anak Minangkabau | publisher =Balai Pustaka | date =1950 | location =Djakarta | url = | doi = | isbn = | page = }}</ref> Hal ieu nu jadi sabab lalaki Minang milih ngarantau. Ayeuna awéwé Minangkabau ogé biasa ngarantau. Teu ngan saukur alesan ngilu lalaku, ngan hayang pisan dagang, napakan karier jeung ngalanjutkeun pendidikan. Nurutkeun Rudolf Mrazek, sosiolog Walanda, dua tipologi budaya Minang, nyaéta dinamisme jeung anti parokialisme ngalahirkeun jiwa merdika, kosmopolitan, egaliter, jeung wawasan nu jembar, hal ieu nu nyababkeun kawentukna budaya ngarantau di masarakat Minangkabau.<ref>{{cite|url=http://www.antara-sumbar.com/id/index.php?sumbar=perspektif&j=&id=1|title=Prof. Dr. H. Ahmad Syafii Ma'arif, Satu Nomor Contoh Produk Tradisi Merantau|publisher=Antara Sumbar|date=5 November 2008|accessdate=22 July 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707145704/http://www.antara-sumbar.com/id/index.php?sumbar=perspektif&j=&id=1 |date=7 July 2011 }}</ref> Sumanget keur ngarobah nasib kalawan nyukcruk élmu jeung kabeungharan, sarta wejangan Minang nu nyebutkeun ''Karatau madang dahulu, babuah babungo alun, marantau bujang dahulu, di rumah paguno balun'' (leuwih hadé angkat ngarantau batan dikampung can aya gunana) ngabalukarkeun lalaki Minang keur angkat ngarantau ti ngora kénéh. [[Gambar:Bamboofabric.gif|thumb|right|200px|Salasahiji motif tenun Songket Minangkabau khas nagari Pandai Sikek]] ==== Faktor ekonomi ==== Pedaran sanés nyaéta tumuwuhna panduduk anu teu kaaping ku sumber daya alam anu bisa diolah. Lamun baheula hasil tatanén jeung ngebon, sumber nu punjul di tempat maranéhna hirup bisa ngahirupan kulawarga, ku kituna dina mangsa kiwari hasil sumber daya alam anu jadi panghasilan punjul maranéhna éa teu cukup keur méré hasil keur minuhan kabutuhan babarengan, sabab kudu dibagi jeung sababaraha kulawarga. Salian ti éta nyaéta mekarna kasempetan anyar kalawan dibukana daerah pakebonan jeung patambangan. Faktor-faktor ieu anu salajengna ngarojong kana urang Minang kudu angkat ngarantau di nagri batur. Keur kadatangan nu munggaran di lemah rantau, biasana nu ngarantau nganjrek heuka di imah dunsanak anu dianggap salaku induk semang. Nu ngarantau anyar ieu biasana profesina salaku padagang leutik. Salian ti éta, ekonomi masarakat Minangkabau ti baheula geus dirojong ku kamampuan dagang, utamana ngadistribusikeun hasil bumi maranéhna. Kawasan alas Minangkabau, sacara géologis ngabogaan cadangan bahan baku utamana emas, tambaga, timah, seng, merkuri, jeung beusi, sakabéhna bahan éta geus mampu diolah ku maranéhna.<ref>Bemmelen Van R.W., (1970), ''The Geology of Indonesia'', The Haque.</ref> nepi ka sebutan ''suvarnadvipa'' (pulau emas) anu muncul ti carita sasakala di India sateuacan Masehi, mungkin ogé ngarujuk ka Pulo Sumatera sabab hal ieu.<ref>Wheatley P., (1961), ''The Golden Khersonese'', Kuala lumpur, pp.177-184</ref> Padagan ti Jazirah Arab abad ka-9, geus ngalaporkeun yén masarakat di Pulo Sumatera geus ngagunakeun emas dina padaganganna. Salajengna dilanjutkeun di abad ka-13 dipikanyaho aya raja di Sumatera anu ngagunakeun mahkota emas. Tomé Pires di abad ka-16 nyebutkeun yén emas anu didagangkeun di Malaka, apnchur (Barus), Tico (Tiku) jeung Priaman (Pariaman), asalna ti kawasan alas Minangkabau. Disebutkeun ogé kawasan Indragiri di sehiliran Batang Kuantan di basisir wétan Sumatera, mangrupa puseur palabuan ti raja Minangkabau.<ref>Cortesao A., (1944), ''The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires'', London:Hakluyt Society.</ref> Dina prasasti anu ditinggalkeun ku Adityawarman disebut yén anjeunna nyaéta pangawasa bumi emas. Hal ieu jadi hiji sabab, ngarojong Walanda ngawangun palabuan di Padang<ref>Marsden W., (1811), ''The History of Sumatra'', London</ref> jeung nepi abad ka-17 Walanda masi nyebut “nu ngawasa emas” ka raja Karajaan Pagaruyung.<ref>NA, VOC 1277, ''Mission to Pagaruyung'', fols. 1027r-v</ref> Salajengna ména Thomas Diaz keur nalungtik hal éta, ti laporanna manéhna asup ka alas Minangkabau ti basisir wétan Sumatera jeung manéhna papanggih jeung saurang raja Minangkabau nalika éta (Rajo Buo), jeung raja éa nyebutkeun yén salah sahiji pagawéan masarakatna nyaéta ngadulang emas.<ref>Haan, F. de, (1896), ''Naar midden Sumatra in 1684'', Batavia-'s Hage, Albrecht & Co.-M. Nijhoff. 40p. 8vo wrs. Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Deel 39</ref> Sementara itu dari catatan para géologi Belanda, pada sehiliran [[Batanghari]] dijumpai 42 tempat bekas penambangan emas dengan kedalaman mencapai 60 m sarta di [[Kerinci]] waktu itu, méré ka masih menjumpai para pendulang emas.<ref>Tobler A., (1911), ''Djambi-Verslag'', Jaarboek van het Minjwezen in Nedelandsch Oost-Indie: Verhandelingen, XLVII/3.</ref> Sampai abad ke-19, legenda akan kandungan emas pedalaman Minangkabau, masih mendorong [[Stamford Raffles|Raffles]] untuk membuktikannya, sehingga dia tercatat sebagai orang Eropa pertama yang berhasil mencapai [[Pagaruyung, Tanjung Emas, Tanah Datar|Pagaruyung]] melalui pesisir barat Sumatera.<ref>Raffles, Sophia, (1830), ''Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles'', London: J. Murray.</ref> ==== Faktor perang ==== [[Gambar:Tuanku Imam Bonjol.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Tuanku Imam Bonjol, saurang anu jadi pamingpin Perang Padri, nu diilustrasikeun ku Hubert Joseph Jean Lambert de Stuers|de Stuers]] Sababaraha perang ogé nimbulkeun ombak pindahna masarakat Minangkabau utamana ti daérah konflik, sanggeus perang Padri,<ref>Nain, Sjafnir Aboe, (2004), ''Memorie Tuanku Imam Bonjol (MTIB)'', transl., Padang: PPIM.</ref> muncul gerakan barontak ti Batipuh nentang “tanam paksa” Walanda, disusul barontak Siti Manggopoh nangtang ''Belasting'' jeung gerakan komunis taun [[1926]]-[[1927]].<ref>Kahin, Audrey R.,(2005), ''Dari pemberontakan ke integrasi: Sumatra Barat dan politik Indonesia, 1926-1998'', Yayasan Obor Indonesia, ISBN 978-979-461-519-5.</ref> Sanggeus kamerdikaan muncul PRRI nu ogé nyababkeun munculna eksodus gedé-gedéan masarakat Minangkabau ka daérah séjén.<ref name="Syam">Syamdani, (2009), ''PRRI, pemberontakan atau bukan'', Media Pressindo, ISBN 978-979-788-032-3.</ref> Ti sababaraha perang ieu, nembongkeun yén masarakat Minang nu teu resep panindasan. Maranéhna bakal ngalakukeun palawanan kalawan kakuatan fisik, mung lamun teu mampuh maranéhna leuwih milih angkat ninggalkeun kampungna. Urang sakai dumasar carita tungturunan ti sesepuhna nyebutkeun yén maranéhna asalna ti Pagaruyung.<ref>{{cite book |last=Suparlan |first=Parsudi |title= |edition= |date= |year=1995 |month= |publisher= |location= |language= |id= |doi = |page=73}}</ref> Urang Kubu nyebutkeun yén urang ti Pagaruyung nyaéta dulurna. Kamungkinan masarakat kaasing ieu kaasup masarakat Minang nu ngalakukeun resistansi kalawan ninggalkeun kampung maranéhna sabab teu daék narima parobahan di nagri manéhna. De Stuers sateuacanna ogé ngalaporkeun yén masarakat ''Padangsche Bovenlanden'' kacida beda jeung masarakat di Jawa, di Pagaruyung manéhna nyaksian masarakatna percaya diri jeung teu minder ka urang Eropa. Manéhna ngarasakeun sorangan, panduduk lokal nu liliwatan di hareupeunna tampa meunang kaistimewaan, malihan aya panduduk nu ménta udud, sarta ménta seuneu keur udud éta.<ref name="Stuers"/> === Ngarantau dina sastra === Fenomena ngarantau dina masarakat Minangkabau, loba jadi inspirasi ti seniman. Hamka, dina novelna ''Merantau ke Deli'', caritan ngeunanaam pangalaman hirup ngarantau Minang ka Deli sarta nikah jeung awéwé Jawa. Novelna nu séjén nyaéta ''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck'' ogé carita ngeunaan anak rantau Minang nu balik ka kampungna. Di kampung, manéhna meunang bangbaluh ti masarakat Minang nu mangrupa ''induk bako''na sorangan. Salian novel karya Hamka, novel karya Marah Rusli, ''Siti Nurbaya'' jeung ''Salah Asuhan''na Abdul Muis ogé nyaritakeun carita rantau Minang. Dina novel-novel éta, dicaritakeun ngeunaan pasinggungan lalaki Minang jeung adat budaya Barat. Novel ''Negeri 5 Menara'' karya Ahmad Fuadi, nyaritakeun parantau Minang nu diajar di Pasantren Jawa nu ahirna jadi urang nu sukses. Dina wangun nu béda, liwat karyana nu judulna ''Kemarau'', A.A Navis ngajak masarakat Minang keur ngawangun kampungna nu loba ditinggalkeun ku nu ngarantau. Novel nu carita ngeunaan ngarantau Minang éta, biasana eusina krikit sosial jeung panulis ka adat budaya Minang nu kolot jeung katinggaleun. Salian dina wangun novel, carita parantau Minang ogé dicaritakeun dina film ''Merantau'' karya sutradara [[Inggris]], Gareth Evans. == Urang Minangkabau jeung kiprahna == Urang Minang kasohor salaku kelompok nu boga atikan, ku kituna maranéhna sumebar di sakabéh Indonésia ogé nagara-nagara dina sababaraha macem profesi jeung kaahlian, antarana salaku politisi, panulis, ulama, pangajar, jurnalis, jeung padagang. Dumasar jumlah populasi nu relatif leutik (2,7% ti panduduk Indonésia), Minangkabau mangrupa salah sahiji bangsa nu suksés jeung loba nu geus kahontalna.<ref name="Kato">{{cite book |title=Adat Minangkabau dan merantau dalam perspektif sejarah |last= Kato |first=Tsuyoshi |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher=PT Balai Pustaka |location= |isbn=979-690-360-1 |page=2 |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> Majalah Tempo dina edisi husus di taun 2000 nyatet yén 6 ti 10 tokoh penting Indonésia di abad ka-20 mangrupa urang Minang.<ref>''Majalah Tempo Edisi Khusus Tahun 2000'', Desember 1999.</ref> 3 ti 4 urang nu ngadegkeun Républik Indonésia nyaéta putra-putra Minangkabau.<ref>Tim Wartawan Tempo, "4 Serangkai Pendiri Republik", Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia, Jakarta (2010)</ref><ref>Empat Pendiri Republik Indonesia adalah Soekarno, Hatta, Sutan Sjahrir, dan Tan Malaka</ref> Kaberhasilan jeung kasuksesan urang Minang loba dihontal nalika di parantauan. Ti baheula geus angkat ngarantau ka sababaraha daerah di [[Jawa]], [[Sulawesi]], semenanjung Malaysia, [[Thailand]], Brunei, nepi [[Philipina]]. Di taun 1390, Raja Bagindo ngadegkeun Kasultanan Sulu di Filipina kidul.<ref name="Naim">{{cite book |last=Naim|first=Mochtar|title=Merantau}}</ref> Di abad ka-14 urang Minang ngalakukeun migrasi ka Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia jeung ngangkat raja keur nagri anyar éta ti kaum maranéhna. Raja Melewar mangrupa raja munggaran Negeri Sembilan nu diangkat di taun 1773. Di tungtung abad ka-16, ulama Minangkabau Dato Ri Bandang, Dato Ri Patimang, jeung Dato Ri Tiro, nyebarkeun Islam di Indonésia timur jeung ngaislamkeun Karajaa Gowa. Sanggeus huru-hara di Kasultanan Johor, di taun 1723 putra Karajaan Pangaruyung nu gelarna Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmad Syah I nu sateuacanna ogé mangrupa Sultan Johor ngadegkeun Karajaan Siak di daratan [[Riau]].<ref>{{cite|url=http://www.melayuonline.com|title=Sejarah Kerajaan Siak Sejarah Kerajaan Siak|accessdate=22 July 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304100951/http://melayuonline.com/ |date=4 March 2009 }}</ref> Kadatangan reformis Muslim nu nungtut élmu di Kairo jeung Mekkah mangaruhan sistim atikan di Minangkabau. Sakola Islam modérn Sumatera Thawalib jeung Diniyah Putri loba ngalahirkeun aktivis anu loba boga peran dina proses kamerdikaan, antarana A.R Sutan Mansur, Siradjuddin Abbas, jeung Djamaluddin Tamin. Dina periode 1920 - 1960, loba politisi Indonésia boga pangaruh ti ranah Minangkabau. Jadi salah sahiji motor pajoangan kamerdikaan Asia, di taun 1923 Tan Malaka kapilih jadi wakil Komunis Internasional keur wilayah Asia Tenggara. Politis Minang séjénna Muhammad Yamin, jadi pelopor Sumpah Pemuda nu ngahijikeun sakabéh rakyat Hindia-Walanda. Di jero Volksraad, politisi asal Minang nu pangpentingna. Maranéhna antarana Jahja Datoek Kajo, Agus Salim, jeung Abdul Muis. Tokoh Minang séjénna Mohammad Hatta, jadi ko-proklamator kamerdikaan Indonésia. Sanggeus kamerdikaan, opat urang Minangkabau diuk salaku perdana menteri (Sutan Syahrir, Mohammad Hatta, Abdul Halim, jeung Muhammad Natsir), saurang présidén (Assaat), saurang salaku wakil présidén (Mohammad Hatta), saurang jadi pamingpin parlemen (Chaerul Saleh), jeung sababaraha jadi menteri, di antarana nu cukup kawentar nyaéta Azwar Anas, Fahmi Idris, jeung Emil Salim. Emil jadi urang Indonésia panglilana di kamentrian RI. Minangkabau, salah sahiji ti dua etnis salian etnis Jawa, nu ngabogaan wakil ti unggal kabinet pamaréntahan Indonésia. Salian ti pamaréntahan, di masa Demokrasi Liberal parlemen Indonésia didominasi ku politisi Minang. Maranéhna kagabung ka jero aneka macem partéy idéologi, islamis, nasionalis, komunis, jeung sosialis. Di sagigireun ngajabat gubernur Sumatera Tengah/Sumatera Barat, urang-urang Minangkabau ogé diuk salaku gubernur di Indonésia. Maranéhna nyaéta Datuk Djamin (Jawa Barat), Daan Jahja (Jakarta]), Muhammad Djosan jeung Muhammad Padang (Maluku), Anwar Datuk Madjo Basa Nan Kuniang jeung Moenafri (Sulawesi Tengah), Adenan Kapau Gani (Sumatera Selatan), Eni Karim (Sumatera Utara), sarta Djamin Datuk Bagindo (Jambi).<ref>{{cite|url=http://www.posmetropadang.com.+October|title=Budaya Merantau Orang Minang (1) Kalaulah di Bulan Ada Kehidupan|publisher=Pos Metro Padang|date=10 October 2008|accessdate=24 July 2011}} {{dead link}}</ref> Sababaraha partéy pulitik Indonésia anu diadegkeun ku politisi Minang. Pari jeung Partai Murba diadegkeun ku tan Malaka, Partai Sosialis Indonésia ku Sutan Sjahrir, PNI Baru ku Mohammad Hatta, Masyumi ku Mohammad Natsir, Perti ku Sulaiman ar-Rasuli, jeung Persatuan Muslim Indonésia ku Rasuna Said. Salian ngadegkeun partéy politik, politisi Minang ogé loba ngahasilkeun buku-buku nu jadi bacaan wajib ti aktifis pergerakan. Buku-buku bacaan utamana nyaéta, ''Naar de Republiek Indonesia'', ''Madilog'', jeung ''Massa Actie'' karya Tan Malaka, ''Alam Pikiran Yunani'' jeung ''Demokrasi Kita'' karya Hatta, ''Fiqhud Dakwah'' jeung ''Capita Selecta'' karya Natsir, sarta ''Perjuangan Kita'' karya Sutan Sjahrir. Panulis Minang loba mangaruhan kamekaran basa jeung sastra Indonésia. Maranéna namekarkeun basa ngaliwatan sababaraha macem karya tulis jeung kaahlian. Marah Rusli, Abdul Muis, Idrus, Hamka, jeung A.A Navis boga karya ngaliwatan panulisan novel. Nur Sutan Iskandar novelis Minang séjénna, kacatet salaku panulis novel Indonésia nu pang produktif. Chairil Anwar jeung Taufik Ismail karyana ngaliwatan panulisan sajak. Sarta Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana, novelis sakaligus ahli tata basa, ngalakukeun modérnisasi basa Indonésia nepi bisa jadi basa persatuan nasional. Novel-novel sastrawan Minang saperti ''Siti Nurbaya'', ''Salah Asuhan'', ''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van Der Wijck'', ''Layar Terkembang'', jeung ''Robohnya Surau Kami'' geus jadi bahan bacaan wajib keur siswa sakola ti Indonésia jeung Malaysia. Salian ngaliwatan karya sastra, ngamekarkeun basa Indonésia ogé dilakukeun ku jurnalis Minang. Maranéhna antarana Djamaluddin Adinegoro, Rosihan Anwar, jeung Ani Idrus. Di sagigireun Abdul Rivai anu disebut salaku Perintis Pers Indonésia, Rohana Kudus nu medalkeun ''Sunting Melayu'', jadi wartawan sakaligus nu boga koran awéwé munggaran di Indonésia. Di Indonésia jeung Malaysia, disagigireun urang Tionghoa, urang Minang jeung kawentar salaku pangusaha nu punjul. Loba pangusaha Minang sukses bisnis di widang padagangan tekstil, rumah makan, hotel, pendidikan, jeung rumah sakit. Di antarana figur pangusaha sukses nyaéta, Abdul Latief (pemilik ''TV One''), Basrizal Koto (nu ngabogaan paternakan sapi pangbadagna di Asia Tenggara), Hasyim Ning (pangusaha ngarakit mobil munggaran di Indonésia), jeung Tunku Tan Sri Abdullah (nu boga ''Melewar Corporation'' Malaysia). Loba ogé urang Minang nu sukses di dunya hiburan, ti sutradara, produser, penyanyi, atawa artis. salah sahiji sutradara jeung produser aya Usmar Ismail, Asrul Sani, Djamaludin Malik, jeung Arizal. Arizal nepi ka jadi sutradara jeung produser film nu panglobana ngahasilkeun karya. Sakurang-kurangna 52 film jeung 8 sinetron dina 1.196 episode geus dihasilkeunna. Film-film karya sinéas Minang, saperti ''Lewat Djam Malam'', ''Gita Cinta dari SMA'', ''Naga Bonar'', ''Pintar Pintar Bodoh'', jeung ''Maju Kena Mundur Kena'', jadi film panghadéna nu loba ditongton. Pemeran jeung penyanyi Minang nu kawéntar di antarana nyaéta Ade Irawan, Dorce Gamalama, Eva Arnaz, Nirina Zubir, jeung Titi Sjuman. Seniman séjénna, ratu kuis Ani Sumadi, jadi pelopor dunya kuis di Indonésia. Karya-karya manéhna saperti kuis ''Berpacu Dalam Melodi'', ''Gita Remaja'', ''Siapa Dia'', jeung ''Tak Tik Boom'' jadi salah sahiji acara favorit kulawarga Indonésia. Di sagigireun maranéhna, Soekarno M. Noer sarta putrana Rano Karno, mungkin jadi pagawé hiburan pangsuksesna di Indonésia, salaku aktor jeung sutradara film. Di taun 1993, ''Karno's Film'' usaha film bogana kulawarga Soekarno, produksi film seri kalawan peringkat pangluhurna sapanjang sajarah film Indonésia ''Si Doel Anak Sekolahan''. Di luar negeri, urang Minangkabau ogé dipikanyaho konstribusina. Di Malaysia jeung Singapura, antarana Tuanku Abdul Rahman (Yang Dipertuan Agung munggaran malaysia), Yusof bin Ishak (présidén munggaran Singapura), Zubir Said (komposer lagu kabangsaan Singapura ''Majulah Singapura''), Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor (astronot munggaran Malaysia), Tahir Jalaluddin Al-Azhari jeung Adnan bin Saidi. Di nagri Walanda, Roestam Effendi nu ngawakilan Partai Komunis Walanda, jadi hiji-hijina urang Indonésia nu kungsi diuk salaku anggota parlemen.<ref>{{cite|url=http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/caping/1979/06/02/mbm.19790602.CTP54667.id.html|title=Mengenang Sastrawan Rustam Effendi|publisher=Tempo Interaktif|date=2 June 1979|accessdate=22 July 2011}}</ref> Di [[Arab Saudi]], ngan Ahmad Khatib Al-Minangkabawi, urang non-Arab nu kungsi jadi imam besar Masjidil Haram, Mekkah. == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Literatur == * {{de}} Astrid Kaiser: ''Mädchen und Jungen in einer matrilinearen Kultur. Interaktionen und Wertvorstellungen bei Grundschulkindern im Hochland der Minangkabau auf Sumatra''. Kovac, Hamburg 1996 ISBN 3-86064-419-X * {{de}} Ute Marie Metje: ''Die starken Frauen. Gespräche über Geschlechterbeziehungen bei den Minangkabau in Indonesien''. Campus, Frankfurt am Main und New York 1995, ISBN 3-593-35409-8 * {{de}} Dieter Weigel: ''Reisemosaik bei den Minangkabau. Sumatra. Heiteres, Ernstes, Alltägliches, Unglaubliches''. Jahn und Ernst, Hamburg 1998, ISBN 3-89407-208-3 (Erlebnisbericht) * A.A. Navis, ''Curaian Adat Minangkabau'' == Tumbu Luar == * [http://groups.google.com/group/RantauNet RantauNet] Mailing List Komunitas Minangkabau (Urang Awak) yang pertama dan terbesar di Internet (sejak 1993). * [http://www.cimbuak.net Cimbuak.net]{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Komunitas virtual masyarakat Minangkabau di dunia maya. * [http://www.kaskus.us/forumdisplay.php?f=156 Kaskus Regional Minang] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025164057/http://www.kaskus.us/forumdisplay.php?f=156 |date=2011-10-25 }} Online Komunitas masyarakat Minangkabau di dunia maya. * {{id}} [http://www.minangforum.com/ MinangForum.Com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008074404/http://www.minangforum.com/ |date=2019-10-08 }} Forum komunitas masyarakat Minangkabau. * {{id}} [http://www.pelaminanminang.com/ Pelaminan Minang] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217062446/http://www.pelaminanminang.com/ |date=2008-02-17 }} Mengupas sedikit mengenai adat istiadat dan sejarah masyarakat Minangkabau dan merupakan salah satu pelestari perkawinan adat minangkabau asli. * {{id}} [http://www.panas.web.id/2011/10/inilah-sejarah-lengkap-tari-piring.html Sejarah Tari Piring] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013060027/http://www.panas.web.id/2011/10/inilah-sejarah-lengkap-tari-piring.html |date=2011-10-13 }}.<br/> '''Tulisan kandel''' {{DEFAULTSORT:Minang}} [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Malaysia]] [[Kategori:Masarakat Muslim]] [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Singapura]] [[Kategori:Minangkabau]] [[Kategori:Sumatra Kulon]] qd6wdra3f8dbyn0uuaof4z2p6okkyo2 0 34391 711632 626893 2026-08-07T00:35:50Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711632 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:A four masted junk rig from Encyclopædia Britannica.png|thumb|right|300px|Disawang Maharaja jeung Prameswari sarta Dyah Pitaloka maké Jung Tatar ka Palagan Bubat.]] '''Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi''' atawa Citra Rashmi ([[1340]]-[[1357]]) nyaéta puteri [[Karajaan Sunda]]. Nurutkeun [[Pararaton]], Citraresmi dijodohkeun jeung [[Hayam Wuruk]]. Dina mangsana Hayam Wuruk kacida resepna ka Dyah Pitaloka keur dijadikeun prameswarina.<ref name="end">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|date=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://archive.org/details/earlykingdomsofi0000muno|doi= |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlykingdomsofi0000muno/page/213 213]|isbn= 9814155675}}</ref> Ngan dina tragedi [[Perang Bubat]], Citraresmi [[nelasan manéh]].<ref name="pararaton">Kriswanto, Agung.2009. ''Pararaton Alih Aksara dan Terjemahan.Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Sastra.</ref> Tradisi nyebutkeun Dyah Pitaloka minangka [[wanoja]] anu mibanda kageulisan nu [[q:Kaceluk ka awun-awun kawéntar ka janapria, kakoncara ka mancanagara|kaceluk ka awun-awun kawéntar ka janapria, kakoncara ka mancanagara]]. == Lamaran Nikah == Hayam Wuruk, raja [[Majapahit]], meureun ku dasar alesan pulitik, hayang ngajadikeun putri Citraresmi (Pitaloka) salaku pamajikanna.<ref name="end">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|date=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://archive.org/details/earlykingdomsofi0000muno|doi= |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlykingdomsofi0000muno/page/279 279]|isbn= 9814155675}}</ref> [[Karajaan Sunda]] kalawan maharajana [[Prabu Maharaja Lingga Buana]] mibanda putri wanoja nyaéta Citraresmi. Majapahit kalawan utusanna Patih Madhu datang ka [[Karajaan Sunda]] pikeun ngajodokeun jeung ngalamar Putri [[Sunda]]. Dina naskah Pararaton disebutkeun yén: {{cquote|''Bhre Prabhu ayun ing putri ring Sundha. Patih Madu ingutus angundangeng wong Sundha. '' anu hartina ''Bre Prabu (Hayam Wuruk) hayang ka putri Sunda. Patih Madu diutus ngundang urang Sunda. ''}}<ref name="pararaton" /> Kalawan bungah, Maharaja Linggabuana méré restu sarta turut milu ka Majapahit keur dinikahan jeung Hayam Wuruk. Sabab maharaja nyawang ieu mangrupa jalan keur ngaraketkeun duduluran. Di taun [[1357]] Masehi rombongan [[Karajaan Sunda]] geus nepi di Majapahit sanggeus lalayaran di Laut [[Jawa]]. Rombongan [[Karajaan Sunda]] ngadegkeun pendopo di Palagan Bubat di bagéan kalér Trowulan, puseur dayeuh Majapahit. Aranjeunna nungguan dijemput ku pihak Majapahit sarta upacara karajaan nu pantes keur acara nikahan agung karajaan. Ngan Gajah Mada, nyawang kajadian éta salaku kasempetan keur naklukeun [[Karajaan Sunda|Sunda]] di handap Karajaan Majapahit, sarta keukeuh yén Putri moal bakal diangkat jadi Ratu Majapahit, tatapi ngan disembahkeun jadi selir Raja Majapahit, éta tanda yén [[Karajaan Sunda]] di handap kakawasaan Majapahit. Raja Sunda kacida ambekna jeung ngarasa dipikaéra ku tungtutan Gajah Mada nu kaleuleuwihan. Dina Pararaton disebutkeun yén {{cquote|''Tka ratu Sundha maring Majapahit. Sang Prabhu Maharaja tan pangaturakên putri. Wong Sundha kudu awiramena tingkah ing jurungn. Sira patih ing Majapahit tan payun yen wiwahanên. Reh sang raja putri makâtur-atura. Wong Sundha tan pasung. ''}} Tarjamahanna: ''Geus datang Raja Sunda ka Majapahit. Prabu Maharaja teu masrahkeun putrina. Urang Sunda kudu dipapag ku pesta lamun aya acara nikahan. Patih Majapahit embung lamun dinikahkeun. Sabab putri raja dianggap salaku upeti. Urang Sunda teu méré. ''<ref name="pararaton" /> == Pupusna Sang Putri == [[Gambar:Citraresmi.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Citraresmi dina Novel]] Tungtungna, Maharaja Sunda milih perang ngalawan tangtara Majapahit. Rombongan [[Karajaan Sunda]] boga niat ''bela pati'' ngalakukeun puputan keur ngabéla kahormatan Sunda di Palagan Bubat. Sanajan méré gerakan nu gagah wantéran, rombongan [[Karajaan Sunda]] tungtungna pupus ti kepungan tangtara Majapahit. Nepi ka sakabéh rombongan [[Karajaan Sunda]] ditumpes kalawan kejem dina kajadian ieu.<ref>{{cite book | author= Drs. R. Soekmono,| title= ''Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2'', 2nd ed. | publisher = Penerbit Kanisius | date= 1973| location =Yogyakarta| page =72 }}</ref> Sateuacan tempur kalawan wani, Maharaja Sunda panceg nyebutkeun {{cquote|''Ahung Awignamastu, najan wadiabala Sunda kurang ti saratus urang! Najan wadiabala Majapait ngalaksa mangpirang-pirang! Montong hariwang! Najan getih ngocor lir walungan di ieu Palagan Bubat, tapi ajén diri kami jeung ajén kabéh sinatria Sunda, moal ngantep nu ngahianat ka nagara jeung rahayatna! Montong ringrang! Hayu cuang sanghareupan! ''}}<ref name="buku">Iskandar, Yoseph. 1997. ''Sajarah Jawa Barat (Yuganing Rajakawasa) ''.Bandung: Geger Sunten.</ref><ref>Iskandar, Yoseph.1988. ''Perang Bubat''.Bandung: Rahmat Cijulang.</ref> <br />Tradisi jeung carita lokal nyebutkeun yén dina kasedihan jeung haté nu ancur, Putri [[Nelasan manéh|nelasan manéh]] pikeun ngabéla kahormatan jeung ajén kasundaan.<ref>{{cite book | author= Y. Achadiati S, Soeroso M.P.,| title= ''Sejarah Peradaban Manusia: Zaman Majapahit''. | publisher = PT Gita Karya | date= 1988 | location =Jakarta| page =13 }}</ref> <br />Nurutkeun tradisi, pupusna Dyah Pitaloka, nyieun Hayam Wuruk ngalimba jeung matak nyieun kasedih sakabéh rahayat [[Karajaan Sunda]]. Sabab pupusna Sang Putri jeung Raja Sunda dipihormat jeung disawang salaku hiji kawani jeung tindakan mulia keur ngabela kahormatan bangsa jeung nagarana. Sang Maharaja Prabu Linggabuana kacida disanjung jeung dipikahormat ku masarakat Sunda kalawan gelar "Prabu Wangi" ([[Basa Sunda]]: Raja nu mibanda ngaran nu seungit) sabab sipatna nu heroik ngabéla kahormatan nagarana ngalawan Majapahit. Tungturunan anjeunna, raja-raja Sunda salajengna, dibéré gelar ''Siliwangi'' (ti kecap Silih Wangi dina [[basa Sunda]] nu hartina panerus sarta nu nyilih wawangi Prabu Wangi). Kajadian ieu ngaruksak beungkeut duduluran dua karajaan nu balukar mumusuhan nepi ka mangtaun-taun salajengna. Hubungan dua nagara éta moal balik deui saperti baheula.<ref name="end">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|date=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://archive.org/details/earlykingdomsofi0000muno|doi= |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlykingdomsofi0000muno/page/279 279]|isbn= 9814155675}}</ref><ref name="buku" /> Di keraton Majapahit, Gajah Mada dimusuhan jeung kateupercayaan, sabab kalakuanna nu teu pantes ngalawan kana kapentingan kulawarga Karajaan Majapahit jeung nyieun nyeri Raja Hayam Wuruk. Isukanna, Hayam Wuruk ngirim surat kalawan dianteurkeun ku utusan Majapahit nu kawengku ku Darmajaksa pupuhu agama Hindu Syiwa, Darmajaksa agama Hindu Wisnu, jeung Darmajaksa agama Budha. Eusi suratna nyaéta: :''//ateher bhre wi-'' :''lwatikta prabhu rajasana'' :''gara / angutus duta ring su'' :''ndhanagari lawan dhumara'' :''na sawalan / rikhatha'' :''kên ring sawalan mangene'' :''krama ning pasundabuba'' :''t / mwang bhre wilwati'' :''kta mamalakwa ksama'' :''kena sakweh ing kawi'' :''paritan citta mwang sapari'' :''krama / ikang wus kadame'' :''l dening senapatise-'' :''napati lawan wadyaba-'' :''la nira // makanimitta /'' :''ning pejah ira sang prabhu ma'' :''haraja sundha / luputa'' :''sakeng papakrama mwang su'' :''bhika ning hirup janapada'' :''i rajya wilwatikta //'' :''matangyan bhre wilwati'' :''kta lawan ambek kapa'' :''witran samaya ning raja su'' :''ndha pangawak ya ta rakrya'' :''n patih mangkubumi çuradi'' :''pati / amatyagana / sang'' :''tanda / wadyabala / kula-'' :''wandha waja sundha mwang jana-'' :''pada rat bhumi jawa kulwa'' :''n / wuwusnya ya ta wilwa'' :''tikta tan ahyun andu-'' :''ni sundhanagari i bhumi'' :''jawa kulwan tan ahyu'' :''n ngalindih // rajya sundha'' :''haywa ta males andu'' :''ni rajya wilwatikta /'' :''ikang mangkana pinaka'' :''krama ning andalu // wi'' :''lwatikta ahyun paraspa-'' :''ropasarpana / silih pami'' :''tran sowang sowang du-'' :''madi nagara mahardhika //'' :''yatanyan tan pratibandha /'' :''bhre wilwatikta samaya /.''}} Tarjamahanna nyaéta: ''Salajengna raja Majapahit Prabu Rajasanagara ngirimkeun utusan ka nagara Sunda keur nepikeun surat. Diwartakeun di jerona kajadian pasunda-bubat jeung Bre Majapahit ngahaturkeun hampura kana sagala kasalahan jeung laku lampah nu geus dilakukeun ku senapati jeung pasukanna. Pupusna Sang Prabu Maharaja éta mugia teu mawa cilaka jeung ngaleungitkeun katingtriman hirup warga Majapahit.'' <br /> ''Sabab éta raja Majapahit jangji kalawan haté nu junun ka wakil raja Sunda, nyaéta Rakéan Patih Mangkubumi Suradipati jeung sakabéh pangagung karajaan, angkatan perang, kulawarga raja Sunda sarta warga di sakabeh Jawa Barat, yén Majapahit moal ngagempur Nagara Sunda sarta moal aya maksud ngawasaan. [[Karajaan Sunda]] dipiharep teu ngalakukeun gempuran walesan ka Majapahit jeung nganggap kajadian (Bubat) éta salaku kajadian nu geus kaliwat. Majapahit hayang silih gawé jeung duduluran jeung Sunda, sewan-sewangan salaku nagara merdika nu teu aya pasalingsingan. Majapahit jangji moal nganyenyeri haté masarakat Nagara Sunda kadua kalina. '' <br />Carita Putri Dyah Pitaloka jeung [[Perang Bubat]] jadi tema nu utama dina [[Kidung Sunda]]. Catetan sajarah ngeunaan kajadian Pasunda Bubat disebutkeun dina Pararaton, namung euweuh di naskah Nagarakretagama. == Catetan == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Inohong Sunda buhun]] jr1j7rrn82hget1hwgbd2cdnxvm6xc1 0 34633 711823 651600 2026-08-07T05:19:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711823 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Persian warriors from Berlin Museum.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Pasukan Abadi Persia, dekorasi di Istana Darius di Susa (510 SM).]] '''Pasukan Abadi''' (ti {{lang-el|Ἀθάνατοι}}, ''Athanatoi'', "abadi", ti awalan ''a'' ("henteu") + ''thanatos'' ("paéh"); sakapeung disebut "Pasukan Abadi Persia" atawa "Sapuluh Rewu Tentara Abadi") nyaéta ngaran nu dibéré ku Herodotus keur nyebut pasukan khusus ti Kakaesaran Persia Akhemeniyah.<ref>Herodotos, ''Historia'' 7.83.1</ref><ref>Herodotos, ''Historia'' 7.211.1</ref><ref>Herodotos, ''Historia'' 8.113.2</ref> Pasukan Abadi pancénna nyaéta Garda Imperial jeung ogé minangka pasukan tempur. Minangka Garda Imperial, Pasukan Abadi pancénna ngalindungi kakaesaran lamun aya serangan ti luar, sedengkeun Pasukan Tempur, Pasukan Abadi ieu milu dina perang nu dilakukeun ku Kaesar, salah sahijini nalika ekspansi Kakaesaran Persia jeung dina Perang Yunani-Persia. Dina mangsa damai, Pasukan Abadi tugasna minangka pengawal kaesar. Ngaran pasukan ieu dina basa Persia mungkin nyaéta Anûšiya ('rekan').<ref name=IranChamberImmortals/> Herodotos ngagambarkeun Pasukan Abadi minangka infantri beurat nu dipingpin ku Hydarnes. Jumlahna 10.000 prajurit. Nu bisa asup dina Pasukan Abadi ngan urang Persia, Medes, jeung Elam. Pasukan Abadi meunang pelatian nu leuwih hadé jeung leuwih beurat ti batan infantri ringan biasa. Prajurit dina Pasukan Abadi ny éta barisan pang hareupna dina nyerang musuh sedengkeun barisan pangtukangna nyaéta nu mawa jamparing. Prajurit nu jadi tentara Abadi nyaéta lalaki-lalaki nu satia pisan ka kaisar jeung bakal ngalindungi kaisar nepi ka maot. Pasukan ieu disebut minangka "Pasukan Abadi" ngan ku Herodotos. Tatapi sumber ti Persia sorangan teu nyebutkeun ngaran pasukan ieu.<ref name=IranChamberImmortals/> Mungkin, Herodotus geus salah ngabedakeun Anûšiya ('rekan') jeung Anauša ('Pasukan Abadi').<ref name=IranChamberImmortals>{{cite web | url = http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/immortals.php | title = Immortals, Greek name for an elite regiment in the ancient Achaemenid empire | first = Jona | last = Lendering | author = | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | month = | year = | work = Iran Chamber Society | publisher = | location = | page = | pages = | at = | language = | trans_title = | format = | doi = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | accessdate = 09-04-2011 | quote = | ref = | separator = | postscript = }}</ref> Salian ku Herodotus, Pasukan Abadi disebutkeun ogé ku Athenaios<ref>Athenaios (q.v.), Deipnosophistai 12.514C</ref> (nu ngutip Herakleides ti Kyme); Hesykhios<ref>Hesykhios, Lexicon s.v.</ref> (nu sacara salah nyebutkeun Pasukan Abadi minangka detasemen Kavaleri); Procopius<ref>Procopius (1.14.31)</ref>; sarta sumber-sumber lianna nu nyokot data ti Herodotus, sedengkeun Cassius<ref>Casius (52.27.1)</ref> nyebutkeun Pasukan Abadi ku nyokot rujukan ti Romawi, jeung nyebutna minangka pasukan tempur.<ref name=IE>{{cite web | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/immortals | title = Immortals | first = Rüdiger | last = Schmitt | author = | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | month = | year = | work = Encyclopaedia Iranica | publisher = | location = | page = | pages = | at = | language = | trans_title = | format = | doi = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | accessdate = 09-04-2011 | quote = | ref = | separator = | postscript = }}</ref> == Ngaran == Nurutkeun Herodotos jeung Xenophon, pasukan ieu dingaranan Pasukan Abadi (''Athanatoi'') sabab jumlahna tetep, nyaéta 10.000 prajurit. Maranéhna mibanda tradisi jeung aturan yén lamun aya tentara Abadi nu kabunuh, luka parah, cacat serius, atawa gering, ku kituna langsung diganti ku tentara anyar nepi ka jumlahna bakal terus 10.000, teu kurang teu leuwih,<ref name=Xeno>Xenophon. ''Kyrou Paideia'' 7.41.83</ref> ku kituna pasukan ieu dingaranan Pasukan Abadi<ref name=Xeno/><ref name=Livius/><ref name=300SW>{{cite web |url = http://www.300spartanwarriors.com/battleofthermopylae/theimmortals.html |title = The Immortals |first = John |last = Trikeriotis |author = |authorlink = |coauthors = |date = |month = |year = |work = 300 Spartan Warriors |publisher = |location = |page = |pages = |at = |language = |trans_title = |format = |doi = |archiveurl = |archivedate = |accessdate = 10-09-2011 |quote = |ref = |separator = |postscript = }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917100627/http://300spartanwarriors.com/battleofthermopylae/theimmortals.html |date=2010-09-17 }}</ref> Nurutkeun salah sahiji ahli sajarah Persia, Ardeshir Radpour, salian sabab jumlahna nu tetep, pasukan ieu dingaranan Pasukan Abadi ogé sabab teu kungsi ninggalkeun mayit prajurit nu maot di lapang perang. Maranéhna mindahkeun mayitna nu kabunuh jeung ngajauhkeun ti panempo musuh, ku kituna musuh jarang nempo prajurit Pasukan Abadi nu maot. Ieu jiga nu nyieun sugesti prajurit Pasukan Abadi katempo teu bisa maot.<ref>''Deadliest Warrior'', episode 17.</ref> Ngaran séjén ti Pasukan Abadi nyaéta ''Melophoroi'' (Para Pamawa [[Apel]]). Ngaran ieu digunakeun ku sajarawan pangilu Aleksander nu Agung. Pasukan Abadi mawa [[tumbak]] nu mibanda fungsi minangka panyaimbang mangrupa logam leutik buleud keur nyaimbangkeun titik beurat [[tumbak]]. Wangun panyaimbang éta mirip apel nepi ka disebut Para Pamawa [[Apel]].</ref><ref name=Livius>{{cite web |url = http://www.livius.org/ia-in/immortals/immortals.html |title = 'Immortals' |first = Jona |last = Lendering |author = |authorlink = |coauthors = |date = |month = |year = |work = Livius |publisher = |location = |page = |pages = |at = |language = |trans_title = |format = |doi = |archiveurl = |archivedate = |accessdate = 09-04-2011 |quote = |ref = |separator = |postscript = }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325193306/http://www.livius.org/ia-in/immortals/immortals.html |date=2010-03-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} == Sajarah == [[Gambar:Kuroshekabir.jpg|133|thumb|Koresh nu Agung, ilustrasi jieunan saurang seniman. Koresh nyaéta nu ngadegkeun Kakaisaran Persia Akhemeniyah sakaligus panggagas dibentukna Pasukan Abadi.]] [[Gambar:Persia-Cyrus2-World3.png|382|thumb|Wilayah Kakaisaran Persia Akhemeniyah di handap kapamingpinan Koresh nu Agung. Dina mangsa éta, kakaisaran nu dipingpin ku Koresh mangrupa kakaisaran pangbadagna di dunya. Lamun dibandingkeun jeung mangsa moder, kakawasaan éta ngawengku Turki, Israel, Georgia jeung Arabia di kulon nepi ka Kazakhstan, Kyrgyztan, Sungai Indus, Pakistan jeung Oman di beulah wétan.]] Nurutkeun Xenopon, Pasukan Abadi dibentuk ku Koresh nu Agung. Dina mangsa kakawasaan Koresh, Kakaisaran Persia Akhemeniyah sukses naklukkeun bangsa Assyria, bangsa Bablionia,bangsa Medes, bangsa Kurdi, bangsa Lydia, bangsa Parthia, bangsa Turki, bangsa Armenia, jeung bangsa Ionia. Kakawasaanna ngabentang ti mimiti sungai Indus di India nepi ka Hellespontos di Yunani. Sabab kakaisaranna tambah lega, Koresh ngarasa yén kaamanan istanana kudu dironjatkeun:<ref>Xenophon, ''Kyrou Paideia''</ref> {{cquote|bgcolor=#F0FFF0|Anjeunna mikiran ka saha anjeunna mercayakeun kaamanan istanana.....anjeunna milih diantara sapuluh laksa prajurit, nu kemah di sakuriling istana, ngajagana beurang jeung peuting, jeung milu ngabaturanna nalika anjeunna angkat-angkatan, ngaping di deukeutna. |4=Xenophon, ''Kyrou Paideia''.}} Dina perang, Pasukan Abadi boga tanggung jawab keur ngalindungi tenda karajaan nu ditempatan ku kaisar.<ref>Arrianos, III, 3.1</ref> Pasukan Abadi milu perang dina naklukeun Kakaisaran Babilonia Anyar di taun 547 SM, kampanye militer Kambises ngalawan Mesir Kuno 525 SM jeung invasi Darius nu Agung ka Punjab Barat jeung Sindh di India sarta ka Skithia dina 520 SM jeung 513 SM.<ref name=TAS>{{cite web | url = http://ancientstandard.com/2011/01/21/the-immortals-ancient-persias-force-of-elite-soldiers/ | title = The Immortals- Ancient Persia’s Force of Elite Soldiers | first = | last = | author = | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | month = | year = | work = The Ancient Standard | publisher = | location = | page = | pages = | at = | language = | trans_title = | format = | doi = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | accessdate = 8-8-2011 | quote = | ref = | separator = | postscript = }}</ref> Dina Perang Gaugamela dina 331 SM, Pasukan Abadi ngalindungi gerak mundur kaisar Darius III. Mungkin ogé Pasukan Abadi ogé dibawa nalika Perang Gerbang Persia dina 330 SM. Aleksander nu Agung sukses ngéléhkeun Pasukan Abadi di Perang Issos 333 SM. Sanggeus Kakaisaran Persia Akhemeniyah runtag, Pasukan Abadi dibubarkeun. == Dina budaya populer == === Film === Film ''[[300 (film)|300]]'' taun 2007, anu didaptasi tina buku komik ''300'' karya Frank Miller, nampilkeun versi nu fiktif ti Pasukan Abadi dina Perang Thermopylae.<ref name=300SW/> Pasukan Abadi nu ieu maké topéng beusi gaya menpō jeung mawa sapasang pedang nu mirip wakizashi.<ref name=27Oct10>{{cite web |url = http://www.iranian.com/main/2010/oct/guards-shahanshah-1 |title = The Guards of the Shahanshah |first = Nabil |last = Rastani |author = |authorlink = |coauthors = |date = |month = |year = |work = Iranian.com |publisher = |location = |page = |pages = |at = |language = |trans_title = |format = |doi = |archiveurl = |archivedate = |accessdate = 09-04-2011 |quote = |ref = |separator = |postscript = }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913180016/http://www.iranian.com/main/2010/oct/guards-shahanshah-1 |date=2016-09-13 }}</ref> Film taun 1962 nu judulna ''The 300 Spartans'' nembongkeun versi nu akurat ti Pasukan Abadi, nu mawa [[tumbak]] jeung taméng leutik. Ngan maranéhna ngagunakeun pakéan nu wanana hideung jeung warna-warna poék séjénna, béda pisan jeung gambaran sajarahna.<ref name=27Oct10/> === Program televisi === Film dokumenter dina History Channel nu judulna ''Last Stand of the 300'' ogé nampilkeun Pasukan Abadi, minangka bagéan ti rekonstruksi Perang Thermopylae. Dina versi ieu, mutiara nu dipaké ku Pasukan Abadi ngabentuk topeng kaén warna hideung nutupan sakabéh raray ngan angger katempo.<ref name=27Oct10/> Ku topeng ieu, musuh teu bisa nempo raray prajurit Pasukan Abadi ngan Pasukan Abadi tetep bisa nempo musuh. Pasukan Abadi dina film ieu ogé disebutkeun mampuh ngadeukeutan musuh kalawan teu kanyahoan. Pasukan Abadi sarupa nu ditampilkeun dina film dokumenter ''Battles BC'' dina episode "Judgement Day at Marathon". Acara televisi ''Deadliest Warrior'' narungkeun Pasukan Abadi jeung prajurit Kelt, jeung Pasukan Abadi kaluar jadi nu punjul.<ref name=27Oct10/> Pasukan Abadi ogé ditampileun dina segmen "Spartan" dina musim munggaran jeung segmen"Alexander the Gréat" dina musim kadua. === Permainan video === Pasukan Abadi muncul dalam dina sababaraha kaulinan komputer strategi, kaasup ''Rome: Total War Alexander'', nu nampilkeun maranéna kalawan akurat iwal kurangna baju zirah jeung kadisiplinan. Pasukan Abadi ogé muncul dina kaulinan ''Civilization III'' nu nembongkeun Pasukan Abadi minangka unit infantri unik nu kasedia keur Persia;<ref name=27Oct10/> ''Civilization IV'', nu nampilkeun maranéna minangka unit kuda;<ref name=27Oct10/> jeung ''Civilization V'', nu nampilkeun maranéhna minangka infantri beurat nu mawa taméng jeung [[tumbak]]. Dina ''Empire Earth'', Pasukan Abadi muncul minangka unit senjata tusuk unik keur peradaban Persia jeung mangrupa musuh dina dua misi pamungkas dina kampanyeu Yunani. Maranéhna ditampilkeun ku prajurit jubah konéng, mawa taméng, jeung nyerang ngagunakeun [[tumbak]] == Catetan == {{reflist|3}} == Referensi == === Sumber kuno === * Arrianos, ''Alexadrou Anabasis'' * Athenaios, ''Deipnosophistai'' * Cladius Aelianus, ''Varia Historia'' * Herodotos, ''Historia'' * Hesykhios, Lexicon s.v. * Quintus Curtius, ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'' * Xenophon, ''Kyrou Paideia'' === Sumber modern === * A. Pagliaro, ''Fortuna di parole iraniche in occidente'', Asiatica 9, 1943, hlm. 36-42. * {{cite book | last = Bauer | first = Susan W. | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Sejarah Dunia Kuno | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 2010 | month = | publisher = Elex Media Komputindo | location = Jakarta | language = | id = ISBN 978-979-27-9043-6 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Toynbee | first = Arnold | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Sejarah Umat Manusia | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 2007 | month = | publisher = Pustaka Pelajar | location = Yogyakarta | language = | id = ISBN 979-377-74-1 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Erlangga | first = Ardyan M. | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Sejarah & Kebudayaan Dunia | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 2011 | month = | publisher = Familia | location = Yogyaakarta | language = | id = ISBN 978-602-97660-5-9 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Briant | first = Pierre | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Histoire de l'Empire perse, de Cyrus à Alexandre | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 1996 | month = | publisher = Fayard | location = Paris | language = Prancis | isbn = 2-213-59667-0 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Romero | first = Javier | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Cuerpos de élite, Misión Imposible | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 2005 | month = | publisher = Circle Digital | location = Madrid | language = Spanyol | isbn = 84-609-6758-1 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Farrokh | first = Kaveh | authorlink = | coauthors = Angus McBride | editor = | others = | title = Sassanian Elite Cavalry | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 2005 | month = | publisher = Osprey Publishing | location = Oxford | language = | isbn = 1841767131 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Hignett | first = C. | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Xerxes’ Invasion of Greece | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 1963 | month = | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford | language = | isbn = 0198142471 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Olmstead | first = A. T. | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = History of the Persian Empire | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofpersian0000atol_l3v6 | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 1948 | month = | publisher = University Of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | language = | isbn = 0226627772 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Sekunda | first = Nicholas | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = The Persian Army 560-330 BC | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = https://archive.org/details/persianarmy560330000nich | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 1992 | month = | publisher = Osprey Publishing | location = Oxford | language = | isbn = 1855322501 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Wilcox | first = Peter | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = https://archive.org/details/romesenemies3par0000wilc | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 1986 | month = | publisher = Osprey Publishing | location = Oxford | language = | isbn = 978-0850456882 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | last = Farrokh | first = Kaveh | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | date = | year = 2007 | month = | publisher = Osprey Publishing | location = Oxford | language = | isbn = 978-1846031083 | doi = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = }} * {{cite book | first = Alexander (Ed.) | last = Kazhdan | title = Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium | url = https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0002unse_d7l6 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6 | page=}} * {{cite book | first = Raffaele | last = D'Amato | title = The Eastern Romans 330-1461 AD | publisher = Concord Publications | location = Hong Kong | year = 2007 | isbn = 962-361-089-0 | page=}} * {{cite book | first = Steven | last = Runciman | title = Byzantine Civilization | publisher = Plume | location = New York City | year = 1974 | isbn = 978-0452004061 | page=}} * {{cite book | first = Ian | last = Heath | title = Byzantine Armies | publisher = Osprey Publishing | location = Oxford | year = 1979 | isbn = 0 85045 306 | page=}} == Tumbu Luar == {{Commonscat|Immortals}} {{wikiportal|Sejarah}} {{wikiportal|militer}} * {{en}} [http://www.livius.org/ia-in/immortals/immortals.html Pasukan Abadi di Livius.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325193306/http://www.livius.org/ia-in/immortals/immortals.html |date=2010-03-25 }} * {{en}} [http://monolith.dnsalias.org/~marsares/warfare/army/p_immort.html Pasukan Abadi Persia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725063552/http://monolith.dnsalias.org/~marsares/warfare/army/p_immort.html |date=2010-07-25 }} * {{en}} [http://www.iranian.com/main/2010/oct/guards-shahanshah-1''The Guards of the Shahanshah, How to fight, carry weapons, ride horses and learn archery'' oleh Nabil Rastani, 27 Oktober 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913180016/http://www.iranian.com/main/2010/oct/guards-shahanshah-1 |date=2016-09-13 }} * {{en}} [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/immortals Pasukan Abadi di Encyclopaedia Iranica] [[Kategori:Formasi jeung unit militér di Kakaisaran Akhemeniyah]] [[Kategori:Pangawal Karajaan]] [[Kategori:Pérsia]] [[Kategori:Pasukan husus]] t8f2s5uik2idmedor29ipc7dj3qkyvq 0 34716 711665 666780 2026-08-07T01:12:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711665 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name = '''Matanitu ko Viti'''<br />'''Fijī Ganarājya'''<br />'''फ़िजी गणराज्य'''<br />Republic of Fiji |conventional_long_name = Républik Fiji |common_name = Fiji |image_flag = Flag of Fiji.svg |image_coat =Coat_of_arms_of_Fiji.svg |image_map =Fiji_(orthographic_projection).svg |national_motto = ''Rerevaka na Kalou ka Doka na Tui''<small><br />Sieun ka Gusti jeung Hormat ka Ratu</small> |national_anthem = <center>[[Gambar:Fiji National Anthem.ogg]]</center> <br />''[[God Bless Fiji]]'' |official_languages = [[basa Inggris|Inggris]], [[basa Fiji|Bau Fiji]], jeung [[Hindi Fiji]]<ref>{{cite web|author=Dr. A. Tschentscher, LL.M.|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/fj00000_.html|title=Section 4 of Fiji Constitution|publisher=Servat.unibe.ch|date=|accessdate=2009-05-03}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609110318/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/fj00000_.html |date=2009-06-09 }}</ref> |demonym=[[urang Fiji|Fiji Islander, Fijian]] |capital = [[Suva]] |latd=18 |latm=10 |latNS=S |longd=178 |longm=27 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Suva]] |government_type = Pamaréntahan Tetepan Militér jeung [[Républik parleménter]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Fiji|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Fiji|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_title3 = [[Daptar Pupuhu Déwan Ageung Pupuhu Séké (Fiji)|Pamingpin GCC]] |leader_title4 = [[Pupuhu Luhur Fiji|Pupuhu Luhur]] |leader_name1 = [[Epeli Nailatikau]] |leader_name2 = [[Frank Bainimarama]] |leader_name3 = <!-- ieu dicandak asli ti wikipédia inggris-->[[Epeli Nailatikau|Ratu Epeli Nailatikau]] |leader_name4=[[Elizabeth II|Ratu Elizabeth II]]{{smallsup|1}}<!--NOTE:It is open to question whether Elizabeth should be listed here. She is ''not'' recognized in any capacity by the Fijian government or constitution. The Great Council of Chiefs recognizes her as the most senior chief, but that is not a governmental position, ceremonial or otherwise.--> |area_rank = ka-155 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area = 18.274 |areami² = 7.056 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = tiasa teu dipadulikeun |population_estimate = 849.000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 | version=2008 revision | format=PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate=2009-03-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318041906/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |date=2009-03-18 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-156th |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_census = 837.271 jiwa |population_census_year =2007 |population_density = 46,4 |population_densitymi² = 120,3 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-148 |GDP_PPP = $3,869 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=29&pr.y=8&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=819&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=|title=Fiji|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504074053/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=29&pr.y=8&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=819&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |date=2011-05-04 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4.347<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $3,131 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3.518<ref name=imf2/> |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdékaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Britania Raya]] |established_date1 = 10 Oktober 1970 |established_event2=[[Républik]] |established_date2=28 Séptémber 1987 |HDI = {{decrease}}0,669<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2010|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=5 November 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121150504/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf |date=21 November 2010 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-86 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |currency = [[Dolar Fiji]] |currency_code = FJD |country_code =679 |time_zone =+11 |utc_offset = +12 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST =+13<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timeanddate.com/news/time/fiji-advances-clocks-nov-29.html |title=Timeanddate.com |publisher=Timeanddate.com |date= |accessdate=2010-05-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091230085319/http://timeanddate.com/news/time/fiji-advances-clocks-nov-29.html |date=2009-12-30 }}</ref> |drives_on = kénca |cctld = [[.fj]] |calling_code = 679 |footnote1 = Diakuan ku [[Déwan Ageung Pupuhu Séké]]. }} '''Fiji''' ({{IPA-en|ˈfiːdʒiː||en-us-Fiji.ogg}}; {{lang-fj|Viti}}; {{lang-hif|फ़िजी}}), resmina '''Républik Fiji'''<ref>Dina Pébruari 2011, Biro Perdana Mentri nyebutkeun yén ngaran nagar geus resmi dirobah ka '''Républik Fiji''', jeung yén ngaran nu aya dina konstitusi 1997 ayeuna teu laku deui (constitution is suspended since April 2009). Tempo {{cite web|author=Fijivillage.com|url=http://fijivillage.com/?mod=story&id=0302118fd60fa7dc0c0246576e3d35|title=Country is now officially called Republic of Fiji|date=2011-02-03|accessdate=2011-02-04}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503214535/http://fijivillage.com/?mod=story&id=0302118fd60fa7dc0c0246576e3d35 |date=2011-05-03 }}</ref> ({{lang-fj|Matanitu ko Viti}}; {{lang-hif|फ़िजी गणराज्य<ref name="Measles On Long Island">{{cite web|url=http://www.wn.com/Measles_On_Long_Island/|title=Measles On Long Island|publisher=wn.com|year=2010|accessdate=2010-09-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022033450/https://wn.com/Measles_On_Long_Island |date=2018-10-22 }}</ref> ''Fijī Gaṇarājya''}}), mangrupa hiji [[nagara]] [[kapuloan]] di [[Mélanesia]] di [[Samudra Pasifik]] kidul, kira-kira {{convert|1100|nmi|lk=on}} kalér-wétaneun [[Pulo Kalér]] [[Selandia Anyar]]. Tatanggina nu pangdeukeutna nyaéta [[Vanuatu]] di kulon, [[Kaledonia Anyar]] [[Perancis]] di kidul-kulon, [[Kapuloan Kermadec]] [[Selandia Anyar]] di kidul-wétan, [[Tonga]] di wétan, [[Samoa]], [[Wallis jeung Futuna]] Perancis di kalér-wétan jeung [[Tuvalu]] di kalér. Kalobaannana kapuloan Fiji diwangun tina aktivitas vulkanis nu dimimitian kira-kira 150 juta taun baheula. Ayeuna, sababaraha aktivitas géotérmal masih aya dina kapuloan Vanua Levu jeung Taveuni.<ref name="Fiji: Geography">{{cite web |url=http://www.fijidiscovery.com/geography.php |title=Fiji Geography |publisher=fijidiscovery.com |year=2005 |accessdate=2010-09-15 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223155922/http://www.fijidiscovery.com/geography.php |date=2011-02-23 }}</ref> Fiji geus didumukan ti milénium kadua SM. Nagara ieu diwangun ti hiji [[kapuloan]] nu miboga leuwih ti 332 [[pulo]], nu mana 110 didumukan permanén, jeung leuwih ti 500 [[pulo leutik]]. Dua pulo utama, [[Viti Levu]] jeung [[Vanua Levu]], miboga 87% ti populasi nu ampir nepi ka 850.000. Ibu kotana nyaéta [[Suva]]. Kalobaannana urang Fiji cicing di basisir Viti Levu, boh di Suva atawa padumukan nu lian. Bagian jero Viti Levu jarang dicicingan ku lantaran daratanna.<ref name="Fiji: People">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1834.htm#profile|title=Fiji: People|publisher=state.gov|date=2010-06-28|accessdate=2010-09-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518141843/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1834.htm#profile |date=2012-05-18 }}</ref> Dina abad ka-17 jeung ka-18, Walanda jeung Britania ngajelajah Fiji.<ref name="Fiji: History">{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107509.html|title=Fiji: History|publisher=infoplease.com|year=2005|accessdate=2010-09-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831173516/http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107509.html |date=2010-08-31 }}</ref> Fiji mangrupa hiji koloni Britiania nepi ka 1970; panjajahan Britania aya méh hiji abad.<ref name="Tourism Fiji : A Social, Political and Environmental Case Study">{{cite web |url=http://ertr.tamu.edu/attachments/178_a-5-3-3.pdf |title=Tourism Fiji : A Social, Political and Environmental Case Study |publisher=tamu.edu |year=2007 |accessdate=2010-09-15 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712203721/http://ertr.tamu.edu/attachments/178_a-5-3-3.pdf |date=2010-07-12 }}</ref> Ku lantaran lobana leuweung, mineral, jeung sumber lauk, Fiji mangrupa salah sahiji nu ékonomina pangmekarna di wewengkon kapuloan Pasifik. Kiwari, sumber utama dévisa nyaéta industri pelesir jeung ékspor gula.<ref name="CIA World Factbook: Fiji: Economy">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html |title=CIA World Factbook: Fiji: Economy |publisher=cia.gov |date=2010-08-19 |accessdate=2010-09-15 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108073243/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html |date=2019-01-08 }}</ref> Mata uang nagara ieu nyaéta [[Dolar Fiji]]. Fiji miboga hiji sistem pamaréntahan lokal nu mana déwan dayeuh jeung kota aya dina kawasa umum Kamentrian Pamaréntahan Lokal jeung Pamekaran Kota.<ref name="Fiji: Our Government">{{cite web|url=http://www.fiji.gov.fj/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=646&Itemid=197|title=Fiji: Our Government|publisher=fiji.gov.fj|date=2009-11-09|accessdate=2010-09-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619115655/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=646&Itemid=197 |date=2010-06-19 }}</ref> Présidén Ratu [[Epeli Nailatikau]] minangka présidén Fiji, sanggeus hiji mahkamah luhur maréntah yén kapamingpinan militér ditetepkeun tampa hukum sanggeus kudéta 2006.<ref name="Fiji's president takes over power">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7993295.stm/|title=Fiji's president takes over power|publisher=bbc.co.uk|date=2009-04-10|accessdate=2010-09-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413063643/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7993295.stm |date=2009-04-13 }}</ref> Dina [[Perang Dunya II]], [[Britania Raya]] ngidinkeun raloba urang Fiji nulungan Sakutu liwat panunggalanna sareng tentara [[Selandia Anyar]] jeung [[Australia]]. [[Angkatan Pakarang Fiji|Angkatan Pakarang Républik Fiji (RFMF)]], diwangun ti unit darat jeung laut. == Babagian administratif == {{Utama|Pamaréntahan Lokal Fiji}} [[Gambar:Fiji divisions named.png|right|300px|thumb|Peta babagian Fiji.]] Fiji dibagi kana Opat Divisi Mayor: *[[Divisi Tengah, Fiji|Tengah]] *[[Divisi Wétan, Fiji|Wétan]] *[[Divisi Kalér, Fiji|Kalér]] *[[Divisi Kulon, Fiji|Kulon]] Divisi-divisi ieu dibagi deui kana 14 propinsi: {{col|2}} *[[Propinsi Ba|Ba]] *[[Propinsi Bua|Bua]] *[[Cakaudrove]] *[[Propinsi Kadavu|Kadavu]] *[[Kapuloan Lau|Lau]] *[[Propinsi Lomaiviti|Lomaiviti]] *[[Macuata]] *[[Nadroga-Navosa]] *[[Naitasiri]] *[[Namosi]] *[[Propinsi Ra|Ra]] *[[Propinsi Rewa|Rewa]] *[[Serua]] *[[Tailevu]] </div> Fiji dibagi ogé kana 3 Konféderasi Pamaréntahan dina rézim Cakobau, sanajan teu dianggap salaku babagian politis, tapi tetep penting dina babagian sosial: *[[Konféderasi Burebasaga]] *[[Konféderasi Kubuna]] *[[Konféderasi Tovata]] == Tempo ogé == *[[Layanan Météorologi Fiji]] *[[Hubungan luar nagri Fiji]] *[[Daptar inohong Fiji]] *[[Militér Fiji]] *[[Télékomunikasi Fiji]] == Catetan suku == {{Reflist|2}} == Réferénsi == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |title=On Fiji Islands |url=https://archive.org/details/onfijiislands00wrig |last=Wright |first=Ronald |year=1986 |publisher=Original from the [[University of Michigan]], Digitized 5 December 2006 |isbn=0-670-80634-X}} Mutalaah panjajahan kapuloan Fiji, nerangkeun kumaha Fiji bisa nahankeun basa jeung budaya maranéhna, jeung ngadéskirpsikeun masarakat Fiji. * {{Cite book |title=The Fiji Islands: A Geographical Handbook |first=Ronald Albert |last=Derrick |year=1951 |publisher=Govt. Print. Dept Fiji, 334 pages, Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized 11 July 2006}} Rincian dina Fiji sajarahna jeung géografina. * {{Cite book |title=Broken Waves: A History of the Fiji Islands in the Twentieth Century |first=Brij V. |last=Lal |year=1992 |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |isbn=0-8248-1418-5}} Rincian dina Sajarah, Géografi, jeung Ékonomi Fiji. * ''Back to the Chessboard: The Coup and the Re-Emergence of Pre-colonial Rivalries in Fiji.'' Dina: {{cite book |author=Kolig/[[Hermann Mückler|Mückler]] (eds.) |title=Politics of Indigeneity in the South Pacific |year=2002 |publisher=LIT Verlag, Hamburg |pages=143–158 |isbn=3-8258-5915-0}} * {{Cite book |title=Fiji |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00kori_0 |first=Korina |last=Miller |coauthors=Jones, Robyn; Pinheiro, Leonardo |year=2003 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=1-74059-134-8}} pituduh pelesir. {{Refend}} == Pustaka == *{{Cite book |last=Derrick |first=Ronald Albert |title=A History of Fiji |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1957 |publisher=Government Printer |location=Suva, Fiji |isbn= }} * David Routledge: ''Matanitu - The Struggle for Power in Early Fiji'', [[University of the South Pacific]], Suva 1985 *{{Cite book |last=Scarr |first=Deryck |title=Fiji: A Short History |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1984 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |location=Sydney, Australia |isbn=0-86861-319-3 }} *{{Cite book |last=Waterhouse |first=Joseph |title=The King and People of Fiji |url=https://archive.org/details/kingpeopleoffiji0000wate |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location= |isbn=0-8248-1920-9 }} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks}} ; Pamaréntah * [http://www.fiji.gov.fj/ Loka resmi pamaréntah Fiji] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208130939/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/ |date=2020-12-08 }} * [http://www.parliament.gov.fj/ Loka resmi Parlemén Fiji] ; Informasi umum * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/fiji.htm Fiji] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607084833/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/fiji.htm |date=2008-06-07 }} dina ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{wikiatlas|Fiji}} ; Pelesir * {{wikivoyage|Fiji}} * [http://www.bulafiji.com/ Bulafiji.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407002537/http://www.bulafiji.com/ |date=2007-04-07 }} Loka resmi Biro Turis Fiji * [http://www.fijitimes.com The Fiji Times] * [http://www.seacology.org/projects/polynesia_projects.htm#fiji Proyék Fiji] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012185749/http://www.seacology.org/projects/polynesia_projects.htm#fiji |date=2007-10-12 }} dina [[Seacology]].org {{Coord|18|S|179|E|region:FJ_type:country_source:dewiki|display=title}} {{Nagara di Oséania}}<br /> {{Austronesian-speaking}}<br /> {{Indo-Iranian-speaking regions}}<br /> {{Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa|state=show}} [[Kategori:Fiji| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara Austronésia]] [[Kategori:Nagara Indo-Arya]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Fiji}} 75v0v31fqob1lepxcd42u0wpnxstvi1 0 34768 711546 674747 2026-08-06T22:51:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711546 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Utsman bin Affan''' nyaéta salah sahiji sahabat [[Nabi]] [[Muhammad]] anu paling éraan.<ref name="Sumber 1">[http://biografi.rumus.web.id/2010/09/biografi-utsman-bin-affan.html Sumber 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421091457/http://biografi.rumus.web.id/2010/09/biografi-utsman-bin-affan.html |date=2012-04-21 }}</ref> Anjeunna kaasup kana salah sahiji [[Khalifah]] ([[Khulafaur Rosyidin]]) katilu anu maréntah sabada [[Umar bin al-Khattab]] maot.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Utsman bin Affan maréntah ti taun 644 M (umur 69–70 taun) dugi ka 656 M (salila 11–12 tahun).<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Salian éraan, Utsman bin Affan mangrupa ahli dina widang ekonomi, ogé saudagar anu beunghar tur dermawan.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Loba bantuan ekonomi anu dibikeun ku Utsman ka umat [[Islam]] dina awal dakwah Islam.<ref name="Sumber 2">{{cite book|last1=Ochsenweld|first1=William|last2=Fisher|first2=Sydney Nettleton|title=The Middle East: a history|url=https://archive.org/details/middleeasthistor0000fish_u9b8|edition=sixth|year=2004|publisher=McGraw Hill|location=New York|isbn=0072442336}}</ref> Anjeunna meunang julukan ''Dzunnurain'' ynu hartina ''anu miboga dua cahaya''.<ref name="Sumber 2"/> Julukan ieu dibikeun ka Utsman ku sabab Utsman parantos nganikahan putri kadua jeung katilu ti Rasullah Saw nyaéta [[Ruqayah]] jeung [[Ummu Kaltsum]].<ref name="Sumber 2"/> Anjeunna ogé miboga jasa dina hal ngabukukeun [[Al Qur'an]].<ref name="Sumber 2"/> ==Kalahiran jeung Nasab== Utsman bin Affan miboga ngaran lengkep Utsman bin Affan Al-Amawi Al-Quarisyi, anu asalna ti Bani Umayyah.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Gumelar dina ahir taun 574 Masehi.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Indung nyaéta Arwa binti Kuriz bin Rabiah.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Anjeunna lebet [[Islam]] ku sabab diajakan ku [[Abu Bakar]], nyaéta sabada Islamna [[Ali bin Abi Tolib]] jeung [[Zaid bin Haristah]].<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Anjeunna nyaéta salah sahiji sahabat utama Nabi Muhammad SAW, sarta kaasup kana golongan [[As-Sabiqun al-Awwalin]], nyaéta jelma-jelma anu mimiti asup Islam tur iman.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Utsman lahir ti hiji bapa anu namina Affan bin Abi al-'As, ti suku Bani Umayyah, sareng indung anu namina Arwa binti Kurayz, ti Abdshams, dua suku anu beunghar tur dipihormat di Quraisy, Mekah. Utsman ngagaduhan hiji dulur awéwé anu namina Amina. Utsman lahir di Ta'if. Anjeunna kacatet minangka salah sahiji ti 22 urang Mekah anu tiasa nyerat. Bapana, Affan, maot di umur ngora nalika keur indit ka luar negeri, ninggalkeun warisan anu gedé ka Utsman. Anjeunna jadi padagang sapertos bapana, sareng bisnisna berkembang pesat, ngajantenkeun anjeunna salah sahiji jalma pangbeungharna di Quraisy. Utsman bin Affan nyaéta sahabat sareng ogé khalifah katilu dina Khulafaur Rasyidin. Anjeunna kasohor salaku padagang anu beunghar sareng pinter dina widang ékonomi, tapi ogé kacida dermawan. Loba bantuan ékonomi anu dipasrahkeunana ka umat Islam dina awal dakwah Islam. Anjeunna ngagaduhan gelar Dzunnurain anu hartosna "anu gaduh dua cahaya." Gelar ieu dipasihkeun lantaran Utsman parantos nikah sareng dua putri Rasulullah, nyaeta Ruqayyah sareng Ummu Kultsum. Utsman bin Affan lahir taun 576 Masehi ti golongan Bani Umayyah. Indungna nyaeta Arwa binti Kuriz bin Rabiah. Anjeunna asup Islam ku ajakan Abu Bakar sareng kaasup kana golongan As-Sabiqun al-Awwalun (golongan anu pangheulana asup Islam). Rasulullah Muhammad nyarita yén Utsman bin Affan mangrupikeun jalma anu paling jujur sareng handap asor di antara kaum muslimin. Dicaritakeun ku Imam Muslim yén Aisyah kantos naros ka Muhammad, "Abu Bakar asup tapi anjeun biasa-biasa bae sareng henteu masihan perhatian khusus, lajeng Umar asup anjeun ogé biasa-biasa bae. Tapi nalika Utsman asup, anjeun langsung calik tur ngabenerkeun pakean, naha kitu?" Rasulullah ngawaler, “Naha kuring henteu kedah isin ka jalma anu malaikat ogé isin ka anjeunna?” Dina waktos Perang Dzatirriqa sareng Perang Ghatfahan, nalika Muhammad mingpin perang, Utsman dipercanten janten wali kota Madinah. Dina Perang Tabuk, Utsman nyumbangkeun 950 unta sareng 70 kuda, ditambah 1.000 dirham sumbangan pribadi pikeun perang, anu nilaina sarua jeung sapertilu biaya perang éta. Utsman bin Affan ogé nunjukkeun kedermawananana nalika mésér hiji mata cai anu dingaranan Rumah ti saurang lalaki suku Ghifar kalayan harga 35.000 dirham. Mata cai éta diwakafkeun pikeun kapentingan masarakat umum. Dina mangsa pamaréntahan Abu Bakar, Utsman ogé kantos nyayogikeun gandum anu diangkut ku 1.000 unta pikeun ngabantu jalma miskin anu kaserang usum halodo. Anjeunna mangrupikeun khalifah munggaran anu ngalakukeun perluasan Masjid al-Haram di Mekkah sareng Masjid Nabawi di Madinah alatan beuki seueur umat Islam anu ngalaksanakeun rukun Islam kalima (haji). Anjeunna ogé ngusulkeun ideu ngajukeun pasukan kaamanan pikeun rakyatna; ngawangun gedong husus pikeun mahkamah sareng ngadili pasualan anu saméméhna dilaksanakeun di masjid; ngawangun tatanén, nundukkan sababaraha daérah alit di perbatasan sapertos Siria, Afrika Kalér, Persia, Khurasan, Palestina, Siprus, Rodhes, sareng nyusun angkatan laut anu kuat. Jasa panggedéna nyaéta nalika ngaluarkeun kabijakan pikeun ngumpulkeun Al-Qur'an dina hiji mushaf. Salila mangsa jabatanna, Utsman sering ngaganti gubernur daérah anu teu pas atanapi kurang sanggup sareng ngagantikeunana ku jalma anu langkung kredibel. Tapi hal ieu nyababkeun loba pejabat anu diganti ngarasa kuciwa, sahingga maranéhna babarengan nyusun rencana pikeun maéhan khalifah. Dina mangsa jahiliyyah, anjeunna disebut ku panggilan Abu Amr. Saatos asup Islam, anjeunna langkung sering disebut Abu Abdullah, anu diilikan tina nami putrana ti Ruqayyah. Aya ogé anu nyebutkeun, dina mangsa jahiliyyah Utsman sering disebut Abu Layla, alatan kelembutan sareng karamahanna ka sasama. Gelar anu paling kasohor nyaéta Dzunnurain—Pemilik Dua Cahaya. Gelar éta anu paling dipikaresepna. Gelar éta dipasihkeun ku Nabi Muhammad lantaran Utsman nikah jeung dua putri Nabi, Ruqayyah sareng Ummu Kultsum. == Kakhalifahan == Saenggeus wafatna Umar bin Khattab salaku khalifah kadua, diayakeun musyawarah pikeun milih khalifah gaganti Umar. Aya genep urang kandidat khalifah anu diusulkeun, nyaéta [[Ali bin Abi Thalib]], Utsman bin Affan, [[Abdurrahman bin Auf]], [[Sa'ad bin Abi Waqqas]], [[Zubair bin Awwam]], jeung [[Thalhah bin Ubaidillah]]. Satuluyna, Abdurrahman bin Auf, Sa’ad bin Abi Waqqas, Zubair bin Awwam, jeung Thalhah bin Ubaidillah mundur nepi ka ngan ukur Utsman jeung Ali anu kari. Sora masarakat dina waktu harita condong milih Utsman jadi khalifah katilu. Ku kituna, diangkat Utsman anu umurna 70 taun jadi khalifah katilu, anu pangkolotna, sarta anu munggaran dipilih tina sababaraha calon. Kajadian ieu lumangsung dina bulan Muharram taun 23 H. Utsman jadi khalifah nalika pamaréntahan Islam geus bener-bener ajeg tur terstruktur. Utsman teh saurang padagang beunghar anu ngagunakeun kakayaanna pikeun ngadukung Islam, sanajan saméméh mangsa kekhalifahanna, anjeunna henteu kungsi nunjukkeun kualitas kapamingpinan atawa bener-bener mingpin pasukan. Tapi sanajan kitu, numutkeun Wilferd Madelung, anjeunna dipilih ku para pamilih salaku hiji-hijina calon kontra anu kuat pikeun Ali lantaran anjeunna ogé bisa saheulaanan mawa saingan dina hubungan kekerabatan anu raket sareng Ali. RVC Bodley yakin yen saatos dipaéhanana Umar, Ali nampik posisi khalifah lantaran anjeunna henteu satuju pikeun ngatur numutkeun aturan anu geus ditetepkeun ku Abu Bakar jeung Umar. Samentawis éta, Utsman narima sarat-sarat éta sareng anjeunna gagal dina administrasi salila sapuluh taun kekhalifahanna. ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} {{Khulapaur Rosyidin}} {{As-Sabiqun al-Awwalun}} {{Sohabat Nabi Muhammad}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Khulafaur Rasyidin]] 30189if00859b66b2puq6v42dlp4y1n 0 34816 711604 674132 2026-08-07T00:07:36Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711604 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the liquor}} [[File:04656 market in Sanok.JPG|300px|thumb|Sababraha jenis Vodka]] '''Vodka''' ({{lang-ru|водка}}, {{lang-be|гарэлка}}, {{lang-uk|горілка}}, {{lang-pl|wódka}}) nyaéta hiji inuman keras sulingan nu diwangun lulugna ku cai jeung etanol kalayan ngaleungitkeun rasa jeung sifat teu murnina. Vodka dijieun ku cara nyuling dahareun nu difermentasi. Nu sok dipaké biasana kacang-kacangan, hui kumeli (kentang), sakapeung mah sok ku bungbuahan atawa gula. Saacan taun 40an mah, Vodka teu di kenal di Amerika Serikat teh.<ref>http://athens.patch.com/articles/cocktails-anyone{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Bareto, kadar alkohol vodka biasana nyaéta 40%.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} Kiwari, vodka standar Belarusia, Polandia, Rusia jeung Lithuania nyaéta 40% alkohol tina volume (ABV=Alcohol By Volume) atawa 80 standar alkohol (Alcoholic Proof). Uni Eropa netepkeun aturan paling saeutik kadar alkohol 37,5 ABV keur hiji inuman bisa disebut vodka.<ref name=ginvodka1>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080122091206/http://www.ginvodka.org/history/vodkaproduction.html Production of vodka by Gin and Vodka Association], The [[Internet Archive]]</ref><ref name=europarl /> Sedengkeun di Amerika, kadar alkoholna minimal 30%.<ref name="cfra1">{{cite web|url=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr;sid=a405a5761091de13308884c6cc36ee89;rgn=div6;view=text;node=27%3A1.0.1.1.3.3;idno=27;cc=ecfr |title=United States Code of Federal Regulations Title 27, Section 5.22(a)(1) |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |date= |accessdate=2011-05-31}}</ref> ==Etimologi== [[Image:VodkaBelt.png|thumb|right|300px|The "vodka belt" countries of Northern, Central and Eastern Europe are the historic home of vodka, and also have the highest vodka consumption in the world]] Vodka asalna tina kecap voda tina basa Slavic nu hartina cai, voda artina ngaheureutan dina basa slavic jadi cai leutik.<ref name=eb/><ref name=ety>{{cite dictionary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=vodka |title=vodka |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |accessdate=2008-11-22}}</ref><ref>Etymology of the word "vodka" in Черных&nbsp;П.&nbsp;Я.: Историко-этимологический словарь современного русского языка. Москва, Русский язык-Медиа, 2004.</ref> Kecap vodka mimiti kanyahoan aya dina "Akta Godzkie",<ref name=KRPS>{{Cite web|url=http://krps.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=27|title=History of vodka production, at the official page of Polish Spirit Industry Association (KRPS), 2007|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070930131416/http://krps.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=27|archivedate=September 30, 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930131416/http://krps.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=27 |date=September 30, 2007 }}</ref> Hiji dokumen pengadilan nu aya di Polandia.<ref name=KRPS /> Harita, kecap vodka ("wodka") ngarujuk kana ramuan kimia jiga ubar atawa kosmetik paragi nghabersihan, sedegkeun ngaran inuman nu sohor mah nyaéta gorzalka.<ref name=KRPS /> ==History== Para ahli teu sauyunan dina nentukan awal-awal perkembangan vodka,<ref name="smith_companion" >{{Cite book |author = Smith, A. F. |title = The Oxford companion to American food and drink |url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_e9i9 |ref = http://www.nukat.edu.pl/cgi-bin/nukat_nr?000971358 |place = Oxford |publisher = Oxford University Press, cop. 2007. |year = 2007 |pages = [https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_e9i9/page/693 693] |isbn = 978-0-19-530796-2 }}</ref><ref name=Blocker>Jack S Blocker; David M Fahey; Ian R Tyrrell (2003). ''Alcohol and temperance in modern history : an international encyclopedia 1 A - L'', p. 389.</ref> sabab saeutikna sumber-sumber sejarah nu nyebutkeun asal aslina inuman ieu.<ref name=Ermochkin>Nicholas Ermochkine; Peter Iglikowski (2003). ''40 degrees east : an anatomy of vodka'', p. 217.</ref> Ceuk sababaraha sumber, vodka mimiti dijieun di aréa nu ayeuna jadi Rusia dina ahir abad 9. Ceuk Gin and Vodka Association (GVA),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080105095200/http://www.ginvodka.org/history/originvodka.html The Gin and Vodka Association (GVA)], Cross Keys House, Queen St., Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK. Page stored at the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> pabrik vodka kahiji kadokumentasikeun leuwih ti 200 taun kaliwat di Khlynovsk, saperti nu di laporkeun dina Vyatka Chronicle taun 1174. For many centuries, beverages differed significantly compared to the vodka of today, as the spirit at that time had a different flavor, color and smell, and was originally used as medicine.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20080105095200/http://www.ginvodka.org/history/originvodka.html</ref> It contained little alcohol, an estimated maximum of about 14%, as only this amount can be attained by natural fermentation. The still allowing for distillation – the "burning of wine" – was invented in the 8th century.<ref name=Briffault>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 195.</ref> ===Poland=== [[File:Vodka Sobieski.jpg|thumb|Sobieski Vodka, named after Polish King [[Jan III Sobieski]]]] In Poland, vodka ({{lang-pl|wódka}}; obsolete: ''gorzałka'') has been produced since the éarly [[Middle Ages]]. The world's first written mention of the drink and the word "vodka" was in 1405 from ''Akta Grodzkie'',<ref name="KRPS"/> the court documents from the [[Sandomierz Voivodship|Palatinate of Sandomierz]] in Poland.<ref name=KRPS /> At the time, the word ''wódka'' referred to chemical compounds such as [[medicine]]s and [[cosmetics]]' cléansers, while the popular beverage was called ''gorzałka'' (from the [[Old Polish]] ''gorzeć'' méaning "to burn"), which is also the source of Ukrainian ''horilka'' (горілка). The word written in [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] appéared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of [[Kievan Rus']].<ref name=KRPS /> In these éarly days, the spirits were used mostly as medicines. Stefan Falimierz asserted in his 1534 works on [[herbs]] that vodka could serve "to increase fertility and awaken lust". Around 1400, it became also a popular drink in Poland. ''Wódka lub gorzała'' (1614), by Jerzy Potański, contains valuable information on the production of vodka. Jakub Kazimierz Haur, in his book ''Skład albo skarbiec znakomitych sekretów ekonomii ziemiańskiej'' (''A Treasury of Excellent Secrets about Landed Gentry's Economy'', Kraków, 1693), gave detailed recipes for making vodka from [[rye]]. Some Polish vodka [[blend]]s go back centuries. Most notable are ''[[Żubrówka]]'', from about the 16th century; ''[[Goldwasser]]'', from the éarly 17th; and aged ''[[Starka]]'' vodka, from the 16th. In the mid-17th century, the ''[[szlachta]]'' (nobility) were granted a monopoly on producing and selling vodka in their territories. This privilege was a source of substantial profits. One of the most famous distilleries of the aristocracy was established by Princess [[Elżbieta Czartoryska (1736–1816)|Lubomirska]] and later operated by her grandson, Count [[Alfred Wojciech Potocki]]. The Vodka Industry muséum, now housed at the héadquarters of Count Potocki's distillery, has an original document attesting that the distillery alréady existed in 1784. Today it operates as "[[Polmos Łańcut]]". Large-scale vodka production began in Poland at the end of the 16th century, initially at [[Kraków]], whence spirits were exported to [[Silesia]] before 1550. Silesian cities also bought vodka from [[Poznań]], a city that in 1580 had 498 working spirits distilleries. Soon, however, [[Gdańsk]] outpaced both these cities. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish vodka was known in the Netherlands, Denmark, England, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, [[Romania]], [[Ukraine]], [[Bulgaria]] and the [[Black Sea]] basin. éarly production methods were primitive. The beverage was usually low-proof, and the distillation process had to be repéated several times (a three-stage distillation process was common). The first distillate was called ''brantówka'', the second was ''szumówka'', and the third ws ''okowita'' (from ''aqua vitae''), which generally contained 70–80% ABV. Then the beverage was watered down, yielding a simple vodka (30–35% ABV), or a stronger one if the watering was done using an [[alembic]]. The exact production methods were described in 1768 by [[Jan Paweł Biretowski]] and in 1774 by [[Jan Chryzostom Pasek]]. The beginning of the 19th century inaugurated the production of potato vodka, which immediately revolutionized the market.{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}} The end of the 18th century marked the start of the vodka industry in Poland (éastern part of Poland was part of Russian empire at that time). Vodkas produced by the nobility and clergy became a mass product. The first industrial distillery was opened in 1782 in [[Lwów]] by [[J. A. Baczewski]]. He was soon followed by [[Jakub Haberfeld]], who in 1804 established a factory at [[Oświęcim]], and by [[Hartwig Kantorowicz]], who started producing [[Wyborowa]] in 1823 at [[Poznań]]. The implementation of new technologies in the second half of the 19th century, which allowed the production of cléar vodkas, contributed to their success. The first rectification distillery was established in 1871. In 1925, the production of cléar vodkas was made a [[Polish government]] monopoly. After World War II, all vodka distilleries were taken over by Poland's [[communist]] government. During the 1980s, the sale of vodka was rationed. After the victory of the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement, all distilleries were privatized, léading to an explosion of brands. ===Russia=== A type of [[distillation|distilled]] [[liquor]] close to the one that would later become generally designated by the Russian word ''vodka'' came to Russia in the late 14th century. In 1386, the [[Genoa|Genoese]] ambassadors brought the first ''aqua vitae'' ("the water of life") to Moscow and presented it to [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Grand Duke]] [[Dmitry Donskoy]]. The liquid obtained by distillation of grape [[must]] was thought to be a concentrate and a "spirit" of [[wine]] (''spiritus vini'' in Latin), from where came the name of this substance in many Européan languages (like English [[Distilled beverage|spirit]], or Russian {{lang|ru|спирт, ''spirt''}}). However, ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' states the first Russian vodka was made in 14th century, brewed by Sydnayaska Krueger of the Krueger family, which later evolved into the company now known as [[Smirnoff]].<ref name=eb>{{Cite web|title=Vodka (distilled liquer)|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/631781/vodka|work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> According to a legend, around 1430, a monk called [[Isidore (inventor)|Isidore]] from [[Chudov Monastery]] inside the [[Moscow Kremlin]] made a recipe of the first Russian vodka.<ref name="pohlebkin_history">{{Cite book |author = [[Pokhlebkin|Pokhlebkin V. V.]] / Похлёбкин В. В. |title = The history of vodka / История водки |ref = http://vkus.narod.ru/vodka/vodka_00.htm |place = Moscow |publisher = Tsentrpoligraph / Центрполиграф |year = 2007 |pages = 272 |isbn = 5-9524-1895-3 }}</ref> Having a special knowledge and distillation devices, he became an author of the new type of alcoholic beverage of a new, higher quality. This "bread wine" as it was initially known, was produced for a long time exclusively in the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] and in no other principality of [[Rus' people|Rus']] (this situation persisted until the éra of industrial production). Thus, this beverage was closely associated with Moscow. Until the mid-18th century, the drink remained relatively low on alcohol content, not exceeding 40% abv. Multiple terms for the drink are recorded, sometimes reflecting different levels of quality, alcohol concentration, filtering, and the number of distillations; most commonly, it was referred to as "burning wine", "bread wine", or simply "wine". ("Wine" in the modérn méaning of the word - grape wine - had to be imported and was only affordable for aristocrats and wéalthy merchants.) Burning wine was usually diluted with water to 24% ABV or less before drinking. It was mostly sold in taverns and was quite expensive. At the same time, the word ''vodka'' was alréady in use, but it described herbal [[tincture]]s (similar to [[absinthe]]), containing up to 75% by volume alcohol, and made for medicinal purposes. The first written usage of the word ''vodka'' in an official Russian document in its modérn méaning is dated by the decree of [[Empress]] [[Elizabeth of Russia|Elizabeth]] of June 8, 1751, which regulated the ownership of vodka distilleries. The taxes on vodka became a key element of government finances in Tsarist Russia, providing at times up to 40% of state revenue.<ref>{{Cite book|url= http://books.google.ca/books?visbn=0435327186&id=vuFjmDQPG7kC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=russia+vodka+1914 |title=Russia, 1848-1914 |last= Bromley | first= Jonathan }}</ref> By the 1860s, due to the government policy of promoting consumption of state-manufactured vodka, it became the drink of choice for many Russians. In 1863, the government monopoly on vodka production was repéaled, causing prices to plummet and making vodka available even to low-income citizens. By 1911, vodka comprised 89% of all alcohol consumed in Russia. This level has fluctuated somewhat during the 20th century, but remained quite high at all times. The most recent estimates put it at 70% (2001). Today, some popular Russian vodka producers or brands are (amongst others) [[Stolichnaya]] and [[Russian Standard Vodka|Russian Standard]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.onlinevodka.net/vodka-manufacturers|title=Some vodka manufacturers}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413034541/http://www.onlinevodka.net/vodka-manufacturers |date=2009-04-13 }}</ref> ===Sweden=== Up until the 1950s, vodka was not used as a designation for Swedish distilled beverages, which were instéad called ''[[brännvin]]'' ("burn-wine").<ref>[http://medlem.spray.se/svalbardifast/spritskola/vodka.html Spritskola: Vodka och okryddat brännvin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055332/http://medlem.spray.se/svalbardifast/spritskola/vodka.html |date=2013-09-21 }}, accessed 2012-12-16 {{sv icon}}</ref> This beverage has been produced in Sweden since the late 15th century, although the total production was still small in the 17th century.<ref>[http://runeberg.org/nfbd/0235.html Brännvinslagstiftning] in ''[[Nordisk familjebok]]'', volume 4 (1905)</ref> From the éarly 18th century, production expanded, although production was prohibited several times in times of grain shortage. Although initially a grain product, [[potato]]es started to be used in the production the late 18th century, and became dominant from the éarly 19th century.<ref>[http://runeberg.org/nfbd/0233.html Brännvinsbränning] in ''[[Nordisk familjebok]]'', volume 4 (1905)</ref> From the éarly 1870s, distillery equipment was improved. Progressively from the 1960s, unflavoured Swedish ''brännvin'' also came to be called vodka. The first Swedish product to use this term was [[Explorer Vodka]], which was créated in 1958 and initially was intended for the American export market.<ref>[http://www.cocktailguiden.com/artiklar/explorer-vodka Cocktailguiden: Explorer Vodka], accessed 2012-12-16 {{sv icon}}</ref> In 1979, [[Absolut Vodka]] was launched, reusing the name of the old ''Absolut Rent Brännvin'' ("absolutely pure ''brännvin''") créated in 1879. ==Today== [[Image:C0681-Fedyakovo-Auchan-vodka.jpg|thumb|230px|A large selection of vodkas at an [[Auchan]] hypermarket near [[Nizhny Novgorod]]]] By 1975, vodka sales in the United States overtook those of [[bourbon whiskey|bourbon]], previously the most popular hard liquor of the country.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} In the second half of the 20th century, vodka owed{{by whom|date=August 2012}} its popularity in part to its reputation as an alcoholic beverage that "leaves you breathless", as one ad{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} put it — claiming no smell of liquor remains detectable on the bréath, and its overall neutral flavor allows it to be mixed into a wide variety of drinks, often replacing other liquors (particularly [[gin]]) in traditional drinks, such as the [[Martini (cocktail)|martini]]. Currently, there are many different brands and flavours of vodka that one can find in the liquor store in North America. Some of the most common brands include Grey Goose, Three Olives Vodka, Smirnoff, and Absolut Vodka. There are a wide variety of flavors which include raspberry, green apple, mango, vanilla, coconut, birthday cake, blueberry, and many more. According to ''The Penguin Book of Spirits and Liqueurs'', "Its low level of [[fusel oil]]s and [[congeners]] &mdash; impurities that flavour spirits but that can contribute to the after-effects of heavy consumption &mdash; led to its being considered among the 'safer' spirits, though not in terms of its powers of intoxication, which, depending on strength, may be considerable."<ref>Pamela Vandyke Price, Harmondsworth & New York: Penguin Books, 1980, pp. 196ff.</ref> Russian culinary author [[William Pokhlebkin]] compiled a history of the production of vodka in Russia during the late 1970s as part of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] case in a trade dispute; this was later published as ''[[A History of Vodka]]''. Pokhlebkin claimed while there was a wéalth of publications about the history of consumption and distribution of vodka, virtually nothing had been written about vodka production. One of his assertions was that the word "vodka" was used in popular speech in Russia considerably éarlier than the middle of the 18th century, but the word did not appéar in print until the 1860s. ==Production== [[Image:UkrainianVodkaStill.jpg|thumb|230px|An old Ukrainian vodka still.]] <!-- It's not just about the bottling - it's quite essential to produce the stuff you put in the bottle. Cheers!--> [[Image:Vodka bottling machine.jpg|thumb|230px|Vodka bottling machine, Shatskaya Vodka ([[Shatsk, Russia]]) ]] Vodka may be distilled from any [[starch]]- or [[sugar]]-rich plant matter; most vodka today is produced from [[Cereal|grains]] such as [[sorghum]], [[maize|corn]], [[rye]] or [[wheat]]. Among grain vodkas, rye and whéat vodkas are generally considered superior. Some vodkas are made from [[potato]]es, [[molasses]], [[soybean]]s, [[grape]]s, [[rice]], [[sugar beet]]s and sometimes even byproducts of oil refining or wood pulp processing. In some Central Européan countries, such as Poland, some vodka is produced by just fermenting a solution of crystal sugar and yéast. In the [[European Union]] there are talks about the standardization of vodka, and the [[Vodka Belt]] countries insist that only spirits produced from grains, potato and sugar beet molasses be allowed to be branded as "vodka", following the traditional methods of production.<ref name=reuters>[http://www.flexnews.com/pages/5412/European_Union/Spirits/eu_farm_chief_warns_legal_action_vodka_row.html "EU Farm Chief Warns of Legal Action in Vodka Row"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310191503/http://www.flexnews.com/pages/5412/European_Union/Spirits/eu_farm_chief_warns_legal_action_vodka_row.html |date=2007-03-10 }} a 25 October 2006 [[Reuters]] article</ref><ref name=stubb>[[Alexander Stubb]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070808013139/http://www.alexstubb.com/artikkelit/bw_vodka.pdf The European Vodka Wars], a December 2006 ''[[Blue Wings (magazine)|Blue Wings]]'' article</ref> In the United States, many vodkas are made from 95% ethanol produced in large quantities by agricultural-industrial giants [[Archer Daniels Midland]] and Midwest Grain Processors. Bottlers purchase the base spirits in bulk, then filter, dilute, distribute and market the end product under a variety of vodka brand names.<ref>{{cite news|last=Nasaw|first=Daniel|title=Why are there so many brands of vodka on sale?|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18360315|accessdate=14 July 2012|newspaper=BBC News|date=7 June 2012}}</ref> ===Distilling and filtering=== A common property of vodkas produced in the United States and Europe is the extensive use of filtration prior to any additional processing including the addition of [[flavor]]ants. Filtering is sometimes done in the [[still]] during [[distillation]], as well as afterwards, where the distilled vodka is filtered through [[activated charcoal]] and other media to absorb trace amounts of substances that alter or impart off-flavors to the vodka. However, this is not the case in the traditional vodka-producing nations, so many distillers from these countries prefer to use very accurate distillation but minimal filtering, thus preserving the unique flavors and characteristics of their products. The master distiller is in charge of distilling the vodka and directing its filtration, which includes the removal of the "fore-shots", "heads" and "tails". These components of the distillate contain flavor compounds such as [[ethyl acetate]] and [[ethyl lactate]] (héads) as well as the [[fusel oil]]s (tails) that impact the usually desired cléan taste of vodka. Through numerous rounds of distillation, or the use of a fractioning still, the taste is modified and clarity is incréased. In contrast, distillery process for liquors such as [[whiskey]], [[rum]], and [[baijiu]] allow portions of the "heads" and "tails" to remain, giving them their unique flavors. Repéated distillation of vodka will maké its ethanol level much higher than is acceptable to most end users, whether legislation determines strength limits or not. Depending on the distillation method and the technique of the stillmaster, the final filtered and distilled vodka may have as much as 95-96% ethanol. As such, most vodka is diluted with water prior to bottling. Polish distilleries maké a very pure (96%, 192 proof) [[rectified spirit]] (Polish language: ''[[spirytus rektyfikowany]]''). Technically a form of vodka, it is sold in liquor stores rather than pharmacies. Similarly, the German market often carries German, Hungarian, Polish, and Ukrainian-made varieties of vodka of 90 to 95% ABV. A [[Serbia]]n vodka, ''Balkan 176°'', has a 88% alcohol content. [[Everclear (alcohol)|Everclear]], an American brand, is also sold at 95% ABV. ===Flavoring=== {{Refimprove_section|date=August 2012}} {{utama|Vodka infusion}} Apart from the alcoholic content, vodkas may be classified into two main groups: cléar vodkas and flavored vodkas. Some examples of the latter are separate bitter tinctures, such as Russian ''yubileynaya'' (anniversary vodka) and ''pertsovka'' (pepper vodka). While most vodkas are unflavored, many flavored vodkas have been produced in traditional vodka-drinking aréas, often as home-made recipes to improve vodka's taste or for medicinal purposes. Flavorings include red pepper, ginger, fruit flavors, vanilla, chocolate (without sweetener), and cinnamon. In Russia, vodka flavored with honey and pepper (''pertsovka'', in Russian) is also very popular. [[Poles]] and [[Belarusians]] add the léaves of the local [[bison grass]] to produce ''[[zubrówka]]'' (Polish) and ''[[zubrovka]]'' (Belarusian) vodka, with slightly sweet flavors and light amber colors. In ''[[Lithuania]]'', a famous vodka containing honey is called ''[[krupnik]]''. In the United States, [[bacon vodka]] has been introduced to critical acclaim.<ref>http://www.tastings.com/scout_spirits.lasso?id=193201 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102012831/http://www.tastings.com/scout_spirits.lasso?id=193201 |date=2012-11-02 }}</ref> This tradition of flavoring is also prevalent in the [[Nordic countries]], where vodka séasoned with herbs, fruits and spices is the appropriate strong drink for [[midsummer]] séasonal festivities. Sweden has forty-odd common varieties of herb-flavored vodka (''kryddat brännvin''). In Poland and Ukraine, a separate category (''nalyvka'' in Ukraine and ''[[nalewka]]'' in Poland) is used for vodka-based spirits with fruit, root, flower, or herb extracts, which are often home-made or produced by small commercial distilleries. Their alcohol contents vary between 15 and 75%. In Estonia, vodkas are spiced with barbaris, blackcurrant, cherry, green apple, lemon, vanilla and watermelon flavors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.therealculture.com/estonian-culture/estonian-vodka-2/|title=Estonian Vodka flavors}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401100638/http://www.therealculture.com/estonian-culture/estonian-vodka-2/ |date=2010-04-01 }}</ref> ==European Union regulation== The recent success of [[grape]]-based vodka in the United States has prompted traditional vodka producers in the Vodka Belt countries of Poland, Finland, [[Lithuania]], and Sweden to campaign for [[EU legislation]] that will categorize only spirits made from grain or potatoes as "vodka".<ref name=reuters/><ref name=stubb/> This proposition has provoked héavy criticism from south Européan countries, which often distill used [[Mashing|mash]] from wine-making into spirits; although higher quality mash is usually distilled into some variety of [[pomace brandy]], lower-quality mash is better turned into neutral-flavored spirits instéad. Any vodka then not made from either grain or potatoes would have to display the products used in its production. This regulation was adopted by the [[European Parliament]] on June 19, 2007.<ref name=europarl>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&reference=P6-TA-2007-0259&language=EN|title=European Parliament legislative resolution of 19 June 2007 on the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the definition, description, presentation and labelling of spirit drinks}}</ref> ==Health== [[File:Spirytus.jpg|thumb|80px|right|''Spirytus'' product of Poland]] {{See also|Alcohol and health}} In some countries, [[black market|black-market]] or "[[Bathtub gin|bathtub]]" vodka is widespréad because it can be produced éasily and avoid taxation. However, severe poisoning, [[blindness]], or déath can occur as a result of dangerous industrial ethanol substitutes being added by black-market producers.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Steven |last=Eke |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6157015.stm |title='People's vodka' urged for Russia |publisher=BBC News |date=November 29, 2006 |accessdate=2008-11-22}}</ref> In March 2007 in a documentary, [[BBC News]] UK sought to find the cause of severe [[jaundice]] among imbibers of a "bathtub" vodka in Russia.<ref>{{Cite news|first=John |last=Sweeney |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/6434789.stm |title=When vodka is your poison |publisher=BBC News |date=March 10, 2007 |accessdate=2008-11-22}}</ref> The cause was suspected to be an industrial disinfectant ([[Extrasept]]) - 95% ethanol but also containing a highly toxic chemical - added to the vodka by the illegal traders because of its high alcohol content and low price. Déath toll estimates list at léast 120 déad and more than 1,000 poisoned. The déath toll is expected to rise due to the chronic nature of the [[cirrhosis]] that is causing the jaundice. ==See also== <div style="float:right"> {{portal|Drink}} </div> {{div col|colwidth=30em}} *[[List of vodkas]] *[[Flavored liquor]] *''[[Horilka]]'' *[[List of cocktails with vodka]] *[[Russian Vodka Museum]], St. Petersburg, Russia *[[Vodka infusion]] ([[flavored liquor]]) *[[Vodka war]] at [[European Parliament]] *''[[A History of Vodka]]'' (1991) by [[Pokhlebkin]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== *{{cite book|last=Begg|first=Desmond|title=The Vodka Companion: A Connoisseur's Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/vodkacompanionco0000begg|year=1997|publisher=Running|isbn=0-7624-0252-0.}} *{{cite book|last=Broom|first=Dave|title=Complete Book of Spirits and Cocktails|url=https://archive.org/details/spiritscocktails0000broo|year=1998|publisher=Carlton Books Ltd.|location=Italy|isbn=1-85868-485-4}} *{{cite book|last=Delos|first=Gilbert|title=Vodkas of the World|url=https://archive.org/details/vodkasofworld0000delo|year=1998|publisher=Wellfleet Press|location=Edison, New Jersey|isbn=0-7858-1018-8}} *{{cite book|last=Faith|first=Nicholas|title=Classic Vodka|url=https://archive.org/details/classicvodka0000fait|year=1977|publisher=Prion Books Ltd|location=London|isbn=1-85375-234-7|coauthors=Ian Wisniewski}} *{{cite book|last=Lingwood|first=William|title=Vodka: Discovering, Exploring, Enjoying|year=2003|publisher=Ryland Peters & Small|location=New York|isbn=1-84172-506-4|coauthors=Ian Wisniewski}} *{{cite book|last=Price|first=Pamela Vandyke|title=The Penguin Book of Spirits and Liqueurs|year=1980|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=0-14-046335-6}} Chapter 8 is devoted to vodka. *{{cite book|last=Pokhlebkin|first=William|title=[[A History of Vodka]]|year=1992|publisher=Verso|isbn=0-86091-359-7|authorlink=William Pokhlebkin|coauthors=Renfrey Clarke (translator).}} *{{cite book|last=Rogala|first=Jan|title=Gorzałka czyli historia i zasady wypalania mocnych trunków |year=2004 |publisher=Baobab |isbn=83-89642-70-0}} ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Vodka}} {{Alcoholic beverages}} [[Kategori:Vodkas| ]] [[Kategori:Polish inventions]] [[Kategori:Russian inventions]] [[Kategori:Slavic loanwords]] [[Kategori:Russian loanwords]] k7v5iryiig4si23txw3bagsa2lfb33z 0 34830 711771 491974 2026-08-07T03:49:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711771 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Charlie Chaplin.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Charli Chaplin]] '''Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr.''' [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]] ({{lahirmati|[[East Street Market|East Street]], [[Walworth, London|Walworth]], [[London]]|16|4|1889|[[Vevey]], [[Swiss]], [[Swiss]]|25|12|1977}}), atawa '''Charlie Chaplin''', nyaéta [[aktor]] [[komedi]] [[Inggris]] anu mangrupa salah sahiji aktor film anu kawentar dina sajarah [[Perfilman Amerika Serikat|Hollywood]] di éra film hideung bodas, sakaligus [[sutradara]] film anu sukses.<ref name="Sumber 1">[http://www.biography.com/people/charlie-chaplin-9244327 Sumber 1]</ref> Aktingna di layar osok ngajadikeun Charlie Chaplin sabagé salah sahiji artis [[pantomim]] jeung [[badut]] anu pang hadéna anu mineng dijadikeun pieunteungeun keur seniman di widang anu sarua.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Chaplin nyaéta salah sahiji tokoh paling berpengaruh jeung paling kréatif di éra [[film bisu]].<ref name="Sumber 1"/> Dina film-filmna, Chaplin dikenal osok ngarangkep-rangkep, ngawitan ti peran utama, sutradara, nu nulis naskah, nepi ka anu ngeusi ilustrasi musik.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> == Biografi == Charlie chalplin ngabéakkeun masa leutikna di panampungan urang miskin jeung panti asuhan.<ref name="Biografi">{{cite book|last=Lynn|first=Kenneth|title=Charlie Chaplin and His Times|url=https://archive.org/details/charliechaplinhi00lynn|accessdate=4 June 2010|edition=illustrated|year=1997|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-80851-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/charliechaplinhi00lynn/page/39 39]}}</ref> Teu jelas saha bapa kandungna, tapi salaki indungna, Charles Chalplin, saurang panyanyi, ti mimiti geus ngalantarkeun kaluarga jeung ninggal ku sabab alkohol dina taun 1901.<ref name="Biografi"/> Indungna hannah, aktris anu teu terkenal, leuwih loba ngabéakeun waktu ku kaluar-asup rumah sakit jiwa.<ref name="Biografi"/> Sanajan sumanget kana diajar, chalplin osok ninggalkeun sakolah dina jam 10 piekun gawé di sirkus keliling.<ref name="Biografi"/> Kamiskinan dina masa leutikna ieu anu ngagambarkeun ciri khas kostum si Gelandangan.<ref name="Biografi"/> [[Gambar:Charlie Chaplin I.jpg|jmpl|1910]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Pemeran Amerika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Sutradara Amerika Serikat]] dm53bh4f34ui2h8shf0l9w86tvul7os 0 34832 711799 494697 2026-08-07T04:37:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711799 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:LEONARDO.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Leonardo da Vinci]] '''Léonardo da Vinci''' (gumelar di [[Vinci]], Propinsi [[Firenze]], [[Italia]], ping [[15 April]] [[1452]] - maot di [[Clos Lucé]], [[Perancis]], [[2 Méi]] [[1519]] dina usia 67 taun) nyaéta [[arsiték]], [[musisi]], [[panulis]], [[pematung]], jeung [[palukis]] [[Renaisans]] [[Italia]].<ref name=HG>{{Cite book|first=Helen|last=Gardner|title=Art through the Ages|url=https://archive.org/details/gardnersartthrou0000gard_p1s0|year=1970|pages= [https://archive.org/details/gardnersartthrou0000gard_p1s0/page/450 450]–456}}</ref> Anjeunna digambarkeun sabagé [[arketipe]] "manusa renaisans" jeung sabagé [[jenius]] universal.<ref name=HG/> Léonardo katélah ku lukisanna anu piawai, sapertos''[[Jamuan Pamungkas]]'' jeung ''[[Mona Lisa]]''.<ref name=HG/> Anjeunna ogé dikenal ku sabab ngadésain loba ciptaan anu ngantisipasi teknologi modérn tapi anu jarang dijieun samasa hirupna, sabagé conto ide-idena ngenaan tank jeung mobil anu dituangkanna liwat gambar-gambar dwiwarna.<ref name=HG/> Salian éta, anjeunna ogé ilubiung dina ngamajukeun élmu [[anatomi]], [[astronomi]], jeung [[teknik sipil]] nepi ka [[kuliner]].<ref name=HG/> == Ngeunaan da Vinci == Tileutik Da Vinci geus diajar ngalukis jeung [[Andrea del Verrocchio]].<ref name="Biografi">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/336408/Leonardo-da-Vinci Biografi]</ref> Kamampuan ngalukisna bahkan ngaleuwihan sang guru.<ref name="Biografi"/> Taun 1481 Léonardo pindah ka [[Milan]].<ref name="Biografi"/> Hasil karyana anu paling terkenal nyaéta Kuda Sforza anu dikerjakeunnana salila kurang leuwih 11 taun.<ref name="Biografi"/> Da Vinci teu sa ukur ngalukis jeung nyieun patung, tapi ogé nyieun rancangan jalan, walungan, kanal-kanal di kota Milan.<ref name="Biografi"/> Anjeunna ogé terampil ngaulinkeun alat musik.<ref name="Biografi"/> Da Vinci tuluy dibéré pagawéan di kota Milan ku [[Raja Louis XII]] jeung [[Paus Leo X]] di kota [[Roma]].<ref name="Biografi"/> Anjeunna mantuan [[Raphael]] jeung [[Michaelangelo]] ngarancang katedral Santo Petrus.<ref name="Biografi"/> Dina kahirupanna Léonardo resep kana élmu pangaweruh.<ref name="Biografi"/> Anjeunna ngamimitian nalungtik manuk hiber jeung ngarancang mesin pikeun hiber.<ref name="Biografi"/> Pamikiranna éta aya dina buku catetanna saloba 7.000 kaca.<ref name="Biografi"/> Dina buku éta ogé aya sketsa ngeunaan studi awak manusa.<ref name="Biografi"/> Dina jaman éta, anatomi awak manusa teu leuwih ti saukur susugannan, sabab saha waé teu meunang ngabedah janazah.<ref name="Biografi"/> Ku kanekatanna susulumputan néangan kasempetan ngabedah awak jelma nu geus maot, nu engkéna tindakan anu teu lazim di jamanna ieu mérékeun kontribusi anu géde piekun dunia kadokteran.<ref name="Biografi"/> == Karya Da Vinci == === Lukisan === Sanajan lukisan Da Vinci loba kénéh nu can réngsé, anjeunna tetep saurang seniman anu luar biasa inovatif jeung mangaruhan.<ref name="Karya">[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/bio/l/leonardo/biograph.html Karya](Diaksés 22-11-2011)</ref> Dina taun mimiti, gaya lukisanna di sajajarkeun jeung [[Verrocchio]].<ref name="Karya"/> [[Gambar:Leonardo da Vinci - The Last Supper high res.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Lukisan ''The Last Supper'']] Inovasi gayana malah leuwih jelas dina lukisan [[The Last Supper]] (dijueun taun [[1495]]-[[1497]]), di mana anjeunna nyiptakeun deui hiji téma tradisional ku cara anu anyar.<ref name="Karya"/> Dina ieu lukisan, nunjukkeun gabar 12 urang murid sabagé tokoh individu, anu dikelompokeun dina hiji komposisi anu dinamis tina tilu bagéan.<ref name="Karya"/> Lukisan ieu dijieun dina dinding biara gereja Santa Maria delle Grazie di [[Milan]], [[Italia]].<ref name="The Last Supper">[http://www.sarapanpagi.org/the-last-supper-vt1071.html The Last Supper] (Diaksés 01-12-2011)</ref> Tapi ieu lukisan dijieun ku cét minyak anu goréng pikeun lukisan dina dinding nu nyebabkeun lukisan gancang pupul.<ref name="The Last Supper"/> Sabada sababaraha kali diréstorasi, ahirna dilakukeun réstorasi gedé-gedéan nu ahirna bérés taun [[1999]].<ref name="The Last Supper"/> [[Gambar:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Lukisan Mona Lisa Karya Da Vinci]] Salian ti '''The Last Supper''' lukisan nu leuwih terkenal deui nyaéta lukisan ''Mona Lisa''.<ref name="Mona Lisa">[http://www.davincilife.com/monalisa.html Mona Lisa] (Diaksés 02-12-2011)</ref> Lukisan Mona Lisa dikerjakeun kira-kira taun [[1503]]-[[1506]].<ref name="Sajarah Monalisa">[http://biokristi.sabda.org/leonardo_da_vinci Sajarah Monalisa] (diaksés 02-12-2011)</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Category:Arsitek Italia]] [[Category:Penemu Italia]] [[Category:Ilmuwan Italia]] [[Category:Pamatung Italia]] [[Category:Palukis Italia]] [[Category:Palukis renaisans]] 1rf0se3kte59hizhipupsculatu8t56 0 34850 711548 665055 2026-08-06T22:54:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711548 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Mikronésia ngalih ka dieu. Pikeun guna lian ti Mikronésia, tempo [[Mikronésia (disambiguasi)]]'' {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Federated States of Micronesia<br>Féderasi Mikronésia |image_flag = Flag of Federated States of Micronesia.svg |image_coat =Seal_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia.svg |symbol_type = Lambang |image_map = LocationMicronesia.png |national_motto = Peace Unity Liberty |national_anthem = <center>[[File:Micronesia National Anthem.ogg]]</center><br />"''[[Patriots of Micronesia]]''" |official_languages = [[basa Inggris|Inggris]] (nasional; basa wewengkon dipaké dina tingkat nagara bagian jeung kota) |demonym = Micronesian |capital = [[Palikir]] |latd=6 |latm=55 |latNS=N |longd=158 |longm=11 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Weno]] |government_type = [[Républik]] [[féderasi]] [[démokrasi répréséntatif|démokratik]] [[Sistem présidénsial|présidénsial]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Féderasi Mikronésia|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Féderasi Mikronésia|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[David W. Panuelo]] |leader_name2 = [[Yosiwo P. George]] |area_rank = ka-188 |area_magnitude = 1 E8 |area = 702 |areami² = 271 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = tiasa teu dipadulikeun |population_estimate = 111.000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 | version=2008 revision | format=.PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate=2009-03-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115172319/https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |date=2016-01-15 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-181 |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_census = 107.000 |population_census_year = 2000 |population_density = 158,1 |population_densitymi² = 409,6 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-66 |GDP_PPP = $341 yuta <!--World Bank 2009--> |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-176 |GDP_PPP_year = 2009 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2.664 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-117 |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Amérika Sarikat|AS]] (Wewengkon ''Trust'') |established_date1 = 3 Nopémber 1986 |HDI = 0,614<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2010|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=5 November 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121150504/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf |date=21 November 2010 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-103 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0">sedeng</span> |currency = [[Dolar Amérika Sarikat]] |currency_code = USD |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = +10 jeung +11 |utc_offset_DST = +10 jeung +11 |drives_on = tengen |cctld = [[.fm]] |calling_code = 691 |footnote1 = Dina asosiasi bébas jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]]. |footnote2 = GDP ditambih ku dana bantosan, raratana kira-kira $100 juta per taun (pakiraan 2002). |footnote3 = Pakiraan 2002. }} '''Féderasi Mikronésia''' ({{IPA-en|ˌmaɪkroʊˈniːʒə||en-us-Micronesia.ogg}}) mangrupa hiji nagara [[kapuloan]] [[daulat]], [[merdika]], diwangun ti opat [[Nagara bagian féderal|nagara bagian]] ti kulon ka wétan: [[Yap]], [[Chuuk]], [[Pohnpei]], jeung [[Kosrae]]. Nagara ieu miboga kira-kira 607 pulo jeung aréa <u>+</u>700&nbsp;km{{smallsup|2}} dina [[Samudra Pasifik Kulon]]. == Babagian administratif == {{utama|Babagian administratif Féderasi Mikronésia}} [[File:Map of the Federated States of Micronesia CIA.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Peta Féderasi Mikronésia]] Opat nagara bagian dina féderasi nyaéta: {| class="wikitable" border="1" |- !rowspan="2"|Bandéra !rowspan="2"|Nagara bagian !rowspan="2"|Ibu kota !rowspan="2"|Gubernur ayeuna !colspan="2"|Aréa !rowspan="2"|Populasi<ref name="FSM government website - Population">[http://www.fsmgov.org/info/people.html FSM government website - Population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629052438/http://www.fsmgov.org/info/people.html |date=2012-06-29 }}</ref> !colspan="2"|Kapadetan<br />populasi |- !km²<ref>[http://www.fsmgov.org/info/geog.html FSM government website - Geography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030807/http://www.fsmgov.org/info/geog.html |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> !mil² !per km²<ref name="FSM government website - Population"/> !per mil² |- |[[File:Flag of Chuuk.svg|50px]] || [[Chuuk]] || [[Weno]] || [[Johnson Elimo]] || 127 || 49,2 ||align="right"| 54.595 || 420 || 1088 |- |[[File:Flag of Kosrae.svg|50px]] || [[Kosrae]] || [[Tofol]] || [[Lyndon Jackson]] || 110|| 42,6 ||align="right"| 9.686 || 66 || 170 |- |[[File:Flag of Pohnpei (1977-1992).svg|50px]] || [[Pohnpei]] || [[Kolonia]] || [[John Ehsa]] || 345 || 133,2 ||align="right"| 34.685 || 98 || 255 |- |[[File:Flag of Yap.svg|50px]] || [[Yap]] || [[Colonia, Yap|Colonia]] || [[Sebastian Anefal]] || 118 ||45,6 ||align="right"| 16.436 ||94 || 243 |} Nagara-nagara bagian teras dibagi deui kana [[kotamadya]]. ==Transportasi== Féderasi Mikronésia miboga opat bandar udara internasional. * [[Bandar Udara Internasional Pohnpei]] di pulo utama nagara bagian Pohnpei. * [[Bandar Udara Internasional Chuuk]] aya dina pulo utama nagara bagian Chuuk. * [[Bandar Udara Internasional Kosrae]] located in the main island of the state of Kosrae. * [[Bandar Udara Internasional Yap]] aya dina pulo utama nagara bagian Yap. == Démografi == {{utama|Démografi Féderasi Mikronésia}} Populasi asli Féderasi Mikronésia, nu kalobaannana urang Mikronésia, diwangun ti rupa-rupa grup étnolinguistik. Chuuk 48.8%, Pohnpei 24.2%, Kosrae 6.2%, Yap 5.2%, kapuloan luar Yap 4.5%, [[Grup étnis Asia|Asia]] 1.8%, [[urang Polinésia|Polinésia]] 1.5%, nu lian 6.4%, teu kawanoh 1.4%. Minoritas nu lumayan gedé miboga ogé [[Padumukan Jepang di Féderasi Mikronésia|katurunan Jepang]], nu mangrupa hasil campuran antara urang Jepang jeung Mikronésia nalika wayah panjajahan Jepang.<ref>[http://www.fsmgov.org/press/pr12120a.htm President Emanuel Mori Meets With Japan Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015858/http://www.fsmgov.org/press/pr12120a.htm |date=2015-09-24 }}; [http://www.aesonline.org/3056 AESonline.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20070616091249/http://www.aesonline.org/3056 |date=2007-06-16 }} Pamaréntah Féderasi Mikronésia, 12 Désémber 2007</ref> Aya ogé populasi ékspatriat nu mekar di antarana urang Amérika, Australia, Éropa, jeung padumuk ti Cina jeung Pilipina ti wayah 1990. [[Basa Inggris]] geus jadi basa umum pamaréntah, jeung pikeun atikan sékundér jeung térsiér. Di luar kota utama ti opat nagara bagian, basa daérah dipaké sacara utama. Kamekaran populasi tetep luhur dina 3% per taun, rada disaimbangan ku émigrasi. == Budaya == [[File:Yap Stone Money.jpg|thumb|Hiji conto uang batu Yap nu gedé (kira-kira 2.4 m luhurna) ([[Batu Rai]]) di désa Gachpar.]] {{See also|Musik Féderasi Mikronésia}} Saban opat nagara bagian miboga budaya jeung tradisina sosorangan, tapi aya ogé patalian budaya jeung ékonomi nu umum nu geus aya ti baheula. Contona, kamiripan budaya kawas kapentingan kulawaga nu kaluas tradisionalna jeung sistem klan bisa dipanggih dina sadaya kapuloan. Kapuloan Yap katelah "uang batu"-na ([[Batu Rai]]), cakram gedé biasana ti kalsit, nepi ka 4&nbsp;m diaméterna, kalawan lang di tengahna. Padumuk satempat, nyaho yén nu boga hiji, teu kudu dipindahkeun basa nu boga ganti. Aya lima jenis utama: ''Mmbul'', ''Gaw'', ''Ray'', ''Yar'', jeung ''Reng'', nu panungtungna ngan {{convert|30|cm|0|abbr=on}} diaméterna. ===Basa=== Basa-basa di Féderasi Mikronésia kaasup basa Inggris (basa resmi jeung umum), [[basa Truk]], [[basa Pohnpei]], [[basa Yap]], [[basa Kosrae]],<ref>CIA World Factbook</ref> jeung aya sababaraha basa daérah. ===Literatur=== Ngan aya saeutik panulis ti Féderasi Mikronésia.<ref>[http://guam.mvarietynews.com/index.php?view=article&id=4591%3Aseeking-micronesian-literary-writers&option=com_content&Itemid=2 "Seeking Micronesian literary writers"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928150350/http://guam.mvarietynews.com/index.php?view=article&id=4591%3Aseeking-micronesian-literary-writers&option=com_content&Itemid=2 |date=2014-09-28 }}, ''Marianas Variety'', February 18, 2009</ref> Dina 2008, [[Emelihter Kihleng]] minangka warga nagara nu kahiji medalkeun hiji kumpulan puisi dina basa Inggris.<ref>[http://www.doi.gov/oia/press/2008/05122008b.html "Micronesian Poet Publishes Collection of Poems"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229151437/http://www.doi.gov/oia/press/2008/05122008b.html |date=2012-02-29 }}, Office of Insular Affairs, May 12, 2008</ref> ==Tempo ogé== * [[Daptar nagara]] ==Catetan suku== {{Reflist|2}} ==Réferénsi== # U.S.-CIA. [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fm.html CIA - The World Factbook: Federated States of Micronesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612210423/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fm.html |date=2007-06-12 }}. ''The World Factbook''. United States of America: Central Intelligence Agency. 2003. # [http://www.bilet-v-cirk.ru/history_Federated_States_of_Micronesia.html History_Federated_States_of_Micronesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080204174000/http://www.bilet-v-cirk.ru/history_Federated_States_of_Micronesia.html |date=2008-02-04 }} ==Sumber== *{{cite book |last=Brower |first=Kenneth |title=Micronesia: The Land, the People, and the Sea |url=https://archive.org/details/micronesialandpe0000brow |authorlink= |coauthors=Harri Peccinotti |year=1981 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |location=Baton Rouge |isbn=0807109924 }} *{{cite journal |last=Darrach |first=Brad |authorlink= |coauthors=David Doubilet |year=1995 |month= |title=Treasured Islands |journal=Life |volume= |issue=August 1995 |pages=46–53 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} *{{cite journal |last=Falgout |first=Suzanne |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1995 |month= |title=Americans in Paradise: Anthropologists, Custom, and Democracy in Postwar Micronesia |journal=Ethnology |volume=34 |issue=Spring 1995 |pages=99–111 |id= |quote=|doi=10.2307/3774100 |publisher=Ethnology, Vol. 34, No. 2|jstor= 3774100 }} *{{cite journal |last=Friedman |first=Hal M. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1993 |month= |title=The Beast in Paradise: The United States Navy in Micronesia, 1943–1947 |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=62 |issue=May 1993 |pages=173–195 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} *{{cite journal |last=Friedman |first=Hal M. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1994 |month= |title=Arguing over Empire |journal=Journal of Pacific History |volume=29 |issue=1994 |pages=36–48 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote=|doi=10.1080/00223349408572757 }} *{{cite book |last=Hanlon |first=David |title=Remaking Micronesia: Discourses over Development in a Pacific Territory, 1944–1982 |url=https://archive.org/details/remakingmicrones0000hanl |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location=Honolulu |isbn=0824818946 }} *{{cite journal |last=Hezel |first=Francis X. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1995 |month= |title=The Church in Micronesia |journal=America |volume=18 |issue=February 1995 |pages=23–24 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} *{{cite book |last=Kluge |first=P. F. |title=The Edge of Paradise: America in Micronesia |url=https://archive.org/details/edgeofparadiseam00klug |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1991 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0394581784 }} *{{cite journal |last=Malcomson |first=S. L. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1989 |month= |title=Stranger than Paradise |journal=Mother Jones |volume=14 |issue=January 1989 |pages=19–25 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} *{{cite journal |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= |month= |title=Micronesia: A New Nation |journal=U.S. News & World Report |volume= |issue=October 15, 1984 |pages=80–81 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} *{{cite journal |last=Parfit |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2003 |month= |title=Islands of the Pacific |journal=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |volume=203 |issue=March 2003 |pages=106–125 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} *{{cite journal |last=Patterson |first=Carolyn Bennett |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1986 |month= |title=In the Far Pacific: At the Birth of Nations |journal=National Geographic |volume=170 |issue=October 1986 |pages=460–500 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} *{{cite journal |last=Peoples |first=James G. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1993 |month= |title=Political Evolution in Micronesia |journal=Ethnology |volume=32 |issue=Winter 1993 |pages=1–17 |id= |quote=|doi=10.2307/3773542 |publisher=Ethnology, Vol. 32, No. 1|jstor= 3773542 }} *{{cite journal |last=Rainbird |first=Paul |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2003 |month= |title=Taking the Tapu: Defining Micronesia by Absence |journal=Journal of Pacific History |volume=38 |issue=September 2003 |pages=237–250 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote=|doi=10.1080/0022334032000120558 }} *{{cite journal |last=Schwalbenberg |first=Henry M. |authorlink= |coauthors=Thomas Hatcher |year=1994 |month= |title=Micronesian Trade and Foreign Assistance |journal=Journal of Pacific History |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=95–104 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote=|doi=10.1080/00223349408572762 }} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{SisterLinks|Federated States of Micronesia}} ; Pamaréntah * [http://www.fsmgov.org/ Pamaréntah Féderasi Mikronésia] ; Informasi umum * {{CIA World Factbook link|fm|Federated States of Micronesia}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/micronesia.htm Féderasi Mikronésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611164747/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/micronesia.htm |date=2010-06-11 }} ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Oceania/Micronesia,_Federated_States_of|Féderasi Mikronésia}} ; Média warta * [http://www.yapnetworker.com/ The Yap Networker] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070718084102/http://www.yapnetworker.com/ |date=2007-07-18 }} – Sumber warta Yap ; Peta * {{Wikiatlas|the Federated States of Micronesia}} * [http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~wsayres/Pohnpei/NanMadol.html Nan Madol islet complex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312015637/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~wsayres/Pohnpei/NanMadol.html |date=2009-03-12 }} Nyadiaeun rékonstruksi kapuloan jeung fitur pulo leutik utama, basis kana komputer ; Pelesir * {{wikivoyage|Micronesia}} * [http://www.anytravels.com/australia/micronesia/ Ihtisar Pelesir Mikronésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716220829/http://www.anytravels.com/australia/micronesia/ |date=2011-07-16 }} * [http://www.visityap.com/ visityap.com] {{Nagara di Oséania}}<br> {{Austronesian-speaking}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mikronesia Federasi}} [[Kategori:Féderasi Mikronésia| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara féderal]] [[Kategori:Nagara kapuloan|Mikronesia]] [[Kategori:Urut koloni Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Urut koloni Jérman]] [[Kategori:Urut koloni Jepang]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Nagara pamaké basa Austronésia]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1986]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|Mikronesia]] edl39r9yzoqcvnxc3g0rev59l7yh2lv 0 35110 711631 650572 2026-08-07T00:33:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711631 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|nagara bagianna|pulona|Hawaii (pulo)}} {{Coord|21|18|41|N|157|47|47|W|type:adm1st_scale:3000000_region:US-HI|display=title}} {{Infobox U.S. state | Name = Hawaii | Fullname = Nagara Bagian Hawaii<br>State of Hawaii<br>''Moku{{okina}}āina o Hawai{{okina}}i'' | Othername = Mokuāina o Hawaii | Flag = Flag of Hawaii.svg | Flaglink = [[Bandéra Hawaii|Bandéra]] | Seal = Seal of the State of Hawaii.svg | Seallink = [[Lambang Hawaii|Lambang]] | Coat of Arms = Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Hawaii.svg | Former = Téritori Hawaii | Former_flag of the state = Flag of Hawaii.svg | Map = Map of USA HI.svg | Nickname = Nagara Bagian [[Aloha]] | Motto = [[Lambang Hawaii|Ua Mau ke Ea o ka {{okina}}Āina i ka Pono]]<br/> ("The Life of the Land is Perpetuated in Righteousness")<br/> '''[[Lagu nagara bagian|Lagu]]''': [[Hawaii Pono'i|Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī]]<br/> ("Hawaii’s Own True Sons") | MottoEnglish = | Capital = [[Honolulu]] | LargestCity = [[Honolulu]] | OfficialLang = [[basa Inggris]], [[basa Hawaii]] | Demonym = Hawaiian (tempo catetan)<ref> Local usage generally reserves ''Hawaiian'' as an [[ethnonym]] referring to [[Native Hawaiians]]. ''Hawaii resident'' or ''islander'' is the preferred local form to refer to state residents in general regardless of ethnicity. The ''[[Associated Press Stylebook]]'', 42nd ed. (2007), also prescribes this usage (p. 112).</ref> | Governor = [[Neil Abercrombie]] | Lieutenant Governor = [[Brian Schatz]] | Legislature = [[Législatur Nagara Bagian Hawaii|Législatur Nagara Bagian]] | Upperhouse = [[Sénat Hawaii|Sénat]] | Lowerhouse = [[Déwan Pawakilan Hawaii|Déwan Pawakilan]] | Senators = [[Daniel Inouye]] <br/>[[Daniel Akaka]] |Representative=[[Distrik pawakilan kahiji Hawaii|1]]: [[Colleen Hanabusa]] (D)<br/>[[Distrik pawakilan kadua Hawaii|2]]: [[Mazie Hirono]] (D) | PostalAbbreviation = HI | AreaRank = ka-43 | TotalAreaUS =10.931 | TotalArea = 28.311 | LandAreaUS = 6.423 | LandArea = 16.638 | WaterAreaUS = 4.507 | WaterArea = 11.672 | PCWater = 41,2 | PopRank = ka-40 | 2000Pop (old) = 1.211.537 | 2000Pop = 1.360.301 (Sénsus 2010)<ref name=08CenEst>{{cite web | title = Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008 | publisher=United States Census Bureau | accessdate = February 6, 2009 | url = http://www.census.gov/popest/states/tables/NST-EST2008-01.csv}}</ref> <br/> 1.211.537 (2000) | DensityRank = ka-13 | 2000Density = 72,83 | 2000DensityUS = 188,6 | MedianHouseholdIncome = $63.746 | IncomeRank = ka-5 | AdmittanceOrder = ka-50 | AdmittanceDate = 21 Agustus 1959 | TimeZone = [[Zona Wanci Hawaii-Aleut]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-10<br/> (euweuh [[DST]]) | Longitude = 154° 48′ W to 178° 22′ W | Latitude = 18° 55′ N to 28° 27′ N | LengthUS =1.522 | WidthUS = n/a | Width = n/a | Length = 2.450 | HighestPoint = [[Mauna Kea]]<ref>{{cite ngs|id=TU2314|designation=Summit USGS 1977|accessdate=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html|title=Elevations and Distances in the United States|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=2001|accessdate=October 21, 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722022527/http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |date=July 22, 2012 }}</ref><ref name=NAVD88>Elevation adjusted to [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]].</ref><ref>The summit of [[Mauna Kea]] is the highest point in [[Oceania]]. Mauna Kea is also the tallest mountain on Earth as measured from base to summit. The [[shield volcano]] sits on the floor of the Pacific Ocean at a depth of {{convert|5998|m|ft|0|sp=us}} for a total height of {{convert|10205.3|m|ft|0|sp=us}}</ref> | HighestElevUS = 13.803 | HighestElev = 4207,3 | MeanElevUS =3.030 | MeanElev = 920 | LowestPoint = [[Samudra Pasifik]]<ref name=USGS/> | LowestElevUS = 0 | LowestElev = 0 | ISOCode = US-HI | Website = www.hawaii.gov }} '''Hawaii''' ([[basa Hawaii]]: '''Moku{{okina}}āina o Hawai{{okina}}i''') mangrupa [[nagara bagian]] [[Amérika Sarikat]] ka-50 (ti 21 Agustus 1959), jeung sahiji-hijina nagara bagian AS nu diwangun sapinuhna ku kapuloan. Hawaii mangrupa grup kapuloan nu pangkalérna di [[Polinésia]]. Ibu kotana nyaéta [[Honolulu]], aya di pulo [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]]. ==Étimologi== Kecap [[basa Hawaii]] ''Hawai{{okina}}i'' diturunkeun ti [[basa Proto-Polinésia|Proto-Polinésia]] *''Sawaiki'', kalawan [[Rékonstruksi internal|rékonstruksi]] nu boga harti "lemah cai";<ref>Pollex—a reconstruction of the Proto-Polynesian lexicon, Biggs and Clark, 1994. The asterisk preceding the word signifies that it is a reconstructed word form.</ref> [[Kognat]] ''Hawai{{okina}}i'' dipanggih di rupa-rupa basa Polinésia nu lian, kaasup [[basa Māori|Māori]] (''Hawaiki''), [[basa Maori Kapuloan Cook|Rarotonga]] (''ʻAvaiki''), jeung [[basa Samoa|Samoa]] (''Savai{{okina}}i''). Dumasar Pukui jeung Elbert,<ref>Pukui and Elbert 1986, p. 62.</ref> "Di tempat lian di Polinésia, Hawai{{okina}}i atawa kognatna boga harti alam baka atawa bumi sepuh, tapi di Hawai{{okina}}i, teu boga harti nanaon."<ref>Pukui, Elbert, and Mookini 1974.</ref> ==Tempo ogé== *[[Daptar inohong Hawaii]] ==Réferénsi== {{reflist|30em}} ==Bacaan salajengna== {{Refbegin|30em}} * The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV. * Bushnell, O. A. 1993. ''The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawaii''. ISBN 0824814576. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press * Kinzer, Stephen 2007, ''Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq''. ISBN 0805082409. Times Books * {{Cite book | last = Lyovin | first = Anatole V. | title = An Introduction to the Languages of the World | url = https://archive.org/details/introductiontola0000lyov | location = New York | publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-19-508116-1 | unused_data = ISBN status = May be invalid—please double check}} * {{Cite book | last = Pukui | first = Mary Kawena | coauthors = Samuel H. Elbert | title = Hawaiian Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/hawaiiandictiona0000puku_u8t6 | location = Honolulu | publisher=University of Hawaii Press | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-8248-0703-0 | unused_data = ISBN status = May be invalid—please double check}} * Schamel, Wynell and Charles E. Schamel. "The 1897 Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii." Social Education 63, 7 (November/December 1999): 402–408. * Stokes, John F.G. 1932. "Spaniard and the Sweet Potato in Hawaii and Hawaiian-American Contacts." American Anthropologist, New Series, v, 34, n, 4, pp.&nbsp;594–600. {{Refend}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{SisterLinks}} *{{dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Hawaii|Hawaii}} *{{wikivoyage|Hawaii}} * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/statefacts/hi.htm Hawaii State Fact Sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004170230/http://www.ers.usda.gov/StateFacts/HI.htm |date=2011-10-04 }} ti Departemén Agrikultur AS {{Polynesia}}<br> {{Countries and territories of Oceania}}<br> {{Austronesian-speaking}}<br> [[Kategori:Hawaii| ]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1959]] [[Kategori:Nagara bagian Amérika Sarikat]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Amerika Sarikat}} l0fdvgdmzrescz1ivvjg48avu9qpkyl 0 35126 711837 661610 2026-08-07T05:34:03Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711837 wikitext text/x-wiki {{for|album beunang Kris Kristofferson|Easter Island (album)}} {{Redirect|Rapa Nui}} {{Coord|27|7|S|109|22|W|region:CL_type:isle|display=title}} {{Infobox country |native_name = ''Rapa Nui<br />Isla de Pascua'' |conventional_long_name = Pulo Paskah |common_name = Easter Island |image_flag = Flag of Rapa Nui, Chile.svg |image_coat = Escudo de la Isla de Pascua.svg |symbol_type = Lambang |national_motto = |national_anthem = <!--''[name of/link to anthem]''--> |other_symbol_type = <!--Another symbol, e.g. Hymn--> |other_symbol = <!--another symbol text--> |image_map = Easter Island map-en.svg |map_caption = Peta Pulo Paskah némbongkeun [[Terevaka]], [[Poike]], [[Rano Kau]], [[Motu Nui]], [[Orongo]], jeung [[Bandar Udara Internasional Mataveri|Mataveri]]; ahu utama ditandaan ku [[moai]] |image_map2 = <!--Another map, if required--> |map_caption2 = <!--Caption to place below second map--> |capital = [[Hanga Roa]] |latd=27 |latm=9 |latNS=S |longd=109 |longm=25.5 |longEW=W <!--capital's latitude and longitude--> |official_languages = [[Basa Spanyol]], [[basa Rapa Nui]] <ref>[http://www.portalrapanui.cl/rapanui/informaciones.htm Portal Rapa Nui] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114041943/http://www.portalrapanui.cl/rapanui/informaciones.htm |date=2012-01-14 }}</ref> |ethnic_groups = [[Rapanui]] 60%, [[Grup étnik Eropa|Eropa]] ataea [[mestizo]] 39%, Amérindian 1% |ethnic_groups_year = 2002 |demonym = [[Rapa Nui]] atawa Pascuense |government_type = Wewengkon husus Cili<ref>Pending the enactment of a special charter, the island will continue to be governed as a province of the Valparaíso Region.</ref> |leader_title1 = Gubernur |leader_name1 = [[Carmen Cardinali]] |leader_title2 = [[Mayor]] |leader_name2 = [[Luz Zasso Paoa]] |sovereignty_type = [[Anéksasi]] |sovereignty_note = ka [[Cili]] |established_event1 = Traktat ditandatanganan |established_date1 = 9 Séptémber 1888 |established_event2 = |established_date2 = |area_rank = |area_magnitude = 1 E8 |area = 163,6 |areami² = 63,1 |percent_water = |population_estimate = 5.034<ref>[http://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/demografia_y_vitales/proyecciones/MenPrincOK.xls National Statistics Office] (INE).</ref> |population_estimate_rank = |population_estimate_year = 2011 |population_census = 3.791 |population_census_year = 2002 |population_density = 30,77 |population_densitymi² = 79,78 |population_density_rank = |GDP_PPP = |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = |GDP_nominal_per_capita = |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |Gini = |Gini_rank = |Gini_year = |Gini_category = |HDI = |HDI_rank = |HDI_year = |HDI_category = |currency = [[Peso Cili|Peso]] |currency_code = CLP | time_zone = [[Wanci di Chile|EAST]] | utc_offset = −6 | time_zone_DST = [[Wanci di Cili|EASST]] | utc_offset_DST = −5 |cctld = .cl |calling_code = +56 32 |image_map3 = |footnotes = |footnote1 = |footnote2 = }} '''Pulo Paskah''' ({{lang-rap|Rapa Nui}}, {{lang-es|Isla de Pascua}}) mangrupa hiji pulo [[Polinésia]] di [[Samudra Pasifik]] Kidul, dina titik nu pangkidulna ti [[Sagitilu Polinésia]]. Hiji wewengkon husus [[Cili]] nu dianéksasi dina 1888, Pulo Paskah katelah ku 887 patung monuméntalna, nu disebut ''[[moai]]''. Pulo Paskah diklaim salaku pulo nu pangkaisolasina di dunya nu didumukan.<ref>[http://www.portalrapanui.cl/easterisland/index.htm "Welcome to Tapa Nui - Isla de Pascua - Easter Island"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101221510/http://www.portalrapanui.cl/easterisland/index.htm |date=2011-11-01 }} on Portal RapaNui, the island's official website</ref> [[File:Standing Moai at Ahu Tongariki, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean.jpg|700px|center|thumb|Pulo Paskah]] ==Tempo ogé== * [[Omphalos]] * [[Mitologi Rapa Nui]] ==Réferénsi== ;Catetan {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ;Bibliograpi * {{cite book|last= McLaughlin|first= Shawn|year= 2007|title= The Complete Guide to Easter Island|location=Los Osos| publisher=Easter Island Foundation}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Jared Diamond|last=Diamond|first= Jared|year=2005|title=[[Collapse (book)|Collapse. How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed.]]|location=New York|publisher=Viking|isbn=0-14-303655-6 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last= Fischer|first= Steven Roger|year= 1995|title= Preliminary Evidence for Cosmogonic Texts in Rapanui's Rongorongo Inscriptions|journal= Journal of the Polynesian Society |issue=104|pages=pp. 303–21}} * {{cite book|last= Fischer|first= Steven Roger|year= 1997|title= Glyph-breaker: A Decipherer's Story|location=New York| publisher=Copernicus/Springer-Verlag}} * {{cite book|last=Fischer|first=Steven Roger|year= 1997|title= RongoRongo, the Easter Island Script: History, Traditions, Texts|location= Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0198237103}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Thor Heyerdal|last=Heyerdal|first=Thor |year=1961|title=The Concept of Rongorongo Among the Historic Population of Easter Island|editor=Thor Heyerdahl & Edwin N. Ferdon Jr.|location=Stockholm|publisher=Forum |ref=harv}} * Heyerdal, Thor ''Aku-Aku; The 1958 Expedition to Easter Island.'' * {{cite journal|authorlink=Alfred Metraux|last=Metraux|first=Alfred|year=1940|title=Ethnology of Easter Island|journal=Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin |issue=160|location= Honolulu|publisher= Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Katherine Routledge|last=Routledge|first=Katherine|year=1919|title= The Mystery of Easter Island. The story of an expedition|url=https://archive.org/details/mysteryofeasteri0000rout_y5e4|location= London|isbn=0404142311 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|authorlink=David Steadman|last=Steadman|first=David|year=2006|url=http://books.google.com/?id=vBZXJQ3HDg0C|title=Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-77142-7 |ref=harv}} ;Bacaan salajengna * {{cite book|last=Altman|first= Ann M.|year= 2004|title= Early Visitors to Easter Island 1864–1877 (translations of the accounts of Eugéne Eyraud, Hippolyte Roussel, Pierre Loti and Alphonse Pinart; with an Introduction by Georgia Lee)|location=[[Los Osos]]|publisher=Easter Island Foundation}} * {{cite book| last=Englert|first=Sebastian F. |year=1970|title=Island at the Center of the World| url=https://archive.org/details/islandatcenterof00seba|location=New York|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons}} * {{cite journal|last=Hunt|first=Terry L.|title=Rethinking the Fall of Easter Island|journal=American Scientist|issue=94|page=p. 412|date=September–October 2006}} * {{cite book|last= Lee|first= Georgia|year= 1992|title= The Rock Art of Easter Island. Symbols of Power, Prayers to the Gods|url= https://archive.org/details/rockartofeasteri0000leeg|location= Los Angeles|publisher= The Institute of Archaeology Publications|isbn= 0917956745}} * {{cite journal|last= Thomson|first=William J. |year=1891|title=Te Pito te Henua, or Easter Island. Report of the United States National Museum for the Year Ending June 30, 1889|journal=Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution for 1889|pages=pp. 447–552|location=Washington|publisher=Smithsonian Institution}}[http://books.google.com/books?id=8gKvwnWvwjsC in Google Books] * {{cite book|last= van Tilburg|first=Jo Anne|year=1994|title=Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture|url= https://archive.org/details/easterislandarch0000joan|location=Washington D.C.|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|isbn= 0714125040}} * Vergano, Dan. [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/columnist/vergano/2009-11-13-easter-island_N.htm "Were rats behind Easter Island mystery?"] ''[[USA Today]]'' (November 15, 2009) <gallery> File:Moai Rano raraku.jpg File:Amanecer en Tongariki, Isla de Pascua - Flickr - Alanbritom.jpg File:TAMURE.png File:Mataveri Airport Easter Island Chile.jpg File:Moai Kavakava 4.JPG </gallery> ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons|Easter Island}} * {{wikivoyage|Easter Island}} * [http://www.chileculture.org/easter-island/ Masarakat Budaya Cili - Pulo Paskah] * [http://www.easterislands.net/ Easter Island] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121837/http://www.easterislands.net/ |date=2016-03-04 }} {{Polynesia}}<br> {{Austronesian-speaking}}<br> {{Countries and territories of Oceania}}<br> [[Kategori:Komune di Cili]] [[Kategori:Propinsi di Cili]] [[Kategori:Pulo Paskah| ]] [[Kategori:Situs arkéologi di Cili]] [[Kategori:Pulo di Cili]] [[Kategori:Pulo di Oséania]] [[Kategori:Polinésia]] [[Kategori:Géografi Région Valparaíso]] [[Kategori:Situs Arkéologi di Oséania]] [[Kategori:Pulo vulkanis]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Cili}} cycuq0qyjqtjhekwm9hd3wy5xk20d2h 0 35170 711860 651732 2026-08-07T05:58:13Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711860 wikitext text/x-wiki {{for|samenanjung di Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Pulo Bunker, Nova Scotia}} '''Pulo Jarvis''' (baheulana kawanoh minangka '''Pulo Bunker''') mangrupa hiji [[pulo karang]] 4,5 kilométer pasagi (1,75 mil pasagi) nu teu didumukan, aya di [[Samudra Pasifik]] Kidul dina {{coord|0|22|S|160|01|W|type:isle_scale:30000_region:UM|display=inline,title}}, kira-kira saparo jalan antara [[Hawaii]] jeung [[Kapuloan Cook]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink= |coauthors=Thomas George Bonney |title=The structure and distribution of coral reefs |url=https://archive.org/details/structuredistrib0000darw |year=1897 |publisher=D. Appleton and Company |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/structuredistrib0000darw/page/207 207] |isbn=0520032829 }}</ref> Pulo Jarvis mangrupa [[Téritori Amérika Sarikat|téritori nu teu kagabung, teu kaorganisasi]] ti [[Amérika Sarikat]], diadministrasi ku [[Dinas Margasatwa jeung Lauk Amérika Sarikat]] ti [[Departemén Jero Nagri Amérika Sarikat]] minangka bagian ti sistem [[Palindungan Margasatwa Nasional]].<ref name="doi">{{cite web |url=http://www.doi.gov/oia/Islandpages/jarvispage.htm |title=Jarvis Island |publisher=DOI Office of Insular Affairs |accessdate=2007-01-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207205021/http://www.doi.gov/oia/Islandpages/jarvispage.htm |date=2012-02-07 }}</ref> == Réferénsi == {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Jarvis Pulo}} [[Kategori:Pulo Jarvis| ]] [[Kategori:Pulo nu diklaim dina Undang-Undang Kapuloan Guano]] [[Kategori:Réstorasi pulo]] [[Kategori:Karang di Amérika Sarikat]] {{geo-stub|Jarvis}} mxgvws7epalnpm0ad0bahap1emh3k6f 0 35387 711787 666534 2026-08-07T04:22:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711787 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country|native_name = Polynésie française<br />Pōrīnetia Farāni |conventional_long_name = Polinésia Prancis |common_name = French Polynesia |demonym = French Polynesian |image_flag = Flag of French Polynesia.svg |flag_caption = Overseas collectivity flag |image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_French_Polynesia.svg |image_map = French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg |national_motto = <span style="line-height:1.25em;">''"Tahiti Nui Māre'are'a"''<br/>''"[[Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité]]"''</span> |national_anthem = ''[[La Marseillaise]]'' |official_languages = basa Prancis |capital = [[Papeete|Papeetē]] |ethnic_groups = (dina 1988, sénsus étnis nu pangahirna)<ref name=ethnicities>{{cite web |url=http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/2042/14394/1/HERMES_2002_32-33_367.pdf |title=Frontiéres ethniques et redéfinition du cadre politique à Tahiti |format=PDF |accessdate=31 May 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326032004/http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/2042/14394/1/HERMES_2002_32-33_367.pdf |date=26 March 2009 }}</ref><br />66.5% [[urang Polinésia]] tulén;<br />7.1% urang Polinésia kalawan campuran saeutik Éropa jeung/atawa Asia Wétan;<br />11.9% [[Grup étnis Éropa|urang Éropa]] (kalobaannana Perancis);<br />9.3% Campuran (katurunan Éropa jeung Polinésia);<br />4.7% urang Asia Wétan (kalobaanana [[Urang Cina peuntas laut|Cina]]) |latd= 17|latm= 34|latNS= S|longd= 149|longm= 36|longEW= W |largest_city = [[Faaa|Fa'a'a]] |government_type = [[Wewengkon depéndensi]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Perancis]] |leader_name1 = [[François Hollande]] |leader_title2 = [[Présidén Polinésia Perancis|Présidén<br/>Polinésia Perancis]] |leader_name2 = <br/>[[Édouard Fritch]] |leader_title3 = [[Pupuhu Kolonial jeung Departméntal Polinésia Perancis|Komisionér Luhur]] |leader_name3 = <br/>[[Lionel Beffre]] |area_rank = ka-173 |area_magnitude = 1 E9 |area = 4.167 |areami² = 1.609 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 12 |population_estimate = 267.000<ref name="population">{{fr icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ispf.pf/ISPF/EnqRep/DemoEtatCivil/bilan.aspx|title=Bilan, principaux indicateurs et estimations de population (Ensemble Polynésie)|author=Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française (ISPF)|accessdate=21 January 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118061522/http://www.ispf.pf/ISPF/EnqRep/DemoEtatCivil/bilan.aspx |date=18 January 2012 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-177 |population_estimate_year = 1&nbsp;Jan.&nbsp;2010 |population_census = 259.596<ref name="census">{{fr icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ispf.pf/ISPF/EnqRep/Recensement/Recens2007/Popleg.aspx|title=Population légale au 20 août 2007|author=Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française (ISPF)|accessdate=13 January 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118005821/http://www.ispf.pf/ISPF/EnqRep/Recensement/Recens2007/Popleg.aspx |date=18 January 2012 }}</ref> |population_census_rank = ka-177 |population_census_year = Ags.&nbsp;2007 |population_density = 63 |population_densitymi² = 164 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-130 |GDP_nominal = US$5.65&nbsp;milyar<ref name="GDP">{{fr icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ispf.pf/ISPF/Libraries/ComptEco/PIB_2006.sflb|title=La Production Intérieure Brute et le Produit Intérieur Brut|author=Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française (ISPF)|accessdate=14 September 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091113165225/http://www.ispf.pf/ISPF/Libraries/ComptEco/PIB_2006.sflb |date=13 November 2009 }}</ref> |GDP_nominal_rank = <small>teu&nbsp;karéngking</small> |GDP_nominal_year = 2006 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = US$21.999<ref name=GDP /> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = <small>teu&nbsp;karéngking</small> |sovereignty_type = [[Koléktivitas peuntas laut|Koléktivitas peuntas laut Perancis]] |established_event1 = [[Protéktorat]] |established_date1 = 1842 |established_event2 = [[Wewengkon peuntas laut (Perancis)|Wewengkon peuntas laut]] |established_date2 = 1946 |established_event3 = {{nowrap|[[Koléktivitas peuntas laut]]}} |established_date3 = 2004 |currency = [[Franc CFP]] |currency_code = XPF |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = -10, −9:30, -9 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = tengen |cctld = [[.pf]] |calling_code = 689 }} '''Polinésia Prancis''' ({{lang-fr|Polynésie française}}, {{IPA-fr|pɔlinezi fʁɑ̃sɛz|pron}}; {{lang-ty|Pōrīnetia Farāni}}) mangrupa hiji [[Nagara peuntas laut Perancis|nagara peuntas laut]] ti [[Perancis]] (''pays d'outre-mer''). Diwangun ti sababaraha grup pulo-pulo [[Polinésia]], nu pangsohorna nyaéta [[Tahiti]] dina grup [[Kapuloan Society]], nu ogé mangrupa pulo nu panglobana populasina jeung kadudukan ibu kota ([[Papeete|Papeetē]]). == Administrasi == Antara 1946 jeung 2003, Polinésia Prancis miboga status wewengkon peuntas laut (basa Perancis: ''[[territoire d'outre-mer]]'', atawa ''TOM''). Dina 2003, jadi hiji koléktivitas peuntas laut (basa Prancis: ''[[collectivité d'outre-mer]]'', atawa COM). Dina undang-undang ti 27 Pébruari 2004 méré pangkat katangtu ''[[Nagara peuntas laut Perancis|nagara peuntas laut dina républik]]'' ({{lang-fr|pays d'outre-mer au sein de la République}}, atawa POM), tapi tampa parobihan légal dina statusna. === Babagian administratif === {{utama|Babagian administratif Polinésia Perancis}} Polinésia Perancis miboga lima subdivisi administratif ({{lang-fr|subdivisions administratives}}): * [[Kapuloan Marquesas]] ({{lang-fr|(les) (Îles) Marquises}} atawa resmina {{lang|fr|''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Marquises''}}) * [[Kapuloan Leeward (Kapuloan Society)|Kapuloan Leeward]] ({{lang-fr|(les) Îles Sous-le-Vent}} atawa resmina {{lang|fr|''la subdivision administrative des Îles Sous-le-Vent''}}) (dua ''{{lang|fr|subdivisions administratives}}'' [[Kapuloan Windward (Kapuloan Society)|Kapuloan Windward]] jeung [[Kapuloan Leeward (Kapuloan Society)|Kapuloan Leeward]] mangrupa bagian ti [[Kapuloan Society]]) * [[Kapuloan Windward (Kapuloan Society)|Kapuloan Windward]] ({{lang-fr|(les) Îles du Vent}} atawa resmina {{lang|fr|''la subdivision administrative des Îles du Vent''}}) (dua ''{{lang|fr|subdivisions administratives}}'' [[Kapuloan Windward (Kapuloan Society)|Kapuloan Windward]] jeung [[Kapuloan Leeward (Kapuloan Society)|Kapuloan Leeward]] mangrupa bagian ti [[Kapuloan Society]]) * [[Îles Tuamotu-Gambier|Tuāmotu-Gambier]] ({{lang-fr|(les) (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier}} atawa resmina ''{{lang|fr|la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier}}'') ([[Tuamotu]] jeung [[Kapuloan Gambier]]) * [[Kapuloan Austral]] ({{lang-fr|(les) (Îles) Australes}} atawa resmina {{lang|fr|''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Australes''}}) (kaasup [[Kapuloan Bass (Polinésia Perancis)|Kapuloan Bass]]) == Géografi == {{utama|Géografi Polinésia Perancis}} Pulo-pulo di Polinésia Perancis miboga total aréa daratan 4.167 kilométer pasagi <!--Formatted per WP:MOSNUM-->(1.622 mil pasagi) kasebar dina wewengkon laut saluas 2.500.000 kilométer pasagi (965.255&nbsp;mil&nbsp;pasagi). Aya kira-kira 130 pulo di Polinésia Perancis.<ref>[[Kingfisher plc|Kingfisher]] Geography Encyclopedia. ISBN 1-85613-582-9. Page 546</ref> Titik nu pangluhurna [[Gunung Orohena]] di Tahiti. Salian ti [[Tahiti]], sababraha [[atol]], pulo, jeung grup kapuloan utama di Polinésia Perancis nu lian nyaéta: [[Ahe|Ahē]], [[Bora Bora|Pora Pora]], [[Hiva Oa|Hiva 'Oa]], [[Huahine]], [[Maiao|Mai'ao]], [[Maupiti]], [[Mehetia|Meheti'a]], [[Moorea|Mo'orea]], [[Nuku Hiva]], [[Raiatea|Ra'iātea]], [[Tahaa|Taha'a]], [[Tetiaroa|Te Ti'aroa]], [[Tubuai (Kapuloan Austral)|Tupua'i]], jeung [[Tupai|Tūpai]]. {| class="wikitable" |+3 komune nu panggedéna |- ! Komune !! Pulo !! Populasi |- | [[Faaa]] || [[Tahiti]] || 29.900 |- | [[Papeete]] || [[Tahiti]] || 26.300 |- | [[Mahina, Polinésia Perancis|Mahina]] || [[Tahiti]] || 14,500 |} ==Tempo ogé== *[[Kakaisaran kolonial Perancis]] == Réferénsi == {{clear}} {{reflist|2}} == Bibliograpi == *{{cite book | author=[[Danielsson, Bengt]] | title=Work and Life on Raroia: An Acculturation Study from the Tuamotu Group, French Oceania | publisher=G. Allen & Unwin| location=London | year=1965}} *{{cite book | author=Danielsson, Bengt; Marie-Thérése Danielsson | title=Poisoned Reign: French Nuclear Colonialism in the Pacific | url=https://archive.org/details/poisonedreignfre00dani | publisher=[[Penguin Books]] | location=New York | year=1986 |isbn=0-140-08130-5}} *{{cite book |last=Hough |first=Richard |title=Captain James Cook |authorlink=Richard Hough |year=1995 |publisher=W W Norton |isbn=0393036804 }} *{{cite book |last=Pollock |first=Nancy J. |title=French Polynesia: A Book of Selected Readings |coauthors=[[Ron Crocombe]], eds. |year=1988 |publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific |location=Suva, Fiji |isbn=9820200326 }} *{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Virginia |title=The French Pacific Islands: French Polynesia and New Caledonia |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchpacificisl0000thom |coauthors=Richard Adloff |year=1971 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn= }} *{{cite book | author=[[Robert Aldrich (historian)|Aldrich, Robert]] | title= The French Presence in the South Pacific, 1842–1940. | url=https://archive.org/details/frenchpresencein0000aldr | location=Sydney | year=1990}} * {{cite book | author=[[Robert Aldrich (historian)|Aldrich, Robert]] | title= France and the South Pacific since 1940.| url=https://archive.org/details/francesouthpacif0000aldr_s8e4 | location=Sydney | year=1993}} * James Rogers and Luis Simón. [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/sede300309studype407004_/SEDE300309StudyPE407004_en.pdf The Status and Location of the Military Installations of the Member States of the European Union and Their Potential Role for the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP).] Brussels: Européan Parliament, 2009. 25&nbsp;pp. == Tumbu kaluar == {{SisterLinks}} ; Pamaréntah * [http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/ Pamaréntah Polinésia Perancis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060424072420/http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/ |date=2006-04-24 }} * [http://www.presidence.pf/ Kaprésidénan Polinésia Perancis] * [http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/hc/inter/inter-subdiv.asp Babagian Administratif Polinésia Perancis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061212091026/http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/hc/inter/inter-subdiv.asp |date=2006-12-12 }} ; Indormasi umum * {{fr}} [http://www.tahitiheritage.pf Encyclopédie collaborative du patrimoine culturel et naturel polynésien] * {{CIA_World_Factbook link|fp|French Polynesia|Polinésia Perancis}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/frenchpolynesia.htm French Polynesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607084838/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/frenchpolynesia.htm |date=2008-06-07 }} di ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' *{{dmoz|Regional/Oceania/French_Polynesia|Polinésia Perancis}} *{{wikiatlas|French Polynesia}} ; Pelesir * [http://www.tahiti-tourisme.com Situs Pariwisata Resmi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828061615/http://www.tahiti-tourisme.com/ |date=2017-08-28 }} * {{wikivoyage|French Polynesia}} {{Polynesia}}<br> {{Countries and territories of Oceania}}<br> {{Austronesian-speaking}}<br> {{Depéndensi UE}}<br> {{Téritori luar nagara Éropa}}<br> {{French overseas departments and territories}} {{Coord|17|32|S|149|34|W|display=title}} [[Kategori:Polinésia Perancis| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara kapuloan]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon husus Uni Éropa]] [[Kategori:Departemén, koléktivitas, jeung téritori peuntas laut Perancis]] [[Kategori:Panjajahan Éropa di Oséania]] [[Kategori:Polinésia]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1842]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Polinesia Perancis}} 0ungxiq46s4p1v7grxc5mqz6llc0kih 0 35477 711520 664004 2026-08-06T22:12:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711520 wikitext text/x-wiki Hiji '''nagara daulat''' mangrupa hiji [[nagara]] kalawan téritori nu jentré nu mana miboga [[kadaulatan]] ka jero jeung ka luar, [[populasi]] permanén, [[pamaréntah]]an, jeung kabisaan pikeun miboga [[Hubungan internasional|hubungan]] jeung nagara daulat nu lian.<ref>See the following: *{{Cite book|title=International law|url=https://archive.org/details/internationallaw0000shaw|first1=Malcolm Nathan|last1=Shaw|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/internationallaw0000shaw/page/178 178]|quote=Article 1 of the [[Montevideo Convention]] on Rights and Duties of States, 1933 lays down the most widely accepted formulation of the criteria of statehood in international law. It note that the state as an international person should possess the following qualifications: '(a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with other states'}} *{{Cite book|title=Perspectives on international law|editor1-first=Nandasiri|editor1-last=Jasentuliyana|publisher=Kluwer Law International|year=1995|page=20|quote=So far as States are concerned, the traditional definitions provided for in the Montevideo Convention remain generally accepted.}}</ref> Normalna ogé dipikaharti salaku hiji nagara anu teu depénden (gumantung) ka, atawa minangka subjék tina (kakawasaan) nagara lian.<ref>See the following: *{{Cite book|title=Elements of international law: with a sketch of the history of the science|url=https://archive.org/details/elementsinterna04wheagoog|first1=Henry |last1=Wheaton|publisher=Carey, Lea & Blanchard |year=1836|page=51|quote=A sovereign state is generally defined to be any nation or people, whatever may be the form of its internal constitution, which governs itself independently of foreign powers.}} *{{Citation|title=sovereign|work=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|edition=4th|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=2004|accessdate=21 February 2010|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sovereign|quote=adj. 1. Self-governing; independent: a sovereign state.}} *{{Citation|title=sovereign|work=The [[New Oxford American Dictionary]]|edition=2nd|yeat=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|place=Oxford|isbn=0195170776|quote=adjective ... [ attrib. ] (of a nation or state) fully independent and determining its own affairs.}}</ref> Dina istilah abstrakna hiji nagara daulat bisa aya tanpa [[Pangakuan diplomatik|pangakuan]] ku nagara daulat nu lian, nagara nu teu diakuan sering bakal hésé ngalaksanakeun kakawasaan nyieun gawé bareng atawa hubungan [[Diplomasi|diplomatik]] jeung nagara daulat nu lian. ==Tempo ogé== {{col|2}} * [[Daptar nagara]] * [[Nagri]] * [[Bangsa]] * [[Nagara bangsa]] * [[Mandat husus]] * [[Konvénsi Montevideo]] * [[Nagara féderal]] * [[Nagara kahijian]] * [[Nagara gagal]] * [[Masarakat tanpa nagara]] </div> ==Bacaan salajengna== *Chen, Ti-chiang. ''The International Law of Recognition, with Special Reference to Practice in Great Britain and the United States''. London, 1951. *Crawford, James. ''The Creation of States in International Law''. Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-825402-4, pp.&nbsp;15–24. *[[Hersch Lauterpacht|Lauterpacht, Sir Hersch]]. ''Recognition in International Law''. Cambridge, U.K., 1947. *Raič, D. ''Statehood and the Law of Self-determination''. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2002. ISBN 9789041118905. p 29 (with reference to Oppenheim in International Law Vol. 1 1905 p110) == Tumbu kaluar == *[http://ejil.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/3/1/178 Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee] dina ''European Journal of International Law'' *[http://www.burneylawfirm.com/international_law_primer.htm A Brief Primer on International Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110081904/http://www.burneylawfirm.com/international_law_primer.htm |date=2016-11-10 }} With cases and commentary. Nathaniel Burney, 2007. ==Réferénsi== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Hukum internasional]] [[Kategori:Géografi pulitis]] [[Kategori:Kadaulatan|Nagara]] {{geo-stub}} {{pulitik-stub}} [[nn:Suverenitet#Suveren stat]] gb01eq6brv4ja37silhwx35f9z77zpm 0 35500 711515 494722 2026-08-06T21:59:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711515 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:LibreOffice+IBM+BIPM logos.svg|thumb|Logo LibreOffice, IBM jeung International Bureau of Weights and Measures.]] [[Gambar:Chiswick Lion.png|thumb|upright|right]] '''Logo''' nyaéta grafik tanda atawa lambang nu umum digunakeun ku pangusaha komersil, organisasi jeung individu keur ngabantuan sarta ngapromosikeun ka publik sacara instan. Logo nu hadé nyaéta logo nu murni grafik ([[simbol]] atawa ikon) atawa eusina ngaran organisasi (''logotype'' atawa kekecapan).<ref name="wheeler_dbi_pg4">Wheeler, Alina. ''Designing Brand Identity'' ©2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (page 4) ISBN 978-0-471-74684-3</ref> ==Sajarah== Sababaraha pamanggih jeung tehnik geus méré konstribusi keur nyieun logo kontemporér, kaasup segel silinder (c.2300 BCE), Koin (c.600 BCE), difusi trans-budaya logo [[basa]], [[lambang]], tanda, [[pérak]] unggulan jeung ngamekarkeun [[sajarah]] ''printing''.<ref name="meggs159-161" /> Minangka révolusi industri nu dikonvérsikan ku masarakat [[kulon]] tina séktor agraria atawa tatanén keur industri di [[abad ka-18]] jeung [[abad ka-19]], [[fotografi]] jeung lotografi nu boga konstribusi nu kakoncara pisan di industri iklan nu kaintegrasi ku tipografi jeung citra dina hiji kaca nu sarua. Iwal ti éta, tipografi éta sorangan ngalaman révolusi bentuk jeung ekspresi nu mekar.<ref name="meggs159-161">{{Cite book| last = Meggs | first = Philip B. | authorlink = Philip B. Meggs | title = A History of Graphic Design | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofgraphic0000megg | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | year = 1998 | location = | edition = Third | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofgraphic0000megg/page/159 159]–161 | isbn = 978-0471291985}}</ref> Kamekaran Logo, ayeuna geus kacida mekarna. Kumargi unggal kagiatan dina widang [[iklan]], ngabutuhkeun logo nu sabenerna sacara teu langsung bakal ngirut konsumén nu nempo iklan éta. Sakapeung konsumén leuwih kairut ku logo hiji instansi ti batan kudu nempo spesifikasi hiji hal.<ref name="meggs159-161" /> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} {{pondok}} [[Category:Simbol]] [[Category:Tipografi]] [[Category:Gambar]] sxqaso1kuixkumw66v2ufh1ll98zci9 0 35606 711686 677996 2026-08-07T01:34:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711686 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Pikeun kagunaan lian, tempo [[Angola (disambiguasi)]]'' {{Infobox country |native_name = '''República de Angola'''<br/>''Repubilika ya Ngola'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Angola |common_name = Angola |image_flag = <!--DO NOT ADD the proposed flag, you WILL be reverted and warned--> Flag of Angola.svg |image_coat = Emblem of Angola.svg |symbol_type = Insignia |national_anthem = ''[[Angola Avante|Angola Avante!]]''{{Spaces|2}}<small>([[basa Portugis]])<br />''Maju Angola!''</small> |image_map =Angola (orthographic projection).svg |capital = [[Luanda]] |latd= 8 | latm= 50 | latNS = S |longd= 13 |longm= 20 |longEW = E |largest_city = [[Luanda]] |official_languages = [[basa Portugis]] |ethnic_groups = [[Ovimbundu]], [[Urang Mbundu Kalér|Ambundu]], [[Bakongo]], [[Lunda|Lunda-Chokwe]], [[Nhaneca-Humbe|Nyaneka-Nkhumbi]], [[Ovambo]], [[Ganguela]], [[Xindonga]], [[Herero]], [[Khoisa]] |demonym = Angolan |government_type = [[Républik]] [[Nagara kahijian|kahijian]] [[Sistem présidénsial|présidénsial]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Angola|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[João Lourenço]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Angola|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Bornito de Sousa]] |sovereignty_type = [[Perang Kamerdikaan Angola|Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Portugal]] |established_date1 = 11 Nopémber 1975 |area_rank = ka-23 |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area = 1246700 |areami² = 481354 |percent_water = tiasa teu dipadulikeun |population_estimate = 18.498.000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 | version=2008 revision | format=PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate=2009-03-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115172319/https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |date=2016-01-15 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=n4ff2muj8bh2a_&ctype=l&strail=false&nselm=h&met_y=POP&hl=en&dl=en#ctype=l&strail=false&nselm=h&met_y=POP&fdim_y=scenario:1&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=world&idim=country:AO&hl=en&dl=en Population Forecast to 2060 by International Futures hosted by Google Public Data Explorer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224183737/http://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=n4ff2muj8bh2a_&ctype=l&strail=false&nselm=h&met_y=POP&hl=en&dl=en#ctype=l&strail=false&nselm=h&met_y=POP&fdim_y=scenario:1&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=world&idim=country:AO&hl=en&dl=en |date=2018-12-24 }}</ref> |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_density = 14,8 |population_densitymi² = 38,4 |population_density_rank = ka-199 |GDP_PPP = $109,533 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=614&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=56&pr.y=2|title=Angola|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-10-08}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111053637/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=614&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=56&pr.y=2 |date=2012-01-11 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5.748<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal = $82,471 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4.328<ref name=imf2/> |Gini = 59<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |author= |date= |work= |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=2 March 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209003326/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI |date=9 February 2015 }}</ref> |Gini_year = 2000 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">luhur</span> |HDI = {{increase}}0,403 |HDI_rank = ka-146 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#e0584e">handap</span> |currency = [[Kwanza Angola|Kwanza]] |currency_code = AOA |time_zone = [[Wanci Afrika Kulon|WAT]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = ''teu kaobsérvasi'' |utc_offset_DST = +1 |drives_on = tengen |cctld = [[.ao]] |calling_code = [[+244]] }} '''Angola''', resmina '''Républik Angola''' ({{lang-pt|República de Angola}}, {{IPA-pt|ʁɨˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈɡɔla|pron}};<ref>Ieu palapalan di Portugal; di Angola dilapalkeun sakumaha nu katulis</ref> [[Kikongo]], [[Kimbundu]], [[Umbundu]]: Repubilika ya Ngola), mangrupa hiji nagara di [[Afrika]] kidul-tengah, diwatesan ku [[Namibia]] di kidul, [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]] di kalér, jeung [[Zambia]] di wétan; basisir kidulna tepung wates jeung [[Samudra Atlantik]]. Ibu kotana nyaéta [[Luanda]]. Propinsi [[Énklave jeung éksklave|éksklave]] [[Propinsi Kabinda|Kabinda]] tepung wates jueng [[Républik Kongo]] jeung [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]]. == Babagian administratif == :''Artikel utama: [[Propinsi di Angola]], [[Kotamadya di Angola]], [[Komune di Angola]]'' Angola dibagi kana [[Propinsi di Angola|dalapan welas propinsi]] (''províncias'') jeung [[Kotamadya di Angola|163 kotamadya]].<ref>{{cite web|year=|url=http://www.angola.org.uk/facts_government.htm|title=Virtual Angola Facts and Statistics|accessdate=2007-10-30|work=|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071011135238/http%3A//www.angola.org.uk/facts_government.htm|archivedate=October 11, 2007|deadurl=yes}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011135238/http://www.angola.org.uk/facts_government.htm |date=2007-10-11 }}</ref> Propinsi-propinsina nyaéta: [[File:Angola Provinces numbered 300px.png|center|Peta Angola kalawan propinsi-propinsina nu dinomoran]] <table><td><ol> <li>[[Bengo (propinsi)|Bengo]] <li>[[Propinsi Benguela|Benguela]] <li>[[Bié (propinsi)|Bié]] <li>[[Kabinda (propinsi)|Kabinda]] <li>[[Cuando Cubango]] <li>[[Cuanza Norte]] <li>[[Cuanza Sul]] <li>[[Cunene (propinsi)|Cunene]] <li>[[Propinsi Huambo|Huambo]] </ol></td><td><ol start=10> <li>[[Propinsi Huila|Huila]] <li>[[Propinsi Luanda|Luanda]] <li>[[Lunda Norte]] <li>[[Lunda Sul]] <li>[[Propinsi Malanje|Malanje]] <li>[[Moxico (propinsi)|Moxico]] <li>[[Propinsi Namibe|Namibe]] <li>[[Propinsi Uíge|Uíge]] <li>[[Propinsi Zaire|Zaire]] </ol></td></table> === Éksklave Kabinda === Kalawan aréa kira-kira 7.283&nbsp;km{{smallsup|2}}, Propinsi [[Cabinda (propinsi)|Kabinda]] kapisah ti bagian nagara lainnya kalawan hiji daérah nu lébarna kira-kira 60&nbsp;km, piboga [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]] (RDK) sapanjang [[Walungan Kongo]] handap. Kabinda tepung wates jeung [[Républik Kongo]] di kalér jeung kalér-wétan sarta RDK di kalér jeung kidul. == Galeri == <gallery> Gambar:Church in Tombua, Namibe, Angola.JPG|Garéja di Tombua, Propinsi Namibe, Januari 2010 Gambar:ChokweWoman.jpg|Pahatan ngagambarkeun hiji figur awéwé. Urang Chokwe, Angola, awal abad ka-20. Kai, paku kuningan, manik-manik kaca, serat tutuwuhan, patina minyak. Gambar:Black Stones Pungo Adongo.JPG|"Batu Hideung" ti Pungo Adongo di Angola Gambar:Luanda4.jpg|Hiji panénjoan kana Luanda Gambar:Kalandula waterfalls of the Lucala-River in Malange, Angola (2).JPG|Curug Kalendula ti Walungan Lucala di Malange, 2009 </gallery> ==Tempo ogé== *[[Daptar nagara]] == Réferénsi == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} *Kalobaannana dicandak ti ''[[CIA World Factbook]]'' 2000 jeung 2003 loka Departemén Nagara AS. == Bacaan salajengna == <div style="font-size:97%;"> * ANGOLA LIVRO BRANCO SOBRE AS ELEIÇÕES DE 2008. http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2009/dokument_id-17396/index.html{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * Le Billon, Philippe (2005). "Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola." Disasters 29(1): 1–25. * Birmingham, David (2006) Empire in Africa: Angola and its Neighbors, Athens/Ohio: Ohio University Press * Bösl, Anton (2008). Angola´s Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ * Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Global Witness (1999). A Crude Awakening, The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100902225001/http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening |date=2010-09-02 }} * Heimer, Franz-Wilhelm, The Decolonization Conflict in Angola, Geneva: Institut d'Études Internationales et du Développement, 1979 * Hodges, Tony (2001). Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism. Oxford: James Currey. * Hodges, Tony (2004). Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press. * Holness, Marga. Apartheid's War Against Angola http://www.scribd.com/doc/29244604/Apartheid-s-War-Against-Angola-Marga-Holness * Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/angola0104/ * Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://hrw.org/reports/2005/angola0305/ * James, Walter (1992). A political history of the civil war in Angola, 1964–1990. New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers. * Kapuściński, Ryszard. Another Day of Life, Penguin, 1975. ISBN 978-0-14-118678-8. A Polish journalist's account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war. [[Ryszard Kapuściński]] * Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2." Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95–106. * Lari, A. (2004). Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023754/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf |date=2012-03-05 }} * Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). "International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola." African Security Review 13(4): 29–41. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023828/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf |date=2012-03-05 }} * Le Billon, Philippe (2001). "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds." African Affairs (100): 55–80. * MacQueen, Norrie ''An Ill Wind? Rethinking the Angolan Crisis and the Portuguese Revolution, 1974–1976'', ''Itinerario: European Journal of Overseas History, 26/2, 2000, pp.&nbsp;22–44 * Médecins Sans Frontiéres (2002). Angola: Sacrifice of a People. Luanda, Angola, MSF. http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723154858/http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf |date=2013-07-23 }} * Mwakikagile, Godfrey ''Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era'', Third Edition, Pretoria, South Africa, 2006, on Angola in Chapter 11, "American Involvement in Angola and Southern Africa: Nyerere's Response," pp.&nbsp;324–346, ISBN 978-0-9802534-1-2. * Pinto Escoval (2004): "Staatszerfall im südlichen Afrika. Das Beispiel Angola". Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin * ''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' * {{cite book|last=Le Billon|first=P.|title=Fuelling War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts|url=https://archive.org/details/fuellingwarnatur0000lebi|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2006|month=March|isbn=978-0-415-37970-0}} * Péarce, Justin (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas." .African Security Review 13 (2), pp 51–64. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023855/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf |date=2012-03-05 }} * Porto, João Gomes (2003). Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821083212/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html |date=2010-08-21 }} * Tvedten, Inge (1997). Angola, Struggle for Péace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press. * Vines, Alex (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Péace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch. </div> == Tumbu kaluar == {{SisterLinks|Angola}} *[http://www.angola.gov.ao Loka resmi] *{{CIA World Factbook link|ao|Angola}} *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Angola|Angola}} *{{Wikiatlas|Angola}} *{{wikivoyage|Angola}} {{Nagara di Afrika}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{CPLP}} {{Uni Latin}} {{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}} {{Niger-Congo-speaking nations}} [[Kategori:Angola| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara jeung téritori Bantu]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Urut koloni Portugis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota OPEC]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota CPLP]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Portugis]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1975]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Angola}} nugynttxokib95doxtg5y96d747ks0y 0 35691 711617 652583 2026-08-07T00:22:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711617 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Republic of Botswana<br>''Lefatshe la Botswana''<br>Républik Botswana | common_name = Botswana | image_flag = Flag of Botswana.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Botswana.svg | image_map = Location Botswana AU Africa.svg | map_caption = {{map caption|countryprefix=|location_color=paul kolot|region=[[Afrika]]|region_color=kulawu kolot|subregion=[[Uni Afrika]]|subregion_color=paul ngora|legend=Location Botswana AU Africa.svg}} | national_motto = ''Pula'' (Rain)<br><small>"Hujan"</small> | national_anthem = ''[[Fatshe leno la rona]]'' <br />(''This Land of Ours'') | official_languages = Basa Inggris, [[Basa Tswana|Setswana]] | demonym = [[Urang Botswana|Batswana]] | capital = [[Gaborone]] | latd = 25 | latm = 40 | latNS = S | longd = 25 | longm = 55 | longEW = E | largest_city = [[Gaborone]] | government_type = [[Républik parleméntér]] <!--cia.gov--> | leader_title1 = [[Présidén Botswana|Présidén]] | leader_name1 =[[Mokgweetsi Masisi]] | leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Botswana|Wakil Présidén]] | leader_name2 = [[Slumber Tsogwane]] | sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] | established_event1 = ti [[Britania Raya]] | established_date1 = 30 Séptémber 1966 | area_rank = ka-47 | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | area = 581.730 | areami² = 224.610 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 2,6 | population_estimate = 2.029.307<ref name=cia>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Botswana |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html |year=2009 |accessdate=3 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015203531/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html |date=15 October 2015 }}</ref> | population_estimate_rank = ka-144 | population_estimate_year = 2010 | population_census = 1.680.863 | population_census_year = 2001 | population_density = 3,4 | population_densitymi² = 8,9 | population_density_rank = ka-229 | GDP_PPP = $28,491 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=616&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=36&pr.y=12|title=Botswana|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504030156/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=616&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=36&pr.y=12 |date=2011-05-04 }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_year = 2010 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $15.489<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | GDP_nominal = $14,030 milyar<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_rank = | GDP_nominal_year = 2010 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $7.627<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = | HDI = {{increase}} 0,633<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2010|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=5 November 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121150504/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf |date=21 November 2010 }}</ref> | HDI_rank = ka-98 | HDI_year = 2010 | HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> | Gini = 63<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html|title=Distribution of family income – Gini index|work=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|accessdate=2009-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513124910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=2009-05-13 }}</ref> | Gini_year = 1993 | Gini_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">luhur</span> | currency = [[Pula Botswana|Pula]] | currency_code = BWP | country_code = | time_zone = [[Wanci Afrika Tengah]] ([[UTC+02]]) | utc_offset = | time_zone_DST = teu kaobsérvasi | utc_offset_DST = | drives_on = kénca | cctld = [[.bw]] | calling_code = [[+267|267]] | footnotes = }} '''Botswana''', resmina '''Républik Botswana''' ({{lang-tn|Lefatshe la Botswana}}), mangrupa hiji [[nagara nu dilingkung]]; aya di [[Afrika Kidul (wewengkon)|Afrika Kidul]]. Baheulana mangrupa [[protéktorat]] Britania [[Protéktorat Bechuanaland|Bechuanaland]], Botswana maké ngaran anyarna sanggeus merdika dina [[Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa|Pasamakmuran]] dina 30 Séptémber 1966. Botswana datar, jeung kira-kira 70% aréana mangrupa [[Sagara Kalahari]]. Tepung wates jeung [[Afrika Kidul]] di kidul jeung tenggara, [[Namibia]] di kulon jeung kalér, jeung [[Zimbabwe]] di kalér-wétan. Watesna jeung [[Zambia]] di kalér kirang terang tapi panglobana ngan sababaraha ratus méter dina panjang.<ref>[http://babakfakhamzadeh.com/site/index.php?c=12&i=1279 Zambia-Botswana border] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331172740/http://babakfakhamzadeh.com/site/index.php?c=12&i=1279 |date=2012-03-31 }}</ref> ==Pulitik jeung pamaréntahan== :''Artikel utama: [[Pulitik Botswana]], [[Hak asasi manusa di Botswana]]'' {{See also|Hubungan luar nagri Botswana}} Pulitik Botswana aya dina [[républik]] [[démokrasi répréséntatif]], nu mana [[Présidén Botswana]] salaku [[pupuhu nagara]] ogé [[pupuhu pamaréntahan]], jeung dina [[sistem multipartéy]]. Kakiatana [[éksekutif]] dilaksanakeun ku pamaréntah. Kakiatan [[législatif]] dibéré kana pamaréntah jeung [[Parlemén Botswana]]. Ti kamerdikaanna didéklarasikeun, sistem partéy geus didominasi ku [[Partéy Démokratik Botswana]]. [[Kahakiman]]na bébas ti éksekutif jeung législatur. Dumasar kana [[Transparansi International]], Botswana mangrupa nagara di Afrika kalawan korupsi nu pangleutikna jeung miboga réngking nu deukeut jeung Portugal sarta Koréa Kidul.<ref>Transparency International [http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table 2008 Corruption Perception Index 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311002755/http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table |date=2009-03-11 }}. Retrieved 7-23-09.</ref> Sanajan kitu, nagara ieu dianggap miboga institusi umum nu paling rusiah.<ref>Botswana, Southern Africa's most secretive state [http://mg.co.za/article/2011-11-11-botswana-southern-africas-most-secretive-state] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114111715/http://mg.co.za/article/2011-11-11-botswana-southern-africas-most-secretive-state/ |date=2011-11-14 }}. Retrieved 12-11-11.</ref> Lagu kabangsaanna nyaéta ''[[Fatshe leno la rona]]''. ===Babagian administratif=== :''Artikel utama: [[Distrik di Botswana]], [[Sub-distrik di Botswana]]'' [[File:Botswana districts numbered.png|center|Distrik di Botswana]] Botswana dibagi kana 16 distrik – 10 distrik désa jeung 6 distrik kota. #[[Distrik Central (Botswana)|Tengah]] #[[Distrik Ghanzi|Ghanzi]] #[[Distrik Kgalagadi|Kgalagadi]] #[[Distrik Kgatleng|Kgatleng]] #[[Distrik Kweneng|Kweneng]] #[[Distrik Kalér-Wétan (Botswana)|Kalér-Wétan]] #[[Distrik Kalér-Kulon (Botswana)|Ngamiland]] #[[Distrik Kidul-Wétan (Botswana)|Kidul-Wétan]] #[[Distrik Kidul (Botswana)|Kidul]] #[[Distrik Chobe|Chobe]] ==Tempo ogé== {{col|2}} *[[Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] *[[Komunikasi di Botswana]] *[[Kulinér Botswana]] *[[Transportasi di Botswana]] *[[Blok tuli]] </div> ==Catetan jeung réferénsi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Bacaan salajengna== *{{Cite book|last=Denbow |first=James |lastauthoramp=yes |last2=Thebe |first2=Phenyo C. |title=Culture and Customs of Botswana |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000denb |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0313331782 |postscript=<!--None--> }}. * Alexander McCall Smith: "The No.1 Ladies' Detective Agency" series. * Michael Stanley: A Carrion Déath – part of the Detective Kubu series ==Tumbu kaluar== {{SisterLinks}} * http://www.botswanaportal.com *[http://www.gov.bw Loka resmi] *{{CIA World Factbook link|bc|Botswana}} *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Botswana|Botswana}} *{{Wikiatlas|Botswana}} *{{wikivoyage|Botswana}} {{Coord|24|40|S|25|55|E|display=title}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Niger-Congo-speaking nations}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} [[Kategori:Botswana| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara jeung téritori Bantu]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1966]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Botswana}} q8l3czcyfiez0kfw24s8am74uiv0nwu 0 35723 711556 652586 2026-08-06T23:03:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711556 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name = Republika y'u Burundi<br />République du Burundi |conventional_long_name = Républik Burundi |common_name = Burundi |image_flag = Flag of Burundi.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Burundi.svg |national_motto = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">''"Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Iterambere"''<small>([[Basa Kirundi]])</small><br />''"Unité, Travail, Progrés"''<small>([[Basa Perancis]])<br />"Kahijian, Gawé, Kamajuan"&nbsp;<sup>1</sup></small></span> |image_map = Location Burundi AU Africa.svg |map_caption = {{map caption|countryprefix=|location_color=paul kolot|region=[[Afrika]]|region_color=kulawu kolor|subregion=[[Uni Afrika]]|subregion_color=paul ngora|legend=Location Burundi AU Africa.svg}} |national_anthem = ''[[Burundi bwacu]]''<br /><small>(Burundi Urang)</small> |official_languages = [[Basa Kirundi]], [[Basa Perancis]] |capital = [[Bujumbura]] |latd=3 |latm=30 |latNS=S |longd=30 |longm=00 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Bujumbura]] |demonym = Burundian |government_type = [[Républik]] |leader_title1 = [[Daptar Présidén Burundi|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Évariste Ndayishimiye]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Burundi|Wakil Présidén I]] |leader_name2 = Prosper Bazombanza |leader_title3 = [[Wakil Présidén Burundi|Wakil Présidén II]] |leader_name3 = [[Gervais Rufyikiri]] |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[Bélgia]] |established_event1 = Kaping |established_date1 = 1 Juli 1962 |area = 27.834 |areami² = 10.745 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = ka-145 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |percent_water = 7,8 |population_estimate = 10.216.190<ref name="cia">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/by.html CIA – The World Factbook – Burundi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424083404/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/by.html |date=2020-04-24 }} [[CIA]]. Ditarima 8 Juni 2008.</ref> |population_estimate_year = [[2011]] |population_estimate_rank = ka-89 |population_census = 8.053.574<ref>[http://www.presidence.bi/spip.php?article405 3rd general census (2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523051745/http://www.presidence.bi/spip.php?article405 |date=2013-05-23 }}</ref> |population_census_year = 2008 |population_density = 367,0 |population_densitymi² = 836,5 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-45 |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP = $3,397 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=618&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=62&pr.y=14|title=Burundi|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513231139/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=618&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=62&pr.y=14 |date=2011-05-13 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $410<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $1,489 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $180<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI = {{increase}} 0,282 |HDI_rank = ka-166 |HDI_category = <font color="#e0584e">handap</font> |Gini = 42,4<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html|title=Distribution of family income – Gini index|work=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|accessdate=2009-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513124910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=2009-05-13 }}</ref> |Gini_year = 1998 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |FSI = 95,2 {{decrease}} 1,5 |FSI_year = 2007 |FSI_rank = ka-19 |FSI_category = <font color="#FF0000">Bahaya</font> |currency = [[Franc Burundi]] (FBu) |currency_code = BIF |time_zone = [[Wanci Afrika Tengah|CAT]] |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = teu kaobsérvasi |utc_offset_DST = +2 |drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.bi]] |calling_code = 257 |footnote1 = Saméméh 1966, "Ganza Sabwa". |footnote2 = Pakiraan dumasar kana régrési; inohong PPP nu lian diékstrapolasi ti Program Pabandingan Internasioanl pikeun pakiraan bandingan. }} '''Burundi''', resmina '''Républik Burundi''' ({{lang-rn|Republika y'u Burundi}}; {{lang-fr|République du Burundi}}), nyaéta hiji [[nagara nu dilingkung]] di wewengkon [[Dano-Dano Garedé (Afrika)|Dano-Dano Garedé]] di [[Afrika Wétan]], tepung wates jeung [[Rwanda]] di kalér, [[Tanzania]] di wétan jeung kidul, sarta [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]] di kulon. Ibu kotana nyaéta [[Bujumbura]]. Sanajan nagara ieu mangrupa [[nagara nu dilingkung]], kalobaanana wates kidul-kulon nepi ka [[Dano Tanganyika]]. == Propinsi == {{utama|Propinsi di Burundi}} Burundi dibagi kana 17 propinsi, nyaéta: {{col|2}} * [[Propinsi Bubanza|Bubanza]] * [[Bujumbura|Bujumbura Mairie]] * [[Propinsi Bujumbura Désa|Bujumbura Désa]] * [[Propinsi Bururi|Bururi]] * [[Propinsi Cankuzo|Cankuzo]] * [[Propinsi Cibitoke|Cibitoke]] * [[Propinsi Gitega|Gitega]] * [[Propinsi Karuzi|Karuzi]] * [[Propinsi Kayanza|Kayanza]] * [[Propinsi Kirundo|Kirundo]] * [[Propinsi Makamba|Makamba]] * [[Propinsi Muramvya|Muramvya]] * [[Propinsi Muyinga|Muyinga]] * [[Propinsi Mwaro|Mwaro]] * [[Propinsi Ngozi|Ngozi]] * [[Propinsi Rutana|Rutana]] * [[Propinsi Ruyigi|Ruyigi]] </div> == Catetan == {{Reflist}} == Réferénsi == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book | last =Allen | first =J.A. | authorlink = | coauthors =et al. | title=Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara |publisher = Taylor and Francis Group| year = 2003| location = New York, New York | pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/africasouthofsah0000unse_y7v6| doi = | id = | isbn = 1857431839 }} * {{cite book | last = Cook | first = Chris | authorlink = | coauthors = Diccon Bewes | title = What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century | publisher = Routledge | year = 1999 | location = London, England| pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 1857285336 }} * {{cite book | last = Dinham | first = Barbara | authorlink = | coauthors = Colin Hines| title = Agribusiness in Africa| publisher = Africa World Press | year = 1984 | location = Trenton, New Jersey| pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0865430039 }} * {{cite book | last = Eggers| first = Ellen K. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Historical Dictionary of Burundi| publisher = Scarecrow Press, Incorporated| year = 2006| location = Lanham, Maryland| pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000egge| doi = | id = | isbn = 0810853027 }} 3rd. edition. * {{cite book | last = Gates | first = Henry Lewis | authorlink = | coauthors = Anthony Appiah | title = Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience | publisher = Basic Civitas Books | year = 1999 | location = New York, New York | pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi| doi = | id = | isbn = 0465000711 }} * {{cite book | last =Jessup | first =John E. | authorlink = | coauthors =| title=An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Conflict and Conflict Resolution, 1945–1996 |publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| year = 1998| location = Westport, Connecticut| pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/encyclopedicdict0000jess| doi = | id = | isbn = 0313281122 }} * {{cite book | last =Krueger | first =Ambassador Robert. | authorlink = | coauthors = Kathleen Tobin Krueger | title=From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide |publisher = University of Texas Press| year = 2007| location = Austin, Texas| pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/frombloodshedtoh0000krue| doi = | id = | isbn = 0292714866}} * {{cite book | last = MacDonald| first = Fiona | authorlink = | coauthors = et al. | title = Peoples of Africa| publisher = Marshall Cavendish | year = 2001| location = Tarrytown, New York| pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/isbn_0761471650_7| doi = | id = | isbn = 0761471588 }} * {{cite book | last = Puddington| first = Arch | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties| publisher = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2007| location = Syracuse University | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0742558975}} * {{cite book | last = Weinstein| first = Warren | authorlink = | coauthors = Robert Schrere | title = Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies: A Case Study of Burundi| publisher = Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs | year = 1976| location = Syracuse University | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0915984202 }} * {{cite book | last = Weinstein| first = Warren | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Historical Dictionary of Burundi| publisher = Scarecrow Press, Incorporated| year = 2006| location = Metuchen, New Jersey| pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0810809621 }} 1st. edition. {{Refend}} == Bacaan salejengna == * Abdallah, Ahmedou Ould ''Burundi on the Brink, 1993-95: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy'' * Bentley, Kristina and Southall, Roger ''An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa, and Burundi'' * Chrétien, Jéan-Pierre ''The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History'' * Daley, Patricia ''Gender and Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region'' * Ewusi, Kale and Akwanga, Ebenezer ''Burundi's Negative Peace: The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad'' * Jennings, Christian ''Across the Red River: Rwanda, Burundi and the Heart of Darkness'' * Kidder, Tracy, ''Strength in What Remains'' (Hiji biografi ngeunaan saurang imigran Burundi di Amérika Sarikat) * Krueger, Robert and Krueger, Kathleen ''From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide'' * Lemarchand, Rene ''Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide'' * Melady, Thomas Patrick ''Burundi: The Tragic Years'' * Nivonzima, David and Fendell, Len ''Unlocking Horns: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi'' * Uvin, Peter ''Life After Violence: A People's Story of Burundi'' * Watt, Nigel '' Burundi: The Biography of a Small African Country'' == Tumbu kaluar == {{SisterLinks|Burundi}} * {{fr}} [http://www.burundi-gov.bi/ Loka resmi pamaréntah Burundi] * {{CIA_World_Factbook link|by|Burundi}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/burundi.htm Burundi] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Burundi|Burundi}} * {{Wikiatlas|Burundi}} * {{wikivoyage|Burundi}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} {{Niger-Congo-speaking nations}} [[Kategori:Burundi| ]] [[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara jeung téritori Bantu]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1962]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Swahili]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Burundi}} 0slnouybkp3emh1rm6mwj98bz7dj0gy 0 35834 711608 652566 2026-08-07T00:10:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711608 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Pikeun kagunaan lian ti Etiopia, tempo [[Étiopia (disambiguasi)]]'' {{Infobox country |native_name=የኢትዮጵያ ፌዴራላዊ <br /> ዲሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ<br />''ye-Ītyōṗṗyā Fēdēralāwī Dīmōkrāsīyāwī Rīpeblīk''<br />Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia |conventional_long_name = Républik Démokratik Féderal Étiopia |common_name = Etiopia |image_flag = Flag of Ethiopia.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Ethiopia.svg |image_map = Ethiopia in its region.svg |national_anthem = ''[[Wodefit Gesgeshi, Widd Innat Ityopp'ya]]''<br />[[Gambar:Wedefit_Gesgeshi_Widd_Innat_Ittyoppya.ogg]] |official_languages = [[Basa Amharik]], [[Basa Inggris]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/et.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Ethiopia |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-03-16 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215191857/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/et.html |date=2018-12-15 }}</ref><ref group=ethnologue>{{cite web|title=Languages of Ethiopia|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_map.asp?name=ET&seq=10|work=Ethnologue|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=5 September 2011}}</ref><ref group=ethnologue>{{cite web|title=English|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng|work=Ethnologue|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=5 September 2011}}</ref> ([[Basa di Étiopia|Basa nu lian]] aya nu resmi dina [[Masarakat Étiopia|étnisitas]]-étnisitas jeung dina [[Région di Étiopia|région]]-région di Étiopia. |ethnic_groups = [[Uruang Oromo|Oromo]] 34,49%, [[Urang Amhara|Amhara]] 26,89%, [[Urang Somali|Somali]] 6,20%, [[Urang Tigray|Tigray]] 6,07%; [[Sidama]] 4,01%, [[Gurage]] 2,53%, [[Urang Welayta|Welayta]] 2,31%<ref name="bx">Sénsus 2007, {{PDFlink|[http://www.jimmatimes.com//downloads/Cen2007.pdf Jimmatimes.com]|51.7&nbsp;KB}} . Ditarima 3 Méi 2009.</ref><ref name="Embassy">[http://www.ethiopianembassy.org/population.shtml Embassy of Ethiopia, Washington, DC]. Ditarima 6 April 2006. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080130033851/http://www.ethiopianembassy.org/population.shtml |date=30 January 2008 }}</ref> jeung kira-kira 80 grup étnis nu lian. |demonym = [[Démografi Étiopia|Ethiopian]] |capital = [[Addis Ababa]] |latd=9|latm=1.8|latNS=N|longd=38|longm=44.4|longEW=E |largest_city = [[Addis Ababa]] |government_type=[[Républik]] [[Républik féderal|féderal]] [[républik parleméntér|parleméntér]]<sup>1</sup> |leader_title1=[[Daptar présidén Étiopia|Présidén]] |leader_name1=[[Sahle-Work Zewde]] |leader_title2=[[Daptar pupuhu pamaréntahan Étiopia|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name2=[[Abiy Ahmed]] |s= Mulatu |sovereignty_type=[[Sajarah Étiopia|Ngadeg]] |established_event1=Kaping tradisional |established_date1=980 SM |established_event2= [[Konstitusi Étiopia|Konstitusi nu ayeuna]] |established_date2=1991 |area_rank=ka-27 |area_magnitude=1 E12 |area=1.104.300 |areami²=426.371<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water=0,7 |population_estimate=82.101.998<ref name="CSA">Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia. [http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=category&id=75&Itemid=561 Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215200742/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=category&id=75&Itemid=561 |date=2012-02-15 }}</ref> |population_estimate_year=2011 |population_estimate_rank=ka-14 |population_census=73.918.505 |population_census_year=2007 |population_density=74 |population_densitymi²=194<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank=ka-123 |GDP_PPP_year=2010 |GDP_PPP = $86,123 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=52&pr.y=2&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=644&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Ethiopia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank= |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1.015<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank= |GDP_nominal = $29,717 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year=2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $350<ref name=imf2/> |HDI_year= 2010 |HDI={{increase}} 0,328 |HDI_rank=157th |HDI_category=<span style="color:red">low</span> |FSI=95,3 {{increase}} 3.4 |FSI_year=2007 |FSI_rank=ka-18 |FSI_category=<span style="color:red;">Bahaya</span> |currency=[[Birr Étiopia|Birr]] |currency_code=ETB |country_code=ETH |time_zone=[[Wanci Afrika Wétan|EAT]] |utc_offset=+3 |time_zone_DST=teu kaobsérvasi |utc_offset_DST=+3 |drives_on=katuhu |cctld=[[.et]] |calling_code=251 |Gini=30 |Gini_year=1999–00 |Gini_category=<span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |footnote1=Ceuk ''[[The Economist]]'' dina [[Indéks Démokrasi]]na, Étiopia mangrupa hiji "rézim hibrid", kalawan [[sistem partéy dominan]] dipingpin ku [[Front Rahayat Révolusionér Démokratik Étiopia]]. |footnote2=Rank based on 2005 population estimate by the United Nations. }} <!--NOTE: This intro is the result of careful [[NPOV]] work. Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page. Thank you.--> '''Étiopia''' ([[Aksara Ge'ez|Ge'ez]]: ኢትዮጵያ ''ʾĪtyōṗṗyā''), resmina '''Républik Démokratik Féderal Étiopia''', nya éra hiji nagara nu aya di [[Tanduk Afrika]]. Nagara ieu mangrupa nagara nu panglobana padumukna kadua di Afrika, kalawan lauwih ti 82 juta jiwa<ref name="CSA"/>. Étiopia tepung wates sareng [[Éritréa]] di kalér, [[Djibouti]] sarta [[Somalia]] di wétan, [[Sudan]] sarta [[Sudan Kidul]] di kulon, jeung [[Kenya]] di kidul. == Tempo ogé == *[[Aethiopia (kecap Yunani kuna)]] *[[Arkéologi di Étiopia]] == Catetan == <references group="ethnologue"/> == Réferénsi == {{Ibid|date=November 2010}} {{Linkrot|date=November 2011}} {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Bacaaan salajengna == *{{Cite book|last=Zewde|first=Bahru |title=A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991. 2nd ed |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr|authorlink= |year=2001 |publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens, OH |isbn=0821414402}} *{{Cite book|last=Selassie I. |first=Haile |title=My Life and Ethiopia's Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I |authorlink=Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia |others=Translated by Edward Ullendorff |year=1999 |publisher=Frontline |location=Chicago |isbn=0948390409 }} *{{Cite book|last=Henze |first=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher=Shama Books |location= |isbn=1-931253-28-5 |pages= }} *{{Cite book|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913 |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1975 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford, U.K. |isbn= }} Reprint, Trenton, NJ: Red Séa, 1995. ISBN 1-56902-009-4. *{{Cite book|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=A History of Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofethiopi0000marc |edition=updated |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0520224795 }} *{{Cite book|last=Mockler |first=Anthony |title=Haile Selassie's War |url=https://archive.org/details/haileselassieswa0000mock |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1984 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn= |pages= }} Reprint, New York: Olive Branch, 2003. ISBN 1-902669-53-3. * Pankhurst, Richard. {{cite web |title=History of Northern Ethiopia&nbsp;— and the Establishment of the Italian Colony or Eritrea |work=Civic Webs Virtual Library |url=http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/ethiopia/pankhurst/history_of_northern_ethiopia.htm |accessdate=5 April 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050323230207/http://civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/ethiopia/pankhurst/history_of_northern_ethiopia.htm#3 |date=23 March 2005 }} *{{Cite book|last=Rubenson|first=Sven|title=The Survival of Ethiopian Independence|edition=4th|authorlink=|coauthors=|year=2003|publisher=Tsehai|location=Hollywood, CA |isbn=0972317279}} * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2003). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 1: A-C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2005). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 2: D-Ha. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2007). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 3: He-N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Arnaldo Mauri, ''The Early Development of Banking in Ethiopia'', International Review of Economics, Vol. L, n. 4, 2003, pp.&nbsp;521–543. * Arnaldo Mauri, ''The re-establishment of the national monetary and banking system in Ethiopia, 1941–1964'', The South African Journal of Economic History, 24 (2), 2009, pp.&nbsp;82–131. * {{loc}} * {{CIA World Factbook}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{SisterLinks|Ethiopia}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abyssinia}} {{Wikinews-inline|Category:Ethiopia}} {{CIA World Factbook link|et|Ethiopia}} *[http://www.tourismethiopia.org/ Komisi Pariwisata Étiopia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016001329/http://www.tourismethiopia.org/ |date=2008-10-16 }} Kamentrian Budaya jeung Pariwisata Étiopia *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072164.stm Propil Nagara] di BBC.com *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/EthiopiaÉtiopia}} *{{Wikiatlas|Ethiopia}} *{{wikivoyage|Ethiopia}} {{Contains Ethiopic text}} {{Template group |list= {{Ethiopia topics}} }} {{Template group |title=Géografi lokal |list= {{Nagara di Afrika}} }} {{Template group |title=Kaanggotaan internasional |list= {{African Union}} }} {{Template group |title=Basa |list= {{Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Etiopia}} [[Kategori:Étiopia| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Républik féderal]] [[Kategori:Urut kakaisaran]] [[Kategori:Tanduk Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Étiopia}} 321jcofthrwf00i7rq91mopvmgbi2y1 0 35847 711602 660302 2026-08-07T00:05:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711602 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''République Gabonaise'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Gabon |common_name = Gabon |image_flag = Flag_of_Gabon.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Gabon.svg |image_map =Gabon (orthographic projection).svg |national_anthem = ''[[La Concorde]]'' |capital = [[Libreville]] |latd=0 |latm=23 |latNS=N |longd=9 |longm=27 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Libreville]] |official_languages = [[Basa Perancis]] |demonym = Gabonese, Gabonaise |government_type = [[Républik présidénsial]] |leader_title1= [[Pupuhu nagara Gabon|Présidén]] |leader_name1= [[Brice Clotaire Oligui Nguema|Brice Oligui]] |leader_title2 = [[Pupuhu Pamaréntahan Gabon|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name2 = [[Alain Claude Bilie By Nze]] |national_motto = "Union, Travail, Justice"<br /><small>("Kahijian, Gawé, Kaadilan")</small> |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area = 267.667 |areami² = 103.347 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = ka-76 |percent_water = 3,76% |population_estimate = 1.475.000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 | version=2008 revision | format=PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate=2009-03-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318041906/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |date=2009-03-18 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-150 |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density = 5,5 |population_densitymi² = 14,3 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-216 |GDP_PPP = $22,478 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=646&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=28&pr.y=1|title=Gabon|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018231537/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=646&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=28&pr.y=1 |date=2012-10-18 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $15.020<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $13,056 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $8.724<ref name=imf2/> |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Perancis]] |established_date1 = 17 Agustus 1960 |HDI = {{increase}} 0,648<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2010|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=5 November 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121150504/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf |date=21 November 2010 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-93 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0">sedeng</span> |currency = [[Franc CFA Afrika Tengah]] |currency_code = XAF |time_zone = [[Wanci Afrika Kulon|WAT]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = teu kaobsérvasi |utc_offset_DST = +1 |drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.ga]] |calling_code = 241 |footnotes = }} '''Gabon''' ({{IPA-fr|ɡabɔ̃}}), resmina '''Républik Gabon''' ({{lang-fr|République Gabonaise}}) mangrupa hiji [[nagara daulat|nagara]] di [[Afrika]] tengah kulon, tepung wates jeung [[Guinea Khatulistiwa]] di kalér-kulon, [[Kamerun]] di kalér, sarta jeung [[Républik Kongo]] dina wétan jeung kidul. [[Teluk Guinea]], hiji bagian ti [[Samudra Atlantik]], aya di kulon. Ibu kota jeung kota panggedéna nyaéta [[Libreville]]. Ti kamerdikaanna ti [[Perancis]] dina 17 Agustus 1960, Gabon geus diluluguan ku 3 présidén. Di awal 1990-an, Gabon maké [[sistem multi-partéy]] jeung hiji [[konstitusi]] [[démokrasi]] anyar nu ngidinkeun hiji prosés pamilihan nu leuwih transparan jeung ngarobih raloba institusi pamaréntahan. Gabon ogé jadi salah sahiji anggota non-permanén [[Déwan Kaamanan Pasarikatan Bangsa-Banga]] pikeun wayah 2010-2011. [[Kapadetan populasi]] nu saeutik bareng jeung [[sumber daya alam]] nu loba sarta [[invéstasi]] swasta asing geus nulungan Gabon jadi salah sahiji nagara pangmakmurna di [[Afrika Sub-Sahara]], kalawan [[Indéks Kamekaran Manusa|HDI]] nu pangluhurna kaopat<ref name="hdi">{{cite web | title = Human Development Indices: A statistical update 2010 - HDI rankings | work = Human Development Reports | publisher = United Nations Development Programme | year = 2010 | url = http://hdr.ndp.org/en/statistics/ | doi = | accessdate = 2011-08-17 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> jeung GDP per kapita (PPP) nu panggedéna katilu (sanggeus [[Gunea Khatulistiwa]] jeung [[Botswana]]) di wewengkonna. == Propinsi jeung Departemén == :''Artikel utama: [[Propinsi di Gabon]], [[Departemén di Gabon]]'' Gabon dibagi kana 9 [[Propinsi di Gabon|propinsi]] jeung saterasna dibagi deui kana 37 [[Departemén di Gabon|departemén]]. Propinsi-propinsina nyaéta: # [[Propinsi Estuaire|Estuaire]] # [[Haut-Ogooué]] # [[Moyen-Ogooué]] # [[Ngounié]] # [[Propinsi Nyanga|Nyanga]] # [[Ogooué-Ivindo]] # [[Ogooué-Lolo]] # [[Ogooué-Maritime]] # [[Woleu-Ntem]] == Tempo ogé == *[[Transportasi di Gabon]] == Réferénsi == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Bacaan salajengna == *{{cite book |title=Untapped: The Scramble for Africa's Oil |last=Ghazvinian |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2008 |publisher=Harcourt |location=Orlando |isbn=0151011389 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/untappedscramble00ghaz}} *{{cite book |title=Brazza, A Life for Africa |last=Petringa |first=Maria |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=AuthorHouse |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=1425911986 |pages= |url= }} *{{cite book |title=A Workman Is Worthy of His Meat: Food and Colonialism in the Gabon Estuary |last=Rich |first=Jeremy |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |location=Lincoln |isbn=0803207417 |pages= |url= }} *{{cite book |title=Poisoned Wells: The Dirty Politics of African Oil |last=Shaxson |first=Nicholas |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=1403971943 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/poisonedwellsdir00shax}} *{{cite book |title=Bradt Travel Guide: Gabon and São Tomé and Príncipe |last=Warne |first=Sophie |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2003 |publisher=Chalfont St. Peter |location=Guilford, CT |isbn=1841620734 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/gabonsaotomeprin0000warn}} *{{cite book |title=The Rentier State in Africa: Oil Rent Dependency and Neo-colonialism in the Republic of Gabon |last=Yates |first=Douglas A. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1996 |publisher=Africa World Press |location=Trenton, NJ |isbn=0865435200 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/rentierstateinaf0000yate}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks}} *{{Official website|http://www.legabon.org/}} *{{wikivoyage|Gabon}} *[http://www.gabon-nature.com/ Tur Virtual Taman-Taman Nasional] *{{CIA World Factbook link|gb|Gabon}} *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Gabon|Gabon}} *{{Wikiatlas|Gabon}} {{Gabon topics}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Niger-Congo-speaking}} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{Organisation of the Islamic Conference}} {{African Union}} {{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}} {{La Francophonie}} }} <!--The indexing for this category should be a blank space (" ") as this is the main article--> [[Kategori:Gabon| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Urut koloni Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota OSI]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1960]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Nagara jeung téritori Bantu]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Gabon}} hua8n8yk3w3lk0rabfxhii6doglanwb 0 36097 711542 710208 2026-08-06T22:48:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 10 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711542 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox sport | image = New Zealand vs South Africa 2006 Tri Nations Line Out.JPG | imagesize = 300px | caption = [[Victor Matfield]] ti Afrika Kidul ngalaksanakeun ''lineout'' kana Selandia Anyar dina 2006. | union = [[International Rugby Board]] | nickname = Rugger, Rugby<ref>{{cite book |title=British language & culture |url=https://archive.org/details/britishlanguagec0000unse |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |first=David |last=Else |year=2007 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/britishlanguagec0000unse/page/97 97] |isbn=186450286X}}</ref> | first = Awal abad ka-19 (wangun awal)<br />1845 (hukum tinulis awal) | registered = 5.062.396 | clubs = 18.920 | contact = [[Olahraga kontak#Kontak pinuh|Kontak pinuh]] | team = 15 | mgender = Kompetisi kapisah | category = [[Olahraga tim]], luar rohangan | equipment = [[Maén bal (bal)#Rugbi union|Bal rugbi]] | venue = | olympic = [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1900|1900]]; dihupus ti program [[Olimpiade 1928|1928]]; [[Rugbi Tujuh]] dibalikkeun [[Olimpiade 2016|2016]] }} '''Rugbi union''', mindeng disebut '''rugbi''' wungkul, nyaéta hiji olahraga tim [[Olahraga kontak#Kontak pinuh|kontak pinuh]] nu lahir di Inggris di awal abad ka-19.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm#2 |title=Origins of Rugby – Codification "The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1820 and 1830." |publisher=Rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=15 August 2011}}</ref> salah sahiji [[Bandingan rugbi liga jeung rugbi union|dua kode]] ti [[maén bal rugbi]], nyaéta dina lumpat sareng bal dicandak ku tangan. Olahraga ieu dimaénkeun kalawan hiji [[bal rugbi|bal]] nu bentukna oval, di lapangan nu panjangna nepi ka 100 m jeung lébarna nepi ka 70 m kalawan pos gawang nu bentukna kawas hurup "H" dina masing-masing garis gawang. [[William Webb Ellis]] mindeng dipercaya kalawan pamanggihan lumpat sareng nyandak bal ku tangan dina 1823 di [[Sakola Rugby]] basa anjeunna diduga nyanggap bal nalika keur maén bal jeung lumpat ka gawang lawan. Tapi, bukti carita éta diragukeun. Dina 1845, hukum maén bal kahiji ditulis ku murid-murid Sakola Rugby; kajadian signifikan lianna dina pamekaran awal rugbi contona kaputusan [[Blackheath F.C.|Klub Blackheath]] ninggalkeun ''[[The Football Association]]'' dina 1863 sarta misahna rugbi union jeung [[rugbi liga]] dina 1895. Dina 1995 [[International Rugby Board|Badan Rugbi Internasional]] (''International Rugby Board'', IRB) ngahupus larangan dina bayaran ka pamaén, nyieun maénna sacara kabuka profésional dina tingkat nu pangluhurna pikeun kahijina. IRB geus jadi badan pangurus pikeun rugbi union ti pawangunanna dina 1886. Sumebarna rugbi union tumuwuh ti [[Home Nations|Bangsa Asal]] (''Home Nations''), Britania Raya jeung Irlandia, sarta diserep ku raloba nagara nu kaasosiasi jeung Kakaisaran Britania. Éksponén awal ti olahraga ieu contona Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul. Nagara-nagara nu geus ngadopsi rugbi union salaku olahraga nasionalna sacara ''[[de facto]]'' misalna Fiji, Géorgia, Selandia Anyar, Samoa, Tonga, jeung Wales. Rugbi union dimaénkeun di leuwih ti 100 nagara di 6 buana jeung dina Nopémber 2010, 118 union mangrupa anggota IRB. [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]], kahiji lumangsung dina 1987, dilaksanakeun saban opat warsih, kalawan nu meunangna narima [[Piala Webb Ellis]]. [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa]] (''Six Nations Championship'') di Éropa jeung [[Kajuaraan Rugby]] (''The Rugby Championship'') di Hémisfér Kidul (nu ngaganti ''Tri Nations'') mangrupa kompetisi internasional utami anu dilaksanakeun warsihan. Kompetisi doméstik utama contona [[Top 14]] di Perancis, [[English Premiership (rugbi union)|English Premiership]] di Inggris, [[Currie Cup]] di Afrika Kidul, jeung [[ITM Cup]] di Selandia Anyar. Kompetisi antarbangsa nu lian contona [[Celtic League (rugbi union)|Celtic League]], aslina mimilukeun tim ti Irlandia, Skotlandia, jeung Wales sarta ayeuna ditambih ti Italia; [[Super Rugby]] (baheulana Super 12 jeung Super 14), mimilukeun tim ti Afrika Kidul, Australia, jeung Selandia Anyar; sarta [[Heineken Cup]], mimilukeun sawatara tim ti Éropa. ==Sajarah== {{utama|Sajarah rugbi union}} [[File:Rugby School 850.jpg|box|thumb|[[Sakola Rugby]] di [[Rugby, Warwickshire]]. Katembong dina gambar gawang rugbi nu wangunna kawas hurup "H"]] Asalna maén bal rugbi dianggap salaku hiji insidén dina hiji patandingan [[Maén bal sakola umum Inggris|maén bal sakola Inggris]] di Sakola Rugby dina 1823 basa [[William Webb-Ellis]] disebut yén anjeunna nyandak bal teras lumpat barina.<ref>{{cite web|title = Webb Ellis, William|url = http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/webb-ellis.html|accessdate =14 September 2009}}</ref> Sanajan bukti ti carita éta diragukeun,<ref>{{cite episode|title=Flotsam|url=http://www.comedy.co.uk/guide/tv/qi/episodes/6/3/|series=QI|serieslink=QI|network=[[BBC]]|station=BBC One |location=UK|airdate=9 January 2009|seriesno=F|number=3}}</ref> hal éta diabadikeun di sakola éta kalawan hiji [[piagam pangélingan|piagam]] nu diumumkeun dina 1895.<ref>{{cite web|title = William Webb Ellis – fact or fiction?|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/low/rugby_union/6255164.stm |first=Sean|last=Davies| publisher=bbc.co.uk |accessdate =20 September 2011}}</ref> Sanajan asalna anékdot, [[Piala Webb Ellis|tropi Piala Dunya Rugbi]] dingaranan ti namina. Maén bal rugbi tumuwuh ti wangun kaulinan dimaénkeun di Sakola Rugby, nu dicandak urut siswana ka universitas; [[Albert Pell]], saurang mahasiswa ti [[Universitas Cambridge|Cambridge]], diajénan ku lantaran geus ngawangun tim 'maén bal' kahiji.<ref name="Marshall13">{{Harvnb|Marshall|1951|p=13}}</ref> Dina période awal ieu, béda sakola béda aturan, kalawan urut murid Rugby jeung [[Kampus Eton|Eton]] ngusahakeun mawa aturan anu dipikaresepna ka universitas.<ref name="Marshall13-14">{{Harvnb|Marshall|1951|pp=13–14}}</ref> Kajadian-kajadian signifikan dina pamekaran awal maén bal rugbi nyaéta panyieunan sét hukum maén bal katulis anu kahiji di Sakola Rugby dina 1845,<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=9}}</ref> anu dipiluan ku '[[Aturan Cambridge]]' dijieun dina 1848.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm#3 |title=Early Laws |publisher=Rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=6 February 2010}}</ref> Kajadian penting lianna contona kaputusan Klub Blackhéath Club ninggalkeun ''The Football Association'' dina 1863<ref name="Godwin10">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = The History of Football |url = http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/game/historygame4.html |work = FIFA.com |accessdate = 25 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314172942/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/game/historygame4.html |date=14 March 2013 }}</ref> jeung ngadegna [[Rugby Football Union]] dina 1871.<ref name="Godwin10"/> Kode ieu aslina disebut "maén bal rugbi" (''rugby football''); tapi sanggeus [[Sajarah rugbi liga#Peupeus di Inggris|peupeus di Inggris]] dina 1895, anu ngahasilkeun misahna [[rugbi liga]], olahraga ieu maké ngaran "rugbi union" pikeun ngabédakeunnana.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rugby's great split: class, culture and the origins of rugby league football|author=Tony Collins|pages=87–120|chapter=Schism 1893–1895|edition=2nd|publisher=Routlage|year=2006|isbn=0-415-39616-6}}</ref> Sanajan ngaran pinuhna rugbi union, olahraga ieu ngan disebut rugbi di kalobaannana bagian dunya.<ref>{{cite web |title = Warwickshire and Rugby Football |url = http://www.warwickshire.gov.uk/Web/corporate/pages.nsf/Links/25612031C7B03F9C80257610004A20CC |work = warwickshire.gov.uk |accessdate = 26 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212025019/http://www.warwickshire.gov.uk/Web/corporate/pages.nsf/Links/25612031C7B03F9C80257610004A20CC |date=12 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=A Short History of Civilization IV |work=Five Epochs of Civilization: Chapter 7 (2000) |url=http://worldhistorysite.com/civilization4.html |publisher=worldhistorysite.com |first=William |last=McGaughey |accessdate=26 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512190553/http://worldhistorysite.com/civilization4.html |date=12 May 2013 }}</ref> [[Patandingan rugbi union Bangsa Asli 1870-71|Maén bal rugbi internasional kahiji]] lumangsung dina 27 Maret 1871, antara Inggris jeung Skotlandia.<ref name="Godwin10"/> Dina 1881 Irlandia jeung Wales miboga tim anu ngawakilannana, jeung dina 1883 kompetisi internasional kahiji, [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa|''Home Nations Championship'']] dimimitian. 1883 ogé taundi mana turnamén [[rugbi tujuh]] kahiji lumnangsung, di [[Melrose, Skotlandia|Melrose]], [[Melrose Sevens]],<ref name="Godwin12">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=12}}</ref> anu masih warsihan dilaksanakeun. Lima taunsanggeusna, aya dua tur penting peuntas laut; tim [[Tur Singa Britania ka Selandia Anyar jeung Australia 1888|Kapuloan Britania]] datang ka Australia jeung Selandia Anyar. Hal éta neundeun pondasi pikeun tur [[Singa Britania jeung Irlandia]] nu engkéna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/5023.php|title=1888 Australia & New Zealand|publisher=The British and irish Lions|accessdate=13 August 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607033526/http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/5023.php |date=7 June 2011 }}</ref> [[Tim maén bal Pribumi Selandia Anyar 1888–1889|tim Pribumi Selandia Anyar 1888]] mangrupa tim peuntas laut kahiji nu datang ka Britania.<ref>{{cite book |title=Forerunners of the All Blacks |url=https://archive.org/details/forerunnersofall0000ryan |last=Ryan |first=Greg |publisher=Canterbury University Press |year=1993 |location=Christchurch, New Zealand|isbn=0-908812-30-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/forerunnersofall0000ryan/page/44 44]}}</ref> [[File:King George V presents a cup to the captain of the winning New Zealand Services Rugby Team, London.jpeg|thumb|left|[[James Ryan (pamaén rugbi union nu lahir 1887)|James Ryan]], kaptén tim Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar, narima Piala Kings ti George V|alt=A black and white photo of a rugby field in which three men in military uniform, one of whom is King George, present a silver trophy to a rugby player dressed in black kit. Behind in a line are the rest of the team.]] Antara 1905 jeung 1908, sadaya tilu nagara rugbi utama ti Hémisfér Kidul ngintunkeun tim tur kahijina ka Hémisfér Kalér: [[The Original All Blacks|Selandia Anyar]] dina 1905, dimiluan ku [[Tur rugbi union Afrika Kidul 1906-07|Afrika Kidul]] dina 1906 jeung teras [[Tur rugbi union Britania Australia 1908-09|Australia]] dina 1908. Sadaya tilu tim mawa gaya maén, tingkat kaséhatan, jeung taktik nu anyar,<ref name="Godwin, p18">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=18}}</ref> jeung leuwih boga hasil tinimbang nu aya dina kritikan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|1954|p=27}} ''"When they arrived in this country [Britain] they were regarded as an unknown quantity, but it was not anticipated that they would give the stronger British teams a great deal of opposition. The result of the very first match against Devon was regarded as a foregone conclusion by most British followers."''</ref> Tim tur Selandia Anyar 1905 ngalaksanakeun [[Ka Mate|haka]] saméméh saban patandingan, administrator Rugbi Union Wales, [[Tom Williams (pamaén rugbi Wales)|Tom Williams]], nyarankeun pamaén Wales, [[Teddy Morgan]], mingpin balaréa dina nembangkeun Lagu Kabangsaan Nasional Wales, ''[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]'', salaku balesan. Sanggeus Morgan mimiti nembang, masarakat mimiluan: wayah kahiji lagu kabangsaan ditembangkeun di awal kajadian olahraga.<ref>{{cite web|title=The anthem in more recent years|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/music/sites/anthem/pages/anthem-today.shtml|accessdate=3 December 2010 |publisher=[[BBC Cymru Wales]]|date=1 December 2008 |work=[[BBC Cymru Wales|BBC Cymru Wales history]]}}</ref> Dina 1905, Perancis ngalawan Inggris dina patandingan internasional kahijina.<ref name="Godwin, p18"/> Euweuh patandingan rugbi internasional jeung patandingan nu kadukung union dimaénkeun basa Perang Dunya I, tapi kompetisi lanjut liwat tim layanan saperti [[Tim rugbi Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar 1919|tim Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=19}}</ref> Dina Perang Dunya II, euweuh patandingan internasional dimaénkeun ku raloba nagara sanajan Italia, Jérman, jeung Romania maénkeun sawatara patandingan,<ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19590.html Tur Italia – Bukares, 14 April 1940] Romania vs Italia, Scrum.com</ref><ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19591.html Tur Italia – Stuttgart, 5 Méi 1940] Jérman vs Italia, Scrum.com</ref><ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19592.html Tur Romania – Milan, 2 Méi 1942] Italia vs Romania, Scrum.com</ref> sarta [[R.U.F.C. Universitas Cambridge|Cambridge]] jeung [[RFC Universitas Oxford|Oxford]] ngalanjutkeun [[The Varsity Match|Patandingan Universitas]] warsihanna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=22}}</ref> Rugbi union diasupkeun salaku cabang dina Olimpiade opat kali dina awal 1900-an. Dina 1973, turnamén internasional rugbi tujuh anu didukung resmi lumangsung di Murrayfield, salaku bagian ti pangélingan saratus taun [[Rugbi Union Skotlandia]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Rugby in the Olympics: Future|url = http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/future.html|work = [[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|date = |accessdate = 18 August 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810065813/http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/future.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Dina 1987, Piala Dunya Rugbi kahiji dilaksanakeun di Selandia Anyar jeung Australia, sarta nu meunang nyaéta Selandia Anyar. Turnamén Piala Dunya Rugbi Tujuh kahiji dilaksanakeun di Murrayfield dina 1993. Rugbi Tujuh dipikawanohkeun di [[Kajuaraan Rugbi Tujuh Pasamakmuran|Commonwealth Games]] dina 1998 jeung bakal dilombakeun dina Olimpiade 2016.<ref name="I.O.C. Decision"/> Rugbi union mangrupa olahraga amatir nepi ka IRB ngadéklarasikeun olahraga ieu 'kabuka' dina 1995, ngahupus larangan din bayaran ka pamaén.<ref name=Stubbs3>{{Harvnb|Stubbs|2009|p=118}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = History of the RFU |url = http://www.rfu.com/AboutTheRFU/History.aspx |work = [[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date = |accessdate = 28 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100422210444/http://www.rfu.com/AboutTheRFU/History.aspx |date=22 April 2010 }}</ref> Tapi, période rugbi union pra-1995 dicirian ku lobana tuduhan "[[shamateurisme]]",<ref>{{cite web|title = Ontario: The Shamateurs|url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804253,00.html|work = TIME|date = 29 September 1947|accessdate = 6 February 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513010050/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804253,00.html |date=13 May 2013 }}</ref> kaasup hiji invéstigasi di Britania ku hiji komite Badan Pamilihan Umum.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/amateur-status-attacked-by-mps-1611641.html?CMP=ILC-refresh |title=Amateur status attacked by MPs - Sport - The Independent |first=John |last=Rentoul |work=[[The Independent]] |date=17 March 1995 |publisher=[[Independent News & Media|INM]] |location=[[London, UK|London]] |issn=0951-9467 |oclc=185201487 |accessdate=19 November 2011}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|title = History of Rugby Union|url = http://www.talkrugbyunion.co.uk/guides/history_of_rugby_union.html|accessdate =6 February 2010}}</ref> Nurutan dipikawanohna profésionalisme kompetisi klub trans-nasional dimimitian, kalawan [[Heineken Cup]] di Hémisfér Kalér jeung [[Super Rugby]] di Hémisfér Kidul.<ref name="historymain">{{cite web | url=http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php | title=European Rugby Cup: History | publisher=ERC | accessdate=21 March 2007 | archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070208134810/http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> | archivedate=8 February 2007 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208134810/http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php |date=8 February 2007 }}</ref><ref name="Gaynor">{{cite news|title=Union's off-field game a real winner|date=21 April 2001|newspaper=New Zealand Herald|first=Bryan| last=Gaynor|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=184012}}</ref> [[Tri Nations (rugbi union)|Tri-nations]], hiji turnamén internasional mimilukeun Afrika Kidul, Selandia Anyar, jeung Australia, dimimitian dina 1996.<ref name="Gaynor"/> ==Tim jeung struktur tim== {{utama|Posisi pamaén rugbi union}} [[Image:Rugby formation.svg|thumb|Formasi normal tim rugbi union, ngagambareun masing-masing posisi jeung nomerna.]] Masing-masing tim mimiti maén kalawan 15 pamaén di lapangan.<ref name="Law3">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/090729sgsmlaw3_8811.pdf |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |title=Law 3 Number of Players |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013170741/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/090729sgsmlaw3_8811.pdf |date=13 October 2012 }}</ref> Pamaén dina hiji tim dibagi kana 8 [[Posisi di rugbi union#Payun|payun]] (2 leuwih di [[rugbi liga]]) jeung 7 [[Posisi di rugbi union#Bék|bék]].<ref name="IRB BGRU 6">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=6|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> ===Pamaén payun=== Kawajiban utama ti pamaén payun nyaéta miboga jeung nahankeun kabogaan bal.<ref name="talkrugby">{{cite web|url=http://www.talkrugbyunion.co.uk/guides/rugby_union_positions.html |title=Rugby Union Positions |publisher=talkrugbyunion.co.uk |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011}}</ref> Pamaén dina posisi ieu umumna gedé jeung kiat sarti milu dina ''scrum'' jeung ''lineout''.<ref name="talkrugby"/> Aranjeunna sok disebut ''pack'', utamina dina formasi ''scrum''.<ref name="Glossary">{{cite web|url=http://www.espnscrum.com/scrum/rugby/page/97263.html|work=ESPN Scrum.com |title=Rugby Glossary |accessdate=13 August 2011}}</ref> '''Baris payun'''<br/> Baris payun kawangun ti 3 pamaén, 2 prop (panyangga); ''loosehead'' jeung ''tighthead'', sarta ''hooker''. 2 prop ngabantu ''hooker'' dina ''scrum'', pikeun ngadukung paluncat dina ''lineouts'', jeung nyadiakeun tanaga dina ''ruck'' jeung ''maul''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Posisi katilu di baris payun nyaéta ''hooker''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> ''Hooker'' mangrupa posisi konci dina maén ofénsif jeung deféntif sarta miboga tanggung jawab meunangkan bal dina ''scrum''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> ''Hooker'' biasana anu ngalungkeun bal dina ''lineout''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> '''Baris kadua'''<br/> Baris kadua kawangun ti 2 ''lock'' atanapi ''lock forwards''. ''Lock'' biasana pamaén nu pangluhurna di tim, jeung husus dina nu lincat nalika ''lineout''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Kagunaan utama ''lock'' dina ''lineout'' nyaéta nyieun ''standing jump'' (luncat nangtung), mindeng dirojong ku pamaén payun nu lian, pikeun nyokot bal nu dialungkeun atawa mastikeun bal dipiboga ku reguna. ''Lock'' ogé miboga hiji kagunaan penting dina ''scrum'', nyapit langsung di tukangeun tilu pamaén baris payun jeung nyadiakeun kadali hareup.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> [[File:Chabal Rugby Racing vs Stade Toulousain 311009.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sébastien Chabal]] (kénca jauh) dina posisi nomer dalapan saméméh asup ka ''scrum''|alt=Facing right a group of seven men, in blue and white hooped jersesy, bind together and crouch to form a scrum, the eighth player stands behind them observing the off-picture opposition.]] '''Baris pengker'''<br/> Baris pengker, kadé kaliru jeung ‘Bék’, nyaéta baris katilu jeung baris pangahirna ti barisan di posisi payun. Pamaén di bari pengker mindeng disebut ''loose forwards''.<ref name="Glossary"/> Tilu posisi di baris pengker diwangun ti 2 jangjang jeung nu nomerna 8. Dua posisi jangjang, disebut jangjang ''blindside'' jeung ''openside'', mangrupa baris final dina ''scrum''. Peran utamina nyaéta pikeun meunangkeun kabogaan liwat ''turn over''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Nu nomerna 8 dina ''scrum'' miboga peran ngadalikeun bal sanggeus dioper ti payun jeung posisina nyadiakeun hiji panyambung antara nu di payun jeung pengker dina fase narajang.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=7|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> ===Bék=== Peran bék nyaéta nyieun jeung ngonvérsi kasempetan ngahasilkeun skor, aranjeunna umumna leuwih leutik tapi leuwih gancang jeung leuwih cingceng tinimbang pamaén payun.<ref name="talkrugby"/> Bébéda nu lian antara dua posisi nyaéta bék dipiharep miboga kaahlian najong supérior, utamina dina posisi ''fly-half'' jeung ''full-back''.<ref name="talkrugby"/> '''''Half-back'''''<br/> ''Half-back'' diwangun ti 2 posisi, ''scrum-half''/''half-back'' jeung ''fly-half''/''First Five-Eighth''. ''Fly-half'' penting pikeun rencana tim, ngatur performa tim.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Aranjeunna biasana anu kahiji nu narima bal ti ''scrum-half'' sanggeus ''breakdown'', ''lineout'', atanapi ''scrum'' jeung kedah merhatoskeun nanao anu dilakukeun jeung éféktif dina ngomunikasi jeung bék luar.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Loba ''fly-half'' nu ogé panajong ka gawang. ''Scrum-half'' mangrupa panyambung antara pamaén payun jeung bék.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Aranjeunna narima bal ti ''lineout'' jeung mindahkeun bal ti bagian pengker ''scrum'', biasana ngoperkeunnana ka ''fly-half''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 8">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=8|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> Aranjeunna ogé ''feed'' (méré bal) ka ''scrum'' jeung kadang kedah jadi ''loose forward'' kaopat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bompa|1981|p=62}}</ref> '''''Three quarters'''''<br/> Aya 4 posisi ''three quarter'', ''inside centre''/''Second Five-Eighth'', ''outside centre'', sarta jangjang kénca jeung katuhu. Saperti fly-half, aranjeunna umumna miboga tajongan nu alus jeung alus dina maca pamaénan jeung ngarahkeun tarajangan. ''Centre'' bakal ngusakhakeun n-''tackle'' pamaén anu narajang, nalika dina panarajangan, aranjeunna kedah ngaluarkeun kagancangan jeung tanaga pikeun norobos patahanan musuh.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Jangjang biasana diposisikeun di luareun ''backline''. Kagunaan utamina nya éa ngaréngsékeun gerakan jeung usaha ''try''.{{sfn|Brown, Guthrie and Growden|(2010)}} Jangjang biasana pamaén anu panggancangna dina tim jeung atawa palumpat anu cingceng, atawa umumna di jaman modérn, gedé, kiat, sarta bisa ngéléhkeun ''tackle''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Scottish rugby welcomes back Lomu|date=7 January 2006|first=David|last=Ferguson|url=http://sport.scotsman.com/superteams/Scottish-rugby-welcomes-back-Lomu.2740238.jp|newspaper=Scotsman|accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> '''''Fullback'''''<br/> ''Fullback'' biasana aya sawatara méter tukangeun ''back line''. Anjeunna nyanggap tajongan musuh jeung mindeng jadi baris patahanan ahir anu kedah ditorobos ku musuh.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Dua atribut penting ti saurang ''fullback'' nu alus nyaéta kaahlian nyanggap jeung najong.<ref name = "MacDonald">{{cite book|title=Rugger Practice and Tactics – A Manual of Rugby Football Technique |first=H. F. |last=MacDonald|year=1938|page=97}}</ref> ==Aturan== {{utama|Cara maén rugbi union}} [[Image:RugbyPitchMetricDetailed-su.svg|thumb|300px|right|Diagram lapangan rugbi union midangkeun garis nu kaciri jeung jarak.]] ===Skor=== Rugbi union dimaénkeun antara 2 tim – anu skorna leuwih loba nyaéta nu meunang. Skor bisa dihasilkeun liwat sababaraha cara : ''[[try]]'', ku cara mawa bal ka aréa gawang (antara garis gawang jeung garis bal paéh) jeung bari labuh ka taneuh (''grounding''), ngahasilkeun 5 poin jeung hiji ''conversion'' anu bisa ngahasilkeun 2 poin; liwat pénalti atawa ''[[drop goal]]'' ngahasilkeun 3 poin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=Law 9 Method of Scoring|format=PDF|accessdate=15 August 2011|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110830123708/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf|archivedate=30 August 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123708/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Skor ti cara-cara ieu geus diganti warsih-warsih.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/scoring.htm |title=Scoring through the ages |work=rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=16 August 2011}}</ref> ===Lapangan=== Lapangan rugbi sedeukeut-deukeutna maksimal panjangna 144m jeung lébar 70m.<ref name="pitch size">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law1EN_7709.pdf |title=Law 1: The Ground |page=21 |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010221022/http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law1EN_7709.pdf |date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> Dina patandingan sabenerna, kedah aya jarak maksimal 100m antara dua garis ''try'', kalawan di mana waé 10 jeung 22m tukangeun garis ''try'' jadi aréa bal paéh.<ref name="pitch size"/> Aya sababaraha garis anu meunatasannana, saperti garis saparo jalan, "dua puluh dua", anu aya 22m ti garis gawang.<ref name="pitch size"/> Pos gawangna saperti hurup H, jeung miboga dua tihang, kapisah 5,6m, disambungkeun ku hiji batang horizontal 3m luhureun taneuh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |title=Law 1 The Ground |page=1.4(a-b) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044847/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830124154/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Diménsi lapangan anu sabenerna mah maké [[unit impérial]], tapi geus dikonvérsi ka [[sistim métrik]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/rugby_union/six_nations/618637.stm |title=A beginner's guide to ... rugby laws |work=BBC |date=31 January 2000 |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref><ref>Sanajan diménsi lapangan geus dikonvérsi ka sistim métrik, sababaraha koméntator masih nganggo ukuran impérial basa ngarujuk kana aturan katangtu.</ref> ===Struktur patandingan=== Dina awal patandingan, kaptén ti kadua tim jeung wasit ngundi hiji koin pikeun nangtukeun tim mana anu ''kick off'' kahiji. Patandingan teras mimiti kalawan hiji ''drop kick'', jeung pamaén ngudag bal ka aréa musuh, jeung nu lian nyobian sangkan narima bal nu teras narajang. Lamun pamaén nu mawa bal di-''tackle'', salajengna bakal aya hiji [[Cara maén rugbi union#Ruck|''ruck'']].<ref name=Midgley>{{Cite book| last = Midgley| first = Ruth| coauthors = | title = The Official World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games| publisher=Diagram Group| year = 1979| location = London| url =|page=394 | isbn = 0-7092-0153-2}}</ref> Patandingan dibagi kana 2 babak masing-masing 40 menit, kalawan hiji [[Half-time|istirahat]] di tengahna.<ref name="IRBLaw5">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |title=Law 5: Time |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=23 September 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045621/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929014404/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |date=29 September 2011 }}</ref> Di babak kadua, tim silih tuker gawang.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Selaan pikeun kacilakaan sangkan mungkinkeun wasit ngalaksanakeun aksi disiplinér, teu kaétang salaku bagian ti wayah maén, jadi biasana waktu anu kapaké leuwih ti 80 menit.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Wasit miboga tanggung jawab dina netepkeun wayah, sanajan{{dash}}sakumaha dina loba turnamén{{dash}}anjeunna ditulungan ku hiji panangtu wayah resmi.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Upami wayahna béak tapi balna masih dimaénkeun, patandingan lanjut nepi ka balna 'paéh', jeung ngan dina éta wungkul wasit miriwit pikeun nandaan réngséna babak atawa patandingan; tapi, upamina wasti méré pénalti atawa tajongan bébas, patandingan lanjut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby365.com/laws_referees/laws/578937.htm |title=Law 5 – Time |date=22 January 2007 |accessdate=9 July 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304115933/http://www.rugby365.com/laws_referees/laws/578937.htm |date=4 March 2010 }}</ref> ===Ngoper jeung najong=== Operan payun (ngalungkeun bal ka payun ka pamaén lian) teu beunang; ball ngan bisa dioper ka samping atawa ka tukang.<ref name="irblaws12">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |title=Law 12 Knock-on ot Throw Forward |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045447/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830125954/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Bal bisa dicandak ka payun ku tilu cara— ditajong, dicandak lumpat, atanapi ti ''scrum'' atawa [[Cara maén rugbi union#Maul|maul]]. Pamaén anu bisa di-''tackle'' atawa di-''ruck'' ngan pamaén anu mawa bal. Basa bal dipayunkeun ku hiji pamaén maké pananganna, éta ngahasilkeun ''knock-on'', anu teras dilanjutkeun ku ''scrum''.<ref name="irblaws12"/> Sadaya pamaén tiasa najong bal ka payun pikeun miboga téritori. Basa saurang pamaén di mana waé di aréa maén najong sacara teu langsung ka ''[[Touch (rugbi)|touch]]'' jadina balna mantul dina lapangan, ''throw-in'' dilaksanakeun basa balna asup ka ''touch''.<ref name="irblaws12"/> Upami pamaén najong langusng ka ''touch'' (saperti tanpa mantul di jero lapangan heula) tina jero garis 22 méter soranganna, ''lineout'' dilaksanakeun ku tim lawan di tempat bal asup ka ''touch'', tapi upami balna langsung ditajong ka ''touch'' ku saurang pamaén di luar garis 22 méter, ''lineout'' dilaksanakeun ka tempat tajongan anu tadi dilakukeun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.1(e-h) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ===''Breakdowns''=== [[File:Schoolkids doing a rugby tackle.jpg|thumb|Hiji ''tackle'' rugbi: ''tackle'' kedah di handap beuheung kalawan tujuan ngalingan atawa ngalabuhkeun pamaén ogé balna|alt=A child running away from camera in green and black hooped rugby jersey is in the process of being tackled around the hips and legs by an opponent.]] Tujuan sisi nahan nyaéta ngeureunkeun pamaén nu mawa bal, boh liwat ngalabuhkeun manéhna (''tackle'', nu biasana dimiluan ku ''ruck''), atawa parebut posési jeung nu mawa bal dina suku (''maul''). Kaayaan kitu disebut hiji ''breakdown'' jeung miboga aturan husus. Saurang pamaén beunang n-''tackle''-an pamaén lawan anu keur miboga balna ku cara ngalabuhkeun manéhna. Anu n-''tackle'' teu beunang n-''tackle'' di luhureun taktak (tenggek jeung mastaka),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(e) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> jeung nu n-''tackle'' kedah ngusahakeun ngurilingkeun leungeunna kana pamaén anu di-''tackle'' sangkan ''tackle''-na komplit. Teu beunang ngadorong, ngadu taktak, atawa néngklas pamaén lian maké suku, tapi panangan beunang dipaké (maksudna hiji ''tap-tackle'' atawa ''[[Ankle tap|ankle-tap]]'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(d) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(g) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> ''Maul'' aya sanggeus saurang pamaén nu mawa bal kontak jeung lawanna tapi kadalina tetep dina sukuna; basa tilu pamaén cekap pikeun ngawangun hiji ''maul''.<ref name="Glossary"/> Hiji ''ruck'' mirip jeung ''maul'', tapi dina kasus ieu balna geus ka taneuh kalwan minimalna tilu pamaén milu ngalindungan balna.<ref name="Glossary"/> ===''Set pieces''=== [[File:Ireland vs Georgia, Rugby World Cup 2007 line up.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tim nasional rugbi union Irlandia|Irlandia]] jeung [[Tim nasional rugbi union Géorgia|Géorgia]] dina ''lineout'' basa [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007]]|alt=Two rows of opposing players, green to the fore, white behind, each aid a jumping player from their team by lifting him towards an off-picture ball travelling overhead.]] ====''Lineout''==== :{{utama|Line-out}} Basa balna kaluar liwat sisi lapangan, hiji [[line-out|''lineout'']] dilakukeun ku lawanna tim anu pangahirna keuna bal.<ref name="irblaws19">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén payun ti saban tim baris saméter kapisah, tegak lurus jeung garis ''touch'' sarta antara 5 m jeung 15 m ti garis ''touch''.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Balna dialungkeun ti garis ''touch'' ka jero lapangan ku hiji pamaén (biasana ''[[hooker (rugbi union)|hooker]]'') ti tim anu sanés pangahirna keuna bal.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Kajaba, upami balna kaluar ku lantaran hiji pénalti, tim anu ngalaksanakeun pénalti ngalakukeun ''line-out''-na.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Tim duanana parebut balna jeung pamaén beunang ngangkat réréncangan satimna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.10 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén nu luncat teu beunang di-''tackle'' nepi ka manéhna nangtung sarta ngan kontak taktak anu diijinkeun; palanggaran anu dihaja kana aturan eiu mangrupa bahaya, jeung bisa ngahasilkeun pénalti.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.8(p) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ====''Scrum''==== {{utama|Scrum (rugbi union)}} [[File:Scrum-1.JPG|thumb|right|Hiji ''[[scrum (rugbi)|scrum]]''|alt=Two opposing formations of eight men, in white and black to the left, red and black to the right, push against each other in a crouched position; behind them stands another player and the referee.]] Hiji ''scrum'' mangrupa hiji cara pikeun 'ngamimitian' deui patandingan kalawan aman jeung adil sanggeus palanggaran leutik.<ref name="irblaws20">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |title=Law 20 Scrum |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045535/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830130008/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ''Scrum'' dilaksanakeun ku lantaran operan payun, ''[[Offside (rugbi)#Rugbi union|offside]]'', atawa upami balna kakurung dina ''ruck'' atawa ''maul'' tanpa kasempetan bal kaambil. Hiji tim bisa ogé milih ''scrum'' salaku hadiah pénaltina.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Hiji ''scrum'' diwangun ti 8 pamaén payun ti saban tim ngariung dina 3 baris.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Baris payun ngawengku 2 ''prop'' (''loosehead'' jeung ''tighthead'') atawa sisi ''hooker''.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Baris kadua ngawengku 2 ''lock'' jeung 2 ''flanker''. Tukangeun baris kadua nyaéta si nomer 8. Formasi ieu kawanoh salaku formasi 3–4–1.<ref name="FormingScrum">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rules_and_equipment/4205334.stm |title=Forming a scrum |publisher=BBC Sport |accessdate=13 August 2011 | date=14 September 2005}}</ref> Basa hiji ''scrum'' kawangun, ''scrum-half'' ti tim anu dihadiahan nga-''feed'' (méré) balna ka sela antara dua baris payun (kawanoh salaku ''tunnel'').<ref name="irblaws20"/> Dua ''hooker'' teras parebut ku cara nyapukeun bal na ka tukang maké suku, samentara masing-masing kelompok nyoba ngadorong kelompok ''scrum'' musuhna pikeun ngalindungan posési.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Tim anu meunangkeun posési mindahkeun balna ka bagian tukangna ''scrum'', di mana balna dicandak ku nu nomer 8 atawa ku ''scrum-half''.<ref name="irblaws20"/> ===Ofisial jeung sanksi=== Aya 3 ofisial patandingan: hiji wasit jeung dua asistén wasit.<ref name="IRBLaw6">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |title=Law 6: Match officials |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=19 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044908/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830125555/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Asistén wasit, baheulana kawanoh salaku hakim ''toucdh'', miboga fungsi utami pikeun nunjukkeun di mana balna kaluar ti lapangan; peranna geus dilegaan jeung aranjeunna ayeuna bisa ngiringan wasit pikeun rupa-rupa tujuan, saperti nunjukkeun palanggaran jeung mariksa garis ''off-side''.<ref name="IRBLaw6"/> Tambahannana, pikeun patandingan di kompetisi luhur, sok aya ofisial patandingan télévisi (''Television Match Official'' TMO; populérna disebut "wasit vidéo"), pikeun nulungan sababaraha kaputusan, disambungkeun ka wasit ku radio.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-union/news-comment/peter-bills-refereeing-protocol-rules-over-common-sense-2242369.html |title=Peter Bills: Refereeing protocol rules over common sense |work=The Independent|first=Peter|last=Bills |accessdate=15 March 2011}}</ref> Para wasit miboga sistim sinyal tangan pikeun ngindikasikeun kaputusannana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coachingrugby.com/OpenPagesContent.do?requestType1=currentIssues/&requestType2=lawsSignals |title=Referee Signals |work=coachingrugby.com |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> Hukuman umum contona n-''tackle'' luhureun taktak, rubuh dina ''scrum'', ''ruck'', atanapi ''maul'', teu ngalepaskeun bal basa di taneuh, atawa ''off-side''.<ref name="Law10">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10: Foul Play |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |page=70 |accessdate=19 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> Lawanna tim anu ngalanggar aturan miboga sababaraha pilihan pikeun hadiahna: hiji tajongan "tap" (balna ditajong ka jarak anu deukeut pisan ti tangan, mungkinkeun nu najongna nyandak balna deui jeung tuluy lumpat barina), hiji ''punt'' (balna ditajong ka jarak nu jauh ti tangan, pikeun posisi lapangan), hiji ''place-kick'' (nu najongna bakal nyobian nyitak gol), atawa hiji ''scrum''.<ref name="Law10"/> Pamaén bisa dikaluarkeun (dibéré [[Kartu pénalti#Kartu beureum|kartu beureum]]) atawa ditunda ("''sin-binned''") pikeun 10 menit ([[Kartu pénalti#Kartu konéng|kartu konéng]]) ku lantaran palanggaran, jeung teu beunang diganti.<ref name="Law10"/> ===Panggantian jeung substitusi=== Dina patandingan, pamaén bisa diganti (ku lantaran kacilakaan) atawa disubstitusi (pikeun alesan taktik).<ref name="Law3"/> Saurang pamaén nu geus diganti teu beunang maén deui iwal anjeunna diganti saheulaan pikeun ngadalian ciderana; saurang pamaén anu geus disubstitusi bisa maén deui saheulaan, pikeun ngaganti pamaén anu boga rahut nu getihan, atawa permanén, upami ngagantikeun pamaén baris payun.<ref name="Law3"/> Dina patandingan internasional, 7 panggantian diijinkeun; di turnamén domstik atawa antarbeungeut, dina kawijaksanaan babon organisasina, jumlahna bisa ditambihkeun nepi ka 8, nu mana 3 kedah geus dilatih jeung mibanda pangalaman anu cekap pikeun nyadiakeun pangaling pikeun tilu pamaén baris payun.<ref name="Uncontested">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2033086.html#irb+acts+uncontested+scrums |title=IRB acts on uncontested scrums |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=19 August 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822203000/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2033086.html#irb+acts+uncontested+scrums |date=22 August 2009 }}</ref> ==Pakakas== {{utama|Pakakas rugbi union}} Pakakas dasar ti rugbi union nyaéta balna, baju rugbi, [[calana pondok rugbi]], kaos suku, jeung sapatu. Bal rugbi bentukna oval, (téhnisna [[buleud manjang]]), jeung dijieun ti 4 panel.<ref name="IRBLaw2">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law2EN_7708.pdf |title=Law 2 The Ball |page=27 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=15 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091116195453/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/law2en_7708.pdf |date=16 November 2009 }}</ref> Balna baheula dijieun ti kulit, tapi ayeuna bisana ngagunakeun bal anu dijieun ti matérial sintétis. IRB ngaluarkeun ukuran spésifik bal, panjang 280-300mm, kuriling panjang 740-770mm, jeung kuriling lébar 580-620mm.<ref name="IRBLaw2"/> Sapatu rugbi miboga sol jeung [[pul]] anu mungkinkeun cekelan kana taneuh lapangan. Pulna bisa dijieun ti logam atawa plastik tapi teu kénging seukeut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_4_EN.pdf |title=Law 4 Players' clothing (4.3b) |page=40 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045617/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_4_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215090105/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_4_en.pdf |date=15 February 2010 }}</ref> Pakakas palindung opsional sarta aya aturannana. Pakakas anu paling umum nyaéta [[palindung baham]], anu dipaké ku ampir sadaya pamaén, jeung mangrupa pakakas rugbi wajib dina sababaraha nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coachingtoolbox.co.nz/rugbysmart/protective-equipment/ |title=Protect Your Assets: Mouthguards |accessdate=23 September 2011 |publisher=coaching toolbox.co.nz }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208034203/http://www.coachingtoolbox.co.nz/rugbysmart/protective-equipment/ |date=8 February 2013 }}</ref> Pakakas palindung lianna contona [[hélm scrum|hélm]]; ipis (teu leuwih ti 10&nbsp;mm), alas taktak hampang, jeung [[palindung sampéan]]; anu dipaké di jero kaos suku.<ref name="dress">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/regulation12090603_8287.pdf |title=Regulation 12 Provisions relating to player dress |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514141522/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/regulation12090603_8287.pdf |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref> Perban atanapi bandana kénging dipaké; sababaraha pamaén maké bandana di mastakana pikeun ngalindungan cepil dina ''scrum'' jeung ''ruck''. Pamaén awéwé beunang ogé maké ales dada.<ref name="dress"/> Sanajan teu dipaké pikeun palindungan, sababaraha rupa sarung tangan tanpa ramo diidinkeun pikeun nambihan cekelan.<ref name="dress"/> mangrupa tanggung jawab ofisial patandingan pikeun mariksa pakakas jeung pakéan pamaén saméméh tanding mastikeun yén saluyu jeung aturan maén.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/EN/laws/2/4/36/before-the-match/players-clothing/inspection-of-players-clothing/#clause_36 |title=4.5 Inspection of players' clothing) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829200052/http://www.irblaws.com/EN/laws/2/4/36/before-the-match/players-clothing/inspection-of-players-clothing/#clause_36 |date=29 August 2011 }}</ref> ==Babon organisasi== {{Tempo ogé|International Rugby Board}} Babon organisasi internasional rugbi union (jeung kaulinan anu kaasosiasina kawas [[rugbi tujuh]]) nyaéta [[International Rugby Board]] (IRB).<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB markasna aya di [[Dublin]], Irlandia.<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB, diadegkeun dina 1886, mingpin olahraga ieu disakuliah dunya jeung ngabéwarakeun aturan maén sarta [[Réngking Dunya IRB|réngking]].<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> Dina Nopémber 2010, IRB miboga 118 kahijian di kaanggotaannana, boh anggota pinuh atawa nu kaasosiasi.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041050.html | title=Iran becomes 118th IRB Member Union | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date=25 November 2010 | accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128090509/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041050.html |date=28 November 2010 }}</ref> Dumasar kana IRB, rugbi union dimaénkeun ku lalaki jeung awéwé di leuwih ti 100 nagara.<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB ngadalikeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]],<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Awéwé]],<ref>{{cite web | work=rwcwomens.com | title=IRB Women's Rugby World Cup | url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/ | accessdate=24 September 2011 | date= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917121216/http://www.rwcwomens.com/ |date=17 September 2010 }}</ref> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Tujuh]],<ref>{{cite web | work=stuff.co.nz |title = Russia to host 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/international/sevens/5634035/Russia-to-host-2013-Rugby-World-Cup-Sevens| accessdate=24 September 2011|date=15 September 2011}}</ref> [[IRB Sevens World Series]],<ref>{{cite web | work=irbsevens.com | title=Rules | url=http://www.irbsevens.com/rules/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903015900/http://www.irbsevens.com/rules/index.html |date=3 September 2011 }}</ref> [[IRB Junior World Championship|Junior World Championship]],<ref>{{cite web| work=IRB.com| title=Chile to host IRB Junior World Trophy| url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2000098.html| accessdate=24 September 2011| date=31 August 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518111417/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2000098.html |date=18 May 2011 }}</ref> [[IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy|Junior World Trophy]],<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy | url=http://www.irb.com/jwrt/rules/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325160709/http://www.irb.com/jwrt/rules/index.html |date=25 March 2008 }}</ref> [[IRB Nations Cup|Nations Cup]]<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=Nations Cup | url=http://www.irb.com/nationscup/news/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824035936/http://www.irb.com/nationscup/news/index.html |date=24 August 2011 }}</ref>, sarta [[Piala Bangsa-Bangsa Pasifik]].<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=Pacific Nations Cup | url=http://www.irb.com/pacificnationscup/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902103431/http://www.irb.com/pacificnationscup/index.html |date=2 September 2011 }}</ref> 6 asosiasi régional, anu mangrupa anggota IRB, nyaéta: * [[Konféderasi Rugbi Afrika]] (CAR)<ref>{{cite web|work=IRB.com|title=African Rugby unveils blueprint for growth|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041287.html|date=24 December 2010|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113151724/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041287.html |date=13 January 2011 }}</ref> * [[Uni Maén Bal Rugbi Asia]] (ARFU)<ref>{{cite web|work=IRB.com|title=HSBC extends commitment to Asian rugby|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=2041344.html|date=19 January 2011|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016042833/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=2041344.html |date=16 October 2012 }}</ref> * [[Asosiasi Rugbi Amérika Kalér jeung Karibia]] (NACRA)<ref>{{cite web | work=nawira.com | title=About North America Caribbean Rugby Association "NACRA" | url=http://www.nawira.com/about/ | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625043327/http://www.nawira.com/about/ |date=25 June 2013 }}</ref> * [[FIRA - Asosiasi Rugbi Éropa|Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby]] (FIRA-AER)<ref name="FIRA">{{cite web | work=fira-aer-rugby.com | title=FIRA-AER History | url=http://www.fira-aer-rugby.com/article-28.htm | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427115039/http://www.fira-aer-rugby.com/article-28.htm |date=27 April 2013 }}</ref> * [[Féderasi Union Rugbi Oséania]] (FORU)<ref>{{cite web | work=oceaniarugby.com | title=FORU Mission | url=http://oceaniarugby.com/home.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004102301/http://oceaniarugby.com/home.html |date=4 October 2011 }}</ref> * [[Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby]] (South American Rugby Confederation) (CONSUR)<ref>{{cite web | work=consur.org |title =Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby (CONSUR)|url=http://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=es&u=http://www.consur.org/&ei=O6h9Tv-5IKaR0AWPv9AC&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dconsur%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1366%26bih%3D623%26prmd%3Dimvns |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> [[SANZAR]] (''South Africa, New Zealand and Australia Rugby''; Rugbi Afrika Kidul, Selandia Anyar, jeung Australia) nyaéta gabungan ti [[Union Rugbi Afrika Kidul]], [[Union Rugbi Selandia Anyar]], jeung [[Union Rugbi Australia]] anu ngurus [[Super Rugby]] jeung [[Kajuaraan Rugbi|Kajuaraan Rugbi (''The Rugby Championship'')]] (baheulana ''Tri Nations'' saméméh asupna Argéntina).<ref>{{cite web | work=rugbyweek.com | title=SANZAR Boss Peters defends TriNations timing | url=http://www.rugbyweek.com/news/article.asp?id=31407 | accessdate=24 September 2011 | date=4 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326201127/http://www.rugbyweek.com/news/article.asp?id=31407 |date=26 March 2012 }}</ref> Sanajan [[Union Rugbi Argéntina]] awalna teu boga pawakilan dina SANZAR, tapi geus dibéré aksés ka kagiatan organisasi, utamina Kajuaraaan Rugbi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allblacks.com/news/18009/SANZAR-remains-intact |title=SANZAR remains intact |first=James |last=Mortimer |work=[[New Zealand Rugby Union|AllBlacks.com]] |date=9 November 2011 |accessdate=10 November 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227101127/http://www.allblacks.com/news/18009/SANZAR-remains-intact |date=27 December 2012 }}</ref> Union nasional nénjo rugbi union dina nagara sosorangan jeung kaafiliasi kana IRB. Déwan IRB miboga 26 korsi.<ref name="IRB Organisation">{{cite web | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | title=IRB Organisation | url=http://www.irb.com/aboutirb/organisation/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110922095704/http://www.irb.com/aboutirb/organisation/index.html |date=22 September 2011 }}</ref> ==Sakuliah dunya== {{see also|Daptar nagara nu maén rugbi union}} [[File:URBA Finals.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Final Rugbi [[URBA]] 2007|alt=An airborne player wearing a hooped blue and yellow jersey is challenged by two opponents after leaping to catch a high ball.]] [[File:Germany vs Belgium rugby match.jpg|thumb|Jérman lawan Bélgia]] [[File:Walers Japan Rugby World Cup 2007 09 20 supporters1.jpg|thumb|right|Pandukung Jepang jeung Wales di [[Cardiff]], Wales|alt=A group of thirteen supporters pose together, some wearing rugby jerseys while others sport traditional Japanese costumes and Japanese flags.]] Nagara anu pangawalna ngadopsi rugbi union nyaéta [[Rugbi union di Inggris|Inggris]], nagara asal, teras dimiluan ku 3 Nagara Asal (''Home Nations'') nu lian, [[Rugbi union di Skotlandia|Skotlandia]], [[Rugbi union di Irlandia|Irlandia]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Wales|Wales]]. Sumebarna rugbi union salaku olahraga dunya bisa ditulusur kana pamawaanna ku ékspatriat Britania, personél militér, jeung mahasiswa universitas di luar nagri. Hiji klub rugbi dibentuk di Sydney, [[Rugbi union di Australia|Australia]] dina 1864; samentara olahraga ieu disebut geus dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Selandia Anyar|Selandia Anyar]] ku Charles Munro dina 1870, anu maénkeun rugbi basa minangka murid di [[Kampus Christ (Finchley)|Christ's College, Finchley]].<ref name="Godwin10"/> Klub rugbi nu kahiji di [[Rugbi union di Perancis|Perancis]] diwangun ku padumuk Britania di Le Havre dina 1872, samentara taunsalajengna [[Rugbi union di Argéntina|Argéntina]] miboga patandingan nu kahijina: 'Banks' v 'City' di Buenos Aires.<ref name="Godwin11">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=11}}</ref> Di Amérika Kalér, hiji klub dibentuk di Montréal dina 1868, klub kahijina [[Rugbi union di Kanada|Kanada]]. Kota Montréal ogé maénkeun peranna dina pamikawanohan olahraga ieu di [[Rugbi union di Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Sarikat]], basa mahasiswa [[Universitas McGill]] ngalawan hiji tim ti [[Universitas Harvard]] dina 1874.<ref name="Godwin10"/><ref name="Godwin11"/> Dina 1875, rugbi dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Afrika Kidul|Afrika Kidul]] ku prajurit Britania di Cape Town.<ref name="Godwin11"/> Sababaraha nagara kapuloan geus ngadukung olahraga ieu, loba anu dipikawanohkeun ku Britania, tapi teras nyebarkeun ka nagara tatanggana bari néangan musuh luar nagri. Rugbi kahiji kalina dimaénkeun di [[Rugbi union di Fiji|Fiji]] kira-kira dina 1884 ku prajurit Éropa jeung Fiji ti Angkatan Kapulisian Pribumi di [[Ba (kota)|Ba]] di Pulo Viti Levu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=74}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/5392022.stm | title=Fire and flair: Fijian rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date= | accessdate=20 September 2011}}</ref> Fiji teras ngintunkeun timna ka [[Rugbi union di Samoa|Samoa]] dina 1924, anu ngadegkeun [[Union Rugbi Samoa|unionna]] dina 1927.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=174}}</ref> Nagara lian anu miboga tim rugbi nasional di Oséania contona [[Rugbi union di Kapuloan Cook|Kapuloan Cook]], [[Rugbi union di Niue|Niue]], [[Rugbi union di Papua Nugini|Papua Nugini]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Kapuloan Solomon|Kapuloan Solomon]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://oceaniarugby.com/member_unions/foru_member_union_american_samoa.html | title=Member Unions | work=oceaniarugby.com | date= | accessdate=1 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331061452/http://www.oceaniarugby.com/member_unions/foru_member_union_american_samoa.html |date=31 March 2015 }}</ref> Sanajan kaping pastina kadatangan rugbi union di [[Rugbi union di Trinidad jeung Tobago|Trinidad jeung Tobago]] teu kawanoh, klub kahijina, Northern RFC, dibentuk dina 1923, hiji tim nasional maén dina 1927 sarta ku lantaran hiji tur nu dibolaykeun ka [[Guiana Britania]] dina 1933, ngarobih tujuanna ka [[Rugbi union di Barbados|Barbados]]; mikawanohkeun rugbi ka ditu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=43}}</ref> Nagara Atlantik lian nu maénkeun rugbi union contona [[Rugbi union di Jamaika|Jamaika]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000064/index.html | title=Jamaica | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date= | accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928002800/http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000064/index.html |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> jeung [[Rugbi union di Bermuda|Bermuda]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000040/index.html | title=Bermuda | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date= | accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915192248/http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000040/index.html |date=15 September 2011 }}</ref> Nyebarna rugbi union di Éropa téh sporadis. Sajarahna, ku sabab kirangna patandingan internasional antara tim kandang Britania jeung Irlandia, anu leuwih kapincut kana ngalawan raksasa Hémisfér Kidul Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul, bagian Éropa lianna dipaksa pikeun nyieun hiji 'tingkat kadua' pikeun patandingan rugbi internasional. Salaku hiji nagara daratan utama jeung dina jaman nalika diisolasi ku Union Britania jeung Irlandia, Perancis jadi sahiji-hijina tim Éropa ti tingkat atas pikeun sacara régulér ngalawan nagara Éropa lianna; utamina [[Rugbi union di Bélgia|Bélgia]], [[Rugbi union di Walanda|Walanda]], [[Rugbi union di Jérman|Jérman]], [[Rugbi union di Spanyol|Spanyol]], [[Rugbi union di Romania|Romania]], [[Rugbi union di Polandia|Polandia]], [[Rugbi union di Italia|Italia]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Cékoslowakia|Cékoslowakia]].<ref name="FIRA"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Dine |first=Philip |coauthors= |title=French Rugby Football |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchrugbyfootb0000dine |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/frenchrugbyfootb0000dine/page/79 79]–94|publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-327-1}}</ref> Dina 1934, diusulkeun ku [[Féderasi Rugbi Perancis]], [[FIRA – Association of European Rugby|FIRA]] (Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur) diwangun pikeun ngatur rugbi union di luar otoritas IRB.<ref name="FIRA"/> Anggota pawangunna nyaéta Italia, Romania, Walanda, Katalonia, Portugal, Cékoslowakia, jeung Swédia. Nagara Éropa lianna anu maén rugbi union di antarana [[Rugbi union di Rusia|Rusia]], anu patandingan resmi anu kacutatna ditandaan ku tepungna Dynamo Moskwa jeung Institut Ilmu Olahraga Moskwa dina 1933.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=148}}</ref> Sanajan Argéntina mangrupa nagara pamaén rugbi anu katelah ti Amérika Kidul, ngadegkeun [[Rugbi Union Argéntina]] dina 1899,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8362870.stm | title=Puma power: Argentinian rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date=16 November 2009 | accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> sababaraha nagara lian di buanana ogé miboga sajarah rugbi. Rugbi geus dimaénkeun di [[Rugbi union di Brasil|Brasil]] ti ahir abad ka-19, tapi kaulinan ieu dimaénkeun sacara kaatur ti 1926, basa São Paulo ngéléhkeun Santos dina hiji patandingan antarkota.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=48}}</ref> Mibutuhkeun sababaraha panolakan pikeun [[Rugbi union di Uruguay|Uruguay]] ngadopsi olahraga ieu, diluluguan ku utamina raloba dukungan ti [[Klub Krikét Montevideo]]; lanjuy dina 1951 kalawan diwangunna hiji liga nasional jeung 4 klub.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=166}}</ref> Nagara di Amérika Kidul lianna anu geus ngadegkeun hiji union rugbi contona [[Rugbi union di Cili|Cili]] (1948),<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=58}}</ref> jeung [[Rugbi union di Paraguay|Paraguay]] (1968).<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=127}}</ref> Loba nagara ti Asia anu tradisina maénkeun rugbi bisa ditulusuran ka jaman panjajahan Kakaisaran Britania. [[Rugbi union di India|India]] mimiti maénkeun rugbi dina awal 1870-an, [[Klub Maén Bal Kalkuta]] ngabentuk dina 1872. sanggeus ditarikna dinas Britania ti wewengkon ieu dina ahir dékade éta, rugbi di India ngangkleung. Paninggalan India kana olahraga ieu nyaéta [[Piala Kalkuta]] ka Uni Maén Bal Rugbi; tropi rugbi anu pangkolotna sadunya anu diparebutkeun taunan antara Inggris jeung Skotlandia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=92}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] ngaklaim geus ngawangun unionna dina 1878, jeung sanajan sautik informasi resmi ti jaman éta kasadia, timna meunangkeun piala All-India di Madras dina 1920.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=152}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Malaysia|Malaysia]] ogé miboga cutatan buruk. Sajarahna, patandingan anu kahijina kacutat di Malaysia nyaéta dina 1892, tapi konfirmasi tina kahiji kalina ayana rugbi nyaéta ayana ''HMS Malaya Cup'' anu, dingaranan dumasar [[HMS Malaya|HMS ''Malaya'']], anu dipidangkeun kahiji kalina dina 1922 jeung masih dihadiahkeun kana pameunang rugbi tujuh Malaysia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|pp=112–113}}</ref> Rugbi union dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Jepang|Jepang]] dina 1899 ku [[Ginnosuke Tanaka]], saurang murid ti [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge]] sarta [[Edward Bramwell Clarke]], anu balajar dina [[Kampus Corpus Christi, Cambridge]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=105}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/6157863.stm | title=Eastern Promise: Japanese rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date=12 February 2007 | accessdate=20 September 2011}}</ref> RFU Jepang diwangun dina 1926 jeung tempatna dina sajarah rugbi direketkeun ku warta yén Jepang bakal jadi nagara palaksana [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2019]].<ref name="2015 bid">{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8170488.stm | title=England will host 2015 World Cup |work=BBC Sport | date=28 July 2009 | accessdate=7 February 2010}}</ref> Hal ieu bisa jadi kahiji kalina nagara di luar Pasamakmuran, Irlandia, jeung Perancis anu ngalaksanekun acara éta, jeung diténjo ku IRB salaku hiji kamungkinan keur rugbi union mébérkeun jangjangna leuwih lega,<ref name="2015 bid"/> utamina di Asia. Nagara ti Asia lianna anu maén rugbi union di antarana [[Rugbi union di Singapura|Singapura]], [[Rugbi union di Koréa Kidul|Koréa Kidul]], sarta [[Rugbi union di Cina|Cina]], samentara urut jajahan Britania, [[Rugbi union di Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] katelah dina rugbi ti pamekaranna dina rugbi tujuh, utamina turnamén [[Hong Kong Sevens]] anu diadegkeun dina 1976.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irbsevens.com/news/newsid=2042721.html | title=HSBC join Cathay as Hong Kong Sevens sponsors | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date=18 May 2011 | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611204444/http://www.irbsevens.com/news/newsid=2042721.html |date=11 June 2011 }}</ref> [[File:Ivory Coast rugby union team in 2008.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Tim nasional Basisir Gading saméméh [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2011 – Kualifikasi Afrika|kualifikasina]]; vs. Zambia dina 21 Juli 2008.|alt=A close up shot of the Ivory Coast players, in their country's orange jerseys, entering the field from the dressing room tunnel.]] Rugbi di wewengkon Teluk jeung Wétan Tengah miboga sajarahna dina 1950-an, kalawan klub-na dibentuk ku dinas Britania jeung Perancis anu ditempatkeun di wewengkon ieu sanggeus Perang Dunya II.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=42}}</ref> Basa aranjeunna arangkat, klub jeung tim-tim tetep diayakeun ku profésional ngora, kalobannana urang Éropa, anu gawé di nagara ieu. Union resmi [[Rugbi union di Oman|Oman]] dibentuk dina 1971, kalawan Yang Mulia [[Qaboos bin Said al Said]] salaku Palindung.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=126}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Bahrain|Bahrain]] ngabentuk unionna sataun sanggeusna, samentara dina 1975, [[Dubai Sevens]], turnamén rugbi wewengkon Teluk kawentar, dijieun ku by Klub Rugbi Dubai Exiles. Rugbi tetep minangka olahraga minoritas di wewengkon ieu kalawan [[Rugbi union di Israél|Israél]], sakumaha dina 2011, jadi union anggota sahiji-hijina ti Wétan Tengah anu kaasup kana Réngking Dunya IRB.<ref name="Full rankings">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/rankings/full.html |title=IRB World Rankings |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810042746/http://www.irb.com/rankings/full.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Rugbi union di Afrika nyebar dina ahir abad ka-19 jeung awal abad ka-20 utamina ku padumuk jeung panjajah anu mindeng maké kawijakan 'bodas-wungkul' dina maénkeunnana. Hal ieu nyababkeun rugbi ditempo salaku hiji olahraga borjuis kju urang pribumi kalawan daya tarik anu leutik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wesclark.com/rrr/kenya_rugby.html |title=A Review of Kenyan Rugby |publisher=wesclark.com|first=Michael Mundia |last=Kamau |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Nagara nu kahijina nempo pamaénan rugbi kompetitif contona Afrika Kidul, jeung tatanggana, [[Rugbi union di Rodésia|Rodésia]] (ayeuna Zimbabwé), anu ngawangun Union Maén Bal Rugbi Rodésia dina 1895.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=15}}</ref> Kalawan labuhna kakawasaan panjajah, kapopuléran rugbi ngirang, tapi kiwari, olahraga ieu didukung ku sababaraha nagara Afrika. Dina awal abad ka-21, [[Rugbi union di Madagaskar|Madagaskar]] ngalaman panongton saloba 40.000 dina patandingan internasional,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4471650.stm |title=Madagascar rugby inspires new passion |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Tim |last=Cocks|date=26 November 2005 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> samentara Namibia, anu sajarah rugbina bis ditulusuran ka 1915, geus pernah asup sababaraha kali ka jirangan final Piala Dunya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8951401.stm |title=Namibia rugby: Out of Boks' shadow |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Sean |last=Davies|date=4 September 2010 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Nagara Afrika lianna anu midang dina Réngking Dunya IRB salaku Union Anggota contona [[Rugbi union di Basisir Gading|Basisir Gading]], [[Rugbi union di Kénya|Kénya]], [[Rugbi union di Uganda|Uganda]], sarta [[Rugbi union di Zambia|Zambia]].<ref name="Full rankings"/> Afrika Kidul jeung Kénya aya dina 12 "tim inti" anu milu dina sadaya pasanggiri Séri Tujuh Dunya IRB.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.irbsevens.com/destination/edition=9/news/newsid=2048923.html#teams+announced+gold+coast+kick |title=Teams announced for Gold Coast kickoff |publisher=International Rugby Board |date=8 September 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011152812/http://irbsevens.com/destination/edition=9/news/newsid=2048923.html#teams+announced+gold+coast+kick |date=11 October 2011 }}</ref> Saminimialna aya 6 nagara anu ngadopsi rugbi union salaku [[olahraga nasional]]na sacara ''[[de facto]]''; nyaéta Fiji,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/international/4272324.stm |title=Fire and flair: Fijian rugby |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Sean |last=Davies |date=13 October 2005 |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Géorgia|Géorgia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/jwrt/news/newsid=2042633.html |title=Scene set for an exciting Junior Trophy |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=13 May 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518181350/http://www.irb.com/jwrt/news/newsid=2042633.html |date=18 May 2011 }}</ref> Selandia Anyar,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/28/4/229.abstract |title=The New Zealand Rugby Injury and Performance Project: II. Previous injury experience of a rugby-playing cohort |publisher=British Medical Journal |year=1994|author=Gerrard, D.F.; Waller, A.E.; Bird, Y.N. |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> Samoa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/samoa/3079758.stm |title=Sititi targets pool's big fish |publisher=BBC Sport |date=26 September 2003 |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Tonga|Tonga]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf|title=Exporter Guide: Tonga|publisher=New Zealand Trade and Enterprise|year=2010|accessdate=17 August 2011|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110928064142/http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf|archivedate=28 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928064142/http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref>, jeung Wales.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Davies|editor1-link=John Davies (historian) |editor2-first=Nigel |editor2-last=Jenkins |editor2-link=Nigel Jenkins |editor3-first=Menna |editor3-last=Baines|editor4-first=Peredur I. |editor4-last=Lynch |editor4-link=Peredur Lynch |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Wales|The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales]] |year=2008 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff|page=782 |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6}}</ref> ==Rugbi union putri== [[File:Women's Rugby Mark.jpg|thumb|left|Rugbi union putri AS: NC Hustlers vs. Midwest II|alt=A female player in yellow and green kit and wearing a white scrum cap, jumps to collect a ball while supported by team mates.]] {{utama|Rugbi union putri}} Cutatan ngeunaan maén bal rugbi putri balik ka ahir abad ka-19, kalawan sumber kacutat kahiji nyaéta tulisan Emily Valentine, nu nyebutkeun yén anjeunna ngajieun hiji tim rugbi di [[Sakola Portora Royal]] di Enniskillen, Irlandia dina 1887.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/news/13664.php |title=Emily Valentine: First Lady Of Irish And World Rugby |work=IrishRugby.ie |date=20 January 2010 |accessdate=5 November 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922022257/http://www.irishrugby.ie/news/13664.php |date=22 September 2013 }}</ref> Sanajan aya laporan patandingan-patandingan rugbi putri awal di Selandia Anyar jeung Perancis, salah sahiji patandingan kahiji anu kaciri pikeun ngabuktikeun bukti utami nyaéta panglawungan antara Cardiff Ladies jeung Newport Ladies dina 1917.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davies |first=D.E. |title=Cardiff Rugby Club, History and Statistics 1876–1975 |year=1975 |publisher=The Starling Press |location=Risca|pages=70–71 |isbn=0950442100}}</ref> Dina sababaraha taun ahir ieu, popularitas rugbi union dina atlét putri geus tumuwuh, sarta, dumasar kana IRB, ayeuna dimaénkeun di leuwih ti 100 nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/womensrugby/index.html |title=Great potential for Women's Rugby in Japan |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=22 February 2011 |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707010439/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/womensrugby/index.html |date=7 July 2014 }}</ref> Union Maén Bal Rugbi Putri Inggris (''Women's Rugby Football Union''; WRFU), tanggung jawab kana rugbi putri di Inggris, Skotlandia, Irlandia, jeung Wales, dibentuk dina 1983, jeung mangrupa babon organisasi nasional resmi anu pangkolotna pikeun rugbi putri.<ref name="WRFU">{{cite web|url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/history/index.html |title=RFUW: A Brief History |work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date= |accessdate=28 September 2011}}</ref> Union ieu teras diganti dina 1994 ku [[Union Maén Bal Rugbi pikeun Putri]] (''Rugby Football Union for Women''; RFUW) di Inggris kalawan masing-masing Nagara Asal lianna ngurusan nagarana.<ref name="WRFU"/> Kompetisi internasional utamina dina rugbi union putri nyaéta [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri]], kahiji lumangsung dina 1991.<ref name="Women's Rugby">{{cite web|url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/history/index.html |title=Women's Rugby World Cup history|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=5 August 2011}}</ref> Ti 1994, Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri dilaksanakeun saban 4 warsih.<ref name="Women's Rugby"/> ==Kompetisi internasional utami==<!-- This section is linked from [[BBC Radio Five Live]] --> {{details|Daptar kompetisi rugbi union}} [[File:Coupe du monde rugby - tour Eiffel.JPG|thumb|Hiji bal rugbi gedé nu ngagumantung kana [[Munara Eiffel]] pikeun miélingkeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007]] nu mana tuan rumahna nyaéta Perancis|alt=An avenue of trees leads to a large iron lattice tower, in which an oversized rugby ball hangs within the lower sections.]] Turnamén anu pangpentingana di rugbi union nyaéta [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]], turnamén putra anu dilaksanakeun saban 4 taunngalombakeun tim-tim nasional rugbi union. [[Tim nasional rugbi union Selandia Anyar|Selandia Anyar]] nyaéta juara anu panganyarna, nu meunangkeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2011]] anu lumangsung di Selandia Anyar, ngéléhkeun Perancis 8-7 di final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/15405316.stm |title=2011 Rugby World Cup final: New Zealand 8-7 France |publisher=BBC News |date=23 October 2011 |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> euweuh pameunang Piala Dunya nu geus hasil jadi juara turut-tumurut.<ref name="rugby world cup">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby-world-cup.net/history.html |title=Rugby World Cup History - World Cup Winners List |publisher=rugby-world-cup.net |accessdate=4 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522125807/http://www.rugby-world-cup.net/history.html |date=22 May 2013 }}</ref> Inggris mangrupa tim kahiji ti Hémisfér Kalér nu meunangkeunnana. Selandia Anyar pernah meunang dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1987|1987]], Australia dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1991|1991]] jeung [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1999|1999]], Afrika Kalér dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1995|1995]] jeung [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007|2007]].<ref name="rugby world cup"/> Kompetisi internasional utami lianna saperti [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa]] dilaksanakeun di Hémisfér Kalér sarta [[Kajuaraan Rugbi]], dilaksanakeun di Hémisfér Kidul. Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa (''Six Nations Championship'') nyaéta hiji kompetisi taunan mimilukeun tim Inggris, Perancis, Irlandia, Italia, Skotlandia, jeung Wales.<ref name="SixNations">{{cite web |url=http://www.rbs6nations.com/en/history.php |title=Six Nations Championship: History |publisher=rbs6nations.com |date= |accessdate=15 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015033350/http://www.rbs6nations.com/en/history.php |date=15 October 2009 }}</ref> Masing-masing nagara ngalawan lima nu lianna sakali. Kajuaraan Rugbi (''The Rugby Championship'') nyaéta ngaran anyar ti séri taunan internasional di Hémisfér Kidul, mimilukeun Afrika Kidul, Argéntina, Australia, jeung Selandia Anyar. Ti awalna dina 1996 nepi ka sabagian 2011, kompetisi ieu kawanoh salaku ''Tri Nations'' (Tilu Bangsa), jeung ngan mimilukeun Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul.<ref name="TriNations History">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbyweek.com/fournations/history.asp |title=TriNations Rugby |publisher=RugbyWeek.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019065904/http://www.rugbyweek.com/fournations/history.asp |date=19 October 2011 }}</ref> Tim-tim ieu geus ngadominasi réngking dunya sababaraha taun ahir, jeung loba anu nyebutkeun yén kompetisi ieu mangrupa kompetisi pangkiatna dina rugbi internasional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sport24.co.za/Rugby/Boks-face-aerial-bombardment-20100630 |title=NZ expect aerial bombardment |publisher=sport24.co.za |first=J.J. |last=Harmse |date=30 June 2010 |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | date = 26 August 2010 | title = Preview: South Africa v Australia | work=Planet Rugby | publisher=365 Media | url = http://www.planetrugby.com/story/0,25883,16024_6340553,00.html | accessdate =27 August 2010}}</ref> ===Tur rugbi=== Dina sajarah awal rugbi union, jaman saméméh lalampahan udara komérsial, tim-tim ti buana nu béda jarang patepang. 2 tur awal anu katelah aya dina 1888, Kapuloan Britania ka Selandia Anyar jeung Australia<ref name="Lions history">{{cite news |url=http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/potted_history.php |title=The History |publisher=lionsrugby.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722073223/http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/potted_history.php |date=22 July 2013 }}</ref>, anu dimiluan ku tur tim Selandia Anyar ka Éropa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/history/halloffame/newsid=2027752.html |title=IRB Hall of Fame Welcomes Five Inductees |publisher=International Rugby Board |date=23 November 2008 |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824065112/http://www.irb.com/history/halloffame/newsid=2027752.html |date=24 August 2010 }}</ref> Tradisionalna, tur anu pangluhurna nyaéta tur nagara Hémisfér Kidul (Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul) ka Hémisfér Kalér, teras tur balesan dijieun ku tim gabungan Britania jeung Irlandia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Griffiths|1987|p=ix}} ''"In the first century of rugby union's history the IRB only recognised matches with international status if both teams in a match came from a small pool of countries: Australia, British Lions, England, France, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales."''</ref> ===Rugbi dina turnamén internasional=== {{See also|Rugbi union dina Olimpiade|Rugbi tujuh dina Pésta Olahraga Pasamakmuran|Rugbi union dina Pésta Olahraga Asia}} Rugbi union dimaénkeun dina Olimpiade Usum Panas [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1900|1900]], [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1908|1908]], [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1920|1920]], jeung [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1924|1924]].<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics">{{cite news |url=http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/history.html |title=Rugby in the Olympics: History |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |accessdate=16 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810064813/http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/history.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Sakumaha dina aturan Olimpiade, Skotlandia, Wales, jeung Inggris teu diidinkeun maén dina tim anu kapisah ku sabab sanés nagara daulat. Dina 1900, Perancis meunangkeun emas, ngéléhkeun Britania Raya 27-8 jeung ngéléhkeun Jérman 27-17.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 1908, Australasia ngéléhkeun Britania Raya, meunangkeun medali emas, kalawan skor 32-3.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 1920, Amérika Sarikat, maké hiji tim anu pamaén-pamaénna karak anyar kana olahraga rugbi, tapi bisa ngéléhkeun Perancis, 8-0. Dina 1924, Amérika Sarikat ngéléhkeun Perancis deui, 17-3, jadi sahiji-hijina tim anu meunangkeun emas dua kali di olahraga ieu.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 2009, [[Komite Olimpiade Internasional]] miboga hasil pamilihan 81-8, meunangkeun rugbi union sangkan dibalikkeun salaku olahraga Olimpiade saheunteuna dina Olimpiade [[Olimpiade 2016|2016]] jeung [[Olimpiade 2020|2020]], tapi dina rugbi tujuh, kalawan format turnamén 4-dinten.<ref name="I.O.C. Decision">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/14/sports/14sports.html |title=I.O.C. Decision Draws Cheers and Complaints From Athletes |work=The New York Times |first=Jeff |last=Klein |date=13 August 2009 |accessdate=13 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/news/6281166/Rugby-sevens-and-golf-ratified-for-2016-Olympics-in-Rio-de-Janeiro.html |title=Rugby sevens and golf ratified for 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro |first=Paul |last=Kelso| publisher=Telegraph |date=9 October 2009 |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> Rugbi tujuh geus dimaénkeun di [[Kajuaraan Rugbi Tujuh Pasamakmuran|Pésta Olahraga Pasamakmuran]] ti [[Commonwealth Games 1998|1998]] di Kuala Lumpur.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9031959.stm |title=Commonwealth Games 2010: Form guide – rugby sevens| publisher=BBC Sport |date=27 September 2010 |accessdate=17 September 2011}}</ref> Panyekel medali emas ayeuna nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union Selandia Anyar (tujuh)|Selandia Anyar]] anu geus meunangkeunnana 4 kali.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9084566.stm |title=Commonwealth Games: NZ win sevens as England miss medal| publisher=BBC Sport |date=12 October 2010 |accessdate=17 September 2011}}</ref> Rugbi union ogé geus jadi cabang [[Pésta Olahraga Asia]] ti [[Pésta Olahraga Asia 1998|1998]] di Bangkok, Thailand. Dina kompetisi 1998 jeung 2002, anu tujuh jeung lima welas dua-duana dimaénkeun, tapi ti 2006, ngan nu tujuh anu ditahankeun. Dina 2010, rugbi tujuh putri dipikawanohkeun. Panyekel medali emas ayeuna dina turnamén tujuh, dilaksanakeun di [[Pésta Olahraga Asia 2010|2010]], nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union Jepang (tujuh)|Jepang]] dina nomer putrana sarta [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Kazakhstan (tujuh)|Kazakhstan]] dina nomer putrina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040867.html|title=Japan claim Asian Games gold|publisher=planetrugby.com|date=23 November 2010|accessdate=10 October 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602181345/http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040867.html |date=2 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040914.html |title=Kazakhstan win first Asian Games women's gold |publisher=IRBSevens.com |date=23 November 2010 |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602182627/http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040914.html |date=2 June 2013 }}</ref> ===Rugbi internasional putri=== {{utama|Rugbi union internasional putri}} Rugbi union putri internasional kahiji mimiti 1982, kalawan hiji patandingan antara [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Perancis|Perancis]] jeung [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Walanda|Walanda]] anu dilaksanakeun di [[Utrecht (kota)|Utrecht]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://rugbyrelics.com/museum/exhibitions/NR125/14.htm |title=Women's Rugby |work=rugbyrelics.com |date= |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref> Dina 2009, leuwih ti 600 patandingan internasional putri geus dimaénkeun ku leuwih ti 40 tim.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/119928-womans-rugby-beautiful-side-of-brutal-game |title=Women's Rugby: Beautiful Side of a Brtual Game |work=bleacherreport.com |first=Giorgi |last=Dolidze |date=5 February 2009 |accessdate=25 September 2011 |note=1}}</ref> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri]] anu kahiji dilaksanakeun di Wales dina [[Piala Dunia Rugbi Putri 1991|1991]], jeung nu meunang nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="Women's Rugby"/> Turnamén anu kadua dilaksanakeun dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 1994|1994]], jeung saprak éta kompetisina geus dilaksanakeun saban 4 taun. Tim Selandia Ayar geus meunangkeun 4 Piala Dunya nu pangahirna ([[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 1998é|1998]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2002|2002]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2006|2006]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2010|2010]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nz2011.govt.nz/news/february-2011/rugbys-prized-trophies-going-on-tour |title=Rugby’s prized trophies going on tour |work=nz2011.govt.nz |date= 6 February 2011 |accessdate=26 September 2011}}</ref> Sakumaha ayana Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri, aya ogé turnamén régulérna, contona [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri]], dilaksanakeun bareng jeung nu putrana. Kahiji dimaénkeun dina [[Kajuaraan Nagara Asal Putri 1996|1996]], kompetisi ieu geus didominasi ku [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Inggris|Inggris]], anu geus meunangkeun turnamén éta 12 kali, kalawan 6 kali meunang turut-tumurut ([[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri 2006|2006]] nepi ka [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri 2011|2011]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/9428976.stm |title=England Women beat Ireland to clinch Grand Slam |work=BBC Sport|date= 18 March 2011 |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref> ==Varian== {{see also|Rugbi tujuh}} [[File:Spielszene BK.jpg|thumb|Patandingan rugbi basisir|alt=On a sunlit beach two teams of players, one in yellow the other in blue, play a form of rugby; the central yellow player runs forward clutching the ball with one hand, close to his chest.]] Rugbi union geus miboga sababaraha varian. Pabédaan umum dina varian olahraga ieu biasana pamaén nu leuwih saeutik atawa ngirangan kontak pamaén. Varian nu pangkoltna nyaéta [[Rugbi tujuh]] (7's, atawa VIIs), hiji varian nu gancang nu lahir di [[Melrose, Skotlandia|Melrose]], Skotlandia dina 1883. Di rugbi tujuh, ngan aya 7 pamaén saban tim, jeung hiji babakna biasana ngan tujuh menit. Turnamén utami contona [[Hong Kong Sevens]] jeung [[Dubai Sevens]], duanana dilaksanakeun di aréa nu teu biasa kaasosiasi jeung tingkat luhur rugbi 15. Varian lianna contona [[Rugbi sapuluh]] (10's atawa Xs), hiji varian Malaysia kalawan 10 pamaén per tim.<ref name=Completerugby1>{{Harvnb|Bath|1997|p=71}}</ref> Ku lantaran kaayaan fisik dina maén rugbi, sababaraha varian geus dijieun pikeun mikawanohkeun olahraga ieu ka barudak kalawan tingkat kontak fisik nu dikirangan.<ref name="IRB BGRU 14">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=14|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> Ti vérsi-vérsi ieu, [[Touch rugbi]], nu mana ''tackles'' dijieun ku cara ngeunakeun nu mawa bal ku dua tangan. Olahraga ieu populér salaku vérsi campuran ti nu 15, dimaénkeun ku boh barudak boh déwasa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/getting-a-kick-out-of-touch/story-e6frep5o-1225699224845 |title=Touch rugby league growing in Brisbane |first=Karl|last=deKroo| work=The Courier-Mail |date=11 April 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/~/link.aspx?_id=A4A528E2CC22410390D89AE5E46D1EF9&_z=z |title=Touch Rugby | work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> [[Tag Rugby]], nyaéta vérsi di mana pamaénna maké hiji beubeur kalawan dua talian, upami dileupaskeun hartina ka-''tackle''. Dina Tag Rugby, najong bal ogé teu beunang.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/FormsOfRugby/Tag.aspx |title=Tag Rugby |work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date=11 April 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810133935/http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/FormsOfRugby/Tag.aspx |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> [[Rugbi mini]] ogé varian lian ti rugbi union pikeun mikawanohkeun olahraga ieu ka barudak,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/minis/index.php |title=About Mini Rugby |work=irishrugby.ie |date= |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209200753/http://www.irishrugby.ie/minis/index.php |date=9 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name=Rutherford1>{{cite book |last=Rutherford |first=Don |title=The Complete Book of Mini Rugby |publisher=Partridge |year=1993 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/completebookofmi0000ruth/page/2 2] |url=https://archive.org/details/completebookofmi0000ruth|isbn=1852251964 }}</ref> Dimaénkeun ku 9 pamaén jeung di lapangan nu leuwih leutik.<ref name="Mini Rugby">{{cite web|url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf|title=Mini Rugby|work=irishrugby.ie|accessdate=24 September 2011|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20101227222214/http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf|archivedate=27 December 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913104229/http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf |date=13 September 2012 }}</ref> Mirip jeung Tag Rugby, [[Rugbi Bandéra Amérika]] (''American Flag Rugby''; AFR), mangrupa hiji varian ti rugbi union nu dimaénkeun campuran (bisa ku bareng lalaki-awéwé) tanpa kontak pikeun barudak Amérika dina kelas K-9.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.americanflagrugby.com/about-afr.php |title=About AFR |work=americanflagrugby.com |date= |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817210310/http://www.americanflagrugby.com/about-afr.php |date=17 August 2011 }}</ref> Boh Rugbi Bandéra Amérika boh Rugbi Mini duanana béda jeung Tag Rugby nu mana dina dua varian rugbi éta leuwih dipikawanohkeun deui unsur lanjutan rugbi union sajalan pamaénna tumuwuh.<ref name="Mini Rugby"/> Varian lianna contona [[rugbi basisir]] jeung [[rugbi salju]].<ref name="IRB BGRU 14"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2026163.html|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=Rugby X-treme hits the Andes|first=Frankie|last=Deges|date=15 July 2008|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726135403/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2026163.html |date=26 July 2010 }}</ref> ==Pangaruh kana olahraga lian== {{See also|Sajaran maén bal Amérika|Bandingan maén bal Amérika jeung rugbi union|Asalna maén bal Australia|Bandingan rugbi liga jeung rugbi union}} [[File:Fielding Yost-1902.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Hiji patandingan [[maén bal Amérika]] antara [[Universitas Michigan]] jeung [[Universitas Minnesota]] (1902). Bentuk awal patandingan miboga patalian nu terang jeung ékuivalén rugbi lianna.|alt=A grainy black and white photo of teams in sports jerseys and light padding contesting a play near the touchline, while watched by officials, coaches and crowds.]] Rugbi union football, jeung katurunan langsungna, maén bal rugbi, miboga pangaruh nu kiat kana sababaraha olahraga lian. [[maén bal Gridiron|Kode Gridiron]], [[maén bal Amérika]]<ref name=Completerugby2>{{Harvnb|Bath|1997|p=77}}</ref><ref name=Stubbs>{{Harvnb|Stubbs|2009|p=115}}</ref> jeung [[maén bal Kanada]],<ref name=CanFitba1>{{Cite book |first=|title=Encyclopedia Canadiana|volume = 8|editor=John Everett Robbins| year=1972 |publisher=Grolier of Canada|location=Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal |page=110 |isbn=0717216012}}</ref> diturunkeun ti bentuk awal rugbi. Di Kanada, [[maén bal Kanada]] geus mindeng disebut "[[maén bal rugbi]]" (''rugby football''),<ref name=CanFitba1/> jeung sababaraha badan nasional jeung propinsi disebut "Union Rugbi Maén Bal" atawa "Union Rugbi", saperti Union Rugbi Maén Bal [[Union Rugbi Maén Bal Ontario|Ontario]] jeung [[Union Rugbi Maén Bal Quebec|Quebec]].<ref name=CanFitba1/> Contona, dina ''Encyclopedia Canadiana'', cutatan ''Rugby Football'' dimimitian ku cara ngarujuk ka "''the Canadian development of rugby union or "English rugger" introduced into Canada in the third quarter of the nineteenth century''" (pamekaran Kanada kana rugbi union atawa "''rugger'' Inggris" dipikawanohkeun ka Kanada dina parapat katilu abad ka-19), tapi teras nyebutkeun yén "''the Canadian game is a radical departure from rugby union''" (kaulinan Kanadana mangrupa hiji kadatangan radikal ti rugbi union).<ref name=CanFitba1/> [[Maén Bal Australia]] geus kapangaruh ku loba olahraga, kaasup [[maén bal Gael]], maén bal rugbi, jeung [[krikét]]. Raloba panulis percaya yén pangaruh utamina nyaéta [[maén bal rugbi]] jeung [[Kaulinan maén bal sakola umum Inggris|kaulinan lian nu lahir di sakola umum Inggris]].<ref name="See 1991, pp. 49-50">[[Geoffrey Blainey]], [[Leonie Sandercock]], Ian Turner, jeung [[Sean Fagan]] miboga dukungan tinulis kana pamikiran ieu. Tempo, contona: Richard Davis, 1991, "Irish and Australian Nationalism: the Sporting Connection: Football & Cricket", ''Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies Bulletin'', v.3, no.2, pp. 49–50 jeung; B. W. O'Dwyer, 1989, "The Shaping of Victorian Rules Football", ''Victorian Historical Journal'', v.60, no.1.</ref> [[Tom Wills]], nu diakuan salaku panaratas Maén Bal Australia, ogé pernah janten murid Sakola Rugby.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/395810.html |last=Haigh |first=Gideon |title=Murder, suicide, cricket|work=espncricinfo.com |date=21 March 2009 |accessdate=28 August 2011}}</ref> [[James Naismith]] ngarujuk ti rupa-rupa olahraga kaasup rugbi pikeun nyieun [[baskét]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1027613/index.htm |last=Wolff |first=Alexander |title=The Olden Rules |work=sportsillustrated.cnn.com |date=25 November 2002 |accessdate=18 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604031625/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1027613/index.htm |date=4 June 2011 }}</ref> Kontribusi nu terangna nyaéta kamiripan [[bal luncat]] ka ''linéout'' ogé gaya ngalung ''underhand'' nu ngadominasi taun-taun awal ti olahraga éta. Naismith pernah maén rugbi pikeun sababaraha taun dina [[Universitas McGill]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcgilltribune.com/sports/profile-james-naismith-where-athletics-meets-religious-fervor-1.1627628#.TnapQdQdxF4 |last=Kanter |first=Jacob |title=Profile-James Naismith: Where athletics meets religious fervor |work=mcgilltribune.com |date=21 September 2010 |accessdate=18 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311152517/http://www.mcgilltribune.com/sports/profile-james-naismith-where-athletics-meets-religious-fervor-1.1627628#.TnapQdQdxF4 |date=11 March 2012 }}</ref> [[Maén bal Swédia (kode)|Maén bal Swédia]] nyaéta hiji kode nu aturanna mangrupa campuran ti [[Laws of the Game (maén bal)|aturan maén bal]] jeung [[maén bal rugbi|aturan maén bal rugbi]]. Sababaraha urang maénkeun kaulinan éta maké hiji bal nu buleud, samentawis nu lian maké bal oval.<ref name="jönsson203">{{cite book |last=Jönsson |first=Åke |title=Fotboll: hur världens största sport växte fram |year=2006 |publisher=Historiska media |location=Lund |isbn=91-85377-48-1 |page=203}}</ref> Kaulinan éta teu dimaénkeun deui.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=sv&u=http://svenskfotboll.se/svensk-fotboll/historia/svff-1904/&ei=p8V9TtHEKKSP0AXUvPUB&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dsvff:s%2Btillkomst%2B1904%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-gb%26prmd%3Dimvns |title=SvFF:s tillkomst 1904 |work=svenskfotboll.se |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> Rugbi minangka dasar ti [[rugbi korsi roda]] (kawanoh ogé salaku "rugbi quad" atawa "''murderball''"), tapi olahraga ieu leuwih kiatna dipangaruhan ku [[baskét korsi roda]], [[hoki és]], jeung [[bal tangan]] tinimbang rugbi union.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwrf.com/history.htm |title=About Wheelchair Rugby |work=iwrf.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424065940/http://www.iwrf.com/history.htm |date=24 April 2008 }}</ref> ==Statistik jeung rékor== {{see also|Daptar pamaén rugbi union top dumasar midang internasional|Daptar panyitak skor top rugbi union}} Dumasar kana hiji laporan dina 2011 ku Puseur Bisnis Internasional olahraga di [[Universitas Coventry]], ayeuna aya leuwih ti 5 yuta urang maénkeun rugbi union atawa hiji varianna anu kaorganisasi ku IRB.<ref name="Stripes">{{cite web |url=http://www.stripes.com/military-life/they-re-game-rugby-team-willing-to-play-all-takers-1.146065 |title=They're game: Rugby team willing to play all takers |first=Seth |last=Robson |publisher=stripes.com |date=8 July 2011 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814172158/http://www.stripes.com/military-life/they-re-game-rugby-team-willing-to-play-all-takers-1.146065 |date=14 August 2011 }}</ref> Hal ieu mangrupa paningkatan 19 persén ti laporan saméméhna dina 2007.<ref name="Global Rugby">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/NewsMedia/MediaZone/02/04/22/88/2042288_PDF.pdf |title=Economic Impact Report on Global Rugby; Part III: Strategic and Emerging Markets |publisher=Centre for the International Business of Sport, [[Coventry University]] |first=Simon |last=Chadwick |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626220118/http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/NewsMedia/MediaZone/02/04/22/88/2042288_PDF.pdf |date=26 June 2011 }}</ref> Laporan ieu nyebutkeun ogé yén ti 2007, partisipasi geus ningkat 33 persén di Afrika, 22 persén di Amérika Kidul, jeung 18 persén di Asia sareng Amérika Kalér.<ref name="Global Rugby"/> Acara utami rugbi union, Piala Dunya Rugbi, geus lanjut mekarna ti lahirna dina 1987.<ref name="IRB2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/newsmedia/mediazone/02/04/21/65/2042165_pdf.pdf |title=IRB Year in Review 2010 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |page=74 |year=2010 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514115712/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/newsmedia/mediazone/02/04/21/65/2042165_pdf.pdf |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref> Turnamén kahijina, mimilukeun 16 tim, ditongtonkeun ka 17 nagara kalawan total pamiarsa kaakumulasi 230 yuta.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Panjualan tikét basa babak grup jeung final ti turnamén nu sarua kirang ti sayuta.<ref name="IRB2010"/> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007|Piala Dunya 2007]] mimilukeun 94 nagara kalawan panjualan tikét 3.850.000 dina babak grup jeung final.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Total pamiarsa acara éta, nu ditongtonkeun ka 200 nagara, nyaéta 4,2 milyar.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Pamaén nu midang internasional panglobana ti nagara golongan 1 nyaéta ''halfback'' Australia, [[George Gregan]], kalawan 139 kali midang.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=matches;template=results;type=player |title=Statsguru/Test matches/Player records |publisher=ESPN Scrum.com |date= |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Samentawis pamaén internasional panyitak skor panglobana ti nagara golongan 1 nyaéta [[Dan Carter]] ti Selandia Anyar, nu geus nyitak 1250 poin dina karirna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=points;template=results;type=player |title=Statsguru/Test matches/Player records |publisher=ESPN Scrum.com |date= |accessdate=10 September 2011}}</ref> Dina April 2010, [[Rugbi union di Lithuania|Lithuania]] ngéléhkeun rékor kameunangan internasional turut-tumurut, anu saméméhna dicekel ku Selandia Anyar jeung Afrika Kidul, kalawan 17 kali meunang turut-tumurut ngalawan nagara golongan 1<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2036957.html |title=Lithuania bid for World record test run |publisher=IRB |date=16 April 2010 |accessdate=30 May 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514131525/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2036957.html |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref>. Lithuania meunangkeun kameunangan ka-18-na dina patandingan ngalawan nagara golongan 2, [[Rugbi union di Sérbia|Sérbia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=date;spanmax1=08+May+2010;spanmin1=04+Jun+2006;spanval1=span;team=90;template=results;type=team;view=match |title=Statsguru / Test matches / Team records: Lithuania, matches between 4 June 2006 and 8 May 2010, sorted by ascending match date |work=ESPN Scrum |publisher=SFMS Limited |accessdate=6 May 2011}} ''"The dates chosen bookend Lithuania's 18-match winning streak."''</ref> Patandingan internasional anu boga skor panglobana antara dua tim nu diakuan nyaéta kameunangan Hong Kong kana Singapura, 164 - 13, dina 27 Oktober 1994.<ref name="record wins">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbydata.com/centuries |title=Games where 100 or more points were scored by a team |publisher=rugbydata.com |date= |accessdate=27 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325101231/http://www.rugbydata.com/centuries |date=25 March 2013 }}</ref> Rékor lian contona kameunangan <u>></u>152 poin nu dicekel ku 2 nagara, Jepang (meunang 155 - 3 ngalawan Taipéi Cina) jeung Argéntina (152 - 0 ngalawan Paraguay). Duanana dina taun 2002.<ref name="record wins"/> ==Rugbi union dina budaya== <!-- Bagian di handap ieu nyaéta pikeun INOHONG seniman kakoncara nu geus maké rugbi atawa pikeun karya nu museur kana rugbi union. Bagian ieu lain keur pamidangan umum rugbi dina budaya populér atawa fakta trivia saperti salasahiji épisode Friends ''The One with all the Rugby''.--> [[File:Henri Rousseau - The Football Players.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Henri Rousseau – ''The Football Players'' (1908)|alt=An oil painting of two groups of a pair of moustached men wearing stripped jerseys and shorts, contesting a rugby ball within an avenue of trees.]] Pangaruh rugbi kana budaya bisa ditempo dina inspirasi seniman jeung panulis, ogé pangaruh pamaén jeung pangurus rugbi salaku pacontoan jeung pahlawan pikeun nagarana. Loba panulis populér nu geus maké rugbi union dina bukuna. Novél 1857 Thomas Hughes, [[Tom Brown's Schooldays]], latarna di Sakola Rugby, ngawengku carita ngeunaan patandingan maén bal rugbi, nu teras dipilemkeun dina 1940-an. James Joyce nyebutkeun tim Irlandia, [[Bective Rangers]], di sababaraha bukuna, kaasup Ulysses (1922) jeung Finnegans Wake (1939), samentawis karya semi-otobiagrafis 1916-na, ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'', miboga catetan pamaén internasional ti Irlandia, [[James Magee]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bectiverangers.com/content/view/197/5 |title=Bective Rangers – James Joyce |date= |work=bectiverangers.com |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726215801/http://www.bectiverangers.com/content/view/197/5/ |date=26 July 2011 }}</ref> Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, dina carita Sherlock Holmes 1924-na, ''[[The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire]]'', nyebutkeun yén Dr Watson maén rugbi pikeun Blackheath.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/vampires/classicstory/sussexvampire_p1.shtml|title=The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire |date=September 2005|work=BBC |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 }}</ref> Rugbi union mangrupa subjék ti skétsa awal ngagambarkeun olahraga ieu, tapi dipaké ogé ku sababaraha seniman, utamina ku sababaraha palukis Perancis awal abad ka-20. Post-Imprésionis Perancis [[Henri Rousseau]], ''Joueurs de football'', damelan 1908, némbongkeun 2 pasang pamaén rugbi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/piece/?search=The%20Football%20Players&page=&f=Title&object=60.1583 |title=Henri Rousseau |first=Cornelia |last=Lauf |date= |work=guggenheim.org |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429080822/http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/piece/?search=The%20Football%20Players&page=&f=Title&object=60.1583 |date=29 April 2011 }}</ref> Seniman Perancis lianna nu geus ngagambarkeun olahraga ieu dina karyana contona [[Albert Gleizes]] (''Les Joueurs de football'' [1912]), [[Robert Delaunay]] (''Football. L'Equipe de Cardiff'' [1916]), jeung [[André Lhote]] (''Partie de Rugby'' [1917]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dine |first=Philip |coauthors= |title=French Rugby Football |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchrugbyfootb0000dine |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/frenchrugbyfootb0000dine/page/19 19]|publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-327-1}}</ref> [[Kompetisi seni dina Olimpiade 1928|Medali Emas pikeun Seni 1928]] dina Olimpiade Antwerp dimeunangkeun ku [[Jean Jacoby]] ti Luksemburg dina karyana ''Rugby''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://olympic-museum.de/art/1928.htm |title=Art Competitions |date= |work=olympic-museum.de |accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501132439/http://www.olympic-museum.de/art/1928.htm |date=1 May 2008 }}</ref> Dina televisi jeung pilem, rugbi union geus dipaké minangka kasang tukan dina sababaraha produksi. Komédi 1949 ti Ealing Studios, ''[[A Run for Your Money]]'', jeung pilem televisi 1979 ti BBC Wales, ''[[Grand Slam (pilem 1978)|Grand Slam]]'', duanana museur kana pandukung panongton patandingan, sanés olahragana.<ref>{{cite book |last=Berry|first=David|title=Wales and Cinema, The First Hundred Years |year=1996 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff |page=215 |isbn=0-7083-1370-1}}</ref> Pilem nu maké olahraga ieu dina rincian leuwih contona produksi indie ''[[Old Scores]]'' (1991) jeung ''[[Forever Strong]]'' (2008). ''[[Invictus (pilem)|Invictus]]'' (2009), dumasar kana bukuna [[John Carlin]], ''Playing the Enemy'', ngomongkeun kajadian dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1995]] jeung usaha Nelson Mandela pikeun nganggo olahraga ieu ngahijikeun masarakat Afrika Kidul pasca-apartheid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/10/19/ftmandela119.xml|title=How Nelson Mandela won the rugby World Cup |accessdate=28 August 2011|work=The Daily Telegraph |location=UK |date=19 October 2007 | first=John | last=Carlin}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8406647.stm|title=South Africa 'rugby unity': Fact and fiction |date=11 December 2009|work=BBC News |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 | first=Pumza | last=Fihlani}}</ref> Raloba nagara miboga patung nu ngagambarkeun rugbi union atawa pamaén rugbi. Sababarahana bisa dipanggih di stadion rugbi, saperti patung perunggu 27 suku di [[Stadion Twickenham|Twickenham]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/local/richmondnews/8196778.Iconic_sculpture_of_rugby_line_out_unveiled/ |title=RFU unveils iconic bronze of rugby line-out by sculptor Gerald Laing |date=2 June 2010 |work=yourlocalguardian.co.uk |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 | first=Joanna | last=Kilvington}}</ref> jeung pangurus rugbi Sir [[Tasker Watkins]] di [[Stadion Millenium]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/8360513.stm |title=Statue of Sir Tasker is unveiled |date=15 November 2009 |work=BBC News |location=UK |accessdate=23 September 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén rugbi nu geus dihormatan dijieun patungna contona [[Gareth Edwards]] di Cardiff jeung [[Danie Craven]] di Stellenbosch.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby365.com/schools/craven/2504760.htm |title=Craven of Craven Week |date=27 June 2010 |work=rugby365.com |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719053209/http://www.rugby365.com/schools/craven/2504760.htm |date=19 July 2011 }}</ref> ==Tempo ogé== {{Portal|Rugbi union}} {{Wikinews category|Rugby}} * ''[[International Rugby Hall of Fame]]'' * ''[[IRB Hall of Fame]]'' * [[Daptar tim rugbi union internasional]] * [[Daptar kompetisi rugbi union pangkolotna]] * [[Daptar istilah rugbi union]] * [[Variasi aturan pacobian]] ==Réferénsi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ===Sumber citakeun=== {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |first=|title=Encyclopedia Canadiana vol. 8|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediacana0000unse_d4e6|year=1972 |publisher=Grolier of Canada|location=Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal|isbn=0717216012| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book | editor-last = Bath | editor-first = Richard | year = 1997 | title = Complete Book of Rugby | publisher=Seven Oaks Ltd | ISBN = 1862000133| ref= harv}} *{{cite book|title=Rugby: Steps to Success|url=https://archive.org/details/rugbystepstosucc0000bisc|first1=Tony|last1=Biscombe |first2= Peter|last2=Drewett|year=2009|publisher=Human Kinetics| ref= harv}} *{{cite book|title=Periodization in Rugby|first1=Tudor|last1=Bompa |first2= Frederick|last2=Claro|year=2008|publisher=Meyer and Meyer Sport| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Godwin |first=Terry |coauthors=Rhys, Chris |title=The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofru0000godw |year=1981 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives Ltd |location=Enfield|isbn=0851122140| ref = harv}} * {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=John|coauthors= |title=The Phoenix Book of International Rugby Records |url=https://archive.org/details/phoenixbookofint0000grif |year=1987 |publisher=Phoenix House |location=London |isbn=0460070037| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Howard |coauthors= Jordon, J.P. |title=Oxford v Cambridge, The Story of the University Rugby Match |year=1951 |publisher=Clerke & Cockeran|location=London |isbn=| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Midgley| first = Ruth| coauthors = | title = The Official World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games| publisher=Diagram Group| year = 1979| location = London| url = | isbn = 0-7092-0153-2| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Richards| first = Huw| coauthors = | title = A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union| publisher=[[Mainstream Publishing]]| year = 2007| location = Edinburgh| url =https://archive.org/details/gameforhooligans0000rich| isbn = 978-1845962555| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Stubbs| first = Ray| coauthors = | title = The Sports Book| publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]| year = 2009| pages = | url = | isbn = 978-1405336970 |ref = harv}} * {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=J.B.G. |coauthors= Rowe, Harding|title=On Tour |year=1954 |publisher=Anchor Press Ltd.|location=Essex |isbn= | ref = harv}} {{refend}} ===Sumber éléktronik=== * {{Cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/laws/index.html | title=Laws of Rugby Union | publisher=IRB | year=2010 | accessdate=16 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518105529/http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/laws/index.html |date=18 May 2011 }} * {{Cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/regulations/index.html | title=IRB Regulations | publisher=IRB | accessdate=16 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130103091436/http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/regulations/index.html |date=3 January 2013 }} * [http://www.espnscrum.com/scrum/rugby/story/94071.html Scrum.com Rugby guide] ==Tumbu kaluar== <!-- Please discuss on the article talk page before adding any further links here --> {{Commons category}} {{Sisterlinks}} * [http://www.irb.com International Rugby Board] – loka resmi babon organisasi * [http://www.rugbydata.com Rugby Data] – statistik rugbi union * [http://www.planetrugby.com/ Planet Rugby] – warta, jadwal, laporan, jsb. * [http://www.espnscrum.com/ ESPN Scrum.com] warta, laporan, statistik, jsb. {{Team Sport}} {{international rugby union}} {{Olympic sports}} {{Rugby Union Club Competitions}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rugbi Union}} [[Kategori:Rugbi union| ]] [[Kategori:Kaulinan nu maké bal]] [[Kategori:Kode maén bal]] [[Kategori:Olahraga nu lahir di Inggris]] [[Kategori:Olahraga tim]] [[Kategori:Urut olahraga Olimpiade]] dwoa4i2ektyf7qyq1blhnjey4grrldt 0 36131 711852 664241 2026-08-07T05:52:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711852 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Kadé pahili jeung tatanggana, [[Républik Kongo]]'' {{Coord|-2.88|23.656|display=title|type:country}} {{Infobox country |native_name=''République Démocratique du Congo''<br />''Repubilika ya Kongo Demokratika''<br />''Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo''<br />''Republiki ya Kongó Demokratiki''<br />''Ditunga día Kongu wa Mungalaata'' |conventional_long_name =Républik Démokratik Kongo |common_name =Républik Démokratik Kongo |image_flag =Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg |image_coat =Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (grey spear).svg |symbol_type =Coat of Arms |national_drink =Um Bongo |national_motto =''Justice – Paix – Travail'' |image_map =Democratic Republic of the Congo (orthographic projection).svg |national_anthem =''"[[Debout Congolais]]"'' |languages_type =[[Basa resmi]]<br />{{nobold|([[Basa nasional]])}} |languages =[[Basa Perancis]]<br />([[Basa Lingala]], [[Basa Kikongo]], [[Basa Swahili]], [[Basa Tshiluba]]) |demonym =Congolese |capital =[[Kinshasa]] |latd=4 |latm=19 |latNS=S |longd=15 |longm=19 |longEW=E |largest_city =[[Kinshasa]] |government_type =[[Républik]] [[Sistim semi-présidénsial|semi-présidénsial]] |leader_title1 =[[Présidén Républik Démokratik Kongo|Présidén]] |leader_name1 =[[Félix Thisekedi]] |leader_title2 =[[Perdana Mentri Républik Démokratik Kongo|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name2 =[[Jean-Michel Sama Lukonde]] |area =2.345.409 |areami² =905.355 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank =ka-11 |area_magnitude =1 E+12 |percent_water =4,3 |population_estimate=71,712,867<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Congo, Democratic Republic of the|work=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|location=Langley, Virginia|year=2011|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nu.html|accessdate=2011-10-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213065716/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nu.html |date=2016-02-13 }}</ref> |population_estimate_year =2011 |population_estimate_rank =ka-19 |population_density =29,3 |population_densitymi² =75,9 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank =ka-182 |GDP_PPP_year =2010 |GDP_PPP=$23.117 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=76&pr.y=6&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=636&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=|title=Democratic Republic of the Congo|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504055751/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=76&pr.y=6&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=636&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |date=2011-05-04 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita =$328<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal_year =2010 |GDP_nominal =$13,125 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_per_capita =$186<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |HDI_year =2011 |HDI={{increase}} 0.286<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2011|year=2011|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=3 November 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111152313/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf |date=11 November 2011 }}</ref> |HDI_rank =ka-187 |HDI_category =<span style="color:#e0584e;">handap</span> |sovereignty_type =[[Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 =ti [[Bélgia]] |established_date1 =30 Juni 1960<ref name="cia.gov"/> |currency =[[Franc Kongo]] |currency_code =CDF |time_zone =[[Wanci Afrika Kulon|WAT]], [[Wanci Afrika Tengah|CAT]] |utc_offset =+1 nepi ka +2 |time_zone_DST =''teu kaobsérvasi'' |utc_offset_DST =+1 nepi ka +2 |drives_on =katuhu |iso3166code =CD |cctld =[[.cd]] |calling_code =243 }} '''Républik Démokratik Kongo''' ({{lang-fr|République démocratique du Congo}}) nyaéta hiji [[nagara daulat|nagara]] anu aya di [[Afrika Tengah]]. Nagara ieu mangrupa nagara ieu mangrupa nagara anu panggedéna kadua di Afrika, upami di dunya, anu kasawelas. Kalawan populasi anu leuwih ti 71 yuta,<ref name="cia.gov" /> Républik Démokratik Kongo mangrupa nagara anu panglobana padumukna kadalapan welas di dunya, anu kaopat di Afrika. Nagara ieu tepung wates jeung [[Républik Afrika Tengah]] sareng [[Sudan Kidul]] di kalér; [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], sareng [[Burundi]] di wétan; [[Zambia]] sareng [[Angola]] di kidul; jeung teras [[Républik Kongo]], [[Propinsi Kabinda|Kabinda]], jeung [[Samudra Atlantik]] di kulon; sarta kapisah ti [[Tanzania]] ku [[Dano Tanganyika]] di beulah wétan.<ref name="cia.gov" /> Nagara ieu miboga aksés ka samudra liwat sela sapanjang <u>+</u>40&nbsp;km di [[Muanda]] kana Samudra Atlantik sarta kasarna 9&nbsp;km lébar muara [[Wahangan Kongo]] anu muka ka [[Teluk Guinéa]]. [[Perang Kongo Kadua]], mimiti dina 1998, ngancurkeun nagara ieu jeung kadang dilandi "[[Perang Dunya]] Afrika" sabab mimilukeun 9 bangsa Afrika jeung kira-kira 20 grup senjata.<ref>See [http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0623/p01s04-woaf.html "Rumblings of war in heart of Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307030854/http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0623/p01s04-woaf.html |date=2012-03-07 }} ku Abraham McLaughlin jeung Duncan Woodside ''The Christian Science Monitor'' 23 Juni 2004 sarta [http://www.mydd.com/story/2006/7/24/135222/827 "World War Three"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111103231/http://www.mydd.com/story/2006/7/24/135222/827 |date=2009-01-11 }} ku Chris Bowers ''My Direct Democracy'' 24 Juli 2006</ref> Sanajan aya tanda karapihan dina 2003, patempuran tetep limangsung dina bagian nagara beulah wétan. Di Kongo wétan, tingkat kajahatan séksual dipeunteunan salaku anu panggoréngna sadunya.<ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/08/AR2007090801194.html|title=Prevalence of Rape in E.Congo Described as Worst in World|publisher=Washington Post|date=2007-09-09|accessdate=2010-05-02|first=Stephanie|last=McCrummen}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516092502/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/08/AR2007090801194.html |date=2011-05-16 }}</ref> Perang ieu mangrupa konflik anu pangbahayana sadunya ti [[Perang Dunya II]], nelasan 5,4 juta urang ti 1998.<ref name="The deadliest war in the world">{{cite news|last=Robinson|first=Simon|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1198921,00.html|title=The deadliest war in the world|publisher=Time.com|date=2006-05-28|accessdate=2010-05-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617061747/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1198921,00.html |date=2010-06-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Joe|last=Bavier|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL2280201220080122|title=Congo War driven crisis kills 45,000 a month|publisher=Reuters|date=2008-01-22|accessdate=2010-05-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221175715/http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL2280201220080122 |date=2009-02-21 }}</ref> Kalobaannana pupus ku lantaran malaria, diaré, pneumonia, malnutrisi.<ref>[http://www.rescue.org/special-reports/congo-forgotten-crisis Report on the crisis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303063531/http://www.rescue.org/special-reports/congo-forgotten-crisis |date=2012-03-03 }} Full report at [http://www.rescue.org/sites/default/files/resource-file/IRC_DRCMortalityFacts.pdf IRC Mortality Facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811153815/http://www.rescue.org/sites/default/files/resource-file/IRC_DRCMortalityFacts.pdf |date=2011-08-11 }} ti [[International Rescue Committee]]</ref> Républik Démokratik Kongo baheulana, dina runtuyannana, [[Nagara Bébas Kongo]], [[Kongo Bélgia]], [[Républik Kongo (Léopoldville)|Kongo-Léopoldville]], Kongo-Kinshasa, jeung [[Zaire]] (''Zaïre'' dina Basa Perancis).<ref name="cia.gov"/> Ngaran-ngaran baheula ieu kadang dirujuk salaku ngaran teu resmi, kalawan pangacualian kateudaékan Mobutu kana Zaire, bareng jeung singketan lianna, saperti, ''Congo'', ''Congo-Kinshasa'', ''DR Congo'', jeung ''DRC''. Sanajan nagara ieu aya di [[Géoskéma Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|subrégion PBB]] [[Afrika Tengah]], nagara ieu ékonomi jeung régionalna kahubung jeung [[Afrika Kidul (wewengkon)|Afrika bagian kidul]] salaku anggota ti [[Komunitas Pamekaran Afrika Kidul]] (SADC). == Propinsi == Nagara ieu dibagi kana 10 propinsi jeung 1 kota-propinsi:<ref name="cia.gov" /> {| style="background:none;" |- | [[Gambar:DCongoNumbered.png|thumb|250px]] | # [[Propinsi Bandundu|Bandundu]] # [[Bas-Congo]] # [[Équateur]] # [[Kasai-Occidental]] # [[Kasai-Oriental]] # [[Propinsi Katanga|Katanga]] # [[Kinshasa]] (kota-propinsi) # [[Maniema]] # [[Nord-Kivu]] # [[Propinsi Orientale|Orientale]] # [[Sud-Kivu]] * ''Hiji [[Administrasi Ituri Interim]] ogé aya di région Ituri Propinsi Orientale'' |} Propinsi-propinsina teras dibagi deui kana distrik-distrik anu salajengna dibagi kana wewengkon. [[Gambar:Kinshasa 2003.jpg|thumb|[[Kinshasa]], Kongo. (Gambar ti 2003)]] ;Populasi kota-kota utami (2008) {| class="wikitable" |- !Kota !Populasi (2008) |- |[[Kinshasa]] |7.500.000 |- |[[Mbuji-Mayi]] |2.500.000 |- |[[Lubumbashi]] |1.700.000 |- |[[Kananga]] |1.400.000 |- |[[Kisangani]] |1.200.000 |- |[[Kolwezi]] |1.100.000 |- |[[Mbandaka]] |850.000 |- |[[Likasi]] |600.000 |- |[[Boma, Kongo Tengah|Boma]] |600.000 |} == Réferénsi == {{Reflist|30em}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{refbegin|30em}} * Clark, John F., ''The African Stakes of the Congo War'', 2004. * {{cite book| last=Devlin| first=Larry| authorlink=Larry Devlin| title=Chief of Station, Congo: A Memoir of 1960–67| url=https://archive.org/details/chiefofstationco0000devl| publisher=PublicAffairs| location=New York| year=2007| isbn=9781586484057}}. * Drummond, Bill and Manning, Mark, ''The Wild Highway'', 2005. * Edgerton, Robert, ''The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo.'' St. Martin's Press, December 2002. * [[Adam Hochschild|Hochschild, Adam]], ''King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa'', 1998. * Exenberger, Andréas/Hartmann, Simon. ''The Dark Side of Globalization. The Vicious Cycle of Exploitation from World Market Integration: Lesson from the Congo'', Working Papers in Economics and Statistics 31, University Innsbruck 2007; availability: http://eeecon.uibk.ac.at/wopec2/repec/inn/wpaper/2007-31.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815122645/http://eeecon.uibk.ac.at/wopec2/repec/inn/wpaper/2007-31.pdf |date=2011-08-15 }}. * Exenberger, Andréas/Hartmann, Simon. ''Doomed to Disaster? Long-term Trajectories of Exploitation in the Congo, Paper to be presented at the Workshop “Colonial Extraction in the Netherlands Indies and Belgian Congo: Institutions, Institutional Change and Long Term Consequences”, Utrecht December 3-4, 2010; availability: http://vkc.library.uu.nl/vkc/seh/research/Lists/Events/Attachments/6/Paper.ExenbergerHartmann.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901165807/http://vkc.library.uu.nl/vkc/seh/research/Lists/Events/Attachments/6/Paper.ExenbergerHartmann.pdf |date=2011-09-01 }}. * Gondola, Ch. Didier, "The History of Congo", Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002. * Joris, Lieve, translated by Waters, Liz, ''The Rebels' Hour'', Atlantic, 2008. * Justenhoven, Heinz-Gerhard; Ehrhart, Hans Georg. Intervention im Kongo: eine kritische Analyse der Befriedungspolitik von UN und EU. Stuttgart : Kohlhammer, 2008. (In German) ISBN 978-3-17-020781-3. * [[Barbara Kingsolver|Kingsolver, Barbara]]. ''[[The Poisonwood Bible]]'' HarperCollins, 1998. * Larémont, Ricardo René, ed. 2005. ''Borders, nationalism and the African state''. Boulder, Colorado and London: Lynne Rienner Publishers. * Lemarchand, Reni and Hamilton, Lee; ''Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide.'' Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1994. * Mealer, Bryan: "All Things Must Fight To Live", 2008. ISBN 1-59691-345-2. * [[Linda Melvern|Melvern, Linda]], ''Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide and the International Community''. Verso, 2004. * Miller, Eric: "The Inability of Peacekeeping to Address the Security Dilemma", 2010. ISBN 978-3-8383-4027-2. * Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era'', Third Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, "Chapter Six: Congo in The Sixties: The Bleeding Heart of Africa", pp.&nbsp;147 – 205, ISBN 978-0-9802534-1-2; Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''Africa and America in The Sixties: A Decade That Changed The Nation and The Destiny of A Continent'', First Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-9802534-2-9. * Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges, ''The Congo from Léopold to Kabila: A Péople's History'', 2002. * O'Hanlon, Redmond, ''Congo Journey'', 1996. * O'Hanlon, Redmond, ''No Mercy: A Journey into the Heart of the Congo'', 1998. * Prunier, Gérard, ''Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe'', 2011 (also published as ''From Genocide to Continental War: The Congolese Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa: The Congo Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa''). * Renton, David; Seddon, David; Zeilig, Léo. ''The Congo: Plunder and Resistance'', 2007. ISBN 978-1-84277-485-4. * Reyntjens, Filip, ''The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006 '', 2009. * Rorison, Séan, ''Bradt Travel Guide: Congo&nbsp; — Democratic Republic/Republic'', 2008. * Schulz, Manfred. ''Entwicklungsträger in der DR Kongo: Entwicklungen in Politik, Wirtschaft, Religion, Zivilgesellschaft und Kultur'', Berlin : Lit, 2008, (in German) ISBN 978-3-8258-0425-1. * Stéarns, Jason: ''Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: the Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa'', Public Affairs, 2011. * Tayler, Jeffrey, ''Facing the Congo'', 2001. * Turner, Thomas, ''The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality'', 2007. * Wrong, Michela, ''In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo''. {{refend}} * Osman,Mohamed Omer Guudle(November,2011) Africa: A rich Continent where poorest péople live, The Case of DR Congo and the exploitation of the World Market == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks}} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1076399.stm Propil Nagara] ti [[BBC News]] * {{CIA World Factbook link|cg|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/DRCongo.htm Democratic Republic of the Congo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080727023932/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/DRCongo.htm |date=2008-07-27 }} ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Congo,_Democratic_Republic_of_the|Républik Démokratik Kongo}} * {{Wikiatlas|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * [http://world.wikia.com/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo Democratic Republic of Congo] dina WorldWikia <!-- * {{wikia|world:Democratic Republic of Congo|Democratic Republic of Congo}} --> ;Pelesir * {{wikivoyage|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * [http://www.gorilla.cd/ Loka Resmi Taman Nasional Virunga] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003023434/http://www.gorilla.cd/ |date=2008-10-03 }} {{Template group |title = Républik Démokratik Kongo |list = {{DRC topics}} {{Template group |title = [[Gambar:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Géografi lokal |list = {{Countries of Africa}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} }} {{Template group |title = Basa |list = {{Niger-Congo-speaking nations}} {{La Francophonie}} }} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kongo, Republik Demokratik}} [[Kategori:Républik Démokratik Kongo| ]] [[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara jeung téritori Bantu]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Swahili]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] 11bgxa48typb0hlkgi015v52ghfqqqo 0 36139 711684 711016 2026-08-07T01:32:13Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711684 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name = ''Muso oa Lesotho''<br />''Kingdom of Lesotho'' |conventional_long_name = Karajaan Lésotho |common_name = Lésotho |image_flag = Flag of Lesotho.svg |image_coat =Coat of arms of Lesotho.svg |image_map = Location Lesotho AU Africa.svg |map_caption = {{map caption|countryprefix=|location_color=paul kolot|region=[[Afrika]]|region_color=kulawu kolot|subregion=[[Uni Afrika]]|subregion_color=paul ngora|legend=Location Lesotho AU Africa.svg}} |national_motto = "Khotso, Pula, Nala"<br />"Peace, Rain, Prosperity" |national_anthem = ''[[Lesotho Fatse La Bontata Rona]]''<br />''Lesotho, land of our Fathers'' |official_languages = [[Basa Sotho|Sotho]], [[Basa Inggris|Inggris]] |demonym = Mosotho (tunggal), Basotho (leuwih ti 1) |capital = [[Maseru]] |latd =29 |latm=28 |latNS=S |longd=27 |longm=56 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Maseru]] |government_type = [[Sistim parleméntér|Démokrasi parleménter]] [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]] jeung [[Monarki konstitusional]] |leader_title1 = [[Daptar Raja Lésotho|Raja]] |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Lésotho|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name1 = [[Letsie III ti Lésotho|Letsie III]] |leader_name2 = [[Moeketsi Majoro]] |area_rank = ka-140 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area = 30.355 |areami² = 12.727 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = tiasa teu dipadulikeun |population_estimate = 2.067.000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 | version=2008 revision | format=PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate=2009-03-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115172319/https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |date=2016-01-15 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-146 |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_census = 2.031.348 |population_census_year = 2004 |population_density = 68,1 |population_densitymi² = 162,4 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-138 |GDP_PPP = $3,303 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=666&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=40&pr.y=12|title=Lesotho|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019121712/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=666&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=40&pr.y=12 |date=2012-10-19 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1.299<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal = $2,127 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $836<ref name=imf2/> |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Britania Raya]] |established_date1 = 4 Oktober 1966 |HDI = {{increase}} 0,427<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf Human Development Report 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122115116/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf |date=2009-11-22 }}. The United Nations. Ditarima 15 Oktober 2009.</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-141 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI_category = <span style="#e0584e">handap</span> |Gini = 63,2 |Gini_year = 1995 |Gini_category = <span style="color:red;">luhur</span> |currency = [[Loti Lésotho]] |currency_code = LSL |country_code = |time_zone = [[Wanci Standar Afrika Kidul|SAST]] |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = kénca |cctld = [[.ls]] |calling_code = [[+266|266]] |footnotes = <sup>1</sup> Pakiraan pikeun nagara ieu kuduna mah diperhatoskeun ogé kana lobana nu pupus akibat AIDS; hal ieu bisa nyababkeun ajén harepan hirup nu leuwih saeutik, tingkat pupusna orok jeung jalmi nu leuwih luhur, populasi jeung kamekaran populasi nu leuwih handap, jeung robihna panyebaran populasi dumasar umur jeung lalaki/awéwé tinimbang nu dikira.}} '''Lésotho''', resmina '''Karajaan Lésotho''', nyaéta hiji [[nagara nu dilingkung]] jeung [[énklave jeung éksklave|énklave]], sakabéhna dilingkung ku sahiji-hijina tatanggana, [[Afrika Kidul|Républik Afrika Kidul]]. Ibu kota jeung kota panggedéna nyaéta [[Maseru]]. Lésotho mangrupa anggota ti [[Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]]. Ngaran '''Lésotho''' kasarna bisa ditarjamahkeun ka ''lemahna urang anu maké basa [[basa Sotho|Sesotho]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=No Place Left to Bury the Dead|url=https://archive.org/details/noplacelefttobur00itan|first=Nicole|last=Itano|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/noplacelefttobur00itan/page/314 314]|isbn=0743270959}}</ref> Kira-kira 40% populasi hirup di handapeun [[Garis kamiskinan|garis kamiskinan internasional]] 1,25 $AS per poé.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDI_2008_EN_Tables.pdf ''Human Development Indices''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520061654/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDI_2008_EN_Tables.pdf |date=2020-05-20 }}, Table 3: Human and income poverty, p. 35. Ditarima 1 Juni 2009</ref> == Distrik == [[Gambar:Lesotho.geohive.gif|thumb|350px|Distrik di Lésotho]] {{utama|Distrik di Lésotho}} Pikeun tujuan administratif, Lésotho dibagi kana [[Distrik di Lésotho|10 distrik]], masing-masing diluluguan ku saurang administrator distrik. Saban distrik miboga ibu kota anu disebut ''[[Camptown (Lésotho)|camptown]]''. {{col|2}} * [[Distrik Berea|Berea]] * [[Distrik Butha-Buthe|Butha-Buthe]] * [[Distrik Leribe|Leribe]] * [[Distrik Mafeteng|Mafeteng]] * [[Distrik Maseru|Maseru]] * [[Distrik Mohale's Hoek|Mohale's Hoek]] * [[Distrik Mokhotlong|Mokhotlong]] * [[Distrik Qacha's Nek|Qacha's Nek]] * [[Distrik Quthing|Quthing]] * [[Distrik Thaba-Tseka|Thaba-Tseka]] </div> Distrik-distrikna teras dibagi deui kana (total) 80 konstituén, anu miboga (total) 129 [[Déwan komunitas Lésotho|déwan komunitas]] lokal. == Tempo ogé == {{InterWiki|Southern Sotho language|code=st}} *[[Komunikasi di Lésotho]] *[[Asosiasi Sapédahan Lésotho (Féderasi)]] *[[Asosiasi Pramuka Lésotho]] *[[Daptar pausahaan Lésotho]] *[[Militér Lésotho]] *[[Universitas Nasional Lésotho]] *[[Transportasi di Lésotho]] == Réferénsi == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks}} * [http://www.gov.ls Pamaréntah Lésotho] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408225354/http://gov.ls/ |date=2018-04-08 }} * {{CIA World Factbook link|lt|Lesotho}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/lesotho.htm Lesotho] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Lesotho|Lésotho}} * {{wikiatlas|Lesotho}} * {{wikivoyage|Lesotho}} {{Lesotho topics}} {{Template group |title = [[Gambar:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Géografi lokal |list = {{Countries of Africa}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{SACU}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{Monarchies|state=collapsed}} }} {{Template group |title = Basa |list = {{Niger-Congo-speaking nations}} {{English official language clickable map}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lesotho}} [[Kategori:Lésotho| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Monarki konstitusional]] [[Kategori:Énklave]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1966]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Nagara jeung téritori Bantu]] egc24cj8hhd7jyli4iapztvkamh924a 0 36167 711510 664166 2026-08-06T21:55:26Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711510 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|hiji nagara di Afrika|kotana|Liberia, Kosta Rika}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''Republic of Liberia'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Liberia |common_name = Liberia |image_flag = Flag of Liberia.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Liberia.svg |symbol_type = Lambang |image_map = Location Liberia AU Africa.svg |map_caption = Lokasi Liberia dina [[Uni Afrika]] |national_motto = ''The love of liberty brought us here'' |national_anthem = <center>[[Gambar:Liberia National Anthem.ogg]]</center> <br />"''[[All Hail, Liberia, Hail!]]''" |official_languages = [[Basa Inggris]] |demonym = Liberian |capital = [[Monrovia]] |latd = 6 |latm=19 |latNS=N |longd=10 |longm=48 |longEW=W |largest_city = [[Monrovia]] |government_type = [[Républik konstitusional]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Liberia|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Liberia|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Joseph Boakai]] |leader_name2 = [[Jeremiah Koung]] |legislature = [[Législasi Liberia]] |upper_house = [[Sénat Liberia|Sénat]] |lower_house = [[Déwan Pawakilan Liberia|Déwan Pawakilan]] |area_rank = ka-103 |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area = 111.369 |areami² = 43.000 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> |percent_water = 13,514 |population_estimate = 5,506,280<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Liberia|access-date=22 January 2023|year=2023}}</ref> |population_estimate_year = 2023 |population_estimate_rank = |population_census = 3.476.608 |population_census_year = 2008 |population_census_rank = ka-130 |population_density = 35,5 |population_densitymi² = 92,0 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> |population_density_rank = ka-180 |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP = $1,691 milyar<ref name=IMF_GDP>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=668&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=38&pr.y=12|title=Liberia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-30}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $392<ref name=IMF_GDP/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal = $974 yuta<ref name=IMF_GDP/> |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $226<ref name=IMF_GDP/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Liberia|Pawangunan]] |sovereignty_note = |established_event1 = Diadegkeun ku [[Masarakat Kolonisasi Amérika|Masarakat {{nowrap|Kolonisasi Amérika}}]] |established_event2 = [[Déklarasi Kamerdikaan Liberia|Kamerdikaan]]<!--PERHATOSAN: Liberia teu pernah dijajah atawa diklaim ku pamaréntah Amérika Sarikat. Nagara ieu diwangun ku ACS (Masarakat Kolonisasi Amérika), hiji organisasi swasta. Dihaturkeun sangkan teu ngaganti eusian ieu kana misalna "ti Amérika Sarikat" tanpa ngomongkeunnana heula di kaca sawala--> |established_event3 = [[Konsititusi Liberia|Konstitusi nu ayeuna]] |established_date1 = 1822 |established_date2 = 26 Juli 1847 |established_date3 = 6 Januari 1986 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI = {{nowrap|{{increase}} 0,300}} |HDI_rank = ka-162 |HDI_category = <span style="color:red;">handap</span> |currency = [[Dolar Liberia]]<sup>1</sup> |currency_code = LRD |country_code = lr |time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] |time_zone_DST = ''teu kaobsérvasi'' |drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.lr]] |calling_code = 231 |footnotes = <sup>1</sup> [[Dolar Amérika Sarikat]] ogé mata uang sah di nagara ieu. }} '''Liberia''', resmina '''Républik Liberia''', nyaéta hiji nagara di [[Afrika Kulon]]. Nagara ieu tepung wates jeung [[Sierra Leone]] di kulon, [[Guinéa]] di kalér, sarta [[Côte d'Ivoire]] di wétan. == Distrik jeung ''county'' == [[Gambar:Bomi lake.jpg|thumb|Pamandangan hiji dano di [[County Bomi]]]] Liberia dibagi kana 15 [[County di Liberia|''county'']], anu salajengna dibagi kana [[distrik]], jeung saterasna ''klan''. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! ''County'' !! Ibu kota !! Populasi (2008)<ref name="census2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/census_2008provisionalresults.pdf|title=2008 National Population and Housing Census: Preliminary Results|year=2008|publisher=Government of the Republic of Liberia|accessdate=2008-10-14}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213110308/http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/census_2008provisionalresults.pdf |date=2012-02-13 }}</ref> !! Aréa<ref name="census2008"/> !! Dijieun |- | [[County Bomi|Bomi]] || [[Tubmanburg]] || 82.036 || 1.942&nbsp;km² || 1984 |- | [[County Bong|Bong]] || [[Gbarnga]] || 328.919 || 8.772&nbsp;km² || 1964 |- | [[County Gbarpolu|Gbarpolu]] || [[Bopulu]] || 83.758 || 9.689&nbsp;km² || 2001 |- | [[County Grand Bassa|Grand Bassa]] || [[Buchanan, Liberia|Buchanan]] || 224.839 || 7.936&nbsp;km² || 1839 |- | [[County Grand Cape Mount|Grand Cape Mount]] || [[Robertsport]] || 129.055 || 5.162&nbsp;km² || 1844 |- | [[County Grand Gedeh|Grand Gedeh]] || [[Zwedru]] || 126.146 || 10.484&nbsp;km² || 1964 |- | [[County Grand Kru|Grand Kru]] || [[Barclayville]] || 57.106 || 3.895&nbsp;km² || 1984 |- | [[County Lofa|Lofa]] || [[Voinjama]] || 270.114 || 9.982&nbsp;km² || 1964 |- | [[County Margibi|Margibi]] || [[Kakata]] || 199.689 || 2.616&nbsp;km² || 1985 |- | [[County Maryland, Liberia|Maryland]] || [[Harper, Liberia|Harper]] || 136.404 || 2.297&nbsp;km² || 1857 |- | [[County Montserrado|Montserrado]] || [[Bensonville]] || 1.144.806 || 1.909&nbsp;km² || 1839 |- | [[County Nimba|Nimba]] || [[Sanniquellie]] || 468.088 || 11.551&nbsp;km² || 1964 |- | [[County River Cess|River Cess]] || [[River Cess]] || 65.862 || 5.594&nbsp;km² || 1985 |- | [[County River Gee|River Gee]] || [[Fish Town]] || 67.318 || 5.113&nbsp;km² || 2000 |- | [[County Sinoe|Sinoe]] || [[Greenville, Liberia|Greenville]] || 104.932 || 10.137&nbsp;km² || 1843 |} == Tempo ogé == *[[Hubungan luar nagri Liberia]] == Réferénsi == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ;Bibliograpi {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} *{{Cite book |title=Africa in World History, From Prehistory to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/africainworldhis0000reyn |author=Gilbert, Erik & Reynolds, Jonathan T |edition=Paperback |date=October 2003 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-092907-5}} *{{Cite book |title=Merriam Webster's Geographical Dictionary: 3rd Edition |edition=Paperback |year=1997 |publisher=Merriam Webster Inc., Springfield |isbn=0-87779-546-0}} *{{cite journal |last1 = Dunn-Marcos |first1 = Robin |last2 = Kollehlon |first2 = Konia T. |last3 = Ngovo |first3 = Bernard |last4 = Russ |first4 = Emily |editor-last = Ranar |editor-first = Donald A. |year = 2005 |month = April |title = Liberians: An Introduction to their History and Culture |journal = Culture Profile |issue = 19 |publisher = Center for Applied Linguistics |format = pdf |accessdate = July 23, 2011 |url = http://www.cal.org/co/liberians/liberian_050406_1.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625062344/http://www.cal.org/co/liberians/liberian_050406_1.pdf |date=June 25, 2008 }} *{{Cite book |author=Tim Hetherington |title=Long Story Bit By Bit: Liberia Retold |year=2009 |publisher=New York: Umbrage |isbn=9781884167737}} *{{Cite book |author=[[Graham Greene]] |title=[[Journey Without Maps]] |year=1936 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0-09-928223-5}} *{{Cite book |author=Gabriel I. H. Williams |title=Liberia: The Heart of Darkness |date=July 6, 2006 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=1-55369-294-2}} *{{Cite book |author=Alan Huffman |title=Mississippi in Africa: The Saga of the Slaves of Prospect Hill Plantation and Their Legacy in Liberia Today |url=https://archive.org/details/mississippiinafr00huff |year=2004 |publisher=Gotham Books |isbn=9781592400447}} *{{Cite book |author=John-Peter Pham |title=Liberia: Portrait of a Failed State |url=https://archive.org/details/liberiaportraito00pham |date=April 4, 2001 |publisher=Reed Press |isbn=1-59429-012-1}} *{{Cite book |author=Barbara Greene |title=Too Late to Turn Back |url=https://archive.org/details/toolatetoturnbac00gree |date=March 5, 1991 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-14009-594-2}} {{refend}} ;Bacaan salajengna {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * ''Great Tales of Liberia'' by Wilton Sankawulo. Dr. Sankawulo is the compiler of these tales from Liberia and about Liberian culture. Published by Editura Universitatii "Lucian Blaga";; din Sibiu, Romania, 2004. - ISBN 973-651-838-8 * ''Sundown at Dawn: A Liberian Odyssey'' by Wilton Sankawulo. Recommended by the Cultural Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics for its content concerning Liberian culture. ISBN 0-9763565-0-3 * ''To Liberia: Destiny's Timing'', by Victoria Lang (Publish America, Baltimore, 2004, ISBN 1-4137-1829-9). A fast-paced gripping novel of the journey of a young Black couple fleeing America to settle in the African motherland of Liberia. *[[Godfrey Mwakikagile]], ''Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties'', Chapter Eight: Liberia: 'The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here,' pp.&nbsp;85 – 110, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Huntington, New York, 2001; Godfrey Mwakikagile, ''The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation'', Chapter One: The Collapse of A modérn African State: Déath and Rebirth of Liberia, pp.&nbsp;1 – 18, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2001. * Redemption Road: The Quest for Péace and Justice in Liberia (A Novel) by Elma Shaw, with a Foreword by présidént Ellen Johnson Sirléaf. (Cotton Tree Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9800774-0-7) * ''House at Sugar Beach: In Search of a Lost African Childhood'' by Helene Cooper (Simon & Schuster, 2008, ISBN 0-7432-6624-2) {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons category}} ;Pamaréntah *[http://emansion.gov.lr/ Executive Mansion] Loka resmi Présidén Républik Liberia ;Informasi umum *{{CIA World Factbook link|li|Liberia}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/liberia.htm Liberia] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Liberia|Liberia}} *{{wikiatlas|Liberia}} ;Pelesir *{{wikivoyage|Liberia}} {{Liberia topics}} {{Template group |title ={{nbsp}}Géografi lokal |list = {{Countries of Africa}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{African Union}} {{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}} }} {{Template group |title = Basa |list = {{Niger-Congo-speaking}} {{English official language clickable map}} }} <!--Please do not move this article from its correct and standard position at the head of its own category.--> [[Kategori:Liberia| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Komunitas Ékonomi Nagara Afrika Kulon]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1847]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Liberia}} 5rdrbz473ba8bm45zf48ise7tozd19n 0 36203 711624 655599 2026-08-07T00:29:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711624 wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''République du Mali''<br />''Mali ka Fasojamana'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Mali |common_name = Mali |image_flag = Flag of Mali.svg |image_coat =Coat_of_arms_of_Mali.svg |symbol_type = Lambang |image_map = Mali (orthographic projection).svg |map_caption = |national_motto = "Un peuple, un but, une foi"<br /><small>"One people, one goal, one faith"</small> |national_anthem = ''[[Pour l'Afrique et pour toi, Mali|Le Mali]]''<br /><small>"Mali"</small><ref>[http://www.koulouba.pr.ml/spip.php?article93&calendrier_mois=9&calendrier_annee=2008 Presidency of Mali: Symboles de la République, L’Hymne National du Mali] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220122918/http://www.koulouba.pr.ml/spip.php?article93&calendrier_mois=9&calendrier_annee=2008 |date=2008-12-20 }}</ref> |languages_type = [[Basa resmi]]<br />{{nobold|([[Basa daérah]])}} |languages = [[Basa Perancis]]<br />([[Basa Bambara]]) |demonym = [[Urang Mali|Malian]] |capital = [[Bamako]] |latd=12 |latm=39 |latNS=N |longd=8 |longm=0 |longEW=W |largest_city = Bamako |government_type = [[Républik]] [[Sistim semi-présidénsial|semi-présidénsial]] |leader_title1 = [[Daptar Présidén Mali|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Pupuhu Pamaréntahan Mali|Pupuhu Pamaréntahan]] |leader_name1 = [[Assimi Goïta]] |leader_name2 = [[Choguel Kokalla Maïga]] |area_rank = ka-24 |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area = 1.240.192 <!--UN DYB--> |areami² = 478.839 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 1,6 |population_estimate = |population_estimate_rank = |population_estimate_year = |population_census = 14.517.176<ref name=census>{{cite web|url=http://instat.gov.ml/voir_actu.aspx?lactu=44|title=Mali preliminary 2009 census|publisher=Institut National de la Statistique|accessdate=12 January 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418055748/http://instat.gov.ml/voir_actu.aspx?lactu=44 |date=18 April 2010 }}</ref> |population_census_rank = ka-67 |population_census_year = April 2009 |population_density = 11,7 |population_densitymi² = 30,3 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-215 |GDP_PPP = $16,772&nbsp;milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=678&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=41&pr.y=0|title=Mali|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=30 April 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019011217/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=678&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=41&pr.y=0 |date=19 October 2012 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1.251<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $9,268&nbsp;milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $691<ref name=imf2/> |sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Mali|Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Perancis]] minangka [[Républik Sudan]], jeung [[Senegal]] minangka [[Féderasi Mali]] |established_date1 = 4 April 1960 |established_event2 = minangka Mali |established_date2 = 22 Séptémber 1960 |HDI = {{increase}} 0,371 |HDI_rank = ka-178 |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI_category = <span style="color:red;">handap</span> |Gini = 50,5 |Gini_year = 1994 |Gini_category = <span style="color:red;">luhur</span> |currency = [[Franc CFA Afrika Kulon]] |currency_code = XOF |country_code = MLI |time_zone = [[GMT]] |utc_offset = +0 |time_zone_DST = ''teu kaobsérvasi'' |utc_offset_DST = +0 |drives_on = katuhu<ref>[http://www.brianlucas.ca/roadside/ Which side of the road do they drive on?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070723194705/http://www.brianlucas.ca/roadside/ |date=2007-07-23 }} Brian Lucas. August 2005. Ditarima 28 Januari 2009.</ref> |cctld = [[.ml]] |calling_code = 223 |footnotes = }} '''Mali''', resmina '''Républik Mali''' ({{lang-fr|République du Mali}}, {{IPA-fr|maˈli}}), nyaéta hiji [[nagara nu dilingkung]] di [[Afrika Kulon]]. Mali wawatesan jeung [[Aljazair]] di kalér, [[Niger]] di wétan, [[Burkina Faso]] sareng [[Côte d'Ivoire]] di kidul, [[Guinéa]] di kidul-kulon, sarta [[Senegal]] sareng [[Mauritania]] di kulon. Ibu kotana nyaéta [[Bamako]]. == Babagian administratif == Mali dibagi kana 8 région (''régions'') jeung 1 distrik.<ref>Martin, p.&nbsp;134.</ref> Masing-masing région miboga saurang gubernur.<ref name=pictures>DiPiazza, p. 37.</ref> Ku sabab région-régionna lega pisan, nagara ieu dibagi kana 49 [[Cercle (Mali)|''cercle'']], 288 ''[[arrondissement]]'', jeung 703 [[komune]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haverford.edu/publications/Fall%2006/Timbuctoo.htm |title=From Here to Timbuctoo: A story of discovery in West Africa |accessdate=3 June 2008 |last=Imperato |first=Gavin |year=2006 |publisher=[[Haverford College|Haverford]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080713045541/http://www.haverford.edu/publications/Fall%2006/Timbuctoo.htm |date=13 July 2008 }}</ref> [[Région di Mali|Région]] jeung distrikna nyaéta: *[[Région Gao|Gao]] *[[Région Kayes|Kayes]] *[[Région Kidal|Kidal]] *[[Région Koulikoro|Koulikoro]] *[[Région Mopti|Mopti]] *[[Région Ségou|Ségou]] *[[Région Sikasso|Sikasso]] *[[Région Tombouctou|Tombouctou]] (Timbuktu) *[[Distrik Ibu Kota Bamako|Bamako (distrik ibu kota)]] == Tempo ogé == *[[Daptar nagara]] *[[Kakaisaran Mali]] == Catetan == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} === Bacaan salajengna === * {{cite book | last = African Development Bank | title = African Economic Outlook | publisher=OECD Publishing | year = 2001 | isbn = 9264197044 }} *{{cite book | last = Campbell| first = Bonnie | title = Regulating Mining in Africa: For Whose Benefit? | publisher=Nordic African Institute | year = 2004 | location = Uppsala, Sweden | isbn = 978-0761475712 }} *{{cite book | last = Cavendish | first = Marshall | title = World and Its Peoples: Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa | publisher=Marshall Cavendish | year = 2007 | location = Tarrytown, New York | isbn = 978-0761475712 }} * [http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN002746.pdf Constitution of Mali] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920144209/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN002746.pdf |date=2018-09-20 }}. {{fr icon}} A student-translated [http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Mali.pdf English version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912141413/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Mali.pdf |date=2012-09-12 }} is also available. *{{cite book | last = DiPiazza | first = Francesca Davis | title = Mali in Pictures | url = https://archive.org/details/maliinpictures0000dipi | publisher=Learner Publishing Group | year = 2006 | location = Minneapolis, Minnesota | id = | isbn = 978-0822565918 }} * Hudgens, Jim, Richard Trillo, and Nathalie Calonnec. ''The Rough Guide to West Africa''. [[Rough Guides]] (2003). ISBN 1-84353-118-6. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050226190603/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Mali.pdf Mali country profile]. [[Library of Congress]] [[Federal Research Division]] (January 2005). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].'' * {{cite book | last = Martin | first = Phillip L. | title = Managing Migration: The Promise of Cooperation | url = https://archive.org/details/managingmigratio0000mart | publisher=Lexington Books | year = 2006 | location = Lanham, Maryland | isbn = 978-0739113417 }} *{{cite book | last = May | first = Jacques Meyer | title = The Ecology of Malnutrition in the French Speaking Countries of West Africa and Madagascar | publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company | year = 1968 | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0028489605 }} *[[Godfrey Mwakikagile|Mwakikagile, Godfrey]]. ''Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties'', Huntington, New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2001. * Milet, Eric & Jéan-Luc Manaud. ''Mali''. Editions Olizane (2007). ISBN 2-88086-351-1. {{fr icon}} * Moseley, W.G. 2007. “Mali.” Encyclopedia of Environment and Society. Edited by Paul Robbins. Sage Publications. Volume 3, pgs 1085–1086. * Pye-Smith, Charlie & Rhéal Drisdelle. ''Mali: A Prospect of Peace?'' Oxfam (1997). ISBN 0-85598-334-5. * Velton, Ross. ''Mali''. Bradt Travel Guides (2004). ISBN 1-84162-077-7. == Tumbu kaluar == {{sisterlinks|Mali}} *{{Official website|http://www.primature.gov.ml}} *{{CIA World Factbook link|ml|Mali}} *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Mali|Mali}} *{{wikiatlas|Mali}} *{{wikivoyage|Mali}} {{Mali topics|state=collapsed}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{African Union}} {{Community of Democracies}} {{Community of Sahel-Saharan States}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Organisation of the Islamic Conference}} }} [[Kategori:Mali| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Urut koloni Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota OSI]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1960]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Mali}} j4vipd5dlvf0v3ulshjqc2tvu60hir7 0 36427 711607 655685 2026-08-07T00:09:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711607 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name=''Republic of Zambia'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Zambia |common_name=Zambia |image_flag=Flag of Zambia.svg |image_coat=Coat_of_arms_of_Zambia.svg |image_map=Zambia (orthographic projection).svg |map_caption= |national_anthem="''[[Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free]]''" |national_motto=''One Zambia, One Nation'' |official_languages=[[Basa Inggris]] |regional_languages=[[Basa Chewa|Chewa]], [[Basa Bemba|Bemba]], [[Basa Lunda|Lunda]], [[Basa Tonga (Zambia)|Tonga]], [[Basa Lozi|Lozi]], [[Basa Luvale|Luvale]], [[Kaonde]] |demonym=Zambian |capital=[[Lusaka]] |latd=15|latm=25|latNS=S|longd=28|longm=17|longEW=E |government_type=[[Républik]] |leader_title1=[[Daptar Présidén Zambia|Présidén]] |leader_name1=[[Hakainde Hichilema]] |leader_title2=[[Daptar Wakil Présidén Zambia|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2=[[Mutale Nalumango]] |largest_city=[[Lusaka]] |area=752.618 |areami²=290.587 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank=ka-39 |area_footnote=<ref name="area">{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density|format=PDF|author=United Nations Statistics Division|accessdate=2007-11-09}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031023924/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf |date=2007-10-31 }}</ref> |area_magnitude=1 E11 |percent_water=1 |population_estimate=12.935.000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal|url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf|title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1|version=2008 revision|format=PDF|publisher=United Nations|author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division|year=2009|accessdate=2009-03-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024125333/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |date=2018-10-24 }}</ref> |population_estimate_year=2009 |population_estimate_rank=ka-71 |population_census=9.885.591<ref name="censubibpibjnii">{{cite web|url=http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/media/chapter_3_population_comp._size_and_growth-_final.pdf|title=Population size, growth and composition|format=PDF|author=Central Statistical Office, Government of Zambia|accessdate=2007-11-09}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124143720/http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/media/chapter_3_population_comp._size_and_growth-_final.pdf |date=2007-11-24 }}</ref> |population_census_year=2000 |population_density=17,2 |population_densitymi²=44,5 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank=ka-191 |GDP_PPP_year=2009 |GDP_PPP=$18,454 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=754&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=47&pr.y=15|title=Zambia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2010-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514051344/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=754&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=47&pr.y=15 |date=2011-05-14 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank= |GDP_PPP_per_capita=$1.541<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank= |GDP_nominal=$13,000 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year=2009 |GDP_nominal_per_capita=$1.086<ref name=imf2/> |HDI_year=2010 |HDI={{increase}} 0,395 |HDI_rank=ka-150 |HDI_category=<span style="color:#e0584e;">handap</span> |Gini=42,1 |Gini_year=2002–03 |Gini_category=<span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |sovereignty_type=[[Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1=ti [[Britania Raya]] |established_date1=24 Oktober 1964 |currency=[[Kwacha Zambia]] |currency_code=ZMK |time_zone=[[Wanci Afrika Tengah|CAT]] |utc_offset=+2 |time_zone_DST=''teu kaobsérvasi'' |utc_offset_DST=+2 |drives_on=kénca |cctld=[[.zm]] |calling_code=260 }} '''Zambia''', resmina '''Républik Zambia''' ({{lang-en|Republic of Zambia}}), nyaéta hiji [[nagara nu dilingkung]] di [[Afrika Kidul (wewengkon)|Afrika beulah kidul]]. Nagara ieu wawatesan jeung [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]] di kalér, [[Tanzania]] di kalér-wétan, [[Malawi]] di wétan, [[Mosambik]], [[Zimbabwé]], [[Botswana]], sareng [[Namibia]] di kidul, sarta [[Angola]] di kulon. Ibu kotana nyaéta [[Lusaka]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar nagara dumasar produksi tambang tambaga]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == * Burke, Mark, ''Glimmers of Hope : A Memoir of Zambia'', (lulu.com, 2009) * {{Cite book|authorlink=James Ferguson (Anthropologist)|first=James|last=Ferguson|title=Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life in the Zambian Copperbelt|url=https://archive.org/details/expectationsofmo00ferg|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=1999|isbn=0520217012|postscript=<!--None--> }} * Ihonvbéré, Julius, ''Economic Crisis, Civil Society and Democratisation: The Case of Zambia'', (Africa Reséarch & Publications, 1996) * LaMonica, Christopher, ''Local Government Matters: The Case of Zambia '', (Lambert Academic Publishing, 2010) * Mcintyre, Charles, ''Zambia (Bradt Travel Guides)'', (Bradt Travel Guides, 2008) * Murphy, Alan and Luckham, Nana, ''Zambia and Malawi (Lonely Planet Multi Country Guide)'', (Lonely Planet Publications, 2010) * Phiri, Bizeck Jube, ''A Political History of Zambia: From the Colonial Period to the 3rd Republic'', (Africa Reséarch & Publications, 2005) * Roberts, Andrew, ''A History of Zambia'', (Heinemann, 1976) * Sardanis, Andrew, ''Africa: Another Side of the Coin: Northern Rhodesia's Final Years and Zambia's Nationhood'', (I.B.Tauris, 2003) * Various, ''One Zambia, Many Histories: Towards a History of Post-colonial Zambia'', (Brill, 2008) * {{Cite document|authorlink=Kambidima Wotela (Ethnological Demographer)|first=Kambidima|last=Wotela|title=Deriving Ethno-geographical Clusters for Comparing Ethnic Differentials in Zambia|publisher=World Cultures eJournal, 17(2)|location=University of California Irvine|year=2010|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/0j58j1nz?display=all|postscript=<!--None-->}}. == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks|Zambia}} * {{Official website|http://www.statehouse.gov.zm}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|za|Zambia}} * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Zambia|Zambia}} * {{wikiatlas|Zambia}} * {{wikivoyage|Zambia}} {{Template group |title=Géografi lokal |list= {{Countries of Africa}} {{Niger-Congo-speaking nations}} }} {{Template group |title=Kaanggotaan internasional |list= {{African Union}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{Niger-Congo-speaking nations}} {{Zambia topics|state=uncollapsed}} [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1964]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Nagara jeung téritori Bantu]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Zambia}} oxzhh0ze8zjx20bjmvd1xp0s3q4168w 0 36440 711566 655637 2026-08-06T23:15:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711566 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About||pikeun otoritas nu ngaklaim kadaulatan kana Sahara Kulon|Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi}} {{Coord|25|N|13|W|type:country|display=title}} {{Infobox country|native_name = الصحراء الغربية <small>{{ar icon}}</small><br />Sahara Occidental <small>{{es icon}}</small> |conventional_long_name = Sahara Kulon |common_name = Sahara Kulon |image_flag = |image_coat = |symbol_type = |image_map = LocationWesternSahara.svg |national_motto = |national_anthem = |official_languages = |languages_type = Basa nu dipaké |languages = [[Basa Berber|Berber]] jeung [[Basa Arab Hassaniya]] dipaké sacara lokal.<br /><br />[[Basa Spanyol]] jeung [[Basa Perancis]] dipaké sacara luas. |demonym = Western Saharan <!-- Sahrawi is the denonym of SADR citizens --> |latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW= |largest_city = [[El Aaiún]] (Laâyoune) | capital=[[El Aaiún]] (Laâyoune)<ref name="bbccp">{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/3466917.stm | title=Regions and territories: Western Sahara |work=BBC | date=9 November 2010 | accessdate=25 November 2010}}</ref><ref name="bbcqa">{{cite news | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11712267 | title=Q&A: Western Sahara clashes | work=BBC | date=8 November 2010 | accessdate=25 November 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120015949/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11712267 |date=20 November 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jensen|first=Erik|title=Western Sahara: Anatomy Of A Stalemate|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vYLuOGyDBjsC&lpg=PA48&dq=western%20sahara%20capital&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=%22capital%20of%20western%20sahara%22&f=false|series=International Peace Academy Occasional Paper Series|year=2005|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=1588263053|page=48}}</ref><ref name="eb">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/640800/Western-Sahara|title=Western Sahara|year=2010|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|accessdate=25 November 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614223706/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/640800/Western-Sahara |date=14 June 2011 }}</ref> |government_type = |leader_title1 = |leader_name1 = |leader_title2 = |leader_name2 = |sovereignty_type = Kadaulatan dipaséakeun<sup>1</sup> |established_event1 = Dileupaskeun ku Spanyol |established_date1 = 14 Nopémber 1975 |area_rank = ka-76 |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area = 266.000 |areami² = 103.000 |percent_water = tiasa teu dipadulikeun |population_estimate = 513.000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 | version=2008 revision | format=PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate=12 March 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115172319/https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref> |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_estimate_rank = ka-168 |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density = 1,9 |population_densitymi² = 5 |population_density_rank = ka-237 |GDP_PPP = |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = |GDP_nominal_per_capita = |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |HDI = |HDI_rank = |HDI_year = |HDI_category = |currency = [[Dirham Maroko]] (di wewengkon nu dikawasaan ku Maroko) [[Dinar Aljazair]] jeung [[Peseta Sahrawi]] mangrupa komémoratif jeung teu kaluar-asup (di wewengkon nu dikawasaan RDAS)<ref>{{cite web|last=Ahmed R. Benchemsi and Mehdi Sekkouri Alaoui|title=Au cœur du polisario|url=http://www.telquel-online.com/329/couverture_329.shtml|publisher=Telquel|accessdate=23 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225202923/http://www.telquel-online.com/ |date=25 December 2018 }} "Tout cela se paie en dinars algériens"</ref> |currency_code = MAD |time_zone = |utc_offset = +0 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |cctld = Taya. [[.eh]] dipesen, teu resmi dipaké. |calling_code = [[+212|212]] <small>(Katali jeung Maroko)</small> |footnotes = <sup>1</sup> Kalobaannana dina administrasi Maroko salaku [[Propinsi Kidul]]. Front Polisario ngawasaan wewengkon wates di tukangeun [[Témbok Maroko]] salaku [[Zona Bébas (région)|Zona Bébas]], dina ngaran [[Républik Déokratik Arab Sahrawi]]. }} <!-- {{Contains Arabic text}} {{Sahara conflict}} --> '''Sahara Kulon''' ({{lang-ar|الصحراء الغربية}} ''Aṣ-Ṣaḥrā’ al-Gharbīyah'', {{lang-es|'''Sahara Occidental'''}}) nyaéta hiji [[wewengkon nu dipaséakeun]] di [[Afrika Kalér]], wawatesan jeung [[Maroko]] di kalér, [[Aljazair]] di kalér-wétan, [[Mauritania]] di wétan jeung kidul, sarta [[Samudra Atlantik]] di kulon. Legana kira-kira {{convert|266000|km2}}. == Tempo ogé == *[[Komunikasi di Sahara Kulon]] *[[Daptar kota di Sahara Kulon]] *[[MINURSO]] *[[Musik Sahara Kulon]] *[[Sahraoui Scout Association]] *[[Urang Sahrawi]] *[[Transportasi di Sahara Kulon]] == Catetan suku == {{reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == *{{Cite book |first=Tony |last=Hodges |year=1983 |title=Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War |publisher=Lawrence Hill Books |isbn=0882081527 }} *{{Cite book |first=Anthony G. |last=Pazzanita |first2=Tony |last2=Hodges |year=1994 |title=Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000pazz_02ed |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=0810826615 }} *{{Cite book |first=Toby |last=Shelley |year=2004 |title=Endgame in the Western Sahara: What Future for Africa's Last Colony? |url=https://archive.org/details/endgameinwestern0000shel |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=1842773410 }} *{{Cite book |first=Erik |last=Jensen |year=2005 |title=Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate |publisher=International Peace Studies |isbn=1588263053 }} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks|Western Sahara}} ; Informasi umum *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/3466917.stm Propil Nagara] ti [[BBC News]] *{{CIA World Factbook link|wi|Western Sahara}} *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Western_Sahara|Sahara Kulon}} *{{wikiatlas|Western Sahara}} *{{wikivoyage|Western Sahara}} ; Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa *[http://www.minurso.unlb.org/ The United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120102318/http://www.minurso.unlb.org/ |date=2016-01-20 }} *[http://www.un.org/depts/dpko/missions/minurso/reports.html Laporan Sekretaris Jéndral PBB] ; Other *[http://allafrica.com/westernsahara/ Sahara Kulon] ti [[AllAfrica.com]] *[http://www.westernsaharaonline.net/ Western Sahara Online (pro-Maroko)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091202021644/http://www.westernsaharaonline.net/ |date=2009-12-02 }} *[http://spsrasd.info/ Sahara Press Service (pro-Polisario)] {{Western Sahara topics}} {{Template group |title = Géografi lokal |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Countries and territories of the Middle East}} }} [[Kategori:Sahara Kulon| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Arab]] [[Kategori:Papaséan wewengkon di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Pamisahan di Maroko]] {{geo-stub}} 9bsn4esxo5ag8bujxnjf27exl2gujlc 0 36487 711536 710548 2026-08-06T22:37:55Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 10 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711536 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox country |native_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">República Federativa do Brasil</span> |conventional_long_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Républik Féderasi Brasil</span> |common_name = Brasil |image_flag = Flag of Brazil.svg |alt_flag = |image_coat = Coat of arms of Brazil.svg |alt_coat = |symbol_type = Lambang |national_motto = ''"Ordem e Progresso"'' |national_anthem = [[Gambar:Hino Nacional Brasileiro instrumental.ogg]]<br /><small>[[Lagu Kabangsaan Brasil|Hino Nacional Brasileiro]] |royal_anthem = |other_symbol_type = [[Tanda (lambang)|Tanda nasional]] |other_symbol = [[Tanda Nasional Brasil|Selo Nacional do Brasil]] [[Gambar:National Seal of Brazil (color).svg|15px]] |image_map = Brazil (orthographic projection).svg |alt_map = |map_caption = |image_map2 = |alt_map2 = |map_caption2 = |capital = [[Brasília]] |latd= 15 | latm= 45 | latNS = S |longd= 47 |longm= 57 |longEW = W |largest_city = [[São Paulo]] |official_languages = [[Basa Portugis]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Demographics|publisher=Brazilian Government|year=2011|url=http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/brazil/brazil-in-numbers/demographics|accessdate=2011-10-08}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117051415/http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/brazil/brazil-in-numbers/demographics |date=2011-11-17 }} {{en}}</ref> |national_languages = |regional_languages = |languages_type = |languages = |ethnic_groups = 47,73% [[Brasil Kulit Bodas|Bodas]]<br />43,13% [[Pardo|Soklat]] ([[Multiras#Brazil|Multiras]])<br />7,61% [[Brasil Kulit Hideung|Hideung]]<br />1,09% [[Brasil Asia|Asia]]<br />0,43% [[Urang pribumi Brasil|Amerindian]] |ethnic_groups_year = 2010<ref name="raca2010">[http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/caracteristicas_da_populacao/tabelas_pdf/tab3.pdf Caracteristicas da População e dos Domicílios do Censo Demográfico 2010 — Cor ou raça] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217041601/http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/caracteristicas_da_populacao/tabelas_pdf/tab3.pdf |date=2012-02-17 }}</ref> |demonym = Brazilian |government_type = [[Républik]] [[Féderalisme|féderal]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] [[républik konstitusional|konstitusional]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Brasil|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Jair Bolsonaro]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Brasil|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Braga Neto]] |legislature = [[Kongrés Nasional Brasil|Kongrés Nasional]] |upper_house = [[Sénat Brasil|Sénat Féderal]] |lower_house = [[Déwan Députi Brasil|Déwan Députi]] |sovereignty_type = [[Déklarasi Kamerdikaan Brasil|Kamerdikaan]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[Karajaan Portugal, Brasil, jeung Algarves Ngahiji]] |established_event1 = [[Kakaisaran Brasil|Didéklarasi]] |established_date1 = 7 Séptémber 1822 |established_event2 = [[Kakaisaran Brasil|Diakuan]] |established_date2 = 29 Agustus 1825 |established_event3 = [[República Velha|Républik]] |established_date3 = 15 Nopémber 1889 |established_event4 = [[Konstitusi Brasil|Konstitusi nu ayeuna]] |established_date4 = 5 Oktober 1988 |area_rank = ka-5 |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area = 8514877 |areami² = 3287597 |area_footnote = |percent_water = 0,65 |area_label = Total |population_census = 190.732.694<ref>IBGE. [http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1766&id_pagina=1 Censo 2010: população do Brasil é de 190.732.694 pessoas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118115603/http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1766&id_pagina=1 |date=2012-01-18 }}.</ref> |population_census_rank = ka-5 |population_census_year = 2010 |population_density = 22 |population_densitymi² = 57 |population_density_rank = ka-182 |GDP_PPP = $2,172 triliun<ref name=imf>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=223&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=25&pr.y=4|title=Brazil|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429194649/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=223&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=25&pr.y=4 |date=2011-04-29 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = 2011 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11.767<ref name=imf/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $2,421 triliun<ref name=imf/> |GDP_nominal_rank = ka-7 |GDP_nominal_year = 2011 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $12.422<ref name=imf/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |Gini = <span style="color: #0c0; font-size: larger;">▼</span>53.6<ref name = "2010censusgini">[http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/caracteristicas_da_populacao/tabelas_pdf/tab8.pdf Caracteristicas da População e dos Domicílios do Censo Demográfico 2010 — Rendimento] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105225211/http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/caracteristicas_da_populacao/tabelas_pdf/tab8.pdf |date=2012-01-05 }}</ref> |Gini_rank = |Gini_year = 2010 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">luhur</span> |HDI = 0,718<ref name=HDI11>{{cite web|title=Table 1: Human development index 2011 and its components|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2011-12-04|publisher=UNDP|author=UNDP Human Development Report 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111152313/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf |date=2011-11-11 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-84 |HDI_year = 2011 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">luhur</span> |currency = [[Real Brasil|Real]] (R$) |currency_code = BRL |time_zone = [[Wanci di Brasil|BRT]]<ref name="timezones" /> |utc_offset = [[UTC−02|-2]] nepi ka [[UTC−04|-4]]<ref name="timezones">{{cite web | title = Hora Legal Brasileira | publisher = Observatório Nacional | url = http://pcdsh01.on.br/Fusbr.htm | accessdate = 2009-02-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722173247/http://pcdsh01.on.br/Fusbr.htm |date=2011-07-22 }}</ref> |time_zone_DST = [[Wanci di Brasil#Usum panas|BRST]] |antipodes = |date_format = pp/bb/tttt ([[Common Era|CE]]) |DST_note = |utc_offset_DST = [[UTC−02|-2]] to [[UTC−04|-4]] |drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.br]] |iso3166code = |calling_code = [[Nomer telepon di Brasil|55]] }} '''Brasil''' ({{lang-pt|Brasil}}, {{IPA-pt|bɾaˈziw|IPA}}), resmina '''Républik Féderasi Brasil'''<ref>As on for example the [http://www.brasil.gov.br/?set_language=en national website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628154407/http://www.brasil.gov.br/?set_language=en |date=2018-06-28 }}.</ref><ref name="Mugnier">{{cite journal|last=Mugnier|first=Clifford|date=January 2009|title=Grids & Datums – Federative Republic of Brazil|url=http://www.asprs.org/resources/GRIDS/01-2009-brazil.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621192851/http://www.asprs.org/resources/grids/01-2009-brazil.pdf |date=2009-06-21 }}</ref> ({{lang-pt|República Federativa do Brasil}}, {{Audio|Pt-br-República Federativa do Brasil.ogg|listen}}), nyaéta nagara nu panggedéna di [[Amérika Kidul]]. Brasil mangrupa nagara nu panggedéna kalima sadunya, boh aréana boh populasina.<ref name="CIA Geo"/><ref name="CIA People">{{cite web | title = People of Brazil | booktitle = The World Factbook | publisher = Central Intelligence Agency | year = 2008 | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html | accessdate = 2008-06-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222121846/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html |date=2015-12-22 }}</ref> Nagara ieu mangrupa nagara anggota [[CPLP]] sahiji-hijina di [[buana Amérika]] jeung nagara [[lusopon]] nu panggedéna sadunya.<ref name="CIA Geo">{{cite web | title = Geography of Brazil | booktitle = The World Factbook | publisher = Central Intelligence Agency | year = 2008 | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html | accessdate = 2008-06-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222121846/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html |date=2015-12-22 }}</ref> === Babagian administratif === :''Artikel utama: [[Nagara bagian di Brasil]], [[Kotamadya di Brasil]]'' {{See also|Région di Brasil}} Brasil mangrupa hiji féderasi nu ngawengku 26 [[Nagara féderasi|nagara bagian]], hiji [[Distrik Féderal Brasil|distrik féderal]] (nu ngawengku ibu kotana, [[Brasília]]), jeung kotamadya-kotamadya.<ref name="Constituição">{{cite web | title = Brazilian Federal Constitution | publisher = Presidency of the Republic | year = 1988 | url = http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Constituicao/Constituiçao.htm | language = Portuguese | accessdate = 2008-06-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213194044/http://www.planalto.gov.br/CCIVIL_03/Constituicao/Constitui%C3%A7ao.htm |date=2007-12-13 }} {{cite web | title = Brazilian Federal Constitution | publisher = v-brazil.com | year = 2007 | url = http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleI.html | quote = Unofficial translate | accessdate = 2008-06-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928070506/http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleI.html |date=2018-09-28 }}</ref> Nagara bagian miboga administrasi otonom, ngumpulkeun pajakna sorangan, jeung narima bagain ti pajak nu dikumpulkeun ku pamaréntah Féderal. Nagara bagian miboga gubernur jeung hiji badan législatif. == Tempo ogé == *[[Daptar inohong Brasil]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} <!-- ===Bibliograpi=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * Azevedo, Aroldo. ''O Brasil e suas regiões''. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971. {{pt icon}} * Barman, Roderick J. ''Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8047-3510-7 {{en icon}} * [[C. R. Boxer|Boxer, Charles R.]]. ''O império marítimo português 1415–1825''. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 8535902929 {{pt icon}} * Bueno, Eduardo. ''Brasil: uma História''. São Paulo: Ática, 2003. {{pt icon}} ISBN 8508082134 * Calmon, Pedro. ''História da Civilização Brasileira''. Brasília: Senado Federal, 2002. {{pt icon}} * Carvalho, José Murilo de. ''D. Pedro II''. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007. {{pt icon}} * Coelho, Marcos Amorim. ''Geografia do Brasil''. 4th ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996. {{pt icon}} * Diégues, Fernando. ''A revolução brasílica''. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004. {{pt icon}} *''[[Barsa (encyclopedia)|Enciclopédia Barsa]]''. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987. {{pt icon}} * Fausto, Boris and Devoto, Fernando J. ''Brasil e Argentina: Um ensaio de história comparada (1850–2002)'', 2nd ed. São Paulo: Editoria 34, 2005. ISBN 8573263083{{pt icon}} * [[Elio Gaspari|Gaspari, Elio]]. ''A ditadura envergonhada''. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 8535902775 {{pt icon}} * Janotti, Aldo. ''O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num momento crítico da história da nacionalidade''. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990. {{pt icon}} * Lyra, Heitor. ''História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Ascenção (1825–1870). v.1''. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. {{pt icon}} * Lyra, Heitor. ''História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Declínio (1880–1891). v.3''. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. {{pt icon}} * Lustosa, Isabel. ''D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter''. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006. ISBN 8535908072 {{pt icon}} * Moreira, Igor A. G. ''O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil''. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981. {{pt icon}} * Munro, Dana Gardner. ''The Latin American Republics; A History''. New York: D. Appleton, 1942. {{en icon}} * Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz. ''As barbas do Imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos''. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998. ISBN 8571648379 {{pt icon}} * [[Thomas Skidmore|Skidmore, Thomas E]]. ''Uma História do Brasil''. 4th ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003. {{pt icon}} ISBN 8521903138 * Souza, Adriana Barreto de. ''Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento''. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008. {{pt icon}} ISBN 9788520008645 * Vainfas, Ronaldo. ''Dicionário do Brasil Imperial''. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. ISBN 8573024410 {{pt icon}} * Vesentini, José William. ''Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil''. 7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988. {{pt icon}} * Vianna, Hélio. ''História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república'', 15th ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994. {{pt icon}} {{Refend}} --> == Bacaan salajengna == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |author=Alves, Maria Helena Moreira |title=State and Opposition in Military Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/stateoppositioni0000alve_m2e2 |location=Austin, TX |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1985}} * {{cite book |author=Amann, Edmund |title=The Illusion of Stability: The Brazilian Economy under Cardoso |publisher=World Development (pp.&nbsp;1805–1819) |year=1990}} * {{cite web |title=Background Note: Brazil |publisher=US Department of State |url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35640.htm |accessdate=2011-06-16 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629123353/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35640.htm |date=2011-06-29 }} * {{cite book |author=Bellos, Alex |title=Futebol: The Brazilian Way of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/futebolbrazilian0000bell |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing plc |year=2003}} * {{cite book |author=Bethell, Leslie |title=Colonial Brazil |location=Cambridge |publisher=CUP |year=1991}} * {{cite book |author=Costa, João Cruz |title=A History of Ideas in Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofideasin00cost |location=Los Angeles, CA |publisher=University of California Press |year=1964}} * {{cite book |author=Fausto, Boris |title=A Concise History of Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus |location=Cambridge |publisher=CUP |year=1999}} * {{cite book |author=Furtado, Celso |title=The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times |year=1965 |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_C0-BNY-426 |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=University of California Press}} * {{cite book |author=Leal, Victor Nunes |title=Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0521214882 |location=Cambridge |publisher=CUP |year=1977}} * {{cite book |author=Malathronas, John |title=Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul |url=https://archive.org/details/brazillifebloods0000mala |location=Chichester |publisher=Summersdale |year=2003}} * {{cite book |author=Martinez-Lara, Javier |title=Building Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of Constitutional Change |publisher=Macmillan |year=1995}} * {{cite book |author=Prado Júnior, Caio |title=The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/colonialbackgrou00praduoft |location=Los Angeles, CA |publisher=University of California Press |year=1967}} * {{cite book |author=Schneider, Ronald |title=Brazil: Culture and Politics in a New Economic Powerhouse |publisher=Boulder Westview |year=1995}} * {{cite book |author=Skidmore, Thomas E. |title=Black Into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_C0-AZU-499 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1974}} * {{cite book |author=Wagley, Charles |title=An Introduction to Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobr0000wagl_k5a3 |location=New York, New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1963}} * {{cite book |title=The World Almanac and Book of Facts: Brazil |location=New York, NY |publisher=World Almanac Books |year=2006}} {{Refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks}} {{Wikisource|CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Brazil}} * [http://www.braziltour.com/ Braziltour.com]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.brasil.gov.br/ Pamaréntah Féderal Brasil] * [http://www.ibge.gov.br/english/ Institut Géografi jeung Statistika Brasil] * {{CIA World Factbook link|br|Brazil}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/brazil.htm Brazil] di ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/South_America/Brazil|Brasil}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121105025706/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/brtoc.html Propil Nagara] ti [[Library of Congress]] AS (1997) * {{wikivoyage|Brazil}} {{osmrelation-inline|59470}} {{navboxes| list = {{Brazil topics|state=expanded}} {{navboxes|title=[[Gambar:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Géografi lokal| list = {{Countries of South America}} }} {{navboxes|title=Kaanggotaan internasional| list = {{Latin Union}} {{Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP)|state=collapsed}} {{Union of South American Nations (Unasur\Unasul)}} {{Mercosur\Mercosul (Southern Common Market)}} {{Organization of American States}} {{G8+5}} {{G-20}} {{G15 nations}} {{BRIC}} {{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}} }} {{Portuguese overseas empire}} }} {{Authority control}} {{nagara-geo-stub|Brasil}} [[Kategori:Brasil| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Nagara féderal]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Portugis]] [[Kategori:Nagara G15]] [[Kategori:Nagara G20]] [[Kategori:Nagara Amérika Latin]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Anggota Mercosur]] [[Kategori:Anggota CPLP]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Nagara Amérika Kidul]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Portugis]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Amérika Kidul]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1822]] 9djsq7xrzgt7gd0n4s9g7jobldzb4fm 0 36524 711504 661291 2026-08-06T17:06:58Z Martin Macha 2111 24422 /* */ 711504 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|nagarana}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = República del Pérú |conventional_long_name = Républik Péru |common_name = Péru |image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg |image_flag = <!--ANY CHANGE WILL BE REVERTED-->Flag of Peru.svg |image_map = Peru (orthographic projection).svg |national_motto = |national_anthem = "''[[Lagu Kabangsaan Péru|Himno Nacional del Perú]]'' |official_languages = [[Basa Spanyol]] |demonym = Peruvian |capital = [[Lima (kota)|Lima]] |latd=12 |latm=2.6 |latNS=S |longd=77 |longm=1.7 |longEW=W |largest_city = [[Lima (kota)|Lima]] |government_type = [[Républik]] [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] |leader_title1 = [[Daptar Présidén Péru|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Keiko Fujimori]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Péru|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Luis Galarreta]] |leader_title3 = [[Perdana Mentri Péru|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name3 = [[Luis Galarreta]] |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[Spanyol]] |established_event1 = Didéklarasikeun |established_date1 = 28 Juli 1821 |established_event2 = Dikonsolidasi |established_date2 = 9 Désémber 1824 |established_event3 = Diakuan |established_date3 = 14 Agustus 1879 |area_rank = ka-20 |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area = 1.285.216 |areami² = 496.225 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 0,41 <!--CIA World Factbook--> |population_estimate = 31.294.231 <!--UN World Population Prospects--> |population_estimate_rank = ka-44 <!--UN World Population Prospects--> |population_estimate_year = 2021 <!--UN World Population Prospects--> |population_census = 31.237.385 <!--(2017 Census)--> |population_census_year = 2017 <!--(2017 Census)--> |population_density = 23 <!--UN World Population Prospects--> |population_densitymi² = 59,6 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-198 |ethnic_groups=45% [[Urang pribumi Péru|Amerindian]] <br />37% [[Mestizo]]<br />15% [[Urang Amérika Latin Kulit Bodas|Bodas]]<br />3% [[Afro-Péru|Hideung]], [[Urang Jepang-Péru|Jepang]], [[Urang Cina-Péru|Cina]], jeung nu lian<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html CIA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105025708/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html |date=2016-11-05 }}, World Factbook (Expand "people" tab)</ref> |GDP_PPP = $385.719&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=31&pr.y=8&sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=293&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Peru|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=18 January 2020|archive-date=17 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117125604/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=31&pr.y=8&sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=293&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|url-status=live}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = 2020 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $9.985<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $195,761 |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = 2020 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $5.845<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |HDI = {{increase}}0,777 <ref>{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=15 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215063955/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-79 |HDI_year = 2019 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">luhur</span> |Gini = <span style="color: #0c0; font-size: larger;">▼</spa41,5 |Gini_rank = |Gini_year = 2019 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">luhur</span> |currency = [[Sol Péru|Sol]] |currency_code = PEN |time_zone = [[Wanci di Péru|PET]] |utc_offset = -5 |time_zone_DST = teu kaobsérvasi |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.pe]] |calling_code = [[+51|51]] |footnote1 = [[Basa Quechua|Quechua]], [[Basa Aymara|Aymara]], jeung [[Basa di Péru|basa pribumi lianna]] mangrupa basa sub-resmi di wewengkon di mana loba dipakéna. }} [[Gambar:Peru - Regions and departments (labeled).svg|250px|right|thumb| Peru]] [[Gambar:Peru Machu Picchu Sunrise.jpg|250px|right|thumb| [[Machu Picchu]] ]] '''Péru''' ({{lang-es|Perú}}; {{lang-qu|Perú}};<ref>Ngaran dina basa Quechua nu dipaké ku pamaréntah Péru nyaéta ''Perú'' (tempo [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/_quechua/index.htm loka wéb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730230845/http://www.congreso.gob.pe/_quechua/index.htm |date=2010-07-30 }} Parlemén Péru dina vérsi basa Quechua jeung Konstitusi Péru vérsi basa Quechua [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/_quechua/Constitucion.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205010758/http://www.congreso.gob.pe/_quechua/Constitucion.pdf |date=2011-02-05 }}), tapi ngaran umum dina basa Quechuana nyaéta ''Piruw''</ref> {{lang-ay|Piruw}}), resmina '''Républik Péru''' ({{lang-es|República del Perú}}, {{IPA-es|reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu|pron|Es - República del Perú.ogg}}), nyaéta hiji nagara di [[Amérika Kidul]] beulah kulon. Nagara ieu wawatesan jeung [[Ékuador]] sareng [[Kolombia]] di kalér, [[Brasil]] di wétan, [[Bolivia]] di tenggara, [[Chili]] di kidul, jeung [[Samudra Pasifik]] di kulon. == Région == {{utama|Babagian administratif Péru}} Péru dibagi kana [[Région di Péru|25 région]] sarta [[Propinsi Lima]]. Saban région miboga pamaréntahan kapilih nu diwangun ku hiji présidén jeung déwan nu ngajabat 4 taun.<ref>''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article N° 11.</ref> '''Région''': {{Col|2}} * [[Région Amazonas|Amazonas]] * [[Région Ancash|Ancash]] * [[Région Apurímac|Apurímac]] * [[Région Arequipa|Arequipa]] * [[Région Ayacucho|Ayacucho]] * [[Région Cajamarca|Cajamarca]] * [[Région Callao|Callao]] * [[Région Cuzco|Cuzco]] * [[Région Huancavelica|Huancavelica]] * [[Région Huánuco|Huánuco]] * [[Région Ica|Ica]] * [[Région Junín|Junín]] * [[Région La Libertad|La Libertad]] * [[Région Lambayeque|Lambayeque]] * [[Région Lima|Lima]] * [[Région Loreto|Loreto]] * [[Région Madre de Dios|Madre de Dios]] * [[Région Moquegua|Moquegua]] * [[Région Pasco|Pasco]] * [[Région Piura|Piura]] * [[Région Puno|Puno]] * [[Région San Martín|San Martín]] * [[Région Tacna|Tacna]] * [[Région Tumbes|Tumbes]] * [[Région Ucayali|Ucayali]] </div> '''Propinsi''': * [[Propinsi Lima|Lima]] == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar nagara]] {{Peru topics|state=uncollapsed}} == Catetan jeung rujukan == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} <!-- == Rujukan == <div class="references-small"> ;Etymology * {{es icon}} Porras Barrenechea, Raúl. ''El nombre del Perú''. Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968. ;History * Andrien, Kenneth. ''Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985. * Anna, Timothy. ''The fall of the royal government in Peru''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979. * Bakewell, Peter. ''Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian labor in Potosi 1545–1650''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1984. * BBC News. ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1031752.stm Fujimori: Decline and fall]''. November 20, 2000. * Burkholder, Mark. ''From impotence to authority: the Spanish Crown and the American audiencias, 1687–1808''. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977. * D'Altroy, Terence. ''The Incas''. Malden: Blackwell, 2002. * Dillehay, Tom, Duccio Bonavia and Peter Kaulicke. "The first settlers". In Helaine Silverman (ed.), ''Andean archaeology''. Malden: Blackwell, 2004, pp.&nbsp;16–34. * Gootenberg, Paul. ''Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991. * Gootenberg, Paul. ''Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840–1880''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. * Haas, Jonathan, Winifred Creamer and Alvaro Ruiz. "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru". ''Nature'' 432: 1020–1023 (December 23, 2004). * Klarén, Peter. ''Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. * Mayer, Enrique. ''The articulated peasant: household economies in the Andes''. Boulder: Westview, 2002 * Mücke, Ulrich. ''Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru''. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004. * O'Phelan, Scarlett. ''Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru''. Cologne: Böhlau, 1985. * Palmer, David. ''Peru: the authoritarian tradition''. New York: Praeger, 1980. * Philip, George. ''The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals''. London: University of London, 1978. * {{es icon}} ''Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias''. Madrid: Cultura Hispánica, 1973 * Schydlowsky, Daniel and Juan Julio Wicht. "Anatomy of an economic failure". In Cynthia McClintock and Abraham Lowenthal (ed.), ''The Peruvian experiment reconsidered''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983, pp.&nbsp;94–143. * {{es icon}} Suárez, Margarita. ''Desafíos transatlánticos''. Lima: FCE/IFEA/PUCP, 2001. * The Economist. ''[http://www.economist.com/research/backgrounders/displayBackgrounder.cfm?bg=709221 Peru]''. June 12, 2007. * Walker, Charles. ''Smoldering ashes: Cuzco and the creation of Republican Peru, 1780–1840''. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999. ;Government * BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4405402.stm ''Peru–Chile border row escalates'']. November 4, 2005. * Clark, Jeffrey. [http://web.archive.org/web/20070813232240/http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/pubs/descriptions/perubuilding.htm ''Building on quicksand: the collapse of the World Bank's judicial reform project in Peru'']. New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 2000. * {{es icon}} Congreso de la República del Perú. [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/organizacion/grupos.asp ''Grupos Parlamentarios'']. * {{es icon}} [http://www.tc.gob.pe/legconperu/constitucion.html ''Constitución Política del Perú'']. December 29, 1993. * {{es icon}} {{DOClink|[http://www.ccffaa.mil.pe/INFORMACION/Ley27178_Ley__ServicioMilitar.doc ''Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar'']}}. September 28, 1999. * {{es icon}} Ministerio de Defensa. ''Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional''. Lima: Ministerio de Defensa, 2005 * {{es icon}} Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales. [http://www.elecciones2011.onpe.gob.pe/resultados2011/2davuelta/onpe/presidente/rep_resumen_pre.php ''Elecciones Generales 2011 Segunda Elección Presidencial'']. * St John, Ronald Bruce. ''The foreign policy of Peru''. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992. ;Regions * {{es icon}} {{PDFlink|[http://www.pmde.gob.pe/taller/Compilacion%20normativa/DESCENTRALIZACI%C3%93N/LEY%20N%C2%BA%2027867_LEY%20ORG%C3%81NICA%20DE%20GOBIERNOS%20LOCALES.pdf ''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'']|305&nbsp;KB}}. November 16, 2002. ;Geography * AndesHandbook. [http://www.andeshandbook.cl/eng/default.asp?main=cerro.asp?codigo=54 ''Huascarán'']. June 2, 2002. * {{es icon}} Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú. ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico''. Lima: Auge, 1996. * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. {{PDFlink|[http://www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0638/Libro.pdf ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'']|8.31&nbsp;MB}}. Lima: INEI, 2005. ;Economy * {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva. [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/estadisticas/cuadros-anuales-historicos.html ''Cuadros Anuales Históricos'']. * {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva. [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/publicaciones/memoria-anual/memoria-2006.html ''Memoria 2006'']. Lima: BCR, 2007 * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004–2008''. Lima: INEI, 2009. * International Monetary Fund. [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2014&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=293&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=48&pr1.y=9 ''Peru'']. January 2010. * Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. [http://ustraderep.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2006/April/United_States_Peru_Sign_Trade_Promotion_Agreement.html ''United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement'']. April 12, 2006. * Sheahan, John. ''Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950''. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999. * Thorp, Rosemary and Geoffrey Bertram. ''Peru 1890–1977: growth and policy in an open economy''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978. * United Nations Development Programme, {{PDFlink|[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf ''Human Development Report 2009'']}}. New York: UNDP, 2009. ;Demographics * Cook, Noble David. ''Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050''. Lima: INEI, 2001. * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú''. Lima: INEI, 2008. * Mörner, Magnus. ''Race mixture in the history of Latin America''. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1967. * United Nations. {{PDFlink|[http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf ''World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision. Highlights'']|2.74&nbsp;MB}}. New York: United Nations, 2007. * Vázquez, Mario. "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru". In: Magnus Mörner, ''Race and class in Latin America''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970, pp.&nbsp;73–95. ;Culture * Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. ''Art of colonial Latin America''. London: Phaidon, 2005. * Bayón, Damián. "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp.&nbsp;393–454. * {{es icon}} Belaunde, Víctor Andrés. ''Peruanidad''. Lima: BCR, 1983. * Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp.&nbsp;227–260. * Custer, Tony. ''The Art of Peruvian Cuisine''. Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003. * Embassy of Peru in the United States. [http://www.peruvianembassy.us/do.php?p=507 ''The Peruvian Gastronomy'']. * Lucie-Smith, Edward. ''Latin American art of the 20th century''. London: Thames and Hudson, 1993. * Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp.&nbsp;3–45. * Martin, Gerald. "Narrative since c. 1920". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp.&nbsp;133–225. * Olsen, Dale. ''Music of El Dorado: the ethnomusicology of ancient South American cultures''. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002. * {{es icon}} Romero, Raúl. "La música tradicional y popular". In: Patronato Popular y Porvenir, ''La música en el Perú''. Lima: Industrial Gráfica, 1985, pp.&nbsp;215–283. * Romero, Raúl. "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.), ''Music in Latin American culture: regional tradition''. New York: Schirmer Books, 1999, pp.&nbsp;383–423. * Turino, Thomas. "Charango". In: Stanley Sadie (ed.), ''The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments''. New York: MacMillan Press Limited, 1993, vol. I, p.&nbsp;340. </div> --> == Tumbu kaluar == {{sisterlinks}} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1224656.stm Propil Nagara] ti [[BBC News]] * [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Peru Peru] ti ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' * {{CIA World Factbook link|pe|Peru}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/peru.htm Peru] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085421/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/peru.htm |date=2008-06-07 }} di ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/South_America/Peru|Péru}} * {{wikiatlas|Peru}} * {{wikivoyage|Peru}} * {{es icon}} [http://www.peru.gob.pe/ Portal Wéb] Pamaréntah Péru * {{osmrelation-inline|288247|bullet=no}} <!-- ==============================({{NoMoreLinks}})============================== --> <!-- DO ''not'' ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. 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Links that have not been verified --> <!-- WILL BE DELETED --> <!-- ============================================================================= --> {{Navboxes |title = Géografi lokal |list = {{Countries of South America}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{Latin Union}} {{Union of South American Nations (Unasur\Unasul)}} {{Andean Community of Nations}} {{Mercosur\Mercosul (Southern Common Market)}} {{Organization of American States}} {{G15 nations}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Peru}} [[Kategori:Péru| ]] [[Kategori:Komunitas Nagara Andés]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu wawatesan jeung Samudra Pasifik]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Nagara G15]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Amérika Kidul]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1821]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Nagara Amérika Kidul]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Péru}} mxi0cqu5273jfpeczoybmpds865iob4 0 36625 711592 705071 2026-08-06T23:46:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711592 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox country | native_name = República de Guatemala | conventional_long_name = Républik Guatémala | common_name = Guatémala | image_flag = Flag of Guatemala.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Guatemala.svg | image_map = Guatemala (orthographic projection).svg | national_motto = "País de la Eterna Primavera" | national_anthem = ''[[Himno Nacional de Guatemala]]''<br /> | official_languages = [[Basa Spanyol]] | demonym = [[Démografi Guatémala|Guatémala]] | capital = [[Kota Guatémala]] | latd = 14 | latm = 38 | latNS = N | longd = 90 | longm = 30 | longEW = W | largest_city = [[Kota Guatémala]] | government_type = [[Républik]] [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]] [[républik konstitusional|konstitusional]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] | leader_title1 = [[Présidén Guatémala|Présidén]] | leader_name1 = [[Bernardo Arévalo]] | leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Guatémala|Wakil Présidén]] | leader_name2 = [[Karin Herrera]] | area_rank = ka-107 | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | area = 108.889 | areami² = 42.042<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 0,4 | population_estimate = 18.917.714 | population_estimate_rank = ka-69 | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_census = 12.728.111 | population_census_year = July 2007 | population_density = 173,7 | population_densitymi² = 348,6<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = ka- | GDP_PPP = $73,022 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=258&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=24&pr.y=13 |title=Guatemala|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=December 22, 2011}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2011 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4.965<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal = $46,383 milyar<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2011 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3.154<ref name=imf2/> | sovereignty_type = Kamerdikaan | sovereignty_note = |established_event1 = ti Spanyol |established_date1 = 15 Séptémber 1821 | HDI = {{steady}} 0,574<ref name="UN">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2011|year=2011|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=December 22, 2011}}</ref> | HDI_rank = ka-131 | HDI_year = 2011 | HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> | Gini = 55,1 | Gini_year = 2007 | Gini_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">luhur</span> | currency = [[Quetzal Guatémala|Quetzal]] | currency_code = GTQ | country_code = 502 | time_zone = [[Zona Wanci Amérika Kalér Tengah|Central Time]] | utc_offset = -6 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | drives_on = katuhu | cctld = [[.gt]] | calling_code = [[+502|502]] | footnotes = }} '''Républik Guatémala''' ({{lang-es|link=no|República de Guatemala}}, {{IPA-es|reˈpuβlika ðe ɣwateˈmala}}) nyaéta hiji nagara di Amérika Tengah nu wawatesan jeung [[Méksiko]] di kalér jeung kulon, Samudra Pasifik di kidul-kulon, [[Bélis]] di kalér-wétan, [[Karibia]] di wétan, sarta [[Honduras]] jeung [[Él Salvador]] di tenggara. Aréana 108.890&nbsp;km² (42.043&nbsp;mil²) kalawan populasi kira-kira 18.917.714 jiwa. == Departemén jeung kotamadya == {{utama|Departemén di Guatémala|Kotamadya di Guatémala}} [[Gambar:GuatemalaProvs.PNG|230px|center|Departemén di Guatémala]] [[Gambar:Guatemala-CIA WFB Map.png|thumb|upright|Peta Guatémala]] Guatémala dibagi kana 22 [[Departemén (éntitas subnasional)|departemén]] (''departamentos'') jeung saterasna dibagi kana (kira-kira totalna 332) kotamadya (''municipios''). [[Departemén di Guatémala|Departemén-departeménna]] nyaéta: <table><td><ol> <li>[[Alta Verapaz]] <li> [[Baja Verapaz]] <li>[[Gambar:Coat of arms of Chimaltenango Department.svg‎|25px]][[Departemén Chimaltenango|Chimaltenango]] <li> [[Departemén Chiquimula|Chiquimula]] <li>[[Petén (departemén)|Petén]] <li>[[Gambar:Coat of arms of Progreso.gif‎|25px]][[Departemén El Progreso|El Progreso]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Quiché Department.svg|25px]][[Departemén Quiché|Êl Quiché]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Escuintla.svg‎|25px]][[Departemén Escuintla|Éscuintla]] <li>[[Gambar:Escudo de Armas de la Ciudad de Guatemala.svg‎|25px]][[Departemén Guatémala|Guatémala]] <li>[[Gambar:Huehuetenango Flag with Coat.png|25px]][[Departemén Huehuetenango|Huehuetenango]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Izabal Department.svg|25px]][[Departemén Izabal|Izabal]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Jalapa Department.gif‎|25px]][[Departemén Jalapa|Jalapa]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Jutiapa Department.svg|25px]][[Departemén Jutiapa|Jutiapa]] <li>[[Departemén Quetzaltenango|Quetzaltenango]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Retahuleu Department.svg‎|25px]][[Departemén Retalhuleu|Retalhuleu]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Sacatepéquez Department.svg|25px]][[Sacatepéquez (departemén)|Sacatepéquez]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of San Marcos Department.svg‎|25px]][[Departemén San Marcos|San Marcos]] <li>[[Gambar:Escudo de Santa Rosa y Cuilapa.svg‎|25px]][[Departemén Santa Rosa, Guatemala|Santa Rosa]] <li>[[Departemén Sololá|Sololá]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Suchitepéquez Department.svg|25px]][[Departemén Suchitepéquez|Suchitepéquez]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Totonicapán Department.svg|25px]][[Departemén Totonicapán|Totonicapán]] <li>[[Gambar:Flag of Zacapa Department.svg|25px]][[Departemén Zacapa|Zacapa]] </td></ol></table> == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar inohong Guatémala]] * [[Daptar nagara]] == Catetan == {{Reflist}} * Historia General de Guatemala, 1999, several authors ISBN 84-88522-07-4 == Bacaan salajengna == {{See also|Bibliograpi Guatémala}} * {{cite web|author=Eisermann, Knut and Avendaño, Claudia|title = Annotated Checklist of the Birds of Guatemala| url=http://www.hbw.com/lynx/en/lynx-edicions/novedades/CHK0005-lista-comentada-aves-guatemala-annotated-checklist-birds.html |work = Lynx Edicions |publisher=Hbw.com |date= |accessdate=June 1, 2010}} * {{cite book|title=Politics of Latin America: The Power Game|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsoflatina0000vand_z4w6|editors=Harry E. Vanden; Gary Prevost|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=0195123174|chapter=Chapter Ten: Guatemala}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks}} * [http://www.guatemala.gob.gt Pamaréntah Guatémala] {{es icon}} * {{CIA_World_Factbook link|gt|Guatemala}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/guatemala.htm Guatemala] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607084913/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/guatemala.htm |date=2008-06-07 }} di ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Central_America/Guatemala|Guatémala}} * {{Wikiatlas|Guatemala}} * {{wikivoyage|Guatemala}} {{Guatemala topics}} {{Template group |title = Géografi lokal |list = {{Departments of Guatemala}} {{Central America topic}} {{Countries of North America}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{Latin Union}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Guatemala}} [[Kategori:Guatémala| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Amérika Tengah]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1821]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Guatémala}} <!--Other languages--> 4vfjgfslb4x6212v8q57rwq0pyw0xt5 0 36678 711751 655593 2026-08-07T03:22:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711751 wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{Infobox country | native_name=República de Cuba | conventional_long_name=Républik Kuba | common_name=Kuba | image_flag=Flag of Cuba.svg | image_coat=Coat of Arms of Cuba.svg | symbol_type=Lambang | image_map= LocationCuba.svg | national_motto=''Patria o Muerte''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bc.gov.cu/English/cuban_bills.asp|title=Cuban Peso Bills|publisher=Central Bank of Cuba|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307233221/http://www.bc.gov.cu/English/cuban_bills.asp |date=2009-03-07 }}</ref> | national_anthem=''[[La Bayamesa]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mipais.cuba.cu/cat_en.php?idcat=91&idpadre=83&nivel=2|title=National symbols|publisher=Government of Cuba|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115200948/http://mipais.cuba.cu/cat_en.php?idcat=91&idpadre=83&nivel=2 |date=2016-01-15 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Cuban national anthem (abridged version), performed by the U.S. Navy Band.oga]] | official_languages=[[Basa Spanyol]] | demonym=Cuban | ethnic_groups=65,1% [[Urang Amérika Latin Kulit Bodas|Bodas]], 10,1% [[urang Afro-Kuba|Afrika]], 24,8% [[Mulatto]] jeung [[Mestizo]]<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cu.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=2011-09-30 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024061151/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cu.html |date=2011-10-24 }}</ref> | capital=[[Havana]] | latd=23|latm=8|latNS=N|longd=82|longm=23|longEW=W | largest_city=[[Havana]] | government_type=[[Républik]] [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]], [[nagara komunis]]<ref>[http://www.nationmaster.com/red/graph/gov_gov_typ-government-type&ob=ws Government type (most recent) by country], Nationmaster.com</ref> | leader_title1 = [[Présidén Kuba|Présidén]] & [[Perdana Mentri Kuba|Perdana Mentri]] | leader_name1 = [[Raúl Castro]] | leader_title2 = Wakil Présidén Kahiji | leader_name2 = [[José Ramón Machado Ventura|J. R. M. Ventura]] | leader_title3 = [[Sékrétaris Kahiji Partéy Komunis Kuba|Sékrétaris Kahiji Partéy Komunis]] | leader_name3 = [[Raúl Castro]] | leader_title4 = Présidén [[Majelis Nasional Kakiatan Rahayat|Majelis Nasional]] | leader_name4 = [[Ricardo Alarcón]] | area=109.884 | areami²=42.426<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | area_magnitude=1_E11 | area_rank=ka-105 | percent_water=tiasa teu dipadulikeun<ref name="cubastat2010" /> | population_estimate=11.241.894<ref name="cubastat2010">[http://www.one.cu/aec2010/20080618index.htm Anuario Estadístico de Cuba 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192424/http://www.one.cu/aec2010/20080618index.htm |date=2016-03-04 }}, Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas, República de Cuba. Accessed on {{Nowrap|September 30}}, 2011.</ref> | population_estimate_year=2010 | population_estimate_rank=ka-73 | population_census=11.177.743<ref name="cubastat2010" /> | population_census_year=2002 | population_density=102,3 | population_densitymi²=265,0<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank=ka-106 | GDP_PPP_year=2010 | GDP_PPP=$114,1 milyar<ref name=factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cu.html|title=Cuba|work=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|accessdate=2009-04-06}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024061151/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cu.html |date=2011-10-24 }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank=ka-63 | GDP_PPP_per_capita=$9.900 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=ka-86 | GDP_nominal_year=2010 | GDP_nominal=$57,49 milyar<ref name=autogenerated1/> | GDP_nominal_rank = ka-68 | GDP_nominal_per_capita=$5.100<ref name=autogenerated1/><ref name="cubastat2010" /><ref>Value was rounded down to the nearest hundred.</ref> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ka-90 | HDI_year=2011 <!-- Please use the year in which the HDI data refers to and not the publication --> | HDI= {{increase}} 0,776<ref>http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111110322/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf |date=2012-01-11 }}</ref> | HDI_rank=ka-51<!-- Please see talk page before adding the reference again --> | HDI_category=<span style="color:#090;">luhur</span> | sovereignty_type=[[Kamerdikaan]] | sovereignty_note=ti Spanyol/AS | established_event1=[[Perang Sapuluh Taun|Didéklarasikeun]] | established_event2=Républik didéklarasikeun| established_event3=[[Révolusi Kuba]] | established_date1=10 Oktober 1868 <br /> ti Spanyol | established_date2=20 Méi 1902 <br /> ti Amérika Sarikat | established_date3=1 Januari 1959 | currency=[[Peso Kuba]]<!-- kludge to deal with fact that template expects only one currency per country: -->(<code>[[ISO 4217|CUP]]</code>) <br /> [[Peso Fléksibel Kuba]]<ref>Ti 1993 nepi ka 2004, [[Dolar Amérika Sarikat]] dipaké bareng jeung peso nepi ka dolar diganti ku péso fléksibel</ref> | currency_code=CUC | time_zone= | utc_offset=−5 | time_zone_DST=(11 Maret nepi ka 4 Nopémber) | utc_offset_DST=−4 | drives_on=katuhu | cctld=[[.cu]] | calling_code=[[+53|53]] | footnotes= }} '''Républik Kuba''' ({{lang-es|República de Cuba}}, {{IPA-es|reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa|pron|RCUB.ogg}}) nyaéta hiji [[nagara kapuloan]] di [[Karibia]]. [[Havana]] mangrupa kota panggedéna di Kuba jeung ibu kotana. [[Santiago de Cuba]] nyaéta kota panggedéna ka-2.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thomas|first=Hugh|title=Cuba; the Pursuit of Freedom|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingsex00gutt|date=March 1971|publisher=Harper & Row|location=New York|isbn=0060142596|authorlink=Hugh Thomas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Thomas|first=Hugh|title=The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870|url=https://archive.org/details/slavetradestoryo00thom|year=1997|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York, NY|isbn=0684835657}}</ref> Ka kalérna aya [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung [[Bahama]], ka kulon aya [[Méksiko]], ka kidul aya [[Kapuloan Cayman]] jeung [[Jamaika]], sarta ka tenggara aya [[Haiti]] jeung [[Républik Dominika]]. Nagara ieu dibagi kana 15 propinsi jeung 1 kotamadya husus (Isla de la Juventud). Propinsi-propinsina teras dibagi kana kotamadya-kotamadya. [[Gambar:CubaSubdivisions.png|center|320px]] {| class="background:transparent" | style="padding-right:1em;"| <ol> <li>[[Propinsi Pinar del Río|Pinar del Río]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Artemisa|Artemisa]]</li> <li>[[Havana]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Mayabeque|Mayabeque]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Matanzas|Matanzas]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Cienfuegos|Cienfuegos]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Villa Clara|Villa Clara]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Sancti Spíritus|Sancti Spíritus]]</li> | </ol> <ol start="9"> <li>[[Propinsi Ciego de Ávila|Ciego de Ávila]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Camagüey|Camagüey]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Las Tunas|Las Tunas]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Granma|Granma]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Holguín|Holguín]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Santiago de Cuba|Santiago de Cuba]]</li> <li>[[Propinsi Guantánamo|Guantánamo]]</li> <li>[[Isla de la Juventud]]</li> </ol> |} == Tempo ogé == * [[Antillen Gedé]] * [[Daptar inohong Kuba]] * [[Television Serrana]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks|Cuba}} * [http://www.cubagob.cu/ingles/default.htm Pamaréntah Kuba] * {{Wikiatlas|Cuba}} * {{wikivoyage|Cuba}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|cu|Cuba}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cuba.htm Cuba] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Caribbean/Cuba|Kuba}} {{coord|22|00|N|79|30|W|scale:5000000_source:GNS|display=title}} {{Cuba topics}} {{Caribbean topics}} {{Template group | title=Géografi lokal | list= {{West Indies}} {{Countries of North America}} }} {{Template group | title=Kaanggotaan internasional | list= {{Latinunion}} {{Non-Blok}} {{Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA)|state=collapsed}} {{Socialist states}} }} {{nagara-geo-stub|Kuba}} <!-- Other languages --> [[Kategori:Kuba| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara Karibia]] [[Kategori:Nagara komunis]] [[Kategori:Blok Wétan]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Teluk Méksiko]] [[Kategori:Nagara kapuloan]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nagara hiji partéy]] [[Kategori:Nagara sosialis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1902]] hxk1mx74ze53f43uzwoqxljzl22dhwj 0 36683 711814 674468 2026-08-07T05:06:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 27 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711814 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Républik Nikaragua |native_name = República de Nicaragua |common_name = Nikaragua |image_flag = Flag of Nicaragua.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Nicaragua.svg |image_map = Nicaragua (orthographic projection).svg |national_motto = ''En Dios Confiamos''<ref name=cordoba>Sakumaha katémbong dina [[Córdoba Nikaragua|Córdoba]] (uang kertas jeung logam); tempo [http://bcn.gob.ni/billetes_monedas/index.html?&val=1 Banco Central de Nicaragua] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506010635/http://www.bcn.gob.ni/billetes_monedas/index.html |date=2012-05-06 }} pikeun contona</ref> |national_anthem = "[[Salve a ti, Nicaragua]]" |official_languages = [[Basa Spanyol]] |regional_languages = [[Basa Miskito|Miskito]], [[Basa Rama|Rama]], [[Basa Sumo|Sumo]], [[Kréol Basisir Miskito]], [[Basa Garifuna|Garifuna]], [[Kréol Kéi Rama]] |ethnic_groups =69% [[Mestizo]]<br />17% [[Urang Amérika Latin Kulit Bodas|Bodas]] <br />5% [[Urang pribumi Amérika|Amerindian]]<br />9% [[Urang Afro-Nikaragua|Hideung]]<ref name=indexmundi>{{cite web|author=|title=Nicaragua Demographics Profile 2011|work=Nicaragua|publisher=Index Mundi|year=2011|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/nicaragua/demographics_profile.html|accessdate=2011-07-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510074111/http://www.indexmundi.com/nicaragua/demographics_profile.html |date=2011-05-10 }}</ref> |demonym = [[Urang Nikaragua|Nicaraguan]], [[Nica]], [[Pinolero]] |capital = [[Managua]] [[Gambar:Coat of Arms of Managua.svg|right|20px]] |latd=12 |latm=9 |latNS=N |longd=86 |longm=16 |longEW=W |largest_city = [[Managua]] [[Gambar:Coat of Arms of Managua.svg|right|20px]] |government_type = [[Républik]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Nikaragua|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Daniel Ortega]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Nikaragua|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Jaime Morales Carazo]] |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |sovereignty_note = {{nobold|ti [[Spanyol]] jeung [[Méksiko]]}} |established_event1 = Didéklarasikeun |established_date1 = 15 Séptémber 1821 |established_event2 = Diakuan |established_date2 = 25 Juli 1850 |established_event3 = ti [[Kakaisaran Méksiko Kahiji]] |established_date3 = 1 Juli 1823 |established_event4 = Révolusi |established_date4 = 19 Juli 1979 |established_event5 = Konstitusi nu ayeuna |established_date5 = 9 Januari 1987<ref name=CIA2011>{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Nicaragua|work=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|location=Langley, Virginia|year=2011|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nu.html|accessdate=2011-07-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213065716/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nu.html |date=2016-02-13 }}</ref> |area_rank = ka-97 |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area = 130.373 |areami² = 50.193 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 7,14 |population_estimate = 5.891.199 |population_estimate_rank = ka-110 |population_estimate_year = Sénsus 2010 |population_census = 5.666.301 |population_census_year = 2005 |population_density = 42 |population_densitymi² = 114 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-133 |GDP_PPP = $17,711 milyar<ref name=IMF2011>{{cite web|author=International Monetary Fund|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Nicaragua|work=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2011|publisher=International Monetary Fund|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2011|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=278&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=43&pr.y=13|accessdate=2011-07-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019011433/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=278&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=43&pr.y=13 |date=2012-10-19 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-132 |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3.045<ref name=IMF2011/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-167 |GDP_nominal = $6,551 milyar<ref name=IMF2011/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1.126<ref name=IMF2011/> |HDI = {{increase}} 0,565<ref name=UNHDI2010>{{cite web|author=United Nations Development Programme|title=Table 1: Human Development Index and its components|work=Human Development Report 2010 (20th Anniversary Edition) The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Tables_reprint.pdf|accessdate=2011-07-16}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304124612/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Tables_reprint.pdf |date=2012-03-04 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-115 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |Gini = 40,1 |Gini_year = 2007 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |currency = [[Córdoba Nikaragua|Córdoba]] |currency_code = NIO |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = -6 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = Katuhu |cctld = [[.ni]] |calling_code = 505 |date_written = kk.bb.tttt |footnote1 = Basa Inggris jeung basa pribumi di basisir Karibia ogé dipaké. |footnote2 = Informasi lobana dicandak ti [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nu.html CIA World Fact Book] }} '''Nikaragua''', resmina '''Républik Nikaragua''' ({{lang-es|link=no|República de Nicaragua}}, {{IPA-es|reˈpuβlika ðe nikaˈɾaɣwa|pron|República_de_Nicaragua.ogg}}), nyaéta hiji nagara di Amérika Tengah, wawatesan jeung [[Honduras]] di kalér jeung [[Kosta Rika]]. Samudra Pasifik aya di kuloneunnana, sarta [[Laut Karibia]] wétaneunnana. == Departemén jeung kotamadya == {{utama|Departemén di Nikaragua|Kotamadya di Nikaragua}} Nikaragua mangrupa républik [[nagara kahijian|kahijian]]. Administratifna, Nikaragua dibagi kana 15 [[departemén (babagian administratif)|departemén]] (''departamentos'') jeung 2 wewengkon otonom. Departemén-departeménna teras dibagi kana (total 153) municipios (kotamadya). 2 wewengkon otonomna nyaéta 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Norte' jeung 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Sur', sok dilandi ''RAAN'' jeung ''RAAS''; saméméh miboga otonomi ti 1985 wewengkon-wewengkn éta mangrupa hiji departemén, [[Departemén Zelaya|Zelaya]].<ref name=stellent>{{cite news|title=Background and socio-economic context|url=http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/vam/wfp073961.pdf|format=PDF|page=9|accessdate=2007-05-09}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015212525/http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/vam/wfp073961.pdf |date=2006-10-15 }}</ref> {|style="background:none;" |- valign="top" |<!--First column:--> {|class="wikitable" |||{{Spaces|1}}'''Departemén'''||{{Smaller|'''Ibu kota'''}} |- |'''1'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Boaco.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Boaco]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Boaco|Boaco]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Boaco]]}} |- |'''2'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Jinotepe.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Carazo]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Carazo|Carazo]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Jinotepe]]}} |- |'''3'''||[[Gambar:Bandera de Chinandega.png|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Chinandega]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Chinandega|Chinandega]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Chinandega]]}} |- |'''4'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Juigalpa.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Chontales]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Chontales|Chontales]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Juigalpa]]}} |- |'''5'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Esteli.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Estelí]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Esteli|Estelí]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Estelí]]}} |- |'''6'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Granada, Nicaragua.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Granada]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Granada|Granada]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Granada, Nicaragua|Granada]]}} |- |'''7'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Jinotega.gif|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Jinotega]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Jinotega|Jinotega]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Jinotega]]}} |- |'''8'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Leon, Nicaragua.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Leon]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Leon|Leon]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Leon, Nicaragua|Leon]]}} |- |'''9'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Somoto.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Madriz]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Madriz|Madriz]]}}'''{{Spaces|2}}||{{Smaller|[[Somoto, Madriz|Somoto]]}} |} |<!--Second column:--> {|class="wikitable" |||{{Spaces|1}}'''Departemén'''||{{Smaller|'''Ibu kota'''}} |- |'''10'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Managua.svg|border|22x20px|Bandéra Managua]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Managua|Managua]]}}'''{{nbsp|2}}||{{Smaller|[[Managua]]}} |- |'''11'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Masaya.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Masaya]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Masaya|Masaya]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Masaya]]}} |- |'''12'''||{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Matagalpa|Matagalpa]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Matagalpa]]}} |- |'''13'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Nueva Segovia.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Nueva Segovia]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Nueva Segovia|Nueva Segovia]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Ocotal]]}} |- |'''14'''||[[Gambar:Flag of Rivas.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Rivas]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Rivas|Rivas]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Rivas, Nicaragua|Rivas]]}} |- |'''15'''||[[Gambar:Flag of San Carlos, Nicaragua.svg|22x20px|Bandéra Departemén Rio San Juan]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Departemén Rio San Juan|Río San Juan]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[San Carlos, Rio San Juan|San Carlos]]}} |- |'''16'''|| {{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Bilwi]]}} |- |'''17'''||[[Gambar:Bandera Atlàntic Sur.png|22x20px|Bandéra Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur]]{{Spaces|1}}'''{{Smaller|[[Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur]]}}'''||{{Smaller|[[Bluefields]]}} |} |} == Komunikasi jeung média == Kalobaannana sumber warta di Nikaragua nyaéta radio jeung TV. Aya Leuwih ti 100 stasion radio, kalobaannana di ibu kota, jeung sababaraha jaringan TV. TV kabel kasadia di loba wewengkon pakotaan.<ref name=bbc1225218>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1225218.stm#leaders|work=BBC News|title=Country profile: Nicaragua|date=2009-09-02|accessdate=2010-05-20}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603034458/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1225218.stm#leaders |date=2010-06-03 }}</ref> Média citak rupa-rupa jeung gerilyaan, ngawakilkeun posisi pro jeung anti-pamaréntah. === Citak === La Prensa; El Nuevo Diario; Confidencial Varies; Hoy; Mercurio === Televisi === Televicentro Canal 2; Multinoticias Canal 4; Telenica Canal 8; Canal 9; Canal 10; TVRED canal 11; Nicavision Canal 12; Viva Nicaragua Canal 13; VosTV Canal 14; 100% Noticias canal 15; CDNN Canal 23; Extraplus Canal 37 === Radio === Radio Corporacion; Radio Mundial; Radio Nicaragua (state-owned); Radio Sandino; Radio Pirata; Radio Maranata:; Estacion X; Radio joya; Radio Romantica; Radio Pachanguera; Radio Buenisima; Radio Disney: Radio Oldis == Tempo ogé == *[[Daptar inohong Nikaragua]] *[[Dano Nikaragua]] == Rujukan jeung catetan == *{{StateDept}} {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{Refbegin}} *Asleson, Vern. (2004) ''Nicaragua: Those Passed By''. Galde Press ISBN 1-931942-16-1 *{{Cite book|last=Babb|first=FE|title=After revolution: mapping gender and cultural politics in neoliberal Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/afterrevolution00flor|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin|year=2001|isbn=0-292-70900-5}} *{{Cite book|last=Bayard de Volo|first=L|title=Mothers of heroes and martyrs: gender identity politics in Nicaragua, 1979–1999|url=https://archive.org/details/mothersofheroesm0000baya|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|year=2001|isbn=0-8018-6764-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Belli|first=G|authorlink=Gioconda Belli|title=The Country Under My Skin : A Memoir of Love and War|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/countryundermysk0000bell_x7q1|publisher=Anchor|location=Garden City, N.Y|isbn=1-4000-3216-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Bermann|first=K|title=Under the big stick: Nicaragua and the United States since 1848|url=https://archive.org/details/underbigsticknic0000berm|publisher=[[South End Press]]|location=Boston|year=1986|isbn=0-89608-323-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Bermúdez|first=E|authorlink=Enrique Bermúdez|title=The Contras' Valley Forge: How I View the Nicaraguan Crisis|date=Summer 1988|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|work=Policy Review magazine}} *{{Cite book|last=Borge|first=T|title=The patient impatience: from boyhood to guerilla: a personal narrative of Nicaragua's struggle for liberation|url=https://archive.org/details/patientimpatienc0000borg|publisher=Curbstone Press|location=Willimantic, Connecticut|year=1992|isbn=0-915306-97-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=TX|title=The real Contra War: highlander peasant resistance in Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/realcontrawarhig00brow_0|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman|year=2001|isbn=0-8061-3252-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Brunnegger|first=S|title=From Conflict to Autonomy in Nicaragua: Lessons Learnt|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|location=London|year=2007|isbn=1904584616}} *{{Cite book|last=Bugajski|first=J|title=Sandinista communism and rural Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/sandinistacommun00buga|publisher=Praeger|location=New York|year=1990|isbn=0-275-93536-1}} *{{Cite book|last=Charlip|first=JA|title=Cultivating Coffee: The Farmers of Carazo, Nicaragua, 1880–1930 (Ohio RIS Latin America Series)|publisher=Ohio University Press|location=Athens, Ohio|isbn=0-89680-227-2}} *{{Cite book|author=[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]]; Herman, Edward S.|title=Manufacturing consent: the political economy of the mass media|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|year=2002|isbn=0-375-71449-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Christian|first=S|title=Nicaragua, revolution in the family|url=https://archive.org/details/nicaraguarevolut0000chri|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|year=1986|isbn=0-394-74457-8}} *{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=GC|title=With the Old Corps in Nicaragua|publisher=Presidio Press|location=Novato, California|year=2001|isbn=0-89141-737-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Colburn|first=FD|title=My car in Managua|url=https://archive.org/details/mycarinmanagua0000colb|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin|year=1991|isbn=0-292-75124-9}} *{{Cite book|last1=Cox|first1=Jack|last2=Somoza|first2=A|authorlink2=Anastasio Somoza Debayle|last3=Earle|first3=P|title=[[Nicaragua Betrayed]]|publisher=Western Islands|location=Boston|year=1980|isbn=0-88279-235-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Field|first=LW|title=The grimace of Macho Ratón: artisans, identity, and nation in late-twentieth century western Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/grimaceofmachora0000fiel|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C|year=1999|isbn=0-8223-2288-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Gilbert|first=DL|title=Sandinistas: The Party And The Revolution|year=1988|url=https://archive.org/details/sandinistasparty0000gilb_h5u3|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=1-55786-006-8}} *{{Cite book|last=Gobat|first=M|title=Confronting the American Dream: Nicaragua under U.S. Imperial Rule (American Encounters/Global Interactions)|year=2005|url=https://archive.org/details/confrontingameri0000goba|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C|isbn=0-8223-3634-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Gordon|first=EW|title=Disparate diasporas: identity and politics in an African Nicaraguan community|url=https://archive.org/details/disparatediaspor0000gord_m2e3|publisher=University of Texas Press, Austin, Institute of Latin American Studies|location=Austin, Tex|year=1998|isbn=0-292-72819-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Gould|first=JL|title=To die in this way: Nicaraguan Indians and the myth of mestizaje, 1880–1965|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C|year=1998|isbn=0-8223-2098-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Hale|first=CR|title=Resistance and Contradiction: Miskitu Indians and the Nicaraguan State, 1894–1987|year=1996|url=https://archive.org/details/resistancecontra0000char_a3c8|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif|isbn=0-8047-2800-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Heyck|first=DLD|title=Life stories of the Nicaraguan revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415902113|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=1990|isbn=0-415-90211-8}} *{{Cite book|last=Horton|first=L|title=Peasants In Arms: War & Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979–1994 (Ohio RIS Latin America Series)|year=1998|url=https://archive.org/details/peasantsinarmswa00hort|publisher=Ohio University Press|location=Athens, Ohio|isbn=0-89680-204-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Kagan|first=RA|title=A twilight struggle: American power and Nicaragua, 1977–1990|url=https://archive.org/details/twilightstruggle00kaga|publisher=Free Press|location=New York|year=1996|isbn=0-02-874057-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Kinzer|first=S|authorlink=Stephen Kinzer|title=[[Blood of Brothers: Life and War in Nicaragua]]|publisher=Putnam|location=New York|year=1991|isbn=0-399-13594-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Kinzer|first=S|title=Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq|publisher=Times Books|location=New York|isbn=0-8050-7861-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Kruckewitt|first=J|title=The Death of [[Ben Linder]]: The Story of a North American in Sandinista Nicaragua|publisher=Seven Stories Press|location=New York|isbn=1-58322-068-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Lancaster|first=RN|title=Life is hard: machismo, danger, and the intimacy of power in Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeishard00roge_0|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=1992|isbn=0-520-08929-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Macaulay|first=N|title=The Sandino Affair|publisher=Wacahoota Pr|isbn=0-9653864-4-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Morley|first=MH|title=Washington, Somoza and the Sandinistas: State and Regime in US Policy toward Nicaragua 1969–1981|year=1994|url=https://archive.org/details/washingtonsomoza0000morl|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=0-521-52335-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Pardo-Maurer|first=R|title=The Contras, 1980–1989: a special kind of politics|url=https://archive.org/details/contras1980198900pard|publisher=Praeger|location=New York|year=1990|isbn=0-275-93818-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Plunkett|first=H|title=In Focus Nicaragua a Guide to the People, Politics and Culture (In Focus Guides)|publisher=Interlink Publishing Group|isbn=1-56656-438-7}} *{{Cite book|last=Randall|first=M|title=Sandino's daughters: testimonies of Nicaraguan women in struggle|url=https://archive.org/details/sandinosdaughter00rand_0|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, N.J|year=1995|isbn=0-8135-2214-5}} *{{Cite book|author=Ratliff, William E.; Miranda, Roger|title=Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas|publisher=Transaction Publishers|location=New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.A|isbn=1-56000-761-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Rushdie|first=S|title=The Jaguar Smile: A Nicaraguan Journey|year=1997|url=https://archive.org/details/jaguarsmilenicar0000rush|publisher=Owl Books|location=Clearwater, Fla|isbn=0-8050-5311-5}} *{{Cite book|last=Sabia|first=D|title=Contradiction and conflict: the popular church in Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/contradictioncon00sabi|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=University|year=1997|isbn=0-8173-0873-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Sirias|first=S|title=Bernardo and the Virgin: A Novel|publisher=Northwestern University Press|location=Evanston, Ill|isbn=0-8101-2427-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Sklar|first=H|title=Washington's war on Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/washingtonswaron0000skla|publisher=[[South End Press]]|location=Boston|year=1988|isbn=0-89608-295-4}} *{{Cite book|author=Taber, Michael; Bishop, Maurice; Marcus, Bruce|title=Maurice Bishop speaks: the Grenada Revolution, 1979–83|publisher=Pathfinder Press|location=New York|year=1983|isbn=0-87348-619-6}} *{{Cite report|author=United Nations Development Programme|title=Regional Human Development Report for Latin America and the Caribbean 2010: Acting on the future: breaking the intergenerational transmission of inequality|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/regional/latinamericathecaribbean/idhalc_en_2010.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318121340/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/regional/latinamericathecaribbean/idhalc_en_2010.pdf |date=2012-03-18 }} *{{Cite book|last=Walker|first=TG|title=Nicaragua, 4th Edition|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colo|isbn=0-8133-3882-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Walker|first=WJ|title=The war in Nicaragua|url=https://archive.org/details/warinnicaragua0000walk|publisher=University of Arizona Press|location=Tucson|year=1985|isbn=0-8165-0882-8}} *{{Cite book|authorlink=Gary Webb|last=Webb|first=G|title=Dark Alliance : The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion|year=1998|url=https://archive.org/details/darkallianceciac00webb|publisher=Seven Stories Press|location=New York|isbn=1-888363-68-1}} *{{Cite book|last=Zimmermann|first=M|title=Sandinista: Carlos Fonseca and the Nicaraguan revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/sandinistacarlos0000zimm|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C|year=2000|isbn=0-8223-2595-0}} {{Refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{wikivoyage|Nicaragua}} *[http://www.citypictures.org/k-south-america-152-nicaragua-340.htm Nikaragua di citypictures.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105063737/http://www.citypictures.org/k-south-america-152-nicaragua-340.htm |date=2012-01-05 }} *[http://www.visitanicaragua.com/ingles/index.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116214749/http://www.visitanicaragua.com/ingles/index.html |date=2013-01-16 }} Visit Nicaragua ; Informasi umum *{{CIA_World_Factbook link|nu|Nicaragua}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/nicaragua.htm Nicaragua] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085335/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/nicaragua.htm |date=2008-06-07 }} ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' *{{dmoz|Regional/Central_America/Nicaragua|Nikaragua}} *{{Wikiatlas|Nicaragua}} *[http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/camerica/ni.htm Peta] ti WorldAtlas.com {{Coord|13|-85|type:country|display=title}} {{Nicaragua topics|state=uncollasped}} {{Navboxes |title=<!-- [[File:Nuvola filesystems www.png|23px]] &nbsp; --> Géografi lokal |list= {{Departments of Nicaragua}} {{Central America topic}} {{North America topic}} }} {{Navboxes |title=Kaanggotaan internasional |list= {{Organization of American States}} {{World Trade Organization}} {{Latin Union}} }} [[Kategori:Nikaragua]] [[Kategori:Nagara Karibia]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Amérika Tengah]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu wawatesan jeung Samudra Pasifik]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1821]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Nikaragua}} <!--Other languages--> hytewkrhj9hvtleyjjkq2xtqnik0xpg 0 36748 711857 674100 2026-08-07T05:55:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711857 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = The Bermudas <br/> ''Somers Isles'' <br> Bermuda | common_name = Bermuda | image_flag = Flag of Bermuda.svg | image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_Bermuda.svg | image_map = LocationBermuda.png | national_motto = ''"Quo Fata Ferunt"'' | national_anthem = "[[God Save the Queen]]" (resmi)<br/>"[[Hail to Bermuda]]" (teu resmi) | languages_type = [[Basa resmi]]<br>{{nobold|(Basa nu lian)}} | languages = [[Basa Inggris]]<br>([[Basa Portugis]])<sup>1</sup> | ethnic_groups = 54,8% [[urang Afro-Karibia|Afro-Karibia]]<br/>34,1% [[grup étnis di Eropa|Eropa]]<br/>6,4% [[Multiras]]<br/>4,3% Nu lian<br/>0,4% Teu kaspésifikasi<ref name=cia>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Bermuda |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bd.html |year=2009 |accessdate=23 January 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604143735/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bd.html |date=4 June 2020 }}</ref> |capital=[[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]] |latd=32 |latm=18 |latNS=N |longd=64 |longm=47 |longEW=W |largest_settlement_type = Munisipalitas |largest_settlement = <br />[[St. George's, Bermuda|St. George's]] |government_type = [[Téritori Peuntas Latu Britania]] ([[monarki konstitusional]] jeung [[wewengkon depéndensi|Depéndensi]] [[démokrasi pawakilan|démokratik]] [[sistim parleméntér|parlrméntér]]) | leader_title1 = [[Monarki Britania Raya|Raja/Ratu]] | leader_title2 = [[Gubernur Bermuda|Gubernur]] | leader_title3 = [[Perdana Mentri Bermuda|Perdana Mentri]] | leader_name1 = [[Elizabeth II]] | leader_name2 = [[Richard Gozney|Sir Richard Gozney]] | leader_name3 = [[Paula Cox]] | area_rank = ka-221 | area_magnitude = 1 E7 | area = 53,2 | areami² = 20,6 | percent_water = 27% | population_census = 64.268 | population_census_year = 2010 | population_density = 1.275 | population_densitymi² = 3.293 | population_density_rank = ka-8 | GDP_PPP = $5,85&nbsp;milyar<ref name=Gazette17Dec08>[http://www.royalgazette.com/siftology.royalgazette/Article/article.jsp?articleId=7d8c8b730030001&sectionId=60 Bermuda leads in GDP per capita], ''The Royal Gazette'', 07/12/08 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220123136/http://www.royalgazette.com/siftology.royalgazette/Article/article.jsp?articleId=7d8c8b730030001&sectionId=60 |date=2008-12-20 }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = ka-149 <!-- estimate --> | GDP_PPP_year = 2009<ref name="Gazette17Dec08" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $97.000<ref name="Gazette17Dec08" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-1 <!-- not listed by IMF; rank based on CIA Factbook --> | HDI = t/s | HDI_rank = t/s | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI_category = t/s | demonym = Bermudian | currency = [[Dolar Bermuda]]<sup>2</sup> | currency_code = BMD | country_code = | time_zone = [[Zona Wanci Standar Atlantik|Atlantik]] | utc_offset = -4 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | drives_on_the_ = left_side_of_road | cctld = [[.bm]] | calling_code = [[+1-441|1-441]] | footnote1 = Dumasar [[CIA World Factbook]]. | footnote2 = Satingkat jeung $AS. }} [[Gambar:Bermuda from space.jpg|ka|300px|jmpl|Bermuda ti angkasa]] '''Bermuda''' (resmina, '''the Bermudas''' atanapi '''Kapuloan Somers''' <nowiki>[</nowiki>{{lang-en|Somers Isles}}<nowiki>]</nowiki>) nyaéta hiji [[téritori peuntas laut Britania]] di [[Samudra Atlantik|Samudra Atlantik Kalér]]. Ibu kotana nyaéta [[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]]. Bermuda dipanggih dina 1505 ku navigator Spanyol, [[Juan de Bermúdez]], anu ngaklaimna pikeun [[Kakaisaran Spanyol]]. Teu dikawasaan, (saur Bermúdez, anjeunna ninggalkeun pulo éta ngan dieusian ku babi), pulo ieu jadi [[Kakaisaran kolonial Britania|didumukan ku Britania]] dina 1609, nyieunnanna wewengkon peuntas laut nu masih aya nu pangkolotna jeung panglobana populasina. == Tingali ogé == * [[Téritori peuntas laut Britania]] * [[Daptar inohong Bermuda]] == Rujukan == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonisation/trust3.htm |title=Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002 |work=United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization |accessdate = 10 March 2005}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}} * {{cite book |title=The New American Desk Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/newamericandeskenewy00newy |edition=Third |year=1993 |chapter=Bermuda |isbn=0-451-17566-2 |publisher=Signet |location=New York, New York}} {{Refend}} {{Reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks|commons=Category:Bermuda}} * [http://www.gov.bm Pamaréntah Bermuda ] – loka pamaréntah resmi * [http://www.communityandculture.bm/ Departemén Hubungan Komunitas jeung Budaya, Bermuda] * {{CIA World Factbook link|bd|Bermuda}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bermuda.htm Bermuda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516140712/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bermuda.htm |date=2011-05-16 }} ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/Bermuda|Bermuda}} * {{Wikiatlas|Bermuda}} * [http://www.gmanews.tv/story/227546/pinoy-abroad/racist-graffiti-in-bermuda-tell-pinoys-to-move-out] * [http://www.bsx.com/NewsArticle.asp?articleID=1100793168 Bursa Saham Bermuda]{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ;Pelesir * {{wikivoyage|Bermuda}} * [http://www.bermuda.com Bermuda.com] * [http://www.bermudatourism.com/ Departemén Pariwisata Bermuda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031041056/http://bermudatourism.com/ |date=2013-10-31 }} (loka pamaréntah Bermuda) * [http://www.bermudaairport.com/ Bandar Udara Internasional Bermuda] {{Bermuda topics|state=uncollapsed}} {{Template group |title = [[Gambar:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Géografi lokal | list = {{Countries and territories of the Caribbean}} {{Countries of North America}} }} {{Template group | title = Kaanggotaam internasional | list = {{British dependencies}} {{EU Dependencies}} {{Outlying territories of European countries|state=collapsed}} {{Caribbean Community (CARICOM)|state=collapsed}} }} {{English dialects by continent}} {{English official language clickable map}} {{nagara-geo-stub|Bermuda}} [[Kategori:Bermuda| ]] [[Kategori:Kapuloan di Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Sagitilu Bermuda]] [[Kategori:Téritori Peuntas Laut Britania]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon depéndensi di Amérika Kalér]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Britania]] [[Kategori:Nagara pulo]] [[Kategori:Pulo di Samudra Atlantik Kalér]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Amérika Kalér]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon husus Uni Éropa]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1612]] ihbppwxksd3c126eck1jodhnmrw67xq 0 36758 711727 664031 2026-08-07T02:39:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711727 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Greenland|kagunaan lian|Greenland (disambiguasi)}} {{Infobox country |native_name = ''Kalaallit Nunaat''<br />''Grønland'' |conventional_long_name = Lemah Héjo |common_name = Lemah Héjo |image_flag = Flag of Greenland.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms Greenland.svg |image_map = Greenland (orthographic projection).svg |national_motto = |national_anthem = ''[[Nunarput utoqqarsuanngoravit]]'' |official_languages = [[Basa Dénmark]], [[Basa Kalaallisut]] |ethnic_groups = 88% [[Inuit]] (kaasup campuran Inuit-[[urang Dénmark|Dénmark]])<br />12% [[grup étnis di Éropa|Éropa]] (kalobaannana urang Dénmark) |demonym = Greenlander, Greenlandic |capital = [[Nuuk|Nuuk (Godthåb)]] |latd=64 |latm=10 |latNS=N |longd=51 |longm=44 |longEW=W |largest_city = [[Nuuk|Nuuk (Godthåb)]] |government_type = [[sistim parleméntér|Démokrasi parleméntér]] dina hiji [[monarki konstitusional]] |leader_title1 = [[Monarki Lemah Héjo|Raja]] |leader_name1 = [[Frederik X ti Dénmark|Frederik X]] |leader_title2 = [[Daptar Komisionér Luhur Dénmark di Lemah Héjo|Komisionér Luhur]] |leader_name2 = [[Julie Præst Wilche]] |leader_title3 = [[Daptar Perdana Mentri Lemah Héjo|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name3 = [[Múte Bourup Egedé]] |sovereignty_type = Otonomi |sovereignty_note = dina [[Karajaan Dénmark]] |established_event1 = Kadaulatan Norwégia{{Ref label|aaa|a|}} |established_date1 = 1261 |established_event2 = Hubungan ngadeg deui |established_date2 = 1721 |established_event3 = [[Traktat Kiel|Dibéré ka Dénmark]]{{Ref label|bbb|b|}} |established_date3 = 14 Januari 1814 |established_event4 = Status [[amt (babagian administratif)|amt]] |established_date4 = 5 Juni 1953 |established_event5 = Kakawasaan imah |established_date5 = 1 Méi 1979 |established_event6 = Otonomi salajengna jeung kakawasaan sorangan |established_date6 = 21 Juni 2009<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8111292.stm | work=BBC News | title=Self-rule introduced in Greenland | date=2009-06-21 | accessdate=2010-05-04}}</ref> |area_rank = ka-12 |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area = 2.166.086 |areami² = 836.109 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 83,1{{Ref label|ccc|c|}} |population_estimate=56.615<ref>Statistics Greenland, [http://www.stat.gl/LinkClick.aspx?link=Greenland+in+Figures%2fGIF_2010.pdf ''Greenland in Figures, 2010'']</ref> |population_estimate_rank= |population_estimate_year=Januari 2011 |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density = 0,027 |population_densitymi² = 0,069 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-241 |GDP_PPP = $2,122 milyar |GDP_PPP_rank = - |GDP_PPP_year = 2007 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $37.517{{Ref label|ddd|d|}} |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = - |HDI = 0,927<ref name="hdi">{{cite web |url=http://islands.unep.ch/CTP.htm |title=United Nations Island Directory |publisher=Islands.unep.ch |date= |accessdate=2010-09-06 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328193111/http://islands.unep.ch/CTP.htm |date=2009-03-28 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = - |HDI_year = 1998 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">luhur pisan</span> |currency = [[Krone Dénmark]] |currency_code = DKK |country_code = |time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] |utc_offset = +0 nepi ka −4 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.gl]] |calling_code = [[Nomer telepon di Lemah Héjo|+299]] |continent = [[Amérika Kalér]] |footnotes = a. {{note|aaa}}Monarki Dénmark nepi ka Lemah Héjo dina 1380 kalawan kakawasaan [[Olaf II ti Dénmark|Olav IV]] di Norwégia.<br />b. {{note|bbb}}Lemah Héjo, [[Kapuloan Faroe]], jeung [[Islandia]] baheulana resmi piboga Norwégia nepi ka 1814 sanajan 400 taun monarki Dénmark saméméhna.<br />c. {{note|ccc}}Taun 2000: {{convert|410449|km2|abbr=on|0}} bébas és; {{convert|1755637|km2|abbr=on|0}} katutup és. Kapadetan: 0,14/km<sup>2</sup> (0,36 /mil&nbsp;pasagi) pikeun wewengkon bébas és.<br />d. {{note|ddd}} Pakiraan 2001. }} '''Lemah Héjo''' ({{lang-kl|Kalaallit Nunaat}} hartina "Lemah Para [[Kalaallit]]"; {{lang-da|Grønland}})<ref name="InuitDictionary">{{Cite book|last1=Stern |first1=Pamela |title=Historical dictionary of the Inuit |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000ster |accessdate=2009-06-21 |year=2004 |month=July |publisher=The Scarecrow Press, Inc. |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=0810850583 |oclc=54768167 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000ster/page/89 89] |chapter=The Dictionary}}</ref> nyaéta hiji [[nagara konstituén|nagara]] [[wewengkon otonom|otonom]] dina [[Karajaan Dénmark]], aya antawis [[Samudra Arktik|Arktik]] jeung [[Samudra Atlantik]], wétaneun [[Arsipélago Arktik Kanada]]. Lemah héjo mangrupa [[Daptar pulo dumasar legana|pulo nu panggedéna aréana sadunya]] nu sanés hiji [[buana]].<ref name="jc">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldislandinfo.com |title=Joshua Calder's World Island Info |publisher=Worldislandinfo.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-06}}</ref> Lemah héjo geus dieusian, sanajan teu teterusan, ku urang Inuit langkung Kanada pikeun 4500-5000 taun.<ref name="Greenland History">{{cite web |url=http://www.greenland.com/en/about-greenland/kultur-sjael/historie.aspx |title=The history of Greenland – From dog sled to snowmobile |publisher=Greenland.com |date= |accessdate=2011-09-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927011214/http://www.greenland.com/en/about-greenland/kultur-sjael/historie.aspx |date=2011-09-27 }}</ref><ref name="Greenland Migration">{{cite web |url=http://www.greenland.com/en/about-greenland/kultur-sjael/historie/indvandringerne-til-groenland.aspx |title=Migration to Greenland - the history of Greenland |publisher=Greenland.com |date= |accessdate=2011-09-10 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905074558/http://www.greenland.com/en/about-greenland/kultur-sjael/historie/indvandringerne-til-groenland.aspx |date=2011-09-05 }}</ref> Dina abad ka-10, [[urang Norse]] midumukan bagian kidul Lemah Héjo. Dina abad ka-13, [[Inuit]] datang, sarta dina ahir abad ka-15, koloni Norse ditinggalkeun. Dina awal abad ka-18, hubungan antara [[Skandinavia]] jeung Lemah Héjo ngadeg deui sarta Dénmark nyieun kakawasaanna kana Lemah Héjo. == Tempo ogé == *[[Daptar inohong Lemah Héjo]] *[[Militér Lemah Héjo]] *[[Telekomunikasi di Lemah Héjo]] == Catetan suku == {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == * Ehrlich, Gretel, ''This Cold Heaven: Seven Seasons in Greenland'', (Vintage, 2003) * Kpomassie, Tete-Michel, ''An African in Greenland'', (NYRB Classics, 2001) == Rujukan == {{Wikinews|Greenland assumes self rule Sunday}} * Alley, Richard B. The Two-Mile Time Machine: Ice Cores, Abrupt Climate Change, and Our Future. [[Princeton University Press]], 2000, ISBN 0-691-00493-5. * Bardarson, I. (ed. Jónsson, F.) "Det gamle Grønlands beskrivelse af Ívar Bárðarson (Ivar Bårdssön)", (Copenhagen, 1930). * [[CIA World Factbook]], 2000. * Lund, S. 1959. The Marine Algae of éast Greenland. 1. Taxonomical Part. ''Meddr Gronland.'' 156(1), pp.&nbsp;1–245. * Lund, S. 1959. The Marine Algae of éast Greenland. 11. Géographic Distribution. ''Meddr Gronland.'' 156, pp.&nbsp;1–70. * Steffen, Konrad, N. Cullen, and R. Huff (2005). "Climate variability and trends along the western slope of the Greenland Ice Sheet during 1991–2004," ''Proceedings of the 85th American Meteorological Society Annual Meeting'' (San Diego). * Stern, Pamela R. Historical dictionary of the Inuit. Scarecrow Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8108-5058-3 == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks}} {{wikivoyage|Greenland}} ; Pamaréntah * [http://uk.nanoq.gl/ Greenland Home Rule] ''loka pamaréntah resmi'' (dina Basa Inggris) * {{CIA World Factbook link|gl|Greenland}} * {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/Greenland|Lemah Héjo}} * {{wikiatlas|Greenland}} {{coord|72|00|N|40|00|W|scale:20000000|display=title}} {{Greenland topics}} {{Administrative divisions of Greenland}} {{EU Dependencies}} {{Countries of North America}} {{Danish overseas empire}} {{Outlying territories of European countries|state=collapsed}} {{West Nordic Council}} {{Nordic Council}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lemah Hejo}} [[Kategori:Lemah Héjo| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu wawatesan jeung Samudra Arktik]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Depéndensi Dénmark]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Dénmark]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon depéndensi di Amérika Kalér]] [[Kategori:Depéndensi Éropa]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Norwégia]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon Inuit]] [[Kategori:Nagara Nordik]] [[Kategori:Nagara pulo]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Amérika Kalér]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon Arktik]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon husus Uni Éropa]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1979]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Lemah Héjo}} 7szr2pd05vx6mjmv70vu014pp1lk28c 0 36820 711743 651741 2026-08-07T03:11:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711743 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name=Peter I Øy |conventional_long_name=Pulo Peter I |common_name=Pulo Peter I |image_flag=Flag_of_Norway.svg |image_map=Antarctica Peter I Island.png |latd=68 |latm=50 |latNS=S |longd=90 |longm=35 |longEW=W |government_type=[[Wewengkon depéndensi]] |leader_title1=Administrasi |leader_name1=[[Kamentrian Kaadilan jeung Pulisi (Norwégia)|Departemén Hubungan Kutub Kamentrian Kaadilan jeung Pulisi Norwégia]] |sovereignty_type=[[Depéndensi Norwégia]] |established_event1=Diklaim |established_date1=2 Pébruari 1929 |established_event2=Dianéksasi |established_date2=6 Maret 1931 |established_event3=Depéndensi |established_date3=24 Maret 1933 |established_event4=Traktat Antartika |established_date4=23 Juni 1961 |area=154 |areami²=? |area_label=Total |area_label2=Katutup és |area_data2=95% |population_census=teu didumukan |cctld= |footnote1= }} '''Pulo Peter I''' ({{lang-no|Peter I Øy}})<ref name=miljostatus>{{Cite web|title=Peter I Øy|url=http://www.miljostatus.no/Tema/Polaromradene/Antarktis/Peter-I-Oy/|publisher=[[Badan Iklim jeung Polusi Norwégia]]|accessdate=29 August 2011|archivedate=29 August 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/61ImOuGu3}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928140534/http://www.miljostatus.no/Tema/Polaromradene/Antarktis/Peter-I-Oy/ |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> nyaéta hiji [[pulo]] [[pulo vulkanis|vulkanis]] di [[Laut Bellingshausen]], {{convert|450|km}} ti [[Antartika]]. Wewengkon ieu [[Klaim téritorial di Antartika|diklaim]] salaku hiji [[wewengkon depéndensi|depéndensi]] ti [[Norwégia]]. Bareng jeung [[Daratan Ratu Maud]] sarta [[Pulo Bouvet]], minangka [[Kapibogaan Norwégia|3 wewengkon depéndensi Norwégia]] di [[wewengkon Antartika]] jeung [[sub-Antartika]]. Pulo hiji kahiji katingali ku [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]] dina 21 Januari 1821 sarta dingaranan dumasar [[Peter I ti Rusia]]. ==Tempo ogé== * [[Daptar pulo Antartika jeung Sub-Antartika]] * [[Daptar gunung seuneu di Antartika]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ===Bibliograpi=== * {{cite book |title=Norway's Polar Territories |last=Barr |first=Susan |location=Oslo |publisher=Aschehoug |year=1987 |isbn=82-03-15689-4}} * {{cite book |title=Norge i Antarktis |editor-last=Kyvik |editor-first=Helga |location=Oslo |publisher=Schibsted Forlag |year=2008 |isbn=82-516-2589-0}} * {{cite book | editor1-last=LeMasurier | editor1-first=W. E. | editor2-last=Thomson | editor2-first= J. W. | title=Volcanoes of the Antarctic Plate and Southern Oceans | url=https://archive.org/details/volcanoesofantar0000unse | publisher=[[American Geophysical Union]] | date=1990 | isbn=0-87590-172-7 }} * {{cite book |title=Antarctica |last=Rubin |first=Jeff |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2005 |isbn=1-74059-094-5}} {{Antarctic territorial claims}} {{Overseas territories of Norway}} {{Outlying territories of European countries}} {{Antarctica navbox}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Peter I}} [[Kategori:Pulo Peter I| ]] [[Kategori:Klaim téritorial Antartika]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1929]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1929 di Norwégia]] [[Kategori:Peter nu Ageung]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Norwégia}} tmvl8h3agt9besicwkakfipioogiulo 0 37019 711730 650899 2026-08-07T02:42:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711730 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|Karajaan Arménia dina jaman kuna|Karajaan Arménia lianna|Karajaan Arménia (disambiguasi)}} {{Infobox former country |native_name = Մեծ Հայք <br /> ''Metz Hayk'' |conventional_long_name = Karajaan Arménia/Arménia Raya |common_name = Arménia Raya |continent = Éropa |region = [[Kaukasus]], [[Wétan Tengah]] |country = [[Daratan Luhur Arménia]] |era = [[Jaman Klasik Kuna|Kuna]], [[Abad Patengahan]] |status = [[Monarki|Karajaan]], [[Kakisaran]] |status_text = Kakaisaran dina rézim [[Tigranes anu Ageung]] jeung [[Artavasdes II]] |empire = Kakaisaran Arménia |government_type = Monarki <!--- Rise and fall, events, years and dates ---> <!-- only fill in the start/end event entry if a specific article exists. Don't just say "abolition" or "declaration"--> |year_start = 331 SM |year_end = 428 M |year_exile_start = <!--- Year of start of exile (if dealing with exiled government - status="Exile") ---> |year_exile_end = <!--- Year of end of exile (leave blank if still in exile) ---> |event_start = Kakawasaan [[Orontes III]] |date_start = <!--- Optional: Date of establishment, enter dates in this format 1 January 1801---> |event_end = [[Artaxias IV]] digulingkeun |date_end = <!--- Optional: Date of disestablishment ---> |event1 = [[Artashat]] diwangun |date_event1 = [[185 SM]] |event2 = [[Kakaisaran Arménia]] |date_event2 = [[84 SM]]-[[34 SM]] |event3 = [[Patempuran Rhandeia]] |date_event3 = [[61]] M |event4 = [[Kristen]] salaku ageman nasional |date_event4 = [[301]] M |event_pre = Arménia Raya dibentuk |date_pre = [[331 SM]] |event_post = |date_post = <!--- Flag navigation: Preceding and succeeding entities p1 to p5 and s1 to s5 ---> |p1 = Kasatrapan Arménia |flag_p1 = Yervanduni Armenia, IV-II BC.gif |image_p1 = |p2 = |flag_p2 = |p3 = |flag_p3 = |p4 = |flag_p4 = |p5 = |flag_p5 = |s1 = Arménia Bizantium |flag_s1 = Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century, square.svg |image_s1 = <!--- Use: [[Image:Sin escudo.svg|20px|Image missing]] ---> |s2 = Arménia Pérsia |flag_s2 = Marzbanate.svg |image_flag = Standard of the Artaxiad dynasty.svg |flag_alt = |flag = |flag_type = Standar [[Dinasti Artaxiad]]. |image_coat = |coat_alt = |symbol = |symbol_type = |image_map = Maps of the Armenian Empire of Tigranes.gif |image_map_alt = |image_map_caption = Kakaisaran [[Arménia]] di masa jayana dina [[Tigranes II]] anu Ageung, 69 SM (kaasup nagara satelit) |image_map2 = Location_of_Armenian_Empire.png |image_map2_alt = |image_map2_caption = Kakaisaran Arménia |capital = [[Yervandashat]]: [[201 SM]]-[[185 SM]] <br/>[[Artashat]]: [[185 SM]]-[[77 SM]] and [[60]]-[[120]] <br/>[[Tigranakert]]: [[77 SM]]-[[69 SM]] <br/>[[Vagharshapat, Arménia|Vagharshapat]]: [[120]]-[[330]] <br/>[[Dvin]]: [[336]]-[[428]] |capital_exile = <!-- If status="Exile" --> |latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW= |national_motto = |national_anthem = |common_languages = [[Basa Arménia]] |religion = [[Paganisme]] <br/>[[Paadaban Yunani|Hellenisme]]: abad ka-3 SM-[[301]] M <br/>[[Kristen]]: ti [[301]] M |currency = Taghand <!--- Titles and names of the first and last leaders and their deputies ---> |leader1 = [[Orontes III]] |leader2 = [[Tigranes IV]] jeung [[Erato]] |leader3 = [[Tiridates I ti Arménia]] |leader4 = [[Artaxias IV]] |year_leader1 = [[336 SM]]-[[331 SM]] |year_leader2 = [[8 SM]]-[[5 SM]] jeung [[2 SM]]-[[1 SM]] |year_leader3 = [[66]] M-[[88]] M |year_leader4 = [[422]] M-[[428]] M |title_leader = [[Daptar raja Arménia|Raja Arménia]], [[Raja ti Raja]] |representative1 = <!--- Name of representative of head of state (eg. colonial governor) ---> |representative2 = |representative3 = |representative4 = |year_representative1 = <!--- Years served ---> |year_representative2 = |year_representative3 = |year_representative4 = |title_representative = <!--- Default: "Governor"---> |deputy1 = <!--- Name of prime minister ---> |deputy2 = |deputy3 = |deputy4 = |year_deputy1 = <!--- Years served ---> |year_deputy2 = |year_deputy3 = |year_deputy4 = |title_deputy = <!--- Default: "Prime minister" ---> <!--- Legislature ---> |legislature = <!--- Name of legislature ---> |house1 = <!--- Name of first chamber ---> |type_house1 = <!--- Default: "Upper house"---> |house2 = <!--- Name of second chamber ---> |type_house2 = <!--- Default: "Lower house"---> <!--- Area and population of a given year ---> |stat_year1 = [[331 SM]] |stat_area1 = 400000 <!-- hidden citation needed template because it doesn't render properly, making an error message display in info box. The footnote at bottom is the source, perhaps. Redgate, Anne Elizabeth (2000). The Armenians. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 7. ISBN 0-631-22037-2.{{citation needed|September 2011}} --> |stat_pop1 = |stat_year2 = [[69 SM]] |stat_area2 = 500000 <!-- {{citation needed|September 2011}} --> |stat_pop2 = 20000000 <!-- {{citation needed|September 2011}} --> |stat_year3 = [[301]] M |stat_area3 = 350000 <!-- {{citation needed|September 2011}} --> |stat_pop3 = 3000000 <!-- {{citation needed|September 2011}} --> |stat_year4 = [[428]] M |stat_area4 = 120000 <!-- {{citation needed|September 2011}} --> |stat_pop4 = |stat_year5 = |stat_area5 = |stat_pop5 = |today = {{flag|Arménia}}<br>{{flag|Azerbaijan}}<br>{{flag|Géorgia}}<br>{{flag|Iran}}<br>{{flag|Irak}}<br>{{flag|Israél}}<br>{{flag|Libanon}}<br>{{flag|Suriah}}<br>{{flag|Turki}} |footnotes = {{cite book | last = Redgate | first = Anne Elizabeth | title = The Armenians | url = https://archive.org/details/armenianspeoples00aere | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | year = 2000 | page = [https://archive.org/details/armenianspeoples00aere/page/7 7] | isbn = 0-631-22037-2}} }} {{Sajarah Arménia}} '''Karajaan Arménia''' kuna nyaéta hiji monarki merdika ti 331 SM nepi ka 428 M. Puncak kakiatan karajaan ieu sarta integrasina dina [[budaya Yunani]] dina Tigranes jeung putrana, [[Artavasdes II ti Arménia|Artavasdes]] ogé disebut salaku '''Kakaisaran Arménia'''. Sangeus labuhna [[Kakaisaran Akéméniyah]], [[Kasatrapan Arménia]] dibagi kana kira-kira 120 wewengkon klan nu dikawasaan ku ''[[nakharar]]''. Wewengkon-wewengkon éta dihijikeun dina [[Artaxias I]], nu ngadegkeun [[Dinasti Artaxia]], nu mana fase awal karajaan éta kawanoh salaku '''Arménia Artaxia''' ({{lang-hy|Արտաշեսյանների Թագավորություն ''Artashesianneri Tagavorutyun''}}). Arménia miboga masa jayana dina Raja [[Tigranes II]] (95-55 SM) malang ti [[Laut Tengah]] nepi ka [[Walunga Kura]]. Artaxiad digulingkeun ku Romawi dina 12 M, ngahasilkeun jaman karusuhan jeung perang sadulur. 2 raja klién Romawi dipakékeun, [[Tigranes V ti Arménia|Tigranes V]] jeung [[Tigranes VI ti Arménia|Tigranes VI]]. Sanggeus 54 M, karajjan ieu dikawasaan ku [[Dinasti Arsakiyah ti Arménia|Dinasti Arsakiyah]] nu mana jadina kawanoh salaku '''Arménia Arsakiyah''' ({{lang-hy|Արշակունիների Թագավորություն ''Arshakunineri Tagavorutyun''}}). ==Propinsi== [[File:Ayrarat.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Propinsi di Arménia Raya]] <br>DI handap nyaéta daptar 15 propinsi Karajaan Arménia jeung ibu kotana: <div style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> *[[Arménia Luhur]], {{convert|23860|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Karin (Arménia Raya)|Garin]]) *[[Sophene]]; {{convert|18890|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Arsamosata]]) *[[Aghdznik]]; {{convert|17532|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Tigranakert]]) *[[Turuberan]]; {{convert|25008|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Malazgirt|Manzikert]]) *[[Corduene]]; {{convert|14707|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Pinik]]) *[[Moxoene]]; {{convert|2962|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Moks]]) *[[Nor-Shirakan]]; {{convert|11010|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Khoy|Her]]) *[[Vaspurakan]]; {{convert|40870|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Van, Turki|Van]]) *[[Syunik]]; {{convert|15237|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Baghaberd]]) *[[Artsakh]]; {{convert|11528|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Shusha]]) *[[Paytakaran]]; {{convert|21000|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[kota Paytakaran|Paytakaran]]) *[[Utik]]; {{convert|11315|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Partav]]) *[[Gugark]]; {{convert|16765|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Ardahan]]) *[[Tayk]]; {{convert|10179|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Olti]]) *[[Ayrarat]]; {{convert|40105|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Armavir, Arménia|Armavir]]) </div> Wewengkon Arménia lianna: *[[Arménia Leutik]]; {{convert|100000|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Nikopolis (Pontus)|Nikopolis]]) *[[Mésopotamia Arménia]]; {{convert|20000|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}} ([[Edessa, Mésopotamia|Edessa]])<ref>''Knowledge Barn'', page 40</ref><ref>''Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia'', 7nth volume, page 436</ref><ref>''Time Almanac'', page 724 by Editors of Time Magazine</ref><ref>The New Review, page 208. Edited by Archibald Grove, William Ernest Henley</ref> ==Peta== <gallery> File:East-Hem 323bc.jpg|Dunya taun 323 SM File:East-Hem 200bc.jpg|Dunya taun 200 SM File:East-Hem 100bc.jpg|Dunya taun 100 SM File:Orontid Armenia -250-en.svg|Arménia Orontid File:Maps of the Armenian Empire of Tigranes.gif|Kakaisaran Arménia dina Tigranes anu Ageung File:Arshakuni Armenia 150-en.svg|Arménia Arshakuni dina 150 M File:Persian Armenia.gif|Arménia Pérsia File:Map of Byzantine Armenia, 387-536.gif|Arménia Bizantium </gallery> ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajenhna == *M. Chahin, ''The Kingdom of Armenia'' (1987, 1991) *[[Vahan Kurkjian]], ''Tigran the Great'' (1958) * Ashkharbek Kalantar, ''Armenia: From the Stone Age to the Middle Ages,'' Civilisations du Proche Orient, Se´rie 1, Vol. 2, Recherches et Publications, Neuchâtel, Paris, 1994;ISBN 978-2-940032-01-3 * Ashkharbek Kalantar, ''The Mediaeval Inscriptions of Vanstan, Armenia,'' Civilisations du Proche-Orient: Series 2 - Philologie - CDPOP 2, Vol. 2, Recherches et Publications, Neuchâtel, Paris, 1999;ISBN 978-2-940032-11-2 * Ashkharbek Kalantar, ''Materials on Armenian and Urartian History'' (with a contribution by Mirjo Salvini), Civilisations du Proche-Orient: Series 4 - Hors Série - CPOHS 3, Neuchâtel, Paris, 2004;ISBN 978-2-940032-14-3 == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.videoyan.com/video/2871/Armenian-Lands--Historical-Armenia Video jeung gambar ti Lemah Arménia - Arménia Baheula] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718082246/http://www.videoyan.com/video/2871/Armenian-Lands--Historical-Armenia |date=2011-07-18 }} {{Armenia topics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Armenia, Karajaan}} [[Kategori:Karajaan Arménia| ]] [[Kategori:Karajaan di Arménia]] [[Kategori:Nu bubar taun 428]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 190 SM]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Arménia]] [[Kategori:Kakaisaran Seleukia]] [[Kategori:Nagara bagian di Anatolia Yunani]] [[Kategori:Urut kakaisaran]] [[Kategori:Nagara panerus Kakaisaran Seleukia]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Turki]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Iran]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Iraq]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Suriah]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Azerbaijan]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Géorgia]] {{nagara-sajarah-stub|Arménia}} q1kkj8r77abzhe0o7yaw7adh7zu7znp 0 37323 711801 681341 2026-08-07T04:39:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711801 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language |name = Pastun |nativename = <span style="font-size:1.4em;">{{lang|ps|پښتو}} </span> |pronunciation = {{IPA-ps|paʂˈto], [paçˈto], [paxˈto|}} |states = [[Apganistan]], [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]] (minoritas), jeung ku [[diaspora Pastun]] di sakuliah dunya. |region = [[Asia Kidul|Kidul]]-[[Asia Tengah]] |speakers = 50 yuta |ref=<ref name="Ethnologue-2009"/> |speakers2 = nepi ka 60 yuta<ref name="Penzl"/><ref name="Omniglot"/><ref name="Thomson"/> |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=[[rungkun basa Indo-Iran|Indo-Iran]] |fam3=[[rungkun basa Iran|Iran]] |fam4=[[rungkun basa Iran Wétan|Iran Wétan]] |fam5=Kalér-wétan<ref name="Iranica-Pashto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranica.com/articles/afghanistan-vi-pasto|title=AFGHANISTAN vi. Paṧto|publisher=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Version|work=[[Georg Morgenstierne|G. Morgenstierne]]|quote=Paṧtō undoubtedly belongs to the Northeastern Iranic branch.|accessdate=2010-10-10}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122024645/http://www.iranica.com/articles/afghanistan-vi-pasto |date=2012-01-22 }}</ref> |dia1=[[dialék Waziri|Waziri]] |dia2=Kidul-kulon (Kandahari) |dia3=Raloba dialék lianna |script = [[Aksara Pastun]] |nation = {{flag|Apganistan}} |agency = [[Akademi Kaélmuan Apganistan]] |iso1 = ps |iso2 = pus |iso3 = pus |lingua=58-ABD-a |lc1 = pst | ll1 = {{dash}} |ld1 = Pastun Tengah |lc2 = pbu | ll2 = {{dash}} |ld2 = Pastun Kalér |lc3 = pbt | ll3 = {{dash}} |ld3 = Pastun Kidul |notice=IPA }} '''Basa Pastun''' ([[aksara Naskh|Naskh]]: {{lang|ps|پښتو}} {{IPA-ps|paʂˈto, pux'to}}; ogé [[alih aksara|dialihaksarakeun]] ''Pakhto'', ''Pushto'', ''Pukhto'', ''Pashtu'', ''Pashto'', ''Paxto'', atanapi ''Pushtu''), ogé kawanoh salaku '''Apgan''' ({{lang-fa|افغانی}}) jeung '''Pathan''' ({{lang-ur|{{Nastaliq|پٹھانی}}}}, {{lang-hi|पठानी}} {{Unicode|''Paṭhānī''}}),<ref>[[Reference.com|Dictionary.com]], "Afghani," dina [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]], Fourth Edition. Source location: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Afghani. Diaksés : 14 Juli 2010.</ref> nyaéta [[basa kahiji|basa asli]] [[urang Pashtun]] ti [[Asia Kidul]] jeung [[Asia Tengah|Tengah]]. Basa ieu mangrupa anggota ti rungkun [[basa Iran Wétan]], dipaké di [[Pakistan]] jeung [[Apganistan]] sarta ku [[diaspora Pastun]] di sakuliah dunya.<ref name="CAL">Barbara Robson, Juliene Lipson, Farid Younos, Mariam Mehdi. {{cite web|url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html|title=The Afghans - Language and Literacy|accessdate=2010-10-24|publisher=[[Puseur Linguistik Terapan]] (CAL)|location=United States|date=June 30, 2002}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504071911/http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html |date=2011-05-04 }}</ref> == Tingali ogé == *[[Aksara Pastun]] *[[Basa Pastun Tengah]] *[[Daptar panyair basa Pastun]] *[[Daptar panembang basa Pastun]] == Pustaka == *{{Cite book|title=Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum|url=https://archive.org/details/compendiumlingua0000unse|last=Schmidt|first=Rüdiger (ed.)|publisher=Reichert|location=Wiesbaden|year=1989|isbn=3-88226-413-6}} * Gusain, Lakhan (2008??) " A Grammar of Pashto". Ann Arbor, MI: Northside Publishers. ISBN ?? * [[Georg Morgenstierne]] (1926) ''Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan''. [[Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture|Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning]], Serie C I-2. Oslo. ISBN 0-923891-09-9 * Daniel G. Hallberg (1992) ''Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri (Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, 4)''. National Institute of Pakistani Studies, 176 pp.&nbsp;ISBN 969-8023-14-3. * [[Herbert Penzl]] A Grammar of Pashto A Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan ISBN 0-923891-72-2 * [[Herbert Penzl]] A réader of Pashto ISBN 0-923891-71-4 == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons category|Pashto language}} {{InterWiki|code=ps}} *D. N. MacKenzie, "A Standard Pashto", [http://www.khyber.org/publications/026-030/standardpashto.shtml Khyber.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301002711/http://www.khyber.org/publications/026-030/standardpashto.shtml |date=2021-03-01 }} *[http://www.qamosona.com/ Kamus Basa Pastun Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131073107/http://www.qamosona.com/ |date=2010-01-31 }} *[http://www.afghanwiki.com/en/index.php?title=Pashto Asal Muasal Pashto] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223185020/http://www.afghanwiki.com/en/index.php?title=Pashto |date=2011-12-23 }} {{Pashto language}} {{Pashto literature}} {{Languages of Pakistan}} {{Iranian languages}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Pastun}} [[Kategori:Basa Pastun| ]] [[Kategori:Basa di Apganistan]] [[Kategori:Basa di Pakistan]] [[Kategori:Basa di Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] [[Kategori:Basa di Balochistan, Pakistan]] [[Kategori:Basa jejer-objék-caritaan]] {{basa-stub}} 3vgfib99uxztj39k6e6n8mjy88xq5zu 0 37336 711755 499103 2026-08-07T03:28:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} '''Siklus ménstruasi''' nyaéta kecap [[ilmiah]] kanggo robahan psikologis nu bisa kajadian dina [[bikang]] kanggo kaperyogian réproduksi seksual jeung robahan. Artikel ieu berfokus dina siklus ménstruasi dina [[manusa]]. Siklus ménstruasi, di bawah kontrol of the [[endocrine system]], is necessary for [[reproduction]]. It is commonly divided into three phases: the [[follicular phase]], [[ovulation]], and the [[luteal phase]]; although some sources use a different set of phases: [[menstruation]], proliferative phase, and secretory phase.<ref>{{cite book|title=Exploring the dimensions of human sexuality|url=https://archive.org/details/exploringdimensi0000gree_03ed|first=Jerrold S.|last=Greenberg|coauthors=Clint E. Bruess, Sarah C. Conklin|edition=3rd|year=2007|publisher=Jones & Bartlett|pages=[https://archive.org/details/exploringdimensi0000gree_03ed/page/136 136]–137}}</ref> Menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding. [[Hormonal contraception]] interferes with the normal hormonal changes with the aim of preventing reproduction. ==Refernsi== {{reflist}} 80t8j96svsd5qf0xb2rydemn4xs246g 0 37651 711653 711431 2026-08-07T00:58:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711653 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Former Country |native_name = {{aut|Senatus PopulusQue Romanus ([[SPQR]])}}<br /><small>"Sénat jeung Rahayat Roma" </small>{{#tag:ref|Since classical and modern concepts of state do not coincide, other possibilities include ''Res publica Romana'', ''Imperium Romanum'' or ''Romanorum'' (also in Greek: {{Polytonic|Βασιλείᾱ τῶν Ῥωμαίων – ''Basileíā tôn Rhōmaíōn''}} – ["Dominion (Literally 'kingdom') of the Romans"]) and ''Romania''. ''Res publica'', as a term denoting the Roman "commonwealth" in general, can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial era, while ''Imperium Romanum'' (or, sometimes, ''Romanorum'') is used to refer to the territorial extent of Roman authority. ''Populus Romanus'', "the Roman people", is often used for the Roman state dealing with other nations. The term ''Romania'', initially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as the collectivity of its inhabitants, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the fourth century onward and was eventually carried over to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. (See Wolff, R.L. "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople". In: ''Speculum'', 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 (pp. 2–3).)|group=nb}} |conventional_long_name = Kakaisaran Romawi |common_name = Kakaisaran Romawi |national_motto = |era = Kuna klasik |status = '''Kakaisaran''' |continent = Afroeurasia |region = Méditérania |government_type = [[Otokrasi]] |p1 = Républik Romawi |flag_p1 = Spqrstone.jpg |s1 = Kakaisaran Romawi Kulon |flag_s1 = Labarum.svg |s2 = Kakaisaran Bizantium |flag_s2 = Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century, square.svg |event_start = [[Augustus|Octavia]] nyatakeun [[Augustus (gelar)|Augustus]] |year_start = 27 SM |event_end = Turunna Kaisar Kulon [[Romulus Augustus]]/[[Labuhna Konstantinopel]] * |year_end = 476/1453 M |event_pre = [[Patempuran Actium]] |date_pre = 2 Séptémber 31 SM |event1 = [[Diocletian]] misahkeun adminstrasi kakaisaran antawsi Wétan jeung Kulon |date_event1 = 285 |event2 = [[Konstiantin I|Konstantin nu Ageung]] ngadegkeun [[Konstantinopel]] salaku ibu kota kakaisaran nu anyar |date_event2 = 330 |event3 = Pupusna [[Theodosius nu Ageung]], diteraskeun ku dibagina kakaisaran kana wétan jeung kulon |date_event3 = 395 |event_post = |date_post = |image_coat = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg |symbol_type = [[Vexillum]] kalawan [[Aquila (Romawi)|aquila]] sarta inisial kanagaraan Romawi |coa_size = 120px |image_map = RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png |image_map_caption = Kakawasaan maksimum Kakaisaran Romawi dina 117 M.<ref>Bennett, J. ''Trajan: Optimus Princeps''. 1997. Fig. 1</ref> |capital = <small>[[Roma]] nyaéta ibu kota pulitis nepi ka 286&nbsp;M<br />Aya sababaraha puseur pulitis nalika [[Katétraan]] samentawis Roma tetep jadi ibu kota nominal, budaya, jeung idéologis.<br />[[Konstantin I|Konstantin]] ngadegkeun sarta ngawangun ulang kota [[Konstantinopel]] salaku ibu kota kakaisaran nu anyar dina 330.<ref name="Constantine I 306 - 337 AD">[http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm Konstantin&nbsp;I (306–337 M)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929190410/http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm |date=2017-09-29 }} ku Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2004-1-8. Retrieved 2007-3-20.</ref><br />[[Mediolanum]] (Milan) mangrupa batur gawéna nalika babagian Wétan/Kulon ningkat remenna. Pangadilan kakaisaran kulon teras dipindahkeun ka [[Ravenna]]. |common_languages = [[Latin]], [[Basa Yunani Kuna|Yunani]] |[[Agama di Romawi kuna|religion]] = [[Agama di Romawi kuna|agama Romawi tradisional]], [[panyembahan kakaisaran (Romawi kuna)|Panyembahan kakaisaran]], [[Agama Yunani|Kapercayaan Yunani]]<small> (nepi ka 380)</small><br />Kristen<small><br />(ti 380) |currency = (a) 27 SM – 212 M: 1 emas ''[[aureus]]'' (1/40 lb. emas, dirobah ka 1/50 lb. dina 212) = 25 pérak ''[[denarii]]'' = 100 perunggu ''[[sesterces]]'' = 400 tambaga ''[[As (koin Romawi)|asses]]''.<br /> (b) 294–312: 1 emas ''[[solidus (koin)|aureus solidus]]'' (1/60 lb. emas) = 10 pérak ''[[argenteus|argentei]]'' = 40 perunggu ''[[folles]]'' = 1.000 logam nu diturunkeun ''denarii''<br />(c) 312 ka hareup: 1 emas ''[[solidus (koin)|solidus]]'' (1/72 lb.) = 24 pérak ''[[siliqua]]e'' = 180 perunggu ''folles'' |leader1 = [[Augustus]] |leader2 = [[Theodosius I]] |leader3 = [[Romulus Augustus]] / [[Konstantin&nbsp;XI]] |year_leader1 = 27 SM – 14 M |year_leader2 = 378–395 |year_leader3 = 475–476 / 1449–1453 |title_leader = [[Kaisar Romawi|Kaisar]] |title_representative = [[Konsul Romawi|Konsul]] |representative1 = |representative2 = |year_representative1 = |year_representative2 = |legislature = [[Sénat Kakaisaran Romawi|Sénat Romawi]] ||stat_year1 = 25 SM<ref name=size>{{cite journal|journal=Social Science History |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600&nbsp;B.C. to 600&nbsp;A.D. |first=Rein |last=Taagepera |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |year=1979 |page=125 |doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959|publisher=Duke University Press |authorlink=Rein Taagepera}}</ref><ref>John D. Durand, ''Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation'', 1977, pp. 253–296.</ref> |stat_area1 = 2750000 |stat_year2 = 50<ref name=size/> |stat_pop1 = 56800000 |stat_area2 = 4200000 |stat_year3 = 117<ref name=size/> |stat_area3 = 6500000 |stat_pop3 = 88000000 |stat_year4 = 390 <ref name=size/> |stat_area4 = 4400000 |footnotes = * Kajadia-kajadian ieu nandaan ahirna [[Kakaisaran Romawi Kulon]] (286–476)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507739/Roman-Empire|title=Roman Empire – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=www.britannica.com|accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref> jeung [[Kakisaran Bizantium|Kakaisaran Romawi Wétan]] (330–1453). |today = Tingali artikel }} '''Kakaisaran Romawi''' ({{lang-la|Imperium Romanum}}) nyaéta jaman pasca-[[Républik Romawi|Républik]] ti [[Romawi Kuna|peradaban Romawi kuna]], dicirian ku wangun pamaréntahan [[otokrasi]] sarta kakawasaan wewengkon nu lega di Éropa jeung sadeukeuteun Méditérania.<ref>"Roman Empire", Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2008</ref> Dina ahir abad ka-3 Maséhi, [[Diocletian]] ngadegkeun sarta mraktékkeun babagian kakawasaan antawis 4 kaisar (kawanoh salaku [[katétraan]]) sangkan leuwih alus ngamankeun wewengkonna nu lega, ngahirkeun [[Krisis Abad KAtilu]]. Nalika dékade sanggeusna, Kakaisaran remen dibagi kana poros Wétan/Kulon. Sanggeus pupusna [[Theodosius&nbsp;I]] dina 395, kakaisaran dibagi pikeun nu pangahirna.<ref>Chester G. Starr, ''A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition.'' Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678.</ref> [[Kakaisaran Romawi Kulon]] ngahir dina 476 basa [[Romulus Augustulus|Romulus Augustus]] dipaksa turn tahta pikeun raja perang [[urang Jérmanik|Jérmanik]], [[Odoacer]].<ref>Isaac Asimov. ''Asimov's Chronology of the World.'' Harper Collins, 1989. p. 110.</ref> Romawi Wétan atanapi [[Kakaisaran Bizantium]] ngahir dina 1453 nalika pupusna [[Konstantin XI Palaiologos|Konstantin&nbsp;XI]] sarta [[labuhna Konstantinopel]] ka [[Mehmed II]], pamingpin [[Turki Ottoman]].<ref>Asimov, p. 198.</ref> == Kiwari == Wewengkon Kakaisaran Romawi ayeuna mangrupa bagian ti nagara: {{col|3}} * {{flag|Albania}} * {{flag|Aljazair}} * {{flag|Andorra}} * {{flag|Arab Saudi}} * {{flag|Arménia}} * {{flag|Austria}} * {{flag|Azerbaijan}} * {{flag|Bélgia}} * {{flag|Bosnia jeung Hérzégovina}} * {{flag|Britania Raya}} * {{flag|Bulgaria}} * {{flag|Géorgia}} * {{flag|Hungaria}} * {{flag|Iran}} * {{flag|Irak}} * {{flag|Israél}} * {{flag|Italia}} * {{flag|Jérman}} * {{flag|Kosovo}}{{ref label|status|a|}} * {{flag|Kroasia}} * {{flag|Kuwait}} * {{flag|Libanon}} * {{flag|Liechtenstéin}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Luksemburg}} * {{flag|Makédonia}} * {{flag|Malta}} * {{flag|Maroko}} * {{flag|Mesir}} * {{flag|Moldova}} * {{flag|Monako}} * {{flag|Monténégro}} * {{flag|Otoritas Paléstina|name=Wewengkon Paléstina}} * {{flag|Perancis}} * {{flag|Portugal}} * {{flag|Romania}} * {{flag|Rusia}} * {{flag|San Marino}} * {{flag|Sérbia}} * {{flag|Siprus}} * {{flag|Slovénia}} * {{flag|Spanyol}} * {{flag|Suis}} * {{flag|Suriah}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Turki}} * {{flag|Ukraina}} * {{flag|Kota Vatikan}} * {{flag|Walanda}} * {{flag|Yordania}} * {{flag|Yunani}} </div> == Catean jeung rujukan == <references group="nb"/> {{Reflist}} * {{Cite book|author=Frank Frost Abbott|year=1901|title=A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions|publisher=Elibron Classics|isbn=0-543-92749-0|authorlink=Frank Frost Abbott}} * [[John Bagnell Bury]], ''A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius'', 1913, ISBN 978-1-4367-3416-5 * [[Winston Churchill]], ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', Cassell, 1998, ISBN 0-304-34912-7 * [[J. A. Crook]], ''Law and Life of Rome, 90 BC–AD 212'', 1967, ISBN 0-8014-9273-4 * [[Donald R. Dudley]], ''The Civilization of Rome'', 2nd ed., 1985, ISBN 0-452-01016-0 * [[Arther Ferrill]], ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation'', [[Thames and Hudson]], 1988, ISBN 0-500-27495-9 * {{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Charles |title=The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World |url=https://archive.org/details/greekachievement0000free_c9o7 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-670-88515-0}} * [[Edward Gibbon]], ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', 1776–1789 * [[Adrian Goldsworthy|Goldsworthy, Adrian]]. ''The Punic Wars'', Cassell & Co, 2000, ISBN 0-304-35284-5 * Goldsworthy, Adrian. ''In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire'', Weidenfield and Nicholson, 2003, ISBN 0-297-84666-3 * Goldsworthy, Adrian. ''The Complete Roman Army'', [[Thames and Hudson]], 2003, ISBN 0-500-05124-0 * [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], ''The History of Rome'', [[Faber and Faber]], 1993, ISBN 0-571-11461-X * [[Benjamin Isaac]], "The Limits of Empire: the Roman Army in the East" [[Oxford University Press]], 1992, ISBN 0-19-814926-3 * [[Andrew Lintott]], ''Imperium Romanum: Politics and administration'', 1993, ISBN 0-415-09375-9 * [[Edward Luttwak]], ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', [[Johns Hopkins University Press]], ISBN 0-8018-2158-4 * {{cite journal | first=T. R. | last=Reid | title=The World According to Rome | journal=National Geographic | volume=192 | issue=2 | pages=54–83 | year=1997 | url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211153712/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ |date=2007-12-11 }} * [[Antonio Santosuosso]], ''Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire'', Westview Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8133-3523-X {{Refend}} <div class="references-small"> </div> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sister project links}} * Adena, L. [http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/How+the+Jesus+Cult+Captured+the+Roman+State The 'Jesus Cult' and the Roman State in the Third Century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104073248/http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/How+the+Jesus+Cult+Captured+the+Roman+State |date=2015-01-04 }}, Clio History Journal, 2008. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100708232311/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5i11rv1ezJ_9hlqSjJfzxr1A5wryQ Roman battlefield unearthed deep inside Germany] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/romans BBC Romans for Children] * [http://classicsunveiled.com/romeh/ Classics Unveiled] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305213059/http://www.classicsunveiled.com/romeh/ |date=2012-03-05 }} * [http://www.euratlas.com/history_europe/europe_map_0100.html Complete map of the Roman Empire in year 100] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100519172508/http://www.euratlas.com/history_europe/europe_map_0100.html |date=2010-05-19 }} * [http://roman-empire.info/ Detailed history of the Roman Empire] * [http://tacitus.nu/historical-atlas/rome.htm Historical Atlas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801171701/http://www.tacitus.nu/historical-atlas/rome.htm |date=2015-08-01 }} (Swedish) * [http://romancoins.info/ Roman Numismatic Gallery ] * [http://resourcesforhistory.com/ The Celts and Romans] * [http://roman-empire.net/ The Roman Empire] * [http://pbs.org/empires/romans/index.html The Roman Empire in the First Century] from PBS * [http://www.unrv.com/ UNRV Roman History] * [http://www.knowtheromans.co.uk The Romans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415030316/http://knowtheromans.co.uk/ |date=2012-04-15 }} {{Ancient Rome topics|state=autocollapse}} {{Roman history by territory}} {{Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation & presence}} {{Ancient Greek and Roman Wars|state=autocollapse}} {{Empires}} {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Romawi}} [[Kategori:Nu bubar taun 476]] [[Kategori:Nu bubar taun 1453]] [[Kategori:Urut nagara di Samenanjung Italia]] [[Kategori:Kakaisaran Romawi| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara Romawi]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 27 SM]] {{sajarah-stub}} [[cs:Starověký Řím#Císařství]] lqqupw9qmdma3ittktsxc6go0vyg91m 0 37672 711676 674721 2026-08-07T01:22:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711676 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses|Arab (disambiguasi)}} {{Arabs}} '''Urang Arab''' ({{lang-ar|<big>عرب</big>}}, ''ʿarab''), nyaéta hiji [[pan-étnisitas]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hgm2011.org/ghazi_tadmouri_-_abstract.html |title=Ghazi Tadmouri - Abstract |publisher=Hgm2011.org |date=2011-03-15 |accessdate=2011-07-18 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726145940/http://www.hgm2011.org/ghazi_tadmouri_-_abstract.html |date=2011-07-26 }}</ref><!--Hiding the large list of references: <ref>http://histclo.com/country/cou-mea.html</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=40Zv8DC4g38C&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=arabs+panethnicity#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_latin_american_geography/summary/v007/7.2.miyares.html</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iAPLHidx8MkC&pg=PA405&lpg=PA405#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>--> nu utamina hirup di wewengkon [[Dunya Arab]], nu aya di [[Asia Kulon]] jeung [[Afrika Kalér]]. [[Liga Arab]], hiji organisasi kawewengkonan tina [[nagara]]-nagara dunya Arab, nerangkeun saurang Arab salaku: {{quote|Saurang Arab nyaéta hiji jalmi nu basana basa Arab, nu hirupna di nagara nu maké basa Arab, sarta anu boga simpati kana aspirasi masarakat panyatur basa Arab.<ref>Dwight Fletcher Reynolds, ''Arab folklore'': a handbook, (Greenwood Press: 2007), p.1.</ref>}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} ;Pustaka {{Refbegin}} {{Contains Arabic text}} * {{Cite book|title=The Arab Christian: A History in the Middle East|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=pMuxLlWih04C&pg=PP1&dq=%22arab+christian%22#v=onepage&q=&f=false|first1=Kenneth|last1=Cragg|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1991|ISBN=0-664-22182-3, 978-0-664-22182-9}} * {{Cite book|first1=Francis Mading|last1=Deng|title=War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan|url=https://archive.org/details/warofvisionsconf00deng|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=1995}} * Touma, Habib Hassan. ''The Music of the Arabs''. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus P, 1996. ISBN 0-931340-88-8. * Lipinski, Edward. ''Semitic Languages: Outlines of a Comparative Grammar'', 2nd ed., Orientalia Lovanensia Analecta: Leuven 2001 * Kees Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997) * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01663a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, 1907, Online Edition, K. Night 2003: article Arabia] * [http://www.paklinks.com/gs/archive/index.php/t-4130.html History of Arabic language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906045819/http://www.paklinks.com/gs/archive/index.php/t-4130.html |date=2015-09-06 }}(1894), Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd. * The Arabic language, National Institute for Technology and Liberal Education web page (2006) * {{Cite book|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |origyear= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 2-88155-004-5 |year= 2000 }} * Hooker, Richard. "Pre-Islamic Arabic Culture." WSU Web Site. 6 June 1999. Washington State University. * Owen, Roger. "State Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East 3rd Ed" Page 57 ISBN 0-415-29714-1 * {{citation|title=Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook|last=Levinson|first=David|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1998|isbn=9781573560191|url=http://books.google.com/books/reader?id=uwi-rv3VV6cC&printsec=frontcover}} {{Refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Arab}} * [http://www.arableagueonline.org/las/index.jsp Liga Arab] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509170538/http://www.arableagueonline.org/las/index.jsp |date=2006-05-09 }} {{Semitic topics}} {{Arab diaspora}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Arab}} [[Kategori:Arab|Urang]] [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Asia]] [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Wétan Tengah]] [[Kategori:Komunitas Muslim]] [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Liga Arab]] [[Kategori:Urang Sémitik]] [[Kategori:Masarakat kuna]] {{grup-étnis-stub}} snbmuyk3ma8f7j39a1o2owhasobupwg 0 37675 711781 681393 2026-08-07T04:16:45Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 25 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Turks}} {{Turkish people}} '''Urang Turki''' ({{lang-tr| tunggal: Türk, jamak: Türkler}}), nyaéta hiji [[grup étnis]] nu utamina hirup di [[Turki]], sarta di wewengkon urut [[Kakaisaran Ottoman]] di mana [[minoritas urang Turki]] kawas di [[Bulgaria]], [[Bosnia jeung Hérzégovina]], [[Géorgia]], [[Yunani]], [[Kosovo]], [[Makédonia]], jeung [[Romania]]. Raloba migran Turki geus hirup ogé di bagian kalér Siprus sanggues invasi Turki 1974 (Migran-migran ieu kedahna dibédakeun jeung kaom minoritas Turki-Siprus nu émang geus aya dina pulo éta). Ku lantaran migrasi, raloba komunitas urang Turki geus ngadeg di [[urang Turki di Éropa|Éropa]] [[éropa Kulon|Kulon]] (utamina di Jérman, Perancis, Britania Raya, Walanda, Austria, Bélgia, jeung Liechtenstéin), ogé di [[urang Turki di Australia|Australia]], [[urang Turki di Wétan Tengah|Wétan Tengah]], jeung Amérika Kalér sarta wewengkon Uni Soviét. == Catetan jeung rujukan == <div class="references-small"> <references group=dn/> </div> {{Reflist}} == Pustaka == {{Portal|Turki}} *{{Cite book|last=Abrahams|first=Fred|author-link=|year=1996|title=A threat to "stability": human rights violations in Macedonia |url=https://archive.org/details/threatt_abr_1996_00_4805|place=|publisher=Human Rights Watch|isbn=1564321703 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite document|last1=Aydıngün|first1=Ayşegül|last2=Harding|first2=Çiğdem Balım|last3=Hoover|first3=Matthew|last4=Kuznetsov|first4=Igor|last5=Swerdlow|first5=Steve|year=2006|url=http://www.cal.org/CO/pdffiles/mturks.pdf|title=Meskhetian Turks: An Introduction to their History, Culture, and Resettelment Experiences|place=http://www.cal.org/|publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics|isbn=|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090303212518/http://www.cal.org/CO/pdffiles/mturks.pdf|archivedate=2009-03-03}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714205907/http://www.cal.org/co/pdffiles/mturks.pdf |date=2007-07-14 }} *{{Cite document |last=Berlin-Institut|first=|year=2009 |title=Zur Lage der Integration in Deutschland |url=http://www.berlin-institut.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Zuwanderung/Integration_RZ_online.pdf |place=http://www.berlin-institut.org|publisher=Berlin-Institu für Bevölkerung und Entwicklung|isbn= |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}} *{{Cite book|last=Council of Europe|first=|year=2006|title=Documents: working papers, 2005 ordinary session (second part), 25–29 April 2005, Vol. 3: Documents 10407, 10449-10533|place=|publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9287157545 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite document |last=Duvier|first=Janine|year=2009 |url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/MSU/papers/Duvier-Janine-LMRG.pdf |title=Immigration and Integration in Germany and England|place=http://www.lse.ac.uk/|publisher=London School of Economics|isbn= |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}} *{{Cite book|last1=Ergener|first1=Rashid|last2=Ergener|first2=Resit|author-link=|year=2002|title=About Turkey: Geography, Economy, Politics, Religion, and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/aboutturkeygeogr0000erge|place=|publisher=Pilgrims Process|isbn=0971060967 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite book|last1=Extra|first1=Guus| last2=Gorter | first2=Durk |author-link=|year=2001|title=The other languages of Europe: demographic, sociolinguistic, and educational perspectives|url=https://archive.org/details/otherlanguagesof0000unse_r1e4|place=|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=1853595098 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite document|last=Federation of Turkish Associations in the UK|first=|year=2008|title=BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FEDERATION OF TURKISH ASSOCIATIONS IN UK|url=http://www.turkishfederationuk.com/en/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=26|place=http://www.turkishfederationuk.com/|publisher=Federation of Turkish Associations in the UK|isbn=|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304212612/http://www.turkishfederationuk.com/en/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=26 |date=2009-03-04 }} *{{Cite book|last=Hatay|first=Mete|year=2007|url=http://www.prio.no/upload/Is%20the%20Turkish%20Cypriot%20Population%20Shrinking.pdf|title=Is the Turkish Cypriot Population Shrinking?|place=http://www.prio.no/|publisher=International Peace Research Institute|isbn=978-82-7288-244-9|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192502/http://www.prio.no/upload/Is%20the%20Turkish%20Cypriot%20Population%20Shrinking.pdf |date=2011-05-15 }} *{{citation |last1=Haviland|first1=William A.|last2=Prins|first2=Harald E. L.|last3=Walrath|first3=Dana|last4=McBride|first4=Bunny|author-link=|year=2010|title=Anthropology: The Human Challenge|place=|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=0495810843}}. *{{Cite book|last=Human Rights Watch|first=|author-link=|year=1993|title=Open Wounds: Human Rights Abuses in Kosovo |url=https://archive.org/details/openwoundshumanr0000unse|place=|publisher=Human Rights Watch|isbn=1564321312 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite book|last=Hunter|first=Shireen|author-link=|year=2002|title=Islam, Europe's second religion: the new social, cultural, and political landscape|url=https://archive.org/details/islameuropesseco0000unse|place=|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0275976092 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite book|last=Hüssein|first=Serkan|author-link=|year=2007|title=Yesterday & Today: Turkish Cypriots of Australia|place=|publisher=Serkan Hussein|isbn=0646477838 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite book|last=Karpat|first=Kemal H.|author-link=|year=2002|title=Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays |place=|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004121013 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite book|last=Karpat|first=Kemal H.|author-link=|year=2004|title=Studies on Turkish Politics and Society: Selected Articles and Essays |place=|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004133224 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite book|last1=Kaya|first1=Ayhan|last2=Kentel|first2=Ferhat|year=2007|title=Belgian-Turks A Bridge or a Breach between Turkey and the European Union?|url=http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/05)_Pictures,_documents_and_external_sites/09)_Publications/%20KBS%E2%80%A2Belgian-Turks%20GB_All%20in(1).pdf|place=http://www.kbs-frb.be/|publisher=King Baudouin Foundation|isbn=978-90-5130-587-6|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080626010313/http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/05)_Pictures,_documents_and_external_sites/09)_Publications/%20KBS%E2%80%A2Belgian-Turks%20GB_All%20in(1).pdf |date=2008-06-26 }} *{{Cite book|last1=Kibaroğlu|first1=Mustafa|last2=Kibaroğlu|first2=Ayșegül|last3=Halman|first3=Talât Sait|year=2009|title=Global security watch Turkey: A reference handbook|url=https://archive.org/details/globalsecuritywa0000kiba|place=|publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313345600|ref= harv |postscript= <!--None-->}}. *{{Cite document|last=King Baudouin Foundation|first=|year=2008|url=http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/18)_Website_static_Content/Enews/International_newsletter_7_(May_2008).pdf|title=Turkish communities and the EU|place=http://www.kbs-frb.be/|publisher=King Baudouin Foundation|isbn=|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090225081535/http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/18)_Website_static_Content/Enews/International_newsletter_7_(May_2008).pdf |date=2009-02-25 }} *{{Cite book|last=Knowlton|first=MaryLee|author-link=|year=2005|title=Macedonia|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761418542|place=|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=0761418547 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{citation |last1=Kötter|first1=I|last2=Vonthein|first2=R|last3=Günaydin|first3=I|last4=Müller|first4=C|last5=Kanz|first5=L|last6=Zierhut |first6=M|last7=Stübiger|first7=N|year=2003|chapter=Behçet's Disease in Patients of German and Turkish Origin- A Comparative Study|title=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Volume 528|editor-last=Zouboulis|editor-first=Christos (ed.)|place=|publisher=Springer|isbn=0306477572}}. *{{Cite book|last1= Laczko|first1= Frank|last2=Stacher|first2=Irene|last3=Klekowski von Koppenfels|first3=Amanda|year=2002|title= New challenges for Migration Policy in Central and Eastern Europe |url= https://archive.org/details/newchallengesfor0000unse_l8r6|place=|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 906704153X |ref= harv |postscript= <!--None-->}}. *{{Cite book|last=Madianou|first=Mirca|year=2005|title=Mediating the nation: news, audiences and the politics of identity |place=|publisher=Routledge Cavendish|isbn=1844720284 |ref=harv |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->}}. *{{Cite book|last=Migdal|first=Joel S.|author-link=|year=2004|title=Boundaries and belonging: states and societies in the struggle to shape identities and local practices|url=https://archive.org/details/boundariesbelong0000unse|place=|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 0521835666|ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite document |last=ORSAM|first=|year=2010|url=http://www.orsam.org.tr/en/enUploads/Article/Files/2010110_sayi11_eng_web.pdf|title=The forgotten Turks : Turkmens of Lebanon|place=http://www.orsam.org.tr/en|publisher=Center for Middle-Eastern Strategic Studies|isbn= |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}} *{{Cite document|last=Oustinova-Stjepanovic|first=Galina|year=2008|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/mariecuriesocanth/research_files/Poster_Oustinova.pdf|title=Religion and Politics of Sufi Turks in Macedonia A pre-field proposal|place=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/|publisher=University College London|isbn=|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014222122/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/mariecuriesocanth/research_files/Poster_Oustinova.pdf |date=2012-10-14 }} *{{Cite journal|last=Özkaya|first=Abdi Noyan|year=2007|url=http://www.usak.org.tr/dosyalar/dergi/IdZgitj2V2vbuyxGGkzJnS8yvQqpT5.pdf|title=Suriye Kürtleri: Siyasi Etkisizlik ve Suriye Devleti’nin Politikaları|journal=Review of International Law and Politics|volume=2|issue=8|accessdate=2010-09-10|ref=harv|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714044446/http://www.usak.org.tr/dosyalar/dergi/IdZgitj2V2vbuyxGGkzJnS8yvQqpT5.pdf |date=2015-07-14 }} *{{Cite book|last=Park|first=Bill|year=2005|title=Turkey's policy towards northern Iraq: problems and perspectives|url=https://archive.org/details/turkeyspolicytow0000park|place=|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0415382971|ref= harv |postscript= <!--None-->}}. *{{Cite book|last=Phinnemore|first=David|author-link=|year=2006|title=The EU and Romania: accession and beyond |url=https://archive.org/details/euromaniaaccessi0000unse|place=|publisher= The Federal Trust for Education & Research |isbn= 1903403782 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite document |last=TRNC PRIME MINISTRY STATE PLANNING ORGANIZATION|first=|year=2006|title=TRNC GENERAL POPULATION AND HOUSING UNIT CENSUS |url=http://nufussayimi.devplan.org/Census%202006.pdf|place=http://www.pekem.org/|publisher=TRNC PRIME MINISTRY STATE PLANNING ORGANIZATION|isbn= |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}} *{{Cite book|last=Vachudová|first=Milada Anna|author-link=|year=2005|title=Europe undivided: democracy, leverage, and integration after communism |url=https://archive.org/details/europeundividedd0000vach|place=|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0199241198 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite document|last=Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi|first=|year=2008|title=İnsan Haklarını İnceleme Komisyonu'num Hollanda Ziyareti (16-21 Haziran 2008)|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/insanhaklari/belge/kr_23hollanda.pdf|place=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/|publisher=Grand National Assembly of Turkey|isbn=|ref=harv|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}} *{{Cite document|last=Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi|first=|year=2009|title=İnsan Haklarını İnceleme Komisyonu: Fransa Raporu|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/insanhaklari/belge/fransa_raporu.pdf|place=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/|publisher=Grand National Assembly of Turkey|isbn=|ref=harv|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}} *{{Cite book|last1=Warrander|first1=Gail|last2=Knaus|first2=Verena|author-link=|year=2008|title=Bradt Travel Guide Kosovo|place=|publisher=Springer|isbn=0306477572 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *{{Cite document|last=Western Thrace Minority University Graduates Association|first=|year=2009|title=Western Thrace Turkish Minority|url=http://www.pekem.org/userfiles/Western_Thrace_Turkish_Minority_WTMUGA_July_2009.pdf|place=http://www.pekem.org/|publisher=Culture and Education Foundation of Western Thrace Minority|isbn=|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727170653/http://www.pekem.org/userfiles/Western_Thrace_Turkish_Minority_WTMUGA_July_2009.pdf |date=2011-07-27 }} *{{Cite book|last=Zouboulis|first=Christos|author-link=|year=2003|title=Adamantiades-Behçet's Disease|url=https://archive.org/details/adamantiadesbehc0000inte|place=|publisher=Springer|isbn=0306477572 |ref=harv |postscript=<!--None-->}}. *A Guide to Ottoman Bulgaria" by di mana Trankova, Anthony Géorgieff and Professor Hristo Matanov; published by Vagabond Media, Sofia, 2011 [http://www.vagabond.bg/ottomanbulgaria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115040440/http://www.vagabond.bg/ottomanbulgaria/ |date=2011-11-15 }} == Bacaan salajengna == <div class="references-small"> {{col-begin}} {{col-break|width=50%}} ;Urang Turki * {{Cite book |title = The Turkish People: Their Social Life, Religious Beliefs and Institutions and Domestic Life |first = Lucy M. J. |last = Garnett |publisher = Kessinger Publishing |year = 2004 |isbn = 1417947063 }} * {{Cite book |title = The Turks Today |url = https://archive.org/details/turkstoday00andr |first = Andrew |last = Mango |publisher = Overlook |year = 2004 |isbn = 1585676152 }} * {{Cite web |title = Who Are The Turks? |author = McCarthy, Justin & McCarthy Carolyn |publisher = The American Forum For Global Education |format = PDF |accessdate = 2008-07-11 |year = 2003 |url = http://www.ataturk.com/public_files/WhoAreTheTurksebook.pdf |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060311004007/http://www.ataturk.com/public_files/WhoAreTheTurksebook.pdf |archivedate = 2006-03-11 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911033541/http://www.ataturk.com/public_files/WhoAreTheTurksebook.pdf |date=2008-09-11 }} ;Sajarah * {{Cite book |title = Atatürk: First President and Founder of the Turkish Republic |url = https://archive.org/details/ataturkfirstpres0000atil |first = Yüksel| last = Atillasoy |publisher = Woodside House, Woodside, NY |year = 2002 |isbn = 978-0971235342 }} * {{Cite book |title = Lords of the Golden Horn: From Suleiman the Magnificent to Kemal Ataturk |url = https://archive.org/details/lordsofgoldenhor0000barb_d2o8 |first = Noel| last = Barber |publisher = Arrow, London |year = 1988 |isbn = 978-0099539506 }} * {{Cite book |title = The Turks in World History |url = https://archive.org/details/turksinworldhist0000find |first = Carter Vaughn| last = Findley |publisher = Oxford University Press, USA |year = 2004 |isbn = 0195177266 }} * {{Cite book |title = The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire |url = https://archive.org/details/ottomancenturies0000kinr_d1b1 |first = Patrick| last = Kinross |publisher = Morrow |year = 1977 |isbn = 0688030939 }} * {{Cite book |title = Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |url = https://archive.org/details/ataturk0000mang_b0t1 |first = Andrew| last = Mango |publisher = Overlook |year = 2000 |isbn = 1585670111 }} *{{Cite book |last=Merriman |first=Roger Bigelow |title=Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1944 |oclc=784228 |isbn=1406772720}} * {{Cite book |title = History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey |url = https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan |first = Stanford Jay| last = Shaw |coauthors = Kural Shaw, Ezel |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 1977 |isbn = 0521291631 }} ;Démografi * {{Cite book |title = Religion and Politics in Turkey |first = Ali |last = Çarkoǧlu |publisher = Routledge (UK) |year = 2004 |isbn = 0415348315 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=t5G_zw9exMQC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=Religion+in+Turkey}} * {{Cite book |title = The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives |first = Guus |last = Extra |coauthors = Gorter, Durk |publisher = Multilingual Matters |year = 2001 |isbn = 1853595098 |url= http://books.google.com/?id=hvmy_skUPNYC&pg=RA1-PA422&lpg=RA1-PA422&dq=%22ethnic+groups+in+turkey%22 }} * {{Cite web |title = 2000 Census, population by provinces and districts |author = Turkish Statistical Institute |publisher = Turkish Statistical Institute |format = XLS |accessdate = 2006-12-11 |year = 2000 |url = http://www.die.gov.tr/nufus_sayimi/2000tablo5.xls }} {{col-break|width=50%}} ;Basa *{{Cite book |title=The Turks in World History |url=https://archive.org/details/turksinworldhist0000find |first=Carter V. |last=Findley |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-19-517726-6 }} *{{Cite book |title=Languages of the World, Third Edition |first=Kenneth|last=Katzner |publisher=Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd. |year=2002 |isbn=978-0415250047 }} *{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Geoffrey |authorlink=Geoffrey Lewis (Turkish scholar) |title=Turkish Grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/turkishgrammar0000lewi_f5f8 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-19-870036-9}} *{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Geoffrey |authorlink=Geoffrey Lewis (Turkish scholar) |title=The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-925669-1}} *{{Cite book |last=Nişanyan |first=Sevan |title=Sözlerin Soyağacı: Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimoloji Sözlüğü (Etymological Dictionary of Contemporary Turkish) |publisher=Adam Yayınları, Revised and Enlarged 3rd Edition |year=2007 |isbn=975-418-868-4}}{{tr icon}} *{{Cite book |last=Özsoy |first=A. Sumru |coauthors=Taylan, Eser E. (eds.) |title=Türkçe’nin ağızları çalıştayı bildirileri (Workshop on the dialects of Turkish) |publisher=[[Boğaziçi Üniversitesi]] Yayınevi |year=2000 |isbn=9755181407}}{{tr icon}} *{{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=A History of Inner Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofinneras00souc |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0521651691 }} ;Kasenian & Kabudayaan * {{Cite book |last= Andrews |first=Walter G |title= Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology |year= |publisher= |isbn= 0-2... |location=}} * {{Cite book |last= Aslanapa |first=Oktay |title=Turkish art and architecture |year=1971 |publisher= Faber |isbn= 0571087817 |location=London}} *{{Cite book |author=Bartok, Bela & Suchoff, Benjamin |title=Turkish Folk Music from Asia Minor (The New York Bartok Archive Studies in Musicology, No. 7) |url=https://archive.org/details/turkishfolkmusic0000bart |publisher=Princeton Univ Pr |year=1976 |isbn= 0-691-09120-X }} * {{Cite book |title = A History of Ottoman Architecture |url = https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman0000good_u7g7 |first = Godfrey |last = Goodwin |publisher = Thames & Hudson |year = 2003 |isbn = 0500274290 }} * {{Cite book |title = Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience |first = İbrahim |last = Kaya |publisher = Liverpool University Press |year = 2003 |isbn = 0853238987 |url = http://books.google.com/?id=0Iy7pJBRgjYC&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=Turkish+culture }} *{{Cite book |author=Stokes, Martin |title=Sounds of Anatolia |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2000 |isbn= 1-85828-636-0}} {{col-end}} </div> {{-}} {{Turkish diaspora}} {{Turkic peoples}} {{European Muslims}} {{Immigration to Turkey}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Turki}} [[Kategori:Urang Turki| ]] [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Turki]] {{grup-étnis-stub}} 865xp0q6dryo8imi9kyweegiccaqbjw 0 37692 711513 664716 2026-08-06T21:57:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711513 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Kakaisaran Pérsia}} {{Kotak info urut nagara |native_name= |conventional_long_name = Kakaisaran Akéméniyah|common_name = Kakaisaran Pérsia |continent = Eurasia |region = Wétan deukeut |country = Iran |era = Kuna |status = Kakaisaran |status_text = <!---A free text to describe status the top of the infobox. Use sparingly.---> |empire = <!---The empire or country to which the entity was in a state of dependency---> |government_type = Monarki |today = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=Nagara ayeuna| {{flag|Apganistan}}|{{flag|Arab Saudi}}|{{flag|Arménia}}|{{flag|Azerbaijan}}|{{flag|Bahrain}}<ref name="Mojtahed-Zadeh">''Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf: A Maritime Political Geography'' by Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh, page 119</ref>|{{flag|Bulgaria}}|{{flag|Cina}}|{{flag|Géorgia}}|{{flag|Irak}}|{{flag|Iran}}|{{flag|Israél}}|{{flag|Kazakhstan}}|{{flag|Kirgizstan}}|{{flag|Kuwait}}|{{flag|Libanon}}|{{flag|Libya}}|{{flag|Makédonia}}|{{flag|Mesir}}|{{flag|Pakistan}}|{{flag|Paléstina}}|{{flag|Romania}}|{{flag|Rusia}}|{{flag|Sudan}}|{{flag|Suriah}}|{{flag|Tajikistan}}|{{flag|Turki}}|{{flag|Turkménistan}}|{{flag|Uzbékistan}}|{{flag|Yordania}}|{{flag|Yunani}}| }} <!--- Rise and fall, events, years and dates ---> <!-- only fill in the start/end event entry if a specific article exists. Don't just say "abolition" or "declaration"--> |year_start = 550 SM (Cyrus nu ageung Great ngéléhan Astages ti Média) |year_end = 336 SM (Aleksander nu Ageung ngawasaan Pérsia) |life_span = <u>+</u> 550 SM–336 SM |year_exile_start = <!--- Year of start of exile (if dealing with exiled government - status="Exile") ---> |year_exile_end = <!--- Year of end of exile (leave blank if still in exile) ---> | |event_start = <!--- Default: "Established" ---> |date_start = <!--- Optional: Date of establishment, enter dates in this format 1 January 1801---> |event_end = Conquered during [[Wars of Alexander the Great]] |date_end = <!--- Optional: Date of disestablishment ---> | |event1 = Mimiti pawangunan [[Pérsepolis]] |date_event1 = 515 SM |event2 = Panarajangan [[Mesir Kuna|Mesir]] ku [[Cambyses II ti Pérsia|Cambyses II]] |date_event2 = 525 SM |event3 = [[Perang Yunani-Pérsia]] |date_event3 = 498–448 SM |event4 = |date_event4 = |event5 = Panarajangan Mesir ku [[Artaxerxes III]] |date_event5 = 343 SM |event6 = Eléh ku [[Aleksander nu Ageung]] |date_event6 = 334 SM–330 SM | |event_pre = <!--- Optional: A crucial event that took place before before "event_start"---> |date_pre = |event_post = [[Darius III]] ditelasan ku [[Bessus]] |date_post = 330 SM | |p1 = Kakaisaran Média |flag_p1 = Median Empire.svg |p2 = Kakaisaran Babylonia Anyar |flag_p2 = Neo babylonia empire 540 bc-2.png |p3 = Lydia |flag_p3 = Map Anatolia ancient regions (Indonesian version).svg |p4 = Dinasti ka-26 Mesir |flag_p4 = Ancient Egypt map-en.svg |s1 = Kakaisaran Makédonia |flag_s1 = Vergiasun.svg |s2 = |flag_s2 = |image_flag =Standard of Cyrus the Great (White).svg |flag = Bandéra-bandéra Pérsia |flag_type = Standar Cyrus nu Ageung | |image_coat = <!--- Default: Coat of arms of {{{Common name}}}.svg ---> |symbol = <!--- Link target under symbol image. Default: Coat of arms of {{{Common name}}} ---> |symbol_type = <!--- Displayed text for link under symbol. Default "Coat of arms" ---> | |image_map = Achaemenid_Empire.jpg |image_map_caption = Kakaisaran Akéméniyah nalika kira-kira taun 500 SM saméméh kakawasaan maksimumna dina [[Darius I]] (tanpa panarajangan [[Punjab Kulon|Panjab Kulon]]). | |image_map2 = <!-- If second map is needed - does not appear by default --> |image_map2_caption = | |capital = [[Pasargadae]], [[Ecbatana]], [[Persepolis]], [[Susa]], [[Babylon]] |capital_exile = <!-- If status="Exile" --> |latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW= | |national_motto = |national_anthem = |common_languages = [[Basa Pérsia Kuna]] (resmi jeung basa asli)<br>[[Basa Aramaik Luhur]](<small>''lingua franca''</small>)<ref>Josef Wiesehöfer, ''Ancient Persia'', (I.B. Tauris Ltd, 2007), 119.</ref><br>[[Elamite]]<br>[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Traduction: encyclopédie internationale de la recherche sur la traduction|author=Harald Kittel, Juliane House, Brigitte Schultze|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2007|pages=1194–5|url=http://books.google.com/?id=oD0dBqGDNscC&pg=PA1194&dq=Old+Persian+official+language+of+achaemenid+empire#v=onepage&q=Old%20Persian%20official%20language%20of%20achaemenid%20empire&f=false|isbn=9783110171457}}</ref> |religion = [[Zoroastrianisme]] |currency = [[Daric]] jeung [[Siglos]] | |<!--- Titles and names of the first and last leaders and their deputies ---> |leader1 = [[Cyrus nu Ageung]] |leader2 = [[Darius III ti Pérsia|Darius III]] |year_leader1 = 559–529 SM (kahiji) |year_leader2 = 336–330 SM (pangahirna) |title_leader = [[Raja Pérsia|Raja]] |<!--- Area and population of a given year ---> |stat_year1 = <!--- year of the statistic, specify either area, population or both ---> |stat_area1 = <!--- area in square kílometres (w/o commas or spaces), area in square miles is calculated ---> |stat_pop1 = <!--- population (w/o commas or spaces), population density is calculated if area is also given ---> |footnotes = <!--- Accepts wikilinks ---> }} <!-- {{History of Iran}} --> '''Kakaisaran Akéméniyah''' ([[Basa Pérsia Kuna]]: ''Parsa'') (<u>+</u> 550–330 SM), dipikawanoh ogé minangka '''Kakaisaran Pérsia Kahiji''', nyaéta hiji kakaisaran di [[Asia Kidul-Kulon]], ngadeg dina [[abad ka-6 SM]] ku [[Cyrus nu Ageung]] anu ngéléhkeun [[Média (étnisitas)|konféderasi Média]]. Kakaisaran ieu ngalega nepi ka ahirna ngawasaan sabagian gedé dina dunya baheula nu mana kira-kira dina taun 500 SM ngalintang ti Lebak Indus di wétan, nepi ka [[Thracia]] jeung [[Makédon]] dina wates kalér-wétan [[Yunani]]. ==Tingali ogé== *[[Daptar raja-raja Pérsia]] *[[Pohon kulawargi Akéméniyah]] *[[Purim]], parayaan Yahudi nu patali jeung Kakaisaran Akéméniyah ==Catetan jeung rujukan== {{Reflist}} <div class="references-small"> *<cite id=refBriant>{{cite encyclopaedia|last=Briant|first=Pierre|title=Alexander|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f8/v1f8a031.html|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=vol. 3|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517062736/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f8/v1f8a031.html |date=2008-05-17 }} *<cite id=refariaramnes-EI>{{cite encyclopaedia|author=A. Sh. Shahbazi|title=ARIARAMNEIA|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ariaramneia-a-city-in-cappadocia-mentioned-in-an-inscription|volume=vol. 2|publisher=Encyclopaedia Iranica (Routledge & Kegan Paul)}} *<cite id=refachaemenids-EI>{{cite encyclopaedia|last=Schmitt|first=Rüdiger|title=Achaemenid dynasty|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f4/v1f4a109.html|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=vol. 3|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090317005252/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f4/v1f4a109.html |date=2009-03-17 }} *<cite id=refschlerath>{{cite book|last=Schlerath|first=Bernfried|title=Die Indogermanen|publisher=Inst. f. Vergl. Sprachwiss.|year=1973|isbn=3851245164}} *<cite id=refjtavernier> {{cite book |last=Tavernier|first=Jan| title=Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Linguistic Study of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts |publisher=Peeters Publishers |year=2007|isbn=9042918330}} *Stronach, David "Darius at Pasargadae: A Neglected Source for the History of Early Persia," Topoi *Stronach, David "Anshan and Parsa: Early Achaemenid History, Art and Architecture on the Iranian Plateau". In: John Curtis, ed., Mesopotamia and Iran in the Persian Period: Conquest and Imperialism 539–331, 35–53. London: British muséum Press 1997. </div> *<cite id=wiesehöfer>{{cite encyclopaedia|last=Wiesehöfer|first=Josef|title=History in pre-Islamic period|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v9f3/v9f393a.html|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ==Bacaan salajengna== * {{cite book|first=Josef|last=Wiesehöfer|authorlink=Josef Wiesehöfer|coauthors=Azizeh Azodi (translator)|title=Ancient Persia|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London, New York|year=2001|isbn=1860646751}} There have been a number of editions since 1996. * {{cite book|title=Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia|url=https://archive.org/details/forgottenempirew0000unse_c6q5|first=John E.|last=Curtis|coauthors=Nigel Tallis (editors)|year=2005|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=0520247310}} A collection of articles by different authors. *''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire]'', [[Pierre Briant]], Eisenbrauns: 2002, ISBN 978-1-57506-0316 *''The Greco-Persian Wars'', Peter Green *[http://books.google.ca/books?id=V5BeCF82gwUC ''The Greek and Persian Wars 499–386 BC'', Volume 36 of Essential histories. Philip De Souza. Osprey Publishing, 2003, ISBN 1841763586, 9781841763583] *''The Heritage of Persia'', [[Richard N. Frye]] *''History of the Persian Empire'', A.T. Olmstéad *''The Persian Empire'', Lindsay Allen *''The Persian Empire'', J.M. Cook *''Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West'', Tom Holland *''Pictorial History of Iran: Ancient Persia Before Islam 15000 B.C.–625 A.D.'', Amini Sam *''Timelife Persians: Masters of the Empire (Lost Civilizations)'' * Dandamaev, M.A. ''A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire''. Leiden: [[Brill Academic Publishers]], 1989 (ISBN 90-04-09172-6). *[[Richard Hallock (epigrapher)|Hallock, R.]], ''[http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIP92.pdf Persepolis Fortification Tablets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621133316/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIP92.pdf |date=2007-06-21 }}'' ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons category}} {{Wiktionary}} {{refbegin}} *[http://www.persiansarenotarabs.com/persian-history Sajarh Pérsia] *[http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/achaemenians.html Livius.org dina Achaemenids] *[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cispis-opers ČIŠPIŠ] *[http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html Prasasti Behistun] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510195821/http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html |date=2007-05-10 }} *[http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions.html Livius.org dina Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218193522/http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions.html |date=2016-12-18 }} {{refend}} {{Median and Achaemenid kings}} {{Iran topics}} {{Empires}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Akemeniyah}} [[Kategori:Kakaisaran Akéméniyah| ]] [[Kategori:Pérsia Kuna|+]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Iran|+]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Zoroastrianisme]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Azerbaijan]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Wétan Tengah]] [[Kategori:Sajarah kuna Pakistan]] [[Kategori:Sajarah kuna Turkey]] [[Kategori:Mesir Kuna]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Pra-Islam Apganistan]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 550 SM]] [[Kategori:Nu bubar taun 330 SM di Iran]] [[Kategori:Jaman Beusi]] {{nagara-sajarah-stub|Wétan Deukeut}} g1gk9hfh7fijfk0bioe3yibey5zkmbj 0 37706 711722 675747 2026-08-07T02:33:45Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711722 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Turki Séljuk|wewengkon anu dikawasaanna|Kakaisaran Séljuk Raya}} [[File:Seljuk Empire correct locator map.png|right|420px|thumb|[[Kakaisaran Séljuk Raya]] <u>+</u>1092]] <!-- {{History of Turkey}} --> '''Séljuk''' (ogé '''Turki Séljuk''',<ref>[http://books.google.de/books?q=seljuk+turks&lr=&sa=N&start=0 "Seljuq Turks" in various scholastic sources]</ref> '''Seldjuks''', '''Seldjuqs''', '''Seljuks''', '''Seljuq'''; dina [[basa Turki]] ''Selçuklular''; dina {{lang-fa|سلجوقيان}} ''Saljūqīyān''); nyaéta hiji [[dinasti]] [[Turko-Pérsia]]<ref>Hottinger, Arnold, ''The Arabs'', (University of California Press, 1963), 90; "''..and for these '''Turko-persian Seljuks''' who now ruled the largest Islamic state...''"</ref><ref>Grousset, Rene, ''The Empire of the Steppes'', (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 161,164; "..renewed the Seljuk attempt to found a great Turko-Persian empire in eastern Iran..", "It is to be noted that the Seljuks, those Turkomans who became sultans of Persia, did not Turkify Persia-no doubt because they did not wish to do so. On the contrary, it was they who voluntarily became Persians and who, in the manner of the great old Sassanid kings, strove to protect the Iranian populations from the plundering of Ghuzz bands and save Iranian culture from the Turkoman menace."</ref><ref>Nishapuri, Zahir al-Din Nishapuri (2001), “The History of the Seljuq Turks from the Jami’ al-Tawarikh: An Ilkhanid Adaptation of the [[Saljuq-nama]] of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri,” Partial tr. K.A. Luther, ed. C.E. Bosworth, Richmond, UK. K.A. Luther: "... the Turks were illiteratre and uncultivated when they arrived in Khurasan and had to depend on Iranian scribes, poets, jurists and theologians to man the institution of the Empire”(pg 9)</ref><ref> *Jackson, P. (2002). "Review: The History of the Seljuq Turks: The History of the Seljuq Turks". ''Journal of Islamic Studies'' 2002 13(1):75–76; doi:10.1093/jis/13.1.75.Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. *Bosworth, C. E. (2001). "Notes on Some Turkish Names" in Abu 'l-Fadl Bayhaqi's Tarikh-i Mas'udi. Oriens, Vol. 36, 2001 (2001), pp. 299–313. *Dani, A. H., Masson, V. M. (Eds), Asimova, M. S. (Eds), Litvinsky, B. A. (Eds), Boaworth, C. E. (Eds). (1999). ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers'' (Pvt. Ltd). * Hancock, I. (2006). ''On Romani Origins and Identity''. The Romani Archives and Documentation Center. The University of Texas at Austin. * Asimov, M. S., Bosworth, C. E. (eds.). (1998). ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting''. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.</ref><ref>* Josef W. Meri, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia'', Routledge, 2005, p. 399 * Michael Mandelbaum, ''Central Asia and the World'', Council on Foreign Relations (May 1994), p. 79 * Jonathan Dewald, ''Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World'', Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004, p. 24: "Turcoman armies coming from the East had driven the Byzantines out of much of Asia Minor and established the Persianized sultanate of the Seljuks." *Ram Rahul. ''March of Central Asia'', Indus Publishing, page 124. *C.E. Bosworth, "Turkish expansion towards the west", in ''UNESCO History of Humanity'', Volume IV, 2000. *Mehmed Fuad Koprulu, ''Early Mystics in Turkish Literature'', Translated by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff, Routledge, 2006, pg 149. *O.Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries", ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'', Online Edition, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp7/ot_pers_mss_ott_20050106.html LINK] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122005207/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp7/ot_pers_mss_ott_20050106.html |date=2012-01-22 }}) *[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], "Seljuq", Online Edition, ([http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688 LINK])</ref> [[Muslim]] [[Sunni]] anu ngawasaan bagian [[Asia Tengah]] jeung [[Wétan Tengah]] ti abad ka-11 nepi ka abad ka-14. Dinasti ieu ngadegkeun hiji kakaisaran, [[Kakaisaran Séljuk Raya]]. Dinasti ieu pituin dina konféderasi séké-sélér [[Turki Oghuz|Tukoman]] di Asia Tengah. Sanggeus datang ka [[Iran Raya|Pérsia]], Séljuk ngadopsi [[budaya Pérsia]] Sarta maké [[basa Pérsia]] salaku basa resmi pamaréntahan,<ref>Bosworth, C.E.; Hillenbrand, R.; Rogers, J.M.; Blois, F.C. de; Bosworth, C.E.; Darley-Doran, R.E., Saldjukids, Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2009. Brill Online: “Culturally, the constituting of the Seljuq Empire marked a further step in the dethronement of Arabic from being the sole lingua franca of educated and polite society in the Middle East. Coming as they did through a Transoxania which was still substantially Iranian and into Persia proper, the Seljuqs with no high-level Turkish cultural or literary heritage of their own – took over that of Persia, so that the Persian language became the administration and culture in their land of Persia and Anatolia. The Persian culture of the Rum Seljuqs was particularly splendid, and it was only gradually that Turkish emerged there as a parallel language in the field of government and adab; the Persian imprint in Ottoman civilization was to remain strong until the 19th century.</ref><!-- intentionally hidden for space reason <ref name="iranica" /><ref name="britannica">[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], ''"Seljuq"'', Online Edition, ([http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688 LINK]): ''"... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..."''</ref><ref>John Perry, THE HISTORICAL ROLE OF TURKISH IN RELATION TO PERSIAN OF IRAN in Iran & the Caucasus, Vol. 5, (2001), pp. 193-200. excerpt: " First, since the Turkish-speaking rulers of most Iranian polities from the Ghaznavids and Seljuks onward were already iranized and patronized Persian literature in their domains, the expansion of Turk-ruled empires served to expand the territorial domain of written Persian into the conquered areas, notably Anatolia and Central and South Asia."</ref><ref>Ram Rahul. "March of Central Asia", Indus Publishing, pg 124: "The Seljuk conquest of Persia marked the triumph of the Sunni over Shii but without a decline in Persian culture. The Seljuks eventually adopted the Persian culture.</ref><ref>Ehsan Yarshater, “Iran” in ''Encyclopedia Iranica'': "The ascent of the Saljuqids also put an end to a period which Minorsky has called “the Persian intermezzo” (see Minorsky, 1932, p. 21), when Iranian dynasties, consisting mainly of the Saffarids, the Samanids, the Ziyarids, the Buyids, the Kakuyids, and the Bavandids of Tabarestan and Gilan, ruled most of Iran. By all accounts, weary of the miseries and devastations of never-ending conflicts and wars, Persians seemed to have sighed with relief and to have welcomed the stability of the Saljuqid rule, all the more so since the Saljuqids mitigated the effect of their foreignness, quickly adopting the Persian culture and court customs and procedures and leaving the civil administration in the hand of Persian personnel, headed by such capable and learned viziers as ‘Amid-al-Molk Kondori and Nezam-al-Molk."</ref><ref>[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]], "Turkish expansion towards the west", in [[UNESCO]] HISTORY OF HUMANITY, Volume IV: From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century, UNESCO Publishing / Routledge,2000. p. 391: "While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law, theology and science, the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized; this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers (Qubād, Kay Khusraw and so on) and in the use of Persian as a literary language (Turkish must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time). The process of Persianization accelerated in the thirteenth century with the presence in Konya of two of the most distinguished refugees fleeing before the Mongols, Bahā' al-Dīn Walad and his son Mawlānā Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, whose ''Mathnawī'', composed in Konya, constitutes one of the crowning glories of classical Persian literature."</ref><ref>Stephen P. Blake, "Shahjahanabad: The Sovereign City in Mughal India, 1639-1739". Cambridge University Press, 1991. pg 123: "For the Seljuks and Il-Khanids in Iran it was the rulers rather than the conquered who were "Persianized and Islamicized".</ref><ref>Mehmed Fuad Koprulu, ''Early Mystics in Turkish Literature'', Translated by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff, Routledge, 2006, pg 149: "If we wish to sketch, in broad outline, the civilization created by the Seljuks of Anatolia, we must recognize that the local, i.e. non-Muslim, element was fairly insignificant compared to the Turkish and Arab-Persian elements, and that the Persian element was paramount/The Seljuk rulers, to be sure, who were in contact with not only Muslim Persian civilization, but also with the Arab civilizations in al-jazīra and Syria – indeed, with all Muslim peoples as far as India – also had connections with {various} Byzantine courts. Some of these rulers, like the great 'Ala' al-Dīn Kai-Qubād I himself, who married Byzantine princesses and thus strengthened relations with their neighbors to the west, lived for many years in Byzantium and became very familiar with the customs and ceremonial at the Byzantine court. Still, this close contact with the ancient Greco-Roman and Christian traditions only resulted in their adoption of a policy of tolerance toward art, aesthetic life, painting, music, independent thought – in short, toward those things that were frowned upon by the narrow and piously ascetic views {of their subjects}. The contact of the common people with the Greeks and Armenians had basically the same result. {Before coming to Anatolia}, the Turks had been in contact with many nations and had long shown their ability to synthesize the artistic elements that they had adopted from these nations. When they settled in Anatolia, they encountered peoples with whom they had not yet been in contact and immediately established relations with them as well. 'Ala' al-Dīn Kai-Qubād I established ties with the Genoese and, especially, the Venetians at the ports of Sinop and Antalya, which belonged to him, and granted them commercial and legal concessions. Meanwhile, the Mongol invasion, which caused a great number of scholars and artisans to flee from Turkistan, Iran, and Khwārazm and settle within the Empire of the Seljuks of Anatolia, resulted in a reinforcing of Persian influence on the Anatolian Turks. Indeed, despite all claims to the contrary, there is no question that Persian influence was paramount among the Seljuks of Anatolia. This is clearly revealed by the fact that the sultans who ascended the throne after Ghiyāth al-Dīn Kai-Khusraw I assumed titles taken from ancient Persian mythology, like Kai-Khusraw, Kai-Kā'ūs, and Kai-Qubād; and that 'Ala' al-Dīn Kai-Qubād I had some passages from the ''Shāhnāme'' inscribed on the walls of Konya and Sivas. When we take into consideration domestic life in the Konya courts and the sincerity of the favor and attachment of the rulers to Persian poets and Persian literature, then this fact {i.e. the importance of Persian influence} is undeniable. With regard to the private lives of the rulers, their amusements, and palace ceremonial, the most definite influence was also that of Iran, mixed with the early Turkish traditions, and not that of Byzantium."</ref> --> sarta katémbong salakiu sesepuh ti [[Turki Oghuz|urang Turki Kulon]] – pangeusi [[Azerbaijan]], [[Turki]], jeung [[Turkménistan]] kiwari. ==Pangawasa Séljuk== ===Pangawasa Dinasti Séljuk=== {| width=100% class="wikitable" ! style="background-color:#F0DC88" width=17% | Gelar ! style="background-color:#F0DC88" width=17% | Jenengan pribados ! style="background-color:#F0DC88" width=17% | Période kakawasaan |- |align="center"|''Bey''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|بیگ}}</small> |align="center"| [[Tughril]] <br><small>{{Nastaliq|طغرل}}</small> |align="center"|1016-1063<br> |- |align="center"|''Sultan''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان}}</small> |align="center"| [[Alp Arslan]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|الپ ارسلان}}</small> |align="center"|1063-1072 |- |align="center"|''Sultan''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان}}</small><br>''Jalāl al-Dawlah''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|جلال الدولہ }}</small> |align="center"| [[Malik Shah I]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|ملک شاہ اول }}</small> |align="center"|1072-1092 |- |align="center"|''Sultan''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان}}</small><br>''Nasir al-Duniya wa al-Din''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|ناصر الدنیا والدین }}</small> |align="center"| [[Mahmud I ti Séljuk Raya|Mahmud bin Malik Shah]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq| محمود بن ملک شاہ }}</small> |align="center"|1092-1094 |- |align="center"|''Sultan''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان}}</small><br>''Abul Muzaffar Rukn al-Duniya wa al-Din''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|أبو المظفر رکن الدنیا والدین }}</small> |align="center"| [[Barkiyaruq|Barkiyaruq bin Malik Shah]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|برکیاروق بن ملک شاه}}</small> |align="center"|1094–1105 |- |align="center"|''Sultan''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان}}</small><br>''Muizz al-Din''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|معز الدین }}</small> |align="center"| [[Malik Shah II]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|ملک شاہ الثانی }}</small> |align="center"|1105 |- |align="center"|''Sultan''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان}}</small></small><br>''Ghiyath al-Duniya wa al-Din''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|غیاث الدنیا والدین }}</small> |align="center"| [[Muhammad I (Sultan Séljuk)|Muhammad Tapar]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|محمد تپار }}</small> |align="center"|1105-1118 |- |align="center"|''Sultan''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان}}</small></small><br>''Muizz al-Din''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|معز الدین }}</small> |align="center"| *[[Ahmad Sanjar]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|احمد سنجر}}</small> |align="center"|1118–1153 |- |colspan=4 align="middle"| [[Dinasti Khwarezmiyah]] ngagentos dinsati Séljuk. Ti 1157, [[Oghuz]] nyandak kadali kana sabagian Khurasan, kalawan sésanaaya dina émir Seljuk. |} *''Putrana Muhammad, [[Mahmud II ti Séljuk Raya|Mahmud II]] neraskeun anjeunna di Pérsia kulon, tapi [[Ahmad Sanjar]], anu keur éta minangka gubernur [[Khorasan Raya|Khurasan]], salaku sesepuh kulawargi, janten Sultan Séljuk Raya.'' {{-}} ===Sultan Séljuk Hamadan=== * [[Mahmud II ti Séljuk Raya|Mahmud II]] 1118–1131 *1131-1134 - Dipaséakeun ** [[Dawud ti Séljuk|Dawud]] ** [[Mas'ud ti Séljuk|Mas'ud]] (di [[Jibal]] jeung [[Azerbaijan Iran]]) 1131 ** [[Toghrul II]] 1132–1134 * Mas'ud 1133–1152 * [[Malik Shah III]] 1152–1153 * [[Muhammad II ti Séljuk|Muhammad II]] * [[Süleyman Shah (Séljuk)|Suleiman Shah]] 1160–1161 * [[Arslan Shah]] 1161–1174 * [[Toghrul III]] 1174–1194 Dina 1194, Tugrul III ditelasan dina patempuran jeung [[Kakaisaran Khwarezmiyah|Shah Khwarezm]], anu nganéksasi Hamadan. ===Pangawasa Séljuk Kerman=== [[propinsi Kerman|Kerman]] nyaéta hiji propinsi di Pérsia kidul. Antawis 1053 jeung 1154, wewengkonna ngawengku ogé [[Oman|Umman]]. * [[Qawurd ti Kerman|Qawurd]] 1041–1073 * [[Kerman Shah]] 1073–1074 * [[Sultan Shah ti Kerman|Sultan Shah]] 1074–1075 * [[Hussain Omar ti Kerman|Hussain Omar]] 1075–1084 * [[Turan Shah I]] 1084–1096 * [[Iran Shah]] 1096–1101 * [[Arslan Shah I]] 1101–1142 * [[Mehmed I ti Kerman|Mehmed I]] (Muhammad) 1142–1156 * [[Toghrül ti Kerman|Toğrül Shah]] 1156–1169 * [[Bahram-Shah|Bahram Shah]] 1169–1174 * [[Arslan Shah II]] 1174–1176 * [[Turan-Shah ibn Toghrïl-Shah|Turan Shah II]] 1176–1183 * [[Muhammad-Shah ibn Bahram-Shah|Muhammad Shah]] 1183–1187 Muhammad ninggalkeun Kerman, anu direbut ku pupuhu séké Oghuz, [[Malik Dinar (pupuhu séké Oghuz)|Malik Dinar]]. Kerman ahirna dianéksasi ku [[Khwarezmiyah|Kakaisaran Khwarezmiyah]] dina 1196. ===Pangawasa Séljuk di Suriah=== * Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla [[Tutush I]] 1085–1086 * Jalal ad-Dawlah [[Malik Shah I]] ti Gréat Seljuq 1086–1087 * Qasim ad-Dawla Abu Said [[Aq Sunqur al-Hajib]] 1087–1094 * Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla [[Tutush I]] ''(kadua)'' 1094–1095 * [[Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan]] 1095–1113 * Tadj ad-Dawla [[Alp Arslan al-Akhras]] 1113–1114 * [[Sultan Shah ti Suriah|Sultan Shah]] 1114–1123 ''Ka [[Artuqids]]'' '''[[Sultan]]/[[Émir]] [[Damaskus]]''': * Aziz ibn [[Abaaq al-Khwarazmi]] 1076–1079 * Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla [[Tutush I]] 1079–1095 * Abu Nasr Shams al-Muluk [[Duqaq]] 1095–1104 * [[Tutush II]] 1104 * Muhi ad-Din [[Baqtash]] 1104 ''Damaskus direbut ku [[Burid]] [[Toghtekin]]'' ===Sultan Séljuk Rûm (Anatolia)=== {{utama|Kasultanan Rûm}} [[File:Kharaghan.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Munara Kharraqan|Munara kembar Kharāghān]], diwangun dina 1053 di Iran, nyaéta pajaratan pangéran-pangéran Séljuk.]] [[File:Seljuk Sultanate of Rum 1190 Locator Map.svg‎|right|300px|thumb|[[Kasultanan Séljuk Rûm]] dina 1190, saméméh [[Perang Salib Katilu]].]] * [[Kutalmish]] 1060–1077 * [[Suleiman ibn Qutulmish|Suleyman I]] (Suleiman) 1077–1086 * Dawud [[Kilij Arslan I]] 1092–1107 * [[Malik Shah I|Malik Shah]] 1107–1116 * Rukn ad-Din [[Mesud I]] 1116–1156 * Izz ad-Din [[Kilij Arslan II]] 1156–1192 * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Kaykhusraw I]] 1192–1196 * [[Süleyman II ti Rüm|Suleyman II]] (Suleiman) 1196–1204 * [[Kilij Arslan III]] 1204–1205 * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Kaykhusraw I]] ''(second time)'' 1205–1211 * Izz ad-Din [[Kaykaus I]] 1211–1220 * Ala ad-Din [[Kayqubad I]] 1220–1237 * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Kaykhusraw II]] 1237–1246 * Izz ad-Din [[Kaykaus II]] 1246–1260 * Rukn ad-Din [[Kilij Arslan IV]] 1248–1265 * Ala ad-Din [[Kayqubad II]] 1249–1257 * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Kaykhusraw III]] 1265–1282 * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Mesud II]] 1282–1284 * Ala ad-Din [[Kayqubad III]] 1284 * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Mesud II]] ''(kadua)'' 1284–1293 * Ala ad-Din [[Kayqubad III]] ''(kadua)'' 1293–1294 * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Mesud II]] ''(katilu)'' 1294–1301 * Ala ad-Din [[Kayqubad III]] ''(katilu)'' 1301–1303 * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Mesud II]] ''(kaopat)'' 1303–1307 ==Tingali ogé== *[[Kakaisaran Séljuk Raya]] *[[Kasultanan Rûm]] *[[Dinasti Ottoman]] *[[Daptar dinasti Muslim Sunni]] == Catetan == {{reflist}} ==Bacaan salajengna== *{{Cite book |last=Grousset |first=Rene |title=The Empire of the Steppes: a History of Central Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof |location=New Brunswick |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1988 |page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/147 147] |isbn=0813506271 }} *Péacock, A.C.S, éarly Seljuq History : A New Interpretation; New York, NY ; Routledge; 2010 *{{Cite book |last=Previte-Orton |first=C. W. |year=1971 |title=The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History |url=https://archive.org/details/shortercambridge0002prev_l1s1 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= }} {{Seljuk dynasty}} {{History of Turkey topics}} {{Royal houses of Europe}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Seljuk}} [[Kategori:Dinasti Séljuk| ]] [[Kategori:Dinasti Muslim]] [[Kategori:Dinasti Turk]] [[Kategori:Islam Patengahan]] [[Kategori:Pérsia Patengahan]] [[Kategori:Turki Oghuz]] [[Kategori:Peranng Salib]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Azerbaijan]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Nishapur]] sxhd8wrk9q78qi69mjy6gft663rslet 0 37714 711679 710644 2026-08-07T01:25:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711679 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Tangtayungantianon}} {{Redirect|Azeri}} {{About|grup étnis Azerbaijan|analisis populasi [[Azerbaijan|Républik Azerbaijan]]|Démografi Azerbaijan}} {{Kotak info grup étnis |group = Azerbaijan<br/>''Azərbaycanlılar, Azərilər''<br/><big>آذربایجانلیلار ,آذری لر </big> |population = kira-kira 22–35 yuta<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-clusters.php?peo2=126 |title=Azerbaijani |publisher=Joshua Project|accessdate=24 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=YJwsAQAAIAAJ&dq=30+million+South+Azerbaijan&q=30-35 |title=The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East|author=[[Avraham Sela|Sela, Avraham]]|publisher=Continuum|year=2002|isbn=0-8264-1413-3|page=197|quote=30–35 million}}</ref> |image = |region1 = {{flagcountry|Iran}} |pop1 = 11,2 nepi ka 30 yuta |ref1 = <ref name="Library of Congress Iran">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf |title=Country Profile: Iran|publisher=Federal Research Division Library of Congress |date=May 2008|accessdate=13 January 2012|quote=16% of 70 million [11.2 million]|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050226190617/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf|archivedate=26 February 2005}}</ref><ref name="CIA Iran">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html#People|title=Iran|work=CIA: The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|date=14 November 2011|accessdate=13 January 2012|quote=16% of 77,891,220 [12.5 million]}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203093100/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html#People |date=3 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="dictionary">{{cite book|author=Swietochowski, Tadeusz; Collins, Brian C.|year=1999|title=Historical dictionary of Azerbaijan|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-DIJ-131|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=0-8108-3550-9|quote=15 million (1999)}}</ref>{{rp|28}}<ref name="tft">{{cite web|url=http://www.terrorfreetomorrow.org/upimagestft/TFT%20Iran%20Survey%20Report%200609.pdf|author=Terror Free Tomorrow|title=Results of a New Nationwide Public Opinion Survey of Iran before the June 12, 2009 Presidential Elections|date=May 2009|publisher=[[New America Foundation]]|quote=21.6% of 70,495,782 [15.2 million]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S-Z |last=Minahan |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location= |isbn=978-0-313-32384-3 |page=1765 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Zu5GpDby9H0C&pg=PA1765 |quote=Approximately (2002e) 18,500,000 Southern Azeris in Iran, concentrated in the northwestern provinces of East and West Azerbaijan. It is difficult to determine the exact number of Southern Azeris in Iran, as official statistics are not published detailing Iran's ethnic structure. Estimates of the Southern Azeri population range from as low as 12 million up to 40% of the population of Iran – that is, nearly 27 million.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorlink=Brenda Shaffer|author=Shaffer, Brenda|year=2003|title=Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity|url=https://archive.org/details/bordersbrethreni0000shaf|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bordersbrethreni0000shaf/page/221 221]–225|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=0-262-19477-5|quote=There is considerable lack of consensus regarding the number of Azerbaijanis in Iran&nbsp;... Azerbaijani student groups in Iran claim that there are 27 million Azerbaijanis residing in Iran.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=HxItAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Southern+Azerbaijan%22+30+million&dq=%22Southern+Azerbaijan%22+30+million |title=Turkey-Iran relations, 1979–2004: revolution, ideology, war, coups and geopolitics|author=Olson, Robert W.|publisher=Mazda|year=2004|isbn=1-56859-114-4|page=76|quote=... in Ankara, Johragani denounced 'Persian' chauvinism and Iran's violation of human rights against the '30 million Azeris of Iran'.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=7T0OAQAAMAAJ&q=southern+azerbaijan+%2230+million%22&dq=southern+azerbaijan+%2230+million%22|title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, Volume 1|author=[[Keith Brown (linguist)|Brown, E. K.]]; Asher, R. E.; Simpson, J. M. Y.|edition=2|year=2006|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=0-08-044299-4|page=635|quote=Azerbaijani speakers in Iran are more numerous than those in Azerbaijan (13 to 30 million in northern Iran, 6 million in the Republic of Azerbaijan).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mVQdN7Ryu4YC&pg=PA157|chapter=Promoting Cooperation and Integration in the Wider Black Sea Area|author=Alieva, Leila|title=Establishing security and stability in the wider Black Sea area: international politics and the new and emerging democracies|page=157|work=NATO Science for Peace and Security, Volume 26: Human and societal dynamics|editors=Volten, Peter M. E.; Tashev, Blagovest|publisher=IOS Press|year=2007|isbn=1-58603-765-X|quote=... large number of Azerbaijanis (30 million in northern Iran and 8 million in present Azerbaijan),&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA79|authors=Stokes, Jamie; Gorman, Anthony|year=2008|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1|page=79|publisher=Infobase|isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0|quote=... 32 million people in Iran...}}</ref> |region2 = {{flagcountry|Azerbaijan}} |pop2 = 8.172.800 |ref2 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azstat.org/statinfo/demoqraphic/en/AP_/1_5.xls|title=Population by ethnic groups|date=2009|publisher=The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan|accessdate=17 January 2012|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20121130101713/http://www.azstat.org/statinfo/demoqraphic/en/AP_/1_5.xls|archivedate=30 November 2012}}</ref> |region3 = {{flagcountry|Irak}} |pop3 = 600.000 nepi ka 1.000.000 |ref3 = <ref name="ethnologue">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=azb|title=Azerbaijani, South|author=Lewis, M. Paul|year=2009|work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition.|publisher=SIL International|accessdate=29 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="Leeuw">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sNoP1zphWf8C&pg=PA19|title=Azerbaijan: a quest for identity : a short history|author=van der Leeuw, Charles|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2000|isbn=978-0-312-21903-1|page=19}}</ref> |region4 = {{flagcountry|Rusia}} |pop4 = 621.800 nepi ka 1.500.000 |ref4 = <ref name="Leeuw"/><ref name="Russian Census">{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/content.html?id=11&docid=10715289081463|title=Итоги переписи|work=2002 census|date=2004|publisher=Russian Federation State Statistics Service|accessdate=17 January 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026071812/http://www.perepis2002.ru/content.html?id=11&docid=10715289081463 |date=26 October 2009 }}</ref> |region5 = {{flagcountry|Turki}} |pop5 = 530.000 nepi ka 2.500.000 |ref5 = <ref name="ethnologue"/><ref name="Leeuw"/> |region6 = {{flagcountry|Géorgia}} |pop6 = 284.761 nepi ka 500.000 |ref6 = <ref name="Leeuw"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geostat.ge/cms/site_images/_files/english/census/2002/03%20Ethnic%20Composition.pdf|format=pdf|title=Ethnic groups by major administrative-territorial units|publisher=National Statistics Office of Georgia|work=2002 census|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> |region7 = {{flagcountry|Kazakhstan}} |pop7 = 78.295 |ref7 = <ref name=unstats>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dybcensus/V2_table4.xls|title=Population by national and/or ethnic group, sex and urban/rural residence|publisher=United Nations Statistics Division|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> |region8 = {{flagcountry|Ukraina}} |pop8 = 45.200 |ref8 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/|title=About number and composition population of Ukraine by data All-Ukrainian census of the population 2001|work=Ukraine Census 2001|publisher=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> |region9 = {{flagcountry|Uzbékistan}} |pop9 = 44.400 |ref9 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arbuz.com/Umid/Main/Uzbekistan/Population/population.html|title=The National Structure of the Republic of Uzbekistan|date=1989|publisher=Umid World|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> |region10 = {{flagcountry|Turkménistan}} |pop10 = 33.365 |ref10 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=14|title=Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР|work=Демоскоп Weekly|language=Russian|issue=493–494|date=1–22 January 2012|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> |region11 = {{flagcountry|Walanda}} |pop11 = 18.000 |ref11 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://mfa.gov.az/eng/downloads/bilaterial/Netherlands.pdf|format=pdf|title=The Kingdom of the Netherlands: Bilateral relations: Diaspora|publisher=Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs|date=|accessdate=17 January 2012|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110706131529/http://mfa.gov.az/eng/downloads/bilaterial/Netherlands.pdf|archivedate=6 July 2011}}</ref> |region12 = {{flagcountry|Kirgizstan}} |pop12 = 17.823 |ref12 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.kg/stat.files/din.files/census/5010003.pdf|format=pdf|title=5.01.00.03 Национальный состав населения|publisher=National Statistical Committee of Kyrgyz Republic|date=2011|language=Russian|accessdate=17 January 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113151445/http://www.stat.kg/stat.files/din.files/census/5010003.pdf |date=13 November 2013 }}</ref> |region13 = {{flagcountry|Jérman}} |pop13 = 15.219 |ref13 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/EN/Content/Statistics/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls|title=Foreign population on 31.12.2006 by citizenship and selected characteristics|publisher=Federal Statistical Office (Destatis)|accessdate=3 February 2012}}</ref> |region14 = {{flagcountry|Britania Raya}} |pop14 = 15.000 |ref14 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Jwobw381IYMJ:www.angelfire.com/az3/AzeriVoice/newsletter2.doc+%22azeris+in+britain%22&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk|author=Oguz-Gassanly, Murad|title=Azeri Diaspora. The Case of the United Kingdom|date=2001|work=Azeri Voice|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> |region15 = {{flagcountry|Bélarus}} |pop15 = 6.362 |ref15 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://belstat.gov.by/homep/en/census/p5.php|title=Population Census 1999|publisher=National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus|accessdate=18 January 2012|archiveurl=https://archive.is/Pa3W|archivedate=26 May 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100921155352/http://belstat.gov.by/homep/en/census/p5.php |date=21 September 2010 }}</ref> |region16 ={{flagcountry|Amérika Sarikat}} |pop16 = 5.553 |ref16 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/ancestry/ancestry_q_by_DAC_2000.xls|title=First, Second, and Total Responses to the Ancestry Question by Detailed Ancestry Code: 2000|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|accessdate=18 January 2012}} This number includes both primary and secondary ancestry.</ref> |region17 = {{flagcountry|Kanada}} |pop17 = 3.465 |ref17 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000|title=Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data|date=10 June 2010|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=18 January 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211144718/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Table=2&Data=Count&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000 |date=11 December 2020 }} In the 2006 census, 1,480 people indicated 'Azeri'/'Azerbaijani' as a single response and 1,985 as part of multiple origins.</ref> |region18 = {{flagcountry|Latvia}} |pop18 = 1.697 |ref18 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecmi.de/uploads/tx_lfpubdb/report_8.pdf|format=pdf|title=Accession to the European Union and National Integration in Estonia and Latvia|author=Poleshchuk, Vadim|date=March 2001|accessdate=18 January 2012|quote=232 citizens|publisher=European Center for Minority Issues}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302212931/http://www.ecmi.de/uploads/tx_lfpubdb/report_8.pdf |date=2 March 2011 }}</ref> |region19 = {{flagcountry|Austria}} |pop19 = 1.000 |ref19 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://mfa.gov.az/eng/downloads/bilaterial/Austria.pdf|format=pdf|publisher=Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=The Republic of Austria: Bilateral relations|accessdate=18 January 2012}}</ref> |region20 = {{flagcountry|Estonia}} |pop20 = 880 |ref20 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC226&ti=POPULATION+BY+ETHNIC+NATIONALITY%2C+COMMAND+OF+FOREIGN+LANGUAGES+AND+CITIZENSHIP&path=../I_Databas/Population_census/08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages/&lang=1|title=Population Census of 2000|publisher=Statistics Estonia|accessdate=19 January 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322001556/http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC226&ti=POPULATION+BY+ETHNIC+NATIONALITY%2C+COMMAND+OF+FOREIGN+LANGUAGES+AND+CITIZENSHIP&path=..%2FI_Databas%2FPopulation_census%2F08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages%2F&lang=1 |date=22 March 2012 }} Select "Azerbaijani" under "Ethnic nationality".</ref> |region21 = {{flagcountry|Lituania}} |pop21 = 788 |ref21 = <ref name=unstats/> |languages = [[basa Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] |religions = Utamina [[Islam Syiah]]; minoritas [[Islam Sunni]], [[Kristen]], [[Bahá'í]], jeung [[Zoroastrianisme]] |related = [[Masarakat Turk]], [[Urang Iran]], [[Masarakat Kaukasus]] }} {{Azerbaijan}} '''Urang Azerbaijan''' ({{lang-az|Azərbaycanlılar, Азәриләр}}, <big> آذری لر </big>) atanapi '''Azarbaijan'''<ref name="Library of Congress Iran"/> nyaéta [[masarakat Turk]] ngeusian utamina [[Iran]] kalér-kulon jeung [[Azerbaijan|Républik Azerbaijan]], ogé dina nagara sadeukeutannana saperti, [[Géorgia]], [[Rusia]] ([[Dagéstan]]) jeung (baheulana) [[Arménia]]. Urang Azerbaijan utamina [[Muslim]] [[Syiah]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Russia & Eurasia Facts & Figures Annual|author=Robertson, Lawrence R.|year=2002|publisher=Academic International Press|isbn=0-87569-199-4|page=210|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ye1oAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref name="eb">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46833/Azerbaijani|title=Azerbaijani (people)|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=24 January 2012}}</ref> sarta miboga jujutan kabudayaan campuran kaasup tina unsur Turk, Iranik<ref name="roy">{{cite book|author=Roy, Olivier|authorlink=Olivier Roy (professor)|year=2007|title=The new Central Asia |url=http://books.google.com/?id=-eMcn6Ik1v0C&pg=PA7#PPA6,M1 |publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-552-4|page=6|quote=The mass of the Oghuz who crossed the Amu Darya towards the west left the Iranian plateaux, which remained Persian, and established themselves more to the west, in Anatolia. Here they divided into Ottomans, who were Sunni and settled, and Turkmens, who were nomads and in part Shiite (or, rather, Alevi). The latter were to keep the name 'Turkmen' for a long time: from the 13th century onwards they 'Turkised' the Iranian populations of Azerbaijan (who spoke west Iranian languages such as Tat, which is still found in residual forms), thus creating a new identity based on Shiism and the use of Turkish. These are the people today known as Azeris.}}</ref>, jeung [[masarakat Kaukasus|Kaukasus]]. Sanggeus Perang Ruso-Pérsia [[Perang Rusia-Pérsia (1804–1813)|1813]] jeung [[Perang Rusia-Pérsia (1826–1828)|1828]], wewengkon [[dinasti Qajar|Kakaisaran Pérsia Qajar]] di Kaukasus dipasihan ka [[Kakaisaran Rusia]] sarta [[Pajangjian Gulistan]] dina 1813 sareng [[Pajangjian Turkmenchay]] dina 1828 nyusun wates-wates antara Czar Rusia jeung Qajar Iran.<ref>{{cite book|author=Harcave, Sidney|year=1968|title=Russia: A History: Sixth Edition|publisher=Lippincott|page=267}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Mojtahed-Zadeh, Pirouz|year=2007|title=Boundary Politics and International Boundaries of Iran: A Study of the Origin, Evolution, and Implications of the Boundaries of Modern Iran with Its 15 Neighbors in the Middle East by a Number of Renowned Experts in the Field|publisher=Universal|isbn=1-58112-933-5|page=372}}</ref> ==Tingali ogé== * [[Ngaran Azerbaijan]] * [[Daptar inohong Azerbaijan]] ==Catetan jeung rujukan== {{Reflist}} ==Tumbu kaluar== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1235976.stm BBC News: Azerbaijan country profile] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/azeri/ BBC Azeri] {{az icon}} * [http://www.azeri.net/Azerbaijan/index.html/ Azeri.net] * [http://AZER.com/ Azerbaijan International] {{Turkic peoples}} {{Ethnic groups in Iran}} {{European Muslims}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Azerbaijan}} [[Kategori:Urang Azerbaijan| ]] [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Wétan Tengah]] {{grup-étnis-stub}} mc9w6v3vpiw5ft7u5ccthyxfg0p3img 0 37755 711767 674809 2026-08-07T03:46:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox former country |native_name=Россійская Имперія <small> ([[Basa Rusia]] [[réformasi ortografi basa Rusia|Pra-réformasi]])</small><br> Российская Империя <small> ([[Basa Rusia|ru]]-[[aksara Kiril|Kiril]])</small><br>''Rossiyskaya Imperiya'' <small>([[romanisasi basa Rusia|alih aksr]])</small> |conventional_long_name=Kakaisaran Rusia |common_name=Russia | |continent = Éropa |status = Kakaisaran |government_type = [[Monarki absolut]] ku [[kabeneran ilahi raja|kabeneran ilahi]] | |year_start = 1721 |year_end = 1917 | |event_pre = [[Peter nu Ageung|Peter I]] mangku tahta |date_pre = {{OldStyleDate|7 Méi|1682|27 April¹}} |event_start = Kakaisaran dinyatakeun |date_start = {{OldStyleDate|22 Oktober|1721|11 Oktober}} |event1 = [[révolusi Désémber]] |date_event1 = {{OldStyleDate|26 Désémber|1825|14 Désémber}} |event2 = [[réformasi émansipasi 1861|Panghupusan féodalisme]] |date_event2 = {{OldStyleDate|3 Maret|1861|19 Pébruari}} |event3 = [[Révolusi Rusia 1905|Révolusi 1905]] |date_event3 = Januari–Désémber 1905 |event4 = [[konstitusi Rusia 1906|Konstitusi]] |date_event4 = {{OldStyleDate|23 April|1906|6 Méi}} |event_end = Révolusi Pébruari |date_end = {{OldStyleDate|15 Maret|1917|2 Maret}} |event_post = Révolusi Oktober |date_post = {{OldStyleDate|7 Nopémber|1917|25 Oktober}} | |p1 = Katsaran Rusia |flag_p1 = Flag of Russia.svg<!-- per precedent with Austria-Hungary article, civil ensign is posted. It's used on civil and trade ships, even more than military naval flag and leader's flag. --> |s1 = Républik Rusia |flag_s1 = Flag of Russia.svg <!-- |s2 = Uni Soviét |flag_s2 = Flag of the Soviet Union.svg --> | |s3 = Ober Ost |flag_s3 = Flag of Germany (1867–1919).svg |s4 = Préféktur Karafuto |flag_s4 = Flag of Japan.svg |s5 = Departemén Alaska |flag_s5 = Flag of the United States.svg |s6 = Républik Gugunungan Kaukasus Kalér{{!}}Kaukasus Kalér |flag_s6 = Flag of the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus.svg |image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg |flag_type = Bandéra | |image_coat = Lesser Coat of Arms of Russian Empire.svg |symbol = Lambang Kakaisaran Rusia |symbol_type = Lambang| |image_map = Russian Empire (1867).svg |image_map_caption = Peta Kakaisaran Rusia{{#tag:ref|Sanggeus 1866, Alaska dijual ka Amérika Sarikat sarta Sakhalin kidul direbut Jepang, tapi Batum, Kars, Pamir, jeung wewengkon Transkaspia (Turkménistan) dipibanda.|group=n}} Héjo kolot nunjunggkeun kakawasaan maksimum Kakaisaran Rusia. Héjo ngora némbongkeun pangaruh. | |capital = [[St. Petersburg]]<br/><small>(1721–1728)</small> <br>Moskwa<br/><small>(1728–1730)</small> <br/> [[St. Petersburg]]<br/><small>(1730–1918; from 1914 [[Petrograd]])</small> |latd=59 |latm=56 |latNS=N |longd=30 |longm=20 |longEW=E | |national_motto = ''Съ нами Богъ!'' ([[Basa Rusia]] [[Réformasi ortografi Rusia|Pra-réformasi]]) <br/><small>"Gusti nyarengan urang!"</small> |national_anthem = ''Euweuh''<br />'''[[Lagu kabangsaan kakaisaran]]'''<br />''[[Боже, Царя храни!]]''<br/><small>(1833)</small><center>[[File:Bozhe, tsarya khrani!.ogg]]</center> |common_languages = Basa resmi: [[Basa Rusia]]<br />Basa wewengkon nu diakuan:<br />Basa [[Basa Finlandia|Finlandia]], [[basa Swédia|Swédia]], [[basa Polandia|Polandia]], Jérman, Romania<br />Basa kadua:<br />Basa Perancis |religion = Agama resmi:<br />[[Garéja Ortodoks Rusia|Ortodoks Rusia]]<br />Agama minoritas:<br />Yahudi, Katolik Roma, Protéstan, [[Kapercayaan kuna]], [[Islam]], [[Budha]], [[Paganisme]]<!--Kalér Jauh, Wétan Jauh--> |currency = [[Ruble Rusia|Ruble]] | |title_leader = [[Kaisar Rusia|Kaisar]] |leader1 = [[Peter nu ageung|Peter I]] (munggaran) |year_leader1 = 1721–1725 |leader2 = [[Nicholas II ti Rusia|Nicholas II]] (pangahirna) |year_leader2 = 1894–1917 |title_deputy = [[Pupuhu Déwan Para Mentri Rusia|Pupuhu Déwan Para Mentri]] |deputy1 = [[Sergei Witte]] (munggaran) |year_deputy1 = 1905–1906 |deputy2 = [[Nikolai Golitsyn]] (pangahirna) |year_deputy2 = 1917 | |legislature = [[Sénat Pamaréntahan]] |house1 = [[Déwan Nagara Kakaisaran Rusia|Déwan Nagara]] |house2 = [[Duma Nagara Kakaisaran Rusia|Duma Nagara]] | |stat_year1 = 1866 |stat_area1 = 23700000 |stat_year2 = 1916 |stat_area2 = 21799825 |stat_year3 = [[Sénsus Kakaisaran Rusia|1897]] |stat_pop3 = 125640021 |footnotes = 1: Rusia ngalajengkeun pamakéan [[kalénder Julian]] nepi ka sanggeus [[révolusi Pébruari|labuhna kakaisaran]]; ''tingali [[Pananggalan Gaya Lami jeung Gaya Anyar]]''. |today = {{flag|Rusia}} {{flag|Arménia}}<br> {{flag|Azerbaijan}}<br> {{flag|Bélarus}}<br> {{flag|Cina}}<br> {{flag|Éstonia}}<br> {{flag|Finlandia}}<br> {{flag|Géorgia}}<br> {{flag|Iran}}<br> {{flag|Kazakhstan}}<br> {{flag|Kirgizstan}}<br> {{flag|Latvia}}<br> {{flag|Lituania}}<br> {{flag|Moldova}}<br> {{flag|Polandia}}<br> {{flag|Tajikistan}}<br> {{flag|Turki}}<br> {{flag|Turkménistan}}<br> {{flag|Ukraina}}<br> {{flag|Amérika Sarikat}}<br> {{flag|Uzbékistan}}<br> {{flag|Mongolia}} }} <!-- {{History of Russia}} --> '''Kakaisaran Rusia''' ([[Réformasi ortografi basa Rusia|Ortografi Basa Rusia Pra-réformasi]]: Россійская Имперія, [[Basa Rusia|Basa Rusia Modérn]]: Российская Империя, [[romanisasi basa Rusia|alih aksara]]: ''Rossiyskaya Imperiya'') nyaéta hiji [[nagara daulat|nagara]] nu aya ti 1721 nepi ka [[Révolusi Rusia 1917]]. Nagara ieu nyaéta panerus ti [[Katsaran Rusia]] sarta nu ngaheulaan [[Républik Rusia]], nu mana diteruskeun ku [[Uni Soviét]]. Nagara ieu mangrupa [[daptar kakaisaran gedé|kakaisaran gedé]] dina sajarah dunya. Dina hiji waktu dina 1866, wewengkonna ngalintang ti [[Éropa Wétan]] terus ka [[Asia]] nepi ka [[Amérika Kalér]]. ==Tingali ogé== * [[Sajarah Rusia]] * [[Rusifikasi]] * [[Daptar Kaisar Rusia]] * [[Tahta Kakaisaran Rusia]] * [[Sénsus Kakaisaran Rusia]] * [[Panarajangan Rusia kana Sibéria]] * [[Panarajangan Rusia kana Kaukasus]] * [[Panjajahan Rusia kana Amérika]] ==Catetan== <references group="n"/> ==Rujukan== ;Catetan suku {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ;Pustaka {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |title=Russia at the Barricades: Eyewitness Accounts of the August 1991 Coup |last=Bonnell |first=Victoria E. |coauthors=Ann Cooper, Gregory Freidin |year=1994 |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |location=Armonk, NY |isbn=9781563242717 |pages=371 |ref=Bonnell}} * {{cite book |title=Soviet Hieroglyphics: Visual Culture in Late Twentieth-Century Russia |url=https://archive.org/details/soviethieroglyph0000unse_e9f0 |last=Condee |first=Nancy |authorlink=Nancy Condee |year=1995 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=9780253314024 |pages=208 |ref=Condee}} * {{cite book |title=Matters of Conflict: Material Culture, Memory and the First World War |url=https://archive.org/details/mattersofconflic0000unse |last=Saunders |first=Nicholas J. |authorlink=Nicholas J. Saunders |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780415280532 |pages=224 |ref=Saunders}} {{refend}} ;Rujukan umum {{refbegin|2}} * [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]: [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/rutoc.html Russia] * Hingley, Ronald. ''The Tsars, 1533–1917''. Macmillan, 1968. * {{Cite journal | last=Saunders | first=David | title=Regional Diversity in the Later Russian Empire | journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society | volume=10 | year=2000 | issue=10 | month=December | pages=143–163 | issn=0080-4401 | doi=10.1017/S0080440100000074 }} * Warnes, David. ''Chronicle of the Russian Tsars: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Russia''. Thames & Hudson, 1999. * {{ru icon}} Грибовский В.М. Государственное устройство и управление Российской империи, 1912. [http://elibrary.karelia.ru/book.shtml?levelID=012003&id=318&cType=1 Photocopy of pages] * {{ru icon}} Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Под ред. Н.А.Тройницкого. т.I. Общий свод по Империи результатов разработки данных Первой Всеобщей переписи населения, произведенной 28 января 1897 года. С.-Петербург, 1905. Таблица XII. Распределение населения по вероисповеданиям. [http://www.archipelag.ru/ru_mir/religio/statistics/said/statistics-imp/ Archipelag.ru] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024115547/http://www.archipelag.ru/ru_mir/religio/statistics/said/statistics-imp/ |date=2012-10-24 }} * {{1911}} {{refend}} ==Bacaan salajengna== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |title=The Modernisation of Russia, 1676–1825 |last=Dixon |first=Simon |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521371001 |pages=288}} * {{cite book |title=Illustrated History of the Russian Empire: The Coronation Book |editor1-first=Nikita |editor1-last=Chakirov |year=1971 |publisher=The Russian Orthodox Youth Committee |location=Astoria, NY |pages=488}} * {{cite book |title=The Battle That Shook Europe: Poltava and the Birth of the Russian Empire |last=Englund |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Englund |year=2002 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-1860648472 |pages=288}} * Etkind, Alexander. ''Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience'' (Polity Press, 2011) 289 pages; discussion of serfdom, the péasant commune, etc. * {{cite book |title=Russia: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/russiahistory0000unse_x3z4 |last=Freeze |first=George |edition=2nd |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780198605119 |pages=556}} * {{cite book |title=The Russian Empire: A Multi-Ethnic History |last=Kappeler |first=Andreas |year=2001 |publisher=Longman Publishing Group |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780582234154 |pages=480}} * {{cite book |title=Russia in the Age of Peter the Great |last=Hughes |first=Lindsey |authorlink=Lindsey Hughes |year=2000 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=9780300082661 |pages=640}} * {{cite book |title=The Longman Companion to Imperial Russia, 1689–1917 |url=https://archive.org/details/longmancompanion00unse |last=Longley |first=David |year=2000 |publisher=Longman Publishing Group |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780582319905 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/longmancompanion00unse/page/496 496]}} * {{cite book |title=The Russian Peasantry 1600–1930: The World the Peasants Made |last=Moon |first=David |year=1999 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Boston, MA |isbn=9780582095083 |pages=396}} *-Velychenko S. "Identities, loyalties and service in imperial Russia: who administered the borderlands?" – Russian review, 1995, v. 54, № 2, p.&nbsp;188 – 208. * {{cite book |title=The End of Imperial Russia, 1855–1917 |url=https://archive.org/details/endofimperialrus0000wald |last=Waldron |first=Peter |year=1997 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780312165369 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/endofimperialrus0000wald/page/189 189]}} * {{cite book |title=Endurance and Endeavour: Russian History 1812–2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/enduranceendeavo00west |last=Westwood |first=J. N. |edition=5th |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199246175 |pages=656}} {{refend}} ==Tumbu kaluar== *[http://www.rusempire.com/ Russian Empire]: Ngeunaan Kakaisaran Rusia jeung Rusia * '''{{youtube|EPgbIK002us|Film «Moscow clad in snow», 00:07:22, 1908}}''' *[http://www.governingdynamo.com/a-level-resources/2009/9/11/the-geography-of-the-russian-empire-1795-1914.html Peta Kakaisaran Rusia 1795-1914] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013072536/http://www.governingdynamo.com/a-level-resources/2009/9/11/the-geography-of-the-russian-empire-1795-1914.html |date=2014-10-13 }} {{History of Europe}} {{Colonial Empires}} {{Empires}} {{Russia topics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rusia, Kakaisaran}} [[Kategori:Urut nagara di Éropa]] [[Kategori:Urut nagara di Asia]] [[Kategori:Kakaisaran Rusia| ]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Rusia]] [[Kategori:Urut nagara Slavia]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Azerbaijan]] {{sajarah-stub}} hu2kgvxg6rnijz5mfs117wsws65r9ss 0 37817 711808 710079 2026-08-07T04:49:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Military Conflict |conflict=Perang Nagorno-Karabakh |image= |caption=<small>Gerilyawan Arménia tempur ngalawan pasukan Azerbaijan di Karabakh.<small> |date=1988–1994 |place=[[Nagorno-Karabakh]], [[Arménia]], jeung [[Azerbaijan]] |casus=Papaséaan wewengkon antawis [[Arménia]] jeung [[Azerbaijan]] |territory=[[Nagorno-Karabakh]] sacara ''[[de facto]]'' jadi républik merdika, samentawis sacara ''[[de jure]]'', wewengkon ieu tetep jadi bagian Azerbaijan. Pajangjian karapihan diayakeun antawis dua nagara pikeun ngomongkeun jagana wewengkon. |result=Arménia meunang.{{br}} Gencatan pakarang ditandatanganan taun 1994 ku Arménia, Azerbaijan, jeung Nagorno-Karabakh. |combatant1={{flag|Nagorno-Karabakh}}{{br}} {{flag|Armenia}}<ref name="CIA-FACTBOOK-AJ">{{cite web |last = [[Central Intelligence Agency]] |title = The CIA World Factbook: Transnational Issues in Country Profile of Azerbaijan |url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html#Issues |accessdate = 2007-02-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610081951/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/AJ.html#Issues |date=2009-06-10 }} Military involvement denied by the Armenian government.</ref>{{br}}[[file:Flag of the CIS.svg|22px|border]] Tentara bayaran [[Pasamakmuran Nagara-Nagara Merdika|CIS]] |combatant2={{flag|Azerbaijan}} {{br}} [[flag:Flag of Afghanistan 1992 free.png|22px|border]] [[Mujahidin|Mujahidin Apganistan]]<ref name="UnholyWars">{{cite book | last = Cooley | first = John K. | authorlink = | title = Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism | url = https://archive.org/details/unholywarsafghan0000cool_w4p3 | publisher = Pluto Press | date = 2002 | location = London | pages = [https://archive.org/details/unholywarsafghan0000cool_w4p3/page/150 150]–151 | isbn = 0-7453-1917-3 }}</ref> {{br}} [[file:Flag of Chechen Republic of Ichkeria.svg|22px|border]] [[Sukarélawan]] [[urang Chechen|Chechen]]<ref name="Griffin">{{cite book | last = Griffin | first = Nicholas | title = Caucasus: A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam | url = https://archive.org/details/caucasusjourneyt00grif | publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = 2004 | location = Chicago | pages = [https://archive.org/details/caucasusjourneyt00grif/page/185 185]–186 | isbn = 0-2263-0859-6 }}</ref> [[file:Flag of the CIS.svg|22px|border]] Tentara bayaran [[Pasamakmuran Nagara-Nagara Merdika|CIS]] |commander1=[[Samvel Babayan]],{{br}}[[Hemayag Haroyan]],{{br}}[[Monte Melkonian]],{{br}}[[Vazgen Sargsyan]],{{br}}[[Arkady Ter-Tatevosyan]],{{br}}[[Anatoly Zinevich]] |commander2=[[İsgandar Hamidov]],{{br}}[[Suret Huseynov]],{{br}}[[Rahim Gaziev]],{{br}}[[Shamil Basayev]]<ref name="Griffin"/> |strength1=20.000 |strength2=72.000 |casualties1=5.856 pupus,{{br}} 25.000 cedera |casualties2=11.000 pupus,<ref name="dewaal">{{cite book | last =de Waal | first = Thomas | authorlink = Thomas de Waal | title = Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War | url =https://archive.org/details/blackgardenarmen0000dewa | publisher = New York University Press | date = 2003 | location = New York | isbn = 0-8147-1945-7}}</ref> {{br}} 30.000 cedera |notes= }} '''Perang Nagorno-Karabakh''' mangrupa konflik nu lumangsung di [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], [[Azerbaijan]] kidul-kulon, ti [[Pébruari]] [[1988]] nepi ka [[Méi]] [[1994]]. Perang ieu lumangsungna antawis étnis [[urang Arménia|Arménia]] di Nagorno-Karabakh nu ditulungan ku [[Arménia]] ngalawan Azerbaijan. Perang ieu mangrupa konflik étnis nu pangdéstruktifna sa vvehs labuhna Uni Soviét dina Désémber 1991. == Catetan suku == {{reflist}} == Pustaka == <div class="references-small"> * Chorbajian, Levon, Patrick Donabedian, and Claude Mutafian (1994). ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh''. Zed Books: London * Chorbajian, Levon (2001). ''The Making of Nagorno-Karabagh: From Secession to Republic''. New York: [[Macmillan Publishers|Palgrave MacMillan]] * Chrysanthopolous, Léonidas T (2002). ''Caucasus Chronicles: Nation-building and Diplomacy in Armenia, 1993–1994''. Princeton: Gomidas Institute * Cox, Caroline and John Eibner (1993). ''Ethnic cleansing in progress: War in Nagorno Karabakh''. Zürich; Washington: Institute for Religious Minorities in the Islamic World * Croissant, Michael P (1998). ''Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications''. London: Praeger * Curtis, Glenn E. ''Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia Country Studies''. [[Federal Research Division|Federal Research Division Library of Congress]] * [[Thomas de Waal|de Waal, Thomas]] (2003). ''Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War''. New York: New York University Press * Freire, Maria Raquel (2003). ''Conflict and Security in the Former Soviet Union: The Role of the OSCE''. Burlington, VT: Ashgate * Goltz, Thomas (1998). ''Azerbaijan Diary: A Rogue Reporter's Adventures in an Oil-Rich, War-Torn, Post-Soviet Republic''. New York: M.E. Sharpe * Griffin, Nicholas (2004). ''Caucasus: A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam''. Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]] * Human Rights Watch/Helsinki (1995). ''Azerbaijan: Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh''. New York: [[Human Rights Watch]] * Karny, Yo'av (2000). ''Highlanders: A Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory.'' New York: Douglas & McIntyre * Kaufman, Stuart (2001). ''Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War''. New York: Cornell Studies in Security Affairs * Libaridian, Gerard (1988). ''The Karabagh Berkas: Documents and facts on the region of Mountainous Karabagh, 1918–1988''. Zoryan Institute for Contemporary Armenian Reséarch & Documentation; 1st ed edition * Malkasian, Mark (1996). ''Gha-Ra-Bagh!: The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia''. [[Wayne State University Press]] * Melkonian, Markar (2005). ''My Brother's Road, An American's Fateful Journey to Armenia''. New York: I.B. Tauris * Rost, Yuri (1990). ''The Armenian Tragedy: An Eye-Witness Account of Human Conflict and Natural Disaster in Armenia and Azerbaijan''. New York: St. Martin's Press * Shamuratian, Samvel ed (1990). ''The Sumgait Tragedy: Pogroms Against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan''. New York: Zoryan Institute == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/nagorno-karabakh.htm Military Analysis of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict] by [[GlobalSecurity.org]] * [http://www.icbl.org/lm/2005/nagorno-karabakh.html A 2005 report on the status of undetonated land mines in Nagorno-Karabakh] compiled by the [[International Campaign to Ban Landmines]] * [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/02/908366e9-f535-4958-9383-09f351a1ef0c.html A chronology of the events of Nagorno-Karabakh from 1988 to Present] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613094730/http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/02/908366e9-f535-4958-9383-09f351a1ef0c.html |date=2008-06-13 }} by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty * [http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc04/EDOC10364APPENDIX.PDF The conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh region as dealt with by the OSCE Minsk Conference] * [http://www.pcr.uu.se/publications/cornell_pub/main_doc.pdf Undeclared War: The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict Reconsidered by Svante Cornell] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911094013/http://www.pcr.uu.se/publications/cornell_pub/main_doc.pdf |date=2008-09-11 }} * [http://www.nkr.am/eng/ The official website of the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218161655/http://www.nkr.am/eng/ |date=2007-12-18 }} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3658938.stm Regions and territories: Nagorno-Karabakh] Overview of the region by the BBC * [http://www.archfilm.net/darkforestmain.htm Dark Forest in the Mountains] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412045800/http://www.archfilm.net/darkforestmain.htm |date=2008-04-12 }} - a documentary film by Roger Kupelian féaturing live war footage from Armenian positions. * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nLrrG1q2Uzo&feature=user A Story of People in War and Peace: Preview] - a documentary film by Armenia's Vardan Hovhannisyan, who won the prize for best new documentary filmmaker at the 2007 Tribeca Film féstival in New York, about the conflict in Nagorno Karabakh. {{Azerbaijan-sajarah-pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nagorno-Karabakh}} [[Kategori:Perang mimilukeun Arménia]] [[Kategori:Perang mimilukeun Azerbaijan]] [[Kategori:Nagorno-Karabakh]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Azerbaijan]] {{perang-stub}} 90948eh6wszid4g7sgcxis39f0af3rr 0 38102 711792 467866 2026-08-07T04:31:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 12 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711792 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|CIA}} <!-- {{Infobox Government agency |agency_name = Central Intelligence Agency |abbreviation = CIA |nativename_a = |nativename_r = |logo = |logo_width = |logo_caption = |seal = Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency.svg|140px |seal_width = 200px |seal_caption = Lambang Resmi CIA |formed = {{Start date and years ago|1947|9|18}} |preceding1 = '''[[Office of Strategic Services]]'''<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/history-of-the-cia/index.html CIA.gov]</ref> |preceding2 = |dissolved = |superseding = |jurisdiction = |headquarters = [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] [[McLean, Virginia]] [[United States]] {{Coord|38.951796|N|77.146586|W|scale:10000}} |employees = [[Classified information|Classified]]<ref name="FAQs">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/faqs/index.html#employeenumbers|work=cia.gov|title=CIA Frequently Asked Questions |date=2006-07-28|accessdate=2008-07-04}}</ref> 20,000 estimated<ref name=Manning>{{cite book |author=Crile, George |title=Charlie Wilson's War |url=https://archive.org/details/charliewilsonswa00cril |publisher=Grove Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-87113-854-9}}</ref> |budget = [[Classified information|Classified]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cato.org/dailys/7-28-97.html |title=CIA Budget: An Unnecessary Secret |authorlink=Dave Kopel |first=Dave |last=Kopel |date=1997-07-28 |accessdate=2007-04-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/sgp/news/1999/11/wp112999.html |title=Cloak Over the CIA Budget |date=1999-11-29 |accessdate=2008-07-04 }}</ref> |minister2_name = |minister2_pfo = |chief1_name = [[David H. Petraeus]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=64540 |title=Defense.gov |publisher=Defense.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-02-12}}</ref> |chief1_position = Director |chief2_name = [[Michael Morell]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/leadership/index.html |title=CIA.gov |publisher=CIA.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-02-12}}</ref> |chief2_position = Deputy Director |chief3_name = V. Sue Bromley<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/news-information/press-releases-statements/press-release-2011/senior-leadership-changes.html |title=CIA.gov |publisher=CIA.gov |date=2011-02-22 |accessdate=2012-02-12}}</ref> |chief3_position = Associate Deputy Director |parent_agency = Independent |child1_agency = |child2_agency = |website = [http://www.cia.gov/ cia.gov] |footnotes = }} --> [[file:Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency.svg|140px|thumb|Lambang CIA]] '''Central Intelligence Agency''' (disingket '''CIA'''; ''Badan Intélijen Puseur'') nyaéta hiji [[badan intélijen]] sipil ti [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Badan ieu mangruoa lembaga éksekutif nu aya langsung handapeun [[Pangarah Intélijen Nasional]]. CIA nagentoskeun [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS; ''Badan Palayanan Stratégis''), nu diwangun nalika [[Perang Dunya II]] sangkan ngatur kagiatan [[spionase]] kana [[Blok Poros]]. ==Tingali ogé== {{Portal|Pamaréntah Amérika Sarikat}} * [[CIA dina fiksi]] * [[Doktrin Reagan]] * [[The World Factbook]], dimedalkeun ku CIA ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Bacaan salajengna== * {{cite book |last= Agee |first=Philip |authorlink=Philip Agee |title=Inside the Company: CIA Diary |year=1975 |publisher=Stonehill Publishing Company |location=New York |isbn=0-88373-028-6 |url=http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/CIA/CIA_Diary_Agee.html |oclc= 1456687 }} * {{cite book |last= Aldrich |first=Richard J. |title=The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence |url= https://archive.org/details/hiddenhandbritai0000rich |year= 2001 |publisher=John Murray |location= London |isbn=0-7195-5423-3 |oclc= 46513534 }} * {{cite book |last=Andrew |first=Christopher |authorlink=Christopher Andrew (historian) |year=1996 |title=For the President's Eyes Only |url=https://archive.org/details/forpresidentseye0000andr_w6t7 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0-00-638071-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Baer |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Baer |year=2003 |title=[[Sleeping with the Devil]]: How Washington Sold Our Soul for Saudi Crude |publisher=Crown |isbn=1-4000-5021-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Bearden |first=Milton |authorlink=Milton Bearden |coauthors=James Risen |year=2003 |title=The Main Enemy: The Inside Story of the CIA's Final Showdown With the KGB |url=https://archive.org/details/mainenemyinsides0000bear |publisher=Random House |location= |isbn=0-679-46309-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Loch K. |authorlink=Loch K. Johnson |year=1991 |title=America's Secret Power: The CIA in a Democratic Society |url=https://archive.org/details/americassecretpo0000john |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= |id= |isbn=0-19-505490-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Ishmael |authorlink=Ishmael Jones |year=2010 |title=The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/humanfactorinsid00jone |publisher=Encounter Books |isbn=978-1-59403-223-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Marchetti |first=Victor |authorlink=Victor Marchetti |coauthors=John D. Marks |year=1974 |title=[[The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence]] |publisher=Knopf |location= |isbn=0-394-48239-5 }} * {{cite book |last=McCoy |first=Alfred W. |authorlink=Alfred W. McCoy |year=1972 |title=[[The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia]] |publisher=Harper Colophon |isbn=06-090328-7 }} * {{cite book |last= McCoy |first= Alfred W. |authorlink=Alfred W. McCoy |title=A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror |year= 2006 |publisher=Owl Books (Henry Holt & Co.) |location=New York |isbn= 0-8050-8248-4 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xNpWEAg2B7UC |oclc=78821099 }} * {{cite book |last=Kessler |first=Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Kessler |year=2003 |title=The CIA at War: Inside the Secret Campaign Against Terror |url=https://archive.org/details/ciaatwarinsidese00kess |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location= |isbn=0-312-31932-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Mahle |first=Melissa Boyle |year=2004 |title=Denial and Deception: An Insider's View of the CIA from Iran-Contra to 9/11 |url=https://archive.org/details/denialdeceptioni00mahl |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=1-56025-649-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Prouty |first=L. Fletcher (Col. USAF, (Ret.)) |authorlink=L. Fletcher Prouty |year=1973 |title=The Secret Team: The CIA and Its Allies In Control of the World |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=345237765195{{Please check ISBN|reason=Invalid length.}} }} * {{cite book |last=Sheymov |first=Victor |year=1993 |title=Tower of Secrets |url=https://archive.org/details/towerofsecretsre00shey |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-55750-764-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=W. Thomas, Jr. |authorlink=W. Thomas Smith, Jr. |coauthors= |year=2003 |title=Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofce0000smit |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=0-8160-4667-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Stansfield |authorlink=Stansfield Turner |year=2006 |title=Burn Before Reading: Presidents, CIA Directors, and Secret Intelligence |url=https://archive.org/details/burnbeforereadin00turn |publisher=Hyperion |location= |isbn=0-7868-8666-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Wallace |first= Robert |title=Spycraft: The Secret History of the CIA's Spytechs, from Communism to al-Qaeda |url=https://archive.org/details/spycraftsecrethi0000wall |last2= Melton |first2= H. Keith |last3= Schlesinger |first3= Henry R. |year= 2008 |publisher= Dutton |location=New York |isbn= 0-525-94980-1 |oclc= 182552888 }} * {{cite book |last=Weiner |first=Tim |year=2007 |title=[[Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA]] |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=0-385-51445-X |oclc= 82367780 }} * {{cite book |last=Ruth |first=Steven |year=2011 |title=[[My Twenty Years as a CIA Officer: It's All About The Mission]] |publisher=CreateSpace |location=Charleston, SC |isbn=978-1-4565-7170-2 |oclc= }} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons}} {{Wikinews category|CIA}} * [https://www.cia.gov/ Loka resmi CIA] <!-- Mung citakanna geus aya, mangga témbongkeun {{Central Intelligence Agency}} {{Intelligence agencies of USA}} {{United States topics}} {{External national intelligence agencies}} {{Cold War}} {{War on Terror}} --> {{amérika-sarikat-pondok}} [[Category:Lembaga pamaréntahan nu ngadeg taun 1947]] [[Category:Central Intelligence Agency| ]] [[Category:Badan intélijen Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:McLean, Virginia]] [[Category:nu ngadeg taun 1947 di Amérika Sarikat]] 22qd75h5oi533e0qhv4bt3r12tyao15 0 38123 711827 706580 2026-08-07T05:26:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711827 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox former country |native_name = {{lang|ber|ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ}}<br/>{{lang|ar|أزواد}} |common_name = Azawad |conventional_long_name = Azawad |continent = Afrika |country = Mali |status = [[Daptar nagara baréto nu teu diakuan|Nagara tanpa pangakuan kadaulatan]] |p1 = Mali |flag_p1 = Flag of Mali.svg |s1 = Mali|flag_s1 = Flag of Mali.svg |image_flag = MNLA flag.svg |flag_alt = Bandéra Azawad |flag = Bandéra Azawad |image_coat = |symbol_type = Lambang |image_map = Azawad (orthographic projection).svg |alt_map = Azawad (héjo) jeung [[Mali]] beulah kidul (kulawu kolot) |map_caption = Azawad, sakumaha diklaim ku MNLA (héjo), jeung [[Mali]] beulah kidul (kulawu kolot). |capital = [[Timbuktu]] <small>(de jure)</small><br/>[[Gao]] <small>(saheulaan)</small> |latd=16 |latm=16 |latNS=N |longd=0 |longm=03 |longEW=W |common_languages = [[rungkun basa Tuareg|Tuareg]]{{·}}[[rungkun basa Songhay|Songhay]]{{·}}[[basa Fula|Fula]]<br/>[[basa Hassaniya|Arab Hassānīya]]<br/>[[basa Perancis|Perancis]] |era = [[Karusuhan Mali Kalér (2012–ayeuna)|Konflik Mali Kalér]] |government_type = Déwan Transisi Nagara Azawad<br/><small>(Conseil de Transition de l'Etat de l'Azawad, CTEA)</small> |title_leader = Présidén |leader1 = Bilal Ag Acherif |year_leader1 = 2012 |deputy1 = {{nowrap|[[Mahamadou Djeri Maïga]]}} |year_deputy1 = 2012 |title_deputy = Wakil Présidén |event_start = [[Proklamasi Kamerdikaan Azawad|Proklamasi]] |date_start = 6 April |year_start = 2012 |event1 = [[Patempuran Gao]] |date_event1 = 27 Juni 2012 |event_end = [[Ansongo]] labuh |date_end = 12 Juli |year_end = 2012 }} [[File:Azawad in context.JPG|thumb|Peta Azawad, sakumaha diklaim ku MNLA: wewengkon kalawan mayoritas [[Tuareg]] ditandaan ku titik kulawu kolot, di kulon utamina dieusian ku [[Moor]], di kidul ku masarakat Sub-Sahara.]] '''Azawad''', kawanoh ogé salaku '''Nagara Merdika Azawad'''<ref name=DOI>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnlamov.net/component/content/article/169-declaration-dindependance-de-lazawad.html |title=Déclaration d'indépendence de l'Azawad |author=Bilal Ag Acherif |authorlink=Bilal Ag Acherif |date=6 April 2012 |publisher=[[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] |language=French |trans_title=Declaration of Independence of Azawad |accessdate=6 April 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018123246/http://www.mnlamov.net/component/content/article/169-declaration-dindependance-de-lazawad.html |date=18 October 2012 }}</ref> ([[rungkun basa Tuareg|Tuareg]]: {{lang|ber|ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ}}, ''{{transl|ber|Azawd}}''; {{lang-ar|دولة أزواد المستقلة}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ar.mnlamov.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=176:2012-04-06-02-18-09&catid=1:latest-news&Itemid=50 |title=بيان استقلال أزواد |author=Bilal Ag Acherif |authorlink=Bilal Ag Acherif |date=6 April 2012 |publisher=[[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] |language=Arabic |trans_title=Declaration of Independence of Azawad |accessdate=28 April 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512123642/http://ar.mnlamov.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=176%3A2012-04-06-02-18-09&catid=1%3Alatest-news&Itemid=50 |date=12 May 2012 }}</ref>, ''{{transl|ar|Dawlat Azawād al-Mustaqillah}}''; {{lang-fr|link=no|État indépendant de l’Azawad}}<ref name=DOI/>), nyaéta hiji wewengkon di [[Mali]] beulah kalér sarta ogé urut nagara [[pangakuan diplomatik|nu teu diakuan]], [[proklamasi kamerdikaan Azawad]] sacara sapihak dinyatakeun ku [[Gerakan Nasional Pangbébasan Azawad]] (MNLA) dina 2012 sanggeus hiji [[Pamberontakan Tuareg (2012)|Pamberontakan Tuareg]] nyandak [[militér Mali|Tentara Mali]] kaluar ti wewengkon ieu. Azawad, sakumaha diklaim ku MNLA, ngawengku [[Région di Mali|région]] [[région Tombouctou|Timbuktu]], [[région Kidal|Kidal]], [[région Gao|Gao]], jeung sabagian ti [[Région Mopti]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17576725 |title=Mali Tuareg rebels control Timbuktu as troops flee |date=1 April 2012 |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> mibanda kira-kira 60 persén ti total wewengkon Mali. Azawad wawatesan jeung [[Burkina Faso]] di kidul, [[Mauritania]] di kulon jeung kalér-kulon, [[Aljazair]] di kalér jeung kalér-wétan, sarta [[Niger]] di wétan jeung tenggara, sareng Mali di kidul-kulon. [[Gao]] nyaéta kota panggedéna jeung ibu kota saheulaan,<ref name="gao">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/20124644412359539.html|title=Tuaregs claim 'independence' from Mali|agency=Al Jazeera|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> samentara [[Timbuktu]] mangrupa kota nu pangedéna kadua, sarta diniatkeun pikeun jadi ibu kota permanén. {{Contains Tifinagh text}} {{Contains Arabic text}} ==Tingali ogé== {{portal|Afrika}} {{commons category|Azawad}} * [[Azawagh]] * [[Fron Islam Arab Azawad]] * [[Pemberontakan Tuareg (2007–2009)]] * [[Gerakan Niger pikeun Kaadilan]] * [[Daptar nagara kalawan pangakuan kawates]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} ==Pustaka== *{{Cite book | last=Dubois | first=Felix | last2=White | first2=Diana (trans.) | title=Timbuctoo the mysterious | publisher=Longmans |location=New York | year=1896 | url=http://www.archive.org/details/timbuctoomyster01whitgoog | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. *{{Cite book |last = Fage |first = J. D. |authorlink = John Donnelly Fage |title = An Introduction to the History of West Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year = 1956 |location = London |pages = 22 |url = http://books.google.com/?id=RDw9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=an+introduction+to+the+history+of+west+africa#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref = harv |postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}} *{{Cite document | last=Hacquard | first=Augustin | year=1900 | title=Monographie de Tombouctou | publisher=Société des études coloniales & maritimes |place=Paris | url=http://www.archive.org/details/monographiedeto00hacqgoog | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. Also available from [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103743p Gallica]. *{{Cite book | last=Hunwick | first=J. O. | title=Encyclopaedia of Islam. Volume X | edition=2nd | year=2000 | contribution=Timbuktu |publisher=Brill | place=Leiden | url=http://www.archive.org/stream/encyclopediaofIslam10/Vol.10t-u#page/n532/mode/1up | isbn= 90-04-11211-1 | pages=508–510 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}. *{{Cite book | last=Hunwick | first= John O.| authorlink= John Hunwick | year=2003 |title= Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents | publisher=Brill| place=Leiden | isbn=0585-6914 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. First published in 1999 as ISBN 90-04-11207-3. *{{Cite book | last=Imperato | first=Pascal James | title=Mali: A Search for Direction | url=https://archive.org/details/malisearchfordir0000impe | year=1989 | publisher=Westview Press | isbn=1-85521-049-5 | unused_data=Boulder CO | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. *{{Cite journal | last=Kaba | first=Lansine | year=1981 | title= Archers, Musketeers, and Mosquitoes: The Moroccan Invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay Resistance (1591–1612) | journal=Journal of African History | volume=22 | issue=4 | pages=457–475 | jstor=181298 | doi=10.1017/S0021853700019861 | pmid=11632225 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. *{{cite book |last=Kirkby |first=Coel |last2=Murray |first2=Christina |chapter=Elusive Autonomy in Sub-Saharan Africa |title=Asymmetric Autonomy and the Settlement of Ethnic Conflicts |url=https://archive.org/details/asymmetricautono0000well |editor1-first=Marc |editor1-last=Weller |editor2-first=Katherine |editor2-last=Nobbs |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/asymmetricautono0000well/page/97 97]–120 |isbn=978-0-8122-4230-0 |ref=harv }} *{{Citation |first=Roderick J. |last=McIntosh |title=Before Timbuktu: cities of the Elder World |work=The Meanings of Timbuktu |publisher=HSRC Press |year=2008 |pages=31–43 |url=http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/The_Meanings_of_Timbuktu_-_Chapter_3_-_Before_Timbuktu__cities_of_the_elder_world.pdf |accessdate=9 April 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927230051/https://codesria.org/IMG/pdf/The_Meanings_of_Timbuktu_-_Chapter_3_-_Before_Timbuktu__cities_of_the_elder_world.pdf |date=27 September 2020 }} *{{Cite book | last=Saad | first=Elias N. | year=1983 | title=Social History of Timbuktu: The Role of Muslim Scholars and Notables 1400–1900 | url=https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryoft0000saad | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-24603-2 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. ==Tumbu kaluar== *[http://www.mnlamov.net/english.html Ramatloka MNLA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609111624/http://www.mnlamov.net/english.html |date=2012-06-09 }} {{nagara di Afrika}} [[Kategori:Tuareg]] [[Kategori:Azawad| ]] [[Kategori:Afrika Kalér]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dipaséakeun di Mali]] [[Kategori:Pamisahan di Mali]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dipasékaeun di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Arab]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu ngadeg taun 2012]] {{geo-stub}} 36sdlabwfxbxwi7ef5h85y5z6k6cn3w 0 38219 711764 673090 2026-08-07T03:38:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[file:Treaty of trianon negotiations.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Panandatanganan pajangjian dina [[4 Juni]] [[1920]].]] '''Pajangjian Trianon''' nyaéta pajangjian karapihan sanggeus réngséna [[Perang Dunya I]], antara Sakutu Perang Dunia I jeung [[Hungaria]], nu dianggap salaku panerus [[Austria-Hungaria]].<ref name="Craig66">{{cite book| last=Craig| first =G.A.| authorlink=| coauthors=| title=Europe since 1914| url=https://archive.org/details/europesince19140000gord| publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York| date=1966}}</ref><ref name="Grenville74">{{cite book| last=Grenville| first =J.A.S.| authorlink=| coauthors=| title=The Major International Treaties 1914-1973. A history and guides with texts| publisher=Methnen London| date=1974}}</ref><ref name="Lichtheim74">{{cite book| last=Lichtheim| first =G.|authorlink=|coauthors=| title=Europe in the Twentieth Century| publisher=Praeger, New York| date=1974}}</ref><ref name=Text>[http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Trianon Text of the Treaty]</ref> Pajangjian ieu ngomongkeun ngeunaan wates Hungaria. Hungaria ngaleupaskeun kira-kira 2/3 wewengkonna jeung 2/3 populasina.<ref name="Macartney37">{{cite book| last=Macartney| first =C.A.|authorlink=|coauthors=| title=Hungary and her successors - The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences 1919-1937| publisher=Oxford University Press| date=1937}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= East on the Danube: Hungary's Tragic Century|publisher=''The New York Times''| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B07E3D91531F93AA3575BC0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2|date=2003-08-09|accessdate=2008-03-15}}</ref> Nagara nu utamina diuntungkeun nyaéta [[Romania]], [[Cékoslowakia]], jeung [[Karajaan Sérbia, Kroasia, jeung Slovénia]]. Pajangjian ieu ditandatanganan dina [[4 Juni]] [[1920]] di [[Versailles]], [[Perancis]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.hhrf.org/htmh/en/ Hungarian Government Office for Hungarians Abroad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080104052220/http://www.hhrf.org/htmh/en/ |date=2008-01-04 }} * [http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/kepek/netre/167.gif Map of Hungarian borders in November-December 1918] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234947/http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/kepek/netre/167.gif |date=2016-03-03 }} * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ir/Ch42.html Murray N. Rothbard: But what about the Hungarians?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616085555/http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ir/Ch42.html |date=2008-06-16 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Trianon}} [[Kategori:Pajangjian karapihan]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Austria-Hungaria]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Cékoslowakia]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Slowakia]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Kroasia]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Sérbia]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Vojvodina]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Austria]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Transylvania]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Ukraina]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Romania]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Hungaria]] {{sajarah-stub}} mor8bwzh7a2x7lm57vqaynuht951qvk 0 38231 711543 666949 2026-08-06T22:49:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{otheruses}} {{Infobox nobility|type | name = Vasco da Gama | title = Laksamana Laut Arab, Pérsia, India, jeung sadaya Wewengkon Wétan | image = Gregório Lopes - Vasco da Gama (ca 1524).jpg | succession = [[Count Vidigueira]] | CoA = [[File:Vasco da Gama o navegador escudo.png|100px]] | reign = 29 Désémber 1519 - <br />23 Désémber 1524 | reign-type = Masa jabatan | successor = Francisco da Gama | spouse = Catarina de Ataíde | issue = D. Francisco da Gama, Count Vidigueira II <br /> [[Estêvão da Gama (abad ka-16)|D. Estêvão da Gama, Raja Madya India]] <br /> [[Cristóvão da Gama|D. Cristóvão da Gama, Kaptén Malaka]] | issue-link = #Nikah jeung murangkalih | issue-pipe = Lianna | full name = Vasco da Gama | noble family = Gama | house-type = | father = [[Estêvão da Gama (abad ka-15)|Estêvão da Gama]] | birth_date = 1460 atanapi 1469 | birth_place = [[Sines, Portugal|Sines]] atanapi [[Vidigueira]], [[Alentejo]], [[Karajaan Portugal]] | death_date = 23 Désémber 1524 | death_place = [[Kochi (India)|Kochim]], [[India Portugal]] | burial_place = [[Biara Jerónimos]], [[Lisbon]], [[Karajaan Portugal]] | occupation = Penjelajah, [[daptar pupuhu kolonial India Portugal|Raja Madya India]] }} [[File:Sines06 edit1.jpg|thumb|left|Patung Vasco da Gama di [[Sines, Portugal]]]] '''Vasco da Gama''', [[Count Vidigueira]] I ({{IPA-pt|ˈvaʃku ðɐ ˈɣɐmɐ}}) (<u>+</u> 1460 atanap 1469 &ndash; 24 Désémber 1524) nyaéta saurang [[Portugal dina Jaman Pamanggihan|penjelajah Portugis]], salah sahiji anu pangsuksésna dina [[Jaman Pamanggihan]] sarta komandan ti kapal-kapal kahiji anu indit langsung ti [[Éropa]] ka [[India]]. Pikeun hiji jangka wanci pondok dina 1524, anjeunna janten Gubernur [[India Portugal]], dina gelar [[Raja Madya]]. == Tingali ogé == *[[Kronologi penjelajahan Éropa kana Asia]] *[[Count Vidigueira]] * [[Armada India Portugal]] *[[India Portugal]] == Rujukan jeun catetan == {{Reflist}} *{{Cite book |last=Ames |first=Glenn J. |title=Vasco da Gama: Renaissance Crusader |url=https://archive.org/details/vascodagamarenai0000ames |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher=Longman |location= |isbn=0-321-09282-1 |pages= }} *{{Cite book |last=Ames |first=Glenn J. |title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700 |url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location= |isbn=978-0-13-193388-0 |pages= }} * Castanhoso, M. de (1898) ''Dos feitos de D. Christovam da Gama em Ethiopia'' Lisbon: Imprensa nacional. [http://books.google.com/books?id=MiFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false online] *{{Cite book |last=Corrêa |first=Gaspar |title=The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama, and His Viceroyalty |authorlink=Gaspar Correia |coauthors= |year=2001 |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |location= |isbn=1-4021-9543-5 |pages= }} Facsimile reprint of a 1869 edition by the [[Hakluyt Society]], London. *{{Cite book|last=Disney|first=Anthony|title= The Indian Ocean in World History|coauthors=Emily Booth (eds.) |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi and New York |isbn= }} *{{Cite book|last=Fernández-Armesto |first=Felipe |title=Civilizations |authorlink=Felipe Fernández-Armesto|year=2001|publisher=Macmillan|location=Basingstoke and Oxford, U.K.|isbn=0-7432-0248-1}} *{{Cite book |last=Fernández-Armesto |first=Felipe |title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration |year=2006 |publisher=W. W. Norton |location= |isbn=978-0-393-06259-5 |pages=177–181 }} * {{Cite book|url=http://ia360625.us.archive.org/3/items/vascodagamahissu00jaynuoft/vascodagamahissu00jaynuoft.pdf|first=Kingsley Garland|last=Jayne|title=Vasco Da Gama and His Successors 1460 to 1580|publisher=Meuthen & Co.Ltd.|location=London, England|year=1910|isbn = 978-0-548-00895-9}} *{{Cite book |last=Panikkar |first=K. M. |title=Asia and Western Dominance: A Survey of the Vasco da Gama Epoch of Asian History, 1498–1945 |authorlink=Kavalam Madhava Panikkar |coauthors= |edition=new ed. |year=1959 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |location=London |isbn= |id={{ASIN|B000Q5T6X6}} |pages= |url=http://www.archive.org/details/asiaandwesterndo009963mbp }} *{{Cite book |last=Ravenstein |first=E. G. |title=A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1497–1499 |authorlink=Ernst Georg Ravenstein |coauthors=ed. and trans. |year=1898 |publisher=Hakluyt Society |location=London|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=13stAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Vasco+inauthor:Ravenstein&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=Lzm2R6iwEo3AsQPrtv2RBQ }} (reissued by [[Cambridge University Press]], 2010. ISBN 978-1-108-01296-6) *{{Cite book |last=Ravenstein |first=E. G. |title=Vasco da Gama |authorlink=Ernst Georg Ravenstein |coauthors= Gaspar Corrêa, Alvaro Velho |year=2010|isbn=978-1-906421-04-5}} *{{Cite book|last=Russell-Wood|first=A. J. R. |title=A World on the Move: The Portuguese in Africa, Asia, and America, 1415–1808|url=https://archive.org/details/worldonmoveportu0000russ|year=1993 |publisher=Macmillan |location= |isbn=978-0-312-09427-0}} *{{Cite book|last=Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |title=The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama |url=https://archive.org/details/careerlegendofva0000subr |coauthors= |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-47072-8 |pages= }} * Teixeira de Aragão, A.C. (1887) ''Vasco da Gama e a Vidigueira: um estudo historico''. Lisbon: Sociedade de Géografia de Lisboa [http://books.google.com/books?id=cBAoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false online] *{{Cite book |last=Towle |first=George Makepeace |title=Vasco da Gama, his voyages and adventures |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=c. 1878 |publisher=Lothrop, Lee & Shepard |location=Boston |isbn= |url=http://www.archive.org/details/vascodagamahisvo00towl }} == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Vasco da Gama}} * [http://www.prominentpeople.co.za/people/35.php Vasco da Gama] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104051501/http://www.prominentpeople.co.za/people/35.php |date=2007-11-04 }}, prominentpéople.co.za * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html Vasco da Gama's ''Round Africa to India''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828160915/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html |date=2011-08-28 }}, fordham.edu * [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/vasco.html Vasco da Gama web tutorial with animated maps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703091222/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/vasco.html |date=2007-07-03 }}, [[University of Calgary|ucalgary.ca]] * [http://sify.com/itihaas/fullstory.php?id=13233617 Brief description of Vasco da Gama's journeys], sify.com * [http://expressbuzz.com/entertainment/news/urumi-santosh-sivans-new-film/188476.html Urumi Malayalam Movie]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, expressbuzz.com {{DEFAULTSORT:Gama, Vasco da}} [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1524]] [[Kategori:Penjelajah Portugis]] [[Kategori:Sajarah maritim Portugal]] [[Kategori:Urang Portugis Katolik Romawi]] [[Kategori:Penjelajah Asia]] [[Kategori:Penjelajah Afrika]] [[Kategori:Raja Madya India Portugal]] [[Kategori:Jaman Pamanggihan]] [[Kategori:Maot ku malaria]] [[Kategori:Sajarah maritim Afrika Kidul]] [[Kategori:Pangagem Katolik Romawi abad ka-15]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Kerala]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Goa]] [[Kategori:Nu babar dina 1460-an]] [[Kategori:Gubernur jeung administrator kolonial Portugal]] [[Kategori:Urang Portugis abad ka-15]] {{nagara-bio-stub|Portugal}} 51ydxjxgjjmpz8r2osjvhhm1va75can 0 38348 711547 666954 2026-08-06T22:52:45Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711547 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox scholar | image = محمد بن عبد الوهاب.png | image_size = | alt = | caption = | name = Muḥammad bin ʿAbdul Wahhāb | fullname = | other_names = | birth_date = 1703 | birth_place = [['Uyayna]], [[Najd]] | death_date = {{Death year and age|1792|1703}} | death_place = [[Émirat Diriyah]] | era = Abad ka-18 | region = [[Semenanjung Arab]] | school_tradition = [[Hambali]]<ref>''The Salafis consider themselves to be 'non-imitators' or 'not attached to tradition', and therefore answerable to no school of law at all, observing instead what they would call the practice of early Islam. However, to do so does correspond to the ideal aimed at by Ibn Hanbal, and thus they can be said to be of his 'school'.'' [[#Gla03|Glassé 2003]]: 407</ref> | main_interests = | notable_ideas = [[Bid‘ah]], [[Tauhid]], [[Syirik]] | major_works = | influences = [[Ibnu Taymiyyah]]<br>[[Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi]]<br>[[Ibnu Qayyim Al-Jawziyya]] | influenced = [[Abdul Aziz bin Abdullah bin Baaz]]<br>[[Muhammad bin Al-Uthaymin]]<br>[[Muhammad Nasiruddin Al-Albani]]<br>[[Syed Ahmed Khan]] }} '''Muhammad bin ʿAbdul Wahhab''' (1703 – 22 Juni 1792)<ref>http://www.alahazrat.net/islam/wahabi-salafi.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922152420/http://www.alahazrat.net/islam/wahabi-salafi.php |date=2012-09-22 }}</ref> ({{lang-ar|محمد بن عبد الوهاب}}) nyaéta saurang agamawan [[Islam]] [[Semenanjung Arab|Arab]] sarta nu ngadegkeun gerakan [[Salafi]]<ref>[[#EBOMuh|EBO ''Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb'' 2011]]</ref> nu mibanda kasatujuan jeung [[Muhammad bin Saud]] nulungan ngadegkeun [[Emirat Diriyah|Nagara Saudi Kahiji]]<ref>[[#Hou92|Hourani 1992]]: 257-258</ref> sarta ngawitan hiji himpunan dinasti sarta panyusunan kakawasaan antawis kulawargina nu masih aya nepi ka danget ieu.<ref name="meforum.org">{{cite journal |author=Nawaf E. Obaid |year=Sept. 1999 |title=The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders |journal=Middle East Quarterly |volume=VI |issue=3 |pages=51–58 |url=http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders |accessdate=23 June 2011}}</ref> ==Catetan jeung rujukan== {{Reflist}} *{{cite book |last=Abir |first=Mordechai |title=Saudi Arabia in the oil era: regime and elites : conflict and collaboration |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-7099-5129-2 |ref=Abi87}} *{{cite book |last=ibn Baaz |first=Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd Allah |authorlink=Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd Allah ibn Baaz |title=Imaam Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab - His Life and Mission |url=http://www.ahya.org/amm/modules.php?name=Sections&op=viewarticle&artid=180 |year= |publisher=Ahya.org |ref=Baz }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030627012126/http://www.ahya.org/amm/modules.php?name=Sections&op=viewarticle&artid=180 |date=2003-06-27 }} *{{cite book |last=ibn Bishr an-Najdi |first='Uthman |title='Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd |vol=1 |url= |year= |publisher= |ref=Bis}} *{{cite journal |last=Bligh |first=Alexander |year=1985 |title=The Saudi religious elite (Ulama) as participant in the political system of the kingdom. |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=17 |issue= |ref=Bli85}} *{{cite book|last=El Fadl|first=Khaled M. Abou|title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fIrLjWF98FIC|accessdate=27 December 2011|date=23 January 2007|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-118903-6|ref=Fad07}} *{{cite book |last=Faksh |first=Mahmud A. |title=The future of Islam in the Middle East |url=https://archive.org/details/futureofislaminm0000faks |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-275-95128-3 |ref=Fak97}} *{{cite book |last=ibn Ghannam |first=Husain |title=Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham (or Tarikh Najd) |vol=1 |url= |year= |publisher= |ref=Gha}} *{{cite book |last1=Glassé |first1=Cyril |last2=Smith |first2=Huston |title=The new encyclopedia of Islam |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC |accessdate=24 December 2011 |date=January 2003|publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |ref=Gla03}} *{{cite book |last=ibn 'Hajar al-Butami |first=Ahmad |title=Shaikh Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab |url= |year= |publisher= |ref=Haj}} *{{cite book |last1=Hopwood |first1=Derek |author2=University of London. Centre of Middle Eastern Studies |author3=University of Oxford. Middle East Centre |title=The Arabian peninsula: society and politics |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hYYNAAAAIAAJ |accessdate=24 December 2011 |year=1972 |publisher=Allen and Unwin |ref=Hop72}} *{{cite book |last=Hourani |first=Albert |authorlink=Albert Hourani |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |year=1992 |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=0-571-16663-6 |ref=Hou92}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Houtsma |first=Martijn Theodoor |authorlink=Martijn Theodoor Houtsma |editor=M. Th. Houtsma |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |title= |edition=1 |year=1913-1938 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume= |location=Leiden |id= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |pages= |quote= |ref=EI1Hou}} *{{cite web |url=http://www.ibnsaud.info/main/9451.htm |title=King Abdul Aziz (Ibn Saud) Information Resource - First ruler of the House of Saud |publisher=Ibnsaud.info |date=17 March 2008 |accessdate=26 December 2011 |ref=Kin08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414114812/http://www.ibnsaud.info/main/9451.htm |date=14 April 2011 }} *{{cite book |last=Lacey |first=Robert |title=The Kingdom: Arabia & the House of Saʻud |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OId-wIvHDcUC |accessdate=26 December 2011 |date=February 1983 |publisher=Avon |isbn=978-0-380-61762-3 |ref=Lac83}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Laoust |first=Henri |authorlink= |editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs et al |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |title=Ibn ʿAbd al- Wahhāb , Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Al Wahhāb |edition=2 |date=7 December 2007 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=3 |location=Leiden |id= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |pages= |quote= |ref=EI2Lao}} *{{cite web |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |url=http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |title=The Saud Family and Salafi Islam |work=Saudi Arabia: A Country Study |year=1992 |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |accessdate=26 December 2011|ref=Met92}} *{{cite book |title=Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States |last=Nyrop |first=Richard F. |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4344-6210-7 |ref=Nyr08}} *{{cite journal |last=Obaid |first=Nawaf E. |month=September |year=1999 |title=The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders |journal=Middle East Quarterly |volume=VI |issue=3 |pages=51–58 |url=http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders |accessdate=23 June 2011 |ref=Oba99}} *{{cite book|author=David Ottaway|title=The king's messenger: Prince Bandar bin Sultan and America's tangled relationship with Saudi Arabia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UdIZhiQxGxEC&pg=PA176|accessdate=27 December 2011|date=11 November 2008|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|isbn=978-0-8027-1690-3|ref=Ott08}} *{{cite book |last=Philby |first=Harry St. John Bridger |authorlink=St John Philby |title=Arabia |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jjK8AAAAIAAJ |accessdate=24 December 2011 |year=1930 |publisher=C.Scribner's Sons |ref=Phi30}} *{{cite book |last=al-Rasheed |first=Madawi |title=A History of Saudi Arabia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsaudiar0000alra_t7c4 |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-74754-7 |ref=Ras10}} *{{cite web |editor-last=as-Salafi |editor-first=Abu 'Iyad |url=http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=SLF02&articleID=SLF020001&articlePages=1 |title=The Principles of Salafiyyah |publisher=Salafipublications.com |date= |accessdate=27 December 2011 |ref=Sal }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927212450/http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=SLF02&articleID=SLF020001&articlePages=1 |date=27 September 2007 }} *{{cite book |last=Vasilʹev |first=Alekseĭ Mikhaĭlovich |title=The history of Saudi Arabia |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NPBtAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=24 December 2011 |year=1998 |publisher=[[Saqi Books]] |isbn=978-0-86356-935-7 |ref=Vas98}} *{{cite journal |last1=Voll |first1=John |year=1975 |title=Muḥammad Ḥayyā al-Sindī and Muḥammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab: ''An Analysis of an Intellectual Group in Eighteenth-Century Madīna'' |journal= |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=32–39 |publisher=Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies |jstor=614196 |accessdate=24 December 2011 |ref=Vol75}} *{{cite book|last=ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab |first=Muhammad |other=Transl. Sameh Strauch |title=Kitaab At-Tawheed |url=http://islamicweb.com/beliefs/creed/abdulwahab |accessdate=26 December 2011 |year= |publisher=International Islamic Publishing House |ref=WahTaw}} *{{cite book|last=ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab |first=Muhammad |title=Kashf ush-Shubuhaat |trans_title=Clarification Of The Doubts: A Decisive Reply To The Doubts And Arguments Of The Associationists |url=http://islamicweb.com/beliefs/creed/Clarification_Doubts.htm |accessdate=27 December 2011 |year= |publisher=International Islamic Publishing House |ref=WahKas}} *{{cite book |last=ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab |first=Muhammad |other=Transl. Abu Maryam Isma'eel Alarcon |title=Thalaathat-Ul-Usool |trans_title=The Three Fundamental Principles |url=http://abdurrahman.org/tawheed/the3fundprinciples.pdf |accessdate=27 December 2011 |year= |publisher=Al-Ibaanah Book Publishing |type=PDF |ref=WahTha }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218092942/http://abdurrahman.org/tawheed/the3fundprinciples.pdf |date=18 December 2011 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=History of Arabia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location= |id= |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia |ref=EBOHis}} *{{cite encyclopedia |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |title=Ibn GHannām , Shaykh Ḥusayn b. Ghannām al-Iḥsāʾī |edition=2 |year=1960-2005 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume= |location=Leiden |id= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |pages= |quote= |ref=EI2Gha}} *{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location= |id= |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/634033/Muhammad-ibn-Abd-al-Wahhab|ref=EBOMuh}} ==Bacaan salajengna== *{{cite book|last=Abualrub |first=Jalal |title=Muhammad ibn Abdil Wahhab: his life-story and mission|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hbcQAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=25 December 2011|date=January 2003|publisher=Madinah Publishers and Distributors|isbn=978-0-9703766-5-7}} *{{cite book|last=DeLong-Bas |first=Natana J. |title=Wahhabi Islam: from revival and reform to global Jihad|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-Uy4ZGwAOAgC|accessdate=24 December 2011|date=15 July 2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-516991-1}} *{{cite book |last=al-Rasheed |first=Madawi |title=Kingdom without borders: Saudi political, religious and media frontiers |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UKkWRu6u29gC |date=1 January 2009 |publisher=Capstone |isbn=978-0-231-70068-9}} ==Tingali ogé== * [[Émirat Diriyah]] ==Tumbu kaluar== *{{cite web |url=http://abdurrahman.org/scholars/AbdulWahab.html |title=Shaykhul Islaam Muhammad Ibn 'Abdul-Wahhaab |publisher=Abdurrahman.org |date= |accessdate=26 December 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106231058/http://abdurrahman.org/scholars/AbdulWahab.html |date=6 January 2012 }} List of works by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab {{DEFAULTSORT:Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1703]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1792]] [[Kategori:Sarjana Muslim]] [[Kategori:Agamawan Muslim]] [[Kategori:Sarjana ilmu Islam]] [[Kategori:Hambali]] [[Kategori:Inohong Saudi Arabia]] {{nagara-bio-stub|Saudi Arabia}} 8pr2957ehtxk6b16jsq9uuj21ts43s3 0 38548 711673 663175 2026-08-07T01:20:13Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711673 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox company | company_name = Saudi Arabian Oil Company<br>Pausahaan Minyak Arab Saudi | company_type = [[Badan Usaha Piboga Nagara]] | foundation = 1933 | location = [[Zhahran]], [[Arab Saudi]] | key_people = [[Khalid A. Al-Falih]]<ref name=SA-L-00>{{cite web |work= saudiaramco.com |date= |title= Our Leadership |url= http://www.saudiaramco.com/en/home/our-company/leadership.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423045733/http://www.saudiaramco.com/en/home/our-company/leadership.html |date=2014-04-23 }}</ref><br />(Présidén & [[CEO]])<br />[[Ali An-Naimi]]<ref name=SA-L-01>{{cite web |work= |date= |title= Page 16, Saudi Aramco - 75 years |url= http://braziloilandgas.com/supplements/Saudi_Aramco_75.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206174911/http://braziloilandgas.com/supplements/Saudi_Aramco_75.pdf |date=2016-02-06 }}</ref><br />([[Mentri]] Perminyakan <br/>jeung [[Sumber daya mineral]]) | industry = [[industri minyak jeung gas|Migas]] | area_served = Sadunya | products = [[Minyak bumi]], [[gas alam]], jeung produk [[pétrokimia]] lianna | revenue = {{Increase}} 210 milyar [[Dolar Amérika Sarikat|AS$]] (2010)<ref>[http://images.businessweek.com/ss/08/12/1211_most_influential/8.htm The World's Most Influential Companies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711103739/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/08/12/1211_most_influential/8.htm |date=2012-07-11 }}</ref> | operating_income = | net_income = | assets = | equity = | owner = [[Pamaréntah Arab Saudi]] | num_employees = 54.798 (2010)<ref name="facts">[http://www.saudiaramco.com/content/dam/Publications/Annual%20Review/AnnualReview2010/Annual%20Review_2010_modified_080611.pdf Saudi Aramco Annual Review 2010]</ref> | homepage = {{URL|http://www.saudiaramco.com/}} | intl = yes }} [[File:AramcoCoreArea.jpg|thumb|Komplés markas gedé Saudi Aramco]] '''Saudi Aramco''' ({{lang-ar|أرامكو السعودية}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾArāmkū s-Suʿūdiyyah}}''), nyaéta [[pausahaan minyak nasional]] [[Arab Saudi]].<ref name=obg2009>{{cite book|title=The Report: Saudi Arabia 2009|year=2009|publisher=Oxford Business Group|isbn=978-1-907065-08-8|pages=130|url=http://books.google.co.th/books?id=v6s3wtsA-HgC&pg=PA130}}</ref><ref name=sa-aag>{{cite web|title=Our company. At a glance|url=http://www.saudiaramco.com/en/home.html#our-company%257C%252Fen%252Fhome%252Four-company%252Fat-a-glance.baseajax.html|publisher=Saudi Aramco|quote=The Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco) is the state-owned oil company of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017131549/http://www.saudiaramco.com/en/home.html#our-company%257C%252Fen%252Fhome%252Four-company%252Fat-a-glance.baseajax.html |date=2018-10-17 }}</ref> Markas gedéna aya di [[Zhahran]], Arab Saudi.<ref>"[http://www.saudiaramco.com/irj/portal/anonymous?favlnk=%2FSaudiAramcoPublic%2Fdocsnav%2FContact+Us&ln=en Contact Us] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605235509/http://www.saudiaramco.com/irj/portal/anonymous?favlnk=%2FSaudiAramcoPublic%2Fdocsnav%2FContact+Us&ln=en |date=2012-06-05 }}." Saudi Aramco. Ditampi 5 Nopémber 2009. "Headquarters: Dhahran, Saudi Arabia Address: Saudi Aramco P.O. Box 5000 Dhahran 31311 Saudi Arabia"</ref> ==Tingali ogé== * [[Abqaiq]] * [[Thomas Barger]] * [[Shaybah]] * [[Max Steineke]] * [[Ras Tanura]] * [[Yanbu]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} ==Pustaka== * {{cite book |title=America's Kingdom: Mythmaking on the Saudi Oil Frontier |last=Vitalis |first=Robert |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=0-8047-5446-2 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/americaskingdomm00vita}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons category|Saudi Aramco}} * {{Official website|http://www.saudiaramco.com}} * [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/about.us/ Saudi Aramco World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828173206/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/about.us/ |date=2012-08-28 }} * [http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=4653109n CBS 60 Minutes (2008-12-07) "The Oil Kingdom: Part One"]. * [http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=4653129n CBS 60 Minutes (2008-12-07) "The Oil Kingdom: Part Two"]. {{Petroleum industry}} {{Saudi Arabia topics}} [[Kategori:Pausahaan minyak jeung gas Arab Saudi]] [[Kategori:Saudi Aramco| ]] [[Kategori:Pausahaan nu ngadeg taun 1933]] [[Kategori:Zhahran]] [[Kategori:Pausahaan jalur pipa minyak]] [[Kategori:Pausahaan minyak jeung gas nasional]] [[Kategori:Ékonomi Arab Saudi]] lectwemjen6daom04ea68z689h7pr7v 0 38737 711690 653963 2026-08-07T01:36:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711690 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox book <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Novels or Wikipedia:WikiProject_Books --> | name = '''The Old Man and the Sea''' | image = | author = [[Ernest Hemingway]] | translator = | cover_artist = | country = Amérika Sarikat | language = Inggris | genre = Novella | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | release_date = 1952 | media_type = Sampul teuas | pages = 93 | isbn = 978-0-684-80122-3 | dewey = | congress = | oclc = | preceded_by = | followed_by = }} '''''The Old Man and the Séa''''' ([[basa Sunda]]: '''''Aki-aki Jeung Laut''''') nyaéta hiji novella ([[novel pendek]]) nu ditulis ku [[jurnalis]] [[Amerika Serikat]] [[Ernest Hemingway]], ditulis di [[Kuba]] taun 1951 jeung diterbitkeun taun 1952. Karya ieu minangka karya fiksi terakhir panghadéna nu ditulis jeung diterbitkeun dina tenggang waktu hirupna. Buku ieu minangka salah sahiji karyana nu sohor. Buku ieu nyaritakeun hiji pamayang kolot nu ngarana Santiago. Karakter utama buku ieu, Santiago nyaéta pamayang nu geus aki-aki, dicaritakeun dina buku ieu, Santiago keur usaha naklukeun hiji lauk raksasa [[marlin]] di tengah arus laut di wilayah [[Teluk Meksiko]].<ref name="oldman">{{cite book | last = Hemingway | first = Ernest | year = 1952 | title = The Old Man and the Sea | url = https://archive.org/details/bwb_O8-BOU-944 | location = New York | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons }} hardcover: ISBN 0-684-83049-3, paperback: ISBN 0-684-80122-1</ref> Ieu karya mangrupa karya nu mintonkeun kumaha maherna Hemingway dina dunya nulis. Karya ieu gé jadi salah sahiji faktor nu diitungkeun dina penghargaan [[Nobel Sastra]] keur Hemingway dina taun 1954.<ref name="nobel">{{cite web | title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 | work=The Nobel Foundation | url=http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1954/ | accessdate = January 31 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> == Kasang Tukang jeung publikasi == Ieu novel pendek mimitina dimuat dina [[Majalah Life]] edisi 1 September 1952. 5,3 juta kopi terbitan éta majalah béak dina waktu dua poe. éta tulisan loba nu méré kritik positif di antara saeutik kritik nu kurang sapagodos jeung eusi éta tulisan. == Ringkasan cerita == ''Lalaki Kolot jeung laut'' nyaritakeun kapahlawanan hiji pamayang kolot nu geus legok tapak genteng kadek dina naklukeun hiji lauk Marlin raksasa. Ieu lauk marlin bisa disebutkeun lauk nu panggedéna nu kungsi katewak ku manéhna. Dongeng ieu dimimitian ku carita yén hiji pamayang nu ngarana Santiago geus salila 84 poé (dina carita kanyahoan saenyana 87 poe) teu hasil newak lauk hiji-hiji acan. Katingalina Santiago geus béak untungna tepi keun ka muridna nu ngarana Manolin ku kolotna dilarang lalayaran deui jeung manéhna sarta ditiah guguru ka pamayang séjén nu leuwih hadé. Tapi Manolin tetep babakti kanu jadi guru. Mun poé geus peuting, Manolin sok datang ka saung Santiago, ngangkatan alat-alat newak laukna, ngirim kadaharan jeung ngobrol ngeunaan bisbol Amérika jeung éta aki-aki. Santiago nyaritakeun ka Manolin yén dina poé isukna, manéhna erek balayar jauh ka tengah teluk supaya meunang lauk. Maehna yakin yén nasib gorengna bakal tereh sirna. Dina poé ka-85, Santiago balayar sorangan maké [[parahu]] leutik jauh ka tengah teluk Meksiko. Sanggeus tepi ka tempat nu di tuju di tengah teluk, manéhna tuluy masang useup. Teu lila useupna disangut ku hiji lauk raksasa nu disangka lauk marlin téa. Santiago geus pasti teu bisa narik éta lauk ku sabab raksasa téa, malahan parahuna kalahkah kabawa ku éta lauk. Dua poé dua peuting manéhna dibabawa ku éta lauk. Salila eta, manéhna tetep nyekel tali useupna kalayan hésé beleke. Sangkilang Santiago ngarasa nyeri pisan jeung tatu ku sabab perjuangana ngéléhkeun éta lauk, Santiago lalaunan ngarasa nyaah, jeung ngahargaan ka lawanna nyaéta lauk marlin téa. Ku sabab eta, Santiago sok nyebut éta lauk dulurna. manéhna mutuskeun ku sabab martabat éta lauk gedé, euweuh saurang ogé nu pantes ngakan éta lauk. Dina poé katilu, si lauk mimiti ngurilingan parahu Santiago. Hal ieu nyirikeun yén éta lauk geus ngarasa cape. Tapi Santiago gé teu jauh beda. manéhna geus mimiti béakeun tanaga, gundam keur sare, jeung ampir-ampiran jadi gelo. Tapi akhirna manéhna ngaluarkeun tanaga sesa narik jeung numbak éta lauk tuluy ditalian dina sisi parahuna. Santiago sanggeus nalian laukna dina sisi parahu, tuluy weh balik ka darat. Di tengah jalan, manéhna ngalamun sakumaha gedé untung nu bakal ditarima ku manéhna. Jeung sakumaha jalma nu bisa ngarasakeun kumaha nimatna daging lauk marlin. ku sabab éta lauk tadina ditumbak maké [[harpun]] jadina éta lauk ngaluarkeun getih nu narik datangna hiu. Hiu nu mimiti datang nyaéta [[hiu mako]] nu ku Santiago dipaehan ku harpuna. Hal ieu ngakibatkeun harpuna leungit ka dasar laut. Saterusna manéhna nyieun harpun tina peso jeung dayung nu ku manéhna digunakeun keur ngusir hiu-hiu nu séjén. Lima hiu hasil dipaehan ku manéhna, jeung hiu nu séjén kabur. Tapi dina waktu peuting hiu-hiu datang deui jeung ngakan bangke marlin nyesakeun rorongkongna wungkul kaasup tangkurak marlin nu masih kénéh aya harpunan nu nyeceb. Santiago kacida sedihna. manéhna ngarasa geus ngorbankeun éta marlin. Akhirna manéhna nepi di basisir. Hese beleke manéhna ngangkat tihang layar tuluy balik ka saungna. manéhna tuluy sare di ranjangna. Isukna, sakelompok pamayang ngarumpul dina hiji parahu nu aya rorongkong lauk marlin. Hiji pamayang ngukur panjangna ti mimiti moncong tepi ka buntut nyaéta aya 18 kaki (5,4 meter). Ku sabab badagna, salah sahiji turis nu keur nyaneut di kafe nu aya di dinya nyangka éta téh lauk hiu. Manolin nu terus-terusan ngarasa hariwang buru-buru ka saung Santiago. Barang ninggali Santiago keur sare, manéhna ceurik balilihan ku sabab sedihna. Tuluy Manolin mawa koran jeung kopi keur Santiago. Barang Santiago hudang, Manolin janji yén manéhna bakal balayar deui ngala lauk jeung Santiago. Pas Santiago sare deui, manéhna ngimpi ngeunaan singa di basisir Afrika. == Simbulisme karakter == ''Lalaki Kolot jeung Laut''bébas diinterpretasi. Hemingway nekenkeun yen: {{quote|"No good book has ever been written that has in it symbols arrived at beforehand and stuck in. ... I tried to make a real old man, a real boy, a real sea and a real fish and real sharks. But if I made them good and true enough they would mean many things".<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,27803-4,00.html An American Storyteller"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521033454/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,27803-4,00.html |date=2013-05-21 }}, ''Time'', [[July 7]], [[1999]]</ref>}} Terjemahan: ''"Euweuh buku alus nu pernah ditulis nu make simbul-simbul nu geus aya samemehna dina pikiran... Kuring nyoba nyaritakeun aki-aki saenyana, budak lalaki saenyana, lauk saenyana jeung hiu saenyana. Tapi mun kuring dianggap alus ngagambarkeunana, sakabeh éta bisa diartikeun naon wae."''. == Penghargaan jeung nominasi == ''Lalaki kolot jeung Laut'' loba pisan dipuji. Gara-gara ieu novella Hemingway meunangkeun [[Pulitzer]] dina taun 1953 kategori fiksi. manéhna ogé meunang ''Award of Merit Medal'' keur tulisan ieu ti ''[[American Academy of Letters]]'' dina taun éta kénéh. Penghargaan nu pangluhurna nyaéta [[Nobel Sastra]] dina taun 1954. Catetan dina hadiah nobelna nyaéta "keur kamaheran dina seni [[narasi]] nu diantarana ditunjukeun dina ''Lalaki Kolot jeung LutLelaki Tua dan Laut'', sarta keur pangaruh penting nu dikontribusikeun dina gaya nulis dina waktu eta."<ref name="nobel" /> == Referensi == {{reflist}} == Rujukan == * {{cite book | author=Young, Philip | title=Ernest Hemingway | url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116401067404 | location=New York | publisher=Holt, Rinehart, & Winston | year=1952 | isbn=0-8166-0191-7 }} * {{cite book | author=Jobes, Katharine T., ed | title=Twentieth Century Interpretations of The Old Man and the Sea | location = Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey | publisher=Prentice Hall | year=1968 | isbn=0-13-633917-4 }} * {{cite web | title=Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure: Cuba | work=PBS | url=http://www.pbs.org/hemingwayadventure/cuba.html | accessdate = January 21 | accessyear=2006 }} * {{cite book | author=Ivan Kashkin | title=Commentary (in Ernest Hemingway - Selected works in two volumes) | location = Moscow | publisher = State publisher for literature | year=1959 }} == Sawala luar == * (en) [http://www.pprize.com/BookDetail.php?bk=35 Foto-foto edisi pertama Lelaki Tua dan Laut] * [http://pustaka.budpar.go.id/anoa/?collection.view.3697 Perpustakaan departemen kebudayaan dan pariwisata Indonesia]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} 9bcsgwmfqu548ondhdli326dvsilpy8 0 38746 711761 705535 2026-08-07T03:36:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711761 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = Perang Surabaya | partof = [[Révolusi Nasional Indonésia]] | image = [[file:Bung Tomo.jpg|300px]] | caption = [[Bung Tomo]] nuju méré sumanget ka para pajoang. | date = 27 Oktober – 20 Nopémber 1945 | place = [[Surabaya]], [[Jawa Wétan]] | result = Kameunangan militér Britania Raya; Kameunangan moral Indonésia. | combatant1 = {{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Indonésia]] | combatant2 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Britania Raya]] | commander1 = [[Gubernur Suryo]]<br>[[Bung Tomo]] | commander2 = [[A.W.S. Mallaby]] †<br>[[Robert Mansergh]] | strength1 = 20.000 TKR & 100.000 Laskar | strength2 = 30.000 tentara | casualties1 = 6.000 – 16.000 gugur | casualties2 = 600 – 2.000 gugur }} '''Perang Surabaya''' nyaéta [[perang]] rongkah antara milisi sarta pajoang pro-kamerdékaan Indonésia ngalawan tentara Inggris. Puncakna ieu perang lumangsung dina bulan Nopémber 1945. Sangkilang perlawanan ti pihak Républik kacida kuatna, tentara Inggris-India —anu ku urang sok disebut tentara Gurka— sacara militér unggul sarta hasil nalukeun [[Surabaya]] pikeun kapentingan Walanda. Sanajan kitu, perang ieu janten perang pangrongkahna dina sajarah perjuangan bangsa Indonésia sarta janten simbol perlawanan nasional.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Ningali perlawanan rahayat anu sakitu tohpatina, perang ieu méré kontribusi anu gedé pikeun Indonésia. Saatos kajadian ieu, dukungan internasional pikeun kamerdékaan Indonésia beuki ngagedéan sarta muka panon dunya ngeunaan kaayaan di Nusantara. Kiwari, unggal tanggal [[10 Nopémber]] dipiéling salaku [[Poé Pahlawan]] pikeun ngahormatan jasa para pajoang anu gugur di Surabaya. == Sajarah sarta Jalanna Perang == Nalika pasukan Sekutu ([[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]]) badarat di [[Surabaya]] dina ahir bulan Oktober 1945, para pamuda di ieu kota dipikawanoh miboga sumanget anu kuat sarta ngahiji.{{sfn|Parrott}} Perang rongkah bitu nalika 6.000 tentara Gurka (bagian tina [[British Indian Army]]) anjog ka kota kalayan maksud rék ngabébaskeun tawanan perang urang Éropa. Saatos panglima Inggris, Brigadir [[Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby|A.W.S. Mallaby]], palastra dina tanggal 30 Oktober,{{sfn|Parrott}} tentara Inggris ngayakeun serangan rongkah dina tanggal 10 Nopémber kalayan dibantuan ku serangan udara. Sanajan kota tiasa dikawasa ku pasukan Sekutu dina tilu dinten, para pajoang Républik anu kirang pakarang tiasa terus mertahankeun diri dugi ka tilu minggu lilana. Salian ti éta, rébuan pajoang gugur nalika rahayat Surabaya ngungsi ninggalkeun kota. == Dampak Perang == Sanajan dina ieu perang pihak Républik éléh sacara militér sarta ngalaman karugian anu ageung, boh dina hal pakarang boh sumber daya manusa, perjuangan ieu mawa pangaruh anu gedé kana jalanna révolusi. Perang Surabaya ngahasilkeun naékna dukungan internasional pikeun Indonésia. Pikeun pihak Walanda, ieu kajadian ngayakinkeun yén Républik Indonésia téh bener-bener aya sarta dirojong ku sakuliah rahayat, sanés ngan saukur gerakan sakelompok jalma. Salian ti éta, perang ieu ogé ngayakinkeun pihak Inggris yén kacida pentingna pikeun milih sikep netral dina konflik Indonésia-Walanda.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Faktana, dina sababaraha taun saatosna, Inggris anu tadina janten lawan dina Perang Surabaya, malik ngarojong kamerdékaan Indonésia di forum PBB. == Kasang Tukang == Dina tanggal 17 Agustus 1945, [[Soekarno]] sareng [[Mohammad Hatta|Hatta]] ngumumkeun kamerdékaan Indonésia ngaliwatan Proklamasi Kamerdékaan Indonésia di [[Jakarta]], dua dinten saatos [[Kaisar]] Jepang taluk ka [[Sekutu]]. Nalika béja kamerdékaan ieu nyebar ka sakuliah nagri, rahayat Indonésia ngarasa merdéka sarta ngarojong pisan kana ngadegna Républik.{{sfn|Ricklefs|pp=214–215}} Dina sababaraha minggu, Indonésia ngalaman kaayaan kosongna kakawasaan (vakum), boh tina pihak pangjajah boh ti pihak Républik sorangan. Hal ieu ngakibatkeun kaayaan anu teu tangtu, nanging méré kasempetan pikeun pajoang lokal pikeun ngukuhkeun kakawasaan.{{sfn|Friend|p=32}} Dina tanggal 19 Séptémber 1945, sakelompok urang Walanda anu disokong ku Jepang naékeun bandéra Walanda di luhur Hotél Yamato di [[Surabaya]], [[Jawa Wétan]]. Ieu hal ngabalukarkeun pajoang sarta laskar-laskar Indonésia ngamuk, anu saterusna nyerang éta hotél. Dina éta kajadian, bandéra Walanda diturunkeun, tuluy bagian warna biruna disoék sarta ditaékeun deui janten bandéra Indonésia (Beureum-Bodas).{{sfn|Toer|1999|p=173}} Pamingpin grup Walanda, nyaéta Pluegman, tiwas dina éta karusuhan.{{sfn|Toer|1999|p=173}} [[File:Stamp of Indonesia - 1962 - Colnect 260648 - Dr Soetomo 1888-1938.jpeg|Bung Tomo |thumb|upright| [[Bung Tomo]] di [[Surabaya]], salah sahiji pamingpin révolusi kharismatik Indonésia. aya dina prangko.{{sfn|Frederick|1982|pp=127–128}}]] Komandan senior Jepang di Surabaya, Laksamana Madya Shibata Yaichiro, nyokong ka Républik sarta méré aksés pakarang pikeun para laskar.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Dina tanggal 3 Oktober, anjeunna nyerah ka kaptén Angkatan Laut Walanda minangka wawakil Sekutu anu ti heula sumping ka Indonésia. Yaichiro sadar yén réalitasna Indonésia anu ngontrol kota, anjeunna maréntahkeun pasukanna pikeun masrahkeun pakarang ka pihak Indonésia. Pihak Indonésia sabenerna diparéntah ogé pikeun masrahkeun pakarang tina Jepang éta ka Sekutu, nanging urang Indonésia henteu nurut.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Pasukan Inggris sumping bari nyandak pasukan militér leutik ti Walanda anu namina NICA ([[Netherlands Indies Civil Administration]]). Pasukan Inggris ngarasa paur nalika terang yén pihak Indonésia beuki wani sarta beuki kiat dina nyerang markas Jepang di sabudeureun nagri, ngan saukur ngagunakeun pakarang basajan sapertos awi runcing pikeun ngarebut pakarang tentara Jepang.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} Tujuan utama pasukan Inggris di Surabaya téh saenyana nyaéta badé nyandak pakarang Jepang sarta Indonésia, salian ti éta ogé badé nyandak tawanan Jepang anu badé dipulangkan deui ka nagarana. Dina bulan Séptémber sarta Oktober 1945, aya sababaraha kajadian insidén anu ngalibetkeun urang [[Éropa]] sarta pihak Indonésia.{{sfn|Frederick|1989|pp=237–243}} Dina ahir bulan Oktober sarta awal Nopémber, para pamingpin [[Nahdlatul Ulama]] sarta [[Masyumi]] netepkeun yén perang mertahankeun Indonésia téh kaasup [[Jihad]], sarta Jihad nyaéta kawajiban pikeun tiap Muslim. Para [[Kyai]] sarta santri ti pasantrén-pasantrén anu aya di [[Jawa Wétan]] mimiti daratang ka Surabaya. [[Bung Tomo]] anu kharismatik ngagunakeun radio lokal pikeun méré sumanget sarta ningkatkeun patriotisme di sakuliah kota.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Genep rébu pasukan Inggris-India (Gurka) dikirim ka kota dina tanggal 25 Oktober pikeun ngévakuasi tawanan Éropa, tilu dinten ti harita, peperangan geus dimimitian.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Perang ieu ngalibetkeun 20.000 Tentara Kaamanan Rahayat (TKR) sarta 70.000–140.000 laskar rahayat. Pihak Inggris ménta bantuan ka Présidén [[Soekarno]], Wakil Présidén [[Mohammad Hatta]], sarta Menteri [[Amir Sjarifuddin]] pikeun nenangkeun rahayat, anu ahirna dina tanggal 30 Oktober diayakeun gencatan senjata.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} == Kajadian-Kajadian Awal == Dina tanggal 26 Oktober 1945, Brigadir [[Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby|A.W.S. Mallaby]] ngayakeun perjangjian sareng Gubernur [[Jawa Wétan]], Mr. Suryo, yén pasukan Inggris moal maréntahkeun pasukan Indonésia pikeun masrahkeun pakarangna. Nanging, perjangjian ieu ngabalukarkeun salah paham anu serius sareng pasukan Inggris di [[Jakarta]] anu dipingpin ku Létnan Jenderal Sir [[Philip Christison]]. Mimitina, pasukan Inggris jumlahna 6.000 personil anu nganggo pakarang hampang. Ieu pasukan téh nyaéta Tentara Inggris-India ti Brigade Infanteri 49 Divisi India 23 ([[23rd Infantry Division (India)|23rd Indian Division]]). Nalika perang aya dina puncakna, Inggris ngirimkeun pasukan tambahan, nyaéta: 24.000 tentara ti Divisi 5 India anu miboga pakarang lengkep, 24 [[Tank Sherman]], 24 pesawat tempur, 2 kapal parancah ''(cruiser)'', sarta 3 kapal pangancur ''(destroyer)''.{{sfn|Indonesian Heritage}} Pasukan Indonésia diwangun ku 20.000 Tentara Kaamanan Rahayat (TKR) anu nembé dibentuk, sarta kira-kira 100.000–120.000 laskar rahayat. TKR sorangan anggotana asalna tina PETA, hiji organisasi semi-militér anu dibentuk ku Jepang. Sedengkeun laskar rahayat diwangun ku rahayat pro-kamerdékaan anu mawa pakarang mangrupa senapan, pedang, sarta awi runcing. Senapan ti pihak Indonésia lolobana hasil rampasan ti tentara Jepang anu nyerah.{{sfn|Parrott}} == Jalanna Perang == === Mimiti === Dina tanggal 27 Oktober 1945, kapal udara Inggris hiber ti Jakarta ka Surabaya bari nyebarkeun ''ultimatum'' mangrupa pamflét anu eusina maréntahkeun sangkan pasukan Indonésia sarta laskar rahayat masrahkeun pakarangna. Para komandan pasukan sarta laskar Indonésia ambek narima ieu ultimatum, margi dianggap geus nyalahan perjangjian sareng Mallaby anu parantos dijieun saméméhna. Dina tanggal 28 Oktober 1945, pasukan Indonésia sarta laskar rahayat nyerang pasukan Inggris di Surabaya anu ngabalukarkeun 200 urang korban ti pihak Inggris. Dina tanggal 30 Oktober 1945, Inggris ménta Présidén [[Soekarno]], [[Mohammad Hatta]], sarta Amir Sjarifuddin (Menteri Inpormasi) sumping ka Surabaya pikeun badami ngeunaan gencatan senjata. Gencatan senjata ieu disatujuan ku pihak Indonésia sarta Mayor Jenderal Hawthorn (Komandan Divisi India ka-23) jeung Brigadir Mallaby. Najan kitu, kusabab aya salah paham di lapangan, perang ahirna peupeutéyan deui di Surabaya. {{sfn|Reid|p=52}} === Tiwasna Brigadir Mallaby === [[File:LaSalle 1940 Series 52 Sedan of Brigadier-Mallaby - Burnt Car - 194511.jpg|thumb|Mobil Brigadir Mallaby, tempat anjeunna tiwas dina tanggal 30 Oktober 1945.]] Dina tanggal 30 Oktober 1945, Brigadir [[Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby|A.W.S. Mallaby]], komandan brigade Inggris di Surabaya, nuju ngurilingan kota pikeun nyebarkeun béja ngeunaan perjangjian énggal ka pasukanna. Nalika mobilna ngadeukeutan pos pasukan Inggris di deukeut Sasak Beureum (Jembatan Merah), mobilna dikepung ku laskar Républik Indonésia. Dina kaayaan anu kacida kusutna, Mallaby ditémbak sarta tiwas di jero mobilna.{{sfn|Parrott}} Kaptén R.C. Smith anu marengan Mallaby dina éta mobil ngalaporkeun yén manéhna ningali aya saurang pamuda anggota laskar Républik némbak sarta maéhan Mallaby saatos ngobrol sakedap. Smith ogé ngalaporkeun yén manéhna tuluy ngalungkeun granat tina mobil ka arah anu disangka tempat panyumputan anu némbak téa. Sanajan kitu, manéhna teu yakin naha granatna keuna atanapi henteu. Ngabeledugna granat ngabalukarkeun korsi tukang mobil kaduruk.{{sfn|Parrott}} Aya ogé pamendak sanés dina sumber anu sarua,{{sfn|Parrott}} anu nyatakeun yén anu matak tiwasna Mallaby téa nyaéta ku sabab beledugna [[granat]], sanés ku sabab ditémbak. Kumaha waé carana, tiwasna Mallaby janten sabab utama bituna perang campuh di Surabaya. Pihak Inggris ngaluarkeun ultimatum yén Indonésia kedah taluk; upami henteu, dina tanggal 10 Nopémber Inggris bakal nyerang bebéakan.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} === Perang Utamana === [[File:IWM-SE-5866-Jat-Bren- gunners-in-Surabaya-194511.jpg|thumb|Panémbak Bren ti Résimén 3/9 Jat ngajaga majuna résiménna ngalawan pasukan Indonésia, kira-kira tanggal 15–16 Nopémber 1945.]] Létnan Jenderal Sir [[Philip Christison]] ngambek nalika anjeunna terang yén Brigadir Mallaby palastra di Surabaya. Dina mangsa ''gencatan senjata'', Inggris ngirim bantuan tambahan sarta ngévakuasi para interniran.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Dua brigade tambahan, nyaéta [[Brigade]] Infanteri India ka-9 sarta Brigade Infanteri India ka-23 anu kaasup kana Divisi India ka-5 dipingpin ku [[Mayor Jenderal]] [[Robert Mansergh]], dikirimkeun kalayan dibarengan ku tank Sherman, 2 kapal parancah (cruiser), sarta 3 kapal pangancur (destroyer), kaasup kapal {{HMS|Cavalier|R73|6}}.{{sfn|Indonesian Heritage}} Subuh tanggal 10 Nopémber, anu ayeuna dipiélingan salaku [[Poé Pahlawan]], pasukan Inggris nyerang Surabaya kalayan dibantuan ku bombardir bom ti kapal laut sarta kapal udara. Perang lumangsung kacida rongkahna; tentara Inggris nyaliksis sakuliah kota, unggal wangunan sarta rohangan dipariksa hiji-hiji. Sangkilang pajoang Indonésia ngalawan kalayan bebéakan, satengah kota Surabaya hasil ditaklukeun dina waktu 3 dinten, sarta perang nembé réngsé saatos tilu minggu. Perkiraan korban ti pihak Indonésia nyaéta 6.300–15.000 urang, sarta sakitar 200.000 urang ngungsi kaluar kota.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}}{{sfn|Vickers|p=98}} Korban ti pihak Inggris-India sakitar 600 urang.{{sfn|Woodburn Kirby|p=444}} == Akibat Perang == Pihak republik loba korban dina hal sumber daya manusia jeung musnahna [[Pakarang|senjata]] nu mangaruhan perjoangan militér républik saterusna.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Perang Surabaya nyaéta perang tunggal nu paling rongkah sapanjang revolusi Indonésia, jeung salah sahiji perang nu nembokngkeun kumaha kuatna ''determinasi'' jeung pangorbanan rakyat dina kaayaan kacau sahingga jadi salah sahiji simbul ningkatkeun sumanget révolusi Indonésia. Perang ieu gé matak mangaruhan ka Inggris, Inggris sadar yén di Asia Tenggara sumber daya nu direbut ku Jepang kacida lobana. Faktana, sababaraha taun ti harita, Inggris sacara terang-terangan nyokong Republik di PBB. Perang ieu gé sabenerna nyirnakeun karaguan Walanda yén Republik téh bener-bener aya jeung didukung ku rakyat.{{sfn|Ricklefs|p=217}} Bulan Nopember 1946, Pasukan Inggris antuknana ninggalkeun Indonésia. Patung Pahlawan 10 Nopember diadegkeun di Surabaya keur pangeling-ngeling. Jeung kiwari, 10 Nopémber nyaéta dipieling minangka Hari Pahlawan. == Tinggali Ogé == {{portal|Indonesia}} * [[Sejarah Indonesia]] {{clear}} == Referensi == * {{cite journal | last = Frederick | first = William H. | year = 1982 | month = April | title = In Memoriam: Sutomo | journal = Indonesia | volume = 33 | pages = 127–128 | publisher = Cornell University Southeast Asia Program | url = http://cip.cornell.edu/seap.indo/1107016901 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Frederick | first = Willam H. | year = 1989 | title = Visions and Heat: The Making of the Indonesian Revolution | url = https://archive.org/details/visionsheatmakin0000fred | publisher = Ohio University Press | location = [[Athens, Ohio]] | isbn = 978-0-8214-0906-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Friend | first = Theodore | year = 2003 | title = Indonesian Destinies | url = https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo | publisher = The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | isbn = 978-0-674-01834-1 | ref = {{sfnRef|Friend}} }} * {{cite journal | last = Parrott | first = J. G. A. | year = 1975 | month = October | title = Who Killed Brigadier Mallaby? | journal = Indonesia | volume = 20 | issue = 20 | pages = 87–111 | url = http://cip.cornell.edu/seap.indo/1107105571 | accessdate = 3 August 2012 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060916200808/http://cip.cornell.edu/Dienst/UI/1.0/Summarize/seap.indo/1107105571 | archivedate = 16 September 2006 | jstor = 3350997 | doi = 10.2307/3350997 | ref = {{sfnRef|Parrott}} }} * {{cite book | last = Reid | first = Anthony | year = 1973 | title = The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950 | url = https://archive.org/details/indonesiannation0000reid | publisher = Longman Pty | location = Melbourne | isbn = 978-0-582-71046-7 | ref = {{sfnRef|Reid}} }} * {{cite book | last = Ricklefs | first = Merle Calvin | year = 1993 | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 | edition = Second | publisher = MacMillan | isbn = 978-0-333-57689-2 | ref = {{sfnRef|Ricklefs}} }} * {{cite book | last = Vickers | first = Adrian | year = 2005 | title = A History of Modern Indonesia | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri | edition = illustrated, annotated, reprint | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-83493-3 | ref = {{sfnRef|Vickers}} }} * {{cite book | last = Woodburn Kirby | first = S. | year = 1965 | title = The War Against Japan | volume = V | publisher = HMSO | location = London | isbn = | ref = {{sfnRef|Woodburn Kirby}} }} * {{cite book | last = Poesponegoro | first = Marwati Djoened | year = 2008 | title = Sejarah Nasional Indonesia VI: Zaman Jepang dan Zaman Republik Indonesia | publisher = Balai Pustaka | isbn = 979-407-412-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Toer | first = Pramoedya Ananta | year = 1999 | title = Kronik Revolusi Indonesia: Jilid I (1945) | publisher = KPG (Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia) | isbn = 979-9023-27-0 | ref = harv }} '''Sumber séjén''' * {{cite web | title = The Battle for Surabaya | work = Indonesian Heritage | publisher = Editions Didier Millet | date = | url = http://www.nusantara.com/heritage/surabaya.html | accessdate = 3 August 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Indonesian Heritage}} }} == Bacaeun saterusna == * Bayly and Harper (2007) ''Forgotten Wars: The End of Britain's Asian Empire'' (London:Penguin). * McMillan, Richard (2005) ''The British Occupation of Indonesia 1945–1946: Britain, the Netherlands and the Indonesian revolution'' (London:Routledge). * Parrott, J. G. A., Role of the 49 Indian Infantry Brigade in Surabaya, Oct.-Nov. 1945, Australian thesis == Sawangan Luar == * Picture of [http://digilib.petra.ac.id/jiunkpe/mmedia/pust/1945/jiunkpe-ns-mmedia-1945-na00001-31-wreckedcar-resource1.jpg General Mallaby's burnt out car] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201949/http://digilib.petra.ac.id/jiunkpe/mmedia/pust/1945/jiunkpe-ns-mmedia-1945-na00001-31-wreckedcar-resource1.jpg |date=2016-03-03 }}. This photograph was taken in November 1945 by Sergéants Davis and MacTavish of the British No. 9 Army Film and Photographic Unit. Original at the Imperial War muséum's Collections Online database at [http://www.iwmcollections.org.uk/qryPhotoImg.asp] Reference No. SE 5724 * Picture of the [http://digilib.petra.ac.id/jiunkpe/mmedia/pust/1933/jiunkpe-ns-mmedia-1933-na00001-10-internatio-resource1.jpg Internatio Building] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040041/http://digilib.petra.ac.id/jiunkpe/mmedia/pust/1933/jiunkpe-ns-mmedia-1933-na00001-10-internatio-resource1.jpg |date=2016-03-04 }} scene of the 30 October Incident and Mallaby's Déath. ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Révolusi Nasional Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Surabaya]] [[Kategori:Perang di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:1945 di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Pahlawan]] [[Kategori: Pahlawan nasional Indonésia]] [[Karegori:Inohong ti Jawa Wétan]] luj1r1kml0tfl1yv00rfdj5x2s1jp7s 0 38922 711850 667190 2026-08-07T05:50:01Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711850 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 290px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- | colspan="2" style="margin-left: inherit; background:#999999; color:white;text-align:center; font-size: medium;" |'''Benggala''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" | <div style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0 0; border-collapse: collapse; border="1" cellpadding="0"> [[Image:Map of Bengal.svg|250px]]<br /> Peta wewengkon Benggala: [[Benggala Kulon]], [[Tripura]], jeung [[Bangladés]]</div> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | '''Kota-kota garedé'''<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/05/11/reviews/30906.html | work=The New York Times}}</ref> | [[Kolkata]] (Calcutta) <br/>{{Coord|23.34|N|88.22|E|type:city_region:IN-WB|name=Kolkata}} <br /> [[Dhaka]] <br /> {{Coord|23.42|N|90.22|E|type:city_region:BD|name=Dhaka}} |- style="vertical-align: top;" | '''Basa utama''' | [[Basa Benggala]] (Bangla) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | '''Aréa''' | 232.752&nbsp;km²&nbsp; |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="white-space: nowrap;" | '''Populasi''' (2001) | 245.598.679<ref name=censuswb>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ | title = Provisional Population Totals: West Bengal | accessdate = 2006-08-26 | work = Census of India, 2001 | publisher = Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India }}</ref><ref name="WorldBank">Data Induk Indikator Pembangunan [[Grup Bank Dunya|Bank Dunia]], 2006.</ref> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="white-space: nowrap;" | '''[[Kapadetan populasi]]''' | 951,3/km²<ref name=censuswb/><ref name=WorldBank/> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="white-space: nowrap;" | '''[[Tingkat maotna orok]]''' | 55,91 per 1000 kalahiran suksés<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2001 | url = http://www.undp.org.in/programme/undpini/factsheet/westbengal.pdf | title = West Bengal - Human development fact sheet | work = | publisher = United Nations Development Programme | accessdate = 2007-03-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030412013217/http://www.undp.org.in/programme/undpini/factsheet/westbengal.pdf |date=2003-04-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2001 | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html | title = The World Factbook - Bangladesh | work = | publisher = [[CIA World Factbook]] | accessdate = 2007-03-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101182840/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html |date=2021-01-01 }}</ref> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | '''Ramatloka''' | [http://www.westbengal.gov.in/ westbengal.gov.in] ; [http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/ bangladesh.gov.bd] |- style="vertical-align: top;" |} '''Benggala''' ({{lang-bn|<big>বাংলা</big>}} {{audio|Bn-বাংলা.oga|''Bangla''}}, {{lang-bn|<big>বঙ্গ</big>}} ''Bôngo'') nyaéta wewengkon heubeul jeung géografis di beulah wétan [[Anakbuana India]] di juru [[Teluk Benggala]]. Kiwari, lolobanawewengkonna aya dina kakawasaan [[Bangladés|Républik Rahayat Bangladés]] (baheulana [[Benggala Wétan]] / [[Pakistan Wétan]]) sarta [[Nagara bagian jeung wewengkon India|nagara bagian India]],[[Benggala Kulon]]. Sababaraha wewengkon lian tina wewengkon karajaan-karajaan Benggala (nalika masa kakawasaan karajaan lokal jeung [[Kakaisaran Britania]]) ayeuna aya di nagara bagian [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Assam]], [[Tripura]], jeung [[Orissa]] di India. Mayoritas wewengkon Benggala dieusian ku [[Urang Benggala]] (<big>বাঙালি</big> ''Bangali'') nu nyaturkan [[Basa Benggala]] (<big>বাংলা</big> ''Bangla''). Wewengkon Benggala mangrupa salah sahiji wewengkon anu pangpadetna sadunya, kalawan tingkat kapadetan populasi langkung ti 900 jiwa/km². Sabagian wewengkon Benggala aya dina [[délta walungan|Délta]] [[Gangga]]–[[Brahmaputra]] atanapi [[Délta Gangga]]. Di beulah kidulna délta éta aya [[Sundarbans]]&mdash;leuweung [[babakoan]] nu panggedéna sadunya sarta habitat [[lodaya Benggala]]. ==Galeri== <gallery> File:Panthera tigris.jpg|[[Lodaya Benggala]] File:Rice Field.jpg|Patani di [[sawah]], pamandangan umum di wewengkon Benggala File:Shaheed minar Roehl.jpg|[[Shaheed Minar, Dhaka|Shaheed Minar]], salah sahiji monumén kapahlawanan, di [[Dhaka]], miélingkeun [[Pergerakan Basa Benggala|perjoangan pikeun Basa Benggala]]. File:Bhasha Smritistambha Arnab Dutta 2011.jpg|[[Bhasha Smritistambha]], di [[Kolkata]], perlambang rébuan taun basa jeung sastra Benggala. File:Bayt al Mukarram.jpg|[[Baitul Mukarram]] di [[Dhaka]], nyaéta Masigit Nasional Bangladés. File:Dakshineswar Kali Temple, Dakshineswar, West Bengal, India (2007).jpg|[[Pura Dakshineswar Kali]] di [[Kolkata]], Benggala Kulon. </gallery> ==Tingali ogé== {{Portal|Benggala}} {{col|2}} * [[Sajarah Benggala]] * [[Gubernur Benggala]] * [[Sajarah India]] * [[Bangladés]] * [[Urang Benggala]] * [[Bangal]] jeung [[Ghoti]] * [[Daptar inohong Benggala]] * [[Basa Benggala]] * [[Kulinér Benggala]] * [[Musik Bangladés]] * [[Musik Benggala]] * [[Perpileman Benggala]] * [[Benggala Wétan]] * [[Benggala Kulon]] * [[Arsitéktur Benggala]] </div> ==Catetan jeung rujukan== {{Reflist}} * {{Cite book | last1 = Baxter | given1 = C | surname2= | given2= | year = 1997 | title = Bangladesh, From a Nation to a State | url = https://archive.org/details/bangladeshfromna0000unse | publisher= Westview Press | isbn = 1-85984-121-X | pages = 0813336325 | ref = harv | postscript = <!--None--> }} * {{Cite book | last1 = Bennett | given1 = A | surname2= Hindle | given2= J | year = 1996 | title = London Review of Books: An Anthology | url = https://archive.org/details/londonreviewofbo0000unse | publisher= Verso | isbn = 1-85984-121-X | pages = [https://archive.org/details/londonreviewofbo0000unse/page/63 63]–70 | ref = harv | postscript = <!--None--> }} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons category}} *[http://banglapedia.org/index.html Banglapedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925220021/http://www.banglapedia.org/index.html |date=2009-09-25 }} *[http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Bengal www.hostkingdom.net- Daptar pangawasa Benggala] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629153707/http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Bengal |date=2007-06-29 }} * [http://www.bengalgateway.com Portal informasi Benggala Kulon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529101601/http://bengalgateway.com/ |date=2019-05-29 }} *{{Coord|24|00|N|88|00|E|region:IN_type:adm1st|display=inline,title}} [[Kategori:Benggala| ]] [[Kategori:Géografi Bangladés]] [[Kategori:Géografi India]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Bangladés]] [[Kategori:Wewenkgon India]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu kabagi]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon India baheula]] [[Kategori:Babagian India Britania]] {{geo-stub}} 1k7i7vk4n3p01l7p6ymqk7pvlzlkl4i 0 39034 711659 710924 2026-08-07T01:08:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711659 wikitext text/x-wiki {{For|kagunaan lian|Dhaka (disambiguasi)}} {{stack begin}} {{Infobox settlement <!-- See the Table at Infobox settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage --> <!-- Basic info --------------> |official_name = Dhaka |native_name = {{lang|bn|ঢাকা}} |nickname = |settlement_type = [[Ibu kota]] |motto = |image_skyline = Dhaka Landmarks.jpg |imagesize = 280px |image_caption = Cicirén Dhaka ''(saarah jarum jam ti luhur)'': [[Jatiyo Sangshad|Majelis Nasional]], pamandangan [[Motijheel]], [[Baitul Mukarram|Masigit Baitul Mukarram]], [[bécak]], [[Ahsan Manjil]], [[Shaheed Minar, Dhaka|Shaheed Minar]], pamandangan [[Karwan Bazar]] |map_caption = Lokasi Dhaka di [[Bangladés]] |image_flag = |flag_size = |image_seal = |seal_size = |image_shield = |shield_size = |image_blank_emblem = |blank_emblem_type = |blank_emblem_size = |image_map = |mapsize = |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = |image_dot_map = |dot_mapsize = |dot_map_caption = |dot_x = |dot_y = |pushpin_map = Bangladesh <!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --> |pushpin_label_position = center |pushpin_map_caption = Lokasi Dhaka di Bangladés |pushpin_mapsize =280 <!-- Location ------------------> |coordinates_display = inline,title |coordinates_region = BD |subdivision_type = [[daptar nagara|Nagara]] |subdivision_name = [[Bangladés]] |subdivision_type1 = [[Divisi di Bangladés|Divisi]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Divisi Dhaka]] |subdivision_type2 = [[distrik di Bangladés|Distrik]] |subdivision_name2 = [[Distrik Dhaka]] <!-- Politics -----------------> |government_footnotes = |government_type = |leader_title = |leader_title1 = <!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --> |leader_name1 = |leader_title2 = |leader_name2 = |leader_title3 = |leader_name3 = |leader_title4 = |leader_name4 = |established_title = Ngadeg |established_date = 1608 |established_title2 = Status kota |established_date2 = 1947 |established_title3 = <!-- Incorporated (city) --> |established_date3 = <!-- Area ---------------------> |area_magnitude = |unit_pref =Metric <!-- Enter: Metric, if Metric (imperial) is desired --> |area_footnotes = |area_total_km2 = 360 |area_total_sq_mi = |area_land_km2 = <!-- See table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details on automatic unit conversion --> |area_water_km2 = |area_land_sq_mi = |area_water_sq_mi = |area_water_percent = |area_urban_km2 = |area_urban_sq_mi = |area_metro_km2 = |area_metro_sq_mi = |area_blank1_title = |area_blank1_km2 = |area_blank1_sq_mi = <!-- Population -----------------------> |population_as_of =2008|population_footnotes =<ref name="BangladeshStatPock2008"/> |population_total = 7000940 |population_metro = 12797394 |population_density_sq_mi = |population_density_km2 = 23029 |population_density_metro_sq_mi = |population_urban = |population_density_urban_km2 = |population_density_urban_sq_mi = |population_blank1_title = |population_blank1_footnotes = |population_blank1 = |population_blank2_title = |population_blank2 = |population_density_blank1_km2 = |population_density_blank1_sq_mi = <!-- General information ---------------> |timezone = [[Wanci Standar Bangladés|BST]] |utc_offset = +6 |latd=23 |latm=42 |lats=0 |latNS=N |longd=90 |longm=22 |longs=30 |longEW=E |elevation_footnotes =<ref name="Elevation of Dhaka">{{cite web|url=http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/places/maps/map_city_dhaka.html|title=Dhaka, Bangladesh Map|work=National Geographic|accessdate=2009-09-06}}</ref> |elevation_m = 4 |elevation_ft = 13,12 <!-- Area/postal codes & others --------> |postal_code_type = [[Kode pos]] |postal_code = 1000, 1100, 12xx, 13xx |area_code = |blank_name = Kode telepon nasional |blank_info = +880 |blank1_name = [[nomer telepon di Bangladés|Kode telepon]] |blank1_info = 02 |blank2_name = [[Gross domestic product|GDP PPP]] (2008) |blank2_info = $78 milyar<ref name="PricewaterhouseCoopers">http://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/imagelibrary/downloadMedia.ashx?MediaDetailsID=1562</ref> |website = [http://www.dhakacity.org/ Ramatloka resmi] |footnotes = }} {{stack end}} '''Dhaka''' ({{lang-bn|ঢাকা}}; {{IPA-bn|ˈɖʱaka}}; éjahan heubeul: '''Dacca''',<ref name=dacca>{{cite news|title=PAKISTAN: Dacca, City of the Dead|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876963,00.html|accessdate=15 November 2011|newspaper=Time|date=3 May 1971}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827020715/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876963,00.html |date=27 August 2013 }}</ref> baheulana '''Jahangirnagar'''<ref name=jn>{{cite web|title=About Dhaka|url=http://www.btd.com.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66&Itemid=84|publisher=btd|accessdate=15 November 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170723/http://www.btd.com.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66&Itemid=84 |date=15 January 2013 }}</ref> dina jaman [[Kakaisaran Mughal]]) nyaéta [[ibu kota]] [[Bangladés]] sarta kota utama di [[Divisi Dhaka]]. Dhaka mangrupa [[mégapolitan]] sarta salah sahiji ti kota-kota utama di Asia Kidul. Dhaka aya di gigireun [[Walungan Buriganga]]. Dhaka, sareng [[wewengkon métropolitan]]na, miboga populasi kira-kira langkung ti 12 juta jiwa dina taun 2008, teras jadi kota nu panggedéna di Bangladés.<ref name="BangladeshStatPock2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SubjectMatterDataIndex/pk_book_09.pdf|title=Statistical Pocket Book, 2008|publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics|format=PDF|accessdate=2009-08-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121200847/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SubjectMatterDataIndex/pk_book_09.pdf |date=2010-11-21 }}</ref> Dhaka mangrupa [[daptar aglomerasi urban dumasar populasi (PBB)|kota nu panggedéna sadunya ka-9]]<ref>Bank Dunya (30 Juli 2010). [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/BANGLADESHEXTN/Resources/295759-1271081222839/BDCAS.pdf Country Assistance Strategy for the People's Republic of Bangladesh for the Period FY11-14], kaca 4.</ref> sarta [[daptar kota dumasar kapadetan populasi|kota nu pangpadetna sadunya ka-28]]. Dhaka miboga lalandia ''Kota Masigit''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhakacity.com.bd/ |title=everything about our city |publisher=Dhaka City |accessdate=2010-05-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522090205/http://dhakacity.com.bd/ |date=2013-05-22 }}</ref> sarta jeung 400.000 [[bécak]], kota ieu ogé dilandi ''Ibu Kota Bécak Dunya''.<ref name="bbcnews1">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2300179.stm|title=Dhaka's beleaguered rickshaw wallahs|last=Lawson |first=Alastair|date=5 October 2002|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2009-09-19}}</ref> paDhaka kiwari mangrupa puseur kahirupan [[Pulitik Bangladés|pulitik]], [[budaya Bangladés|budaya]], jeung [[ékonomi Bangladés|ékonomi]] di Bangladés.<ref name="gob">{{cite web|url=http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&task=category&id=174&Itemid=27&lang=bn|title=Price Information of Essential Commodities|publisher=National Web Portal, Government of Bangladesh|format=php|accessdate=2009-02-27|language=Bengali}}</ref> Sanajan prasarana perkotaanana mangrupa nu pangmajuna di nagarana, Dhaka miboga masalah perkotaan saperti polusi jeung kalobaan pangeusi. Kota ieu ogé miboga asupan populasi ti warga sanagara, nu dumasar laporan, nyieun Dhaka salaku kota panggancangna tumbuhna sadunya.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/10542218.stm|publisher=BBC News|title=Danger in Dhaka, the fastest-growing city|date=7 July 2010}}</ref> ==Kota kembar== {| class="wikitable" "text-align:left;font-size:100%;"| |- ! style="background:#39e; color:white; height:17px; width:120px;"| Nagara ! ! style="background:#39e; color:white; width:140px;"| Kota ! ! style="background:#39e; color:white; width:150px;"| Nagara bagian / Wewengkon |- style="color:black; background:white;" |! !| {{Flagicon|Cina}} [[Cina]] |! !| [[File:中華人民共和國國徽.svg|25px]] [[Guangzhou]] |! !| [[Guangdong|Propinsi Guangdong]] |- style="color:black;" |! !| {{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] |! !| [[File:Emblem of India.svg|25px]] [[Kolkata]] |! !| [[Benggala Kulon]] |} ==Tingali ogé== {{Portal|Dhaka}} * [[Daptar kota di Bangladés]] * [[Daptar wangunan nu pangluhurna di Dhaka]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|30em}} {{IndicText}} ==Bacaaan salajengna== * {{Cite book|title=Dhaka -past present future|editor=Sharuf Uddin Ahmed |publisher=The Asiatic Society, Dhaka |year=1991 |isbn=984-512-335-x}} * {{Cite book |last= Karim |first=Abdul |title=History of Bengal, Mughal Period (I) |location=Rajshahi |year=1992}} * {{Cite book |last= Pryer |first=Jane |title=Poverty and Vulnerability in Dhaka Slums: The Urban Livelihood Study |url= https://archive.org/details/povertyvulnerabi0000prye |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=0-7546-1864-1 |year= 2003 |id= {{OCLC|123337526}} {{OCLC|243482310}} {{OCLC|50334244}} {{OCLC|50939515}} }} * {{Cite book |last = Rabbani |first = Golam |year=1997 |title=Dhaka, from Mughal outpost to metropolis |publisher=University Press, Dhaka |isbn=984-05-1374-5 }} * {{Cite book |last= Sarkar |first=Sir Jadunath |title=History of Bengal (II) |location=Dhaka |year=1948}} * {{Cite book |last= Taifoor |first=S.M. |title=Glimpses of Old Dacca |location=Dhaka |year=1956}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Sister project links}} * [http://amrabangladeshi.net/ Amra Bangladeshi Blog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814153421/http://amrabangladeshi.net/ |date=2018-08-14 }} *[http://www.dhakacity.org/ Official Dhaka City Corporation website] *[http://www.alormela.org/ Alormela, A Web Portal of Bangladesh] *[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160598/Dhaka Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Dhaka] *[http://www.banglapedia.org/httpdocs/HT/D_0145.HTM Banglapedia (the national encyclopedia of Bangladesh) article on Dhaka] *[http://www.travelaloft.com/ Travelaloft, Tours and Travel Information of Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228013916/http://www.travelaloft.com/ |date=2012-12-28 }} *[http://www.panoramabangladesh.com/ Scrapbook of Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205012325/http://www.panoramabangladesh.com/ |date=2009-12-05 }} *[http://www.globalpost.com/video/asia/100902/on-location-bangladesh-dhaka Bangladesh: Dhaka Rising] – vidéo by ''[[Global Post]]'' *[http://www.shahriarcatering.webs.com/aboutus.htm/ Food of Old Dhaka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130001843/http://www.shahriarcatering.webs.com/aboutus.htm |date=2011-11-30 }} {{Dhaka|state=uncollapsed}} {{Dhakaplaces}} {{BDeshCities}} {{List of Asian capitals by region|state=collapsed}} {{World's most populated urban areas}} [[Kategori:Dhaka| ]] [[Kategori:Ibu kota di Asia]] [[Kategori:Pamukiman di Divisi Dhaka]] [[Kategori:Asia Kidul]] {{bangladesh-stub}} 8rsvf6wdwrqv00dibi13azd8qy13qbo 0 39228 711514 711497 2026-08-06T21:58:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711514 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|the multinational corporation}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2012}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Infobox company | name = Honda Motor Company, Ltd. |native_name= 本田技研工業株式会社<br>''Honda Giken Kogyo Kabushiki-gaisha'' | logo = [[File:Honda-logo.svg|frameless|upright=1.35]] | caption = | type = [[Public company]] | traded_as = {{tyo|7267}}<br />{{nyse|HMC}} | foundation = [[Hamamatsu]], Japan ({{Start date|1948|09|24}}) | founder = [[Soichiro Honda]]<br />[[Takeo Fujisawa]] | location = [[Minato, Tokyo|Minato]], Tokyo, Japan | key_people = [[Takanobu Ito]] ([[President]], [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]] and Representative Director) | area_served = Worldwide | industry = [[Automotive]]<br />[[Aviation]]<br/>[[Telematics]] | products = [[Automobile]]s<br />[[Motorcycle]]s<br />[[Scooter (motorcycle)|Scooter]]s<br />[[Electrical generator]]s<br />[[Water pumps]]<br />[[Landscape maintenance|Lawn and garden equipment]]s<br />[[Rotary tiller|Tiller]]s<br />[[Outboard motor]]s<br />[[Robotics]]<br />[[Jet aircraft]]s<br />[[Jet engine]]s<br />[[Thin-film solar cell]]s<br/>[[Internavi]] | divisions = [[List of Honda vehicles|Honda]]<br/>[[List of Honda motorcycles|Honda Motorcycles]] | subsid = {{Collapsible list|title=List| '''Transportation''' * [[American Honda Motor Company]] ** [[Acura]] ** [[Honda Aircraft Company]] ** [[Honda Performance Development|HPD]] * [[Honda Automobile (China) Company]](50%) ** [[Guangqi Honda Automobile]](50%) *** Li Nian ([[Everus]]) * [[Honda India|Honda Seil Cars India]] ** [[Hero MotoCorp]] ** [[HMSI|Honda Motorcycle and Scooter India]] * [[Dongfeng Honda]](50%) '''Air Transportation''' * [[Honda Airport|Honda Airways]] '''Sports''' * [[Honda Racing F1]] * [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda Racing]] '''Engines''' * [[GE Honda Aero Engines]](50%) International * [[Honda Atlas|Honda Pakistan]] * [[Honda Canada Inc.]] * [[Honda Taiwan]] * [[Honda of the UK Manufacturing|Honda UK ltd.]]}} | revenue = {{loss}} {{yen|7.948 trillion|link=yes}} (2012)<ref name="FY2012">{{cite web |url=http://www.google.com/finance?q=NYSE:HMC&fstype=ii|title=FY2012 Consolidated Financial Results: Toyota Motor Company |accessdate=15 June 2011 |year=2011 |month=May}}</ref> | operating_income = {{loss}} {{yen|231.36 billion}} (2012)<ref name="FY2012" /> | net_income = {{loss}} {{yen|211.48 billion}} (2012)<ref name="FY2012" /> | aum = <!-- Only used with financial services companies --> | assets = {{gain}} {{yen|11.780 trillion}} (2012)<ref name="FY2012" /> | equity = {{loss}} {{yen|4.402 trillion}} (2012)<ref name="FY2012" /> |num_employees = 179,060 (2012)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zenobank.com/index.php?symbol=HMC&page=quotesearch |title=Company Profile for Honda Motor Co Ltd (HMC) |accessdate=29 September 2008}}</ref> | homepage = {{URL|http://world.honda.com/}} }} {{nihongo|'''Honda Motor Company, Ltd.'''|本田技研工業株式会社|Honda Giken Kōgyō [[Kabushiki gaisha|KK]]|{{IPA-ja|honꜜda|IPA|Honda_giken_kougyou.ogg}}; {{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|h|ɒ|n|d|ə}}}} nyaéta [[pausahaan publik multinasional]] Jepang utamana dipikawanoh minangka produsén [[mobil]] jeung [[motor]]. Honda geus jadi produsén sapédah motor pangbadagna di dunya saprak taun 1959,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cases in contemporary strategy analysis |first1= Robert M. |last1= Grant |first2= Kent E. |edition= 3rd |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |year= 2003 |isbn= 1-4051-1180-1 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=XF7V9w8ByrcC&pg=PA172 |accessdate=12 November 2010 |last2= Neupert |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title= Six men who built the modern auto industry |first= Richard Alan |last= Johnson |publisher=[[MotorBooks International]] |year= 2005 |isbn= 0-7603-1958-8 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=CArfq7tV0OIC&pg=PA52 |accessdate=12 November 2010 |postscript= <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref> sarta pangbadagna sadunya produsén [[internal combustion engine]]s diukur dumasar volume, mroduksi leuwih ti 14 juta mesin pembakaran internal saban taun.<ref name="Honda of America Manufacturing, Inc., Marysville, Ohio - Press room">{{cite news|url=http://www.ohio.honda.com/pressroom/View_Release.cfm?articleid=174|title=FIRST MOTORCYCLE AIRBAG EARNS TAKATA AND HONDA 2008 AUTOMOTIVE NEWS PACE INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP AWARD|last=Miller|first=Edward|date=18 April 2008|publisher=Honda.com|accessdate=28 July 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308025434/http://www.ohio.honda.com/pressroom/View_Release.cfm?articleid=174 |date=8 March 2009 }}</ref> Honda ngéléhkeun [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] taun 2001 pikeun jadi produsén mobil pangbadagna kadua di Jepang.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/4car/news/news-story.jsp?news_id=3266&ref=archive |title=Honda overtakes Nissan to become Japan's second-largest carmaker. – Latest Car News from 4Car |publisher=Channel4.com |accessdate=22 November 2009}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cars-directory.net/history/honda/ |title=The History of Honda |publisher=Cars-directory.net |accessdate=22 November 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512075512/https://www.cars-directory.net/history/honda/ |date=12 May 2020 }}</ref> {{As of|August 2008}} Agustus 2008, Honda ngéléhkeun [[Chrysler]] minangka produsén mobil pangbadagna kaopat di Amérika Sarikat.<ref name="bloomberg.com">{{cite news|last=Ohnsman |first=Alan |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-08-19/honda-founder-s-dream-of-u-s-production-protects-earnings-as-yen-surges.html |title=Honda's Dream of U.S. Production Protects Profits as Yen Surges |publisher=Bloomberg |accessdate=1 January 2011 |date=20 August 2010}}</ref> Honda nyaéta produsén mobil pangbadagna katujuh di dunya di tukangeun [[Toyota]], [[General Motors]], [[Volkswagen AG]], [[Hyundai Motor Group]], [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], ssarta [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] taun 2010.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Honda nyaéta produsén mobil kahiji Jepang pikeun ngarilis hiji mérek mentéréng berdedikasi, [[Acura]], taun 1986. Aside from their core automobile and motorcycle businesses, Sajaba ti bisnis inti mobil sarta sapédah motor maranéhanana, Honda ogé mroduksi parabot taman, mesin kalautan, parahu pribadi sarta pambangkit listrik. Saprak taun 1986, Honda geus kalibet kalayan kecerdasan jieunan / panalungtikan robotika sarta ngarilis robot [[ASIMO]] taun 2000. Maranéhanana ogé geus ngalalana ka rohang jomantara kalayan ngawangun [[GE Honda Aero Engines]] taun 2004 sarta [[Honda HA-420 HondaJet]], dijadwalkeun baris dirilis taun 2012. Honda berinvestasi kira-kira 5% tina pandapatan dina panalungtikan sarta pamekaran.<ref name="America's Most Admired Companies: Honda">{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/2008/03/03/news/companies/taylor_honda.fortune/index2.htm|title=America's Most Admired Companies: Honda|last=Taylor|first=Alex III|date=7 March 2008|publisher=CNNMoney.com|accessdate=3 May 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829001034/http://money.cnn.com/2008/03/03/news/companies/taylor_honda.fortune/index2.htm |date=29 August 2013 }}</ref> == Sajarah == {{Expand section|date=April 2009}} Ti keur ngora, pangadeg Honda, [[Soichiro Honda]] (本田 宗一郎, ''Honda Sōichirō'') (17 Nopember 1906 – 5 Agustus 1991) mibanda minat kana mobil. Manéhna digawé minangka montir di bengkel Shokai Art, di mana manéhna ngahadéan mobil-mobil sarta maranéhanana diilukeun dina balapan. Taun 1937, kalayan waragad ti saurang kawawuhan, Kato Shichirō, Honda ngawangun [[Tōkai region|Tōkai]] Seiki (éastern Séa Precision Machine Company) pikeun nyieun [[piston ring]]s sarta kaluar ti béngkél Art Shokai.<ref name=Alexander2008/> Sanggeus kagagalan mimiti, Tōkai Seiki meunang kontrak pikeun masok ring piston pikeun [[Toyota]], tapi kontrak dieureunkeun alatan goréngna kualitas produk maranéhanana.<ref name=Alexander2008/> Sanggeus ngaluuhan sakola téknik, teu junun, sarta ngadatangan pabrik-pabrik di sakumna Jepang pikeun leuwih nyurtian kualitas kontrol prosés Toyota, Honda mampuh, taun 1941, kalayan ngahasilkeun ''ring piston'' ditarima ku Toyota, ngagunakeun prosés otomatis anu bisa ngagawékeun buruh perang sanajan teu calakan .<ref name=Alexander2008/><ref name=Frank2003/> Tōkai Seiki ditempatkeun di handapeun kadali [[Departemen Perdagangan sarta Industri]] (disebut Departemén Mesiu sanggeus 1943) dina mimiti Perang Dunya II, sarta Soichiro Honda diturunkeun ti présidén pikeun direktur manager sénior sanggeus Toyota meuli 40% saham ti pausahaan. .<ref name=Alexander2008/> Honda ogé mantuan usaha perang kalayan mantuan pausahaan séjén dina ngaotomatisasi produksi kolécér pasawat militér.<ref name=Alexander2008/> Hubungan Honda dironjatkeun kalayan personil di Toyota. ''[[Nakajima Aircraft Company]]'' sarta ''[[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'' baris jadi instrumén dina période pascaperanng.<ref name=Alexander2008/> Serangan pasawat bomber ''US [[B-29]]'' ngancurkeun Yamashita nu Tōkai Seiki taun 1944, sarta pabrik Itawa runtuh ku [[gempa bumi Mikawa 1945]], sarta Soichiro Honda ngajual sésa-sésa pausahaan ka Toyota sanggeus perang saharga ¥450,000, sarta ngagunakeun hasilna pikeun ngadegkeun ''Honda Technical Research Institute'' bulan Oktober 1946.<ref name=Alexander2008/><ref name=Falloon2005/> Kalayan staf 12 jelema anu digawé dina gubug legana {{convert|172|sqft|adj=on}} , maranéhanana ngawangun sarta ngajual [[sapédah motor]] improvisasi, ngagunakeun kiriman 500 mesin [[two-stroke]] ''50&nbsp;cc'' [[Tohatsu]] [[sésa perang]] radio ''[[Engine-generator|generator engines]]''.<ref name=Alexander2008/><ref name=Frank2003/><ref name=Sakiya1982/> Sabot mesin béak, Honda mimiti ngawangun salinan maranéhanana sorangan tina mesin Tohatsu, sarta masok para langganan pikeun ngilukeun sapédah maranéhanana.<ref name=Alexander2008/><ref name=Sakiya1982/> Ieu téh [[Honda Model A]], katelahna ''Bata Bata'' pikeun sora mesin anu dijieun.<ref name=Alexander2008/> Sapédah motor kumplit kahiji, kalayan rangka alus sarta mesin anu dijieun ku Honda, taun 1949 [[Honda Model D|Model D]], Honda anu kahiji kalayan ngaran ''Dream'' .<ref name=Falloon2005/> Honda Motor Company tumuwuh dina waktu singget pikeun jadi produsén pangbadagna di dunya sapédah motor taun 1964. Produksi mobil munggaran ti Honda nyaéta [[Honda T360|T360]] Mini treuk, anu mimiti dijual dina bulan Agustus 1963..<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/history/challenge/1962autoproduction/text/05.html |title=Honda Worldwide, History |publisher=World.honda.com |accessdate=1 January 2011}}</ref> Dirojong ku mesin bensin leutik 356 cc sagaris-4, éta diklasifikasikeun pajeg mobil murah ''[[Kei car]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2010/03/hondas-wild-9000-rpm-mid-engine-rwd-t360-pickup-of-1963/ |title=Honda’s Wild 9000 RPM Mid-Engine T360 Pickup Of 1963 |date=30 March 2010 |author=Paul Niedermeyer |publisher=The Truth about Cars }}</ref> Produksi mobil sport munggaran ti Honda nyaéta [[Honda S500|S500]], anu dituturkeun ku produksi T360 dina bulan Oktober 1963.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.classiccar.co.nz/articles/sporting-hondas-classic-buyers-guide-226 |title=Sporting Hondas – Classic Buyer’s Guide |date=21 September 2010 |author= |publisher=New Zealand Classic Car magazine }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006205600/http://www.classiccar.co.nz/articles/sporting-hondas-classic-buyers-guide-226 |date=6 October 2014 }}</ref> Salila sawatara dékadeu ka hareup, Honda digawé pikeun ngaronjatkeun lini produk sarta ékspor ka nagara-nagara di sakumna dunya. Taun 1986, Honda suksés ngawanohkeun méré k [[Acura]] ka pasar Amérika dina usaha pikeun meunangkeun tempat di pasar [[kandaraan mentéréng]]. Taun 1991 Honda ngawanohkeun supercar [[Honda NSX]] , kandaraan ''monocoque'' munggaran anu sakabéh-aluminium anu ngagabungkeun V6 mid-engine kalayan timing variabel-valve .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/history/challenge/1990thensx/text01/index.html|title=Let’s Build a Sportscar!|publisher=Honda|accessdate=1 July 2012}}</ref> Saterusna, taun 1995 ngadegkeun ''[[Honda Aircraft Company]]'' kalayan tujuan mroduksi pasawat jét Honda .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gearheads.org/history-of-honda-motor-company/|title=The History of Honda Motor Company|date=18 May 2012|publisher=GearHeads|accessdate=1 July 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530023227/http://gearheads.org/history-of-honda-motor-company/ |date=30 May 2012 }}</ref> == Corporate profile and divisions == [[File:Honda aoyama.JPG|thumb|upright|right|[[Minato, Tokyo|Honda headquarters]] building in [[Minato, Tokyo]]]] '''Honda''' is héadquartered in [[Minato, Tokyo|Minato]], Tokyo, Japan. Their shares trade on the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]] and the [[New York Stock Exchange]], as well as exchanges in Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, Kyoto, [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], London, Paris and Switzerland. The company has assembly plants around the globe. These plants are located in China, the United States, Pakistan, Canada, England, Japan, Belgium, Brazil, México, New Zéaland, Malaysia, Indonésia, India, Thailand, Turkey, Taiwan and Perú. As of July 2010, 89 percent of Honda and Acura vehicles sold in the United States were built in North American plants, up from 82.2 percent a yéar éarlier. This shields profits from the yen’s advance to a 15-yéar high against the dollar.<ref name="bloomberg.com"/> '''Honda's Net Sales and Other Operating Revenue by Géographical Regions in 2007'''<ref>[[Wikinvest:stock/Honda Motor Company (HMC)/Breakdown Net Sales Other Operating Revenue Geographical Markets|Breakdown of net sales and other operating revenue by geographical markets from company 20Fs]]</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Géographic Region ! Total revenue (in millions of [[Japanese yen|¥]]) |- | Japan || 1,681,190 |- | North America || 5,980,876 |- | Europe || 1,236,757 |- | Asia || 1,283,154 |- | Others || 905,163 |} [[American Honda Motor Company]] is based in Torrance, California. [[Honda Canada Inc.]] is héadquartered in [[Markham, Ontario]],<ref>{{Cite news | last = Mangion | first = Patrick | title = Markham saves Honda deal | newspaper=Yorkregion.com | page = 1 | year = 2007 | date = 08-27 | url = http://www.yorkregion.com/article/44477 | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. --> }} It was originally planned to be located in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario]], but delays led them to look elsewhere.</ref> their manufacturing division, [[Honda of Canada Manufacturing]], is based in [[Alliston, Ontario]]. Honda has also créated joint ventures around the world, such as [[Honda Siel Cars India|Honda Siel Cars]] and [[Hero Honda|Hero Honda Motorcycles]] in India,<ref>Share Manthan : http://www.sharemanthan.in/index.php/indian-companies/49-auto/2150-hero-honda {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429013427/http://www.sharemanthan.in/index.php/indian-companies/49-auto/2150-hero-honda |date=29 April 2010 }}</ref> [[Guangzhou Automobile Industry Group|Guangzhou Honda]] and [[Dongfeng Honda]] in China, Boon Siew Honda in Malaysia and [[Honda Atlas]] in Pakistan. Following the Japanese éarthquake and tsunami in March 2011 Honda announced plans to halve production at its UK plants.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} The decision was made to put staff at the Swindon plant on a 2 day week until the end of May as the manufacturer struggled to source supplies from Japan. It's thought around 22,500 cars were produced during this period. == Leadership == {| class="wikitable" |- ! scope="col" width="175" | Name ! scope="col" width="70" | Yéars |- | [[Soichiro Honda]] || 1948–1973 |- | Kiyoshi Kawashima || 1973–1983 |- | Tadashi Kume || 1983–1990 |- | [[Nobuhiko Kawamoto]] || 1990–1998 |- | Hiroyuki Yoshino || 1998–2004 |- | [[Takeo Fukui]] || 2004–2009 |- | Takanobu Ito || 2009— |} == Products == === Automobiles === {{For|a list of vehicles|List of Honda vehicles}} [[File:Hondajazzsport.JPG|thumb|right|2011 [[Honda Jazz]] (Indian rampart)]] [[File:2008 Honda Accord.jpg|thumb|right|2008 [[Honda Accord]] (USA-Canada)]] [[File:2006-2009 Honda Civic VTi sedan (2018-10-19) 01.jpg|thumb|right|Eighth Generation [[Honda Civic]] (Asian Version)]] Honda's global lineup consists of the [[Honda Fit|Fit]], [[Honda Civic|Civic]], [[Honda Accord|Accord]], [[Honda Insight|Insight]], [[Honda CR-V|CR-V]], [[Honda CR-Z|CR-Z]], [[Honda Legend|Legend]] and two versions of the Odyssey, [[Honda Odyssey (North America)|one for North America]], and [[Honda Odyssey (international)|a smaller vehicle]] sold internationally. An éarly proponent of developing vehicles to cater to different needs and markets worldwide, Honda's lineup varies by country and may féature vehicles exclusive to that region. A few examples are the latest [[Honda Odyssey (North America)|Honda Odyssey]] [[minivan]] and the [[Honda Ridgeline|Ridgeline]], Honda's first light-duty uni-body [[pickup truck]]. Both were designed and engineered primarily in North America and are produced there. Other example of exclusive modéls includes the [[Honda Civic (eighth generation)#Europe|Honda Civic five-door hatchback]] sold in Europe. Honda's automotive manufacturing ambitions can be traced back to 1963, with the [[Honda T360]], a [[kei car]] truck built for the Japanese market.<ref name=tjra>{{cite journal | editor-first = Jonathan | editor-last = Barr | title = 1965 Honda T500F Flat Bed Utility | journal = The Japanese Restorer in Australia | month = July/September | year = 2003 | issue = 4 | location = [[Bald Hills, Queensland]], Australia | page = 15 }}</ref> This was followed by the two-door [[Roadster (automobile)|roadster]], the [[Honda S500]] also introduced in 1963. In 1965, Honda built a two-door commercial delivery van, called the [[Honda L700]]. Honda's first four-door sedan was not the Accord, but the air-cooled, four-cylinder, gasoline-powered [[Honda 1300]] in 1969. The Civic was a hatchback that gained wide popularity internationally, but it wasn't the first two-door hatchback built. That was the [[Honda N360]], another ''Kei car'' that was adapted for international sale as the N600. The Civic, which appéared in 1972 and replaced the N600 also had a smaller sibling that replaced the air-cooled N360, called the [[Honda Life]] that was water-cooled. The Honda Life represented Honda's efforts in competing in the ''kei'' car segment, offering sedan, delivery van and small pick-up platforms on a shared chassis. The [[Honda Life#Life Step Van|Life StepVan]] had a novel approach that, while not initially a commercial success, appéars to be an influence in vehicles with the front passengers sitting behind the engine, a large cargo aréa with a flat roof and a liftgate installed in back, and utilizing a transversely installed engine with a front-wheel-drive powertrain. As Honda entered into automobile manufacturing after [[World War II]], where Japanese manufacturers such as Toyota and Nissan had heritage before the war, it appéars that Honda instilled a sense of doing things a little differently than its Japanese competitors. Its mainstay products, like the Accord and Civic, have always employed [[front-wheel-drive]] powertrain implementation, which is currently a long held Honda tradition. Honda also installed new technologies into their products, first as optional equipment, then later standard, like anti lock brakes, speed sensitive power steering, and multi-port fuel injection in the éarly 1980s. This desire to be the first to try new approaches is evident with the création of the first Japanese luxury chain [[Acura]], and was also evident with the all aluminum, mid-engined sports car, the [[Honda NSX]], which also introduced [[variable valve timing]] technology, Honda calls [[VTEC]]. The Civic is a line of [[compact car]]s developed and manufactured by Honda. In North America, the Civic is the second-longest continuously running nameplate from a Japanese manufacturer; only its perennial rival, the [[Toyota Corolla]], introduced in 1968, has been in production longer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.toyota.com/about/our_business/our_history/product_history/pdf/corolla.pdf|title=Toyota Corolla History|work=Toyota Motor Corp}}</ref> The Civic, along with the Accord and [[Honda Prelude|Prelude]], comprised Honda's vehicles sold in North America until the 1990s, when the modél lineup was expanded. Having gone through several generational changes, the Civic has become larger and more [[upmarket]], and it currently slots between the [[Honda Fit|Fit]] and Accord. Honda produces [[Honda Civic Hybrid|Civic hybrid]], a [[hybrid electric vehicle]] that competes with the [[Toyota Prius]], and also produces the [[Honda Insight|Insight]] and [[Honda CR-Z|CR-Z]]. In 2008, Honda incréased global production to meet demand for [[small car]]s and [[hybrid vehicle|hybrids]] in the U.S. and emerging markets. The company shuffled U.S. production to keep factories busy and boost car output, while building fewer [[minivan]]s and [[sport utility vehicle]]s as [[light-truck|light truck]] sales fell.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/20/business/20auto.html?_r=1|title=The Smaller the Better, Automakers Are Finding|last=Vlasic|first=Bill|coauthors=Bunkley, Nick|date=20 June 2008|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=1 July 2012}}</ref> Its first entrance into the pickup segment, the light duty Ridgeline, won Truck of the Yéar from ''[[Motor Trend]]'' magazine in 2006. Also in 2006, the redesigned Civic won [[Motor Trend Car of the Year|Car of the Year]] from the magazine, giving Honda a rare double win of Motor Trend honors. It is reported that Honda plans to incréase hybrid sales in Japan to more than 20% of its total sales in fiscal yéar 2011, from 14.8% in previous yéar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/11/honda-20101127.html |title=Report: Honda planning to double hybrid sales in Japan to more than 20% next fiscal year |date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Green Car Congress }}</ref> Five of [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]'s top ten most fuel-efficient cars from 1984 to 2010 comes from Honda, more than any other automakers. The five modéls are: 2000–2006 Honda Insight ({{convert|53|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined), 1986–1987 Honda Civic Coupe HF ({{convert|46|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined), 1994–1995 Honda Civic hatchback VX ({{convert|43|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined), 2006– Honda Civic Hybrid ({{convert|42|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined), and 2010– Honda Insight ({{convert|41|mpgus|abbr=on|disp=or}} combined).<ref>Scott Doggett [http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/06/epa-lists-top-10-most-fuel-efficient-cars-from-1984-to-present-older-models-rule.html/"EPA Lists Top 10 Most Fuel-Efficient Cars From 1984 to Present" Green car advisor – Edmunds, 10 June 2010. (mpg revised in accordance with 2008 regulation change)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101020194846/http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/06/epa-lists-top-10-most-fuel-efficient-cars-from-1984-to-present-older-models-rule.html/ |date=20 October 2010 }}{{dubious|date=November 2010}}</ref> The [[American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy|ACEEE]] has also rated the [[Honda Civic GX|Civic GX]] as the greenest car in America for seven consecutive yéars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenercars.org/highlights_greenest.htm |title=the greenest vehicles of 2008 |publisher=greenercars.org |accessdate=1 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910122720/http://www.greenercars.org/highlights_greenest.htm |date=10 September 2007 }}</ref> === Motorcycles === {{For|a list of motorcycle products|List of Honda motorcycles}} Honda is the largest motorcycle manufacturer in Japan and has been since it started production in 1955.<ref name=Alexander2008/> At its péak in 1982, Honda manufactured almost three million motorcycles annually. By 2006 this figure had reduced to around 550,000 but was still higher than its three domestic competitors.<ref name=Alexander2008/> During the 1960s, when it was a small manufacturer, Honda broke out of the Japanese motorcycle market and began exporting to the U.S. Working with the advertising agency [[Grey Advertising]], Honda créated an innovative marketing campaign, using the slogan "You meet the nicest people on a Honda." In contrast to the prevailing negative steréotypes of motorcyclists in America as tough, antisocial rebels, this campaign suggested that Honda motorcycles were made for the everyman. The campaign was hugely successful; the ads ran for three yéars, and by the end of 1963 alone, Honda had sold 90,000 motorcycles.<ref name="Frank2003">{{cite book|author=Aaron Frank|title=Honda Motorcycles|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CSxTaoGagKoC&pg=PA42|accessdate=1 April 2012|date=12 July 2003|publisher=MotorBooks International|isbn=978-0-7603-1077-9|pages=41–43}}</ref> Taking Honda's story as an archetype of the smaller manufacturer entering a new market alréady occupied by highly dominant competitors, the story of their market entry, and their subsequent huge success in the U.S. and around the world, has been the subject of some academic controversy. Competing explanations have been advanced to explain Honda's strategy and the réasons for their success.<ref name="Richard P. Rumelt">http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/dick.rumelt/Docs/Papers/HONDA</ref> The first of these explanations was put forward when, in 1975, [[Boston Consulting Group]] (BCG) was commissioned by the UK government to write a report explaining why and how the British motorcycle industry had been out-competed by its Japanese competitors. The report concluded that the Japanese firms, including Honda, had sought a very high scale of production (they had made a large number of motorbikes) in order to benefit from [[economies of scale]] and [[learning curve]] effects. It blamed the decline of the British motorcycle industry on the failure of British managers to invest enough in their businesses to profit from economies of scale and [[economies of scope|scope]].<ref name="MorrisonDivision1993">{{cite book|author1=Allen J. Morrison|author2=United Nations. Transnational Corporations and Management Division|title=Transnational corporations and business strategy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HvQcQFFONzkC&pg=PA64|accessdate=1 April 2012|year=1993|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-08537-3|pages=65–66}}</ref> [[File:2004supercub.jpg|thumb|right|2004 [[Honda Super Cub]]]] The second explanation was offered in 1984 by [[Richard Pascale]], who had interviewed the Honda executives responsible for the firm's entry into the U.S. market. As opposed to the tightly focused strategy of low cost and high scale that BCG accredited to Honda, Pascale found that their entry into the U.S. market was a story of "miscalculation, serendipity, and organizational learning" – in other words, Honda's success was due to the adaptability and hard work of its staff, rather than any long term strategy.<ref name="PascaleHondaEffect">{{cite book | title=Transnational corporations and business strategy | year=1993 | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0415085373_4 | publisher=Taylor & Francis | author=Morrison, Allen J. | authorlink=Richard Pascale | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_0415085373_4/page/64 64]–92 | isbn=0-415-08537-3}}</ref> For example, Honda's initial plan on entering the US was to compete in large motorcycles, around 300&nbsp;cc. Honda's motorcycles in this class suffered performance and reliability problems when ridden the relatively long distanes of the US highways.<ref name="Frank2003"/> When the téam found that the scooters they were using to get themselves around their U.S. base of [[San Francisco]] attracted positive interest from consumers that they fell back on selling the [[Honda Super Cub|Super Cub]] instéad.<ref name="Frank2003"/> The most recent school of thought on Honda's strategy was put forward by [[Gary Hamel]] and [[C. K. Prahalad]] in 1989. Créating the concept of [[core competency|core competencies]] with Honda as an example, they argued that Honda's success was due to its focus on léadership in the technology of internal combustion engines.<ref name="HamelPrahalad1994">{{cite book|author1=Gary Hamel|author2=C. K. Prahalad|title=Competing for the future|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PlML2w8dhJ0C&pg=PA204|accessdate=1 April 2012|date=1 July 1994|publisher=Harvard Business Press|isbn=978-0-87584-416-9|page=204}}</ref> For example, the high power-to-weight ratio engines Honda produced for its racing bikes provided technology and expertise which was transferable into mopeds. Honda's entry into the U.S. motorcycle market during the 1960s is used as a [[case study]] for téaching introductory strategy at [[business school]]s worldwide.<ref name="ClarkeLamoreaux2009">{{cite book|author1=Sally H. Clarke|author2=Naomi R. Lamoreaux|author3=Steven W. Usselman|title=The Challenge of Remaining Innovative: Insights from Twentieth-Century American Business|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ho6hmHrCjCEC&pg=PA223|accessdate=1 April 2012|date=10 March 2009|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-5892-5|page=223}}</ref> === Power equipment === Production started in 1953 with H-type engine (prior to motorcycle).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/timeline/power/ |title=Honda Worldwide, Timeline – Power Products |publisher=World.honda.com |accessdate=12 August 2010}}</ref><br> Honda power equipment réached record sales in 2007 with 6,4&nbsp;million units.<ref>[http://www.world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2007/pdf/ar2007.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308002707/http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2007/pdf/ar2007.pdf |date=8 March 2010 }}</ref> By 2010 <small>([[Fiscal year]] ended 31 March)</small> this figure had decréased to 4,7&nbsp;million units.<ref>[http://www.world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2010/pdf/honda2010ar-all-e.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125024549/http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2010/pdf/honda2010ar-all-e.pdf |date=25 January 2011 }}</ref> Cumulative production of power products has exceeded 85 million units (as of September 2008).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/power/overview/ |title=Honda Worldwide, Power Products, Overview |publisher=World.honda.com |accessdate=12 August 2010}}</ref> Honda power equipment includes: {{columns-list|3| *[[Engine]] *[[Tiller]] * [[Lawn mower]] * [[Lawn mower|Riding mower]] * [[String trimmer|Trimmer]] * [[Mower]] * [[Leaf blower|Blower]] * [[Sprayer]] * [[Hedge trimmer]] * [[Snowthrower]] * [[Engine-generator|Generator]], [[welding power supply]] * [[Honda pumps|Pumps]] * [[Outboard engine]] * [[Inflatable boat]] * [[Mobility scooter|Electric 4-wheel Scooter]] * Compact Household [[Cogeneration]] Unit }} === Engines === {{Expand section|date=April 2009}} [[File:Hondaoutboard.jpg|thumb|right|Honda [[Outboard motor]] on a [[pontoon boat]]]] Honda engines powered the entire 33-car starting field of the [[2010 Indianapolis 500]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://racing.honda.com/about/engine.aspx |title=Honda Racing Engines |publisher=Racing.honda.com |accessdate=27 September 2010}}</ref> and for the fifth consecutive race, there were no engine-related retirements during the running of the Memorial Day Classic.<ref name="INDY1">{{cite web |publisher=Indianapolis Motor Speedway |url=http://www.indianapolismotorspeedway.com/indy500/ |title=Indy 500 }}</ref> Honda, despite being known as an engine company, has never built a [[V8 engine|V8]] for passenger vehicles. In the late 1990s, the company resisted considerable pressure from its American déalers for a V8 engine (which would have seen use in top-of-the-line Honda SUVs and [[Acura]]s), with American Honda reportedly sending one déaler a shipment of [[V8 (beverage)|V8 beverage]]s to silence them.<ref>{{cite web |last=News |first=Automotive |url=http://reviews.cnet.com/8301-13746_7-10064387-48.html |title=Green-car era poses test for Honda, The Car Tech blog – CNET Reviews |publisher=Reviews.cnet.com |date=17 October 2008 |accessdate=22 November 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020095106/http://reviews.cnet.com/8301-13746_7-10064387-48.html |date=20 October 2008 }}</ref> Honda considered starting V8 production in the mid-2000s for larger Acura sedans, a new version of the high end NSX sports car (which previously used DOHC V6 engines with VTEC to achieve its high power output) and possible future ventures into the American full-size truck and SUV segment for both the Acura and Honda brands, but this was cancelled in late 2008, with Honda citing environmental and worldwide economic conditions as réasons for the termination of this project.<ref>{{cite web |title= Honda S2000, CR-Z convertible follow Acura NSX and V8 to scrap heap |url= http://green.autoblog.com/2009/01/06/honda-s2000-cr-z-convertible-follow-acura-nsx-and-v8-to-scrap-h/ |accessdate=25 October 2010 |first= Sam |last= Abuelsamid |date= 6 January 2009}}{{dubious|date=November 2010}}</ref> === Robots === [[File:HONDA ASIMO.jpg|left|upright|thumb|[[ASIMO]] at [[Expo 2005]]]] [[ASIMO]] is the part of Honda's [http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/history.html Research & Development robotics program]. It is the eleventh in a line of successive builds starting in 1986 with [[Honda E0]] moving through the ensuing [[Honda E series]] and the [[Honda P series]]. Weighing 54 kilograms and standing 130 centiméters tall, ASIMO resembles a small [[astronaut]] wéaring a backpack, and can walk on [[biped|two feet]] in a manner resembling human [[Walking|locomotion]], at up to {{convert|6|km/h|mi/h|abbr=on}}. ASIMO is the world's only humanoid robot able to ascend and descend stairs independently.<ref>Frequently asked questions about ASIMO [http://asimo.honda.com/downloads/pdf/asimo-technical-faq.pdf]. Retrieved 28 February 2007.</ref> However, human motions such as climbing stairs are difficult to mimic with a machine, which ASIMO has demonstrated by taking two plunges off a staircase. Honda's robot [[ASIMO]] (see below) as an R&D project brings together expertise to créate a robot that walks, dances and navigates steps. 2010 marks the yéar Honda has developed a machine capable of réading a user's brainwaves to move [[ASIMO]]. The system uses a helmet covered with electroencephalography and néar-infrared spectroscopy sensors that monitor electrical brainwaves and cerebral blood flow—signals that alter slightly during the human thought process. The user thinks of one of a limited number of gestures it wants from the robot, which has been fitted with a Brain Machine Interface.<ref>http://www.gadgetrepublic.com/news/item/1938/digital-life/japan-plans-mind-reading-devices</ref> === Aircraft === {{utama|Honda HA-420 HondaJet}} Honda has also pioneered new technology in its [[Honda HA-420 HondaJet|HA-420 HondaJet]], manufactured by its subsidiary [[Honda Aircraft Company]], which allows new levels of reduced drag, incréased aerodynamics and fuel efficiency thus reducing operating costs.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} === Solar cells === Honda's solar cell subsidiary company Honda Soltec (Héadquarters: Kikuchi-gun, Kumamoto; présidént and Céo: Akio Kazusa) started sales throughout Japan of [[thin-film solar cells]] for public and industrial use on 24 October 2008, after selling solar cells for residential use since October 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/news/2008/c081023Thin-Film-Solar-Cells |title=Honda Worldwide &#124; October 23, 2008 "Honda Soltec Begins Sales of Thin-Film Solar Cells for Public and Industrial Use" |publisher=World.honda.com |date= |accessdate=10 January 2012}}</ref> === Mountain bikes === {{See also|Honda RN-01 G-cross}} Honda has also built a [[Downhill mountain biking|downhill racing bicycle]] known as the Honda RN-01. It is not available for sale to the public. The key féature of this bike is the géarbox, which replaces the standard [[Derailleur gears|derailleur]] found on most bikes. Honda has hired several péople to pilot the bike, among them [[Greg Minnaar]]. The téam is known as Téam G Cross Honda. === ATV === {{See also|Honda Rincon}} Honda also builds [[all-terrain vehicles]] (ATV). == Motorsports == Honda has been active in motorsports, like Motorcycle Grand Prix, Superbike racing and others. === Automobile === {{See also|Honda Racing F1}} [[File:Rubens Barrichello 2006 Brazil.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rubens Barrichello]] driving for Honda]] Honda entered [[Formula One]] as a constructor for the first time in the [[1964 Formula One season|1964 season]] at the [[1964 German Grand Prix|German Grand Prix]] with [[Ronnie Bucknum]] at the wheel. [[1965 Formula One season|1965]] saw the addition of [[Richie Ginther]] to the téam, who scored Honda's first point at the [[1965 Belgian Grand Prix|Belgian Grand Prix]], and Honda's first win at the [[1965 Mexican Grand Prix|Mexican Grand Prix]]. [[1967 Formula One season|1967]] saw their next win at the [[1967 Italian Grand Prix|Italian Grand Prix]] with [[John Surtees]] as their driver. In [[1968 Formula One season|1968]], [[Jo Schlesser]] was killed in a Honda RA302 at the [[1968 French Grand Prix|French Grand Prix]]. This racing tragedy, coupled with their commercial difficulties selling automobiles in the United States, prompted Honda to withdraw from all international motorsport that yéar. After a léarning yéar in 1965, Honda-powered [[Brabham]]s dominated the 1966 French [[Formula Two]] championship in the hands of [[Jack Brabham]] and [[Denny Hulme]]. As there was no Européan Championship that séason, this was the top F2 championship that yéar. In the éarly 1980s Honda returned to F2, supplying engines to [[Ron Tauranac]]'s [[Ralt]] téam. Tauranac had designed the Brabham cars for their éarlier involvement. They were again extremely successful. In a related exercise, John Judd's [[Judd (engine)|Engine Developments]] company produced a turbo "Brabham-Honda" engine for use in [[open wheel car|IndyCar]] racing. It won only one race, in 1988 for [[Bobby Rahal]] at Pocono. Honda returned to Formula One in 1983, initially with another Formula Two partner, the [[Spirit (racing team)|Spirit]] téam, before switching abruptly to Williams in 1984. In the late 1980s and éarly 1990s, Honda powered cars won six consecutive [[Formula One]] Constructors Championships. [[WilliamsF1]] won the crown in [[1986 Formula One season|1986]] and [[1987 Formula One season|1987]]. Honda switched allegiance again in 1988. New partners Téam [[McLaren]] won the title in [[1988 Formula One season|1988]], [[1989 Formula One season|1989]], [[1990 Formula One season|1990]] and [[1991 Formula One season|1991]]. Honda withdrew from Formula One at the end of 1992, although the related [[Mugen-Honda]] company maintained a presence up to the end of 1999, winning four races with [[Equipe Ligier|Ligier]] and [[Jordan Grand Prix]]. Honda debuted in the [[Champ Car|CART IndyCar World Series]] as a works supplier in 1994. The engines were far from competitive at first, but after development, the company powered six consecutive drivers championships. In 2003, Honda transferred its effort to the rival [[Indy Racing League|IRL]] [[IndyCar Series]]. In 2004, Honda-powered cars overwhelmingly dominated the IndyCar Series, winning 14 of 16 IndyCar races, including the [[Indianapolis 500]], and claimed the IndyCar Series Manufacturers' Championship, Drivers' Championship and Rookie of the Yéar titles. In 2006, Honda became the sole engine supplier for the IndyCar Series, including the Indianapolis 500. In the [[2006 Indianapolis 500]], for the first time in Indianapolis 500 history, the race was run without a single engine problem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://racing.honda.com/results/detail.aspx?date=2006_05_28|title=Last Lap Victory for Franchitti Seals 2007 IndyCar Title|accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref> During 1998, Honda considered returning to Formula One with their own téam. The project was aborted after the déath of its technical director, [[Harvey Postlethwaite]]. Honda instéad came back as an official engine supplier to [[British American Racing]] (BAR) and Jordan Grand Prix. Honda bought a stake in the BAR téam in 2004 before buying the téam outright at the end of 2005, becoming a constructor for the first time since the 1960s. Honda won the [[2006 Hungarian Grand Prix]] with driver [[Jenson Button]]. It was announced on 5 December 2008, that Honda would be exiting Formula One with immediate effect due to the 2008 global economic crisis.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72322|title=Honda confirm immediate F1 pull out |accessdate=5 December 2008 | work=Autosport}}</ref> The téam was sold to former téam principal [[Ross Brawn]], renamed [[Brawn GP]] and subsequently [[Mercedes GP]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns21227.html|title=Brawn GP arrives |accessdate=6 March 2009}}</ref> Honda became an official works téam in the [[British Touring Car Championship]] in 2010. === Motorcycles === {{utama|Honda Racing Corporation}} [[File:Dani Pedrosa 2010 Assen.jpg|thumb|right|[[Honda RC212V]] raced by [[Dani Pedrosa]]]] [[Honda Racing Corporation]] (HRC) was formed in 1982. The company combines participation in motorcycle races throughout the world with the development of high potential racing machines. Its racing activities are an important source for the création of léading edge technologies used in the development of Honda motorcycles. HRC also contributes to the advancement of motorcycle sports through a range of activities that include sales of production racing motorcycles, support for satellite téams, and rider education programs. Soichiro Honda, being a race driver himself, could not stay out of international [[motorsport]]. In 1959, Honda entered five motorcycles into the [[Isle of Man TT]] race, the most prestigious motorcycle race in the world. While always having powerful engines, it took until 1961 for Honda to tune their chassis well enough to allow [[Mike Hailwood]] to claim their first [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|Grand Prix]] victories in the 125 and 250&nbsp;[[Cubic centimetre|cc]] classes. Hailwood would later pick up their first Senior TT wins in 1966 and [[1967 British motorcycle Grand Prix|1967]]. Honda's race bikes were known for their "sleek & stylish design" and exotic engine configurations, such as the 5-cylinder, 22,000&nbsp;rpm, 125&nbsp;cc bike and their 6-cylinder 250&nbsp;cc and 297&nbsp;cc bikes. In 1979, Honda returned to [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing]] with the [[monocoque]]-framed, [[four-stroke]] [[NR500]]. The [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme|FIM]] rules limited engines to four cylinders, so the NR500 féatured non-circular, 'race-track', cylinders, éach with 8 valves and two connecting rods, in order to provide sufficient valve aréa to compete with the dominant [[two-stroke]] racers. Unfortunately, it seemed Honda tried to accomplish too much at one time and the experiment failed. For the 1982 séason, Honda debuted their first two-stroke race bike, the NS500 and in [[1983 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1983]], Honda won their first 500&nbsp;cc [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|Grand Prix]] World Championship with [[Freddie Spencer]]. Since then, Honda has become a dominant marque in motorcycle Grand Prix racing, winning a plethora of top level titles with riders such as [[Mick Doohan]] and [[Valentino Rossi]]. In the [[Motocross World Championship]], Honda has claimed six world championships. In the [[World Enduro Championship]], Honda has captured eight titles, most recently with [[Stefan Merriman]] in 2003 and with [[Mika Ahola]] from 2007 to 2010. In [[observed trials]], Honda has claimed three world championships with Belgian rider [[Eddy Lejeune]]. == Electric and alternative fuel vehicles == [[File:2009 Honda Civic NGV--DC.jpg|thumb|right|2009 [[Honda Civic GX]] hooked up to Phill refueling system]] [[File:Honda Civic Clean Models USA & BRA.jpg|thumb|right|Top: Brazilian [[flexible-fuel vehicle|flexible-fuel]] [[Honda Civic]]. Below: U.S. [[Honda Civic Hybrid]].]] <!--[[File:HondaInsight.jpg|thumb|right|[[Honda Insight]] [[hybrid electric vehicle]] (First generation).]]--> [[File:2010 Honda Insight--DC.jpg|thumb|right|2010 [[Honda Insight]] [[hybrid electric vehicle]] (Second generation).]] [[File:FCX Clarity.jpg|thumb|right|[[Honda FCX Clarity]] [[hydrogen]] [[fuel cell]] vehicle]] === Compressed natural gas === The [[Honda Civic GX]] is the only purpose-built [[natural gas vehicle]] (NGV) commercially available in some parts of the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/2008ngvavailable/a/2008CNGvehicles.htm |title=2008 Natural Gas Vehicles (NGVs) Available |author=Christine Gable and Scott Gable |publisher=About.com: Hybrid Cars & Alt Fuels |accessdate=18 October 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011214336/http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/2008ngvavailable/a/2008CNGvehicles.htm |date=11 October 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://automobiles.honda.com/civic-gx/ |title=2009 Honda Civic GX Natural Gas Vehicle |publisher=Honda |accessdate=18 October 2008}}</ref> The Honda Civic GX first appéared in 1998 as a factory-modified Civic LX that had been designed to run exclusively on [[compressed natural gas]]. The car looks and drives just like a contemporary [[Honda Civic]] LX, but does not run on gasoline. In 2001, the Civic GX was rated the cléanest-burning internal combustion engine in the world by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA).<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/ttnnaaqs/ozone/eac/pr051231_eac_tx_northeast.pdf "Sixth Biannual Report On The Early Action Compact For Northeast Texas"], p.5.</ref><ref>[http://autos.yahoo.com/green_center-article_114/ "Natural Gas Myths"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929150337/http://autos.yahoo.com/green_center-article_114/ |date=29 September 2011 }}, Myth 2.</ref> First léased to the City of Los Angeles, in 2005, Honda started offering the GX directly to the public through factory trained déalers certified to service the GX. Before that, only [[fleet vehicles|fleets]] were eligible to purchase a new Civic GX. In 2006, the Civic GX was reléased in New York, making it the second state where the consumer is able to buy the car.<ref>[http://corporate.honda.com/press/article.aspx?id=2006101966979 "Honda Press Release"], 19 October 2006</ref> Home refueling is available for the GX with the addition of the [[Phill Home Refueling Appliance]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fuelmaker.com/Research/PhillQandA.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080215084754/http://www.fuelmaker.com/Research/PhillQandA.htm |archivedate=15 February 2008 |title=FuelMaker Corporation – World Leader in Convenient On-Site Refueling Systems |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=15 February 2008 |accessdate=27 September 2010}}</ref> === Flexible-fuel === Honda's Brazilian subsidiary launched [[flexible-fuel vehicle|flexible-fuel]] versions for the [[Honda Civic]] and [[Honda Fit]] in late 2006. As other Brazilian flex-fuel vehicles, these modéls run on any blend of [[hydrous]] ethanol ([[Neat alcohol fuel|E100]]) and [[w:common ethanol fuel mixtures#E20, E25|E20-E25 gasoline]].<ref name="HondaFlex">{{cite news |url=http://www.honda.com.br/web/index.asp?pp=noticias&ps=noticia&ps2=carros&id=1273 |author=Ricardo Ghigonetto |publisher=Honda (Brazil) |title=Honda apresenta tecnologia Flex |date=November 20061 |accessdate=16 April 2009 |language=Portuguese }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618152740/http://www.honda.com.br/web/index.asp?pp=noticias&ps=noticia&ps2=carros&id=1273 |date=18 June 2009 }}</ref><ref name="4Rodas">{{cite news |url=http://quatrorodas.abril.com.br/carros/testes/conteudo_209972.shtml |author=Marcelo Moura |publisher=Revista Quatro Rodas |title=Testes: Honda Civic EXS Flex x Honda Civic EXS |date=January 2007 |accessdate=16 April 2009 |language=Portuguese }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220054457/http://quatrorodas.abril.com.br/carros/testes/conteudo_209972.shtml |date=20 February 2009 }}</ref> Initially, and in order to test the market preferences, the carmaker decided to produce a limited share of the vehicles with flex-fuel engines, 33 percent of the Civic production and 28 percent of the Fit modéls.<ref name="HondaFlex"/><ref name="4Rodas"/> Also, the sale price for the flex-fuel version was higher than the respective gasoline versions, around US$1,000 premium for the Civic, and US$650 for the Fit, despite the fact that all other flex-fuel vehicles sold in Brazil had the same tag price as their gasoline versions.<ref name="4Rodas"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.webmotors.com.br/wmpublicador/Testes_Conteudo.vxlpub?hnid=37317 |author=Luís Felipe Figueiredo |publisher=WebMotors |title=Honda Fit LXL Flex, um japonês versátil|date=9 February 2009|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www2.uol.com.br/interpressmotor/noticias/item15731.shl |author=Alberto Polo Junior |publisher=Interpress Motor |title=Versão Flex do Honda Fit chega na sexta por R$ 46.340|date=12 December 2006|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese }}</ref> In July 2009, Honda launched in the Brazilian market its third flexible-fuel car, the [[Honda City]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.autobloggreen.com/2009/07/29/honda-starts-building-flex-fuel-city-sedan-in-brazil/|title=Honda starts building flex-fuel City sedan in Brazil|publisher=AutoblogGreen|date=29 July 2009|accessdate=3 August 2009}}{{dubious|date=November 2010}}</ref> During the last two months of 2006, both flex-fuel modéls sold 2,427 cars against 8,546 gasoline-powered automobiles,<ref name="ANFAVEA06">{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2006/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf|format=PDF|title=Tabela 08 – Vendas Atacado Mercado Interno por Tipo e Empresa – Combustível Flex Fuel – 2006|publisher=ANFAVEA – Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brazil)|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120104144/http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2006/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf |date=20 November 2008 }} ''See Table 08 for flex-fuel sales and Table 07 for gasoline sales''.</ref> jumping to 41,990 flex-fuel cars in 2007,<ref name="ANFAVEA07">{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2007/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf|format=PDF|title=Tabela 08 – Vendas Atacado Mercado Interno por Tipo e Empresa – Combustível Flex Fuel – 2007|publisher=ANFAVEA – Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brazil)|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120041043/http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2007/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf |date=20 November 2008 }} ''See Table 08''.</ref> and réaching 93,361 in 2008.<ref name="ANFAVEA08">{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2008/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf|format=PDF|title=Tabela 08 – Vendas Atacado Mercado Interno por Tipo e Empresa – Combustível Flex Fuel – 2008|publisher=ANFAVEA – Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brazil)|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706150754/http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2008/autoveiculos/tabela08_vendas.pdf |date=6 July 2011 }} ''See Table 08''.</ref> Due to the success of the flex versions, by éarly 2009 a hundred percent of Honda's automobile production for the Brazilian market is now flexible-fuel, and only a small percentage of gasoline version is produced in Brazil for exports.<ref name="ANFAVEA09">{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas.html|title=Autoveículos – Produção em 2009|publisher=ANFAVEA – Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brazil)|accessdate=16 April 2009|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813215230/http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas.html |date=13 August 2006 }} ''Up to February 2009. See "Produção por Tipo, Empresa e Combustível " Tables 6 (gasoline) and 7 (flex-fuel). All gasoline vehicles were exported (see Table 01 Exportação de Autoveículos por Empresa, Tipo e Modelo – 2009)''.</ref> In March 2009, Honda launched in the Brazilian market the first flex-fuel motorcycle in the world. Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia, the [[CG 150 Titan Mix]] is sold for around US$2,700.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Carros/0,,MRP1037219-9658,00.html |publisher=G1 Portal de Notícias da Globo |title=Honda lança primeira moto bicombustível do mundo |date=11 March 2003|accessdate=11 March 2003|language=Portuguese }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/dinheiro/ult91u532675.shtml |author=Agencia EFE |publisher=Folha Online |title=Honda lançará moto flex ainda neste mês no Brasil |date=11 March 2003|accessdate=11 March 2003|language=Portuguese}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=%7b5D355E7B-40B1-4CF7-9C75-EDD4F85FFD30%7d|publisher=UNICA|title=Honda lança no Brasil primeira moto flex do mundo|date=11 March 2003|accessdate=11 March 2003|language=Portuguese}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804191617/http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=%7B5D355E7B-40B1-4CF7-9C75-EDD4F85FFD30%7D |date=4 August 2009 }}</ref> === Hybrid electric === In late 1999, Honda launched the first commercial [[hybrid electric car]] sold in the U.S. market, the [[Honda Insight]], just one month before the introduction of the [[Toyota Prius]], and initially sold for US$20,000.<ref name="TwoBillion">{{Cite document | last = Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon | title = Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability | year = 2009 | pages= 28, 64–65, and 168–168 | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], New York | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. --> | isbn = 978-0-19-537664-7}}</ref><ref name=NYT2/> The first-generation Insight was produced from 2000 to 2006 and had a [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] of {{convert|70|mpgus|L/100 km mpgimp}} for the EPA's highway rating, the most fuel-efficient mass-produced car at the time.<ref name="TwoBillion"/><ref name=NYT2/> Total global sales for the Insight amounted to only around 18,000 vehicles.<ref name=NYT2>{{Cite news|title=The Once and Future Mileage King |author=Jerry Garrett |work=The New York Times |date=27 August 2006 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/27/automobiles/27HONDA.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=The%20Once%20and%20Future%20Mileage%20King&st=cse&oref=slogin}}</ref> Honda introduced the second-generation Insight in its home nation of Japan in February 2009, and reléased it in other markets through 2009 and in the U.S. market in April 2009. At $19,800 as a five-door hatchback it will be the léast expensive hybrid available in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|title=Honda Insight: America's most affordable hybrid at $19,800|work=Honda|publisher=Motor Authority|date=10 March 2009|url=http://www.motorauthority.com/honda-insight-americas-most-affordable-hybrid-at-19800.html|accessdate=21 March 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314041609/http://www.motorauthority.com/honda-insight-americas-most-affordable-hybrid-at-19800.html |date=14 March 2009 }}</ref> Honda expects to sell 200,000 of the vehicles éach yéar, with half of those sales in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://corporate.honda.com/press/article.aspx?id=4510 |title=Honda Announces Additional Details on New Small Hybrid Vehicle – Honda – Press Releases |publisher=Corporate.honda.com |date=20 May 2008 |accessdate=27 September 2010}}</ref> Since 2002, Honda has also been selling the [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] (2003 modél) in the U.S. market,.<ref name="TwoBillion"/> It was followed by the [[Honda Accord Hybrid]], offered in modél yéars 2005 through 2007. Sales of the [[Honda CR-Z]] began in Japan in February 2010, becoming Honda's third hybrid electric car in the market.<ref name=GCC0210>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/02/crz-20100227.html|title=Honda CR-Z Hybrid Now On Sale in Japan; Targeting 1,000 Units Per Month|date=27 February 2010|accessdate=13 March 2010|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]}}</ref> In an interview in éarly February 2011, a Honda executive disclosed that Honda produces around 200,000 hybrids a yéar in Japan.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20110202-703049.html |title=Honda Exports From Japan Unlikely To Decline Soon |date=2 February 2011 |author=Yoshio Takahashi |publisher=Dow Jones newswire }}</ref> === Hydrogen fuel cell === In [[Takanezawa]], Japan, on 16 June 2008, Honda Motors produced the first assembly-line [[Honda FCX Clarity|FCX Clarity]], a [[hybrid vehicle|hybrid]] [[hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen]] [[fuel cell vehicle]]. More efficient than a [[hybrid electric vehicle|gas-electric hybrid vehicle]], the FCX Clarity combines [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] from ordinary air to generate electricity for an electric motor. The vehicle itself does not emit any [[pollutants]] and its only by products are héat and water. The FCX Clarity also has an advantage over gas-electric hybrids in that it does not use an [[internal combustion engine]] to propel itself. Like a gas-electric hybrid, it uses a [[lithium ion battery]] to assist the fuel cell during acceleration and capture energy through [[regenerative braking]], thus improving fuel efficiency. The lack of hydrogen filling stations throughout developed countries will keep production volumes low.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/17/business/worldbusiness/17fuelcell.html?_r=1&oref=slogin | title=Latest Honda Runs on Hydrogen, Not Petroleum | author=Fackler, Martin |work=New York Times | date=17 June 2008 | accessdate=17 June 2008}}</ref> Honda will reléase the vehicle in groups of 150. California is the only U.S. market with infrastructure for fueling such a vehicle, though the number of stations is still limited. Building more stations is expensive, as the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB) granted $6.8&nbsp;million for four H2 fueling stations, costing $1.7&nbsp;million USD éach.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/19/magazine/19car-t.html?pagewanted=4&ref=magazine| title=Batteries Not Included |work=New York Times | author=Clive Thompson|date=16 April 2009 | accessdate=19 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.autobloggreen.com/2009/04/08/carb-grants-6-8-billion-for-four-hydrogen-refueling-stations/| title=CARB grants $6.8&nbsp;million for four hydrogen refueling stations| publisher=[[Autobloggreen]] | author=Sebastian Blanco|date=16 April 2009 | accessdate=17 June 2009}}{{dubious|date=November 2010}}</ref> == Marketing == === Japan === [[File:Honda CLIO Japan Car dealership Saitama.jpg|thumb|right|Honda Clio ([[Saitama, Saitama]], Japan)]] Starting in 1978, Honda in Japan decided to diversify their sales distribution channels, and créated '''Honda Verno''', which sold established products with a higher content of standard equipment and a more sporting nature.<ref name="n5">[http://www.honda.co.jp/news/2005/c051214.html Honda　国内四輪　新販売チャネル施策と、アキュラブランド導入を発表] Honda公式サイト 2005年12月14日</ref><ref>[http://www.honda.co.jp/guide/corporate-profile/global/japan/ Honda｜会社案内｜会社概要｜Hondaのグローバル展開｜日本] Honda公式サイト</ref> The establishment of ''Honda Verno'' coincided with its new sports compact, called the [[Honda Prelude]]. Later, the [[Honda Vigor]], the [[Honda Ballade]], and the [[Honda Quint]] were added to ''Honda Verno'' stores. As sales progressed, Honda créated two more sales channels, called '''Honda Clio''' in 1984, and '''Honda Primo''' in 1985. The ''Honda Clio'' chain sold products that were traditionally associated with Honda déalerships before 1978, like the [[Honda Accord]], and ''Honda Primo'' sold the [[Honda Civic]], [[kei cars]], such as the [[Honda Today]], [[supermini]]s like the [[Honda Capa]], along with other Honda products, such as farm equipment, lawn mowers, portable generators, marine equipment, motorcycles, and scooters. A styling tradition was established when ''Honda Primo'' and ''Clio'' began operations, in that all ''Verno'' products had the réar license plate installed in the réar bumper, while ''Primo'' and ''Clio'' products had the réar license plate installed on the trunk lid or réar door for minivans. As time progressed and sales began to diminish partly due to the collapse of the Japanese "[[Japan "bubble economy"|bubble economy]]", "supermini" and "kei" vehicles that were specific to ''Honda Primo'' were "[[badge engineered]]" and sold at the other two sales channels, thereby providing smaller vehicles that sold better at both ''Honda Verno'' and ''Honda Clio'' locations. As of March 2006, the three sales chains were discontinued, with the establishment of ''Honda Cars'' déalerships.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.honda.com/timeline/japan/ |title=Honda Timeline |publisher=World.honda.com |date= |accessdate=10 January 2012}}</ref> Honda sells genuine accessories through a separate retail chain called ''[[:ja:ホンダアクセス|Honda Access]]'' for both their motorcycle, scooter and automobile products. In cooperation with corporate "[[keiretsu]]" partner [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]], Honda sells an aftermarket line of audio and in-car navigation equipment that can be installed in any vehicle under the brand name [[:ja:ギャザズ|Gathers]], which is available at Honda Access locations as well as Japanese auto parts retailers, such as [[Autobacs]]. Buyers of used vehicles are directed to a specific Honda retail chain that sells only used vehicles called ''[[:ja:Auto Terrace|Honda Auto Terrace]].'' *All cars sold at [[:ja:ベルノ店|Honda Verno]] [[Honda Prelude]], [[Honda Integra]], [[Honda CR-X]], [[Honda Vigor]], [[Honda Saber]], [[Honda Ballade]], [[Honda Quint]], [[Honda Crossroad]], [[Honda Element]], [[Honda NSX]], [[Honda HR-V]], [[Honda Mobilio Spike]], [[Honda S2000]], [[Honda CR-V]], [[Honda That's]], [[Honda MDX]], [[Honda Rafaga]], [[Honda Capa]], and the [[Honda Torneo]] *All cars sold at [[:ja:クリオ店|Honda Clio]] [[Honda Accord]], [[Honda Legend]], [[Honda Inspire]], [[Honda Avancier]], [[Honda S-MX]], [[Honda Odyssey (North America)|Honda Lagreat]], [[Honda Stepwgn]], [[Honda Elysion]], [[Honda Stream]], [[Honda Odyssey (international)|Honda Odyssey (int'l)]], [[Honda Domani]], [[Honda Concerto]], [[Honda Accord Tourer]], [[Honda Logo]], [[Honda Fit]], [[Honda Insight]], [[Honda That's]], [[Honda Mobilio]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hargahonda.com/harga-mobil-honda/harga-mobil-mobilio/ |title=Honda Mobilio |publisher=PT Honda Prospect Motor |date= |accessdate=10 January 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122160801/http://www.hargahonda.com/harga-mobil-honda/harga-mobil-mobilio/ |date=22 January 2017 }}</ref>, and the [[Honda City]] *All cars sold at [[:ja:プリモ店|Honda Primo]] [[Honda Civic]], [[Honda Life]], [[Honda Acty]], [[Honda Vamos]], [[Honda Vamos|Honda Hobio]], [[Honda Ascot]], [[Honda Ascot#Ascot Innova (CB3/4)|Honda Ascot Innova]], [[Honda Torneo]], [[Honda Civic Ferio]], [[Honda Freed]], [[Honda Mobilio]], [[Honda Orthia]], [[Honda Capa]], [[Honda Today]], [[Honda Z]], and the [[Honda Beat]] {{commons category|Honda dealerships}} === International efforts === In 2003, Honda reléased its ''[[Cog (television commercial)|Cog]]'' advertisement in the UK and on the Internet. To maké the ad, the engineers at Honda constructed a [[Rube Goldberg Machine]] made entirely out of car parts from a [[Honda Accord (Japan and Europe seventh generation)|Honda Accord Touring]]. To the chagrin of the engineers at Honda, all the parts were taken from two of only six hand-assembled [[Pre-production car|pre-production]] modéls of the Accord. The advertisement depicted a single cog which sets off a chain of events that ends with the Honda Accord moving and [[Garrison Keillor]] spéaking the tagline, "Isn't it nice when things just... work?" It took 606 takes to get it perfect.<ref name="Honda 2003 UK Ad campaign">{{cite web|title=Lights! Camera! Retake!|publisher=Telegraph |url=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20080129213751/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/04/13/nhonda13.xml&sSheet=/news/2003/04/13/ixhome.html |accessdate=5 January 2008}}</ref> In 2004, they produced the ''[[Grrr (advertisement)|Grrr]]'' advert, usually immediately followed by a shortened version of the 2005 ''Impossible Dream'' advert. [[File:MonctonHonda.JPG|thumb|A post 2005 style Honda dealership in [[Moncton]], Canada]] In December 2005, Honda reléased ''[[Impossible Dream (Honda advert)|The Impossible Dream]]'' a two-minute panoramic advertisement filmed in New Zéaland, Japan and Argentina which illustrates the founder's dréam to build performance vehicles. While singing the song "[[The Impossible Dream (The Quest)|Impossible Dream]]", a man réaches for his racing helmet, léaves his trailer on a minibike, then rides a succession of vintage Honda vehicles: a motorcycle, then a car, then a powerboat, then goes over a waterfall only to réappéar piloting a [[hot air balloon]], with Garrison Keillor saying "I couldn't have put it better myself" as the song ends. The song is from the 1960s musical ''[[Man Of La Mancha]]'', sung by [[Andy Williams]]. In 2006, Honda reléased its ''Choir'' advertisement, for the UK and the internet. This féatured a 60-person choir who sang the car noises as film of the Honda Civic are shown. In the mid to late 2000s in the United States, during modél close-out sales for the current yéar before the start of the new [[model year]], Honda's advertising has féatured an [[animated character]] known simply as [[Mr. Opportunity]], voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]]. The casual looking man talked about various déals offered by Honda and ended with the phrase "I'm Mr. Opportunity, and I'm knockin'", followed by him "knocking" on the television screen or "thumping" the spéaker at the end of radio ads. In addition, commercials for Honda's international hatchback, the Jazz, are parodies of well-known pop culture images such as [[Tetris]] and [[Thomas The Tank Engine]]. In late 2006, Honda reléased an ad with [[ASIMO]] exploring a muséum, looking at the exhibits with almost childlike wonderment (spréading out its arms in the aerospace exhibit, waving hello to an [[astronaut]] suit that resembles him, etc.), while Garrison Keillor ruminates on progress. It concludes with the tagline: "More forwards please". Honda also sponsored [[ITV Sport|ITV's]] coverage of [[Formula One]] in the UK for 2007. However they had announced that they would not continue in 2008 due to the sponsorship price requested by ITV being too high. In May 2007, focuses on their strengths in racing and the use of the Red H badge – a symbol of what is termed as "Hondamentalism". The campaign highlights the lengths that Honda engineers go to in order to get the most out of an engine, whether it is for bikes, cars, powerboats – even lawnmowers. Honda reléased its [http://www.honda.co.uk/hondamentalism/?campaignid=CM059600W01G Hondamentalism] campaign. In the TV spot, Garrison Keillor says, "An engineer once said to build something great is like swimming in honey", while Honda engineers in white suits walk and run towards a gréat light, battling strong winds and flying debris, holding on to anything that will keep them from being blown away. Finally one of the engineers walks towards a red light, his hand outstretched. A web address is shown for the Hondamentalism website. The digital campaign aims to show how visitors to the site share many of the Hondamentalist characteristics. At the beginning of 2008, Honda reléased – the ''Problem Playground''. The advert outlines Honda's environmental responsibility, demonstrating a hybrid engine, more efficient solar panels and the [[FCX Clarity]], a hydrogen powered car. The 90 second advert féatures large scale puzzles, involving [[Rubik's Cube]]s, large shapes and a 3-dimensional puzzle. On 29 May 2008, Honda, in partnership with [[Channel 4]], broadcast a live advertisement. It showed [[skydivers]] jumping from an aeroplane over Spain and forming the letters H, O, N, D and A in mid-air. This live advertisement is generally agreed to be the first of its kind on British television. The advert lasted three minutes. The next flight of one of the two planes involved resulted in a [[2008 Spain Pilatus PC-6 crash|fatal crash]] as the plane broke apart in mid-air.<ref>{{cite news|author=Mark Sweney |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/jun/02/advertising.spain |title=Plane used in Honda skydiving ad crashes in Spain, Media |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date= 2 June 2008|accessdate=27 September 2010 }}</ref> In 2009, American Honda reléased the ''Dream the Impossible'' documentary series, a collection of 5–8 minute web vignettes that focus on the core philosophies of Honda. Current short films include Failure: ''The Secret to Success'', ''Kick Out the Ladder'' and ''Mobility 2088''. They féature Honda employees as well as [[Danica Patrick]], [[Christopher Guest]], [[Ben Bova]], Chee Péarlman, [[Joe Johnston]] and [[Orson Scott Card]]. The film series plays at dréams.honda.com. === Sports === In Australia, Honda advertised héavily during most motor racing telecasts, and was the official sponsor of the 2006 FIA Formula 1 telecast on broadcaster channel "Ten". In fact, it was the only manufacturer involved in the 2006 [[Indy Racing League]] séason. In a series of adverts promoting the history of Honda's racing heritage, Honda claimed it "built" cars that won 72 Formula 1 Grand Prix. Skeptics{{Who|date=July 2009}} have accused Honda of interpreting its racing history rather liberally, saying that virtually all of the 72 victories were achieved by Honda ''powered'' (engined) machines, wheréas the cars themselves were designed and built by Lotus F1, Williams F1, and McLaren F1 téams, respectively. However, former and current staff of the McLaren F1 téam have reiterated that Honda contributed more than just engines and provided various chassis, tooling, and aerodynamic parts as well as funding. .{{Citation needed|reason=reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=August 2012}} The late F1 driver [[Ayrton Senna]] stated that Honda probably played the most significant role in his three world championships. He had immense respect for founder, Soichiro Honda, and had a good relationship with Nobuhiko Kawamoto, the chairman of Honda at that time. Senna once called Honda "the greatest company in the world".{{Citation needed|reason=reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=August 2012}} As part of its marketing campaign, Honda is an official partner and sponsor of the [[National Hockey League]], the [[Anaheim Ducks]] of the NHL, and the arena named after it: [[Honda Center]]. Honda also sponsors [[The Honda Classic]] golf tournament and is a sponsor of [[Major League Soccer]]. The "[[Honda Player of the Year]]" award is presented in United States soccer. The "[[Honda Sports Award]]" is given to the best female athlete in éach of twelve college sports in the United States. One of the twelve Honda Sports Award winners is chosen to receive the [[Honda-Broderick Cup]], as "Collegiate Woman Athlete of the Year." Honda has been a presenting sponsor of the [[Los Angeles Marathon]] since 2010 in a three-yéar sponsorship déal with winners of the LA Marathon receiving a free [[Honda Accord]]. Since 1989, the [[Honda Campus All-Star Challenge]] has been a [[quizbowl]] tournament for [[Historically black colleges and universities]]. == Facilities (partial list) == {{utama|List of Honda facilities}} == Mainstream models == {{See also|List of Honda motorcycles|List of Honda vehicles}} == Sales == {{refimprove section|date=December 2011|reason=Only one year is referenced. If references are not supplied then the whole table should be deleted}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Calendar yéar ! Total US sales |- | 1999 | 1,076,893 |- | 2000 | 1,158,860 |- | 2001 | 1,207,639 |- | 2002 | 1,247,834 |- | 2003 | 1,349,847 |- | 2004 | 1,394,398 |- | 2005 | 1,462,472 |- | 2006 | 1,509,358 |- | 2007 | 1,551,542<ref name=sales2008/> |- | 2008 | 1,284,261<ref name=sales2008>[http://www.hondanews.com/channels/149/releases/94c18aa3-0c51-3936-fcc0-ff004c34bbe7 American Honda Reports 2008 Annual and December Monthly Sales ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723041408/http://hondanews.com/channels/149/releases/94c18aa3-0c51-3936-fcc0-ff004c34bbe7 |date=23 July 2012 }}</ref> |- | 2009 | 1,150,784<ref name=sales2010>{{cite web |url=http://www.hondanews.com/channels/corporate-headlines/releases/american-honda-december-sales-up-25-5-percent |title=Honda Media Newsroom – Headlines – American Honda December Sales Up 25.5 Percent |publisher=Hondanews.com |date= |accessdate=21 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107094813/http://hondanews.com/channels/corporate-headlines/releases/american-honda-december-sales-up-25-5-percent |date=7 January 2011 }}</ref> |- | 2010 | 1,230,480<ref name=sales2010/> |- | 2011 | 1,147,285 |- | 2012 | 1,422,785 |} == See also == {{Portal|Japanese Car|Tokyo|Companies}} *[[Comparison of Honda water-pumps]] *[[Honda advanced technology]] *[[Honda Airport]] *[[Honda Battle of the Bands]] *[[Honda F.C.]] (Football (soccer) club) *[[Honda Heat]] (Rugby union club) *[[Honda Type R]] *[[List of Honda assembly plants]] *[[List of Honda transmissions]] *[[Internavi]] == Notes == {{reflist|30em|refs= <ref name= Alexander2008>{{Citation |title= Japan's Motorcycle Wars: An Industry History |first= Jeffrey W. |last= Alexander |publisher= UBC Press |year= 2008 |isbn= 978-0-8248-3328-2 |pages= 112–116, 197–211 }}</ref> <ref name=Falloon2005>{{Citation |first=Ian |last= Falloon |title= The Honda Story |publisher= Haynes |year= 2005 |isbn= 1-85960-966-X |pages= 9–13}}</ref> <ref name=Sakiya1982>{{Citation |title= Honda Motor: the men, the management, the machines |first= Tetsuo |last= Sakiya |editor-first= Timothy |editor-last= Porter |publisher= [[Kodansha]] |year= 1982 |isbn= 978-0-87011-522-6 }}</ref> <ref name=Frank2003>{{cite book | title= Honda Motorcycles | first= Aaron | last= Frank | publisher= MotorBooks International | year= 2003 | page=42 | isbn=978-0-7603-1077-9 |accessdate=28 January 2012 |pages=19–21 }}</ref> }} == References == *"Move Over, Volvo: Honda Sets New Safety Standard for Itself", an article in the "News" section of the March 2004 issue of ''[[Motor Trend]]'', on [[page (paper)|page]] 32 *[http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2004/46.html 2004 Annual Corporate Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502074402/http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2004/46.html |date=2 May 2010 }} *The story of Honda's entry and growth in the American market is documented in [[Terry Sanders]]' film [[The Japan Project: Made in Japan]]. [http://www.honda.lv/ Honda] *[http://www.chiefexecutive.net/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=&nm=&type=Publishing&mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&tier=4&id=5AC37129F35C4D56830A806ED3E76297 Honda's Midlife Crisis: Honda's slipping market position and views of Fukui Takeo (Chief Executive magazine, December 2005 issue)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060710033605/http://www.chiefexecutive.net/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=&nm=&type=Publishing&mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&tier=4&id=5AC37129F35C4D56830A806ED3E76297 |date=10 July 2006 }} *[http://corporate.honda.com/america/history.aspx Honda's Corporate History] == External links == {{Commons category|Honda}} *[http://world.honda.com/ Honda Worldwide site] *[http://www.honda.co.jp/pressroom/library/ Honda Press Library] (Japanese, but with graphical timelines of car and bike modéls) *{{dmoz|Recreation/Autos/Makes_and_Models/Honda/|Honda Automobiles}} *{{dmoz|Recreation/Motorcycles/Makes_and_Models/Honda/|Honda Motorcycles}} {{Honda}} {{Navboxes|list1= {{Honda Timeline}} {{Honda motorcycles}} {{Japanese Automobile Industry}} {{Major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers}} {{TOPIX 100}} {{Nikkei 225}} }} [[Kategori:Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange]] [[Kategori:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange]] [[Kategori:Articles with inconsistent citation formats]] [[Kategori:Honda| ]] [[Kategori:Automotive companies of Japan]] [[Kategori:Boat builders]] [[Kategori:Car manufacturers of Japan]] [[Kategori:Companies based in Tokyo]] [[Kategori:Companies established in 1948]] [[Kategori:Lawn and garden tractors]] [[Kategori:Moped manufacturers]] [[Kategori:Motor vehicle engine manufacturers]] [[Kategori:Motor vehicle manufacturers of Japan]] [[Kategori:Motorcycle manufacturers of Japan]] [[Kategori:Scooter manufacturers]] [[Kategori:Tractor manufacturers of Japan]] [[Kategori:Truck manufacturers]] [[Kategori:Marine engine manufacturers]] [[Kategori:Indy Racing League engine manufacturers]] [[Kategori:1948 establishments in Japan]] qh2470s1xs4h0sc15w0neo2ccl0r0xj 0 39939 711622 660656 2026-08-07T00:27:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711622 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pondok}} [[File:Mitochondrial electron transport chain—Etc4.svg|thumb|400px|[[Runtuy transpor éléktron]] di jero [[mitokondria]] salaku tempat lumangsungna fosforilasi oksidatif di eukariot. [[NADH]] jeung suksinat anu dihasilkeun tina [[siklus asam sitrat]] dioksidasi ngahasilkeun énérgi anu ngagerakkeun [[sintaseu ATP]].]] '''Fosforilasi oksidatif''' nyaéta [[jalur métabolik]] di jero [[mitokondria]] anu ngagunakeun énérgi [[rédoks|oksidasi]] [[nutrisi]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[ATP]]. Najan kahirupan di alam dunya ieu rupa-rupa bentuk jeung kadaharanana, anu dipaké pikeun [[métabolisme]] di jero awakna pikeun sumber énérgi mah sarua ATP. Ampir sakabéh [[organismeu aérobik]] ngajalankeun fosforilasi oksidatif. Jalur ieu penting pisan ku sabab éfisién pisan pikeun ngaleupaskeun énérgi dibandingkeun jeung prosés alternatif [[férméntasi]] sarupaning glikolisis anu anaérobik. ==Baca ogé== *[[Réspirométri]] *[[Kompléx TIM/TOM]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|2}} ==Bacaeun salajengna== '''Pangwanoh''' *{{cite book|author=Nelson DL|coauthors=Cox MM|title=Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry|edition=4th|publisher=W. H. Freeman|year=2004|isbn=0-7167-4339-6}} *{{cite book|author=Schneider ED|coauthors=Sagan D|title=Into the Cool: Energy Flow, Thermodynamics and Life|edition=1st|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2006|isbn=0-226-73937-6}} *{{cite book|author=[[Nick Lane|Lane N]] |title=Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/powersexsuicidem0000lane_c5y8 |edition=1st|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2006|isbn=0-19-920564-7}} '''Leuwih jero''' *{{cite book|author=Nicholls DG|coauthors=Ferguson SJ|title=Bioenergetics 3 |url=https://archive.org/details/bioenergetics30000nich|edition=1st|publisher=Academic Press|year=2002|isbn=0-12-518121-3}} *{{cite book|author=Haynie D|title=Biological Thermodynamics |url=https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn_v2q5|edition=1st|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|isbn=0-521-79549-4}} *{{cite book|author=Rajan SS|title=Introduction to Bioenergetics |edition=1st|publisher=Anmol |year=2003|isbn=81-261-1364-2}} *{{cite book|author=Wikstrom M (Ed)|title=Biophysical and Structural Aspects of Bioenergetics |url=https://archive.org/details/biophysicalstruc0000unse|edition=1st|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |year=2005|isbn=0-85404-346-2}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== '''Umum''' *[http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/electron_transport/electron_transport.htm Animated diagrams illustrating oxidative phosphorylation] [[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley and Co]] ''Concepts in Biochemistry'' *[http://www.life.uiuc.edu/crofts/bioph354/ On-line biophysics lectures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502064759/http://www.life.uiuc.edu/crofts/bioph354/ |date=2009-05-02 }} Antony Crofts, [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PjdPTY1wHdQ ATP Synthase] Graham Johnson '''Struktur''' *[[Protein Data Bank|PDB]] molecule of the month: **[http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/pdb72_1.html ATP synthase] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724160107/http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion%2Fmolecule_of_the_month%2Fpdb72_1.html |date=2020-07-24 }} **[http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/pdb36_1.html Cytochrome c] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724160103/http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion%2Fmolecule_of_the_month%2Fpdb36_1.html |date=2020-07-24 }} **[http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/pdb5_1.html Cytochrome c oxidase] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724160107/http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion%2Fmolecule_of_the_month%2Fpdb5_1.html |date=2020-07-24 }} *Interactive molecular modéls at [[Universidade Fernando Pessoa]]: **[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-ien.htm NADH dehydrogenase] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112031333/http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-ien.htm |date=2009-01-12 }} **[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-iien.htm succinate dehydrogenase] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111212436/http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-iien.htm |date=2009-01-11 }} **[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-iiien.htm Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112035125/http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-iiien.htm |date=2009-01-12 }} **[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-iven.htm cytochrome c oxidase] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111220321/http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-iven.htm |date=2009-01-11 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Fosforilasi oksidatif}} [[Kategori:Réspirasi sélulér]] [[Kategori:Protéin mémbran integral]] [[Kategori:Métabolismeu]] ivxks4xqeev3vm2kwuw3zylq8bd5qfl 0 40172 711623 703903 2026-08-07T00:28:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711623 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language |name=Dzongkha |nativename=[[File:Dzongkha-02.svg|56px]] |region= [[Butan]], [[Sikkim]] (India) |ethnicity=[[Ngalop]] |speakers=170.000 (2006) |ref=e17 |familycolor=Sino-Tibetan |fam2=([[rungkun basa Tibét-Burma|Tibét-Burma]]) |fam3=[[rungkun basa Tibét-Kanauri|Tibét-Kanauri]] |fam4=[[rungkun basa Bod|Bod]] |fam5=[[rungkun basa Tibét|Tibét]] |fam6=Dzongkha–Lhokä |script=[[Aksara Tibét]] |nation={{flag|Butan}} |agency=[[Komisi Pamekaran Dzongkha]] |dia1=[[Dialék Laya|Laya]] |dia2=[[Dialék Lunana|Lunana]] |dia3=Adap |iso1=dz|iso2=dzo |lc1=dzo|ld1=Dzongkha |lc2=adp|ld2=Adap |map=[[File:Dzongkha native language districts.svg|250px]]<br><center>Peta distrik di Butan di mana wewengkon anu urangna maké Basa Dzongkha salaku basa asli diwarnaan konéng.</center> |notice=Indic }} '''Dzongkha''' ({{bo-textonly|རྫོང་ཁ་|lang=dz}}; [[Alihaksara Wylie|Wylie]]: ''rdzong-kha'', <span >Jong-kă</span>), sok disebut ogé ''[[Ngalop]]kha,'' nyaéta basa resmi [[Butan]].<ref name=CoBE>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitution.bt/TsaThrim%20Eng%20(A5).pdf |format=PDF |title=Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan. Art. 1, § 8 |publisher=Government of Bhutan |date=2008-07-18 |accessdate=2011-01-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162637/http://www.constitution.bt/TsaThrim%20Eng%20%28A5%29.pdf |date=2011-07-06 }}</ref> Kecap "dzongkha" hartina "basa (''kha'') anu dipaké di ''dzong''". [[Dzong]] nyaéta biara anu rupana kawas bénténg anu raloba diwangun di Butan ku [[Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal]] dina [[abad ka-17]]. ==Pamakéan== Dzongkha sarta dialék-dialékna téh minangka basa asli di 8 distrik di Butan beulah kulon, nyaéta [[Wangdue Phodrang|Phodrang]], [[Punakha]], [[Thimphu]], [[Distrik Gasa|Gasa]], [[Distrik Paro|Paro]], [[Haa|Ha]], [[Distrik Dagana|Dagana]], jeung [[Chukha]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Dzongkha |first1= Van Driem |last1= George |author1-link= George van Driem |first2= Karma |last2= Tshering of Gaselô |series = Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region |volume= I |year= 1998 | publisher = Research CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies, [[Leiden University]] |location= Leiden, The Netherlands |page = 3 |isbn= 90-5789-002-X }}</ref> Aya ogé sababaraha panyatur Dzongkha di [[Kalimpong]], India, anu baréto mangrupa bagian ti Butan, nanging kiwari asup kana [[Benggala Kulon]], India. Pangajaran Dzongkha wajib di sadaya sakola di Butan. Basa Dzongkha mangrupa ''[[lingua franca]]'' di sababaraha distrik di Butan beulah kidul jeung wétan di mana basa ieu sanés basa asli masarakatna. Pilem Butan taun 2003, ''[[Travellers and Magicians]]'', mangrupa salah sahiji conto pilem anu dimaénkeun dina basa Dzongkha. ==Panulisan== Basa Dzongkha ilaharna ditulis dina [[Aksara Tibét]] vérsi Butan nu disebut ''Joyi'' ''(mgyogs yig)'' jeung ''Joshum'' ''(mgyogs tshugs ma)''. Buku-buku dina basa Dzongkha sacara husus dicitak dina [[Aksara Ucan]]. ==Tingali ogé== {{Portal|Butan|Basa}} {{Contain Indic text}} *[[Angka Dzongkha]] *[[Basa di Butan]] ==Rujukan== <references /> <!-- this footnote seems to have been separated from its reference <sup>1</sup> {{cite book | author=van Driem, George L. | title=Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region, Vol. 1, Dzongkha | location=Leiden | publisher=Research School CNWS | year=1998 | isbn=90-5789-002-X}} --> ==Pustaka== * {{cite book | first =George | last = van Driem | author-link =George van Driem | editor-last =Moseley | editor-first =Christopher | contribution = Endangered Languages of Bhutan and Sikkim: South Bodish Languages | contribution-url = | title = Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages | year = 2007 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700711970/page/294 294]–295 | place = | publisher = Routledge | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700711970 | doi = | isbn = 0-7007-1197-X }} * {{cite conference |last = van Driem |first = George L |authorlink = George van Driem |title = Language policy in Bhutan |publisher = |year = 1993 |location = SOAS, London |url = http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 |accessdate = }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911043324/http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 |date=2018-09-11 }} * {{cite book | last=van Driem| first= George L| authorlink=George van Driem |coauthors=Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab) | title=Dzongkha |series= Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region| publisher=Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies| location=Leiden | year=1998 | isbn=90-5789-002-X}} - A language textbook with three audio compact disks. *{{cite book |title=The Grammar of Dzongkha |last=van Driem |first=George |authorlink=George van Driem |year=1992 |publisher=RGoB, Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) |location=Thimphu, Bhutan |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} *{{cite book |title=Guide to Official Dzongkha Romanization |last=van Driem |first=George |authorlink=George van Driem |year=1991 |publisher= Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) |location=Thimphu, Bhutan |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} *{{cite book |title=The First Linguistic Survey of Bhutan |last=van Driem |first=George |authorlink=George van Driem |year=n.d. |publisher= Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) |location=Thimphu, Bhutan |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Commission | authorlink=Dzongkha Development Commission | title=Rigpai Lodap: An Intermediate Dzongkha-English Dictionary (<span lang="dz">འབྲིང་རིམ་རྫོང་ཁ་ཨིང་ལིཤ་ཚིག་མཛོད་རིག་པའི་ལོ་འདབ།</span>) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Commission | year=2009 | isbn=978-99936-765-3-9 | url=http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Lodap_Rigpai%20Lodap.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Commission |authorlink=Dzongkha Development Commission | title=Kartshok Threngwa: A Book on Dzongkha Synonyms & Antonyms (<span lang="dz">རྫོང་ཁའི་མིང་ཚིག་རྣམ་གྲངས་དང་འགལ་མིང་སྐར་ཚོགས་ཕྲེང་བ།</span>) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Commission | year=2009 | id={{Listed Invalid ISBN|99936-663-13-6}} | url=http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Thesaurus.pdf}} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Commission |authorlink=Dzongkha Development Commission | title=The New Dzongkha Grammar (rdzong kha'i brda gzhung gsar pa) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Commission | year=1999 | id=}} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Commission |authorlink=Dzongkha Development Commission | title=Dzongkha Rabsel Lamzang (rdzong kha rab gsal lam bzang) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Commission | year=1990 | id=}} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Authority | title=English-Dzongkha Dictionary (ཨིང་ལིཤ་རྫོང་ཁ་ཤན་སྦྱར་ཚིག་མཛོད།) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Authority, Ministry of Education | year=2005}} * {{cite book | last=Imaeda| first=Yoshiro | authorlink=Yoshiro Imaeda | title=Manual of Spoken Dzongkha in Roman Transcription | location=Thimphu | publisher=Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV), Bhutan Coordinator Office | year=1990 | id=}} * Mazaudon, Martine. 1985. “Dzongkha Number Systems.” S. Ratanakul, D. Thomas & S. Premsirat (eds.). Southéast Asian Linguistic Studies presented to André-G. Haudricourt. Bangkok: Mahidol University. 124-57 * Mazaudon, Martine & Boyd Michailovsky. 1988. “Lost syllables and tone contour in Dzongkha (Bhutan).” David Bradley, Eugénie J.A. Henderson & Martine Mazaudon (eds.). Prosodic analysis and Asian linguistics: to honour R.K. Sprigg. (Pacific Linguistics, Series C-104). 115-36 * Mazaudon, Martine & Boyd Michailovsky. 1989. “Syllabicity and suprasegmentals: the Dzongkha monosyllabic noun.” D. Bradley et al. (eds.). Prosodic analysis and Asian linguistics: to honour R.K. Sprigg. Canberra. (Pacific Linguistics). 115-36 * Michailovsky, Boyd. 1989. “Notes on Dzongkha orthography.” D. Bradley et al. (eds.). Prosodic analysis and Asian linguistics: to honour R.K. Sprigg. Canberra. (Pacific Linguistics). 297-301 * Tournadre, Nicolas. 1996. “Comparaison des systémes médiatifs de quatre dialectes tibétains (tibétain central, ladakhi, dzongkha et amdo).” Z. Guentchéva (ed.). L’énonciation médiatisée. Louvain_Paris: Peeters (Bibliothéque de l’Information Grammaticale, 34). 195-214 * Watters, Stephen A. 1996. A preliminary study of prosody in Dzongkha. Arlington: UT at Arlington, Masters Thesis == Referensi ngeunaan Dzongkha == === Kekecapan === * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionary.php Online searchable dictionary (Dz-En, En-Dz, Dz-Dz)] or [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionaries/dz-en-dict/index.html Online Dzonkha-English Dictionary] - site ''[[Dzongkha Development Commission]]'' ([http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/index.en.html en] - [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/ dz]) * [http://www.panl10n.net/english/outputs/DCT.pdf Dzongkha Computer Terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053822/http://www.panl10n.net/english/outputs/DCT.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/English-Dzongkha_Pocket_Dictionary.pdf English-Dzongkha Pocket Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507123629/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/English-Dzongkha_Pocket_Dictionary.pdf |date=2016-05-07 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Rigpai_Lodap.pdf Rigpai Lodap: An Intermediate Dzongkha-English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525005136/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Rigpai_Lodap.pdf |date=2013-05-25 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Dzongkha-Thesaurus.pdf Kartshok Threngwa: A Book on Dzongkha Synonyms & Antonyms]<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Countries_and_Capitals_in_Dzongkha.pdf Names of Countries and Capitals in Dzongkha]<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Dzongkha-Translation-Guidebook.pdf A Guide to Dzongkha-Translation]<small>(pdf)</small> === Tata basa === * [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie.html Dzongkha transliteration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711102721/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie.html |date=2021-07-11 }} - site ''[[National Library of Bhutan]]'' (en - [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie-DZ.html dz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711012551/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie-DZ.html |date=2021-07-11 }}) * [http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/web1024X768/script.html Dzongkha, The National Language of Bhutan] - site ''Dzongkha Linux'' ([http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/web1024X768/home.html en] - [http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/dzo_web1024X768/home.html dz]) * [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_dz.htm Romanization of Dzongkha] * [http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_dzongkha01.html Dzongkha : Origin and Description] * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/dzongkha.php Dzongkha language, alphabet and pronunciation] * [http://www.panl10n.net/Presentations/Laos/RegionalConference/LanguageProcessingApps/Dzongkha_TTS.pdf Pioneering Dzongkha Text To Speech Synthesis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051548/http://www.panl10n.net/Presentations/Laos/RegionalConference/LanguageProcessingApps/Dzongkha_TTS.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/index.en.html Dzongkha Grammar & other materials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815015339/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/index.en.html |date=2013-08-15 }} - site ''[[The Dzongkha Development Commission]]'' (en - [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/index.html dz]) * [http://www.iling-ran.ru/langworld/transcript/Dzongkha.shtml Коряков Ю.Б. Практическая транскрипция для языка дзонг-кэ] * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/Old-publications/PDF-publications/Guide_to_Official_Dzongkha_Romanization.pdf Guide to Official Dzongkha Romanization - by Dr. George van Driem]<small>(pdf)</small> *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Choke-Dzongkha_Dictionary.pdf Classical Tibetan-Dzongkha Dictionary]<small>(pdf)</small> ==Tumbu kaluar== {{InterWiki|code=dz}} *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/index.en.html Komisi Pamekaran Dzongkha] Thimphu, Butan *[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=dzo Ethnologue entry on Dzongkha] *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionaries/dz-en-dict/index.html Dzongkha-English Dictionary] *[http://podcast.com/show/6924/ Dzongkha podcast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807154426/http://www.podcast.com/show/6924/ |date=2011-08-07 }} *[http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_dz.htm Dzongkha Romanization for Geographical Names] *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/index.en.html Free textbooks and dictionaries] published by [[Dzongkha Development Commission]] *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/PDF/National%20Policy%20and%20Strategy%20of%20Dzongkha%20%28web%29.pdf Bhutan National Policy and Strategy for Development and Promotion of Dzongkha] * [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha.html Dzongkha Unicode] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712101944/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha.html |date=2021-07-12 }} - site ''[[The National Library of Bhutan]]'' (en - [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha-DZ.html dz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201180859/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha-DZ.html |date=2019-12-01 }}) {{Languages of Bhutan}} [[Kategori:Basa di Butan]] [[Kategori:Basa nu ditulis maké aksara Tibét]] [[Kategori:Basa Dzongkha| ]] rftliegvi15n5fagsmqffz7r0tff6bp 0 40766 711779 665647 2026-08-07T04:06:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name =Langir | image = Asian forest scorpion in Khao Yai National Park.JPG | image_caption = [[Langir leuweung Asia]] di [[Taman Nasional Khao Yai]], [[Thailand]] | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Silurian|Recent}} | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | subphylum = [[Chelicerata]] | classis = [[Arachnida]] | subclassis = [[Dromopoda]] | ordo = '''Scorpiones''' | ordo_authority = [[Carl Ludwig Koch|C. L. Koch]], 1837 | subdivision_ranks = Superfamili | subdivision = *[[Buthoidea]] *[[Chaeriloidea]] *[[Chactoidea]] *[[Iuroidea]] *[[Pseudochactoidea]] *[[Scorpionoidea]] Baca [[#Klasifikasi|klasifikasi]] pikeun famili. }} '''Langir''' atawa '''kala''' nyaéta [[arthropoda]] predator ti ordo '''Scorpiones''' di kelas [[Arachnida]]. Sukuna aya dalapan, boga ciri utama sapasang cacapit anu badag jeung [[buntut]] leutik anu tungtungna boga panyeureud, gedéna antara 9&nbsp;mm (''[[Typhlochactas mitchelli]]'') nepi ka 20&nbsp;cm (''[[Hadogenes troglodytes]]'').<ref>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821 |author=Edward E. Ruppert, Richard S. Fox, Robert D. Barnes |year=2004 |publisher=Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-81-315-0104-7}}</ref><ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}</ref> Tapak évolusi langir kapanggih nepi ka jaman Siluria 430 juta taun kaliwat, hirup dina rupa-rupa lingkungan di sakuliah buana, iwal [[Antartika]]. Anu geus kacatet, aya 1750 [[spésiés]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kovarex.com/scorpio/pdf/scorpions-Kovarik-2009.pdf |format=PDF |author=František Kovařík |year=2009 |title=Illustrated catalog of scorpions, Part I |accessdate=January 22, 2011}}</ref> anu kabagi 13 famili. Tina anu loba ieu, ngan 25-an anu peurahna bisa nelasan manusa.<ref name="Biology">{{cite book |title=The Biology of Scorpions |author=Gary A. Polis |year=1990 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-1249-1 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=6OqeAAAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|1}}. == Fosil == [[File:The Eurypterida of New York plate 88.jpg|thumb|upright|''Proscorpius osborni'', fosil langir anu mimitina disangka [[eurypterida]]]] Langir loba tapakna dina [[catetan fosil]], pangkolotna umur 430 juta taun dina périodeu Siluria. Najan kungsi disangka mimitina hirup di dasar laut tropis anu dé'ét<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12617214.200-when-scorpions-ruled-the-world-scorpions-took-the-big-step-onto-solid-ground-about-300-million-years-ago-scottish-fossils-reveal-how-they-evolved-to-leave-the-seas-and-become-the-first-predators-on-land.html |title=When scorpions ruled the world |work=[[New Scientist]] |date=16 Juni 1990 |author=Andrew Jeram}}</ref>, kiwari karuhun langir dipercaya ti mimiti geus hirup di darat. == Morfologi == [[File:Scorpion anatomy.png|thumb|left|Anatomi langir:<br/> 1 = Cephalothorax atawa ''[[Prosoma]]'';<br/> 2 = Abdomén atawa ''[[Mésosoma]]'';<br/> 3 = Buntut atawa ''[[Métasoma]]'';<br/> 4 = Cacapit atawa ''[[Pedipalp]]''<br/> 5 = Suku;<br/> 6 = Sungut atawa ''[[Chelicerae]]'';<br/> 7 = pincers or [[Chelae]];<br/> 8 = Cacapit gerak atawa ''[[Tarsus (zoologi)|Tarsus]]'';<br/> 9 = Cacapit cicing atawa ''[[Manus (rangka)|Manus]]'';<br/> 10 = Panyeureud atawa ''Aculeus'' ;<br/>11 = ''[[Telson]]''.]] [[Image:Androctonus_australis_02.JPG|right|thumb|Langir nyanghareup|250px]] [[Image:ScorpionBarb.jpg|thumb|right|Panyeureud [[langir Arizona]]]] Awak langir kabagi tilu bagian ([[Tagma (anatomi arthropoda)|tagmata]]): hulu ([[cephalothorax]]), [[abdomén]] ([[mésosoma]]) jeung buntut ([[métasoma]]).<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|10}} ==Fluoresénsi== [[File:Sorpion Under Blacklight edit.jpg|thumb|Langir disorot [[cahya hideung]].]] Lamun kasorot cahya [[ultrabungur]], langir bisa hurung siga lamun kasorot [[cahya hideung]], ku ayana bahan kimia fluoreséns dina cangkangna, di antarana [[béta-karbolin]].<ref name="Stachel 1999 531–539">{{cite journal |author=Shawn J Stachel, Scott A Stockwell and David L Van Vranken |date=August 1999 |title=The fluorescence of scorpions and cataractogenesis |journal=[[Chemistry and Biology (journal)|Chemistry & Biology]] |volume=6 |pages=531–539 |doi=10.1016/S1074-5521(99)80085-4 |pmid=10421760 |issue=8}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|32em}} == Tutumbu kaluar == {{Wikispecies|Scorpiones}} {{Commons category|Scorpiones}} *{{cite web |url=http://www.scorpsweep.com/facts |title=Scorpion Facts for Researchers and Kids |last=Holland |first=Ben |year=2008}} * [http://www.reptileexpert.org/scorpions-uv Biolumunescence in scorpions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715070348/http://www.reptileexpert.org/scorpions-uv/ |date=2013-07-15 }} *[http://www.ub.ntnu.no/scorpion-files/scorpion_anatomy.jpg Scorpion anatomy] *[http://www.qatarvisitor.com/index.php?cID=430&pID=1558 Scorpions in Qatar] *[http://www.care-sheet.com/index/Scorpion Caring for a Pet Scorpion] *{{cite web |url=http://johnbokma.com/pet/scorpion/detection-using-uv-leds.html |title=Scorpion detection using UV LEDs |last=Bokma |first=John}} *{{cite web |url=http://www.desertusa.com/oct96/du_scorpion.html |title=Scorpions |publisher=DesertUSA.com and Digital West Media, Inc.}} *{{cite web |url=http://www.spidy.goliathus.com/english/gallery-scorpions.php |title=Photogallery – 36 species of scorpions |last=Rehak |first=Ondrej}} *{{cite news |first=Robert Roy |last=Britt |title=Scorpion Venom Tested as Brain Cancer Treatment |url=http://www.livescience.com/health/060627_scorpion_venom.html |work=LiveScience |publisher=[[Imaginova]] |date=June 27, 2006}} *{{cite web |url=http://www.scorpionpictureguide.com/ |title=Pet Scorpion Information and facts &#124; Scorpion Picture Guide}} *{{cite web |url=http://sayulitadoctor.com/2009/03/05/scorpions-in-sayulita/ |title=Scorpions in Sayulita |last=Cuevas |first=Moises, MD |year=2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101023011502/http://sayulitadoctor.com/2009/03/05/scorpions-in-sayulita/ |date=2010-10-23 }} *[http://www.desert-scorpions.com/ Scorpions from the Chihuahuan Desert Region of Mexico and the United States] *[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/insects/ CDC – Insects and Scorpions – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic] *[http://thescorpionhobby.com/ The Scorpion Hobby] *[http://scorpiones.pl/maps/ Scorpions distribution maps] {{Arachnida}} [[Kategori:Langir| ]] [[Kategori:Arachnida]] kacatr51a1k84n6xhbque6sfj21xuxq 0 41333 711817 711018 2026-08-07T05:12:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711817 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|dayeuh di Spanyol||Valéncia (disambiguasi)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=Januari 2011}} {{Infobox settlement <!--See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields that may be available--> <!--See the Table at Infobox settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--> <!-- Basic info ----------------> |name =Valéncia |native_name =''Valéncia/Valencia'' |native_name_lang = |nickname = |settlement_type = |total_type =<!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --> |motto = <!-- images and maps -----------> |image_skyline = Collage de la ciudad de Valencia, capital de la Comunidad Valenciana, España.png |image_caption =Clockwise from top, Valencia skyline, Veles e Vents building, City of Arts and Science, Turia Riverbed Gardens, Virgin Square (Turia Fountain and Cathedral), modernist buildings in Town Hall Square. |image_size =250px |image_flag =Flag of the Valencian Community (2x3).svg |flag_size =150px |image_seal = |seal_size = |image_shield =Escut de Valéncia.svg |shield_size =80px |image_blank_emblem = |blank_emblem_type = |blank_emblem_size = |image_map = |mapsize = |map_caption = |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = |image_dot_map = |dot_mapsize = |dot_map_caption = |dot_x= |dot_y= |pushpin_map =Spain |pushpin_label_position= |pushpin_map_caption =Lokasi Valéncia di Spanyol |pushpin_mapsize =250 <!-- Location ------------------> |coordinates_display =inline,title |coordinates_region =ES |subdivision_type =[[Nagara]] |subdivision_name ={{flag|Spanyol}} |subdivision_type1 =[[Komunitas otonom di Spanyol|Komunitas Otonom]] |subdivision_name1 ={{flag|Komunitas urang Valéncia}} |subdivision_type2 =[[Propinsi]] |subdivision_name2 =[[Propinsi Valéncia|Valéncia]] |subdivision_type3 =[[Comarca]] |subdivision_name3 =Valéncia |parts_type =[[Distrik]] |parts_style =coll |p1=Ciutat Vella |p2=Eixample |p3=Extramurs |p4=Campanar |p5=Saïdia |p6=Pla del Real |p7=Olivereta |p8=Patraix |p9=Jesús |p10=Quatre Carreres |p11=Poblados Marítimos |p12=Caminos al Grao |p13=Algirós |p14=Benimaclet |p15=Poblados del Norte |p16=Poblados del Oeste |p17=Poblados del Sur <!-- Politics -----------------> |government_footnotes = |government_type =[[Pamaréntahan walikota-déwan]] |governing_body =Ajuntament de Valéncia |leader_party =[[Partéy Rahayat (Spanyol)|PP]] |leader_title =[[Alcalde|Walikota]] |leader_name =[[Rita Barberá Nolla|Rita Barberá]] |established_title =Ngadeg |established_date =137 SM <!-- Area ---------------------> |area_magnitude = |unit_pref =<!--Enter: Imperial, to display imperial before metric--> |area_footnotes = |area_total_km2 =134.65 |area_land_km2 =<!--See table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details on unit conversion--> |area_water_km2 = |area_total_sq_mi = |area_land_sq_mi = |area_water_sq_mi = |area_water_percent = <!-- Elevation --------------------------> |elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use<ref> tags--> |elevation_m =15 |elevation_ft = <!-- Population -----------------------> |population_as_of =2010 |population_footnotes =&nbsp;[[Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain)|INE]] |population_note = |population_total =809267 <!-- http://www.ine.es/jaxi/tabla.do?path=/t20/e260/a2010/l0/&file=mun46.px&type=pcaxis&L=0 --> |population_urban =1,561,000<ref name="urban"/> |population_metro =1,705,742 to 2,516,818 |population_est = |pop_est_as_of = |population_density_km2= auto |population_density_sq_mi= |population_demonym =''valencià'',&nbsp;''valenciana''&nbsp;([[Valencian|va]])<br/>''valenciano'',&nbsp;''valenciana''&nbsp;([[basa Spanyol|es]])<br/>''Valencian''&nbsp;([[basa Inggris|en]]) <!-- General information ---------------> |timezone1 =CET (GMT +1) |utc_offset1 = |timezone1_DST =CEST (GMT +2) |utc_offset1_DST = |latd=39|latm=28|lats=|latNS=N |longd=0|longm=23|longs=|longEW=W <!-- Area/postal codes & others --------> |postal_code_type =Postcode |postal_code =46000-46080 |area_code = |twin1 = |website =http://www.valencia.es |blank_name_sec1 =[[ISO 3166-2:ES|ISO 3166-2]] |blank_info_sec1 =ES-V |footnotes = }} '''Valéncia''' ({{IPA-es|baˈlenθja|lang}}), atawa '''Valéncia''' ({{IPA-ca|vaˈlensia|langva}}), nyaéta [[puseur dayeuh (pulitik)|puseur dayeuh]] [[komunitas otonom Spanyol|komunitas otonom]] [[Komunitas Valencia|Valencia]] sarta mangrupa [[munisipalitas di Spanyol|dayeuh katilu panggedéna]] di [[Spanyol]] sanggeus [[Madrid]] jeung [[Barcelona]], kalayan sakitar 800,000 pangeusi di puseur administratifna. Wewengkon urbanna mekar kaluar tina wates dayeuh administratif kalayan populasi kurang leuwih 1.5 juta urang.<ref name="urban">[http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf World Urban Areas] - [[Demographia]], May 2014</ref> Valéncia téh mangrupa [[Daptar wewengkon métropolitan di Spanyol|wewengkon métropolitan panggedéna katilu]] di Spanyol, kalayan populasi ti 1.7 tepi ka 2.5 yuta. Ieu dayeuh boga status [[kota global]].<ref name=GAWC/> [[Palabuan Valéncia]] mangrupa [[Daptar palabuan pangriweuhna di Éropah|palabuan peti kemas pangriweuhna ka-5 di Éropah]] sarta busiest palabuan peti kemas pangriweuhna di [[Laut Tengah]]. Valéncia diadegkeun minangka jajahan Romawi dina taun 138 SM. Ieu dayeuh aya dina sisi walungan [[Turia (walungan)|Turia]], di béh wétanna basisir [[Bojong Iberia]], nyanghareupan [[Teluk Valéncia]] di Laut Tengah. Puseur historisna mangrupa salah sahiji nu panggedéna di Spanyol, legana kurang leuwih 169 héktar;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ayto-valencia.es/ayuntamiento/webs/estadistica/inf_dtba/pub/Districte_01.pdf|title=Districte 1. Ciutat Vella|work=Oficina d'Estadística. Ajuntament de Valéncia|language=valenciano y español|year=2008|accessdate=16 February 2010}}</ref> warisan monumén-monumén kuna, pemandangan katut pintonan budaya nyababkeun Valéncia jadi tujuan pelesir pangkasohorna di Spanyol. Monumén utama di antarana [[Katedral Valéncial]], ''[[Torres de Serranos]]'', ''[[Torres de Quart]]'', ''[[Llotja de la Seda]]'' (diaku minangka [[Loka Warisan Dunya]] ku [[UNESCO]] dina taun 1996), sarta ''[[Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciéncies]]'' (Dayeuh Seni katut Élmu Pangaweruh), hiji komplék budaya jeung arsitéktur nu dumasar kana hiburan nu dirancang ku [[Santiago Calatrava]] jeung [[Félix Candela]].<ref name=CAC>{{cite web |url=http://www.cac.es/ |title=Sitio oficial de Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias|accessdate=18 September 2011|author=Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias |year=2011 |work=www.cac.es}}</ref> ''[[Museu de Belles Arts de Valéncia]]'' nyimpen loba koléksi lukisan ti abad ka-14 tepi ka 18, kaasup karya [[Velázquez]], [[El Greco]], jeung [[Goya]], kaasup ogé séri penting ukiran [[Piranesi]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://museobellasartesvalencia.gva.es/ |title=MUSEO DE BELLAS ARTES DE VALENCIA |accessdate=12 October 2011 |work=www.museobellasartesvalencia.gva.es |editor=Generalitat Valenciana }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525050236/http://museobellasartesvalencia.gva.es/historia.html |date=25 May 2009 }}</ref> ''[[Institut Valencià d'Art Modern]]'' (Institut Seni Modéren Valéncia) nyimpen koléksi permanén katut paméran seni jeung potografi kontémporér sementara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ivam.es/ |title=Instituto Valenciano de Arte Moderno |accessdate=12 October 2011 |work=www.ivam.es |editor=Generalitat Valenciana}}</ref> <!-- Valencia is integrated into an industrial area on the ''[[Costa del Azahar]]'' (Orange Blossom Coast). Valencia's main festival is the ''[[Falles]]''. The traditional Spanish dish, ''[[paella]]'', originated in Valencia. ==Ngaran== The original [[Latin]] name of the city was Valentia (Latin pronunciation: {{IPA|[waˈlentia]}}), meaning "strength", or "valour", the city being named according to the Roman practice of recognizing the valour of former Roman soldiers after a war. The Roman historian Livy explains that the founding of Valentia in the 2nd century BC was due to the settling of the Roman soldiers who fought against an Iberian rebel, [[Viriato]]. During the rule of the [[Al Andalus|Muslim kingdoms in Spain]], it had the nickname ''Medina bu-Tarab'' ('City of Joy') according to a transliteration, or ''Medina at-Turab'' ({{lang|ar|مدينة التراب}}, 'City of Sands') according to another, since it was located on the banks of the River Turia. It is not clear if the term ''Balansiyya'' ({{lang|ar|بلنسية}}) was reserved for the entire [[Taifa of Valencia]] or also designated the city.<ref name=Galbis2009>{{cite web|author1=Agustí Galbis|title=La ciutat de Valencia i El nom de “Madinat al-Turab”|url=https://agustigalbis.wordpress.com/category/del-sit-a-jaume-i/page/4/|website=Del Sit a Jaume I «Bloc en els artículs d’Agustí Galbis|accessdate=24 June 2014|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20140407144424/https://agustigalbis.wordpress.com/category/del-sit-a-jaume-i/page/4/|archivedate=April 7, 2014|language=Catalan|date=19 June 2009}}</ref> By gradual sound changes, Valentia {{IPA|[waˈlentia]}} has become Valencia {{IPA|[baˈlenθja]}} in [[Spanish language|Castilian]] and Valéncia {{IPA|[vaˈlensia]}} in [[Valencian]]. In Valencian, the grave accent <é> /ɛ/ contrasts with the acute accent <é> /e/—but the word 'Valéncia' is an exception to this rule. It is spelled according to [[Catalan language|Catalan]] etymology, though its pronunciation is closer to Vulgar Latin). ==Géografi== ===Lokasi=== Valencia stands on the banks of the [[Turia (river)|Turia river]], located on the eastern coast of the [[Iberian peninsula]] and the western part of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], fronting the [[Gulf of Valencia]]. At its founding by the Romans, it stood on a river island in the Turia, {{convert|6.4|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from the sea. The [[Albufera]], a freshwater lagoon and estuary about {{convert|11|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} south of the city, is one of the largest lakes in Spain. The City Council bought the lake from the [[Crown of Spain]] for 1,072,980 pesetas in 1911,<ref name="Gonzálbez1960">{{cite book|author=Francisco de P. Momblanch y Gonzálbez|title=Historia de la Albufera de Valencia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6QUrAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=5 February 2013|year=1960|publisher=Excmo. Anuntamiento|page=301}}</ref> and today it forms the main portion of the ''Parc Natural de l'Albufera'' ([[Albufera|Albufera Nature Reserve]]), with a surface area of {{convert|21120|ha|acre|abbr=off}}. In 1986, because of its cultural, historical, and ecological value, the ''Generalitat Valenciana'' declared it a natural park. ===Iklim=== {{Main|Iklim di Valéncia}} Valencia has a [[subtropical climate|subtropical]] [[Mediterranean climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Csa'')<ref name=KGcc>{{Cite journal|author=M. Kottek|author2=J. Grieser |author3=C. Beck |author4=B. Rudolf |author5=F. Rubel |title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated|journal=Meteorol. Z.|volume=15|pages=259–263|url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif|doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130|accessdate=22 April 2009|year=2006|issue=3}}</ref> with very mild winters and long warm to hot summers. Its average annual temperature is {{convert|22.8|°C|°F|abbr=on}} during the day and {{convert|13.8|°C|°F|abbr=on}} at night. In the coldest month — January, the maximum temperature typically during the day ranges from {{convert|10|to|20|C|F}}, the minimum temperature typically at night ranges from {{convert|2|to|12|C|F}} and the average sea temperature is {{convert|14|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name=weather2travel>{{cite web|url=http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/spain/valencia.php|title=Weather2Travel.com: Valencia Climate Guide|accessdate=16 June 2012}}</ref> In the warmest month — August, the maximum temperature during the day typically ranges from {{convert|28|-|34|C|F}}, about {{convert|23|°C|°F|abbr=on}} at night and the average sea temperature is {{convert|26|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name=weather2travel/> Generally, temperatures similar to those experienced in the northern part of Europe in summer last about 8 months, from April to November. March is transitional, the temperature often exceeds {{convert|20|°C|0|abbr=on}}, with an average temperature of {{convert|19|°C|0|abbr=on}} during the day and {{convert|10|°C|0|abbr=on}} at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with average temperatures around {{convert|17|°C|°F|abbr=on}} during the day and {{convert|8|°C|°F|abbr=on}} at night. Valencia has one of the mildest winters in Europe, owing to its southern location on the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Foehn]] phenomenon. The January average is comparable to temperatures expected for May and September in the major cities of northern Europe. Sunshine duration hours are 2,696 per year, from 155 (average nearly 5 hours of sunshine duration at day) in December to 315 (average above 10 hours of sunshine duration at day) in July. Average annual temperature of the sea is {{convert|18.5|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Average [[relative humidity]] is 60% in April to 68% in August.<ref name="aemet.es">{{cite web |url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l=8416&k=val |title=Standard Climate Values. Valencia}}</ref> {{Weather box |location= Valencia city 11m (1981-2010) |metric first= yes |single line= yes |Jan high C= 16.4 |Feb high C= 17.1 |Mar high C= 19.3 |Apr high C= 20.8 |May high C= 23.4 |Jun high C= 27.1 |Jul high C= 29.7 |Aug high C= 30.2 |Sep high C= 27.9 |Oct high C= 24.3 |Nov high C= 19.8 |Dec high C= 17.0 |year high C= 22.8 |Jan mean C= 11.8 |Feb mean C= 12.5 |Mar mean C= 14.4 |Apr mean C= 16.2 |May mean C= 19.0 |Jun mean C= 22.9 |Jul mean C= 25.6 |Aug mean C= 26.1 |Sep mean C= 23.5 |Oct mean C= 19.7 |Nov mean C= 15.3 |Dec mean C= 12.6 |year mean C= 18.3 |Jan low C= 7.1 |Feb low C= 7.8 |Mar low C= 9.6 |Apr low C= 11.5 |May low C= 14.6 |Jun low C= 18.6 |Jul low C= 21.5 |Aug low C= 21.9 |Sep low C= 19.1 |Oct low C= 15.2 |Nov low C= 10.8 |Dec low C= 8.1 |year low C= 13.8 |Jan precipitation mm= 37 |Feb precipitation mm= 36 |Mar precipitation mm= 33 |Apr precipitation mm= 38 |May precipitation mm= 39 |Jun precipitation mm= 22 |Jul precipitation mm= 8 |Aug precipitation mm= 20 |Sep precipitation mm= 70 |Oct precipitation mm= 77 |Nov precipitation mm= 47 |Dec precipitation mm= 48 |year precipitation mm= 475 |Jan precipitation days= 4 |Feb precipitation days= 4 |Mar precipitation days= 4 |Apr precipitation days= 5 |May precipitation days= 4 |Jun precipitation days= 3 |Jul precipitation days= 1 |Aug precipitation days= 2 |Sep precipitation days= 5 |Oct precipitation days= 5 |Nov precipitation days= 4 |Dec precipitation days= 5 |year precipitation days= 46 |unit precipitation days= 1&nbsp;mm |Jan sun= 171 |Feb sun= 171 |Mar sun= 215 |Apr sun= 234 |May sun= 259 |Jun sun= 276 |Jul sun= 315 |Aug sun= 288 |Sep sun= 235 |Oct sun= 202 |Nov sun= 167 |Dec sun= 155 |year sun= 2696 |source 1= [[Agencia Estatal de Meteorología]] ([[United Nations|UN]]),<ref name="WMO">{{cite web |url=http://www.aemet.es/en/conocermas/publicaciones/detalles/guia_resumida_2010 |title=Guía resumida del clima en España (1981-2010) |accessdate=}}</ref> [[Agencia Estatal de Meteorología]]<ref name="aemet.es" /> |date=July 2014}} ==Economy== [[File:Pontfayw2.jpg|thumb|Commercial zone]] Valencia enjoyed strong [[economic growth]] over the last decade, much of it spurred by tourism and the [[Construction|construction industry]], {{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} with concurrent development and expansion of telecommunications and transport. [[Air Nostrum]], a [[regional airline]], is headquartered in Valencia.<ref>"[http://www.airnostrum.es/air_19.asp?ruta=HTML\Otras_Opciones\2_contactos.htm Contact List]." ''[[Air Nostrum]]''. Retrieved on 20 May 2009.</ref> The city's economy is service-oriented, as nearly 84% of the working population is employed in service sector occupations{{Citation needed|date=May 2014|by=Richard Petillo}}. However, the city still maintains an important industrial base, with 5.5% of the population employed in this sector. Agricultural activities are still carried on in the municipality, even though of relatively minor importance with only 1.9% of the working population and 3973 hectares planted mostly in orchards and citrus groves. Since the break of the crisis (2008), Valencia has been among the Spanish regions most affected by it and has not been able to slow down a growing unemployment rate, growing government debt etc. Severe spending cuts have been introduced by the city authorities. In 2009, Valencia was the 29th fastest improving European city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.citymayors.com/business/euro_bizcities.html |title=Best European business cities |publisher=City Mayors |date=28 October 2009 |accessdate=15 September 2011}}</ref> Its influence in commerce, education, entertainment, media, fashion, science and the arts contributes to its status as one of the world's "Gamma"-rank [[global city|global cities]].<ref name=GAWC>{{cite web |url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010t.html |title=The World According to GaWC 2010 |publisher=Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network, [[Loughborough University]] |accessdate=3 March 2009}}</ref> The [[Ford Valencia Plant|large factory]] of [[Ford Motor Company]] lies in suburb of city, in [[Almussafes]].<ref>[http://corporate.ford.com/our-company/operations-worldwide/global-operations-detail/spain-assemblyplants-valenciabody Global Operations – Spain: Valencia Body and Assembly] – corporate.ford.com</ref> The Valencia metropolitan area had a [[List of cities by GDP|GDP amounting to $52.7 billion]], and $28,141 per capita.<ref name="Brookings">{{cite web|url=http://www.brookings.edu/research/interactives/global-metro-monitor-3|title=Global city GDP 2011|publisher=Brookings Institution}}</ref> ===Port=== [[File:Port de Valéncia, eixida.JPG|thumb|Port of Valencia]] [[Port of Valencia|Valencia’s port]] is the biggest on the Mediterranean western coast,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.valenciaport.com/en-US/ValenciaportEntorno/ValenciaportCifras/Introduccion/Paginas/ValenciaportCifras.aspx|title=Valenciaport in figures |publisher=valenciaport.com |accessdate=1 January 2009}}</ref> the first of Spain in container traffic as of 2008<ref>{{cite web|author=Burguera |url=http://www.lasprovincias.es/valencia/20080910/economia/valencia-supera-algeciras-lidera-20080910.html |title=Valencia supera an Algeciras y lidera por primera vez el tráfico de contenedores en España. Las Provincias |publisher=Lasprovincias.es |accessdate=18 June 2009|language=Spanish}}</ref> and the second of Spain<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puertoalgeciras.org/2008/04/resumen-general-del-trafico-portuario.html |title=Resumen general del tráfico portuario en febrero &#124; Puerto Bahía de Algeciras Blog |publisher=Puertoalgeciras.org |date=22 February 1999 |accessdate=18 June 2009}}</ref> in total traffic, handling 20% of Spain’s exports.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mckinley |first=James C. |url=http://www.nytimes.com/global/spainvalencia/nine.html |title=NY Times, 30 July 2008 |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2 March 2011 |accessdate=9 March 2011}}{{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref> The main exports are foodstuffs and beverages. Other exports include [[Orange (fruit)|oranges]], furniture, ceramic tiles, fans, textiles and iron products. Valencia’s [[Secondary sector of the economy|manufacturing sector]] focuses on metallurgy, chemicals, textiles, shipbuilding and brewing. Small and medium sized industries are an important part of the local economy, and before the current crisis unemployment was lower than the Spanish average. Valencia's port underwent radical changes to accommodate the 32nd [[America's Cup]] in 2007. It was divided into two parts—one was unchanged while the other section was modified for the America's Cup festivities. The two sections remain divided by a wall that projects far into the water to maintain clean water for the America's Cup side. [[File:Estació abril.jpg|thumb|325px|left|The North station ([[Estació del nord]])]] ===Transport=== [[Public transport]] is provided by the ''[[Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat Valenciana]]'' (FGV), which operates the [[Metrovalencia]] and other rail and bus services. The ''[[Estació del nord]]'' (North Station) is the main railway terminus in Valencia. A new temporary station, ''Estación de Valéncia-Joaquín Sorolla'', has been built on land adjacent to this terminus to accommodate high speed [[AVE]] trains to and from Madrid, Barcelona, Seville and Alicante. [[Valencia Airport]] is situated {{convert|9|km|mi|abbr=on}} west of Valencia city centre. [[Alicante Airport]] is situated about {{convert|170|km|mi|abbr=on}} south of Valencia. The City of Valencia also makes available a [[bicycle sharing system]] named [[ValenbiSi]] to both visitors and residents. As of October 13, 2012, the system has 2750 bikes distributed over 250 stations all throughout the city.<ref>[http://www.valenbisi.com/What-is-Valenbisi Valenbisi's official website]</ref> ===Tourism=== [[File:Playa_Arenas_Valencia.jpg|thumb|Playa de las Arenas in Valencia.]] [[File:Valencia_Beaches.jpg|thumb|Beach from Valencia.]] [[File:Palau del congres.jpg|thumb|Palau de congressos, [[Norman Foster]] ]] Starting in the mid-1990s, Valencia, formerly an industrial centre, saw rapid development that expanded its cultural and touristic possibilities, and transformed it into a newly vibrant city. Many local landmarks were restored, including the ancient Towers of the medieval city (''Serrano'' Towers and ''Quart'' Towers), and the [[San Miguel de los Reyes monastery]], which now holds a conservation library. Whole sections of the old city, for example the Carmen Quarter, have been extensively renovated. The ''Paseo Marítimo'', a {{convert|4|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}&nbsp;long palm tree-lined promenade was constructed along the beaches of the north side of the port ''(Playa Las Arenas, Playa Cabañal and Playa de la Malvarrosa''). The city has numerous [[Convention center|convention centres]] and venues for trade events, among them the Feria Valencia Convention and Exhibition Centre ''(Institución Ferial de Valencia)'' and the ''Palau de congres'' (Conference Palace), and several 5-star hotels to accommodate business travelers. In its long history, Valencia has acquired many local traditions and festivals, among them the ''[[Falles]]'', which were declared Celebrations of International Touristic Interest ''(Fiestas de Interés Turístico Internacional)'' on 25 January 1965, and the Water Tribunal of Valencia ''(Tribunal de las Aguas de Valencia)'', which was declared an intangible cultural heritage of humanity ''(Patrimonio Cultural Inmaterial de la Humanidad'') in 2009. In addition to these Valencia has hosted world-class events that helped shape the city's reputation and put it in the international spotlight, e.g., the Regional Exhibition of 1909, the 32nd and the 33rd [[America's Cup]] competitions, the [[European Grand Prix]] of [[Formula One]] auto racing, the Valencia Open 500 tennis tournament, and the Global Champions Tour of equestrian sports. The 2005 [[America's Cup]] yachting races were held at Valencia in June and July 2005 and attracted huge crowds. According to official data from the organizing committee, as many as 150,000 visitors flocked to Valencia's port each day during the two weeks of events. {{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} ==Demographics== The third largest city in [[Spain]] and the [[Largest cities of the European Union by population within city limits|24th most populous municipality]] in the [[European Union]], Valencia has a population of 809,267<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es |title=Instituto Nacional de Estadística. (National Statistics Institute) |publisher=Ine.es |date=28 May 2001 |accessdate=6 May 2009}}</ref> within its administrative limits on a land area of {{convert|134.6|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}. It is. The urban area of Valencia extending beyond the administrative city limits has a population of between 1,561,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|title=Demographia: World Urban Areas |format=PDF |accessdate=18 May 2014}}</ref> and 1,564,145.<ref>[[Eurostat]] – [[Larger Urban Zones]]: [http://www.urbanaudit.org/CityProfiles.aspx Urban Audit.org]</ref> 1,705,742<ref>[http://www.citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html The Principal Agglomerations of the World – Population Statistics and Maps] – citypopulation.de</ref><ref>[http://alarcos.inf-cr.uclm.es/per/fruiz/pobesp/dat/arc/areas-pob.xls Datos de áreas urbanas en 2006] según el proyecto [http://alarcos.inf-cr.uclm.es/per/fruiz/audes5/ AUDES5]</ref><ref>[http://alarcos.inf-cr.uclm.es/per/fruiz/pobesp/dat/arc/conurbaciones.xls Conurbaciones en 2006] según el proyecto [http://alarcos.inf-cr.uclm.es/per/fruiz/audes5/ AUDES5]</ref> or 2,300,000<ref>[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development]], ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kBsfY-Pe2Q4C Competitive Cities in the Global Economy]'', OECD Territorial Reviews, (OECD Publishing, 2006), Table 1.1</ref> or 2,516,818<ref>[http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=met_pjanaggr3&lang=en "''Population by sex and age groups''"] – [[Eurostat]], 2012</ref> people live in the Valencia metropolitan area. Between 2007 and 2008 there was a 14% increase in the foreign born population with the largest numeric increases by country being from Bolivia, Romania and Italy. One notable demographic change in Valencia in the last decade has been the growth in the [[foreign born]] population, which rose from 1.5% in the year 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ayto-valencia.es/ayuntamiento/webs/estadistica/Padron/2001/Pob_estrangera_2001.xls |title=foreign born population in 2001 |accessdate=9 March 2011}}</ref> to 15.1% in 2009,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ayto-valencia.es/ayuntamiento/otras_publicaciones.nsf/0/44A5D00DFB826F6DC12575E00027F9CA/$FILE/Pob_Estrangera_2009.pdf |title=Foreign born population in 2008, p7 |format=PDF |accessdate=9 March 2011}}</ref> a trend that has also occurred in the two larger cities of Madrid and Barcelona.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ayto-valencia.es/ayuntamiento/webs/estadistica/Padron/2007/Pob_estrangera_2007.xls |title=Table 1.1 foreign born population |accessdate=9 March 2011}}</ref> The main countries of origin were Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, Morocco and Romania.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ayto-valencia.es/ayuntamiento/webs/estadistica/Padron/2007/Pob_estrangera_2007.xls |title=Table 1.5 foreign born population 2007 |accessdate=9 March 2011}}</ref> ==Culture== [[File:Calle iluminada de Sueca-Literato Azorín 2008 2.JPG|thumb|Street lighting at junction of Sueca and Literato Azorín, Falles 2008]] [[File:Paella hirviendo.jpg|thumb|Traditional preparation of paella]] Valencia is known internationally for the [[Falles]] ''(Las Fallas)'', a local festival held in March, and for ''[[paella]] valenciana'', traditional Valencian ceramics, intricate traditional dress, and the architecture of the [[Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciéncies|City of Arts and Sciences]] designed by [[Santiago Calatrava]] and [[Félix Candela]]. La [[Tomatina]], an annual tomato fight, draws crowds to the nearby town of Buñol in August. There are also a number of well-preserved traditional Catholic festivities throughout the year. [[Holy Week|Holy week]] celebrations in Valencia are considered some of the most colourful in Spain.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} Valencia has a [[rapid transit|metro]] system, the [[Metrovalencia]] (Valencia Metro). Valencia was once a venue for the [[Formula One]] [[European Grand Prix]], first hosting the event on 24 August 2008. The city was axed at the beginning of the grand prix season 2013. The [[University of Valencia]] (officially ''Universitat de Valéncia Estudi General'') was founded in 1499, being one of the oldest surviving universities in Spain, and the oldest university in the Valencian Community. It was listed as one of the four leading Spanish universities in the 2011 Shanghai Academic Ranking of World Universities. In 2012, [[Berklee College of Music]] opened a new campus at the [[Palau de les Arts Reina Sofia]] providing focus on the music of the region through its [http://valencia.berklee.edu/mediterranean-music-institute/ Mediterranean Music Institute].<ref>{{cite news|last=Minder|first=Raphael|title=Berklee to Open a Campus in Spain|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/14/world/europe/14iht-educSide14.html|accessdate=12 April 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=15 March 2011}}</ref> Since 2003, Valencia also hosts the music courses of Musikeon, leading musical institution in the Spanish-speaking world. ===Languages=== The two [[official language]]s spoken in the city are [[Valencian]] (the variety of the [[Catalan language]] as spoken in the Valencian Community) and [[Spanish language|Castilian Spanish]]. Due to political and demographic pressures in the past, the predominant language is Spanish, but Valencian (as the Catalan language is referred to by local authorities) is taught and spoken in most of the surrounding [[metropolitan area]] and [[province of Valencia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ive.es/portal/page/portal/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/censos/censo2001definitivos/ini_val.htm |title=Institut Valencià d'Estadística |publisher=Ive.es |accessdate=9 March 2011}}</ref> The government emphasizes the usage of the local language by posting signs and announcements of the metro area in Valencian with Spanish translations. Valencian is also used when naming streets. Street signs generally give the Valencian name for the street. However, older streets and those that span longer distances are also labelled in Spanish. ===Food=== Valencia is famous for its gastronomic culture. Typical dishes include ''[[paella]]'', a simmered rice dish with seafood or meat (chicken or rabbit), ''[[fartons]]'', ''[[buñuelos]]'', the [[Tortilla de patatas|Spanish omelette]], ''[[pincho]]s'', ''[[rosquilletas]]'' and [[Squid (food)|squid]] ''(calamares)''. Valencia is also the birthplace of the cold ''[[Cyperus esculentus|chufa]]'' beverage known as ''[[horchata]]'', popular in many parts of the world including the Americas. ==History== ===Roman Valentia=== Valencia is one of the oldest cities in Spain, founded in the Roman period under the name "Valentia Edetanorum" on the site of a former [[Iberians|Iberian]] town, by the river [[Turia (river)|Turia]] in the province of Edetania. [[File:Sello plaza de la virgen valencia.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Roman Cornucopia, symbol of Valentia, found on the floor of a Roman building excavated in the Plaza de la Virgen.]] About two thousand Roman colonists were settled there in 138 BC during the rule of consul [[Junius Brutus|Decimus Junius Brutus Galaico]]. The Roman historian [[Florus]] says that Brutus transferred the soldiers who had fought under him to that province. This was a typical Roman city in its conception, as it was located in a strategic location near the sea on a river island crossed by the Via Augusta, the imperial road that connected the province to Rome, the capital of the empire. The centre of the city was located in the present-day neighbourhood of the Plaza de la Virgen. Here was the forum and the crossing of the Cardo Maximus and the Decumanus Maximus, which remain the two main axes of the city. The Cardo corresponds to the existing Calle de Salvador, Almoina and the Decumanus correspond to Calle de los Caballeros. [[Pompey]] razed Valentia to the ground in 75 BC to punish it for its loyalty to [[Quintus Sertorius|Sertorius]]. It was rebuilt around fifty years later with large infrastructure projects, and by the mid-first century, experienced rapid urban growth. [[Pomponius Mela]] called it one of the principal cities of the [[Hispania Tarraconensis|Tarraconensis]] province. Valencia suffered a new period of decline in the third century, but an early Christian community arose there during the latter years of the Roman Empire, in the fourth century. ===Middle Ages=== ; Visigothic Period A few centuries later, coinciding with the first waves of the invading Germanic peoples ([[Suevi]], [[Vandals]] and [[Alans]], and later the [[Visigoths]]) and the power vacuum left by the demise of the Roman imperial administration, the church assumed the reins of power in the city and replaced the old Roman temples with religious buildings. With the [[Byzantine]] invasion of the southwestern Iberian peninsula in 554 the city acquired strategic importance. After the expulsion of the Byzantines in 625, Visigothic military contingents were posted there and the ancient Roman amphitheatre was fortified. Little is known of its history for nearly a hundred years; although this period is only scarcely documented by archeology, excavations suggest that there was little development of the city. During Visigothic times Valencia was an episcopal See of the Catholic Church, albeit a suffragan diocese subordinate to the archdiocese of Toledo, comprising the ancient Roman province of [[Carthaginensis]] in [[Hispania]]. ; Muslim Balansiya [[File:Torres de Serrans.jpg|thumb|Towers of Serranos]] The city surrendered without a fight to the invading Moors (Berbers and Arabs) in 714 AD, and the cathedral of [[Saint Vincent of Saragossa|Saint Vincent]] was turned into a mosque. [[Abd al-Rahman I]], the first emir of Cordoba, ordered the city destroyed, but several years later his son, Abdullah, had a form of autonomous rule over the province of Valencia. Among his administrative acts he ordered the building of a luxurious palace, the Russafa, on the outskirts of the city in the neighbourhood of the same name. So far no remains have been found. Also at this time Valencia received the name ''Medina al-Turab'' (City of Sand). When Islamic culture settled in, Valencia, then called ''Balansiyya'', prospered from the 10th century, due to a booming trade in paper, silk, leather, ceramics, glass and silver-work. The architectural legacy of this period is abundant in Valencia and can still be appreciated today in the remnants of the old walls, the ''Baños del Almirante'' bath house, Portal de Valldigna street and even the Cathedral and the tower, ''El Micalet'' ''(El Miguelete)'', which was the minaret of the old mosque. After the death of [[Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir|Almanzor]] and the unrest that followed, Muslim Al-Andalus disintergrated into numerous small states known as [[taifa]]s, one of which was the [[Taifa of Valencia]], which existed for four distinct periods: 1010 – 1065, 1075 – 1099, 1145 – 1147, and 1229 – 1238. [[File:Micalet1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''El Micalet'' or ''El Miguelete'']] Balansiyya had a rebirth of sorts with the beginning of the Taifa of Valencia kingdom in the 11th century. The town grew, and during the reign of Abd al-Aziz a new city wall was built, remains of which are preserved throughout the Old City ''(Ciutat Vella)'' today. The Castilian nobleman Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, known as ''[[El Cid]]'', who was intent on possessing his own principality on the Mediterranean, entered the province in command of a combined Christian and Moorish army and besieged the city beginning in 1092. By the time the siege ended in May 1094, he had carved out his own fiefdom—which he ruled from 15 June 1094 to July 1099. This victory was immortalised in the ''[[Cantar de Mio Cid|Lay of the Cid]]''. During his rule, he converted nine mosques into churches and installed the French monk Jérôme as bishop of the See of Valencia. He was killed in July 1099 while defending the city from an Almoravid siege, whereupon his wife [[Jimena Díaz|Ximena Díaz]] ruled in his place for two years. The city remained in the hands of Christian troops until 1102, when the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] retook the city and restored the Muslim religion. Although the self-styled 'Emperor of All Spain', Alfonso VI of León and Castile, drove them from the city, he was not strong enough to hold it. The Christians set it afire before abandoning it, and the Almoravid Masdali took possession on 5 May 1109. The event was commemorated in a poem by [[Ibn Khafaja]] in which he thanked [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] for the city's liberation.The declining power of the Almoravids coincided with the rise of a new dynasty in North Africa, the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], who seized control of the peninsula from the year 1145, although their entry into Valencia was deterred by Ibn Mardanis, King of Valencia and Murcia until 1171, at which time the city finally fell to the North Africans. The two Muslim dynasties would rule Valencia for more than a century. [[File:Peno de la conquesta.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Pennon of the Conquest]], the flag raised by the [[Moors]] of Valencia on 1238 to indicate their surrender to the troops of king [[James I of Aragon]].]] ;Christian Reconquest [[File:Chaime I d'Aragón.jpg|thumb|right|210px|[[James I of Aragon|James I the Conqueror]], King of Aragon]] In 1238, King [[James I of Aragon]], with an army composed of [[Aragonese people|Aragonese]], [[Catalan people|Catalans]], [[Navarre]]se and crusaders from the [[Order of Calatrava]], laid siege to Valencia and on 28 September obtained a surrender. Fifty thousand Moors were forced to leave. Poets such as [[Ibn al-Abbar]] and [[Ibn Amira]] mourned this exile from their beloved Valencia. After the Christian victory and the expulsion of the Muslim population the city was divided between those who had participated in the conquest, according to the testimony in the '' Llibre del Repartimen''t (Book of Distribution). James I granted the city new charters of law, the [[Furs of Valencia]], which later were extended to the whole kingdom of Valencia. Thenceforth the city entered a new historical stage in which a new society and a new language developed, forming the basis of the character of the Valencian people as they are known today. On 9 October, King James, followed by his retinue and army, took possession of the city. The principal mosque was purified and the Mass was celebrated. James incorporated city and territory into the newly formed [[Kingdom of Valencia]], one of the kingdoms forming the [[Crown of Aragon]], and permitted all people that lived in the city, Jews, Muslims and Christians, to stay there and live as citizens of the kingdom. According to historical data on the capitulation of the city, the kingdom of Valencia had a population of 120,000 Muslims, 65,000 Christians and 2,000 Jews, who by the terms of the capitulation and its covenants were mostly allowed to remain on their land. According to the Arab historian Hussein Mones of the University of Cairo, these were the words King Zayan spoke to James I when he surrendered the keys to the city: :"In the city of Valencia live Muslims, the nobles of my people, along with Christians and Jews. I hope you continue to govern in the same harmony, all working and living together in this noble land. Here, during my reign, Easter processions went out and Christians professed their religion freely, as our [[Quran]] recognizes Christ and the Virgin. I hope you bestow the same treatment to the Muslims of Valencia." : The city went through serious troubles in the mid-fourteenth century. On the one hand were the decimation of the population by the Black Death of 1348 and subsequent years of epidemics—and on the other, the series of wars and riots that followed. Among these were the War of the Union, a citizen revolt against the excesses of the monarchy, led by Valencia as the capital of the kingdom—and the war with Castile, which forced the hurried raising of a new wall to resist Castilian attacks in 1363 and 1364. In these years the coexistence of the three communities that occupied the city—Christian, Jewish and Muslim—was quite contentious. The Jews who occupied the area around the waterfront had progressed economically and socially, and their quarter gradually expanded its boundaries at the expense of neighboring parishes. Meanwhile, Muslims who remained in the city after the conquest were entrenched in a Moorish neighbourhood next to the present-day market Mosen Sorel. In 1391 an uncontrolled mob attacked the Jewish quarter, causing its virtual disappearance and leading to the forced conversion of its surviving members to Christianity. The Muslim quarter was attacked during a similar tumult among the populace in 1456, but the consequences were minor. ===Golden Age of Valencia=== [[File:Llotja columnari1.jpg|thumb|left|Hall of Columns in the Silk Exchange ''(Lonja de la Seda)'' of Valencia]] The 15th century was a time of economic expansion, known as the Valencian Golden Age, in which culture and the arts flourished. Concurrent population growth made Valencia the most populous city in the Crown of Aragon. Local industry, led by textile production, reached a great development, and a financial institution, the ''Canvi de Taula'', was created to support municipal banking operations; Valencian bankers lent funds to Queen [[Isabella I of Castile]] for [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]' voyage in 1492. At the end of the century the [[Llotja de la Seda|Silk Exchange]] ''(Llotja de la Seda)'' building was erected as the city became a commercial emporium that attracted merchants from all over Europe. This boom was reflected in the growth of artistic and cultural pursuits. Some of the most emblematic buildings of the city were built during this period, including the Serranos Towers (1392), the Lonja (1482), the Miguelete and the Chapel of the Kings of the Convent of Santo Domingo. In painting and sculpture, Flemish and Italian trends had an influence on artists such as Lluís Dalmau, Peris Gonçal and Forment Damian. Literature flourished with the patronage of the court of [[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso the Magnanimous]], supporting authors like Ausias March, Roiç de Corella, and Isabel de Villena. By 1460 Joanot Martorell wrote ''[[Tirant lo Blanch]]'', an innovative novel of chivalry that influenced many later writers, from Cervantes to Shakespeare. [[Ausiàs March]] was one of the first poets to use the everyday language [[Valencian language|Valencian]], instead of the [[troubadour]] language, [[Occitan]]. Also around this time, between 1499 and 1502, the University of Valencia was founded under the parsimonious name of '' Estudio General'' (General Studies). Valencia was one of the most influential cities on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] in the 15th and 16th centuries. The [[Global spread of the printing press|first printing press]] in the Iberian Peninsula was located in Valencia. The first printed Bible in a Romance language, the [[Valencian Bible]] attributed to [[Bonifaci Ferrer]], was printed in Valencia circa 1478. ===Early Modern=== ;Spanish Empire [[File:gerpaz.jpg|thumb|300px|The Meeting of the Brotherhoods ''(La paz de las Germanías)'', by [[Marcelino de Unceta]]]] Following the discovery of the Americas, the European economy was oriented towards the Atlantic to the detriment of the Mediterranean trade. Despite the dynastic union of [[Aragon]] with Castile, the conquest and exploitation of America was the exclusive domain of Castile. The Valencians, like the Catalans, Aragonese and Majorcans, were prohibited participation in the cross-Atlantic commerce. Faced with this loss of business, Valencia suffered a severe economic crisis. This manifested early in 1519–1523 when the [[Revolt of the Brotherhoods|artisan guilds]] known as the [[Revolt of the Brotherhoods|Germanies]] revolted against the government of the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] king [[Charles I of Spain|Charles I]] in Valencia, now part of the [[Crown of Aragon]], with most of the fighting done in 1521. The revolt was an anti-monarchist, anti-feudal autonomist movement inspired by the Italian republics, and a social revolt against the nobility who had fled the city before an epidemic of plague in 1519. It also bore a strong anti-Islamic aspect, as rebels rioted against Aragon's population of mudéjars and imposed forced conversions to Christianity. The vicereine [[Germaine of Foix]] brutally repressed the uprising and its leaders, and this accelerated the authoritarian centralization of the government of Charles I. Queen Germaine favored harsh treatment of the ''agermanats''. She is thought to have signed the death warrants of 100 former rebels personally, and sources indicate that as many as 800 executions may have occurred. The ''agermanats'' are comparable to the ''[[Revolt of the Comuneros|comuneros]]'' of neighboring Castile, who fought a similar revolt against Charles from 1520–1522. The crisis deepened during the 17th century with the [[Expulsion of the Moriscos|expulsion]] in 1609 of the Jews and the [[Moriscos]], descendants of the Muslim population that converted to Christianity under threat of exile from [[Ferdinand and Isabella]] in 1502. From 1609 through 1614, the Spanish government systematically forced Moriscos to leave the kingdom for Muslim North Africa. They were concentrated in the former [[Kingdom of Aragon]], where they constituted a fifth of the population, and the Valencia area specifically, where they were roughly a third of the total population.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meyerson|first=Mark D.|title=In the Age of Fernando and Isabel: Between Coexistence and Crusade|year=1991|url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsofvalenci0000meye|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, California|isbn=978-0-520-06888-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/muslimsofvalenci0000meye/page/14 14]}}</ref> The expulsion caused the financial ruin of some of the nobility and the bankruptcy of the Taula de Canvi in 1613. The Crown endeavoured to compensate the nobles, who had lost much of their agricultural labour force; this harmed the economy of the city for generations to come. Later, during the so-called [[Catalan Revolt]] (1640–1652), Valencia contributed to the cause of [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] with militias and money, resulting in a period of further economic hardship exacerbated by the arrival of troops from other parts of Spain. [[File:Embarco moriscos en el Grao de valencia.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Expulsion of the Moriscos from Valencia Grau by Pere Oromig]] ;Valencia under the Bourbons The decline of the city reached its nadir with the [[War of Spanish Succession]] (1702–1709) that marked the end of the political and legal independence of the Kingdom of Valencia. During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], Valencia sided with [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles of Austria]]. On 24 January 1706, [[Charles Mordaunt, 3rd Earl of Peterborough|Charles Mordaunt, 3rd Earl of Peterborough, 1st Earl of Monmouth]], led a handful of English cavalrymen into the city after riding south from Barcelona, capturing the nearby fortress at Sagunt, and bluffing the Spanish Bourbon army into withdrawal. The English held the city for 16 months and defeated several attempts to expel them. English soldiers advanced as far as Requena on the road to Madrid. After the victory of the Bourbons at the [[Battle of Almansa]] on 25 April 1707, the English army evacuated Valencia and [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]] ordered the repeal of the privileges of Valencia as punishment for the kingdom's support of Charles of Austria. By the Nueva Planta decrees ''(Decretos de Nueva Planta)'' the ancient [[Furs of Valencia|Charters of Valencia]] were abolished and the city was governed by the Castilian Charter. The Bourbon forces burned important cities like Xativa, where pictures of the Spanish Bourbons in public places are hung upside down as a protest to this day. The capital of the Kingdom of Valencia was moved to Orihuela, an outrage to the citizens of Valencia. Philip ordered the Cortes to meet with the Viceroy of Valencia, Cardinal Luis de Belluga, who opposed the change of capital because of the proximity of Orihuela, a religious, cultural and now political centre, to Murcia (capital of another viceroyalty and his diocese). Because of his hatred of the city of Orihuela, which had bombarded and looted Valencia during the War of Succession, the cardinal resigned the viceroyalty in protest against the actions of Philip, who finally relented and returned the capital to Valencia. With the abolition of the charters of Valencia and most of its institutions, and the conformation of the kingdom and its capital to the laws and customs of Castile, top civil officials were no longer elected, but instead were appointed directly from Madrid, the king's court city, the offices often filled by foreign aristocrats. Valencia had to become accustomed to being an occupied city, living with the presence of troops quartered in the Citadel near the convent of Santo Domingo and in other buildings such as the Lonja, which served as a barracks until 1762. [[File:Palau de justicia valéncia.jpg|thumb|Palau de Justícia]] The Valencian economy recovered during the 18th century with the rising manufacture of woven silk and ceramic tiles. The Palau de Justícia is an example of the affluence manifested in the most prosperous times of Bourbon rule (1758–1802) during the rule of Charles III. The 18th century was the age of the Enlightenment in Europe, and its humanistic ideals influenced such men as Gregory Maians and Perez Bayer in Valencia, who maintained correspondence with the leading French and German thinkers of the time. In this atmosphere of the exaltation of ideas the Economic Society of Friends of the Country ''(Societat Econòmica d'Amics del País'') was founded in 1776; it introduced numerous improvements in agriculture and industry and promoted various cultural, civic, and economic institutions in Valencia. ===Late modern and contemporary=== ;19th century [[File:Entrada triomfal de Ferran VII a Valéncia, 1815, Miquel Parra.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Triumphal welcome of Ferdinand at Valencia, 1814 by [[José Miguel Parra|Miquel Parra]]]] The 19th century began with Spain embroiled in wars with France, Portugal, and England—but the [[Peninsular War|War of Independence]] most affected the Valencian territories and the capital city. The repercussions of the French Revolution were still felt when Napoleon's armies invaded the Iberian Peninsula. The Valencian people rose in arms against them on 23 May 1808, aroused by such characters as Vicent Doménech el Palleter. The mutineers seized the Citadel, a Supreme Junta government took over, and on 26–28 June, Napoleon's [[Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey|Marshal Moncey]] attacked the city with a column of 9,000 French [[Grande Armée|imperial]] troops in the First Battle of Valencia. He failed to take the city in two assaults and retreated to Madrid. [[Louis Gabriel Suchet|Marshal Suchet]] began a long siege of the city in October 1811, and after intense bombardment forced it to surrender on 8 January 1812. After the capitulation, the French instituted reforms in Valencia, which became the capital of Spain when the [[Bonapartism|Bonapartist]] pretender to the throne, José I ([[Joseph Bonaparte]], Napoleon's elder brother), moved the Court there in the summer of 1812. The disaster of the [[Battle of Vitoria]] on 21 June 1813 obliged Suchet to quit Valencia, and the French troops withdrew in July. During the Napoleonic invasion, the Valencians had sent representatives to the Cortes of Cádiz, where a liberal, [[manorialism|anti-seigneurial]] national constitution was drafted. [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] became king after the victorious end of the Peninsular War, which freed Spain from Napoleonic domination. When he returned on 24 March 1814 from exile in France, the Cortes requested that he respect the liberal Constitution of 1812, which seriously limited royal powers. Ferdinand refused and went to Valencia instead of Madrid. Here, on April 17, [[Francisco Javier de Elío|General Elio]] invited the King to reclaim his absolute rights and put his troops at the King's disposition. The king abolished the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of 1812]]. He followed this act by dissolving the two chambers of the Spanish Parliament on 10 May. Thus began six years (1814–1820) of absolutist rule, but the constitution was reinstated during the [[Trienio Liberal]], a period of three years of liberal government in Spain from 1820–1823. A fervent follower of the absolutist cause, Elío had played an important role in the repression of the supporters of the Constitution of 1812. For this, he was arrested in 1820 and executed in 1822 by garroting. Conflict between absolutists and liberals continued, and in the period of conservative rule called the [[Ominous Decade]] (1823–1833), which followed the Trienio Liberal, there was ruthless repression by government forces and the Catholic Inquisition. The last victim of the Inquisition was Gaietà Ripoli, a teacher accused of being a deist and a Mason who was hanged in Valencia in 1824. On the death of King Ferdinand VII in 1833, [[Baldomero Espartero, Prince of Vergara|Baldomero Espartero]] became one of the most ardent defenders of the hereditary rights of his daughter, Isabella II. On the outbreak of the [[First Carlist War]], the government sent him to the front, where he severely defeated the Carlists in many encounters. He was associated with the radical, or progressive, wing of Spanish liberalism and became its symbol and champion after taking credit for the victory over the Carlists in 1839. During the regency of [[Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies|Maria Cristina]], Espartero ruled Spain for two years as its 18th Prime Minister from 16 September 1840 to 21 May 1841. Under his progressive government the old regime was tenuously reconciled to his liberal policies. During this period of upheaval in the provinces he declared that all the estates of the Church, its congregations, and its religious orders were national property—though in Valencia, most of this property was subsequently acquired by the local bourgeoisie. City life in Valencia carried on in a revolutionary climate, with frequent clashes between liberals and republicans, and the constant threat of reprisals by the Carlist troops of [[Ramón Cabrera y Griñó|General Cabrera]]. The reign of Isabella II as an adult (1843–1868) was a period of relative stability and growth for Valencia. Services and infrastructure—including municipal water supply, paved roads, and gas distribution—were substantially improved, and a large-scale construction project was initiated at the port. Gas lighting was introduced in 1840, and soon after a public works project began to pave the streets with cobblestones, a task that took several years because of the lack of council funds. The public water supply network was completed in 1850, and in 1858 the architects Sebastián Monleón Estellés, Antonino Sancho, and Timoteo Calvo drafted a general expansion project for the city that included demolishing its ancient walls (a second version was printed in 1868). Neither proposed project received final approval, but they did serve as a guide, though not closely followed, for future growth. By 1860 the municipality had 140,416 inhabitants, and beginning in 1866 the ancient city walls were almost entirely demolished to facilitate urban expansion. Electricity was introduced to Valencia in 1882. During the [[Cantonal Revolution]] of 1873, a [[cantonalism|cantonalist]] uprising that took place during the [[First Spanish Republic]], the city was consolidated with most of the nearby cities in the Federal Canton of Valencia (proclaimed on July 19 and dissolved on August 7). It did not have the revolutionary fervor of the movement in cities like Alcoy, as it was initiated by the bourgeoisie, but the Madrid government sent [[Arsenio Martínez-Campos y Antón|General Martinez-Campos]] to stifle the rebellion by force of arms and subjected Valencia to an intense bombardment. The city surrendered on August 7; Alfonso XII was proclaimed king on 29 December 1874, and arrived in Valencia on 11 January 1875 on his way to Madrid, marking the end of the first republic. Despite the [[Spain under the Restoration|Bourbon restoration]], the roughly even balance between conservatives and liberals in the government was sustained in Valencia until the granting of universal male suffrage in 1890, after which the Republicans, led by [[Vicente Blasco Ibáñez]], gained considerably more of the popular vote. During the second half of the 19th century the bourgeoisie encouraged the development of the city and its environs; land-owners were enriched by the introduction of the orange crop and the expansion of vineyards and other crops,. This economic boom corresponded with a revival of local traditions and of the [[Valencian]] language, which had been ruthlessly suppressed from the time of Philip V. Around 1870, the Valencian Renaissance, a movement committed to the revival of the Valencian language and traditions, began to gain ascendancy. In its early stages the movement inclined to the romanticism of the poet Teodor Llorente, and resisted the more assertive remonstrances of Constantine Llombart, founder of the still extant cultural society, ''Rat Penat Lo'', which is dedicated to the promotion and dissemination of the Valencian language and culture. In 1894 the ''Círculo de Bellas Artes de Valencia'' (Circle of Fine Arts in Valencia) was founded. ;20th century [[File:Palaciow.jpg|thumb|Palaciow|''Palau de l'Exposició'' ''(Palacio de la Exposición)'', site of Regional Exhibition of 1909]] During the 20th century Valencia remained the third most populous city of Spain as its population tripled, rising from 213,550 inhabitants in 1900 to 739,014 in 2000. Valencia was also third in industrial and economic development; notable milestones include urban expansion of the city in the latter 1800s, the creation of the Banco de Valencia in 1900, construction of the Central and Columbus markets, and the construction of the Gare du Nord railway station, completed in 1921. The new century was marked in Valencia with a major event, the Valencian regional exhibition of 1909 ''(La Exposición Regional Valenciana de 1909''), which emulated the national and universal expositions held in other cities. This production was promoted by the ''Ateneo Mercantil de Valencia'' (Mercantile Athenaeum of Valencia), especially by its chairman, Tomás Trénor y Palavicino, and had the support of the Government and the Crown; it was officially inaugurated by King Alfonso XIII himself. [[File:Mercadow.jpg|thumb|left|Interior of the Columbus Market ''(Mercat de Colom)'']] In the early 20th century Valencia was an industrialized city. The silk industry had disappeared, but there was a large production of hides and skins, wood, metals and foodstuffs, this last with substantial exports, particularly of wine and citrus. Small businesses predominated, but with the rapid mechanization of industry larger companies were being formed. The best expression of this dynamic was in the regional exhibitions, including that of 1909 held next to the pedestrian avenue ''L'Albereda'' (''Paseo de la Alameda''), which depicted the progress of agriculture and industry. Among the most architecturally successful buildings of the era were those designed in the Art Nouveau style, such as the North Station ''(Gare du Nord)'' and the Central and Columbus markets. Industrial workers began to organize in increasing numbers to demand better living conditions. The Republican party of [[Vicente Blasco Ibáñez|Blasco Ibáñez]] responded to these demands and gained enormous popular support, dominating the ruling council between 1901 and 1923. World War I (1914–1918) greatly affected the Valencian economy, causing the collapse of its citrus exports. The establishment of the dictatorship of [[Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja, Miguel, Marques de Estella|Primo de Rivera]] in 1923 tempered social unrest for some years, but not the growing political radicalization of the working classes. The labor movement gradually consolidated its union organization, while the conservative factions rallied around the Valencian Regional Right. The Republic (1931–1939) opened the way for democratic participation and the increased politicisation of citizens, especially in response to the rise of Conservative Front power in 1933. This climate marked the elections of 1936, won by the Popular Front political coalition, which promoted the fervor of the masses. The military uprising of July 18 failed to triumph in Valencia. For some months there was a revolutionary atmosphere, gradually neutralised by the government. The inevitable march to civil war and the combat in Madrid resulted in the removal of the capital of the Republic to Valencia. On 6 November 1936 the city became the capital of Republican Spain under the control of the prime minister Manuel Azana; the government moved to the Palau de Benicarló, its ministries occupying various other buildings. The city was heavily bombarded by air and sea, necessitating the construction of over two hundred bomb shelters to protect the population. On 13 January 1937 the city was first shelled by a vessel of the Fascist Italian Navy, which was blockading the port by the order of Benito Mussolini. The bombardment intensified and inflicted massive destruction on several occasions; by the end of the war the city had survived 442 bombardments, leaving 2,831 dead and 847 wounded, although it is estimated that the death toll was higher, as the data given are those recognized by [[Francisco Franco]]'s government. The Republican government passed to [[Juan Negrín]] on 17 May 1937 and on 31 October of that year moved to Barcelona. On 30 March 1939 Valencia surrendered and the Nationalist troops entered the city. The postwar years were a time of hardship for Valencians. During Franco's regime speaking or teaching [[Valencian]] was prohibited; in a significant reversal it is now compulsory for every schoolchild in Valencia. [[File:Palau generalitat.jpg|thumb|Palau generalitat|''Palau de la Generalitat'', symbol of the recovery of self-government in Valencia, and seat of the Government of Valencia since 1978]] The dictatorship of Franco forbade political parties and began a harsh ideological and cultural repression countenanced<ref name="Reichardt2010">{{cite book|author=Mary Reichardt|title=Between Human and Divine: The Catholic Vision in Contemporary Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hvoIVIAqu5gC&pg=PA87|year=2010|publisher=CUA Press|isbn=978-0-8132-1739-0|pages=87–88}}</ref> and sometimes even led by the Church.<ref name="Tobin2007">{{cite book|author=Michael R. Tobin|title=Georges Bernanos|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9E85xLrSZd0C&pg=PA30|date=17 October 2007|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-6045-1|page=30}}</ref><ref name="BernanosCastillo2008">{{cite book|author1=Georges Bernanos|author2=Michel del Castillo|title=Les grands cimetiéres sous la lune|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xIoLAQAAMAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Castor astral|language=French|isbn=978-2-85920-751-9|page=15|quote=}}</ref> The financial markets were destabilised, causing a severe economic crisis that led to rationing. A black market in rationed goods existed for over a decade. The Francoist administrations of Valencia silenced publicity of the catastrophic consequences of the floods of 1949 with the attendant dozens of deaths, but could not do the same after the even more tragic [[1957 Valencia flood|flood of 1957]] when the river [[Turía (river)|Turia]] overflowed its banks again, killing many Valencians (officially, eighty-one died; the actual figure is not known). To prevent further disasters, the river was eventually diverted to a new course. The old river bed was abandoned for years, and successive Francoist mayors proposed making it a motorway, but that option was finally rejected with the advent of democracy and fervent neighborhood protests. The river was divided in two at the western city limits ''(Plan Sur de Valencia''), and diverted southwards along a new course that skirts the city, before meeting the Mediterranean. The old course of the river continues, dry, through the city centre, almost to the sea. The old riverbed is now a verdant sunken park called the 'Garden of the Turia' ''(Jardí del Túria or Jardín del Turia)'' that allows cyclists and pedestrians to traverse much of the city without the use of roads; overhead bridges carry motor traffic across the park. The economy began to recover in the early 1960s, and the city experienced explosive population growth through immigration spurred by the jobs created with the implementation of major urban projects and infrastructure improvements. With the [[Spanish transition to democracy|advent of democracy]] in Spain, the ancient kingdom of Valencia was established as a new autonomous entity, the [[Valencian Community]], the Statute of Autonomy of 1982 designating Valencia as its capital. On the [[23-F|night of 23 February 1981]], shortly after [[Antonio Tejero]] had stormed [[Congress]], the Captain General of the Third Military Region, [[Jaime Milans del Bosch]], rose up in Valencia, put tanks on the streets, declared a state of emergency and tried to convince other senior military figures to support the coup. After the televised message of King [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos I]], those in the military who had not yet aligned themselves decided to remain loyal to the government, and the coup failed. Despite this lack of support, Milans del Bosch only surrendered at 5 a.m. on the next day, 24 February. [[File:Ajuntament valéncia2.jpg|thumb|City Hall (''Ayuntamiento'' or ''l'Ajuntament'').]] Democracy has led to the recovery of the Valencian language and culture, but could not resolve the social tensions concerning these [[Catalan symbols|symbols]]; this identity conflict, known facetiously as the Battle of Valencia, has been characterised by considerable conflict and violence, dividing Valencia socially and politically. Valencia has experienced a surge in its cultural development during the last thirty years, exemplified by exhibitions and performances at such iconic institutions as the ''Palau de la Música'', the ''Palacio de Congresos'', the Metro, the City of Arts and Sciences ''(Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciéncies)'', the Valencian Museum of Enlightenment and Modernity ''(Museo Valenciano de la Ilustracion y la Modernidad)'', and the Institute of Modern Art ''(Instituto Valenciano de Arte Moderno)''. The various productions of [[Santiago Calatrava]], a renowned structural engineer, architect, and sculptor and of the architect [[Félix Candela]] have contributed to Valencia's international reputation. These public works and the ongoing rehabilitation of the Old City ''(Ciutat Vella)'' have helped improve the city's livability and tourism is continually increasing. ;21st century On 9 July 2006, during Mass at Valencia's Cathedral, [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Our Lady]] of the Forsaken Basilica, [[Pope Benedict XVI]] used, at the World Day of Families, the ''Santo Caliz'', a 1st-century [[Middle East|Middle-Eastern]] artifact that some Catholics believe is the [[Holy Grail]]. It was supposedly brought to that church by [[Valerian (emperor)|Emperor Valerian]] in the 3rd century, after having been brought by [[Saint Peter|St. Peter]] to Rome from Jerusalem. The ''Santo Caliz'' (Holy Chalice) is a simple, small stone cup. Its base was added in [[Medieval Times|medieval times]] and consists of fine gold, alabaster and gem stones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0603899.htm |title=About the Santo Caliz (Holy Chalice) |publisher=Catholicnews.com |accessdate=9 March 2011}}</ref> Valencia was selected in 2003 to host the historic [[America's Cup]] yacht race, the first European city ever to do so. The [[2007 America's Cup|America's Cup matches]] took place in summer 2007. On 3 July 2007, [[Alinghi]] defeated [[Team New Zealand]] and successfully defended the America's Cup. Twenty-two days later, on 25 July 2007, the leaders of the Alinghi syndicate, holder of the America's Cup, officially announced that Valencia would be the host city for the 33rd America's Cup, held in June 2009.<ref>[http://www.americascup.com/en/33rd/news_5.php Announcement of the election as host city for 33rd America's Cup]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}</ref> Since 1991 the City Council has been governed by the [[People's Party (Spain)|People's Party]] of Spain ''(Partido Popular)'' (PP) and Mayor [[Rita Barberá Nolla]] who became mayor by a pact made with the Valencian Union. She is a member of the National Council of the People's Party and a Representative in the Valencian regional Parliament ''([[Corts Valencianes]])''. She turned down an offer to become a national deputy at the 2008 Spanish General Election.<ref>[http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/alcaldes/PP/concurren/cabeza/lista/Congreso/elpepiesp/20080117elpepinac_2/Tes El Pais]</ref> ==Main sights== ===Architecture=== [[File:Mercat façana5.jpg|thumb|Historic Central Market ''(Mercado Central)'' of Valencia]] The ancient winding streets of the Barrio del Carmen contain buildings dating to [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Al-Andalus|Arabic]] times. The [[Saint Mary of Valencia Cathedral|Cathedral]], built between the 13th and 15th centuries, is primarily of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style but contains elements of [[baroque architecture|Baroque]] and [[Romanesque architecture]]. Beside the Cathedral is the Gothic [[Basilica]] of the Virgin ''(Basílica De La Virgen De Los Desamparados)''. The 15th-century ''Serrano'' and ''Quart'' towers are part of what was once the wall surrounding the city. [[UNESCO]] has recognised the Silk Exchange market ''([[Llotja de la Seda|La Llotja de la Seda]])'', erected in early Valencian Gothic style, as a [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/782 |title=La Lonja listing on Unesco site |publisher=Whc.unesco.org |accessdate=9 March 2011}}</ref> The [[modern architecture|modernist]] Central Market (''[[Mercado Central]]'') is one of the largest in Europe. The main railway station ''Estación Del Norte'' is built in [[modernisme]] (the Spanish version of [[Art Nouveau]]) style. World-renowned (and city-born) architect [[Santiago Calatrava]] produced the futuristic City of Arts and Sciences ''([[Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciéncies]])'', which contains an opera house/performing [[arts centre]], a [[science museum]], an [[IMAX]] cinema/planetarium, an oceanographic park and other structures such as a long covered walkway and restaurants. Calatrava is also responsible for the bridge named after him in the centre of the city. The Music Palace ''([[Palau De La Música]])'' is another noteworthy example of modern architecture in Valencia. ===The cathedral=== [[File:Cimbori almoina abril 1.jpg|right|thumb|Northern view of the cathedral: dome, apse, Micalet (belfry) and the Basilica of Our Lady]] The [[Valencia Cathedral]] was called ''Iglesia Mayor'' in the early days of the ''Reconquista'', then ''Iglesia de la Seo'' (''Seo'' is from the Latin ''sedes'', i.e., (archiepiscopal) See), and by virtue of the papal concession of 16 October 1866, it was called the ''Basilica Metropolitana''. It is situated in the centre of the ancient Roman city where some believe the temple of Diana stood. In Gothic times, it seems to have been dedicated to the Holy Saviour; [[El Cid|the Cid]] dedicated it to the Blessed Virgin; King [[James I of Aragon]] did likewise, leaving in the main chapel the image of the Blessed Virgin, which he carried with him and is reputed to be the one now preserved in the sacristy. The Moorish mosque, which had been converted into a [[Christian Church|Christian church]] by the conqueror, was deemed unworthy of the title of the cathedral of Valencia, and in 1262 Bishop Andrés de Albalat laid the cornerstone of the new Gothic building, with three naves; these reach only to the choir of the present building. Bishop Vidal de Blanes built the chapter hall, and James I added the tower, called ''El Miguelete'' because it was blessed on St. Michael's day in 1418. The tower is about 58&nbsp;m high and topped with a [[bell tower|belfry]] (1660–1736). In the 15th century the dome was added and the naves extended back of the choir, uniting the building to the tower and forming a main entrance. Archbishop Luis Alfonso de los Cameros began the building of the main chapel in 1674; the walls were decorated with marbles and bronzes in the [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] style of that period. At the beginning of the 18th century the German Conrad Rudolphus built the façade of the main entrance. The other two doors lead into the transept; one, that of the Apostles in pure pointed Gothic, dates from the 14th century, the other is that of the Paláu. The additions made to the back of the cathedral detract from its height. The 18th-century restoration rounded the pointed arches, covered the Gothic columns with [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] pillars, and redecorated the walls. The dome has no lantern, its plain ceiling being pierced by two large side windows. There are four chapels on either side, besides that at the end and those that open into the choir, the transept, and the sanctuary. It contains many paintings by eminent artists. A silver [[reredos]], which was behind the altar, was carried away in the war of 1808, and converted into coin to meet the expenses of the campaign. There are two paintings by [[Francisco Goya]] in the San Francesco chapel. Behind the Chapel of the [[Blessed Sacrament]] is a small [[Renaissance]] chapel built by [[Pope Calixtus III|Calixtus III]]. Beside the cathedral is the chapel dedicated to the Our Lady of the Forsaken ''([[Virgen de los desamparados]] or Mare de Déu dels Desamparats)''. [[File:Valencia Water Court.JPG|right|thumb|Sitting of the ''Tribunal de las Aguas'' outside the Portal of the Apostles of the Valencia Cathedral]] The ''Tribunal de las Aguas'' (Water Court), a court dating from Moorish times that hears and mediates in matters relating to irrigation water, sits at noon every Thursday outside the ''Puerta de Apostoles'' (Portal of the Apostles).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.realitysense.com/valencia-water-court-tribunal-de-las-aguas/ |title= Valencia’s unique 'Water Court' |publisher= Reality Sense |accessdate= 31 January 2011}}</ref> ===Hospital=== In 1409, a hospital was founded and placed under the [[patronage]] of [[Santa María de los Inocentes]]; to this was attached a confraternity devoted to recovering the bodies of the unfriended dead in the city and within a radius of three miles ({{convert|3|mi|abbr=out|disp=output only}}) around it. At the end of the 15th century this confraternity separated from the hospital, and continued its work under the name of "Cofradia para el ámparo de los desamparados". King [[Philip IV of Spain]] and the [[Duke of Arcos]] suggested the building of the new chapel, and in 1647 the [[Viceroy]], [[Conde de Oropesa]], who had been preserved from [[Bubonic plague|the bubonic plague]], insisted on carrying out their project. The Blessed Virgin was proclaimed patroness of the city under the title of ''Virgen de los desamparados'' (Virgin of the Forsaken), and Archbishop Pedro de Urbina, on 31 June 1652, laid the cornerstone of the new chapel of this name. The archiepiscopal palace, a grain market in the time of the Moors, is simple in design, with an inside cloister and a handsome chapel. In 1357, the arch that connects it with the cathedral was built. In the council chamber are preserved the portraits of all the prelates of Valencia. ===Medieval churches=== [[File:Patriarca façana.jpg|thumb|right|Façade of Real Colegio del Corpus Christi]] Among the parish churches are Saints John (Baptist and Evangelist), rebuilt in 1368, whose dome, decorated by Palonino, contains some of the best frescoes in Spain; ''El Templo'' (the Temple), the ancient church of the [[Knights Templar]], which passed into the hands of the [[Order of Montesa]] and was rebuilt in the reigns of [[Ferdinand VI of Spain|Ferdinand VI]] and [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]]; the former convent of the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]], at one time the headquarters of the ''Capital General'', the cloister of which has a beautiful Gothic wing and the chapter room, large columns imitating [[Arecaceae|palm trees]]; the ''Colegio del Corpus Christi'', which is devoted to the Blessed Sacrament, and in which [[Eucharistic adoration|perpetual adoration]] is carried on; the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] college, which was destroyed in 1868 by the revolutionary Committee of the Popular Front, but later rebuilt; and the ''Colegio de San Juan'' (also of the Society), the former college of the nobles, now a provincial institute for secondary instruction. Other Medieval churches of Valencia are: * [[Church of San Nicolás (Valencia)]] ===Squares and gardens=== The [[List of city squares by size|largest plaza]] in Valencia is the ''[[Plaça de l'Ajuntament]]'' or ''Plaza del Ayuntamiento''; it is home to the City Hall ''(Ayuntamiento)'' on its western side and the central post office ''(Edificio de Correos)'' on its eastern side, a cinema that shows classic movies, and many restaurants and bars. The plaza is triangular in shape, with a large cement lot at the southern end, normally surrounded by flower vendors. It serves as ground zero during the [[Falles|Les Falles]] when the fireworks of the Mascletà can be heard every afternoon. There is a large fountain at the northern end. The ''[[Plaça de la Mare de Déu]]'' contains the Basilica of the Virgin and the Turia fountain, and is a popular spot for locals and tourists. Around the corner is the Plaça de la Reina, with the Cathedral, orange trees, and many bars and restaurants. The [[Turia (river)|Turia River]] was diverted in the 1960s, after [[1957 Valencia flood|severe flooding]], and the old riverbed is now the Turia gardens, which contain a children’s playground, a fountain, and sports fields. The ''Palau de la Música'' is adjacent to the Turia gardens and the City of Arts and Sciences lies at one end. The [[Valencia Bioparc]] is a zoo, also located in the Turia riverbed. Other gardens in Valencia include the "[[Jardines de Monforte]]'' (Montforte Gardens), the ''[[Jardin Botanico]]" (Botanical Gardens) and the ''[[Jardines de Real]]" (Royal Gardens). ===Museums=== [[File:Palau de les Arts.JPG|thumb|''Palau de les Arts Reina Sofia'']] [[File:Valencia ES L Hemisferic BIG.jpg|thumb|''L'Hemisféric'', a IMAX 3D-cinema, planetarium and laserium]] * [[Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciéncies]] (City of Arts and Sciences''). Designed by the Valencian architect [[Santiago Calatrava]], it is situated in the former Túria river-bed and comprises the following monuments: ** [[Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía]], a flamboyant opera and music palace with four halls and a total area of {{convert|37000|m²|sigfig=3|abbr=on}}. ** [[L'Oceanogràfic]], the largest aquarium in Europe, with a variety of ocean beings from different environments: from the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], fishes from the ocean and reef inhabitants, [[shark]]s, [[mackerel]] swarms, [[dolphinarium]], inhabitants of the [[polar region]]s ([[Beluga (whale)|belugas]], [[walrus]]es, [[penguin]]s), coast inhabitants ([[sea lion]]s), etc. L'Oceanogràfic exhibits also smaller animals as [[coral]], [[jellyfish]], [[sea anemone]]s, etc. ** [[El Museu de les Ciéncies Príncipe Felipe]], an interactive museum of science but resembling the skeleton of a whale. It occupies around 40,000&nbsp;m² on three flats. * Museu de Prehistòria de Valéncia (Prehistory Museum of Valencia) * [[Valencian Museum of Ethnology|Museu Valencià d'Etnologia]] (Valencian Museum of Ethnology) * House Museum [[Vicente Blasco Ibáñez|Blasco Ibáñez]] * IVAM – Institut Valencià d'Art Modern – Centre Julio González ''Julio González Centre – Valencian Institute of Modern Art'' * [[Museu de Belles Arts San Pío V]] (Museum of Fine Arts) * Museu Faller ([[Falles]] Museum) * [[Valencia History Museum|Museu d'Història de Valéncia]] (Valencia History Museum) * Museu Taurí de Valéncia ([[Bullfighting]] Museum) * MuVIM – Museu Valencià de la Il·lustració i la Modernitat (Valencian Museum of Enlightenment and Modernity) * Museo Nacional de Cerámica y de las Artes Suntuarias / Museu Nacional de Ceràmica i Arts Sumptuàries González Martí (National Museum of Pottery and Sumptuary Arts González Martí) * Computer Museum – is located within Technical School of Computer Engineering (Polytechnic University of Valencia) [http://museo.inf.upv.es Official site] ==Sport== [[File:Sentiment Valencianista.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Mestalla]]]] [[File:Het_stadion_van_Levante%2C_vanaf_de_noordtribune.JPG|thumb|180px|[[Estadi Ciutat de Valéncia]]]] [[File:VBC-Kazan Eurocup finals 2014 - 40.jpeg|thumb|180px|[[Pabellon Municipal Fuente San Luis|Pabellón Fuente San Luis]]]] {|class="wikitable" |- ! scope="col" |Club ! scope="col" |League ! scope="col" |Sport ! scope="col" |Venue ! scope="col" |Established ! scope="col" |Capacity |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Valencia C.F.]] |[[La Liga]] |[[Association football|Football]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Mestalla]] |1919 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |55,000 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Levante UD]] |[[La Liga]] |[[Association football|Football]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Estadi Ciutat de Valéncia]] |1909 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |25,354 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Huracán CF|Huracán Valencia]] |[[Segunda División B]] |[[Association football|Football]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Municipal de Manises]] |2011 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |1,000 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Valencia Club de Fútbol Mestalla]] |[[Segunda División B]] |[[Association football|Football]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Ciudad Deportiva de Paterna]] |1944 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |4,000 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Valencia Basket Club]] |[[Liga ACB|ACB]] |[[Basketball]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Pabellon Municipal Fuente San Luis|Pabellón Fuente San Luis]] |1986 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |9,000 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Ros Casares Valencia]] |[[Liga Femenina de Baloncesto|Liga Femenina]] |[[Basketball]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Pabellon Municipal Fuente San Luis|Pabellón Fuente San Luis]] |1996 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |9,000 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Valencia Giants]] |[[Liga Nacional de Fútbol Americano|LNFA]] |[[American football]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |Instalaciones polideportivas del Saler |2003 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" | |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Valencia Firebats]] |[[Liga Nacional de Fútbol Americano|LNFA]] |[[American football]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |Estadio Municipal Jardín del Turia |1993 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" | |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Valencia FS]] |[[Tercera División de Futsal|Tercera División]] |[[Futsal]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Pabellón Municipal de San Isidro|San Isidro]] |1983 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |500 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Les Abelles]] |[[División de Honor B de Rugby|División de Honor B]] |[[Rugby Union]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Polideportivo Quatre carreres]] |1971 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |500 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[CAU Rugby Valencia]] |[[División de Honor B de Rugby|División de Honor B]] |[[Rugby Union]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Campo del Río Turia]] |1973 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |2,000 |- ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[RC Valencia|Rugby Club Valencia]] |[[División de Honor B de Rugby|División de Honor B]] |[[Rugby Union]] ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |[[Polideportivo Quatre carreres]] |1966 ! scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;" |500 |} ===Football=== Valencia is also internationally famous for its football club, [[Valencia CF|Valencia C.F.]], which won the [[La Liga|Spanish league]] in 2002 and 2004 (the year it also won the [[UEFA Europa League|UEFA Cup]]), for a total of six times, and was a [[UEFA Champions League]] [[runner-up]] in 2000 and 2001. The team's stadium is the [[Mestalla]]; its city rival [[Levante UD]] also plays in the highest division after gaining promotion in 2010, their stadium is [[Estadi Ciutat de Valéncia]]. From the year 2011 there has been a third team in the city, [[Huracán CF|Huracán Valencia]], who play their games in [[Municipal de Manises]], in the [[Segunda División B]]. ===American Football=== Valencia is the only city in Spain with two American football teams in [[LNFA|LNFA Serie A]], the national first division: [[Valencia Firebats]] and [[Valencia Giants]]. The Firebats have been national champions three times and have represented Valencia and Spain in the European playoffs since 2005. Both teams share the Jardín del Turia stadium. [[File:Valencia Street Circuit GT Open.jpg|thumb|[[Valencia Street Circuit]]]] ===Motor sports=== Once a year between 2008–2012 the European [[Formula One]] Grand Prix took place in the [[Valencia Street Circuit]]. Valencia is among with [[Barcelona]], [[Porto]] and [[Monte Carlo]] the only European cities ever to host Formula One World Championship Grands Prix on public roads in the middle of cities. The final race in [[2012 European Grand Prix]] saw an extremely popular winner, since home driver [[Fernando Alonso]] won for [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] in spite of starting halfway down the field. The [[Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix]] ''(Gran Premi de la Comunitat Valenciana de motociclisme)'' is part of the Grand Prix motorcycle racing season at the Circuit Ricardo Tormo (also known as ''Circuit de Valencia''). Periodically the Spanish round of the [[Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters]] touring car racing Championship (DTM) is held in Valencia. ==People born in Valencia and Valencia province== [[File:LuisVives.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Juan Luis Vives]]]] [[File:Joaquín Sorolla 004.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Joaquín Sorolla]]]] [[File:Vicente Blasco Ibáñez.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Vicente Blasco Ibáñez]]]] * [[Pope Alexander VI]], Pope from 1492 to 1503. {{main|Route of the Borgias}} * [[Ibn al-Abbar]] (1199–1260), poet and diplomat * [[Ausiàs March]], poet. * [[Joan Roís de Corella]], poet and writer. * [[Pope Callixtus III]], Pope from 1455 to 1458. {{main|Route of the Borgias}} * [[Enrique Simonet]], painter (1866–1927) * [[Luis de Santángel]], finance minister. * [[Alfonso III of Aragon|Alfonso III]], [[List of Aragonese monarchs|King of Aragon]] and [[Counts of Barcelona|Count of Barcelona]] (as Alfons II). * King [[James II of Aragon]]. * King [[Peter III of Aragon]] (Peter the Great). * [[Josu De Solaun Soto]], classical music pianist. * [[Guillén de Castro y Bellvis|Guillén de Castro]], famous Spanish writer of the [[Spanish Golden Age]] (1569–1631). * [[Joanot Martorell]] (1413–1468), knight and writer the author of the novel [[Tirant lo Blanch]]. * [[Juan Bautista Bayuco]], 17th-century painter * [[Vicente Blasco Ibáñez]], Spanish realist novelist writing in Spanish, a screenwriter and occasional [[film director]] (1867–1928). * [[Joaquín Sorolla|Joaquin Sorolla]], painter, who excelled in the painting of portraits, landscapes, and monumental works of social and historical themes. * [[Juan Luis Vives|Joan Lluís Vives]], a scholar and humanist. * [[José Benlliure y Gil]], painter. * [[Rafael Guastavino]], architect and builder, creator of the [[Guastavino tile]]. * [[Antonio José Cavanilles]], taxonomic botanist. * [[José Iturbi]], conductor and pianist. * [[Joaquín Lloréns Fernández de Cordoba]], Carlist soldier and politician * [[Luis García Berlanga]], film director and screenwriter. * [[Vincent Ferrer|Saint Vincent Ferrer]], Dominican missionary and logician. * [[Nino Bravo]] (birth name, Luis Manuel Ferri Llopis), popular singer (1944–1973) * [[Santiago Calatrava]], internationally recognized and award-winning architect. * [[Joan Fuster]], philologist, historian and writer. * [[Josep Maria Bayarri]], linguist, poet and writer. * [[Joaquín Rodrigo|Joaquin Rodrigo]], [[composer|music composer]]. * [[Manuel Palau]], music composer. * [[Raimon]], composer and singer. * [[Francisco Tárrega]], influential Spanish composer and guitarist. * [[Enric Valor i Vives]], grammarian and writer. * [[Manuel Sanchis i Guarner]], philologist, historian and writer. * [[María Teresa Fernández de la Vega]], Spanish Socialist Workers' Party politician and the first female First Deputy Prime Minister of Spain. * [[Salvador Larroca]], comic book artist. * [[Raul Albiol]], footballer * [[Vicente Gandia]], painter, artist (1935–2009) * [[Victor Claver]], basketball star * [[David Ferrer]], tennis player ==Districts== * Ciutat Vella: La Seu, La Xerea, El Carmen, El Pilar, El Mercado, San Francisco. * Eixample: Russafa, El Pla del Remei, Gran Via. * Extramurs: El Botànic, La Roqueta, La Pechina, Arrancapins. [[File:Generalitat vista.jpg|thumb|right||Palace of the Generalitat Valenciana]] * Campanar: Campanar, Les Tendetes, El Calvari, Sant Pau. * La Saïdia: Marxalenes, Morvedre, Trinitat, Tormos, Sant Antoni. * Pla del Real: Exposició, Mestalla, Jaume Roig, Ciutat Universitària * Olivereta: Nou Moles, Soternes, Tres Forques, La Fontsanta, La Luz. * Patraix: [[Patraix]], Sant Isidre, Vara de Quart, Safranar, Favara. * Jesús: La Raiosa, L'Hort de Senabre, The Covered Cross, Saint Marcelino, Real Way. * Quatre Carreres: Montolivet, En Corts, Malilla, [[La Font de Sant Lluís]], Na Rovella, La Punta, [[Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciéncies]]. * Poblats Marítims: El Grau, El [[Cabanyal]], El Canyameral, La Malva-Rosa, Beteró, Nazaret. * Camins del Grau: Aiora, Albors, Creu del Grau, Camí Fondo, Penya-Roja. * Algiròs: Illa Perduda, Ciutat Jardí, Amistat, Vega Baixa, la Carrasca. * Benimaclet: [[Benimaclet]], Camí de Vera. * Rascanya: Orriols, Torrefiel, Sant Llorenç. * Benicalap: Benicalap, Ciutat Fallera. * Pobles del Nord: Benifaraig, Poble Nou, Carpesa, Cases de Bàrcena, Mauella, Massarrojos, Borbotó. * Pobles de l'Oest: Benimàmet, Beniferri. * Pobles del Sud: Forn d'Alcedo, Castellar-l'Oliveral, Pinedo, el Saler, el Palmar, el Perellonet, la Torre, ==Twin towns and sister cities== {{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Spain}} Valencia is [[Twin towns and sister cities|twinned]] with:<ref name="Valencia twinnings">{{cite web|url=http://www.valencia.es/ayuntamiento/rinternacionales_accesible.nsf/vDocumentosTituloAux/D80022569C2533B9C12571F100285E72?OpenDocument&bdOrigen=ayuntamiento%2Frinternacionales_accesible.nsf&idapoyo=&lang=1&nivel=3|title=Ciudades Hermanadas con Valéncia|accessdate=2013-08-08|work = Ajuntament de Valéncia [City of Valencia]|trans_title=Valencia Twin/Sister Cities|language=Spanish|archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20121029071705/http://www.valencia.es/ayuntamiento/rinternacionales_accesible.nsf/vDocumentosTituloAux/D80022569C2533B9C12571F100285E72?OpenDocument&bdOrigen=ayuntamiento%2Frinternacionales_accesible.nsf&idapoyo=&lang=1&nivel=3|archivedate=2012-10-23}}</ref> {|class="wikitable" |- valign="top" | *{{flagicon|GER}} [[Mainz]], Germany, since 4 August 1978<ref name="Valencia twinnings"/> *{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Bologna]], Italy, since 29 June 1979<ref name="Valencia twinnings"/> *{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]], Mexico, since 26 September 1984<ref name="Valencia twinnings"/> || *{{flagicon|USA}} [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], USA, since 29 June 1989<ref name="Valencia twinnings"/> *{{flagicon|VEN}} [[Valencia, Carabobo|Valencia]], Venezuela, since 20 March 1982<ref name="Valencia twinnings"/> *{{flagicon|UKR}} [[Odessa]], Ukraine, since 13 May 1982<ref name="Valencia twinnings"/> *{{flagicon|UKR}} [[Mariupol]], Ukraine, since 1993<ref name="Valencia twinnings"/> |} --> ==Tempo ogé== {{Portal|Spanyol}} * [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Valencia|Kauskupan Agung di Valéncia]] * [[List of tallest buildings in Valencia|Daptar wangunan luhur di Valéncia]] * [[Nou Mestalla]] * [[Pamilu Dewan Kota Valéncia]] ==Rujukan== *{{Catholic|wstitle=Kauskupan Agung Valéncia}} *{{SmithDGRG}} :''Ieu artikel ngasupkeun informasi ti [[:ca:Valéncia|artikel nu sapadan]] ti [[:ca:Wikipedia:Website|Wikipédia basa Catalan]]''. :''Ieu artikel ngasupkeun informasi ti [[:es:Valencia|artikel nu sapadan]] dina [[:es:Wikipedia:Website|Wikipédia basa Spanyol]]''. ===Catetan=== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Bacaan salajengna== *{{Cite book |publisher = Karl Baedeker |publication-place = Leipsic |title = Spain and Portugal: handbook for travellers |url = http://www.archive.org/stream/spainportugalhan00karlrich#page/n479/mode/2up |chapter=Valencia |publication-date = 1908 |oclc = 1581249 |edition=3rd |postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }} *{{Cite book |publisher = Encyclopaedia Britannica |publication-place = New York |title = The Encyclopaedia Britannica |url = http://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediabri27chisrich#page/844/mode/2up |chapter=Valencia |publication-date = 1910 |oclc = 14782424 |edition=11th |postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Sister project links|voy=Valencia|voy=Valencia|Valencia}} * [http://www.valencia.es/ Official website of the city of Valencia] (Valencian) {{es icon}} * [http://www.visitvalencia.com/ Official tourism website of the city of Valencia] (Valencian) {{en icon}} {{de icon}} {{fr icon}} {{es icon}} {{pt icon}} {{it icon}} {{ja icon}} {{zh icon}} * [http://www.comunitatvalenciana.com/ Official website of the Community Valenciana tourism] * [http://www.cac.es/ Valencia-La Ciudad de las Artes y de las Ciencias] * [http://triptern.com/city/valencia Attractions in Valencia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402132234/http://triptern.com/city/valencia |date=2 April 2015 }} {{Navboxes |title=Articles Nu Patali jeung Valéncia |list= {{Comarques of the Valencian Community}} {{Municipalities in Valencia|state=autocollapse}} {{Capitals of Provinces in Spain}} {{Autonomous Community capitals of Spain}} {{European Capital of Sport}} }} [[Kategori:Valencia| ]]<!--leave the empty space as for standard--> [[Kategori:Komarka di Komunitas Valéncia]] [[Kategori:Dayeuh nu kungsi jadi puseur dayeuh nasional]] [[Kategori:Dayeuh palabuan Laut Tengah di Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Munisipalitas di Propinsi Valéncia]] [[Kategori:Patempatan di basisir nu padet di Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Tempat padet nu ngadeg dina abad ka-2 SM]] [[Kategori:Patempatan Romawi di Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 137 SM]] [[Kategori:Tempat padet di Propinsi Valéncia]] [[Kategori:Dayeuh universitas]] [[Kategori:Rute Borgias]] giyzf82cc9tmpoepf92xn9a2o33lh3d 0 41442 711729 622107 2026-08-07T02:41:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711729 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[File:Vlad Tepes 001.jpg|thumb]] '''Vlad III''' (1431–1476/77), '''Vlad Drakula''', '''(Vlad) Drăculéa''', atawa '''(Vlad) Dracula''', sanggeus maot katelah '''Vlad Panyula''' ([[basa Romania|Romania]]: '''Vlad Țepeș''', {{IPA-ro|ˈvlad ˈt͡sepeʃ|pron}}), tilu kali ngawasa [[Wallachia]], utamana ti 1456 nepi ka 1462, mangsa [[Kasultanan Utsmani]] nalukkeun [[Balkan]]. Bapana, [[Vlad II Dracul]], anggota [[Ordo Naga]] anu diadegkeun pikeun mertahankeun [[Kristen]] di [[Éropa Wétan]]. Vlad III dianggap pahlawan di [[Romania]] jeung Éropa umumna pikeun nyalametkeun [[populasi Romania]] di sabudeureun [[Danubé]].<ref name=florescu>{{cite book |last1=Florescu |first1=Radu R. |authorlink1=Radu Florescu |last2=McNally |first2=Raymond T. |authorlink2=Raymond T. McNally |title=Dracula, Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times |url=https://archive.org/details/draculaprinceofm00flor |year=1989 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |isbn=0-316-28655-9 }}</ref> Manéhna katelah 'Panyula' ([[basa Inggris|Ing]]. ''The Impaler'') tumali jeung katelengesanana nyula musuhna.<ref name=Britannica>{{cite web|title = Vlad III|year = 2010|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/631524/Vlad-III|accessdate = 26 May 2010}}</ref> Salila hirupna, katelengesanana sumebar nepi ka wewengkon [[Kakaisaran Roma Suci|Jérman]] kiwari jeung Éropa lianna. Ngaran [[vampir]] '[[Count Dracula]]' dina novel 1897 karya [[Bram Stoker]] dicokot ti lalakon Vlad.<ref name=Britannica/> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tutumbu kaluar == {{Commons category|Vlad III the Impaler}} * [http://people.pwf.cam.ac.uk/~jrh11/DracParNEW.doc ''The Tale of Dracula''] Naskah Rusia taun 1490-an, katut tarjamahna dina basa Inggris * [http://monederomanesti.cimec.ro/vlad3.htm Original coins issued by Vlad III the Impaler] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1431]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1476]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1477]] 2imt9s827wlu638cqbpwzlx10hpio77 0 41943 711704 710046 2026-08-07T02:03:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711704 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ethnic group| |group=Suku Batak |image=Batak Warriors 60011135 edit.jpg |caption= [[Daptar inohong Batak|Inohong-inohong ti séké sélér Batak]]<br />[[Amir Sjarifoeddin]], [[Abdul Haris Nasution]], [[Burhanuddin Harahap]], [[Adnan Buyung Nasution]], [[TB Simatupang]], [[Sitor Situmorang]]<br />(ti kénca ka katuhu) |poptime='''6.076.440 jiwa''' (Sensus 2000)<ref>{{cite book | last = | first = | publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | title =Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape | date = | year =2003 | url =https://archive.org/details/indonesiaspopula0000sury | accessdate = | isbn = 9812302123}}</ref> |region1 = [[Sumatera Kalér]] |pop1 = '''4.827.000''' |region2 = [[Riau]] |pop2 = '''347.000''' |region3 = [[Jakarta]] |pop3 = '''301.000''' |region4 = [[Jawa Kulon]] |pop4 = '''275.000''' |region5 = [[Sumatera Kulon]] |pop5 = '''188.000''' |langs= [[Basa Batak Toba|Toba]]<br />[[Basa Batak Angkola|Angkola]]<br />[[Basa Batak Karo|Karo]]<br />[[Basa Batak Simalungun|Simalungun]]<br />[[Basa Batak Pakpak|Pakpak]]<br />[[Basa Batak Mandailing|Mandailing]] |rels=[[Kristen]]<br />[[Islam]]<br />[[Parmalim]]<br />[[Animismeu]] |related=[[Suku Alas]]<br />[[Suku Nias]]<br />[[Suku Malayu]]<br />[[Suku Minangkabau]]<br />[[Suku Bugis]]<br />[[Suku Dayak]]<br />[[Suku Rimba]]<br />[[Suku Gayo]]<br />[[Suku Singkil]]<br />[[Suku Acéh]] }} '''Batak''' nyaéta ngaran hiji séké sélér di [[Indonésia]],<ref name="hiji">Alwi, Hasan. 2007. ''Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia''. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.</ref> séké ieu téh lolobana mah ngadumuk di [[Sumatera Kalér]], namung aya sawaréhna mah anu cicing di wawates propinsi [[Acéh]] jeung [[Sumatera Kulon]].<ref name="dua">Woro Aryandini dan Tim. 2011. Bahan Ajar Budaya Nusantara: Program Diploma III Keuangan Spesialisasi Kebendaharaan Negara''. Jakarta: STAN.</ref> Lolobana urang Batak mah ngagem [[:en:religion|agama]] [[Kristen]] jeung [[Islam]], tapi aya ogé nu masih kénéh ngagem kapercayaan buhun ([[animismeu]]/Parmalim).<ref name="dua"/> Kiwari urang Batak nyicingan sawatara lobana daérah pagunungan ti mimiti wawates [[propinsi]] [[Acéh]] di béh kalér nepi ka wawates [[:id:Riau|Riau]] jeung [[:id:Sumatera Barat|Sumatera Kulon]] di béh kidul, ogé nyicingan daérah rata nu aya di antara daérah pagunungan jeung [[basisir]] [[Wétan]] [[Sumatera Kalér]] jeung [[basisir]] [[Barat]] [[Sumatera Kalér]].<ref name="dua" /> Ku kituna, urang Batak ieu nyicingan [[pasir]] [[Karo]], [[Langkat Hulu]], [[Deli Hulu]], [[Serdang Hulu]], [[Simalungun]], [[Dairi]], [[Toba]], [[Humbang]], [[Silindung]], [[Angkola]], jeung [[Mandailing]] sarta [[Kabupatén Tapanuli Tengah]].<ref name="dua" /> ==Sarupaning Batak== Numutkeun dumuk géografisna urang Batak kabagi jadi 5 sub étnis, di antarana<ref name="dua"/>: #Batak Karo, séké ieu nyicingan [[pasir]] Karo, Langkat Hulu, Deli Hulu, Serdang Hulu jeung sawaréh tina daérah Dairi,<ref name="dua"/> #Batak Simalungun, séké ieu nyicingan [[Kabupatén Simalungun]],<ref name="dua"/> #Batak Pakpak, séké ieu nyicingan puser daérah [[Dairi]], jeung [[Acéh Kidul]],<ref name="dua"/> #Batak Toba, suku ieu nyicingan daérah [[Kabupatén Toba Samosir]], [[Tapanuli Kalér]], sawaréh [[:id:Tapanuli Tengah|Tapanuli Tengah]],<ref name="dua"/><ref name=”Sit”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=h5HHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83&dq=Kabupaten+Padang+Lawas&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiT-6DLg8aHAxUkSGwGHdKcBZoQ6AF6BAgMEAI#v=onepage&q=Kabupaten%20Padang%20Lawas&f=false| title =Asal-Usul, Silsilah dan Tradisi Budaya BatakSitumorang, M.A., M.Th.| last =Situmorang, M.A., M.Th.| first =Pdt. Dr. Jonar | publisher =Penerbit Andi| location =Jakarta| year =2023|ISBN=9786238806614|pages =34}} Disungsi 27Juli 2024</ref> # Batak Mandailing, séké ieu nyicingan daérah [[Kabupatén Tapanuli Kidul]], [[Mandailing Natal]], Kotamadya Padang Sidempuan, sebagian Tapanuli Tengah, sarta sebagian Pasaman di Sumatera Barat.<ref name="dua"/> ==Sajarah== ===Asal-muasal Séké Batak=== #Mungguh Urang Karo #:Nurutkeun budayawan Karo [[Darwan Prinst]] dina [[sasakala]] séké Karo dikocapkeun yén hiji karajaan ged nu ngaranna Haru pernah ngadeg di [[:en:Andalas|Sumatera]], [[karajaan Haru]] ieu nu jadi taratas séké Karo.<ref name="dua"/> Saurang ahli [[sajarah]] [[Sumatera Kalér]] [[Tengku Lukman Sinar]] dina makalahna mangsa [[kongrés Kabudayaan Karo]] taun [[1995]] di [[Berastagi]] midangkeun bukti-bukti yén [[Deli Tua]] nyaéta puseur kota [[karajaan Haru]].<ref name="dua"/> #:Kitu ogé pangaruh-pangaruh nu datang ti [[India]] ([[Hindu]]) misalna ngaran Sembiring, Sigombak, anu loba asalna rina klan [[India]] misalna [[Brahma]], [[Colia]], [[Meliala]] sarta upacara ka[[agama]]an jeung kapercayaan, makna [[agama]] kacida patalina jeung [[Hindu]]. Jujuluk “Batak” dina Karo nyaéta istilah pikeun ngahijikeun séké-séké anu can ngagem keur harita salian [[Malayu]] ([[Islam]]).<ref name="dua" /> Sohorna jujuluk Batak di [[:id:Masyarakat|masarakat]] Karo katingal dina GBKP (Gareja Batak Karo Protéstan) minangka paguyuban [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]] [[Karo]].<ref name="dua" /> #Mungguh Urang Mandailing #:Dina [[pupuh]] [[:id:XIII|XIII]] [[kitab Negarakertagama]] yasana [[Mpu Prapanca]] sabudeureun taun [[1365]] dituliskeun dina wangun wawacan ngaran [[Mandailing]] barengan loba ngaran nagari di [[Sumatera Kalér]] minangka nagara di handapeun kakawasaan [[karajaan Majapahit]] diantawisna ogé disebutkeun ngaran-ngaran nagari [[Pane]], [[Padang Lawas]].<ref name="dua"/> Katerangan ngeunaan [[Mandailing]] saméméh [[abad ka-14]] minangka [[hiji]] karajaan euweuh urut-urutna acan, ngan ukur disebutkeun minangka kakawasaanna [[karajaan Majapahit]].<ref name="dua"/> #:Perlu dipikanyaho yén nyangkaruk ruruntuhanna candi [[Siwa]] ([[Hindu]]) ti [[abad ka-8]] datang ka [[Mandailing]] dina raraga néangan [[emas]] anu ku maranéhanana disebut [[Swarna Dwipa]].<ref name="dua" /> [[jalma|Urang]] [[Hindu]] nu dimaksud datang ka [[Mandailing]] nyaéta anu asana ti [[Karajaan Kalingga]] di [[India]], ku sabab kitu [[jalma|urang]] [[:id:kerajaan Kalingga|Kalingga]] éta disebut [[:id:orang|urang]] Holing atawa [[jalma|urang]] Koling.<ref name="dua" /> Meureunan [[:id:manusia|jalma-jalma]] nu dimaksud téh datang jeung asup ti daérah [[Singkuang]] nyaéta tempat muarana [[walungan Batang Gadis]] anu kasohor minangka [[:id:pelabuhan mandala|palabuan Mandala]] anu hartina lingkungan atawa [[wewengkon]] pikeun [[:id:manusia|urang-urang]] Holing, meureunan ogé anu dimaksudkeun téh nyaéta ngaran [[Mandailing]].<ref name="dua" /> #:Nepika [[abad ka-13]] [[jalma|orang-orang]] [[Hindu]] aya anu dumuk di [[Mandailing]], hal ieu dikanyahokeunna ku ayana [[tihang]] [[batu]] di [[gunung Sorik Merapi]] nu taréhna [[abad ka-13]] di [[wewengkon]] [[Mandailing Godang]] ([[Pidoli]]). [[:id:Masyarakat|Masarakat]] [[Mandailing]] jeung [[Angkola]] lolobana mah ngagem [[agama]] [[Islam]] jeung nolak ngakukeun asal-muasalna Batak téh ti si Raja Batak.<ref name="dua" /> Mahkamah Syariah Sultan [[Déli]] ngadéklarasikeun yén séké sélér [[Mandailing]] kapisah jeung ngadeg sorangan ti séké sélér Batak, ku sabab kitu séké sélér Batak mawa perkara ieu ka Mahkamah Sipil di [[:en:Batavia|Batavia]], [[:en:Java|Jawa]] jeung Mahkamah pangluhurna di [[Hindia Walanda]] ngadéklarasikeun yén séké sélér [[Mandailing]] téh lain Batak.<ref name="dua" /> ===Sajarah silsilah “Batak”=== Ngaran Batak teu dipikanyaho satemenna, tapi nurutkeun [[:id:cerita|carita-cerita]] [[suci]] [[jalama|urang]] Batak utamana ti Batak Toba mertélakeun yén sakabéh sub séké Batak mibanda [[uyut]] [[bao]] anu hiji nyaéta si Raja Batak.<ref name="dua"/> Jujuluk “Raja” dina Raja Batak lain anu mibanda kakawasaan (pangawasa) tapi minangka ajrihan hungkul.<ref name="dua"/><ref name=”Ver”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ry9qDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=BATAK&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjDjr7BoMaHAxV0XWwGHXACBiUQ6AF6BAgHEAI#v=onepage&q=BATAK&f=false| title =Masyarakat dan hukum adat Batak TobaVergouwen| last =Vergouwen| first =J. C. | publisher =Penerbit Andi| location =Jakarta| year =2004|ISBN=9789793381428|pages =97}} Disungsi 27Juli 2024</ref> ==Sistim Sosial== [[File:Batak Sumatra Kaler.svg|thumb|300px|Kabupatén-kabupatén di Sumatera Kalér anu diwarnaan, miboga mayoritas pangeusi Batak.]] ===Undakan Sosial=== Sistim undakan sosial [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]] Batak kabagi dina<ref name="dua"/>: *Bébédaan umur<ref name="dua"/> *Bébédaan pangkat jeung jabatan<ref name="dua"/> *Bébédaan watek aslina, status kawin.<ref name="dua"/> ===Kapamingpinan=== Kapamingpinan dina [[masyarakat|masrakat]] Batak Karo kapisah nurutkeun [[tilu]] widang nyaéta widang adat, widang [[pamaréntahan]], jeung di widang ka[[agama]]an.<ref name="dua"/> ===Perkawinan=== Perkawinan dina séké Batak mangrupa hiji pranata anu meungkeut [[hiji]] [[lalaki]] jeung hiji [[awéwé]] tapina ogé meungkeut hiji patalian nu ditangtukeun, sangkan hiji [[lalaki]] séké sélér Batak henteu bébas dina pulah-pilih [[jodo]].<ref name="dua"/> ====Perkawinan nu sakuduna==== Per[[kawin]]an yang dianggép alus téh nyaéta perkawinan antara hiji [[awéwé]] [[:id:rimpal|rimpal]] (marpariban [[basa Batak]] [[Toba]]) nyaéta perkawinan antara [[lalaki]] Batak jeung budak [[awéwé]] dulur [[lalaki]] [[indung]]na.<ref name="dua"/> Ogé perkawinan anu pantrang dilakonan nyaéta jeung awéwé anu ti margana sorangan. (namung kiwari geus loba jajaka anu teu maliré adat kuna éta)<ref name="dua"/> ====Perkawinan Mabur==== Per[[:id:kawin|kawin]]an anu di luar pituduh nyaéta per[[kawin]]an mabur (mangalua), perkara ieu kajadian ku sabab teu luyuna antarwis salah sawios pihak atawa dua beulah pihak sadudulurna.<ref name="dua"/> Dina [[:en:marriage|kawin]] mabur ieu dina wanci kurang ti sapoé sadudulur pihak [[lalaki]] kudu ngirimkeun [[:id:delegasi|wawakil]] ka imah koltna si [[wanoja]] pikeun ngabéwarakeun yén budak [[awéwé]] manéhanana geus dibawa nu maksudna dikawin (diparaja, [[basa Batak]] [[Toba]]).<ref name="dua"/> ===Marga jeung Tarombo=== ====Marga==== Marga nyaéta saguliwek duduluran nurutkeun teureuhan ti [[bapa]] (patrilinial). Sistim patrilinial nangtuukeun yén teureuh katurunan osok disambungkeun jeung [[lalaki]].<ref name="dua"/> Saurang Batak ngarasa hirupna lengkep upama manéhanana geus mibanda budak lalaki anu bakal neruskeun margana. Sakabéh samarga teu meunang silih ngawin (henteu kaci pikeun urang Batak Mandailing jeung Batak Angkola) jeung sasama marga disebut dina Dalihan Natolu disebut Dongan Tubu. Lobana sakabéh marga Batak aya 416 kaasup marga séké Nias (sabenerna séké Nias lain Batak).<ref name="dua" /> Tiap-tiap urang Batak mibanda ngaran marga, pamakéan ngaran marga biasana digantungkeun di tukang atawa ditungtung ngaranna. Ngaran marga ieu meunang tina teureuh bapa téa (patrilinéal) anu saterusna bakal diteruskeun ka katurunanna sangkan tuluy-tinuluy.<ref name="dua" /> ====Tarombo==== Tarombo nyaéta silsilah, muasalna nurutkeun teureuh [[bapa]].<ref name="dua"/> ==Kabudayaan Waragad== ===Basa jeung Aksara=== Basa Batak bisa dibagi jadi [[tilu]] guliwek<ref name="dua"/>: #[[Basa Batak]] [[Kalér]]<ref name="dua"/> #[[Basa Batak]] [[Simalungun]]<ref name="dua"/> #[[Basa Batak]] [[Kidul]]<ref name="dua"/> Sérat Batak nyaéta hiji jinis [[aksara]] anu disebut Abugida.<ref name="dua"/> [[Aksara]] Batak biasana ditulis dina kalakay [[awi]] atawa [[kayu]], tutulisanna ti mimiti handap nika luhur jeung garisna ti [[kénca]] ka [[katuhu]].<ref name="dua"/> Sérat Batak jaman baheula dipaké pikeun nulis naskah Batak.<ref name="dua"/> Dina [[basa Batak]] buku nu dimaksud téh disebut Pustaha.<ref name="dua"/> Pustaha ieu ditulis ku datu ([[dukun]]) eusina pananggalan jeung [[élmu nujum]] (perkara-perkara goib).<ref name="dua"/> ===Sistim Orhanisasi Sosial=== ====Pola Pilemburan==== [[File:Batak houses..JPG|thumb|300px|Imah urang Batak]] Lolobana [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]] Batak masih kénéh hirup di jero pilemburan, pilemburan éta disebut Huta, Kuta, Lumban, Sosor, Bius, Pertahian, Urung dan Pertumpukan.<ref name="dua"/> Huta ([[basa Batak]] Toba) biasana mangrupa jabungan territorial anu didumuk asal ti hiji klén.<ref name="dua"/> pikeun urang Karo, jabungan nu dimaksud téh disebut Kuta biasana leuwih gedé batan huta, pangeusina bisa ti mangrupa-rupa klén. Baheula huta téh dikurilingan ku hiji [[parit]], temok taneuh anu luhur jeungn rungkun [[awi]] anu rapet. Ieu téh dimaksudkeun pikeun ngajaga diri tina serangan musuh. Di bagéan jero tina huta aya jéjéran imah di antarana aya [[tepas]] anu bisa dipaké pesta pertikahan, upacara kamaotan jll. Kitu ogé di [[tepas]] téh aya [[leuit]]-[[leuit]] pikeun neundeun [[paré]] jeung [[lisung]] pikeun nutuan [[paré]]. Di urang Karo mah Simalungun jeung [[Mandailing, Tebing Tinggi Kota, Tebing Tinggi|Mandailing]][https://www.uma.ac.id/ <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] téa di unggal [[désa]] na téh mibanda [[balé]] [[désa]] anu dipaké pikeun [[:id:sidang|sidang]] [[:id:pengadilan|pangadilan]] jeung [[sidang]] séjénna. Mun di urang Toba mah balé désa ieu digentikeun ku nu disebut partunghoan.<ref name="dua" /> ====Imah urang Batak==== Imah urang Batak Karo disebut Siwaluh Jabu sedengkeun pikeun imah Batak Toba disebut Ruma Bolon. Dina [[imah]] Batak Toba wagunna opat [[juru panjang]], [[talupuh]]na biasana mah 1,75 [[méter]] di handapeun [[taneuh]], bagéan handap dipaké pikeun kandang [[bagong]], [[hayam]] jeung sajabana.<ref name="dua"/> Upama hiji [[jalma]] rék asup ka imah Batak Toba kudu tungkul sangkan henteu tijedug kana balok anu malang, perkara ieu dimaksudkeun supaya [[tamu]] kudu hormat ka si nu boga [[imah]], sarta hihias pamantes saperti [[batok]] [[kelapa]] ngalambangkeun pinareup ([[susu]] [[awéwé]]) anu disebut adep adep, pamantes ieu téh ngalambangkeun sumber kasuburan dan kasatuan.<ref name="dua"/> Sakabéh imah dijieun tina [[kayu]], dina juru imahna nyangked hihias gajah dompak motipna beungeut [[sasatoan]] miboga maksud panolak [[bala]], kitu ogé hihias motipna [[cakcak]], sirah [[singa]] dimaksudkeun pikeun nolak santét, hihias éta téh aya anu mangrupa ukiran jeung diwarnaan ku warna [[hideung]], [[konéng]] dan [[beureum]] anu ngalambangkeun [[tilu]] [[dunya]] kapercayaan [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]] Batak. Imah anu panglobana hihiasanana mah disebutna gé Gorga. [[Imah]] Batak Toba disebut Ruma Bolon, [[imah]] Mandailing disebut Bagas Godang. Pikeun abus ka imah éta téh kudu nincak tarajé anu ngadeg di tengah [[imah]] anu itungan panincakanna téh [[:id:ganjil|ganjil]].<ref name="dua" /> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Séké sélér di Indonésia]] j73od70eburntmehdssd533z278wyjp 0 42025 711545 711152 2026-08-06T22:51:05Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711545 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Laut Méditerania|Laut Méditerania}} {{Infobox sea | name = Laut Tengah | image = Mediterranean Sea political map-en.svg | caption = Gambar [[satelit]] komposit Laut Tengah | image_bathymetry = | caption_bathymetry = | coords = {{Coord|35|N|18|E|region:XZ_type:waterbody_scale:25000000|display=inline,title}} | type = [[Laut]] | inflow = [[Samudra Atlantik|Atlantik]], [[Laut Marmara]], [[Nil]], [[Ebro]], [[Rhône]], [[Walungan Chelif|Chelif]], [[Po (walungan)|Po]] | outflow = | catchment = | basin_countries = {{hidden | fw1=normal | headerstyle=text-align:left | header = about 60 | content = <div class="hlist hwrap"> * [[Abkhazia]] {{small|(kamerdikaan masih diperdebatkeun, diklaim ku Georgia)}} * [[Albania]] * [[Aljazair]] * [[Andorra]] * [[Austria]] * [[Bélarusia]] * [[Bosnia jeung Hérzégovina]] * [[Bulgaria]] * [[Burundi]] * [[Chad]] * [[Républik Kongo]] * [[Kroasia]] * [[Siprus]] * [[Républik Céko]] * [[Mesir]] * [[Éritréa]] * [[Étiopia]] * [[Perancis]] * [[Georgia (nagara)|Georgia]] * [[Germany]] * [[Gibraltar]] ([[UK]]) * [[Yunani]] * [[Hungaria]] * [[Israél]] * [[Itali]] * [[Kenya]] * [[Kosovo]] {{small|(kamerdikaan masih diperdebatkeun, diklaim ku Sérbia)}} * [[Libanon]] * [[Libya]] * [[Liechtenstein]] * [[Républik Makédonia|Makédonia]] * [[Malta]] * [[Moldova]] * [[Monako]] * [[Monténégro]] * [[Maroko]] * [[Nigeria]] * [[Siprus Kalér]] {{small|(kamerdikaan masih diperdebatkeun, diklaim ku Siprus)}} * [[Nagara Paléstina|Paléstina]] * [[Polandia]]<ref>[http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/blanks/assessment/black.pdf UNECE.indb<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> * [[Romania]] * [[Rusia]] * [[Rwanda]] * [[San Marino]] * [[Sérbia]] * [[Slovakia]] * [[Slovénia]] * [[Ossétia Kidul]] {{small|(kamerdikaan masih diperdebatkeun, diklaim ku Georgia)}} * [[Sudan Kidul]] * [[Spanyol]] * [[Sudan]] * [[Swiss]] * [[Siria]] * [[Tanzania]] * [[Transnistria]] {{small|(kamerdikaan masih diperdebatkeun, diklaim ku Moldova)}} * [[Tunisia]] * [[Turki]] * [[Uganda]] * [[Ukraina]] * [[Kota Vatikan]] </div>}} | length = | width = | area = {{convert|2500000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} | depth = {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} | max-depth = {{convert|5267|m|ft|abbr=on}} | volume = {{convert|3750000|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} | residence_time = 80-100 taun<ref name="Water Flow in Semienclosed Seaways">{{cite book|title=Invitation to Oceanography |first=Paul R. |last=Pinet |page=220 |publisher=Jones & Barlett Learning |year=2008 |isbn=0-7637-5993-7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6TCm8Xy-sLUC&pg=PA220&lpg=PA220}}</ref> | shore = | elevation = | frozen = | islands = [[Daptar pulo di Laut Tengah|3300+]] | cities = [[Aléksandria]], [[Aljazair]], [[Aténa]], [[Barsélona]], [[Béirut]], [[İzmir]], [[Roma]], [[Tangier]], [[Tél Aviv-Jaffa|Tél Aviv]], [[Tripoli]] | reference = }} <!-- leave redlink to prevent ambiguous "(genus)" --> '''Laut Tengah''' atawa '''Laut Méditerania''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɛ|d|ɪ|t|ə|ˈ|r|eɪ|n|i|ə|n}}) mangrupa hiji [[laut]] nu kasambung ka [[Samudra Atlantik]] nu dilingkung ku [[wewengkon Laut Tengah]] sarta sapinuhna ampir kalingkung ku daratan: di béh kalér ku [[Éropa Kidul]] jeung [[Anatolia]], di béh kidul ku [[Afrika Kalér]], jeung di béh wétan ku [[Levant]]. Ieu laut kadang-kadang dianggep minangka bagéan tina Samudra Atlantik, sanajan biasana kaidéntifikasi minangka kumpulan cai nu misah. Ngaran Méditerania asalna tina kecap [[basa Latén]] ''mediterraneus'', nu hartina "di daratan" atawa "ti tengah daratan" (tina ''medius'', "middle" jeung ''terra'', "land"). Ngawengku wewengkon kurang leuwih 2.5 yuta km² (965,000&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi), tapi sambunganana jeung Atlantik ([[Selat Gibraltar]]) mah rubakna ukur {{convert|14|km|mi|abbr=on}}. Selat Gibraltar mangrupa hiji selat heureut nu ngahubungkeun Jaladri Atlantik ka Sagara Tengah jeung [[Gibraltar]] katut Spanyol di Eropa ti [[Maroko]] di Afrika. Dina [[oséanografi]], kadang-kadang disebut ogé ''Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea'' atawa ''European Mediterranean Sea'' pikeun ngabedakeunana ti [[laut tengah (oséanografi)|laut tengah]] di tempat lianna.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ifremer.fr/lobtln/OTHER/ext_abstr_East_Sea_workshop_TLM.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - ext_abstr_East_sea_workshop_TLM.doc|format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]|accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/headlines/news/article_09_03_19_en.html|title=Researchers predict Mediterranean Sea level rise - Headlines - Research – European Commission|publisher=Europa|date=19 March 2009|accessdate= 23 April 2010}}</ref> Laut Tengah jero rata-ratana {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} sarta titik pangjerona nu kacatet nyaéta {{convert|5267|m|ft|abbr=on}} di [[Calypso Deep]] di Sagara Ionia. Laut Tengah mangrupa ruteu penting keur sudagar katut musafir jaman baheula keur dagang jeung tutukeuran budaya antara jelema nu aya di ieu wewengkon. [[Sajarah wewengkon Laut Tengah]] penting keur mikaharti asal muasal katut kamekaran loba masarakat modéren. Nagara-nagara nu gurat basisirna di Laut Tengah di antarana [[Albania]], [[Aljazair]], [[Bosnia-Hérzégovina]], [[Kroasia]], [[Siprus]], [[Mesir]], [[Perancis]], [[Yunani]], [[Israél]], [[Itali]], [[Libanon]], [[Libia]], [[Malta]], [[Maroko]], [[Monako]], [[Monténégro]], [[Siprus Kalér]] (diaku ku Turki), [[Nagara Paléstina|Paléstina]], [[Slovénia]], [[Spanyol]], [[Siria]], [[Turki]], jeung [[Tunisia]]. ==Ngaran== [[File:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Kalayan gurat basisir nu kacida patingarelukna katut lobana jumlah pulo, Yunani boga gurat basisir pangpanjangna di Laut Tengah.]] Istilah ''Méditerania'' asalna tina kecap [[basa Latén]] ''mediterraneus'', nu hartina "dina tengah bumi" atawa "antara daratan" (''medi-''; ks. ''medius'', ''-um -a'' "tengah, antara" + ''terra'' f., "daratan, bumi"): sabab Laut Tengah aya di antara buana [[Afrika]], [[Asia]] jeung [[Éropa]]. Ngaran [[basa Yunani|Yunani]] ''Mesogeios'' (Μεσόγειος), kawas tina μέσο, "tengah" + γη, "daratan, bumi").<ref>[http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2366422 entry μεσόγαιος] at [[Liddell & Scott]]</ref> Laut Tengah kungsi boga sababaraha ngaran. Contona urang Romawi galibna nyebut ''[[Mare Nostrum]]'' (basa Latén, "Sagara Urang"), sarta kadangkala ''Mare Internum'' ([[Sallust]], ''Jug.'' 17). Dina [[Injil]], utamana katelah minangka הים הגדול (HaYam HaGadol), "Sagara Gedé", ([[Kitab Wilangan|Num.]] 34:6,7; [[Kitab Joshua|Josh.]] 1:4, 9:1, 15:47; [[Kitab Ezekiel|Ezek.]] 47:10,15,20), atawa basajanna mah "Sagara" ([[1 Kings]] 5:9; ''comp.'' [[1 Macc.]] 14:34, 15:11); tapi, disebut ogé "Laut Hinder", sabab lokasina aya di basisir béh kulon tina [[Daratan Suci]], sahingga aya di tukangeun jalma nu nyanghareup ka wétan, nu kadangkala ditarjamahkeun minangka "Laut Kulon", ([[Deuteronomy|Deut.]] 11:24; [[Kitab Joel|Joel]] 2:20). Ngaran lianna nyaéta "Laut [[Philistines]]" ([[Kitab Exodus|Exod.]] 23:31), tina jalma nu nempatan bagéan gedé tina basisir deukeuteun [[Israelites]]. Ieu sagara disebut ogé "Laut Gedé" ([[Middle English]]: ''Grete See'') dina [[General Prologue]] ku [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} In [[Hebrew language|Modern Hebrew]], it has been called ''HaYam HaTikhon'' ({{Hebrew|הַיָּם הַתִּיכוֹן}}), "the Middle Sea", reflecting the Séa's name in ancient Greek (''Mesogeios''), Latin (''Mare internum''), German (''Mittelmeer''), and modérn languages in both Europe and the Middle éast (''Mediterranean'', etc.). Similarly, in [[Arabic language|Modern Arabic]], it is known as ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ}}'' (<span dir="rtl">{{lang|ar|البحر [الأبيض] المتوسط}}</span>), "the [White] Middle Sea", while in Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was referenced as ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Baḥr al-Rūm}}'' ({{lang|ar|بحر الروم}}), or "the Roman/[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Sea." In [[Turkish language|Turkish]], it is known as ''Akdeniz'',<ref>[[Özhan Öztürk]] claims that in Old Turkish ''ak'' also means "west" and that ''Akdeniz'' hence means "West Sea", while ''Karadeniz'' (Black Sea) means "North Sea". [[Özhan Öztürk]]. {{cite book|url=http://www.karalahana.com/makaleler/kitap/pontus-antik-cagdan-gunumuze-karadeniz-etnik-siyasi-tarihi.htm|title=Pontus: Antik Çağ’dan Günümüze Karadeniz’in Etnik ve Siyasi Tarihi Genesis Yayınları|place=Ankara|year=2011|pages=5–9}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915062836/http://www.karalahana.com/makaleler/kitap/pontus-antik-cagdan-gunumuze-karadeniz-etnik-siyasi-tarihi.htm |date=2012-09-15 }}</ref> "the White Sea" since among Turks the [[Cardinal direction#Cardinal directions in world cultures|white color]] (ak) represents the west. ==History== {{Main|History of the Mediterranean region}} [[File:AntikeGriechen1.jpg|thumb|right|Greek and Phoenician [[colonies in antiquity]]]] [[File:Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Lepanto]], 1571, ended in victory for the European [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] against the Ottoman Turks.]] [[File:De Engels-Nederlandse vloot in de Baai van Algiers ter ondersteuning van het ultimatum tot vrijlating van blanke slaven, 26 augustus 1816. Rijksmuseum SK-A-1377.jpeg|thumb|The [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|Bombardment of Algiers]] by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to support the ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816]] Several ancient civilisations were located around its shores; thus it has had a major influence on those cultures. It provided routes for trade, colonisation and war, and provided food (by fishing and the gathering of other séafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Abulafia|title=The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean|url=https://archive.org/details/greatseahumanhis0000abul_o4t7|publisher= [[Oxford University Press]]|year=2011}}</ref> The sharing of similar climate, géology and access to a common séa led to numerous historical and cultural connections between the ancient and modérn societies around the Mediterranéan. Two of the most notable Mediterranéan civilisations in [[classical antiquity]] were the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[city state]]s and the [[Phoenicia]]ns. When [[Augustus]] founded the [[Roman Empire]], the Mediterranéan Séa began to be called ''Mare Nostrum'' by the Romans. [[Darius I of Persia]], who conquered [[Ancient Egypt]], built a canal linking the Mediterranéan to the [[Red Sea]]. Darius's canal was wide enough for two [[trireme]]s to pass éach other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse.<ref>Rappoport, S. (Doctor of Philosophy, Basel). History of Egypt (undated, early 20th century), Volume 12, Part B, Chapter V: "The Waterways of Egypt", pages 248-257. London: The Grolier Society.</ref> The western Roman empire collapsed around AD 476. Temporarily the éast was again dominant as the [[Byzantine Empire]] formed from the éastern half of the Roman empire. Another power soon arose in the éast: [[Islam]]. At its gréatest extent, the [[Caliphate|Arab Empire]] controlled 75% of the Mediterranéan region. Europe was reviving, however, as more organised and centralised states began to form in the later [[Middle Ages]] after the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]. [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] power continued to grow, and in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the [[Conquest of Constantinople]]. Ottomans gained control of much of the séa in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France, Algeria and Tunisia. [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Barbarossa]], the famous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the [[Battle of Preveza]]. The [[Battle of Djerba]] marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranéan. As the naval prowess of the Européan powers incréased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the [[Battle of Lepanto]] checked the power of the [[Ottoman Navy]]. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between [[galley]]s. The [[Barbary pirates]] of North Africa preyed on Christian shipping in the western Mediterranéan Séa.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false |title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 |author=Robert Davis |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date= 5 December 2003|accessdate=17 January 2013|isbn=9780333719664}}</ref> According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Européans as slaves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml |title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> The development of océanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranéan. Once, all trade from the éast had passed through the region, but now the circumnavigation of Africa allowed [[Spice trade|spice]]s and other goods to be imported through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.<ref>C.I. Gable - [http://www.boglewood.com/timeline/ottomans.html Constantinople Falls to the Ottoman Turks] -'' Boglewood Timeline'' - 1998 - Retrieved 3 September 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.sephardicstudies.org/ottoemp.html "History of the Ottoman Empire, an Islamic Nation where Jews Lived"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018040430/http://www.sephardicstudies.org/ottoemp.html |date=2014-10-18 }} - ''Sephardic Studies and Culture'' - Retrieved 3 September 2011.</ref><ref>Robert Guisepi - [http://history-world.org/ottoman%20empire.htm The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors To Empire Builders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311160503/http://history-world.org/ottoman%20empire.htm |date=2015-03-11 }} - 1992 - ''History World International'' - Retrieved 3 September 2011.</ref> In 2013, the Maltese présidént described the Mediterranéan séa as a "cemetery" due to the large amounts of migrants who drown there.<ref>{{cite web|title=Migrant deaths prompt calls for EU action|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/10/migrant-deaths-prompt-calls-eu-action-2013101361646517233.html|website=Al Jazeera - English|accessdate=12 December 2014|date=October 13th, 2013}}</ref> Européan Parliament présidént [[Martin Schulz]] said that Europe's migration policy has "turned the Mediterranean into a [[graveyard]]", referring to the number of refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Schulz: EU migrant policy 'turned Mediterranean into graveyard'|url=http://euobserver.com/tickers/121894|website=EUobserver|accessdate=12 December 2014|date=October 24th, 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029130716/http://euobserver.com/tickers/121894 |date=29 October 2014 }}</ref> Following the [[2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck]], the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranéan Séa by authorising "[[Mare Nostrum]]", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants.<ref>http://www.eurasia-rivista.org/loperazione-mare-nostrum/20335/</ref> ==Geography== {{multiple image | width = 180 | footer = | image1 = STS059-238-074 Strait of Gibraltar.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = A satellite image showing the Mediterranean Sea. The [[Strait of Gibraltar]] can be seen in the bottom left (north-west) quarter of the image; to its left is the [[Iberian Peninsula]] in [[Europe]], and to its right, the [[Maghreb]] in [[Africa]]. | image2 = Gallipoli peninsula from space.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = The [[Dardanelles]] [[Turkish Straits|strait]] in [[Turkey]]. The north side is [[Europe]] with the [[Gelibolu Peninsula]] in the [[Thrace]] region; the south side is [[Anatolia]] in [[Asia]]. }} The Mediterranéan Séa is connected to the Atlantic Océan by the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] in the west and to the [[Sea of Marmara]] and the [[Black Sea]], by the [[Dardanelles]] and the [[Bosporus]] respectively, in the éast. The Séa of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranéan Séa, wheréas the Black Séa is generally not. The {{convert|163|km|mi|abbr=on}} long man-made [[Suez Canal]] in the southéast connects the Mediterranéan Séa to the [[Red Sea]]. Large islands in the Mediterranéan include [[Cyprus]], [[Crete]], [[Euboea]], [[Rhodes]], [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], [[Chios]], [[Kefalonia]], [[Corfu]], [[Limnos]], [[Samos]], [[Naxos Island|Naxos]] and [[Andros]] in the [[eastern Mediterranean]]; [[Sardinia]], [[Corsica]], [[Sicily]], [[Cres]], [[Krk]], [[Brač]], [[Hvar]], [[Pag (island)|Pag]], [[Korčula]] and [[Malta Island|Malta]] in the central Mediterranéan; and [[Ibiza]], [[Majorca]] and [[Minorca]] (the [[Balearic Islands]]) in the western Mediterranéan. The typical [[Mediterranean climate]] has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include [[olive]]s, [[grape]]s, [[orange (fruit)|orange]]s, [[tangerine]]s, and [[cork (material)|cork]]. ===Extent=== The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] defines the limits of the Mediterranéan Séa as follows:<ref name="IHO">{{cite web|url=http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition|year=1953|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|accessdate=7 February 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf |date=8 October 2011 }}</ref> Stretching from the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] in the West to the entrances to the [[Dardanelles]] and the [[Suez Canal]] in the éast, the Mediterranéan Séa is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa and Asia, and is divided into two deep basins: *Western Basin: **On the west: A line joining the extremities of [[Cape Trafalgar]] (Spain) and [[Cape Spartel]] (Africa). **On the northéast: The West Coast of Italy. In the [[Strait of Messina]] a line joining the North extreme of Cape Paci (15°42'E) with Cape Peloro, the éast extreme of the Island of [[Sicily]]. The North Coast of Sicily. ** On the éast: A line joining Cape Lilibéo the Western point of Sicily ({{coord|37|47|N|12|22|E|display=inline}}), through the Adventure Bank to [[Cape Bon]] (Tunisia). *éastern Basin: **On the west: The Northéastern and éastern limits of the Western Basin. **On the northéast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11'E) and [[Cape Helles]], the Western entrance to the [[Dardanelles]]. **On the southéast: The entrance to the [[Suez Canal]]. **On the éast: The coasts of [[Syria]], [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Gaza Strip]]. ===Oceanography=== [[File:MEDCURR.GIF|thumb|365px|Predominant surface currents for June]] Being néarly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranéan Séa: for instance, [[tide]]s are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Océan. The Mediterranéan is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour. [[Evaporation]] gréatly exceeds [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] and river runoff in the Mediterranéan, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin.<ref>{{citation|last=Pinet|first=Paul R.|year=1996|title=Invitation to Oceanography|location=St Paul, Minnesota|publisher =West Publishing Co.|isbn=0-314-06339-0|edition=3rd|page=202}}</ref> Evaporation is especially high in its éastern half, causing the water level to decréase and [[salinity]] to incréase éastward.<ref>Pinet 1996, p. 206.</ref> The salinity at 5 m depth is 3.8%.<ref>''[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=D7A5D77327CBA292B6FD3CA2F3D7DC7E?doi=10.1.1.378.4964&rep=rep1&type=pdf Temperature and salinity variations of Mediterranean Sea surface waters over the last 16,000 years from records of planktonic stable oxygen isotopes and alkenone unsaturation ratios]''. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 158 ( 2000) 259–280.</ref> The [[pressure gradient]] pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels éast, then sinks in the region of the [[Levant]] and circulates westward, to spill over the [[Strait of Gibraltar]].<ref>Pinet 1996, pp. 206–207.</ref> Thus, séawater flow is éastward in the Strait's surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranéan Intermediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source.<ref>Pinet 1996, p. 207.</ref> ===Coastal countries=== [[File:Mediterranean Relief.jpg|thumb|365px|Map of the Mediterranean Sea]] The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranéan Séa: *'''Northern shore''' (from west to éast): {{ESP}}, {{FRA}}, {{MCO}}, {{ITA}}, {{SVN}}, {{HRV}}, {{BIH}}, {{MNE}}, {{ALB}}, {{GRC}} and {{TUR}}. *'''éastern shore''' (from north to south): {{SYR}}, {{LBN}}, {{ISR}}, {{flag|State of Palestine}} (disputed sovereignty). *'''Southern shore''' (from west to éast): {{MAR}}, {{DZA}}, {{TUN}}, {{LBY}}, {{EGY}}. *'''Island nations''': {{MLT}}, {{CYP}}, {{TRNC}} (disputed sovereignty). Several other territories also border the Mediterranéan Séa (from west to éast): The [[British overseas territory]] of [[Gibraltar]], the Spanish autonomous cities of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] and [[plazas de soberanía|nearby islands]], and the [[Sovereign Base Areas]] on Cyprus [[File:Barcelona skyline.jpg|thumb|[[Barcelona]], the largest metropolitan area on the Mediterranean Sea and also the headquarters of the [[Union for the Mediterranean]].]] [[File:Attica 06-13 Athens 36 View from Lycabettus.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Acropolis of Athens]] with the Mediterranean Sea in the background.]] [[File:Coast of Tel Aviv-Yaffo.JPG|thumb|The ancient port of [[Jaffa]] in Israel: according to the [[Bible]], where the character [[Jonah]] set sail before being swallowed by a whale.<ref>''Israel'', By Sue Bryant, (New Holland Publishers, 2008), page 72</ref>]] [[File:Alexandria harbour (February 2007).jpg|thumb|right|The harbour of [[Alexandria]], one of the largest cities on the Mediterranean]] [[File:Catania-etna.JPG|thumb|Catania, Sicily, with [[Mount Etna]] in the background.]] [[File:View of Konak Square.jpg|thumb|[[İzmir]], the third metropolis of [[Turkey]] after [[Istanbul]] and [[Ankara]].]] Major cities (municipalities) with populations larger than 200,000 péople bordering the Mediterranéan Séa are: {| class="wikitable" style="width:60%; text-align:left; font-size:90%; margin-left:1em;" |- style="background:#efefef;" !Country !Cities |- |{{flag|Albania}} |[[Durrës]] |- |{{flag|Algeria}} |[[Algiers]], [[Annaba]], [[Oran]] |- |{{flag|Croatia}} |[[Split, Croatia|Split]], [[Rijeka]] |- |{{flag|Egypt}} |[[Alexandria]], [[Port Said]] |- |{{flag|France}} |[[Marseille]], [[Nice]], [[Montpellier]] |- |{{flag|Greece}} |[[Athens]], [[Heraklion]], [[Patras]], [[Thessaloniki]] |- |{{flag|Israel}} |[[Ashdod]], [[Haifa]], [[Tel Aviv]] |- |{{flag|Italy}} |[[Bari]], [[Catania]], [[Genoa]], [[Messina]], [[Naples]], [[Palermo]], [[Rome]], [[Taranto]], [[Trieste]], [[Venice]] |- |{{flag|Lebanon}} |[[Beirut]], [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] |- |{{flag|Libya}} |[[Benghazi]], [[Khoms, Libya|Khoms]], [[Misrata]], [[Tripoli]], [[Zawiya, Libya|Zawiya]], [[Zliten]] |- |{{flag|Morocco}} |[[Tétouan]], [[Tangier]] |- |{{flag|Spain}} |[[Alicante]], [[Badalona]], [[Barcelona]], [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]], [[Málaga]], [[Palma, Majorca|Palma]], [[Valencia]] |- |{{flag|State of Palestine}} |[[Gaza City]] |- |{{flag|Syria}} |[[Latakia]] |- |{{flag|Tunisia}} |[[Bizerte]], [[Sfax]], [[Tunis]] |- |{{flag|Turkey}} |[[Antalya]], [[Iskenderun]], [[İzmir]], [[Mersin]] |- |} ===Subdivisions=== [[File:Bucht & Straße von Gibraltar.jpg|thumb|Africa (left, on horizon) and Europe (right), as seen from Gibraltar.]] According to the [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO), the Mediterranéan Séa is subdivided into a number of smaller waterbodies, éach with their own designation (from west to éast):<ref name="IHO"/> *the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]; *the [[Alboran Sea]], between Spain and [[Morocco]]; *the [[Balearic Sea]], between mainland Spain and its [[Balearic Islands]]; *the [[Ligurian Sea]] between [[Corsica]] and [[Liguria]] (Italy); *the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] enclosed by [[Sardinia]], [[Italian peninsula]] and [[Sicily]]; *the [[Ionian Sea]] between Italy, [[Albania]] and Greece; *the [[Adriatic Sea]] between Italy, [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Albania]]; *the [[Aegean Sea]] between Greece and Turkey. ====Other seas==== [[File:Amalfi2.JPG|thumb|[[Amalfi]] viewed from the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]].]] Although not recognised by the IHO tréaties, there are some other séas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present: *the [[Sea of Sardinia]], between [[Sardinia]] and [[Balearic Islands]], as a part of the [[Balearic Sea]] *the [[Sea of Sicily]] between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunisia]], *the [[Libyan Sea]] between [[Libya]] and [[Crete]], *In the [[Aegean Sea]], **the [[Thracian Sea]] in its north, **the [[Myrtoan Sea]] between the [[Cyclades]] and the [[Peloponnese]], **the [[Sea of Crete]] north of Crete, **the [[Icarian Sea]] between [[Kos]] and [[Chios]] *the [[Cilician Sea]] between Turkey and [[Cyprus]] *the [[Levantine Sea]] at the éastern end of the Mediterranéan ====Other features==== [[File:Beirut-Sannine.jpg|thumb|View of the Saint George Bay, and snow-capped [[Mount Sannine]] from the [[Corniche]], Beirut]] [[File:Port Autonome de Marseille.JPG|thumb|The Port of Marseille seen from [[L'Estaque]]]] Many of these smaller séas féature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from these associations. In addition to the séas, a number of [[Headlands and bays|gulfs]] and [[strait]]s are also recognised: *the [[Saint George Bay]] in Beirut, Lebanon *the [[Ras Ibn Hani]] cape in [[Latakia]], [[Syria]] *the [[Ras al-Bassit]] cape in northern Syria. *the [[Minet el-Beida]] ("White Harbour") bay néar ancient [[Ugarit]], [[Syria]] *the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], connects the Atlantic Océan to the Mediterranéan Séa and separates Spain from [[Morocco]] *the [[Bay of Gibraltar]], at the southern end of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] *the [[Gulf of Corinth]], an enclosed séa between the Ionian Séa and the [[Corinth Canal]] *the [[Pagasetic Gulf]], the gulf of [[Volos]], south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the [[Mount Pelion]] [[peninsula]] *the [[Saronic Gulf]], the gulf of [[Athens]], between the Corinth Canal and the [[Mirtoan Sea]] *the [[Thermaic Gulf]], the gulf of [[Thessaloniki]], located in the northern Greek region of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] *the [[Kvarner Gulf]], [[Croatia]] *the [[Gulf of Lion]], south of France *the [[Gulf of Valencia]], éast of Spain *the [[Strait of Messina]], between [[Sicily]] and the toe of Italy *the [[Gulf of Genoa]], northwestern Italy *the [[Gulf of Venice]], northéastern Italy *the [[Gulf of Trieste]], northéastern Italy *the [[Gulf of Taranto]], southern Italy[[File:Panorama Lumbarde i Škoja1150954.JPG|thumb|The Adriatic Sea contains over [[List of islands in the Adriatic|1200 islands and islets]].]] *the [[Gulf of Salerno]], southwestern Italy *the [[Gulf of Gaeta]], southwestern Italy *the [[Gulf of Squillace]], southern Italy *the [[Strait of Otranto]], between Italy and [[Albania]] *the [[Gulf of Haifa]], northern Israel *the [[Gulf of Sidra]], between [[Tripolitania]] (western Libya) and [[Cyrenaica]] (éastern Libya) *the [[Strait of Sicily]], between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunisia]] *the [[Corsica Channel]], between [[Corsica]] and Italy *the [[Strait of Bonifacio]], between [[Sardinia]] and [[Corsica]] *the [[Gulf of İskenderun]], between [[İskenderun]] and [[Adana]] (Turkey) *the [[Gulf of Antalya]], between west and éast shores of Antalya (Turkey) *the [[Bay of Kotor]], in south-western [[Montenegro]] and south-éastern [[Croatia]] *the [[Malta Channel]], between Sicily and Malta *the [[Gozo Channel]], between Malta Island and [[Gozo]] ===10 Largest islands by area=== [[File:Tunisia - Sicily - South Italy.jpg|thumb|The two biggest islands of the Mediterranean: [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]]]] {{Main|List of islands in the Mediterranean}} {| class="wikitable" style="width:40%; text-align:center; font-size:90%; margin-left:1em;" |- style="background:#efefef;" !Flag !Island !Aréa in km² !Population |- |{{flagicon|ITA}} {{flagicon|Sicily}} |[[Sicily]] |25,460 |5,048,995 |- |{{flagicon|ITA}} {{flagicon|Sardinia}} |[[Sardinia]] |23,821 |1,672,804 |- |{{flagicon|CYP}} |[[Cyprus]] |9,251 |1,088,503 |- |{{flagicon|FRA}} {{flagicon|Corsica}} |[[Corsica]] |8,680 |299,209 |- |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Crete]] |8,336 |623,666 |- |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Euboea]] |3,655 |218.000 |- |{{flagicon|ESP}} {{flagicon|Majorca}} |[[Majorca]] |3,640 |869,067 |- |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Lesbos]] |1,632 |90,643 |- |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Rhodes]] |1,400 |117,007 |- |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Chios]] |842 |51,936 |} ===Climate=== {{wide image|Koppen World Map (Mediterranean Sea area only).png|769px|The climate map of the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, according to [[Köppen climate classification]].}} ====Sea temperature==== {|class="wikitable" |+Méan séa temperature (°C) |- ! !Jan !Feb !Mar !Apr !May !Jun !Jul !Aug !Sep !Oct !Nov !Dec !Yéar |- |[[Marseille]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/france/marseille.php Marseille Climate and Weather Averages, France<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |13 |13 |13 |14 |16 |18 |21 |22 |21 |18 |16 |14 !16.6 |- |[[Gibraltar]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/gibraltar/gibraltar.php Gibraltar Climate and Weather Averages<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |16 |15 |16 |16 |17 |20 |22 |22 |22 |20 |18 |17 !18.4 |- |[[Málaga]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/spain/costa-del-sol/malaga.php Malaga Climate and Weather Averages, Costa del Sol<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |16 |15 |15 |16 |17 |20 |22 |23 |22 |20 |18 |16 !18.3 |- |[[Athens]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/greece/athens.php Athens Climate and Weather Averages, Greece<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |16 |15 |15 |16 |18 |21 |24 |24 |24 |21 |19 |18 !19.3 |- |[[Barcelona]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/spain/barcelona.php Barcelona Climate and Weather Averages, Spain<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |13 |13 |13 |14 |17 |20 |23 |25 |23 |20 |17 |15 !17.8 |- |[[Heraklion]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/greece/crete/iraklion.php Iraklion Climate and Weather Averages, Crete<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |16 |15 |15 |16 |19 |22 |24 |25 |24 |22 |20 |18 !19.7 |- |[[Venice]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/italy/venetian-riviera/venice.php Venice Climate and Weather Averages, Venetian Riviera<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |11 |10 |11 |13 |18 |22 |25 |26 |23 |20 |16 |14 !17.4 |- |[[Valencia]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/spain/valencia.php Valencia Climate and Weather Averages, Spain<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |14 |13 |14 |15 |17 |21 |24 |26 |24 |21 |18 |15 !18.5 |- |[[Malta]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/malta/valletta.php Valletta Climate and Weather Averages, Malta<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |16 |16 |15 |16 |18 |21 |24 |26 |25 |23 |21 |18 !19.9 |- |[[Alexandria]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/egypt/alexandria.php Alexandria Climate and Weather Averages, Egypt<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105193047/http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/egypt/alexandria.php |date=2014-01-05 }}</ref> |18 |17 |17 |18 |20 |23 |25 |26 |26 |25 |22 |20 !21.4 |- |[[Naples]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/italy/neapolitan-riviera/naples.php Naples Climate and Weather Averages, Neapolitan Riviera<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |15 |14 |14 |15 |18 |22 |25 |27 |25 |22 |19 |16 !19.3 |- |[[Larnaca]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/cyprus/larnaca.php Larnaca Climate and Weather Averages, Cyprus<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |18 |17 |17 |18 |20 |24 |26 |27 |27 |25 |22 |19 !21.7 |- |[[Limassol]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/cyprus/limassol.php Limassol Climate and Weather Averages, Cyprus<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |18 |17 |17 |18 |20 |24 |26 |27 |27 |25 |22 |19 !21.7 |- |[[Antalya]] |17 |17 |17 |18 |21 |24 |27 |28 |27 |25 |22 |19 !21.8 |- |[[Tel Aviv]]<ref>[http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/israel/tel-aviv.php Tel Aviv Climate and Weather Averages, Israel<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |18 |17 |17 |18 |21 |24 |26 |28 |27 |26 |23 |20 !22.1 |} ==Geology== {{Refimprove section|date=May 2012}} {{see also|Geology and paleoclimatology of the Mediterranean Basin}} [[File:Vrulja kod Omiša.jpg|thumb|A submarine [[karst spring]], called ''vrulja'', observed through sea surface rippling near [[Omiš]]]] [[File:Etapa3muda.jpg|thumb|Messinian salinity crisis, 5.96 to 5.33 mya, before the [[Zanclean flood]]]] [[File:Crisis salina del Messiniense.ogv|thumb|Messinian salinity crisis animation]] The [[geology|geologic history]] of the Mediterranéan is complex. It was involved in the [[tectonic]] bréak-up and then collision of the [[African Plate|African]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]] plates. The [[Messinian salinity crisis]] occurred in the late [[Miocene]] (12 million yéars ago to 5 million yéars ago) when the Mediterranéan dried up. Géologically the Mediterranéan is underlain by [[oceanic crust]]. There are more than a million cubic kilometres of salt deposits at the bottom of the Mediterranéan,<ref>{{cite journal|author1=William Ryan|title=Decoding the Mediterranean salinity crisis|journal=Sedimentology|date=2008|volume=56|issue=1|pages=95-136|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01031.x}}</ref> up to three kilometres thick in places.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=William Ryan|title=Modeling the magnitude and timing of evaporative drawdown during the Messinian salinity crisis|journal=Sedimentology|date=2008|volume=5|issue=3-4|page=229|url=http://eesc.ldeo.columbia.edu/courses/w4937/Readings/Ryan_Messinian_Stratigraphy_2008.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093103/http://eesc.ldeo.columbia.edu/courses/w4937/Readings/Ryan_Messinian_Stratigraphy_2008.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> The Mediterranéan Séa has an average depth of {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} and the deepest recorded point is {{convert|5267|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the [[Calypso Deep]] in the [[Ionian Sea]]. The coastline extends for {{convert|46000|km|mi|abbr=on}}. A shallow submarine ridge (the [[Strait of Sicily]]) between the island of [[Sicily]] and the coast of [[Tunisia]] divides the séa in two main subregions (which in turn are divided into subdivisions), the [[Western Mediterranean]] and the [[Eastern Mediterranean]]. The Western Mediterranéan covers an aréa of about 0.85 million&nbsp;km² (0.33 million&nbsp;mi²) and the éastern Mediterranéan about 1.65 million&nbsp;km² (0.64 million&nbsp;mi²). A characteristic of the Mediterranéan Séa are submarine [[karst spring]]s or {{lang|hr|''vrulja''}}s, which mainly occur in shallow waters<ref name="LaMoreaux2001">{{cite book |url=http://books.google.si/books?id=sjEoBmfUka0C&pg=PA58#v=onepage&q&f=false |chapter=Geologic/Hydrogeologic Setting and Classification of Springs |page=57 |title=Springs and Bottled Waters of the World: Ancient History, Source, Occurrence, Quality and Use |first=Philip |last=Elmer LaMoreaux |year=2001 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-61841-6}}</ref> and may also be thermal.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://zgs.zrc-sazu.si/Portals/8/Geografski_obzornik/go_2004_2.pdf|journal=Geografski obzornik|year=2004|volume=51|issue=2|issn=0016-7274|publisher=Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia|language=Slovenian|first=Jože|last=Žumer|title=Odkritje podmorskih termalnih izvirov|trans_title=Discovery of submarine thermal springs|pages=11–17}} {{sl icon}}</ref> ===Tectonic evolution=== The [[Geodynamics|geodynamic]] evolution of the Mediterranéan Séa was provided by the [[Convergent boundary|convergence]] of Européan and African plates and several smaller [[List of tectonic plates#Tertiary plates|microplates]]. This process was driven by the differential [[seafloor spreading]] along the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]], which led to the closure of the [[Tethys Ocean]] and eventually to the [[Alpine orogeny|Alpine orogenesis]]. However, the Mediterranéan also hosts wide extensional [[Structural basin|basins]] and migrating [[plate tectonics|tectonic]] [[Volcanic arc|arcs]], in response to its land-locked configuration. According to a report published by ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 2009, some scientists think that the Mediterranéan Séa was mostly filled during a time period of less than two yéars, in a major flood (the ''[[Zanclean flood]]'') that happened approximately 5.33 million yéars ago, in which water poured in from the Atlantic Océan and through the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], at a rate three orders of magnitude larger than the current flow of the [[Amazon River]].<ref name="GCetal2009">Garcia-Castellanos, D., Estrada, F., Jiménez-Munt, I., Gorini, C., Fernàndez, M., Vergés, J., De Vicente, R. (10 December 2009) [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v462/n7274/full/nature08555.html Catastrophic flood of the Mediterranean after the Messinian salinity crisis], ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 462, pp. 778–781, {{doi|10.1038/nature08555}}</ref> However, the séa basins had been filled for many millions of yéars ''before'' the prior closure of the Strait of Gibraltar. ====Eastern Mediterranean==== In middle [[Miocene]] times, the [[Orogeny|collision]] between the [[Arabian microplate]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasia]] led to the separation between the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys]] and the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] océans. This process resulted in profound changes in the [[Ocean current|oceanic circulation]] patterns, which shifted global climates towards colder conditions. The [[Hellenic arc]], which has a land-locked configuration, underwent a widespréad extension for the last 20 Ma due to a slab roll-back process. In addition, the Hellenic Arc experienced a rapid rotation phase during the [[Pleistocene]], with a counterclockwise component in its éastern portion and a clockwise trend in the western segment. ====Central Mediterranean==== The opening of small océanic basins of the central Mediterranéan follows a [[Oceanic trench|trench]] migration and [[Back-arc basin|back-arc]] opening process that occurred during the last 30 Myr. This phase was characterised by the anticlockwise rotation of the Corsica–Sardinia [[Terrane|block]], which lasted until the Langhian (ca.16 Ma), and was in turn followed by a slab detachment along the northern African margin. Subsequently, a shift of this active extensional deformation led to the opening of the Tyrrenian basin. ====Western Mediterranean==== The Betic-Rif [[mountain belt]]s developed during [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] times, as Africa and Iberia converged. Tectonic modéls for its evolution include: rapid motion of [[Alboran Sea|Alboran]] Domain, [[subduction]] zone and radial extensional collapse caused by convective removal of lithospheric mantle. The development of these intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to the onset of two marine gateways which were progressively closed during the late Miocene by an interplay of tectonic and [[glacio-eustatic]] processes. ===Paleoenvironmental analysis=== Its semi-enclosed configuration makes the océanic gateways critical in controlling circulation and environmental evolution in the Mediterranéan Séa. Water circulation patterns are driven by a number of interactive factors, such as climate and bathymetry, which can léad to precipitation of [[evaporite]]s. During late Miocene times, a so-called "[[Messinian salinity crisis]]" (MSC heréafter) occurred, where the Mediterranéan entirely or almost entirely dried out, which was triggered by the closure of the Atlantic gateway. Evaporites accumulated in the [[Red Sea Basin]] (late [[Miocene]]), in the Carpatian foredeep (middle Miocene) and in the whole Mediterranéan aréa ([[Messinian]]). An accurate age estimate of the MSC—5.96 Ma—has recently been astronomically achieved; furthermore, this event seems to have occurred synchronously. The beginning of the MSC is supposed to have been of tectonic origin; however, an astronomical control (eccentricity) might also have been involved. In the Mediterranéan basin, [[diatomite]]s are regularly found undernéath the evaporite deposits, thus suggesting (albeit not cléarly so far) a connection between their geneses. The present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], finds its origin in the éarly Pliocene. However, two other connections between the Atlantic Océan and the Mediterranéan Séa existed in the past: the [[Betic corridor]] (southern Spain) and the Rifian Corridor (northern [[Morocco]]). The former closed during [[Tortonian]] times, thus providing a "Tortonian salinity crisis" well before the MSC; the latter closed about 6 Ma, allowing exchanges in the mammal fauna between Africa and Europe. Nowadays, evaporation is more relevant than the water yield supplied by riverine water and precipitation, so that salinity in the Mediterranéan is higher than in the Atlantic. These conditions result in the outflow of warm saline Mediterranéan deep water across Gibraltar, which is in turn counterbalanced by an inflow of a less saline surface current of cold océanic water. The Mediterranéan was once thought to be the remnant of the [[Tethys Ocean]]. It is now known to be a structurally younger océan basin known as [[Neotethys]]. The Néotethys formed during the Late [[Triassic]] and éarly [[Jurassic]] [[rift]]ing of the African and Eurasian [[plate tectonics|plates]]. ==Paleoclimate== Because of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranéan is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranéan is involved in the deposition of éolian dust from the [[Sahara]] during dry periods, wheréas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranéan marine [[sapropel]]-béaring sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the éarth's history, helping to constrain the time of past [[Geomagnetic Reversal]]s.<ref>FJ, Hilgen. Astronomical calibration of Gauss to Matuyama sapropels in the Mediterranean and implication for the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale, 104 (1991) 226-244 ''Earth and Planetary Science Letters'', 1991.[http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/geo/2007-0119-200857/hilgen_91_astronomical.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724171928/http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/geo/2007-0119-200857/hilgen_91_astronomical.pdf |date=2011-07-24 }}</ref> Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paléoclimatic records have improved our knowledge of the éarth's orbital variations in the past. ==Ecology and biota== As a result of the drying of the séa during the [[Messinian salinity crisis]],<ref>[[Kenneth J. Hsu|Hsu K.J.]], "When the Mediterranean Dried Up" ''Scientific American'', Vol. '''227''', December 1972, p32</ref> the marine biota of the Mediterranéan are derived primarily from the Atlantic Océan. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranéan, and the marine life of the Mediterranéan has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million yéars since the basin was reflooded. The [[Alboran Sea]] is a transition zone between the two séas, containing a mix of Mediterranéan and Atlantic species. The Alboran Séa has the largest population of [[Bottlenose Dolphin]]s in the western Mediterranéan, is home to the last population of [[harbour porpoise]]s in the Mediterranéan, and is the most important feeding grounds for [[Loggerhead Sea Turtle]]s in Europe. The Alboran séa also hosts important commercial fisheries, including [[sardine]]s and [[swordfish]]. The [[Mediterranean monk seal]]s live in the Aegéan Séa in Greece. In 2003, the [[World Wildlife Fund]] raised concerns about the widespréad [[drift net]] fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals. {{See also|Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance}} == Environmental history == {{pov-section|talk=Some_controversial_statements_in_the_recent_additions_to_this_page|date=October 2014}} {{hatnote|Parts of this section have been copied from [[Alfred Thomas Grove#Environmental skepticism]].}} For 4,000 yéars, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranéan Europe, and the "humanisation of the landscape" overlapped with the appéarance of the present Mediterranéan climate.<ref name =yale/> The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranéan Paradise on éarth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations dates back to at léast the eighteenth century and was for centuries fashionable in archaéological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis of trade relations, [[floodplain]] sediments, [[pollen]], tree-ring and further archaéometric analyses and population studies, [[Alfred Thomas Grove]] and [[Oliver Rackham]]'s work on "The Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranéan Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement.<ref name =yale/> The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to méasure up to the imaginary past of the [[classics]] as idéalised by artists, poets and scientists of the éarly modérn [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]].<ref name =yale/> The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the deforestation had alréady taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises as the [[Latifundium]]s took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. Some{{who|date=September 2014}} assume that the major deforestation took place in modérn times — the later usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually been unstable and showing various ancient and modérn "[[Little Ice Age]]s",<ref>Little Ice Ages: Ancient and Modern, Jean M. Grove, Taylor & Francis, 2004</ref> and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient with regard to various patterns of human activity.<ref name =yale/> Humanisation was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it.<ref name =yale/> The wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranéan Europe is predominantly based on human behaviour, as it is and has been closely related human usage patterns.<ref name =yale/> The diversity range was enhanced by the widespréad exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The gréatest human-induced changes, however, came since World War II, respectively in line with the '1950s-syndrome'<ref>Christian Pfister (Hrsg.), Das 1950er Syndrom: Der Weg in die Konsumgesellschaft, Bern 1995</ref> as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns towards taking a role as scenery-setting agents for the then much more important (tourism) travellers. This resulted in more monotonous, large-scale formations.<ref name =yale/> Among further current important thréats to Mediterranéan landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal aréas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.<ref name =yale>The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History, by Alfred Thomas Grove, Oliver Rackham, Yale University Press, 2003, [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300100556 review at Yale university press] [https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_history/v032/32.3fagan.pdfThe Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History (review) [[Brian M. Fagan]], Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Volume 32, Number 3, Winter 2002, pp. 454-455 |]</ref> === Natural hazards === The region has a variety of géological hazards which have closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among others, in the éastern mediterrenian, the [[Thera eruption]], dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large [[tsunami]] that some experts hypothesise devastated the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan civilisation]] on the néarby island of Crete, further léading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the [[Atlantis]] legend.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6568053.stm The wave that destroyed Atlantis] Harvey Lilley, BBC News Online, 2007-04-20. Retrieved 2007-04-21.</ref> [[Mount Vesuvius]] is the only active [[volcano]] on the Européan mainland, while others as [[Mount Etna]] and [[Stromboli]] are to be found on neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius including the [[Phlegraean Fields]] Caldera west of Naples are quite active<ref>Antonio Denti, [http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/03/us-italy-volcano-idUSBRE8720WI20120803 "Super volcano", global danger, lurks near Pompeii], [[Reuters]], August 3, 2012.</ref> and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world and eruptive event may occure within decades.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Roberto | last = Isaia | author2 = Paola Marianelli | author3 = Alessandro Sbrana | year = 2009 | title = Caldera unrest prior to intense volcanism in Campi Flegrei (Italy) at 4.0 ka B.P.: Implications for caldera dynamics and future eruptive scenarios | journal = [[Geophysical Research Letters]] | volume = 36 | issue = L21303 | url = http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2009/2009GL040513.shtml | doi = 10.1029/2009GL040513 | pages = L21303 | bibcode = 2009GeoRL..3621303I }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922002555/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2009/2009GL040513.shtml |date=2012-09-22 }}</ref> Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive ([[Plinian eruption|Plinian]]) eruptions.<ref name=mcguire2003>{{cite news|first=Bill|last=McGuire|title=In the shadow of the volcano|date=October 16, 2003|publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited|newspaper=guardian.co.uk|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2003/oct/16/research.highereducation2|accessdate=May 8, 2010}}</ref> It is best known for its [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79|eruption in AD 79]] that led to the burying and destruction of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]]. The large experience of member states and regional authorities has léad to exchange on the international level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons.<ref name=evch>[http://www.infopuntveiligheid.nl/Infopuntdocumenten/7._Eric_van_der_Horst.pdf Eric van der Horst presentation from 2011 about various EU EUROPEAN CIVIL PROTECTION efforts 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205041217/http://www.infopuntveiligheid.nl/Infopuntdocumenten/7._Eric_van_der_Horst.pdf |date=2015-02-05 }}</ref> The [[Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy]] is a quite positive example of natural hazards léading to improved relations of traditional rivals in the region after éarthquakes in İzmir and Athens 1999. The Européan Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express Européan solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/thefunds/solidarity EU Solidarity Fund Website] [http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-03-1029_en.htm?locale=FR 2003 proposal of EUR 47.6 million for Italian regions hit by natural disasters] </ref> The largest amount of fund requests in the EU is being directed to [[forest fire]]s, followed by floodings and éarthquakes. Forest fires are, whether man made or natural, an often recurring and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranéan region.<ref name=evch/> Also, tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the [[1908 Messina earthquake]] and [[tsunami]] took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most déadly natural disasters in modérn Europe. ===Biodiversity=== {{See also|List of fish of the Mediterranean Sea|List of fish of the Black Sea}} ====Invasive species==== [[File:Himantura uarnak egypt.jpg|thumb|The [[Reticulate whipray]] is one of the species that colonised the eastern Mediterranean through the [[Suez Canal]].]] The opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869 créated the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranéan and [[Red Sea]]. The Red Séa is higher than the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], so the canal serves as a tidal [[strait]] that pours Red Séa water into the Mediterranéan. The [[Bitter Lakes]], which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Séa species into the Mediterranéan for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Séa, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Séa have begun to colonise the éastern Mediterranéan. The Red Séa is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Séa species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor éastern Mediterranéan. Accordingly, Red Séa species invade the Mediterranéan biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the [[Lessepsian migration]] (after [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]], the French engineer) or Erythréan invasion. The construction of the [[Aswan High Dam]] across the [[Nile]] River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich [[silt]] from the Nile into the éastern Mediterranéan, making conditions there even more like the Red Séa and worsening the impact of the [[invasive species]]. Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranéan ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranéan ecology, endangering many local and [[endemism|endemic]] Mediterranéan species. A first look at some groups of exotic species show that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranéan are of Indo Pacific origin,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.issg.org/infpaper_invasive.pdf|title=IUCN Guidelines for the Prevention of Biodiversity Loss Caused by Alien Invasive Species|accessdate=11 August 2009|year=2000|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115235640/http://www.issg.org/infpaper_invasive.pdf |date=15 January 2009 }}</ref> [[introduced species|introduced]] into the Mediterranéan through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal as the first pathway of arrival of "[[Introduced species|alien]]" species into the Mediterranéan. The impacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be considerable mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranéan, where they are replacing native species and becoming a "familiar sight". According to the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] definition, as well as [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD) and [[Ramsar Convention]] terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranéan Séa, and they are outside their normal aréa of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranéan séa, compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as they are an agent of change and a thréat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a thréat to the native Mediterranéan biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this séa. In recent yéars, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from [[marine biologist]]s, féaring that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Séa species into the Mediterranéan, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional species.<ref>Galil, B.S. and Zenetos, A. (2002). A sea change: exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, in: Leppäkoski, E. et al. (2002). ''Invasive aquatic species of Europe: distribution, impacts and management''. pp. 325-336.</ref> ====Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species==== In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become a noticéable féature. Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural aréa of these species that now enter the Mediterranéan through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by [[global warming]]; or an extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. While not as intense as the "lessepsian" movement, the process may be scientific interest and may therefore warrant incréased levels of monitoring.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} ===Sea-level rise=== By 2100, the overall level of the Mediterranéan could rise between {{convert|3|to|61|cm|1|abbr=on}} as a result of the effects of [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Mediterranean Sea Level Could Rise By Over Two Feet, Global Models Predict|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090303084057.htm|publisher=[[Science Daily]]|date=3 March 2009}}</ref> This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranéan: *Rising séa levels will submerge parts of [[Malta]]. Rising séa levels will also méan rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.<ref>{{cite news|title=Briny future for vulnerable Malta|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6525069.stm|date=4 April 2007|publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> *A {{convert|30|cm|0|abbr=on}} rise in séa level would flood {{convert|200|km2|0|abbr=out}} of the [[Nile Delta]], displacing over 500,000 [[Egyptians]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt fertile Nile Delta falls prey to climate change|url=http://news.egypt.com/en/201001288902/news/-egypt-news/egypt-fertile-nile-delta-falls-prey-to-climate-change.html|date=28 January 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209093815/http://news.egypt.com/en/201001288902/news/-egypt-news/egypt-fertile-nile-delta-falls-prey-to-climate-change.html |date=9 February 2011 }}</ref> Coastal ecosystems also appéar to be thréatened by séa level rise, especially enclosed séas such as the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]], the Mediterranéan and the Black Séa. These séas have only small and primarily éast-west movement [[Habitat corridor|corridors]], which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these aréas.<ref>Nicholls, R.J.; Klein,R.J.T. (2005). Climate change and coastal management on Europe's coast, in: Vermaat, J.E. et al. (Ed.) (2005). Managing European coasts: past, present and future. pp. 199-226.</ref> Séa level rise for the next century (2100) could be between {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|100|cm|in|abbr=on}} and temperature shifts of a méré 0.05-0.1&nbsp;°C in the deep séa are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.<ref name="greenpeace.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/marine-reserves/the-mediterranean/mediterranean-other-threats|title=Other threats in the Mediterranean &#124; Greenpeace International|publisher=Greenpeace|accessdate=23 April 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416071023/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/marine-reserves/the-mediterranean/mediterranean-other-threats |date=16 April 2010 }}</ref> ===Pollution=== Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent yéars.{{When|date=May 2012}} The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] has estimated that {{convert|650000000|t|ST|abbr=on}} of [[sewage]], {{convert|129000|t|ST|abbr=on}} of [[mineral oil]], {{convert|60000|t|ST|abbr=on}} of mercury, {{convert|3800|t|ST|abbr=on}} of léad and {{convert|36000|t|ST|abbr=on}} of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranéan éach yéar.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.explorecrete.com/nature/mediterranean.html|title=Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea. Environmental issues|publisher=Explorecrete.com|accessdate= 23 April 2010}}</ref> The [[Barcelona Convention]] aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranéan Séa and protect and improve the marine environment in the aréa, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28084.htm|title=EUROPA| publisher=Europa|accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of the séa's pollution. One of them is the [[Mediterranean Monk Seal]] which is considered to be among the world's most [[endangered]] [[marine mammal]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monachus-guardian.org/factfiles/medit01.htm|title=Mediterranean Monk Seal Fact Files: Overview|publisher=Monachus-guardian.org|date=5 May 1978|accessdate=23 April 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190912082329/https://www.monachus-guardian.org/factfiles/medit01.htm |date=12 September 2019 }}</ref> The Mediterranéan is also plagued by [[marine debris]]. A 1994 study of the [[seabed]] using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high méan concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km². Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter publications/docs/anl_oview.pdf|title=Marine Litter: An analytical overview|accessdate=1 August 2008|year=2005|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120410072835/http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/ |date=10 April 2012 }}</ref> ===Shipping=== [[File:Port of Piraeus.jpg|thumb|right|The port of Piraeus is the busiest passenger port in Europe and the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maritime-database.com/port.php?pid=2239 |title=Piraeus by Maritime Database |publisher=www.maritime-database.com |accessdate=27 December 2008}}</ref>]] Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranéan Séa. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 [[merchant vessel]]s of more than 100 [[gross tonnage|tonnes]] cross the Mediterranéan Séa éach yéar—about one third of the world's total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment. The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranéan Séa constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives seventeen percent of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every yéar between {{convert|100000|t|LT|abbr=on}} and {{convert|150000|t|LT|abbr=on}} of crude oil are deliberately reléased into the séa from shipping activities. Approximately {{convert|370000000|t|LT|abbr=on}} of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranéan Séa (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250-300 [[oil tanker]]s crossing the Séa every day. Accidental [[oil spill]]s happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per yéar. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranéan.<ref name="greenpeace.org"/> ===Tourism=== [[File:Turkey-2459 (2216286345).jpg|thumb|[[Antalya]] on the [[Turkish Riviera|Turkish Riviera (Turquoise Coast)]] is the third [[Tourism#Most-visited cities by international tourist arrivals|most visited city]] in the world with 10.5 million tourists.]] With a unique combination of pléasant climate, béautiful coastline, rich history and diverse culture the Mediterranéan region is the most popular tourist destination in the world—attracting approximately one third of the world's international tourists. Tourism is one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranéan countries. It also supports small communities in coastal aréas and islands by providing alternative sources of income far from urban centres. However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranéan governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region éach yéar. But this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats such as erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranéan coasts. Tourism often concentrates in aréas of high natural wéalth, causing a serious thréat to the habitats of endangered Mediterranéan species such as séa turtles and monk séals. Reductions in natural wéalth may reduce incentives for tourists to visit.<ref name="greenpeace.org"/> <gallery> File:A beach house on the Mediterranean Sea in Oliva, Valencia Region of the Spain 01.JPG|[[Beach house]] in [[Oliva]].[[Spain]] fronting the Mediterranéan Séa. File:Mediterranean Sea in Oliva, Valencia Region of the Spain 06.JPG|Fishing on the béach in Oliva, Spain </gallery> ===Overfishing=== Fish stock levels in the Mediterranéan Séa are alarmingly low. The Européan Environment Agency says that over 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as [[albacore]] and [[Atlantic bluefin tuna|bluefin tuna]], [[hake]], [[marlin]], [[swordfish]], [[red mullet]] and [[sea bream]]—are thréatened.{{date missing}} There are cléar indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many aréas larger and longer-lived species have disappéared entirely from commercial catches. Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of yéars but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, [[Greenpeace]] published a report revéaling that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranéan had decréased by over 80% in the previous 20 yéars and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse. ===Aquaculture=== [[File:Aquaculture Western Greece 2004.jpg|thumb|Aquaculture in western Greece]] {{Unreferenced section|date=October 2010}} [[Aquaculture]] is expanding rapidly—often without proper environmental assessment—and currently accounts for 30% of the fish protein consumed worldwide. The industry claims that farmed séafood lessens the pressure on wild fish stocks, yet many of the farmed species are carnivorous, consuming up to five times their weight in wild fish. Mediterranéan coastal aréas are alréady over exposed to human influence, with pristine aréas becoming ever scarcer. The aquaculture sector adds to this pressure, requiring aréas of high water quality to set up farms. The installation of fish farms close to vulnerable and important habitats such as séagrass méadows is particularly concerning. ==Galeri== <gallery> File:Théatre de la Mer, Séte, Hérault 04.jpg|Théâtre de la Mer, [[Séte]] {{FRA}} File:Hammametgolf.jpg|Béach of [[Hammamet, Tunisia|Hammamet]], {{TUN}} File:Plage-de-la-courtade.jpg|The béach of la Courtade in the [[Îles d'Hyéres]], {{FRA}} File:Chia beach, Sardinia, Italy.jpg|[[Sardinia]]'s south coast, {{ITA}} File:Malta Coast.jpg|Coast of [[Żurrieq]], {{MLT}} File:Piran Stadtpanorama.jpg|Panoramic view of [[Piran]], {{SLO}} File:Cavtat Croatia 2008-10-07.JPG|Panoramic view of [[Cavtat]], {{CRO}} File:Neum02451.JPG|View of [[Neum]] {{BIH}} File:svetistefan1756.JPG|A view of [[Sveti Stefan]], {{MNE}} File:Ksamil Beach.jpg|[[Ksamil Islands|Ksamil beaches]], {{ALB}} File:Panagiotis wreck.jpg|[[Navagio]], {{GRE}} File:Marmaris TURKEY.JPG|[[Marmaris]], [[Turkish Riviera|Turquoise Coast]], {{TUR}} File:Escape Beach North Cyprus.jpg| Béach in [[Kyrenia]], {{TRNC}} (recognized only by {{TUR}}) File:Petra tou romiou beach.jpg|[[Paphos]], {{CYP}} File:Burjeslam.jpg|[[Burj Islam]] Béach, [[Latakia]], {{SYR}} File:BeirutRaouche1.jpg|A view of [[Raouché]] off the coast of [[Beirut]], {{LBN}} File:P1090840 (5149227688).jpg|From the city of [[Haifa]], {{ISR}} File:Gaza Beach.jpg|Béach on the [[Gaza Strip]], {{flag|State of Palestine}} File:Coast of Alexandria, A view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt.jpg|Coast of [[Alexandria]], A view From [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]], {{EGY}} |a béach in [[Benghazi]], {{LBY}} File:ForbysIbizaTown 02.jpg|Old city of [[Ibiza Town]], {{SPA}} File:Les Aiguades.jpg|Les Aiguades néar [[Béjaïa]], {{ALG}} File:EL Jebha1.jpg|El Jebha, a port town in {{MAR}} File:Gibraltar-Europa-Point-LH-from-the-sea.jpg|[[Europa Point]], {{GIB}} </gallery> ==Tempo ogé== {{portal|Laut Tengah}} {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} *[[Babelmed]], the site of the Mediterranéan cultures *[[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]] *[[Familial Mediterranean fever]] *[[History of the Mediterranean region]] *[[Holy League (Mediterranean)]] *[[List of islands in the Mediterranean]] *[[List of Mediterranean countries]] *[[Mediterranean Basin]] *[[Mediterranean climate]] {{col-2}} *[[Mediterranean diet]] *[[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]] *[[Mediterranean Games]] *[[Mediterranean race]] *[[Mediterranean sea (oceanography)]] *[[Piri Reis]], éarly Mediterranéan maps *[[Seto Inland Sea]], which is sometimes named the Japanese Mediterranéan Séa *[[Suez Canal]] *[[Union for the Mediterranean]] {{col-end}} ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Wiktionary}} {{commons}} *[http://www.foraminifera.eu/querydb.php?area=Mediterranean+Sea&aktion=suche Mediterranean Sea Microorganisms: 180+ images of Foraminifera] {{Navboxes | list = {{Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea}} {{List of seas}} {{Regions of the world}} }} [[Kategori:Sagara di Éropah]] [[Kategori:Sagara leutik]] [[Kategori:Sagara Tengah]] [[Kategori:Sajarah alam di Éropah]] [[Kategori:Sagara di Jaladri Atlantik]] 51guj6wd9tu92vgwgwgvibby4fe1r4y 0 42729 711744 675695 2026-08-07T03:12:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711744 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Asian Financial Crisis EN vector.svg|thumb|350px|Nagara-nagara terdampak krisis finansial Asia 1997]] '''Krisis finansial Asia 1997''' nyaéta krisis finansial anu dimimitian dina bulan [[Juli 1997]] di [[Thailand]], sarta mangaruhan [[duit]], [[bursa saham]], sarta harga aset séjénna di sawatara nagara Asia, sawaréh [[Macan Asia Wétan]]. Kajadian ieu ogé mindeng disebut '''krisis moneter''' ("krismon") di [[Indonésia]]. Indonésia, [[Koréa Kidul]], sarta [[Thailand]] nyaéta nagara anu pangparnana kakeunaan akibat krisis ieu. [[Hong Kong]], [[Malaysia]], sarta [[Filipina]] ogé terpengaruh. [[Daratan Tiongkok]], [[Republik Tiongkok|Taiwan]], sarta [[Singapura]] ampir henteu terpengaruh. [[Jepang]] henteu terpengaruh loba tapi ngalaman kasulitan ékonomi jangka panjang. == Sajarah == Nepi ka taun1996, Asia metot ampir satengah ti aliran modal [[nagara ngembang]]. Tapi, [[Thailand]], [[Indonésia]] sarta [[Koréa Kidul]] mibanda "current account deficit" sarta perawatan [[kecepatan pertukaran pegged]] menyemangati peminjaman luar sarta ngabalukarkeun ka keterbukaan anu kaleuleuwihan ti mamala pertukaran [[valuta deungeun]] dina sektor finansial sarta pausahaan. Palaku ékonomi geus mikiran alatan Daratan Tiongkok dina ékonomi nyata minangka faktor penyumbang krisis. RRT geus mitembeyan kompetisi sacara éféktifkalawan éksportir Asia séjénna terutaman dina [[1990-an]] sanggeus penerapan reform orientas-eksport. Anu pang penting, panon duit Thailand sarta Indonésia nyaéta [[kecepatan pertukaran tetep|nyambung pageuh]] kalawan dollar, anu naék peunteunana dina 1990-an. Importir Kulon néangan produsén anu leuwih murah sarta manggihan manéhna di Tiongkok anu biayana pendék dibandingkeun dollar. Krisis Asia dimimitian dina pertengahan taun[[1997]] sarta mangaruhan panon duit, pasar bursa, sarta harga aset sawatara ékonomi [[Asia Tenggara]]. Dimimitian ti kajadian di [[Amérika Kidul]], investor Kulon kaleungitan kapercayaan dina kaamanan di [[Asia Wétan]] sarta mitembeyan metot duitna, ngabalukarkeun [[éfék bal salju]]. Loba palaku ékonomi, kaasup [[Joseph Stiglitz]] sarta [[Jeffrey Sachs]], geus ngamomorékeun peran ékonomi nyata dina krisis dibandingkeun kalawan pasar finansial anu dibalukarkeun kecepatan krisis. Kecepatan krisis ieu geus nyieun Sachs sarta séjénna pikeun membandingkan kalawan [[buronan bank]] klasik anu disebabkan ku ''[[shock risk]]'' anu ujug-ujug. Sach nunjuk ka kawijakan kaduitan sarta fiskal anu heureut anu dilarapkeun ku pamaréntah dina waktu krisis dimimitian, sedengkeun [[Frederic Mishkin]] nunjuk ka lalakon [[informasi asimetrik]] dina pasar finansial anu nuju ka "mental herd" di antara investor anu ngagedéan mamala anu relatif leutik dina ékonomi nyata. Krisis ieu geus ngabalukarkeun kahayang ti [[ékonomi laku-lampah|pelaksana ékonomi laku-lampah]] kabetot di [[psikologi pasar]]. == Thailand == [[Berkas:Small FX Thailand US 10yrs.png|frame|right|pertukaran duit Baht-dollar]] Ti 1985 nepi ka 1995, [[Ékonomi Thailand]] tumuwuh rata-rata 9%. Dina tanggal 14-15 [[Méi 1997]], panon duit [[baht]], terpukul ku serangan spekulasi badag. Dina tanggal [[30 Juni]], Perdana Mentri [[Chavalit Yonchaiyudh]] ngomong yén manéhna moal [[devaluasi|mendevaluasi]] baht, tapi administrasi Thailand pamustunganana mengambangkan panon duit lokal kasebut dina [[2 Juli]]. Dina 1996, "[[dana hedge]]" Amérika geus ngajual $400 juta panon duit Thai. Ti 1985 nepi ka 2 Juli 1997, baht dipatok dina 25 ka [[dolar AS]]. Baht murag seukeut sarta leungit satengah hargana. Baht murag ka titik terendah di 56 ka dolar AS dina [[Januari 1998]]. Pasar saham Thailand murag 75% dina 1997. [[Finance One]], pausahaan kaduitan Thailand pangbadagna [[bangkrut]]. Dina [[11 Agustus]], [[IMF]] muka paket penyelamatan kalawan leuwih ti 16 milyar dolar AS (kira-kira 160 trilyun Rupiah). Dina [[20 Agustus]] IMF nyatujuan, paket "bailout" sagedé 3,9 milyar dolar AS. == Filipina == Bank sentral Filipina naékkeun suku kembang sagedé 1,75 persentasi point dina Méi sarta 2 point deui dina [[19 Juni]]. Thailand mitembeyan krisis dina 2 Juli. Dina [[3 Juli]], bank sentral Filipina dipaksa pikeun campur leungeun gegedéan pikeun ngajaga [[peso Filipina]], naékkeun suku kembang ti 15 persén ka 24 persén dina hiji peuting. == Hong Kong == Dina [[Oktober 1997]], [[dolar Hong Kong]], anu dipatok 7,8 ka dolar AS, meunangkeun tekanan spekulatif alatan [[inflasi]] Hong Kong leuwih luhur dibandingkeun AS salila mangtaun-taun. Pajabat kaduitan méakkeun leuwih ti US$1 milyar pikeun ngabéla panon duit lokal. Sanajan ayana serangan spekulasi, [[Hong Kong]] masih bisa mengatur [[panon duit]]na dipatok ka dolar AS. Pasar saham jadi teu stabil, antara 20 nepi ka [[23 Oktober]], [[Index Hang Sééng]] menyelam 23%. [[Otoritas Moneter Hong Kong]] jangji nangtayungan panon duit. Dina [[15 Agustus]] 1997, suku kembang Hong Kong naék ti 8 persén ka 23 persén dina hiji peuting. == Koréa Kidul == [[Koréa Kidul]] nyaéta ékonomi pangbadagna ke-11 dunya. Dasar [[makroekonomi]]na alus tapi sektor bankna dibeungbeuratan pinjaman tak-bekerja. Hutang kaleuleuwihan menuntun ka kagagalan badag sarta pengambil-alihan. Contona, dina Juli, nu nyieun [[mobil]] katilu pangbadagna Koréa, [[Kia Motors]] ménta pinjaman darurat. Di mimiti penurunan pasar Asia, [[Moody's]] nurunkeun [[rating kredit]] Koréa Kidul ti A1 ka A3 dina [[28 Nopémber]] 1997, sarta diturunkeun deui ka Baa2 dina [[11 Désémber]]. Anu ngabalukarkeun penurunan leuwih tuluy di saham Koréa saprak murag manéhna pasar saham di Nopémber. Bursa saham Séoul murag 4% dina [[7 Nopémber]] 1997. Dina [[8 Nopémber]], murag 7%, penurunan pangbadagna anu kungsi kacatet di nagara kasebut. Sarta dina [[24 Nopémber]], saham murag deui 7,2 persén alatan sieun IMF baris ménta reform anu beurat. Dina 1998, [[Hyundai Motor]] nyokot alih Kia Motors. == Malaysia == Dina 1997, [[Malaysia]] mibanda defisit [[rekening panon duit]] badag leuwih ti 6 persén ti [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Dina bulan Juli, [[ringgit]] Malaysia diserang ku [[spekulasi|spekulator]]. Malaysia mengambangkan panon duitna dina [[17 Agustus]] 1997 sarta ringgit murag sacara seukeut. Opat poé saterusna [[Standard and Poor's]] nurunkeun [[rating hutang]] Malaysia. Saminggu saterusna, agensi rating nurunkeun rating [[Maybank]], bank pangbadagna Malaysia. Di poé anu sarua, Bursa saham Kuala Leutak murag 856 point, titik terendahnya saprak 1993. Dina [[2 Oktober]], ringgit murag deui. Perdana Mentri [[Mahathir bin Mohamad]] ngawanohkeun kontrol modal. Tapi, panon duit murag deui dina ahir 1997 sabot [[Mahathir bin Mohamad]] nyalabarkeun yén pamaréntah baris ngagunakeun 10 milyar ringgit di proyék jalan, rel sarta saluran pipa. Dina 1998, pengeluaran di sagala rupa sektor mudun. Sektor konstruksi menyusut 23,5 persén, produksi menyusut 9 persén sarta agrikultur 5,9 persén. Sakabéh GDP nagara ieu turun 6,2 persén dina 1998. Tapi Malaysia mangrupa nagara panggancangna anu pulih ti krisis ieu kalawan nampik bantuan IMF. == Indonésia == Dina [[Juni 1997]], Indonésia kasampak laér ti krisis. Henteu kawas Thailand, Indonésia mibanda inflasi anu pendék, perdagangan surplus leuwih ti 900 juta dolar, persediaan panon duit luar anu badag, leuwih ti 20 milyar dolar, sarta sektor bank anu alus. Tapi loba pausahaan Indonésia anu meminjam dolar AS. Dina taunkatut, sabot [[rupiah]] menguat ka dolar, praktisi ieu geus digawé alus pikeun pausahaan kasebut—level efektifitas hutang maranéhanana sarta waragad finansial geus ngurangan dina waktu harga panon duit lokal meningkat. Dina Juli, Thailand megambangkan baht, Otoritas Moneter Indonésia melebarkan jalur perdagangan ti 8 persén ka 12 persén. Rupiah mimiti terserang kuat di Agustus. Dina [[14 Agustus]] 1997, pertukaran mengambang teratur ditukeur kalawan pertukaran mengambang-bébas. Rupiah murag leuwih jero. IMF datang kalawan paket bantuan 23 milyar dolar, tapi rupiah murag leuwih jero deui alatan sieun ti hutang pausahaan, penjualan rupiah, paménta dolar anu kuat. Rupiah sarta Bursa Saham Jakarta nyabak titik terendah dina bulan Séptember. Moody's nurunkeun hutang jangka panjang Indonésia jadi "junk bond". Sanajan krisis rupiah dimimitian dina Juli sarta Agustus, krisis ieu menguat dina Nopémber sabot éfék ti devaluasi di usum panas mecenghul dina neraca pausahaan. Pausahaan anu meminjam dina dolar kudu nyanghareupan waragad anu leuwih badag anu disebabkan ku penurunan rupiah, sarta loba anu beréaksi kalawan meuli dolar, nyaéta: ngajual rupiah, nurunkeun harga rupiah leuwih laér deui. Inflasi rupiah sarta kanaékan badag harga bahan kadaharan ngabalukarkeun bancang pakéwuh di nagara ieu. Dina Pebruari 1998, Présidén Suharto memecat Gubernur Bank Indonésia, tapi ieu teu mahi. Suharto dipaksa mundur dina pertengahan 1998 sarta [[B.J. Habibie]] jadi présidén. mimiti ti dieu krisis moneter indonésia memuncak. == Singapura == [[Ékonomi Singapura]] junun mengatur performa anu relatif cageur dibandingkeun kalawan nagara séjén di Asia salila sarta sanggeus krisis finansial, sanajan hubungan pageuh sarta kagumantungan ékonomi regional tetep mawa éfék négatif ka ékonomina. Tapi, sacara sakabéh pangabisana ngaleungitkeun krisis diperhatikan sacara lega, sarta ngaronjatkeun panalungtikan kawijakan fiskal Singapura minangka palajaran pikeun nagara tatanggana. Minangka ékonomi kabuka, [[dolar Singapura]] kabuka ka tekanan spekulatif kawas geus lumangsung dina [[1985]]. Ékonomi pohara penting dina keberlangsungan Singapura minangka nagara merdika, pamaréntah Singapura junun mengatur suku pertukaran panon duitna pikeun menghindari potensi penyerangan speklulatif. == Tiongkok daratan == [[Republik Rahayat Tiongkok]] henteu terpengaruh ku krisis ieu alatan [[renminbi]] anu henteu bisa ditukeur sarta kanyataan bahawa ampir kabéh investasi luarna dina wangun pabrik sarta lain widang kaamanan. Sanajan RRT geus sarta terus mibanda masalah "solvency" parna dina sistem perbankannya, lolobana deposit di bank-bank RRT nyaéta domestik sarta euweuh buronan bank. == Amérika Sarikat sarta Jepang == "Flu Asia" ogé mikeun tekanan ka [[Amérika Sarikat]] sarta [[Jepang]]. Ékonomi maranéhanana henteu ancur, tapi terpukul kuat. Dina [[27 Oktober]] 1997, Industri [[Dow Jones]] murag 554-point, atawa 7,2 persén, alatan kahariwang ékonomi Asia. [[Bursa Saham New York]] menunda samentara perdagangan. Krisis ieu nuju ka murag manéhna [[kapercayaan konsumén|konsumsi]] sarta [[kayakinan]] ngaluarkeun duit. Jepang terpengaruh alatan ékonomina berperan penting di wewengkon Asia. Nagara-nagara Asia biasana ngajalankeun [[defisit perdagangan]] jeung Jepang alatan ékonomi Jepang dua kali leuwih badag ti nagara-nagara Asia séjénna lamun dijumlahkan, sarta tujuh kali lipet RRT. Kira-kira 40 persén ékspor Jepang ka Asia. Pertumbuhan nyata GDP melambat di 1997, ti 5 persén ka 1,6 persén sarta turun jadi resesi dina 1998. Krisis Finansial Asia ogé menuntun ka kebangkrutan di Jepang. == Laos == Laos terpengaruh hampang ku krisis ieu kalawan peunteun tukeur [[Kip]] ti 4700 ka 6000 ka hiji dolar AS. == Konsekuensi == Krisis Asia berpengaruh ka [[panon duit]], [[pasar saham]], sarta harga [[aset]] séjénna di sawatara nagara Asia. Indonésia, Koréa Kidul sarta Thailand nyaéta sawatara nagara anu terpengaruh badag ku krisis ieu. Krisis ékonomi ieu ogé nuju ka bancang pakéwuh politk, pang kacatet kalawan mundurna [[Suharto]] di Indonésia sarta [[Chavalit Yongchaiyudh]] di Thailand. Aya kanaékan anti-barat, kalawan [[George Soros]] sarta [[IMF]] hususna, kaluar minangka embé hideung. Sacara budaya, krisis finansial Asia ngabalukarkeun kemunduran ka ideu ayana sawatara set "[[Asian value]]", nyaéta Asia Wétan mibanda struktur ékonomi sarta pulitik anu superior dibandingkeun Kulon. Krisis Asia ogé ngaronjatkeun prestise ékonomi [[Republik Rahayat Tiongkok|RRT]]. Krisis Asia menyumbangkan ka krisis Rusia sarta Brasil dina [[1998]], alatan sanggeus krisis Asia bank henteu hayang meminjamkan ka nagara ngembang. Krisis ieu geus dianalisa ku para pakar ékonomi alatan perkembangannya, kecepatan, dinamismenya; manéhna mangaruhan welasan nagara, mibanda éfék ka kahirupan berjuta-juta jelema, lumangsung dina wayah sawatara bulan waé. Meureun para pakar ékonomi leuwih kabetot deui kalawan betapa gancangna krisis ieu lekasan, ninggalkeun ékonomi nagara ngembang teu berpengaruh. Keingintahuan ieu geus ngabalukarkeun ledakan di palajaran ngeunaan [[ékonomi finansial]] sarta "litani" guaran naha krisis ieu lumangsung. Sawatara kritik menyalahkan tindakan [[IMF]] dina krisis, kaasup ku pakar ékonomi [[Bank Dunya]] [[Joseph Stiglitz]]. {{col|2}} === Kurs panon duit pikeun US$1 === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Panon duit!! Jun '97!! Jul '98!! Parobahan |- | {{flagicon|THA}} THB|| align="right"|24,50|| align="right"|41|| {{loss}} 40,2% |- | {{flagicon|IDN}} IDR (k)|| align="right"|2.380|| align="right"|14.150|| {{loss}} 83,2% |- | {{flagicon|PHI}} PHP|| align="right"|26,30|| align="right"|42,00|| {{loss}} 37.4% |- | {{flagicon|MAS}} MYR|| align="right"|2,50|| align="right"|4,10|| {{loss}} 39.0% |- | {{flagicon|KOR}} KRW (k)|| align="right"|850|| align="right"|1.290|| {{loss}} 34.1% |} === GNP (milyar US$) === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Nagara!! Jun '97!! Jul '98!! Parobahan |- | {{flagicon|THA}} Thailand|| align="right"|170|| align="right"|102|| {{loss}} 40,0% |- | {{flagicon|IDN}} Indonésia|| align="right"|205|| align="right"|34|| {{loss}} 83,4% |- | {{flagicon|PHI}} Filipina|| align="right"|75|| align="right"|47|| {{loss}} 37.3% |- | {{flagicon|MAS}} Malaysia|| align="right"|90|| align="right"|55|| {{loss}} 38.9% |- | {{flagicon|KOR}} Koréa Kidul|| align="right"|430|| align="right"|283|| {{loss}} 34.2% |} {{end-col}} == Référénsi == === Buku === * {{en}}{{id}}[http://go.worldbank.org/ZZK0MN2JO0 Sagala rupa Laporan Bank Dunya Ngeunaan Perkembangan Ékonomi Indonésia Saprak Krisis Moneter 1997]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * Kaufman, GG., Krueger, TH., Hunter, WC. (1999) ''The Asian Financial Crisis: Origins, Implications and Solutions''. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-8472-5 * {{cite book | last =Pettis| first =Michael| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =The Volatility Machine: Emerging Economies and the Threat of Financial Collapse| publisher =[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2001| location =| pages =| url =https://archive.org/details/volatilitymachin0000pett| doi =| id =| isbn =0-19-514330-2 }} * {{cite book | last =Blustein| first =Paul| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =The Chastening: Inside the Crisis that Rocked the Global Financial System and Humbled the IMF| publisher =[[Publicaffairs]] |date=2001| location =| pages =| url =https://archive.org/details/chasteninginside00blus| doi =| id =| isbn =1-891620-81-9 }} * Noland, Markus, Li-gang Liu, Sherman Robinson, and Zhi Wang. (1998) ''Global Economic Effects of the Asian Currency Devaluations''. Policy Analyses in International Economics, no. 56. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics. * Pempel, T. J. (1999) ''The Politics of the Asian Economic Crisis''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Ries, Philippe. (2000) ''The Asian Storm: Asia's Economic Crisis Examined''. === Serat kabar === * Ngian Kee Jin (March 2000). [http://www.iseas.edu.sg/vr82000.pdf ''Coping with the Asian Financial Crisis: The Singapore Experience''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050223070039/http://www.iseas.edu.sg/vr82000.pdf |date=2005-02-23 }}. Institute of Southéast Asian Studies. ISSN 0219-3582 * Tiwari, Rajnish (2003). [http://www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/RRZ/R.Tiwari/papers/exchange-rate.pdf ''Post-crisis Exchange Rate Regimes in Southeast Asia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060326181141/http://www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/RRZ/R.Tiwari/papers/exchange-rate.pdf |date=2006-03-26 }}, Seminar Paper, University of Hamburg. * Kilgour, Andréa (1999). [http://www.geogr.uni-goettingen.de/kus/apsa/pn/pn12/vietnam.html ''The changing economic situation in Vietnam: A product of the Asian crisis?''] * S. Radelet, J.D. Sachs, R.N. Cooper, B.P. Bosworth (1998). [http://www.jstor.org/view/00072303/di009478/00p0029t/0/ ''The East Asian Financial Crisis: Diagnosis, Remedies, Prospects'']. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity. * [[Joseph Stiglitz|Stiglitz, Joseph]] (1996). [http://wbro.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/11/2/151/ ''Some Lessons From The East Asian Miracle'']. The World Bank Reséarch Observer. * [[Mark Weisbrot|Weisbrot, Mark]] (August 2007). [http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/asia_crisis_2007_08.pdf ''Ten Years After: The Lasting Impact of the Asian Financial Crisis''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925211721/http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/asia_crisis_2007_08.pdf |date=2007-09-25 }}. [[Center for Economic and Policy Research]]. === Séjénna === * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/crash/ The Crash] (transcript only), from the PBS series Frontline [[Category:Asia]] [[Category:Sajarah ékonomi]] [[Category:Krisis finansial]] [[Category:Asia dina warsih 1997]] [[Category:Ékonomi Indonésia]] [[Category:Indonésia dina warsih 1997]] [[Category:Thailand dina warsih 1997]] [[Category:Koréa Kidul dina warsih 1997]] g4etpffyc0e3a1wj24pjaxs8fjkbug5 0 43063 711741 710923 2026-08-07T03:09:02Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711741 wikitext text/x-wiki {{geulis}}{{redirect|Tiongkok}} {{hatnote|''Pikeun pamaréntahan [[Kuomintang]] anu kiwari maréntah Taiwan, tingali [[Républik Tiongkok]]''}} {{Infobox country | native_name = 中华人民共和国<br />''Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó'' | conventional_long_name = Républik Rahayat Tiongkok | common_name = Républik Rahayat Tiongkok | image_flag = Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg | image_coat = 中華人民共和國國徽.svg | symbol_type = Lambang | image_map = People's Republic of China (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = Wewengkon RRT warnana héjo kolot.<br />Wewengkon klaim tapi teu dikawasaan warnana héjo ngora. | map_width = 220px | national_anthem = <center> </center><br />"[[Barisan Para Sukarélawan]]"<br />《义勇军进行曲》 ([[Pinyin]]: ''Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ'') | official_languages = [[Basa Tionghoa Standar|Mandarin Standar Modérn]]<ref name="langlaw">{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language |publisher=Gov.cn |accessdate=30 April 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |date=24 July 2013 }}</ref> | languages_type = Basa tulis resmi | languages = [[Basa Tionghoa Vérnakular|Tionghoa Vérnakular]] | languages_sub = ya | languages2_type = [[Aksara resmi]] | languages2 = [[Aksara Tionghoa basajan]]<ref name="langlaw" /> | languages2_sub = ya | regional_languages = <small>[[basa Mongolia|Mongolia]], [[basa Tibet Standar|Tibet]], [[basa Uyghur|Uyghur]], [[basa Zhuang Standar|Zhuang]], jeung [[Basa di Tiongkok|lianna]]</small> | ethnic_groups = 91,51% [[Urang Han|Han]]; 55 minoritas diaku<br />{{Collapsible list|title=<small>[[Daptar kelompok étnis]]</small>|1,30% [[Urang Zhuang|Zhuang]]|0,86% [[Urang Manchu|Manchu]]|0,79% [[Urang Uyghur|Uyghur]]|0,79% [[Urang Hui|Hui]]|0,72% [[Urang Miao|Miao]]|0,65% [[Urang Yi|Yi]]|0,62% [[Urang Tujia|Tujia]]|0,47% [[Urang Mongol di Tiongkok|Mongol]]|0,44% [[Urang Tibet|Tibet]]|0,26% [[Buyei]]|0,15% [[Urang Koréa di Tiongkok|Koréa]]|1,05% lianna}} | capital = [[Béijing]] (Peking) | latd=39 |latm=55 |latNS=N |longd=116 |longm=23 |longEW=E | largest_city = [[Shanghai]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chan, K. W. |title=Misconceptions and Complexities in the Study of China's Cities: Definitions, Statistics, and Implications |journal=Eurasian Geography and Economics |year=2007 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=383–412 |url=http://courses.washington.edu/chinageo/ChanCityDefinitionsEGE2007.pdf |accessdate=30 April 2015 |doi=10.2747/1538-7216.48.4.383 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115173048/http://courses.washington.edu/chinageo/ChanCityDefinitionsEGE2007.pdf |date=15 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://china.usc.edu/(S(swqn0p55xbqmsu45cwso5lzy)A(IEcheuFczAEkAAAAODRlNTk2OTMtMDViMC00Yjk5LWFmZTgtODc1OTA1YWYxMDM4e9e8O7-g5_HYhuft0Huy7h2GlGg1))/ShowAverageDay.aspx?articleID=910 |title=What are China's largest and richest cities? |publisher=University of Southern California |year=2007 |accessdate=30 April 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109005931/http://china.usc.edu/(S(swqn0p55xbqmsu45cwso5lzy)A(IEcheuFczAEkAAAAODRlNTk2OTMtMDViMC00Yjk5LWFmZTgtODc1OTA1YWYxMDM4e9e8O7-g5_HYhuft0Huy7h2GlGg1))/ShowAverageDay.aspx?articleID=910 |date=9 November 2013 }}</ref> <!-- | demonym = Chinese --> | government_type = [[Marxisme–Leninisme]], [[nagara partéy tunggal]]<ref name="pplrepub">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=China |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China |accessdate=17 Maret 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401044739/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China |date=2009-04-01 }}</ref>{{Ref label |complex|a|}} | leader_title1 = [[Présidén Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Présidén]] | leader_name1 = [[Xi Jinping]] | leader_title2 = [[Perdana Menteri Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Perdana Menteri]] | leader_name2 = [[Li Qiang]] | leader_title3 = Pupuhu Kongrés | leader_name3 = [[Zhao Leji]] | leader_title4 = Pupuhu Konferénsi | leader_name4 = [[Wang Hunsing]] | legislature = [[Kongrés Rahayat Nasional]] | sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Tiongkok|Pangbentukan]] | area_footnote ={{Ref label |territory|c|}} atawa 9.671.018&nbsp;km² {{Ref label |territory|c|}} | area_km2 = 9.640.821 | area_sq_mi = 3704427 | area_rank = ka-3/ka-4 | area_magnitude = 1 E12 | percent_water = 2,8{{Ref label |mainland|d|}} |population_estimate = 1.353.821.000 |population_estimate_rank = ka-1 |population_estimate_year = 2011 | population_census = 1.339.724.852<ref name="Estimate2011">{{cite web |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110428_402722244.htm |title=Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census |publisher=Stats.gov.cn |accessdate=30 April 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610201205/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110428_402722244.htm |date=10 June 2011 }}</ref> | population_census_year = 2010 | population_census_rank = ka-1 | pop_den_footnote = | population_density_km2 = 139,6 | population_density_sq_mi = 363,3 | population_density_rank = ka-81 | GDP_nominal = $13.374 triliun<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=14&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=924&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=China |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=30 April 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409084623/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=14&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=924&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |date=9 April 2015 }}</ref> | GDP_nominal_rank = ka-2 | GDP_nominal_year = 2013 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $9.828<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ka-90 | GDP_PPP_year = 2013 | GDP_PPP = $8.939 triliun<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_PPP_rank = ka-2 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6.569<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-91 | Gini = 41,5<ref name="Ref_">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513124910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=2009-05-13 }} [Gini rankings]</ref> | Gini_year = 2007 | HDI_year = 2011 | HDI = {{increase}} 0,663<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2011|year=2011|publisher=Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|accessdate=17 April 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111152313/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf |date=11 November 2011 }}</ref> | HDI_rank = ka-89 | HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> | currency = [[Renminbi|Renminbi (yuan)]] (¥) | currency_code = CNY | time_zone = [[Waktu Standar Tiongkok]] | utc_offset = +8 | date_format = yyyy-mm-dd <br />''atawa'' yyyy{{lang|zh|年}}m{{lang|zh|月}}d{{lang|zh|日}} <br />CE; [[Kalénder Tiongkok|CE-1949]]) | drives_on = Katuhu, iwal Hong Kong jeung Makau | cctld = [[.cn]]{{Ref label |mainland|c|}} [[.中國]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://brussels38.icann.org/meetings/brussels2010/transcript-board-25jun10-en.txt |title=ICANN Board Meeting Minutes |publisher=ICANN |accessdate=30 April 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707121158/http://brussels38.icann.org/meetings/brussels2010/transcript-board-25jun10-en.txt |date=7 July 2010 }}</ref> [[.中国]] | calling_code = [[+86|86]]{{Ref label |mainland|c|}} }} {{Infobox Chinese | collapse = no | title = Tiongkok | pic = China (Chinese characters).svg | piccap = "Tiongkok" dina [[Aksara Tionghoa basajan|Hanzi Basajan]] (luhur) jeung [[Hanzi Tradisional]] (handap) | picupright = 0.45 | t = {{linktext|中國}} | s = {{linktext|中国}} | p = Zhōngguó | w = Chung¹-kuo² | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|g|wo|2}} | sic = Zong<sup>1</sup> gwe<sup>2</sup> | bpmf = ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄍㄨㄛˊ | xej = ﺟْﻮﻗُﻮَع | tp = Jhongguó | mps = Jūngguó | gr = Jonggwo | myr = Jūnggwó | zh-dungan = Җунгуй | poj = Tiong-kok | tl = Tiong-kok | gan = Tung-koe̍t | hsn = Tan<sup>33</sup>-kwɛ<sup>24</sup>/ | wuu = Tson<sup>平</sup>-koh<sup>入</sup> | j = Zung1gwok3 | y = Jùnggwok ''or'' Jūnggwok | ci = {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|gw|ok|3}} ''or'' {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|gw|ok|3}} | h = Dung<sup>24</sup>-gued<sup>2</sup> | phfs = Chûng-koet | buc = Dṳ̆ng-guók | hhbuc = De̤ng-go̤h | mblmc = Dô̤ng-gŏ | por = China | showflag = p | order = st | l = {{nowrap|Nagara Tengah atawa Puseur<ref name=zg>{{citation |contribution=Reconstructing China beyond Homogeneity |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bEiDBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 105] |series=''Political Theories in East Asian Context'' |title=Patriotism in East Asia |editor=Jun-Hyeok Kwak |editor2=Koichiro Matsuda |display-editors=0 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |date=2015 |last=Bilik |first=Naran }}</ref>}} }} {{Infobox Chinese | title = Républik Rahayat Tiongkok | pic = PRC (Chinese characters.svg| | piccap = "Républik Rahayat Tiongkok" dina [[Aksara Tionghoa basajan|Hanzi Basajan]] (luhur) jeung [[Hanzi Tradisional]] (handap) | picupright = 1.15 | t = {{linktext|中華人民共和國}} | s = {{linktext|中华人民共和国}} | p = Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó | gr = Jonghwa Renmin Gonqhergwo | mps = Jūnghuá Rénmín Gùnghéguó | w = Chung¹-hua² Jên²-min²<br />Kung⁴-ho²-kuo² | tp = Jhonghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó | myr = Jūnghwá Rénmín Gùnghégwó | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|h|wa|2|-|r|en|2|.|m|in|2|-|g|ong|4|.|h|e|2|.|g|wo|2}} | sic = Zong<sup>1</sup> hua<sup>2</sup> Zen<sup>2</sup> min<sup>2</sup><br />Gong<sup>4</sup> hwe<sup>2</sup> gwe<sup>2</sup> | bpmf = ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄨㄚˊ<br />ㄖㄣˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄇㄧㄣˊ<br />ㄍㄨㄥˋ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄜˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄍㄨㄛˊ | xej = ﺟْﻮﺧُﻮَ ژٌمٍ ﻗْﻮحْقُوَع | zh-dungan = Җунхуа Жынмин Гунхәгуй | poj = Tiong-hôa Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok | tl = Tiong-huâ Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok | gan = Chungfa Ninmin Khungfokoet | wuu = Tson<sup>平</sup> gho<sup>平</sup> zin<sup>平</sup> min<sup>平</sup><br />gon<sup>去</sup> ghu<sup>平</sup> koh<sup>入</sup> | j = Zung1waa4 Jan4man4 Gung6wo4gwok3 | ci = {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|w|aa|4|-|j|an|4|.|m|an|4|-|g|ung|6|.|w|o|4|.|gw|ok|3}}<br />''or''<br />{{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|w|aa|4|-|j|an|4|.|m|an|4|-|g|ung|6|.|w|o|4|.|gw|ok|3}} | y = Jùng'wàh Yàhnmàhn Guhng'wòhgwok<br />''or''<br />Jūng'wàh Yàhnmàhn Guhng'wòhgwok | hsn = /tan<sup>33</sup> go<sup>13</sup> ŋin<sup>13</sup> min<sup>13</sup><br />gan<sup>45</sup> gu<sup>13</sup> kwɛ<sup>24</sup>/ | h = Dung<sup>24</sup> fa<sup>11</sup> ngin<sup>11</sup> min<sup>11</sup> kiung<sup>55</sup> fo<sup>11</sup> gued<sup>2</sup> | phfs = Chûng-fà Ngìn-mìn<br />Khiung-fò-koet | buc = Dṳ̆ng-huà Ìng-mìng<br />Gê̤ṳng-huò-guók | hhbuc = De̤ng-huá Cíng-míng<br />Gē̤ng-hó̤-go̤h | mblmc = Dô̤ng-uǎ Nêng-měng<br />Gō̤ng-uǎ-gŏ | mon = [[File:Mongolian-PRC2.svg|70px|alt=Bügüde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad ulus, ᠪᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡ ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠷᠠᠮᠳᠠᠬᠤ ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ ᠠᠷᠠᠳ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ]] | monr = Bügüde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad ulus | tib = {{bo-textonly|ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི<br />མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ}} | wylie = krung hwa mi dmangs spyi mthun rgyal khab | zwpy = Zhunghua Mimang Jitun Gyalkab | uig = جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىتى | uly = Jungxua Xelq Jumhuriyiti | uyy = Junghua Həlⱪ Jumⱨuriyiti | sgs = Junghua Hälk̂ Jumĥuriyiti | usy = Җуңхуа Хәлқ Җумһурийити | zha = Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz | por = República Popular da China | showflag = p | order = st }} '''Républik Rahayat Tiongkok''' ({{zh|t=中華人民共和國|s=中华人民共和国|p=Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}} {{Audio-IPA|Zh-Zhonghua renmin gongheguo.ogg|tʂʊŋ˥xua˧˥ʐɛn˧˥mɪn˧˥kʊŋ˥˩xə˧˥kuɔ˧˥}}, singgetna '''Tiongkok'''; ti [[28 Juni]] [[1967]] nepi ka [[14 Maret]] [[2014]]<ref>[http://news.liputan6.com/read/2025991/sby-ganti-istilah-china-jadi-tionghoa-ahok-itu-langkah-tepat SBY ganti istilah China jadi Tionghoa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924062502/http://news.liputan6.com/read/2025991/sby-ganti-istilah-china-jadi-tionghoa-ahok-itu-langkah-tepat |date=2014-09-24 }} Diaksés 30 April 2015</ref> mah sok disebut '''Républik Rahayat Tjina'''/'''RRT''' atawa '''Républik Rahayat Cina'''/'''RRC''', harpiah: Républik Rahayat [[Tionghoa]]) nyaéta hiji nagara anu nganjrek di wewengkon [[Asia Kalér]] nu ibukotana téh di [[Béijing]]. Nagara ieu mibanda sajumlahing pangeusi anu kawilang [[Daptar nagara dumasar jumlah pangeusi|panglobana di sakuliah dunya]] (kurang leuwih 1,35 milyar jiwa) jeung lega wewengkon 9,69 yuta kilométer pasagi, ngabalukarkeun [[Daptar nagara dumasar lega wewengkon|nagara ka-4 panglegana]] di sakuliah dunya.<ref name="listofcountriesoftheworld.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.listofcountriesoftheworld.com/area-land.html |title=Countries of the world ordered by land area |publisher=Listofcountriesoftheworld.com |accessdate=30 April 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305040447/http://www.listofcountriesoftheworld.com/area-land.html |date=5 March 2010 }}</ref> Nagara ieu diadegkeun dina taun [[1949]] sabérésna [[Perang Sadulur Tiongkok]], ti harita dipingpin ku hiji [[partéy pulitik|partéy]] tunggal, nyaéta [[Partéy Komunis Tiongkok]] (PKT).<ref name="kemenlu">{{cite web|url=http://www.kemlu.go.id/beijing/Documents/Informasi%20Dasar%20RRT.pdf|title=Informasi Dasar RRT|publisher=Kementerian Luar Negeri Republik Indonesia|accessdate=30 April 2015}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Étimologi== [[File:Zhongguo.gif|thumb|left|<center>''Tulisan Tiongkok'', anu ditulis dina aksara Tionghoa tradisional jeung aksara Tionghoa basajan</center>]] Dina larapanana RRT téh leuwih dipikawanoh minangka ''Cina'' nu asalna tina kecap [[basa Pérsia]] ''Chin'' ({{lang|fa|چین}}), anu mangrupa serepan tina [[basa Sansakerta]], nyaéta kecap ''[[Cina|Cīna]]'' ({{lang|sa|चीन}}).<ref name="dict">{{cite web |url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/China?qsrc=2888 |title = The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language : China |publisher = Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin |accessdate = 5/6/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921131850/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/China?qsrc=2888 |date=2011-09-21 }}</ref> Katerangan ieu mimiti dicatet dina taun [[1516]] dina jurnal urang Portugis [[Duarte Barbosa]].<ref>"China". ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (1989). ISBN 0-19-957315-8.<br /> ''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=edzW9fuOF-cC&pg=PA211&dq=#v=onepage&q=%22Very%20Great%20Kingdom%20of%20China%22&f=false The Book of Duarte Barbosa]'' (bagian judul "The Very Great Kingdom of China"). ISBN 81-206-0451-2. In the [http://purl.pt/435/ Asli basa Portugisna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508211742/http://purl.pt/435|date=2013-05-08}}, bagian judul "O Grande Reino da China".</ref> Jurnal éta ditarjamahkeun jeung dipedalkeun di [[Inggris]] dina taun [[1555]].<ref>Eden, Richard (1555). ''Decades of the New World'': "The great China whose kyng is thought the greatest prince in the world."<br />{{cite book | title=Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1 | publisher=Asian Research Service | year=1984 | page=34 |first=Henry Allen |last=Myers}}</ref> Téori séjén anu diusulkeun dina [[abad ka-17]] ku [[Martino Martini]], yén Cina asalna tina "Qin" ({{lang|zh-hans|秦}}), wewengkon pangkulonna ti karajaan Cina mangsa [[Dinasti Zhou]].<ref name="Martini">Martino, Martin, ''Novus Atlas Sinensis'', Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.</ref> Kecap ieu ogé dipaké dina kitab suci Hindu mungguran, kaasup ''[[Mahābhārata]]'' ([[abad ka-5 SM]]) jeung [[Manusmṛti|Hukum Manu]] ([[abad ka-2 SM]] ).<ref>{{cite book|title=The Clash of Empires: the invention of China in modern world making|last=Liu|first=Lydia He|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2009|pages=77–78|isbn=9780674040298 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf |title = The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China' |publisher = Geoff Wade |accessdate = 5/6/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117222125/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf |date=2017-11-17 }}</ref> Ngaran resmi nagara modérnna mah Républik Rahayat Tiongkok ({{zh| s=中华人民共和国| hp=Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}}). Ngaran vernakularna mah nyaéta ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|Zhōngguó}}'' ({{zh|s=中国}}, tina ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|zhōng}}'', "puseur" atawa "tengah", jeung ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|guó}}'', "nagara", atawa istilah modérnna mah "bangsa") ku kituna jadi wéh ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|Zhōnghuá}}'' ({{zh|s=中华}}), sanajan dina runtuyan sajarahna ngaran resmi nagara ieu téh geus digunta-ganti waé ku dinasti-dinasti jeung pamaréntahan modérn. Istilah ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|Zhōngguó}}'' nyangkaruk dina mangrupa-rupa téks kuna, kayaning sajarah klasik ti [[abad ka-6 SM]], sarta dina mangsa pra-kakaisaran mah sok dipaké minangka konsép pikeun ngabédakeun jeung budaya séké sélér [[Huaxia]] anu dianggap "barbar". Istilah ieu bisa mangrupa tunggal atawa jamak, nujul ka kelompok nagara atawa propinsi di dataran tengah, tapi ti [[abad ka-19]] mah teu dipaké deui minangka ngaran pikeun nagara ka sakumna wewengkon RRT.<ref>Wilkinson, Endymion (2000). ''Chinese History: A Manual''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Rev. and enl. kaca 132. ISBN 0-674-00247-4.</ref> ==Bandéra jeung Lambang== {{utama|Bandéra jeung Lambang Républik Rahayat Tiongkok}} ===Bandéra=== Warna [[beureum]] dina bandéra Tiongkok ngalambangkeun révolusi [[Komunis]] jeung sakaligus ngaréfléksikeun warna tradisional masarakat Tiongkok. [[Béntang]] [[emas]] gedé ngagambarkeun [[Partéy Komunis Tiongkok]], sedengkeun opat [[béntang]] leutik ngagambarkeun kelas sosial masarakat. Lima béntang sakumna ngagambarkeun pentingna angka lima pikeun pamikiran jeung sajarah Tiongkok. Warna [[konéng]] dina lima béntangna ngagambarkeun yén Tiongkok mangrupa kelompok étnis [[konéng]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> ===Lambang=== Lambang nasional RRT ngagambarkeun kadaulatan Tiongkok anu eusina bandéra nasional RRT, [[Tiananmen]], jeung beunyeur [[paré]]. [[Tiananmen]] ayana di handapeun [[cahya]] lima [[béntang]] sarta dikurilingan ku beunyeur [[paré]] jeung giri-giri di handapna.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Lima béntang hartina kasatuan masarakat Tiongkok dina kapamingpinan [[Partéy Komunis Tiongkok]]. [[Tiananmen]] mangrupa tempat dilaksanakeunna upacara pangwangunan RRT. Beunyeur paré jeung giri-giri ngagambarkeun kaum patani jeung kelas pagawé. Sakumna mah, lambang nasional RRT ngacirikeun yén Tiongkok mangrupa nagara [[sosialis]] anu dipingpin ku kelas pagawé jeung dumasar kana aliansi pagawé–patani.<ref name="kemenlu"/> ==Sajarah== ===Prasajarah=== [[Gambar:Territories of Dynasties in China.gif|thumb|<center>Téritorial Évolusi Tiongkok.</center>]] Ti jaman [[Néolitik]] mula, masarakat Tiongkok geus kaorganisir sarta netep dina ngalakonan kagiatan tani jeung [[peternakan]]. Kagiatan melak paré geus dimimitian ti taun [[5000 SM]]. Sedengkeun barang tina perunggu geus kapanggih di [[Majiayao]] (antara taun [[2300 SM]] – [[2700 SM]]), hal ieu nétélakeun yén jaman perunggu di Tiongkok geus dimimitian kurang leuwih ti taun [[2100 SM]] samangsa [[Dinasti Xia]]. Tapi sakumna pangwangunan perunggu téh bisa kaparenganana mah dina mangsa [[Dinasti Shang]] ([[1122 SM]] – [[1766 SM]]).<ref>Aedeen Cremin. 2007. ''Archaeologica: the world's most significant sites and cultural treasures'', Global Book Publishing. kaca 246.</ref><ref>Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. ''The Cambridge illustrated history of China'', Cambridge University Press. kaca 22.</ref>. ===Dinasti Munggaran=== [[Dinasti Xia]] mangrupa dinasti munggaran,<ref name=CRO>{{cite web |author= Diario del Pueblo |publisher= People.com.cn |url= http://spanish.people.com.cn/refran/breve.htm |title= Breve cronología histórica de China |accessdate= 5/7/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308125407/http://spanish.people.com.cn/refran/breve.htm |date=2021-03-08 }}</ref> tapi can pernah kabukti sacara konkrit da nu ayana ngan saukur catetan sastrana wungkul.<ref name=XIA>{{cite web |publisher= Arte Historia.jcyl.es |url= http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/civilizaciones/contextos/2827.htm |title= Las dinastías Xia y Shang (China) |accessdate= 5/7/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724070625/http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/civilizaciones/contextos/2827.htm |date=2012-07-24 }}</ref> Dumasar rujukan dina téks-téks kuna ieu, diperkirakeun yén [[Dinasti Xia]] geus maréntah kurang leuwih taun [[2205 SM]], anu nujul kana tilu kaisar: [[Fu Xi]], [[Shen Nong]] jeung [[Huang Di]].<ref name=XIA/> Dina mangsa saméméh dinasti ieu ngadeg, kakawasaan pangluhurna mah nyaéta mangsa transisi gagantian kakawasaan antara Dinasti [[Dinasti Xia|Xia]] jeung [[Dinasti Yi|Yi]]. Dinasti munggaran Tiongkok anu ninggalkeun tapak sajarah mah nyaéta [[Dinasti Shang]], anu mertahankeun sistem féodal saru di tungtung walungan Huáng Hé' antara [[abad ka-17 SM]] nepi ka [[abad ka-11 SM]]. Sanajan kitu, mimitina mah [[Dinasti Shang]] téh maréntah di Propinsi Shandong kidul<ref name=CRO/> anu masih mangrupa daérah rawa kénéh dina mangsa harita mah, nepikakeun kakuatanna jadi leuwih gedé batan séké sélér nu aya di wewengkon wétan, anu sok disebut séké sélér yi.<ref name=CRO/> Raja Tang, dianggap minangka raja anu luhung ku élmu jembar ku panalar sarta wijaksana dina mingpin [[Dinasti Shang]], ibukota karajaanna dipuseurkeun di wewengkon [[Erligang]].<ref name=CRO/> Tulisan Tiongkok pangkolotna anu kapanggih nyaéta ukiran tulang ahli nujum ti [[Dinasti Shang]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA904#v=onepage&q&f=false | page=904 | number=Pam |name=Hollister |title=Zhengzhou | encyclopedia=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |editor=Schellinger, Paul E.; Salkin, Robert M.|editorial= Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers |year=1996|language= english}}</ref> sarta ngandung tulisan tina karakter Tionghoa modérn. [[Dinasti Shang]] kaéléhkeun ku urang [[Dinasti Zhou|Zhou]] anu ngadegkeun [[Dinasti Zhou]] anu maréntah antara [[abad ka-12 SM]] nepi ka [[abad ka-5 SM]], nalika kakawasaan [[Dinasti Zhou|Zhou]] laun-laun museur sarta sumebar jadi mangrupa kakawasaan [[féodal]] nepi ka antukna karajaan téh teu boga pangawasa, ti dinya bijil sawatara nagara indepénden anu silih merangan antar maranéhanana salila usum semi jeung usum gugur mangsa harita. Antara [[abad ka-5 SM]] jeung [[abad ka-3 SM]] éta mangrupa période nagara perang, nu mana wilayah Tiongkok kiwari kabagi jadi tujuh nagara ngadaulat, masing-masing dipingpin ku rajana sorangan, menteri jeung tentarana ogé dibentuk. ===Kakaisaran Tiongkok=== [[File:Terracotta Army 5.jpg|thumb|<center>Patung taneuh liat anu nanjeur di makam prajurit Qin Shi Huang (abad ka-3 SM).</center>]] [[Qin Shi Huang]] saurang gubernur nagara [[Qin]], anu ngadegkeun kasatuan nagara Tiongkok munggaran dina taun [[221]], mungkasan période perang antar nagara. [[Qin Shi Huang]] "Kaisar Munggaran" diproklamasikeun sarta loba ngayakeun réformasi, hususna mah kawajiban standarisasi basa Cina resmi, sistem ukur, sarta mata uang. [[Dinasti Qin]] ngan lumangsung 15 taun ti sanggeus maotna kaisar [[Qin Shi Huang]], antukna bijil kawijakan legalisasi otoritér nu ngabalukarkeun béréndélan pangberontakan.<ref name="memuseum">{{cite web|title=Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nsong/hd_nsong.htm|publisher=MetMuseum.org|accessdate=5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152800/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nsong/hd_nsong.htm |date=2017-10-10 }}</ref> Tuluy bijil [[Dinasti Han]], anu mikawasa Tiongkok ti [[206]] M nepi ka [[220]] M, nyiptakeun idéntitas budaya pangeusina anu mayeng nepi ka kiwari. Dinasti ieu terus ngalegaan wilayah kakaisaran Tiongkokna liwat kampanyeu militér ngurilingan [[Koréa]], [[Viétnam]], [[Mongolia]] jeung [[Asia Tengah]], ogé anu ngarojong dibabakanna [[Jalur Sutra]].<ref name="memuseum"/> [[Dinasti Han]] sacara tumuluy jadi nagara nu paékonomianna pangbadagna tur pangkolotna di dunya. [[Dinasti Han]] ngadopsi paham [[Konfusianisme]] minangka idéologi nagarana, idéologi anu dikembangkeun dina période usum semi jeung usum gugur. Sanajan sacara resmi ninggalkeun légalisme "idéologi nagara Qin", lembaga jeung kawijakan légalistikna mah tetep dijadikeun minangka dasar pamaréntahan [[Dinasti Han]].<ref name="memuseum"/> Sanggeus runtuhna [[Dinasti Han]], dituturkeun ku période séjén hasil tina susa-sésa [[Dinasti Han]] anu dipikawanoh minangka période Tilu Karajaan. Nagara-nagara anu bijil dina période ini, salasahijina karajaan Wu, ngajalin hubungan diplomatik jeung [[Jepang]] sarta ngawanohkeun sistem panulisan anu aya. Taun [[558]] Tiongkok balik deui aya dina kakawasaan [[Dinasti Sui]], anu singget pisan da ku éléhna téa dina [[Perang Goguryeo-Sui]] ([[598]]-[[614]]).<ref name="memuseum"/> [[File:The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling.jpg|thumb|300px|left|<center>Témbok badag Tiongkok, anu diwangun ku dinasti-dinasti sacara tuluy-tumuluy leuwih ti 2.000 taun pikeun ngaraksa tina serangan para pangjajah Xiongnu Mongolia jeung Manchuria.</center>]] Dina pangawasaan [[Dinasti Tang]] jeung [[Dinasti Song]], téknologi jeung budaya Tiongkok nepi kana jaman kaemasanna. [[Dinasti Tang]] tetep ngawasa nepi ka pertengahan [[abad ka-8]], nalika pangberontakan An Shi ngancurkeun kasejahteraan kakaisaran. [[Dinasti Song]] nyaéta pamaréntahan munggaran di dunya anu nyetak tagihan sarta ngaberlakukeun kawijakan pikeun ngawangun tentara anu permanén.<ref name="memuseum"/> Antara [[abad ka-10]] nepi ka [[abad ka-11]], pangeusi Tiongkok jadi dua kali lipet nyaéta kurang leuwih 100 yuta jiwa, sawaréhna mah éta téh balukar tina tarékah lelegaan pamelakan paré di daérah tengah jeung kulon, sarta ngareuahna hasil panén. Salila pamaréntahan [[Dinasti Song]] loba hasil anu karasa di antarana dina widang filsafat jeung seni, saham ogé paniagaan sarta karya seni. Hiji kabinangkitan Konfusianisme ogé bijil dina nyanghareupan tumuwuhna paham Buddhisme salila pamaréntahan [[Dinasti Tang]].<ref name="memuseum"/> [[File:La cité interdite 0244.JPG|thumb|<center>Istana kakaisaran Tiongkok ti pertengahan Dinasti Ming (abad ka-15)</center>]] Dina [[abad ka-13]], Tiongkok saeutik-saeutik ditaklukeun ku [[kakaisaran Mongol]]. Taun [[1271]], pamingpin Mongol [[Kubilai Khan]] ngadegkeun [[Dinasti Yuan]]. [[Dinasti Yuan|Yuan]] naklukeun susa-sésa panungtung ti [[Dinasti Song]] taun [[1279]]. Saméméh invasi Mongol, pangeusi Tiongkok [[Dinasti Song]] téh nyaéta 120 yuta jiwa, jadi ngurangan 60 yuta nalika sénsus taun [[1300]].<ref>Ping-ti Ho. "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China". dina ''Études Song''. Séri 1. Nomor 1. 1970. kaca 33–53.</ref> Saurang tukang tani nu ngaranna [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] ngagulingkeun [[Dinasti Yuan]] dina taun [[1368]] sarta sarta ngadegkeun [[Dinasti Ming]]. Dina pangawasaan [[Dinasti Ming]], Tiongkok marengan jaman kaemasan lianna, ngembangkeun salasahiji armada laut pangkuatna sadunya tur ékonomi pangbeungharna sarta makmur di tengah ngembangna seni jeung budaya Tiongkok. [[Dinasti Ming]] salila période ieu ngistrénan [[Cheng Ho]] mingpin éksplorasi ka sakuliah dunya, nepi ka [[Buana Afrika|Afrika]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/25/kenya-china | work=The Guardian | first=Xan | last=Rice | title=Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral | date=25 July 2010 | location=London | accessdate=5/7/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226213152/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/25/kenya-china |date=26 February 2013 }}</ref> Dina mangsa awal [[Dinasti Ming]], ibukota Tiongkok dipindahkeun ti [[Nanjing]] ka [[Béijing]]. Salila [[Dinasti Ming]], filsuf saperti [[Wang Yangming]] loba ngritik sarta nyumebarkeun paham [[Neo-Konfusianismena]] ku konsép [[individualisme]] jeung moralitas bawaan.<ref name="Wang">{{cite web|title=Wang Yangming (1472—1529)|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/|work=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|accessdate=5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502074204/http://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/ |date=2015-05-02 }}</ref> Dina taun [[1644]], Béijing dikepung ku koalisi pasukan pangberontak anu dipingpin ku [[Li Zicheng]], seurang pajabat Ming anu mingpin pangberontakan patani. Antukna Kaisar Ming Chongzhen maéhan manéh nalika kota éta dipikawasa.<ref name="Wang"/> === Républik Tiongkok (1912–1949) === [[File:Sunyatsen1.jpg|thumb|120px|<center>Sun Yat-sen</center>]] {{utama|Républik Tiongkok (1912-1949)|Républik Tiongkok|Sajarah Républik Tiongkok}} Dina taun [[1900]], Tiongkok mangrupa tempat kajadianna [[Pangberontakan Boxer]] anu harita gagal.<ref name="Boxer">{{cite web|title=Boxer Rebellion|url=http://www.history.com/topics/boxer-rebellion|accessdate=5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427222115/http://www.history.com/topics/boxer-rebellion |date=2015-04-27 }}</ref> Sékté kakaisaran anu gagal dina ngayakeun réformasi, antukna digulingkeun dina taun [[1911]] sarta didéklarasikeun wéh [[Républik Tiongkok]] bari nyokot wewengkon Tuva anu dipikawasa ku [[Uni Soviét]] jeung wewengkon [[Mongolia]]. Sedengkeun [[Tibét]] nyatakeun diri merdéka.<ref name="Boxer"/> Pangadeg [[Républik Tiongkok]], [[Sun Yat-sén]] anu jadi présidén munggaranna. Tapi karusuhan lumangsung di nagara ieu, ku sabab jénderal jeung panglima perangna hayang narik perhatian. Dina taun [[1928]], para panglima perang diéléhkeun dina kapamingpinan [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. di dinya lumangsung ogé perang sadulur anu lila antara [[Nasionalis]] jeung [[Komunis]], kapotong ku perang antara Tiongkok-Jepang. [[Jepang]] loba nyieun nagara-nagara bonéka di wewengkon Tiongkok anu ditaklukeunna. Taun [[1941]], Tiongkok meunangkeun perang Tiongkok-Jepang ku bantuan ti [[Amérika Sarikat]], kaasup dina wangun pasokan senjata.<ref name="Boxer"/> ===Républik Rahayat Tiongkok=== [[File:1945 Mao and Chiang.jpg|thumb|<center>Mao Zedong jeung Chiang Kai-shek taun 1946.</center>]] Sabérésna [[perang Tiongkok–Jepang]] dina taun [[1945]] balukar tina éléhna [[Jepang]] di [[Perang Dunya II]], pasalingsingan antara [[PKT]] jeung [[Kuomintang]] angot deui.<ref name="UNY">{{cite web |author= Ririn Darini, M.Hum |publisher= Fakultas Ilmu Sosial - Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta |url= http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/Garis%20Besar%20Sej%20Cina%20Era%20Mao.pdf |title= Garis Besar Sejarah China Era Mao |accessdate= 5/8/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412200540/http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/Garis%20Besar%20Sej%20Cina%20Era%20Mao.pdf |date=2015-04-12 }}</ref> Sanggeus éléhna [[Jepang]], pamaréntah [[Républik Tiongkok]] rusuh nitah ka sakumna aparatur pikeun nyokot kadudukan tentara [[Jepang]] di kurang leuwih wewengkon Tiongkok.<ref name="UNY"/> Sedengkeun [[Zhu Te]], Panglima Angkatan Bersenjata [[PKC]] ngaluarkeun paréntah supaya sabagian Tentara Beureum asup ka [[Manchuria]] jeung nungtut ka pamaréntah Tiongkok supaya ngalocotan senjata sakabéh tantara [[Jepang]].<ref name="UNY"/> Harita Tentara Beureum ngawasaan daérah pilemberun anu lega pisan sangkan Pamaréntah Tiongkok hariwangeun. Ku kituna Pamaréntah Tiongkok ménta pitulung [[Amérika Sarikat]] mikeun nulungan ngabéréskeun masalahna di Tiongkok.<ref name="UNY"/> [[Présidén Truman]] ngutus [[Jénderal George Marshall]] pikeun lalampahan minangka panumbu dina sengketa antara Pamaréntah Nasionalis jeung [[Partéy Komunis Tiongkok]].<ref name="UNY"/> Salasahiji anu direncanakeunna nyaéta palaksanaan paleburan tentara dua pihak jadi hiji tentara nasional.<ref name="UNY"/> Tapi sanggeuss Marshall indit mah perang antara Pamaréntah Nasionalis jeung [[PKT]] bijil deui malah mah mingkin lega cakupanna.<ref name="UNY"/> Najan mimitina mah éléh waé, tapi Tentara Beureum mingkin ngalegaan pangaruhna komona di daérah pilemburan, tarékah éta liwat pulitik ''land reform'' ti [[PKT]].<ref name="UNY"/> Taneuh-taneuh kabogaan tuan taneuh dicokot tur dibikeun ka para patani pikeun digarap.<ref name="UNY"/> Tentara Beureum anu ngawasaan wewengkon Tiongkok kalér gagancangan ka belah kiduleun Walungan [[Yang Tze]]. Tuluy ngarebut [[Nanking]], ibu kota pamaréntahan [[Nasionalis Tiongkok]].<ref name="UNY"/> Balukarna, pamaréntah Nasionalis Tiongkok kapaksa kudu mindahkeun ibu kotana ka [[Kanton]]. Tuluy wewengkon [[Hangou]], [[Shanghai]] jeung [[Qingdao]] sacara tuluy-tumuluy beunang ku kaum [[komunis]].<ref name="UNY"/> Sanggeus sapasi ti wewengkon Tiongkok bisa kakawasaan, ti dinya [[Mao Zedong]] mimiti nyiapkeun pangwangunan hiji Nagara Tiongkok anu sakumaha dicita-citakeun ku Partéy Komunis.<ref name="UNY"/> Léngkah munggaranna mah ku ngabentuk membentuk Panitia Sisiapan Majelis Pamusyawaratan Pulitik.<ref name="UNY"/> Panitia ieu ngahasil dina milih 21 urang pikeun ngajabat minangka Déwan Poéan ku [[Mao Zedong]] minangka pupuhuna sarta [[Chou Enlai]] minangka wakil pupuhu.<ref name="UNY"/> Ku stratégi ''lembur ngepung kota'', [[PKT]] bisa nyingkirkeun [[Kuomintang]] sarta dina tanggal [[1 Oktober]] [[1949]] meroklamasikeun ngadegna Républik Rahayat Tiongkok (RRT) anu ibukotana di [[Béijing]].<ref name="UNY"/> Pamingping pangluhurna tentara RRC nyaéta [[Zhu De]], sedengkeun [[Chou Enlai]] jadi Perdana Menteri rangkepan jeung Menteri Luar Negeri.<ref name="UNY"/> Tanggal [[14 Oktober]] [[1949]] [[Kanton]] bisa dipikawasa ku [[Tentara Beureum]], sangkan pamaréntah nasionalis kapaksa pindah ka [[Chongqing]].<ref name="UNY"/> Dina tanggal [[28 Nopémber]] [[1949]] [[Chongqing]] ogé beunang [[Tentara Beureum]].<ref name="UNY"/> Tuluy Propinsi [[Yunnan]] jeung [[Hainan]] beunang, nu antukna [[Républik Tiongkok|pamaréntah nasionalis]] teu boga wewengkon deui di Tiongkok daratan. Pamaréntahan [[Chiang Kai Shek]] kabur ka [[Taipéi]] anu nganjrek di [[Pulo Formosa]] ([[Taiwan]]).<ref name="UNY"/> Dina tanggal [[1 Maret]] [[1950]], [[Chiang Kai Shek]] ngajabat deui minangka présidén [[Républik Tiongkok]].<ref name="UNY"/> Sanggeus diproklamirkeunna Républik Rahayat Tiongkok, [[Uni Soviét]] ngakukeun kana kadaulatanna RRT sarta megatkeun hubungan diplomatikna jeung pamaréntahan [[Républik Tiongkok|Nasionalis Tiongkok]].<ref name="UNY"/> India ogé ngakukeun kana kadaulatan RRT dina tanggal [[30 Désémber]] [[1949]].<ref name="UNY"/> Dina tanggal [[6 Januari]] [[1950]] Inggris ngakukeun kadaulatan RRT sahingga Inggris mangrupa nagara démokratis kulon munggaran anu ngayakeun hubungan jeung pamaréntahan RRT.<ref name="UNY"/> ==Pulitik== ===Pamaréntahan=== Ti mimiti diwanohkeunna réformasi [[ékonomi]] taun [[1978]], RRT geus jadi nagara anu ronjatan [[ékonomi]]na paling gancang di dunya. Dina taun [[2012]], RRT téh nagara nu [[ékonomi]]na pangbadagna kadua di dunya, sanggeus [[Amérika Sarikat]], boh total nominal [[PDB]]na boh ''purchasing power parity''/[[Paritas Daya Beuli|paritas daya beulina]] (PPP), ogé jadi [[éksport]]ir jeung [[import]]ir barang panggedéna kadua di dunya. RRT mibanda [[senjata]] [[nuklir]] jeung [[tentara]] panggedéna di dunya, ku anggaran tatahanan panggedéna kadua di dunya.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Dibandingkeun jeung kawijakan ''closed-door'' RRT dina taun [[1970]]-an, [[liberal]]isasi mah geus nyieun iklim administrasi di RRT jadi teu pati réstriktif. [[Partéy Komunis Tiongkok]] (PKT) nyekel peran paling penting dina struktur [[pulitik]] RRT.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Prosés demokratisasi jeung réformasi pulitik anu dijalankeun jeung ''China characteristic'' bareng jeung kamajuan ékonomi sarta tingkat kasejahteraan masarakat RRT geus ngabijilkeun konsép anyar di widang pangwangunan ékonomi anu dipiwanoh ku sebutan ''Beijing Consensus''.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Konsép ieu nujul kana ngahasilna Pamaréntah RRT dina ngawangun jeung ngadorong paékonomian RRT sangkan bisa nahan tina hanteman [[krisis monétér]] global taun [[2008]]–[[2009]] anu ditulungan ku kuatna stabilitas [[pulitik]] jeung kaamanan nasional sangkan loba anu niléy yén RRT bisa jadi "modél anyar" dina ngawangun hiji [[nagara]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> ===''National People’s Congress'' (NPC)=== [[File:GreatHall auditorium.jpg|thumb|350px|<center>Gedong tempat diayakeunna ''National People’s Congress'' (NPC).</center>]] RRT nganut sistem [[unikameral]], anu kakawasaan pangluhurna aya di ''[[National People’s Congress]]'' (NPC/Parlemén). Sanajan aya 9 [[partéy pulitik|partéy]] di jero [[NPC]], tapi sora mayoritas aya di [[PKT]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> Sedengkeun 8 partéy lianna, nyaéta [[Partéy Komite Révolusi Tiongkok Kuomintang]], [[Liga Démokratik Tiongkok]], [[Pangwangunan Nasional Démokratik]], [[Partéy Kamajuan Démokrasi]], [[Partéy Démokratik Tani jeung Buruh]], [[Partéy Zhi Gong]], [[Partéy Daérah Istiméwa Taiwan Démokrasi]], sarta [[Partéy Asosiasi 9-3]]/3 [[Séptémber]], ngan nepikeun aspirasi masarakat anu diwakilanna. Anggota NPC dipilih liwat pangumpulan sora sacara rusiah ku propinsi, daérah otonomi, jeung kotamadya anu langsung ditangtayungan pamaréntah puseur sarta [[militer]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> Lian ti kitu, kelompok séké sélér minoritas ogé miboga wawakil di [[NPC]], boh anu kagabung dina Partéy boh utusan daérah.<ref name="kemenlu"/> [[NPC]] mibanda anggota 2.987 urang nu mangsa jabatanna 5 taun. [[NPC]] ngayakeun sidang paripurna unggal taun sakali jeung mun Komite Tetep nganggap perlu atawa mun leuwih ti 1/5 anggota [[NPC]] ngusulkeunna, [[NPC]] bisa ngayakeun sidang unggal waktu. NPC ngayakeun sidang munggaran dina taun [[1954]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> [[NPC]] miboga fungsi jeung kakawasaan, di antara ngamandeménkeun [[UUD]] jeung mikaawas palaksanaanna; ngasahkeun status dasar nagara; milih [[présidén]] jeung wakil [[présidén]]; netepkeun perdana menteri luyu jeung usul présidén; netepkeun wakil-wakil perdana menteri, panaséhat nagara, menteri-menteri, auditor nagara, jeung sékjén déwan nagara dumasar usul perdana menteri; milih puhu Komite Militer Pusat jeung netepkeun anggota-anggotana; milih jaksa agung; milih puhu mahkamah agung; mariksa sarta nyatujuan rencana nasional pangwangunan [[ékonomi]] jeung [[sosial]] sarta laporan palaksanaanna; mariksa jeung nyatujuan anggaran nagara sarta laporan palaksanaanna; jeung mutuskeun masalah-masalah kanagaraan séjénna.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Di sagigireun éta, RRT ogé mibanda lembaga panaséhat, nyaéta ''[[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]]'' (CPPCC) anu anggotana téh unsur [[PKT]], Partéy-Partéy non-komunis (8 Partéy), golongan étnis minoritas, agama, cindikiawan, organisasi sosial, jeung organisasi masarakat, kayaning [[palang mérah]], pamuda, jeung urang-urang Tiongkok parantauan. Anggota CPPCC kurang leuwih 2.237 urang.<ref name="kemenlu"/> [[Lembaga Peradilan]] di antarana Mahkamah Rahayat Agung (MA), peradilan daérah luyu jeung tingkat daérahna, peradilan militér, jeung peradilan rahayat husus. Mangsa jabatan Puhu MA nyaéta 5 taun jeung bisa dipilih deui ngan pikeun 2 mangsa jabatan. MA miboga tanggung jawab ka [[NPC]]. Sedengkeun peradilan daérah miboga tanggung jawab ka lembaga nagara anu ngawangunna, tapi pangawasan administrasina dilakonan ku lembaga peradilan sacara jumenjang. MA ngaawas Peradilan Rahayat Daérah tingkat I, sedengkeun Peradilan Rahayat Daérah tingkat I ngaawas Peradilan Rahayat Daérah tingkat II.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Sidang [[NPC]] tanggal [[5 Maret|5]]–[[14 Maret]] [[2011]], geus ngasahkeun [[Repelita]] ka-12 pangwangunan [[ékonomi]] jeung [[sosial]] RRT taun [[2011]]–[[2015]], jeung ngaklém geus nepi targét pangwangunan sistim hukum [[sosialis]] anu mikarakter [[Tiongkok]]. Pikeun RRT, Repelita ka-12 kacida penting pikeun ngawangun masarakat anu sejahtera dina segala rupa hal salian penting pikeun neuleuman réformasi jeung nembrakna sarta ngagancangkeun transformasi tumuwuhna [[ékonomi]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> [[File:The 1st Session of the 12th National People's Congress open 20130305.jpg|thumb|350px|<center>Sidang NPC ka-12 taun 2013.</center>]] Lian ti kitu, dina sidang NPC tanggal [[5 Maret|5]]–[[14 Maret]] [[2012]] pamaréntah RRT boga angkeuhan bakal ngarurusuh réformasi pamaréntahan liwat ngalegaan démokrasi sosialis, palaksanaan pamilu, jeung panangtayungan hak nyora warga nagara kana jalanna pamaréntahan sarta nyiptakeun pamaréntahan anu bersih, nu bébas tina [[korupsi]]. Sidang ogé ngabahas ngeunaan amandemén ''[[Criminal Procedure Law]]'' anu leuwih nyanghareupkeun hak asasi manusa hususna patalian jeung hak katuduh palaku kriminalitas. Amandemén éta ogé ngatur ngeunaan larangan larapan kakerasan dina invéstigasi ka katuduh jeung ngklarifikasi prosedur jéntré ngeunaan hukuman maot. Larapan hukuman maot kudu meunang widi heula ti pangadilan luhur jeung lamun pangadilan luhur nolak hukuman maot, mangka kasusna akan dibalikeun ka pangadilan lokal.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Taun [[2012]] mangrupa taun kacida pentingna pikeun RRT, nu mana dina tanggal [[8 Nopémber|8]]–[[14 Nopémber]] [[2012]] geus diayakeun Kongrés Nasional PKT ka-18. Kongrés éta ngahasilkeun di antarana: *Amandemén Konstitusi PKT, nyaéta ngasupkeun konsép pamikiran Pangwangunan Sacara Ilmiah minangka salasahiji tetekon gawé PKT bareng jeung [[Marxisme-Leninisme]], Pamikiran [[Mao Zedong]], Téori [[Deng Xiaoping]] jeung konsép Tilu Kawawakilan sarta rumojong kamajuan ékologi sosialis; *Milih anggota Komite Tetép Politbiro PKT ka-18 anu lobana tujuh urang (saméméhna PKT ka-17 lobana salapan urang); *Milih Xi Jinping minangka Sékjén PKT anu anyar ngagantikeun Hu Jintao; *Milih Xi Jinping minangka Puhu Komisi Militér Puseur PKT.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Sidang pléno munggaran [[NPC]] ka-12 anu lumangsung tanggal [[5 Maret|5]]-[[17 Maret]] [[2013]], geus netepkeun kapamingpinan anyar RRT nyaéta alihan tina Generasi ka-4 ka Generasi ka-5 ([[Xi Jinping]]) pikeun mingpin RRT sapuluh taun ka hareup. Sidang geus milih jeung netepkeun [[Xi Jinping]] minangka Présidén jeung Puhu Komisi Militér Puseur (KMP) Nasional RRT anu anyar ngagantikeun [[Hu Jintao]] anu pangsiun, jeung [[Li Yuanchao]] kapilih jadi Wakil [[Présidén]] ngagantikeun [[Xi Jinping]]. Sidang ogé geus milih jeung netepkeun [[Zhang Dejiang]] minangka Puhu Komite Tetep [[NPC]] ka-12 (Puhu DPR RRT). [[File:Great Hall Of The People At Night.JPG|thumb|500px|left|<center>Gedong NPC anu tohaga ditémbong ti luar.</center>]] Dina tanggal [[15 Maret]] [[2013]], sanggeus dinominasikeun ku Présidén Xi Jinping, Li Keqiang kapilih jadi Perdana Menteri RRT ngagantikeun [[Wen Jiabao]] anu pangsiun. Lian ti kitu, [[Zhou Qiang]] kapilih jadi Puhu Mahkamah Rahayat Agung RRT ngagantikeun [[Wang Shengjun]] jeung [[Cao Jiaming]] kapilih deui jadi Jaksa Rahayat Agung RRT.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Sedengkeun pikeun jabatan Wakil Puhu KMP, sanggeus dinominasikeun ku Présidén [[Xi Jinping]], [[NPC]] netepkeun [[Fan Changlong]] jeung [[Xu Qiliang]] minangka Wakil KMP jeung ogé netepkeun dalapan anggota KMP nyaéta: [[Chang Wanquan]], [[Fang Fenghui]], [[Zhang Yang]], [[Zhao Keshi]], [[Zhang Youxia]], [[Wu Shengli]], [[Ma Xiaotian]] jeung [[Wei Fenghe]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> Sidang éta ogé ngadopsi réstrukturisasi [[kabinét]] ti 27 kamenterian jadi 25 kamenterian anu tujuanna pikeun ngurangan birokrasi jeung nyieun pamaréntah nu leuwih éfisién pikeun ngajamin éféktivitas jalanna pamaréntahan kaasup pikeun neken prakték [[korupsi]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> ===Hubungan jeung Républik Tiongkok=== Dina pakuat-pakaitna jeung [[Taiwan]], hubungan kadua belah pihak aya dina kamajuan ti mimiti "Presiden" Taiwan [[Ma Ying-jeou]] ngajabat dina bulan [[Méi]] [[2008]]. Sabulan sanggeus pangistrénan, runtuyan patemuan digelar antara lembaga semiresmi kadua belah pihak, nyaéta ''Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits'' (ARATS/Daratan) jeung ''Straits Exchange Foundation'' (SEF/Taiwan) anu sempet nagen salila salapan taun. Nepi ka taun [[2012]] katompérnakeun, kadua belah pihak geus nandatanganan 18 pajangjian, di antarana: palayaran langsung, pengawangan langsung, palayanan pos langsung, katahanan pangan, pajangjian gawé bareng kaséhatan, atikan, haki, pajangjian inspéksi produk jeung karantina, tutukeuran wisatawan, panangtayungan invéstasi sarta pajangjian rancangan gawé bareng [[ékonomi]] (''Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement'' ECFA). Sawatara kasupaketan penting lianna nyaéta supaya kadua pihak geus mimiti ngabahas isu hubungan [[pulitik]] jeung [[militér]] sarta gawé bareng tutukeuran [[budaya]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> === Hubungan Luar Negeri Lianna === Ti mimiti dicanangkeunna kawijakan réformasi taun [[1978]], pola kawijakan luar negeri RRT gé ngalaman parobahan dadasar. Sanajan tetep miharep kapentingan dina ngajaga weuteuhna wilayah jeung stabilitas kaamanan, tapi kawijakan pulitik luar negerina mah diarahkeun keur ngadukung suksésna pangwangunan nasional jeung marengkeun harmonisasi hubungan antarbangsa. Dina mimitina, RRT ngawanohkeun konsép ''peaceful rise'', kiwari pemerintah RRT ngaganti ku istilah ''peaceful development''. RRT kaciri ngamangpaatkeun sagala forum [[internasional]]/[[régional]], ogé sacara bilateral sangkan bisa ngamankeun kapentingan nasionalna.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Dina tingkat régional RRT martisipasi aktif, di antarana dina rarancang gawé bareng [[ASEAN]], [[ARF]], [[EAS]], [[ESCAP]], [[APEC]], [[ACD]], [[BRICS]] ([[Brasil]], [[Rusia]], [[India]], RRT, jeung [[Afrika Kidul]]), [[G20]], [[SCO]] (''Shanghai Cooperation Organization''), jeung ''Greater Mekong Subregion'' ([[GMS]]). Sedengkeun dina tingkat multilateral, RRT nyaéta salasahiji anggota tetep DK PBB (P5), ITU, ICAO, IMO, CEDAW, jeung badan husus PBB lianna. RRT jadi pihak mangrupa-rupa pajangjian internasional, di antarana Traktat Non-Proliferasi Nuklir (NPT), Konvénsi Sanjata Kimiawi'','' Konvensi Senjata Biologis, sarta Traktat Palarangan Sakabéhna Uji Coba Nuklir (CTBT).<ref name="kemenlu"/> Sedengkeun dina hal ngabérésan aksi separatisme di [[Tibet]], salasahiji tarékah anu dilakonan ku pamaréntah RRT nyaéta diwangunna jalur [[karéta api]] sapanjang 1.956&nbsp;km, anu numbukeun kota [[Golmud]] di Propinsi [[Qinghai]] jeung kota [[Lhasa]] di [[Tibet]], anu diresmikeun dina taun [[1996]]. Babaraha pihak nilik pangwangunan jalur kareta api ieu minangka upaya Pamaréntah RRT pikeun ngadeukeutkeun [[Tibet]] jeung [[Béijing]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> ===Babagian Administratif=== RRT dibagi jadi 22 provinsi (''sheng''), 5 daerah otonom (''zizhiqu''), jeung 4 kotamadya (''shih'') anu dikontrol langsung ku pamaréntah puseur). RRT ogé mibanda 2 daérah otonomi husus nyaéta [[Hong Kong]] jeung [[Makau]] sarta ngaklaim kadaulatan pikeun provinsi ka-23 nyaéta [[Taiwan]], anu kadaptarna mah minangka nagara kapisah.<ref name="statoid">{{cite web |url=http://www.statoids.com/ucn.html |title=China Provinces |publisher=www.statoids.com |accessdate=5/5/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040101151906/http://www.statoids.com/ucn.html |date=2004-01-01 }}</ref> Euweuh hiji ogé tina babagian administratif ieu anu diaku ku pamaréntah [[Républik Tiongkok]], anu ngaklaim sakabéh wilayah RRT. {{Peta_leutik_propinsi_RRT/daptar_propinsi}} {{Peta_leutik_propinsi_RRT}} ==Ékonomi== ===Sajarah Ékonomi=== Ti taun [[1970]]-an katompérnakeun, RRT geus ngarobah sistem paékonomianna tina [[sistem ékonomi]] katutup jeung ''centrally planned'' jadi [[sistem ékonomi]] anu leuwih nyoko kana [[pasar]]. Jeung ngaimpléméntasikeun kawijakan éta dina taun [[2010]] RRT suksés jadi [[éksportir]] pangbadagna sadunya. Réformasi [[ékonomi]] RRT dimimitian sacara tumahap nyaéta kaluar tina sistem patanian koléktif jeung ngalegakeunna dina liberalisasi [[harga]], déséntralisasi fiskal, ngaronjatkeun [[otonomi]] [[BUMN]], ngadiversifikasi sistem [[perbankan]], ngembangkeun pasar [[saham]], ngaronjatkeun tumuwuhna séktor [[swasta]], jeung muka diri kana padagangan, sarta [[invéstasi]] luar negeri.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Dina taun [[2012]], di tengah kajadian krisis kauangan global, RRT masih bisa mertahankeun tumuwuhna [[ékonomi]] anu stabil jeung tetep. Sawatara préstasi anu dicekel ku RRT di antarana nyaéta naékna GDP tina RMB 26,6 triliun (4,2 triliun [[USD]]) jadi RMB 51,9 trilyun (8,3 triliun [[USD]]), anu nempatkeun RRT di réngking kadua sacara global. Disagigireun éta, beubeunangan pamaréntah ogé naék tina RMB 5,1 triliun (822 miliar [[USD]]) jadi RMB 11,7 triliun (1,88 triliun [[USD]]) ku nambahna lapangan gawé saloba 58,7 yuta.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Salasahiji konci ngahasilna Pamaréntah RRT dina mertahankeun tumuwuhna [[ékonomi]] di tengah [[krisis global]] nyaéta palarapan kawijakan [[fiskal]] anu pro-aktif, kawijakan ''easy moneter'', palarapan kawijakan finansial nu sagembléngna, rumonjatanna balanja pamaréntah, jeung nyieun pangurangan pajak sacara struktural. Disagigireun éta, igé dilakonan panyaluyuan giro wajib minimum jeung suku bunga pikeun mertaankeun tumuwuhna anu pas dina suplai [[duit]] jeung [[krédit]]. Dina ngaréspon trén parobahan makro [[ékonomi]], pamaréntah ogé sacara gancang nginténsifkeun impléméntasi kawijakan, ngurangan daya dorong ti kawijakan stimulus sacara tepat waktu, jeung ngimpléméntasikeun kawijakan fiskal pro-aktif jeung [[kawijakan monétér]] anu ati-ati. Dina raraga pikeun ngagancangkeun panyaluyuan [[struktur ékonomi]] jeung ngembangkeun kualitas sarta kinérja pangwangunan [[ékonomi]], pamaréntah geus ngalakonan runtuyan tarékah pikeun ngadorong pamundutan [[doméstik]]. Minangka hasilna, kontribusi pamundutan doméstik kana tumuwuhna [[ékonomi]] ngaronjat.<ref name="kemenlu"/> ===Industri=== Di widang [[industri]], RRT ngalakonan sawatara tarékah pikeun meromosikeun transformasi séktor [[industri]] anu antukna ngajadikeun [[industri]] [[manufaktur]] RRT panggedéna di dunya, ku tumuwuhna niléy tambah taunan rata-rata nepi 13,4%. Hal ieu sakaligus ngajadikeun [[manufaktur téknologi]] luhur minangka pilar utama [[ékonomi]] RRT. Disagigireun éta, dina période lima taun ieu, industri stratégis kawengku ''clean energy'', konsérvasi énérgi, panangtayungan lingkungan, téknologi komunikasi jeung ''bio-medicines'' geus tumuwuh gancang. Kontribusi séktor jasa kana GPD ogé rumonjat kurang leuwih 2,7%, jeung ngajadikeun séktor ieu bisa nyiptakeun lapangan gawé leuwih loba batan séktor séjén.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Padagangan internasional RRT dina waktu lima taun panungtung rata-rata tumuwuh 12,2%/taun jeung RRT aya dina réngking kadua nagara anu padaganganna pangbadagna di dunya. RRT geus jadi pangékspor pangbadagna sadunya sarta kontribusina ka pasar internasional ogé ngaronjat leuwih ti 2% tinimbang taun [[2007]]. Pikeun [[invéstasi]], salila lima taun pamaréntah geus ngagunakeun [[invéstasi]] asing saloba 552,8 miliar [[USD]]. Sarta pikeun ngarojong ékspansi pangusaha RRT kaluar negeri, pamaréntah ngalarapkeun stratégi ''go global''.<ref name="kemenlu"/> ==Géografi== [[File:YellowRiver Gorges.jpg|thumb|150px|<center>Jungkrang walungan Huáng Hé'</center>]]RRT mangrupa nagara pangbadagna ka-3 di dunya sanggeus [[Rusia]] jeung [[Kanada]], wewengkonna ngawengku daratan anu kacida legana di tapak [[Paadaban Lebak Walungan Konéng]]. Di beulah wétan, salian ti basisir [[Sagara Konéng]] jeung [[Sagara Tiongkok Wétan]], kapanggih ogé hiji daratan anu lega tur padet nu ditempatan ku lapangan taneuh anyar, basisir [[Laut Tiongkok Kidul|Sagara Tiongkok Kidul]] leuwih ngabentuk gugunungan jeung Tiongkok beulah kidul didominasi wewengkon pasir jeung jajaran gunung anu leuwih héndép. Di beulah tengah ngétan kapanggih délta 2 walungan utama Tiongkok, Huang He (Walungan Konéng) jeung Chang Jiang (Walungan Panjang). Walungan-walungan utama séjénna nyaéta Zhu Jiang, Songhua Jiang, Mekong, Brahmaputra jeung Amur. Ka beulah kulonna, jajaran gunung anu utama, hususna Himalaya kalawan titik pangjangkungna di Tiongkok [[Gunung Everest]], jeung ciri-ciri plato jangkung di antara wentang daratan anu leuwih garing ti batan gurun samodél [[Gurun Taklamakan]] jeung [[Gurun Gobi]]. Ku sabab halodo panjang jeung jigana gara-gara patanén anu leutik migawé badéy lebu geus jadi hal anu biasa dina usum semi di Tiongkok. Nurutkeun Badan Pangraksa Lingkungan Tiongkok, Gurun Gobi geus dimekarkeun jeung mangrupa sumber utama badéy lebu anu mangaruhan Tiongkok jeung wewengkon [[Asia Kalér Ngétan]] séjénna saperti [[Koréa]] jeung [[Jepang]]. Keusik ti beulah kalér geus kacaturkeun nepi ke basisir kulon [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Pangurusan cai walungan (saperti pamiceunan sésa tinja, pangotoran ku kilang, jeung ékstraksi cai pikeun irigasi jeung inumeun) jeung ngaheureutanna taneuh pasir matak ngabalukarkeun dampak goréng ka nagara séjén.{{fact}} ===Walungan=== {{utama|Daptar walungan di RRT}} Dua walungan utama RRT, Huáng Hé' (Walungan Konéng) jeung Chang Jiang (Yangzi atawa Walungan Yangtze), sarta walungan mutiara (Zhu Jiang) sistem délta nu dicirian ku Xi Jiang (Walungan kulon) di [[kidul wétan]] RRT, geus aya rarancangan gawé pikeun ngamekarkeun kagiatan [[tani]] jeung tumuwuhna populasi ti sapanjang [[sajarah Tiongkok]].<ref name="afe">{{cite web |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/geog/maps.htm#2a |title=Chinese Geography: Readings and Maps |publisher=afe.easia.columbia.edu |accessdate=6/5/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430063920/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/geog/maps.htm#2a |date=2015-04-30 }}</ref> Walungan séjén nyaéta Heilong Jiang (dipikawanoh ogé minangka walungan Amur ceuk ngaran [[Rusia]]na) nyirikeun wates antara RRT jeung [[Rusia]]. Dina mangsa baheula, daérah ieu téh salah sahiji konfrontasi antara dua nagara.<ref name="afe"/> ===Pagunungan=== [[File:Huangshan, China (YELLOW MOUNTAIN-LANDSCAPE) VIII (1061671042).jpg|thumb|250px|<center>Pagunungan Huangshan</center>]] {{utama|Daptar pagunungan di RRT}} [[Himalaya]], pagunungan anu pangluhurna di dunya, ngawangun wawatesan kidul kulon jeung [[India]], [[Nepal]] sarta [[Bhutan]], ogé di dinya nganjrekna poncrot pangluhurna di dunya.<ref name="wa">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/asia/china/cnland.htm|title=Geography of China|publisher=www.worldatlas.com|accessdate=6/5/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508131753/http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/asia/china/cnland.htm |date=2015-05-08 }}</ref> Nganjrekna poncrot pangluhurna [[Himalaya]] téh nyaéta di RRT, anu dipikawanoh minangka [[Gunung Everest]], anu mangrupa gunung pangluhurna di dunya, sarta luhurna nepi kana 8.850 m.<ref name="wa"/> Loba walungan anu bijil ti [[Himalaya]], kaasup walungan Indus jeung Brahmaputra. Di bagéan kalér wétan, wawates RRT jeung [[Rusia]] ogé diwates ku pagunungan cingcin luhur.<ref name="wa"/> ===Gurun=== Gurun Gobi mayakpak ti belah [[kulon]] ka [[wétan]] di sapanjang wawatesan jeung [[Mongolia]].<ref name="wa"/> Éta mangrupa topografi variatif ti gurun pasir ka tutugan gunung anu landeuh sarta dataran luhur anu ngabaris nepi ka [[Mongolia]].<ref name="wa"/> Halodo kateterusan ngabalukarkeun daérah kaserang badéy kekebul, sahingga RRT kaleungitan sayuta héktar per taunna wewengkon nu jadi gurun.<ref name="wa"/> Titik panglandeuhna di RRT nyaéta logak gersang Tupan anu nganjrek di bagian [[kulon]], sarta mangrupa titik panglandeuhna katilu di [[marcapada]].<ref name="wa"/> ===Flora jeung Fauna=== [[File:Panda ChiangMaiZoo humarkus.jpg|thumb|170px|<center>Panda badag di Chiang Mai Zoo</center>]] RRT mangrupa salasahiji ti 17 [[nagara mégadiversitas]],<ref name="environment">{{cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html |title=Biodiversity Theme Report |publisher=Environment.gov.au |date=10/12/2009 |dateaccess=5/6/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208141905/http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html |date=2008-12-08 }}</ref> sarta nganjrek di antara dua [[ékologi]] pangbadagna di dunya: [[Paléarktik]] jeung [[Indomalaya]]. RRT mibanda leuwih ti 34.687 spésiés [[amfibi]], [[manuk]], [[mamalia]], [[réptil]] jeung tutuwuhan vaskular, ogé minangka nagara katilu anu paling réa kaanékaragaman hayatina di [[marcapada]], sanggeus [[Brazil]] jeung [[Kolombia]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03highest_biodiversity.htm|title= Countries with the Highest Biological Diversity|publisher= Mongabay.com|accessdate= 5/6/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326060253/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03highest_biodiversity.htm |date=2013-03-26 }}</ref> Malah mah RRT téh imah pikeun 551 spesies mamalia (ka-3 di dunya)<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals/analysis/geographic-patterns|title= IUCN Initiatives – Mammals – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012|publisher= IUCN Red List.com|accessdate= 5/6/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512150801/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals/analysis/geographic-patterns |date=2013-05-12 }}</ref>, 1.221 jenis manuk (ka-8 di dunya)<ref>{{cite web|url= http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03birds.htm|title= Countries with the most bird species|publisher= Mongabay.com|accessdate= 5/6/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216152146/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03birds.htm |date=2013-02-16 }}</ref>, 424 spésiés [[réptil]] (ka-7 di dunya)<ref>{{cite web|url= http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03reptiles.htm|title= Countries with the most reptile species|publisher= Mongabay.com|accessdate= 5/6/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216152129/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03reptiles.htm |date=2013-02-16 }}</ref> jeung 333 spésiés amfibi (ka-7 di dunya)<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians/analysis/geographic-patterns#diversity|title= IUCN Initiatives – Amphibians – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012|publisher= IUCN Red List.com|accessdate= 5/6/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512145131/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians/analysis/geographic-patterns#diversity |date=2013-05-12 }}</ref>. di antara spésiés éndemik mamalia di nagara ieu, nyaéta: [[panda]], monyét bulu emas, maung tiongkok kulon, manuk Moron, ibis Jepang, lumba-lumba walungan bodas jeung [[aligator tiongkok]].<ref name="mongabay">{{cite web|url= http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03plants.htm|title= Countries with the most vascular plant species|publisher= Mongabay.com|accessdate= 5/6/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112001508/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03plants.htm |date=2014-01-12 }}</ref> Di wewengkonna mah aya leuwih ti 32.000 spésiés tutuwuhan vaskular jeung mangrupa imah pikeun mangrupa-rupa leuweung konifer tiis.<ref name="mongabay"/> Éta ngadominasi di kalér sarta mangrupa habitat pikeun saro sarupaning [[uncal]], beruang hideung asia jeung leuwih ti 120 spésiés [[manuk]].<ref name="mongabay"/> Di rungkun konifer baseuh bisa dipanggihan leunjeuran [[awi]].<ref name="mongabay"/> [[Tangkal yew]] (''Taxus chinensis'') jeung juniper ayana di dataran luhur nu mana rododrendón ngagantikeun awi.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.rebanadasderealidad.com.ar/economia-10-01.htm|title= El bambú: ¿un recurso sustentable?|accessdate= 5/6/2015|publisher= Varas, Eugenio J.}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514202854/http://www.rebanadasderealidad.com.ar/economia-10-01.htm |date=2014-05-14 }}</ref> Leuweung subtropis, anu ngadominasi di puseur jeung kulon nyaéta imah pikeun leuwih ti 146.000 spésiés flora. [[Leuweung tropis]] jeung [[leuweung usuman]], sanajan kawates ku [[Yunnan]] jeung [[Hainan]] tapina ngandung saparapat tina sakabéh spésiés sato jeung tutuwuhan anu kapanggih di RRT.<ref name=FF>{{cite web |obra= China.org.cn |url= http://spanish.china.org.cn/spanish/xi-jk/206.htm |title= Flora y fauna de China |accessdate= 5/6/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095625/http://spanish.china.org.cn/spanish/xi-jk/206.htm |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Di RRT tumuwuh leuwih ti 10.000 spésiés supa,<ref name="mongabay"/> anu ampir 6.000-na mah nyaéta supa jarangkung. Spésiés tutuwuhan anu penting lianna kawengku: [[metasecouya]], camara tiongkok, Cataya, pinus Taiwan, cemara fujiano davidia, guatapercha jeung campotecia.<ref name=FF/> Sahenteuna 840 spésiés sato kaancam punah, utamana ku sabab tarékah manusa kayaning parusakan habitat, polusi jeung moro sato pikeun dahareun, kulit sarta bahan-bahan pikeun ubar tradisional.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/infographic-top-20-countries-with-most-endangered-species|title= Top 20 countries with most endangered species IUCN Red List|publisher= MNN.com|accessdate= 5/6/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424182826/http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/infographic-top-20-countries-with-most-endangered-species |date=2013-04-24 }}</ref> Spésiés kaancam punah anu ditangtayungan ku hukum dina taun 2005 aya leuwih ti 2.349 wewengkon lindung ngawengku legana 149.950.000 ha, 15% tina wilayah PRT.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nature Reserves|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/Brief/193257.htm|publisher=China.org.cn|accessdate=5/6/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010150919/http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/Brief/193257.htm |date=2017-10-10 }}</ref> Tanggal [[11 Juni]] [[1992]] pamaréntah PRT nandatanganan [[Konvénsi Kaanékaragaman Hayati Rio de Janeiro]], sarta jadi anggota Konvénsi dina tanggal [[5 Januari]] [[1993]]. Satuluyna ngahasilkeun hiji stratégi jeung rancangan aksi nasional kaanékaragaman hayati, yén sanggeus tinjauan ditarima ku konvénsi dina tanggal [[21 Séptémber]] [[2010]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |title=List of Parties |accessdate=5/6/2015 |publisher=CBD.int }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124005746/http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |date=2011-01-24 }}</ref> ==Infrastruktur== [[File:Tianjin Railway station platform with CRH3 in background.jpg|thumb|Stasion karéta api Tianjin nu aya CRH3 di tukangna]] ===Tumuwuhna Pangwangunan=== Dina widang infrastruktur, salila période lima taun, pamaréntah geus suksés ngabangun leuwih ti 18 yuta unit [[imah]] nu disubsidi jeung ngoméan 12 yuta unit [[imah]] di daérah pasisian.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Disagigireun éta, ogé geus suksés diwangun 19.700&nbsp;km jalur [[kareta api]], nu mana 8951&nbsp;km na nyaéta jalur [[kareta api]] éksprés.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Pamaréntah ogé geus ngawangun 609.000&nbsp;km jalan anyar, jeung 42.000&nbsp;km na mangrupa [[jalan tol]], anu nambah panjang [[jalan tol]] sacara sakabéhna jadi 95.600&nbsp;km.<ref name="kemenlu"/> Leuwih jerona, ogé geus diwangun 31 bandara jeung 602 palabuan pikeun 10.000 ton kapal sarta pangwangunan proyék badag pikeun ngamalirkeun gas jeung listrik ti [[kulon]] ka [[wétan]].<ref name="kemenlu"/> ===Jalan=== [[Jalan tol]] Tiongkok nu panjangna 65.000 kilométer mangrupa [[jalan tol]] pangpanjangna kadua di dunya, handapeun [[Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="jalan">{{cite web |url=http://www.asiatradehub.com/china/roads.asp |title=Roads Sector in China |publisher=asiatradehub.com |accessdate=5/15/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422032927/http://www.asiatradehub.com/china/roads.asp |date=2015-04-22 }}</ref> *Taun [[2020]] pamaréntah RRT geus ngarencanakeun pikeun méréskeun tilu yuta kilométer [[jalan tol]] jeung jalan raya, naék ti nu tadina dua yuta kilométer dina taun [[2008]].<ref name="jalan"/> *RRT mangrupa puseur [[jalan tol]], ku sabab jalan tol RRT téh 70% ti total jalan tol di sakuliah dunya.<ref name="jalan"/> *Pamaréntah RRT ngabiayaan ampir sakabéh proyék jalan ku anggaranna sorangan, sedengkeun séktor swasta miboga perang nu kawates.<ref name="jalan"/> *Séktor [[jalan tol]] téh salah sahiji bisnis anu nguntungkeun pisan di RRT pikeun taun [[2009]], bareng jeung bisnis ''real estate'' sarta kauangan.<ref name="jalan"/> ===Karéta Api=== Galur [[karéta api]] RRT dina taun [[2008]] katompérnakeun, geus nepi kana 79,687.5&nbsp;km, aya dina réngking kahiji sa-[[Asia]].<ref name="kareta1">{{cite web |url=http://www.asiatradehub.com/china/railways.asp |title=China Railways- Overview |publisher=asiatradehub.com |accessdate=5/15/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325102338/http://www.asiatradehub.com/china/railways.asp |date=2015-03-25 }}</ref> Ti wétan ka kulon, kalér ka kidul, dikombinasikeun ku diwangunna galur nu cukup gedé nyaéta galur [[karéta api]] [[Ganzhi]] nu jadi faktor ronjatanna.<ref name="kareta1"/> Pangoperasian transportasi [[karéta api]] di RRT geus dimimitian ti taun [[2008]],<ref name="kareta2">{{cite web |url=http://www.asiatradehub.com/china/railways3.asp |title=The operation of rail transport in China |publisher=asiatradehub.com |accessdate=5/15/2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031225702/http://www.asiatradehub.com/china/railways3.asp |date=2013-10-31 }}</ref> kabagi jadi [[karéta api]] nasional sarta [[karéta api]] pagawé nu tujuanna pikeun ngalarapkeun konsép pangwangunan ilmiah, dinas ogé ngutamakeun kapentingan rahayat, nu inovasina terus maju dina kasatuan, ogé pikeun miceun runtuyan kamacétan, pangwangunan transportasi [[karéta api]] RRT geus nepi kana préstasi anu luar biasa.<ref name="kareta2"/> ==Atikan== Dina taun [[1986]], RRT geus ngarumuskeun tujuan jangka panjang pangwangunan wajib diajar salapan taun pikeun sakumna budak. Dina taun [[1997]], RRT miboga 628.840 [[sakola dasar]], 78.642 [[sekolah luhur]] jeung 1.020 sakola husus.<ref name="asiap">{{cite web|url= http://www.asia-planet.net/china/education.htm|title= Education|publisher= Orasia co., ltd.|accessdate= 5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410152232/http://www.asia-planet.net/china/education.htm |date=2011-04-10 }}</ref> Dina bulan [[Pébruari]] [[2006]], pamaréntah ngarévisi target pikeun ngayakeun atikan wajib diajar salapan taun tur haratis, kaasup nyadiakeun buku pangajaranna sarta di tingkat kuliahanna ogé, di [[propinsi]] belah [[kulon]] kawilang miskinna.<ref name="chinaeco">{{cite web|url= http://en.ce.cn/National/Rural/200602/21/t20060221_6154334.shtml|title= China pledges free 9-year education in rural west|publisher= China Economic Net|accessdate= 5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152014/http://en.ce.cn/National/Rural/200602/21/t20060221_6154334.shtml |date=2017-10-10 }}</ref> [[File:HUST-Main-building-4111.jpg|thumb|Universitas Sains dan Téknologi Huazhong nu ngadeg di Wuhan]] Dina taun [[2002]], tingkat masarakat anu beunta kana widang atikan di RRT nyaéta 90,9%, anu komposisina 95,1% lalaki jeung 86,5% awéwé.<ref name="pop">{{cite web|url= http://travelblog.org/World/ch-ppl.html|title= Chinese People|publisher= TravelBlog|accessdate= 5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811222854/http://www.travelblog.org/World/ch-ppl.html |date=2007-08-11 }}</ref> Dina bulan Maret [[2007]], RRT ngumumkeun kaputusan pikeun ngajadikeun atikan minangka "Prioritas Stratégis Nasional", ku anggaran nasionalna tilu kali lipet dina dua taun sarta tambahan 223.500.000.000 yuan disadiakeun salila lima taun pikeun ngaronjatkeun atikan wajib di daérah kapencil.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-03/05/content_5800996.htm|title= Premier Wen announces hefty educational investment|publisher= news.xinhuanet.com|accessdate= 5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414054357/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-03/05/content_5800996.htm |date=2016-04-14 }}</ref> Kualitas universitas RRT mah variatif nu lolobanana mah daptarna téh di [[Béijing University]], [[Universitas Rahayat Tiongkok]] (''Renmin University of China''), jeung [[Tsinghua University]] di [[Béijing]], [[Fudan University]], [[Shanghai Jiao Tong University]], [[Xi'an Jiaotong University]] di Xi'an, [[Nanjing University]] di Nanjing, [[Universitas Sains jeung Téknologi RRT]] di Hefei, [[Universitas Zhejiang]] di Hangzhou sarta [[Wuhan University]] di Wuhan.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-02/21/content_418027.htm|title= Chinese University Ranking unveiled|publisher= China Daily|accessdate= 5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514060937/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-02/21/content_418027.htm |date=2011-05-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://rank2003.netbig.com/en/rnk_1_0_0.htm|title= All-around Ranking|publisher= Netbig rank|accessdate= 5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104140729/http://rank2003.netbig.com/en/rnk_1_0_0.htm |date=2011-01-04 }}</ref> Di RRT, sistem atikanna dibagi jadi tilu kategori: atikan dasar, atikan luhur, dan atikan déwasa. Geus ditetepkan yén unggal budak téh kudu miluan wajib diajar salapan taun dina atikan formal.<ref name="edu.cn">{{cite web|url= http://www.edu.cn/20041203/3123354.shtml|title= Education System in China|publisher= China Education and Research Network|accessdate= 5/7/2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518094522/http://www.edu.cn/20041203/3123354.shtml |date=2015-05-18 }}</ref> ===Atikan Dasar=== Atikan dasar di Tiongkok di antarana atikan pra-sakola, atikan dasar jeung atikan menengah biasa. Prasakola, atawa taman kanak-kanak, paling lila nepi ka tilu taun, nu patokanna ti umur tilu taun nepi ka umur genep taun, liwat ti éta sok langsung di ka sakola dasarkeun.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Taun akademik anu dilarapkeunana dibagi jadi dua seméster.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Atikan menengah dibagi jadi atikan menengah umum jeung husus, [[SMK]] atawa atikan téknik. Atikan menengah umum dibagi geui jadi sakola menengah umum handap jeung sakola menengah umum luhur.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Lulusan sakola dasar nu hayang neruskeun kudu nyokot ujian asup anu dikokola sacara lokal, anu dipertimbangkeun ka hareupna boh leuwih cocog ka sakola menengah umum atawa ka menengah kajuruan.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Sakola menengah kajuruan kagiatanna antara dua nepi ka opat taun sarta dilatih jadi pagawé calakan, [[patani]], ogé jadi tanaga manajerial jeung tanaga téknis.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Sedengkeun sakola téknik kagiatanna opat taun pikeun ngalatih tanaga téknis.<ref name="edu.cn"/> ===Atikan Luhur=== Atikan luhur nyaéta tingkatan sarjana kayaning [[paguron luhur]] junior 2-3 taun(sakapeung mah disebut siklus pondok [[paguron luhur]]), [[paguron luhur]] 4 taun, sarta universitas anu nawarkeun program pangajaran akademik jeung kajuruanna.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Loba ogé [[paguron luhur]] jeung universitas menawarkan program [[pascasarjana]] anu nojo ka tingkat master atawa [[Ph.D.]]<ref name="edu.cn"/> Atikan luhur Tiongkok di tingkat sarjana dibagi jadi program tilu taun jeung program opat taun.<ref name="edu.cn"/> ===Atikan Déwasa=== Kategori atikan jalma déwasa patumpang-tindih jeung tilu kategori dina atikan luhur.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Atikan déwasa tingkat dasar kaasup Sakola Dasar, Sekolah Dasar Patani-Pagawé, jeung kelas kaaksaraan.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Atikan menengah déwasa ngawengku sakola menengah husus [[radio]]/[[TV]], sakola menengah husus pikeun kader, sakola menengah husus pikeun staf jeung pagawé, sakola menengah husus pikeun patani sarta sakola husus palatihan [[guru]] jeung koréspondénsi sakola.<ref name="edu.cn"/> Atikan dewasa tingkat luhur kaasup universitas radio/TV, lembaga kader, [[paguron luhur]] pagawé, [[paguron luhur]] patani, [[paguron luhur]] koréspondénsi sarta [[paguron luhur]] atikan.<ref name="edu.cn"/> == Budaya Tiongkok di Tatar Sunda == '''Pangaruh budaya Tiongkok di Tatar Sunda''' lumangsung ti mimiti datangna [[Tiongkok|Bangsa Tiongkok]] di Kapuloan Nusantara<ref name="Buku1">Museum Negeri Sri Baduga. 2007. ''Budaya Cina di Tatar Sunda''. Bandung: Museum Negeri Sri Baduga</ref><ref>[http://www.slideshare.net/mobile/andreaja9693/budaya-cina-sunda Http://www.slideshare.net/mobile/andreaja9693/budaya-cina-sunda] [Diaksés ping 18 Septémber 2017]</ref>. Numutkeun sumber kronik Tiongkok kuna masa [[Dinasti Han]], nétélakeun yén saudagar Tiongkok geus ngalakukeun lalayaran ka [[Asia Tenggara]] dina abad ka-2 SM nyaéta di sabudeureun Palembang jeung Bornéo<ref name="Buku1" />. Budaya Tiongkok mibanda pangaruh nu loba keur unggal aspék kahirupan masarakat Tatar Sunda, ti mimiti kadaharan, pakakas, corak jeung modél baju, dagang, tatanén, basa, katut pangobatan.<ref name="Buku1" /> Dina widang kadaharan misalna aya tahu, [[togé]], [[tauco]], [[moci]], [[baso]], [[siomay]], [[bihun]], [[emih]] jeung [[kécap]].<ref name="Buku1" /> Dina widang pakakas, péso, katél, jeung wawadahan tina keramik lianna.<ref name="Buku1" /> Dina widang corak jeung modél baju misalna calana pangsi, [[kabaya encim]], [[kelom]] jeung [[payung]], katut motif batik [[méga mendung]] ti daérah pasisian [[Cirebon]].<ref name="Buku1" /> Dina widang dagang misalna ayana [[sempoa]] jeung timbangan.<ref name="Buku1" /> Dina widang tatanén contona cara melak paré kalawan maké sistem sawah.<ref name="Buku1" /> Dina widang basa tinangtu loba kekecapan serepan tina [[basa Tiongkok]], di antarana kecap [[bolay]], [[cap]], [[cét]], [[jimpo]], [[kinca]], [[loténg]], jrrd.<ref name="Buku1" /> Pon komo dina widang pangobatan mah, ti mimiti rupaning ubar katut pakakas médisna.<ref name="Buku1" /> ==Rujukan== {{reflist|30em}} == Bacaan satuluyna == {{refbegin|40em}} * Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". ''Legal Issues of Economic Integration''. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp.&nbsp;263–304. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=916768 Abstract]. * Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). ''[http://www.china-profile.com/bib/bib_start.htm China Bibliography – Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105234238/http://www.china-profile.com/bib/bib_start.htm|date=5 Nopémber 2015 }}.'' China-Profile.com. * Jaffe, Amy Myers, "Green Giant: Renewable Energy and Chinese Power", ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 97, no. 2 (Maret / April 2018), pp.&nbsp;83–93. * [[Ian Denis Johnson|Johnson, Ian]], "What Holds China Together?", ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp.&nbsp;14, 16, 18. "The [[Manchus]]... had [in 1644] conquered the last ethnic Chinese empire, the [[Ming empire|Ming]] [and established Imperial China's last dynasty, the [[Qing]]]... The Manchus expanded the empire's borders northward to include all of [[Mongolia]], and westward to [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]]." [p.&nbsp;16.] "China's rulers have no faith that anything but force can keep this sprawling country intact." [p.&nbsp;18.] * {{cite book|last=Lagerwey|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAOOzQi0dCkC|year=2010|title=China: A Religious State|publisher=University of Hong Kong Press|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-988-8028-04-7 }} * {{cite book|last=Meng|first=Fanhua|title=Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century|year=2011|publisher=Silkroad Press|location=Singapore|isbn=978-981-4332-35-4}} * {{cite book|author = Sang Ye|title = China Candid: The People on the People's Republic|url = https://archive.org/details/chinacandidpeopl0000yesa|year=2006|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-24514-3 }} * {{cite book|last=Selden|first=Mark|title=The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change|year=1979|publisher=Monthly Review Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-85345-532-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplesrepublico0000unse }} * {{cite book|last = Shambaugh|first = David L.|year = 2008|title = China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aMpj-MboMR4C|publisher = University of California Press|location = Washington, DC; Berkeley, CA|isbn = 978-0-520-25492-3 }} {{refend}} {{Sister project links|China|auto=1|wikt=y|v=y}} {{Library resources box}} === Pamaréntahan === * [http://english.gov.cn/ Puseur tina Pamaréntah Républik Rahayat Tiongkok] {{in lang|en}} === Informasi umum === * [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/china/home.html China at a Glance] from ''[[People's Daily]]'' * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13017877 BBC News – China Profile] * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ China] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220073104/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |date=2021-12-20 }}. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120609183901/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/china.htm China, People's Republic of] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/China}} * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China China]'s ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' éntri === Peta === * [https://maps.google.com/maps?q=China&ll=30.600094,103.710938&spn=64.10009,177.1875&om=1 Google Maps—China] * {{Wikiatlas|Républik Rahayat Tiongkok}} * {{OSM relation|270056}} <!-- {{China topics}}--> {{Navboxes | title = Wewengkon Géograpis | list = {{Countries of Asia}} }} {{Navboxes | title = Kaanggotaan Internasional | list = <!--{{Trilateral meeting leaders}} -->{{G8 nations}}<!-- {{G20}} {{BRICS}}--> {{East Asia Summit (EAS)}}<!-- {{Socialism by state}} {{UN Security Council}}--> {{World Trade Organization}}<!-- {{Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}} {{Shanghai Cooperation Organisation}}--> }} <!--{{States with limited recognition}} {{Province-level divisions of China}}--> {{Coord|35|N|103|E|type:country|display=title}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:China, People's Republic Of}} [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Wétan]] b2mekc4iarv1s4h5qv09ydmv0srhnxf 0 43386 711818 666958 2026-08-07T05:13:36Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Distinguish|Khairuddin Pasya}} {{About|laksamana Utsmaniyah Barbarossa Khairuddin Pasya|kapal panalungtik/survéy Turki|RV Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa}} {{Infobox pirate |name= Khairuddin Barbarossa |birth_date={{circa}} 1478 |death_date=4 Juli {{death year and age|1546|1478}} |image= Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha.jpg |caption=Barbarossa Khairuddin Pasya |nickname= Barbarossa<br />Janggot Beureum<br />Khairuddin<br />Hızır Reis |type=[[Laksamana]] [[Kasultanan Utsman|Utsmaniyah]]<br />[[Privateer|Corsair]] |birth_place =[[Midilli|Midilli (Lesbos)]], [[Kasultanan Utsman]] |death_place =[[Istambul|Konstantinopel (Istambul)]], [[Kasultanan Utsman]] |allegiance = {{flag|Kasultanan Utsman|1453}}<br />{{navy|Kasultanan Utsman|1453}} |branch = {{navy|Kasultanan Utsman}} |serviceyears = {{circa}} 1500–1545 |base of operations = Mediterania |rank=[[Laksamana|Büyük Amiral]] |commands= |battles= |wealth= |laterwork= }} '''Khairuddin Barbarossa''' atawa '''Barbarossa Khairuddin Pasya''' ({{lang-tr|Barbaros Hayreddin (Hayrettin) Paşa}} atawa ''Hızır Hayreddin (Hayrettin) Paşa''; ogé ''Hızır Reis'' saméméh diangkat jadi [[Pasya]] sarta jadi [[Kaptén Pasya]], gumelar di Khizr atawa Khidr, [[basa Turki|Turki]]: ''Hızır''; c. 1478 – 4 Juli 1546), [[laksamana]] [[Kasultanan Utsman]]. Armada laut Barbarossa ngajaga dominasi Utsmani di Mediterania sapanjang abad ka-16, ti mimiti [[Perang Preveza]] taun 1538 nepi ka [[Perang Lepanto]] taun 1571. Ngaran ''Khairuddin'' ([[basa Arab]]: '''خيرالدين''', anu hartina "kahadéan" atawa "kautamaan agama" [[Islam]]) dipaparinkeun ku Sultan [[Sulaiman Qanuni]]. Katelah "Barbarossa" ("Janggot beureumm" dina basa Itali) di Éropah, kawarisan ti lanceukna [[Oruç Reis]] sanggeus anjeunna palastra dina perang ngalawan Spanyol di Algeria. === Kélébét (Sanjak) === [[File:BarbarosSancagi.svg|thumb|left|Kélébét Khairuddin Barbarossa]] [[Kaligrafi Arab]] di bagian luhur, "<big>{{lang|ar| نَصرٌ مِنَ اللَّـهِ وَفَتحٌ قَريبٌ وَبَشِّرِ المُؤمِنينَ يَا مُحَمَّد}}</big>" (''nashrun mina'llāhi wa fatḥhun qarībun wa basysyiril-mu’minīna yā muḥammad''), tina ayat [[Qur'an]] 61:13, ditambahan ku "Ya Muhammad", ku sabab tungtung ayatna nujul ka [[Nabi Muhammad]].<ref> {{Cite quran|61|13 | end=13 | translator=Sahih International | style=r | quote=And [you will obtain] another [favor] that you love - victory from Allah and an imminent conquest; and give good tidings to the believers. }}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|2}} ==Bacaeun== * {{cite book|last=Currey|first=E. Hamilton|title=Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean|url=https://archive.org/details/SeaWolvesOfTheMediterranean|year=1910|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Bono|first=Salvatore|title=Corsari nel Mediterraneo|year=1993|publisher=Oscar Storia Mondadori|location=Perugia}} * {{cite web|title=Corsari nel Mediterraneo: Condottieri di ventura. Online database in Italian, based on Salvatore Bono's book.|url=http://www.corsaridelmediterraneo.it/indice/a.htm}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505045940/http://www.corsaridelmediterraneo.it/indice/a.htm |date=2008-05-05 }} * {{cite book|last=Bradford|first=Ernle|title=The Sultan's Admiral: The life of Barbarossa|url=https://archive.org/details/sultansadmiral0000ernl|year=1968|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Wolf|first=John B.|title=The barbary coast : Algiers under the Turks : 1500 to 1830|url=https://archive.org/details/barbarycoastalgi0000wolf_z0j8|year=1979|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|location=New York|isbn=0-393-01205-0|edition=1st ed.}} * {{cite web|title=The Ottomans: Comprehensive and detailed online chronology of Ottoman history in English.|url=http://www.theottomans.org/english/chronology/index.asp#}} * {{cite web|title=Turkish Navy official website: Historic heritage of the Turkish Navy (in Turkish)|url=http://www.dzkk.tsk.mil.tr/TURKCE/tarihiMiras.asp?strAnaFrame=TarihiMiras&strIFrame=INDEX}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416040710/http://www.dzkk.tsk.mil.tr/TURKCE/tarihiMiras.asp?strAnaFrame=TarihiMiras&strIFrame=INDEX |date=2008-04-16 }} ==Tutumbu kaluar== {{Commons category|Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Barbarossa}} * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/52764/Barbarossa Encyclopædia Britannica] * [http://caldwellgenealogy.com/pirates.html An article on the Barbarossa brothers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617132510/http://caldwellgenealogy.com/pirates.html |date=2006-06-17 }} * [http://www.thepiratesrealm.com/Barbarossa%20Brothers.html Another article on the Barbarossa brothers] * [http://www.ideefixe.com/kitap/tanim.asp?sid=UZWLE5NGJP7PRWFM1TZP Original Gazawat by Seyyid Muradi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120527/http://www.ideefixe.com/kitap/tanim.asp?sid=UZWLE5NGJP7PRWFM1TZP |date=2007-09-29 }} * [http://www.sinanasaygi.com/en/eserler.asp?action=eserDetay&ID=12 Hayreddin Barbarossa's tomb in Beşiktaş] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123112847/http://www.sinanasaygi.com/en/eserler.asp?action=eserDetay&ID=12 |date=2008-01-23 }} * [http://turkkorsanlari.com/korsan/kapdan1.htm Hayreddin Barbarossa'nın Hatıraları] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414100014/http://www.turkkorsanlari.com/korsan/kapdan1.htm |date=2011-04-14 }} (Memoirs of Hayreddin Barbarossa in Turkish) {{pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Barbarossa}} r6qap0o140p99ke94px22tnac4kua07 0 44141 711523 673607 2026-08-06T22:15:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Amérika}} [[File:LocationAmericas.png|thumb|Buana Amérika]] '''Amérika''', atawa '''Buana Amérika''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/america |title=America – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=www.m-w.com |accessdate=11 Juli 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/america dictionary.reference.com |title=America - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. |author=Houghton Mifflin Company |publisher=dictionary.reference.com |accessdate=11 Juli 2015}}</ref><ref>Marjorie Fee and Janice MacAlpine, ''Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage'' (2008) page 36 says "In Canada, ''American'' is used almost exclusively in reference to the United States and its citizens." Others, including ''The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary'', ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', ''The Australian Oxford Dictionary'' and ''The Concise Oxford English Dictionary'' all specify both the Americas and the United States in their definition of "American".</ref><ref name=oxfordc>"America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (ISBN 0-19-214183-X). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 33: "[16c: from the feminine of ''Americus'', the Latinized first name of the explorer Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512). The name ''America'' first appeared on a map in 1507 by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller, referring to the area now called Brazil]. Since the 16c, a name of the western hemisphere, often in the plural ''Americas'' and more or less synonymous with ''the New World''. Since the 18c, a name of the United States of America. The second sense is now primary in English:&nbsp;... However, the term is open to uncertainties:&nbsp;..."</ref> ogé dipikawanoh minangka '''[[Lebahan Kulon]]'''<ref name=mwgeodict>{{citation | contribution = Western Hemisphere | title = Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary | edition = 3rd | year = 2001 | place = Springfield, MA | publisher = Merriam-Webster | page = 1294 |quote=The part of the Earth comprising North and South America and surrounding waters; longitudes 20°W and 160°E are often considered its boundaries}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Encyclopedia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1108059/Western-Hemisphere|accessdate=20 May 2015|quote=Western Hemisphere, Part of Earth comprising North and South America and the surrounding waters. Longitudes 20° W and 160° E are often considered its boundaries.}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=O'Neal|editor1-first=Mary|title=The Chambers Dictionary|date=2011|publisher=Chambers Harrap Publishers, Ltd.|location=London|isbn=978-0550-10237-9|page=1780|edition=12|quote=This dictionary was written with the British speaker of English in mind. ... The Western Hemisphere is the half of the world that includes North America and South America}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book|title=The World Book Dictionary|date=2003|publisher=World Book, Inc|location=Chicago|isbn=0-7166-0299-7|page=2377|url=http://www.worldbook.com|quote=Western Hemisphere, the half of the world that includes North and South America.}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book|title=The American Heritage College Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a8u8|date=2010|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|location=Boston|isbn=978-0618835959|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a8u8/page/1557 1557]|edition=Fourth|quote=Western Hemisphere The half of the earth comprising North America, Central America, and South America}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Stevenson|editor1-first=Angus|editor2-last=Lindberg|editor2-first=Christine A.|title=New Oxford American Dictionary|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|page=1963|edition=Third|quote=The Half of the earth that contains the Americas}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld0000unse_k1f4|date=2014|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-544-16606-6|edition=Fifth|quote=Western Hemisphere that half of the earth which includes North & South America}}</ref> <ref>United States Department of State, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, at http://www.state.gov/p/wha/index.htm<br></ref> jeung '''[[Dunya Anyar]]''', nyaéta gabungan daratan buana [[Amérika Kalér]] jeung buana [[Amérika Kidul]].<ref>Webster's New World College Dictionary, 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Merriam Webster dictionary|year=2013|publisher=Merriam-Webster, Incorporated|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/america}}</ref><ref>"continent n. 5. a." (1989) ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', 2nd edition. [[Oxford University Press]] ; "continent<sup>1</sup> n." (2006) ''The [[Concise Oxford English Dictionary]]'', 11th edition revised. (Ed.) Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press; "continent<sup>1</sup> n." (2005) ''The [[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'', 2nd edition. (Ed.) [[Erin McKean]]. Oxford University Press; "continent [2, n] 4 a" (1996) ''[[Webster's Dictionary#WebsThird New International|Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged]]''. [[ProQuest|ProQuest Information and Learning]] ; "continent" (2007) ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Retrieved 14 January 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> Amérika mangrupa [[buana]] kadua panggedéna nu aya di [[marcapada]]. Sacara [[astronomi]]s, buana ieu perenahna di antara ± 80 ° N - 56 ° S jeung ± 170 ° W - 36 ° W.<ref name=":0">[https://docs.google.com/document/d/10MamPaPCU8TNy_GkXZVQj7mVPcCuTfJTZ-VCfDgxdGI/edit Benua Amerika]</ref> Bentuk wilayahna anu manjang ieu saolah-olah nyambungkeun wewengkon [[Kutub Kalér]] jeung [[Kutub Kidul]].<ref name=":0" /> Lega wilayah daratna nepika ± 41.825.581&nbsp;km², atawa kurang leuwih 28,1% lega wilayah sakabéh dunya jeung wates-wates di handap ieu:<ref name=":0" /> *Beulah Kalér wawatesan jeung Laut Arktik jeung wewengkon Kutub Utara.<ref name=":0" /> *Beulah wétan diwatesan ku Samudra Atlantik.<ref name=":0" /> *Kulon jeung kidul diwatesan ku Samudra Pasifik.<ref name=":0" /> ==Kaayaan fisik== Sacara géografis, Benua Amérika bisa dibagi jadi tilu wilayah, nyaéta [[Amérika Kalér]], [[Amérika Tengah]], jeung [[Amérika Kidul]]. Wewengkon katilu mibanda karakteristik anu béda ti saban séjénna. Iklim: Wilayah Benua Amérika anu anu boga sifat meridian matak ngajadikeun buana ieu mibanda sagala rupa iklim panonpoé di handap ieu: Iklim tropis: aya di Amérika Kidul, husus di wewengkon lembah Amazon (Brazil). Iklim subtropis: aya di Amérika Sarikat (Amérika Kalér) jeung di wewengkon Argentina (Amérika Kidul). Iklim tiis: aya di Sumatera, nyaéta di Alaska (USA) jeung Kanada kalér. == Sajarah == Sajarah Benua Amérika munggaran kapanggih ku penjelajah Éropa ngaranna Christopher Columbus dina taun 1492 nu badarat di pulo San Salvador bagian tina kapuloan Bahamas.<ref name=":1">[http://www.zonasiswa.com/2015/02/benua-amerika-keadaan-alam-penduduk.html Benua Amerika: Keadaan Alam, Penduduk, & Daftar Negara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723145712/http://www.zonasiswa.com/2015/02/benua-amerika-keadaan-alam-penduduk.html |date=2015-07-23 }}</ref> Penjelajah séjén anu miluan ngapopulerkeun benua anyar ka buana Éropa nyaéta Amerigo Vespuci nu mangrupa priyayi ti Italia.<ref name=":1" /> Pikeun ngenang Amerigo jasa Vespuci mangka ngarana diabadikeun minangka ngaran buana anyar Amérika.<ref name=":1" /> ==Rujukan== {{reflist|30em}} {{Nagara di Amérika}} {{buana}} [[Kategori:Amérika| ]] [[Kategori:Buana]] {{geo-stub}} f439vv0x2oi3m55yxvk6bznk7gj32ly 0 45954 711861 681082 2026-08-07T05:59:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711861 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:pepperseggplants.jpg|thumb|Kadaharan organik hasil tatanén]] '''Organik''' ''/or·ga·nik / a Kim'' ; nyaéta aya hubunganna jeung [[zat]] anu asalna tina mahluk hirup (sasatoan atawa pepelakan) ; anu aya hubungaan ogé jeung [[organisme]] [[hirup]]. <ref>[http://kbbi.web.id/organik Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Ditingali 5 Agustus 2015"]</ref> ==Pandangan Masarakat== Teu saeutik masarakat réa mibanda kayakinan cénah kadaharan organik leuwih aman, leuwih loba gizina, ogé leuwih ngeunah rasana tinimang kadaharan [[konvénsional]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=White|first1=Kim Kennedy|last2=Duram|first2=Leslie A|title=America Goes Green: An Encyclopedia of Eco-friendly Culture in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/americagoesgreen0000unse|date=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=California|isbn=978-1-59884-657-7|page=180}}</ref> Ieu téh kayakinan dialpukahan ku [[industri]] anu ngahasilkeun kadaharan organik.<ref>Joanna Schroeder for Academics Review. [http://academicsreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Academics-Review_Organic-Marketing-Report1.pdf Organic Marketing Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140807062524/http://academicsreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Academics-Review_Organic-Marketing-Report1.pdf |date=2014-08-07 }}</ref> antukna ieu kayakinan térus ngadorong kana ngaronjatna anu meuli kana ieu kadaharan organik sok sanajan hargana kawilang mahal jeung deui can aya bewara anu [[ilmiah]] anu nétélakeunna.<ref name=Canavari2009>Canavari, M., Asioli, D., Bendini, A., Cantore, N., Gallina Toschi, T., Spiller, A., Obermowe, T., Buchecker, K. and Lohmann, M. (2009). [http://orgprints.org/17208/2/deliverable_1_2_sensory_literature.pdf Summary report on sensory-related socio-economic and sensory science literature about organic food products]</ref> ==Di Amerika== Di [[Amerika Serikat]] mah, ''[[produksi]]'' organik diurus dumasar kana [[Undang-Undang]] [[Produksi]] [[kadaharan]] Organik 1990 (OFPA) ogé aturan dina Judul ka 7, Bagéan 205 tina Kode paraturan ''[[Federal]]'' pikeun tempat ngarojong [[kondisi]] [[spesifik]] jeung ngabudayakeun, [[biologi]],dina [[praktek]] [[mekanik]] ngarojong kana pamakéan sapédah, ngabobotohan kana kasaimbangan [[ekologi]] , turta ngalsatarikeun [[keanekaragaman]] [[hayati]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop |title=Agricultural Marketing Service – National Organic Program |publisher=Ams.usda.gov |date=2008-10-31 |accessdate=2012-09-09}}</ref> Lamun mah ngagunakeun ingon-ingon, éta ingon-ingon kudu bener dipiara ogé diangon di kebon jukut henteu maké [[antibiotik]] atawa [[hormon]] anu séjéna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5082653&acct=noprulemaking|title=Access to Pasture Rule for Organic Livestock|publisher=Ams.usda.gov|accessdate=2012-09-09}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831212003/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5082653&acct=noprulemaking |date=2014-08-31 }}</ref> Di [[Amerika Serikat]], [[Kanada]] ogé [[Australia]], Kadaharan organik olahan biasana ngan dieusian ku bahan-bahan organik. lamun mah aya bahan-bahan lain/[[non-organik]] paling loba nepika 5% tina jumlah sakabéh bahan kadaharan organikna <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3004323&acct=nopgeninfo |title=Labeling: Preamble |accessdate=2012-09-09 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514000319/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3004323&acct=nopgeninfo |date=2013-05-14 }}</ref>. Kadaharan anu disebut organik kudu bébas tina bahan [[aditif]] Kadaharan anu direka-reka, ogé diprosés maké bahan jeung kaayaan teu ilahar, contona dipeuyeum, kadaharan [[iradiasi]] ,ogé bahan-bahan kadaharan anu diropéa ku jalan [[genetik]].<ref>{{Cite book|editors=Allen, Gary J. & Albala, Ken|title=The Business of Food: Encyclopedia of the Food and Drink Industries|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2007|isbn=978-0-313-33725-3|page=288|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gNzmOUyiFRAC&pg=PA288}}</ref> [[Pestisida]] teu dilarang asal kudu dikanyahokeun ku standar organik federal, Lamun hama geus teu bisa di dikontrol ngaliwatan [[praktik manajemen]], atawa loyog jeung [[pestisida]] organik ogé [[herbisida]], sakabéh zat anu aya dina [[daptar]] [[Nasional]] zat [[sintetis]]éta meunang dipaké kana pepelakan organik lain sintetis. bisa di larapkeun pikeun nyegah, ngurangan, Hama [[gulma]] atawa panyakit. "<ref>[http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&SID=622a69a51febf44818ad4c8d3535378f&rgn=div8&view=text&node=7:3.1.1.9.32.3.354.7&idno=7 Code of Federal Regulations 7 CRF § 205.206(2e)]</ref> sababaraha kolompok menyerukan kana standar organik supaya ngalarang [[nanoteknologi]] dumasar kana [[prinsip]] ka ati-atian <ref>Canada General Standards Board [http://www.pacscertifiedorganic.ca/docs/manuals/CGSB-32.310%20Organic%20Crop%20Production%20Standards,%20Aug%202011%20revision.pdf Organic Production Systems General Principles And Management Standards (CAN/CGSB-32.310-2006)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705064829/http://www.pacscertifiedorganic.ca/docs/manuals/CGSB-32.310%20Organic%20Crop%20Production%20Standards,%20Aug%202011%20revision.pdf |date=2016-07-05 }}</ref> <ref>Staff, National Pesticide Information Center [http://npic.orst.edu/ingred/organic.html Organic Pesticide Ingredients]</ref> Sok sanajan can dikanyahokeun balukarna tina pamangpaatan ieu [[nanoteknologi]].<ref>National Research Council. [http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13347 A Research Strategy for Environmental, Health, and Safety Aspects of Engineered Nanomaterials] National Academies Press: Washington DC. 2012</ref>: 5-6 produk kadaharan anu dumasar kana [[nanoteknologi]], henteu dumasar kana pangaruh anu séjén, geus dilarang di sabaraha [[wilayah]] [[hukum]] ([[Kanada]], [[Inggris]], dan [[Australia]])<ref name=ONGR>Staff, The Organic & Non-GMO Report, May 2010. [http://www.non-gmoreport.com/articles/may10/canada_bans_nanotechnology_organics.php Canada bans nanotechnology in organics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601114906/https://non-gmoreport.com/articles/may10/canada_bans_nanotechnology_organics.php |date=2023-06-01 }}</ref> ==Tutumbu Kaluar== * [http://kbbi.web.id/organik Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia] * [http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx ELECTRONIC CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS] * [http://www.nap.edu/topic/ The National Academies] * [http://www.non-gmoreport.com The Organic Non GMO] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801183425/http://non-gmoreport.com/ |date=2015-08-01 }} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Organik]] 2at4y2d9ro0ucs0hhfu814f03hp2vc4 0 46079 711581 668433 2026-08-06T23:29:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711581 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Poliétilén''' (PE) - nyaéta salah sahiji kulawarga resin anu dipibanda ku jalan [[polimerisasi]] [[gas]] [[etilen]], H2C = CH2, ogé mangrupa [[polimer]] anu dijieun kacida lobana aya kana 80 juta ton unggal tauna.<ref>{{harvnb|Piringer|Baner|2008|p=32}}.</ref>. Poliétilén [[Termoplastik]] dipasar mancanagara disadiakeun rupa-rupa ''[[fleksibilitas]]'' jeung ''[[properti]]'' gumantung kana kabutuhan [[proses produksi]] anu baris dipaké, ''Polyethylene'' bisa diolah ampir kusakabéh cara produksi ''[[termoplastik]]'' katambah onjoy tinu lian ku lantaran bahanna henteu gampang nyerep cai tangtuna ieu bisa nurunkeun biaya produksi ku lantaran teu perlu dipanaskeun heula dinamangsa dipaké. Aya sababaraha rupa kulawarga ''[[polyethylene]]'', ditempo tina kapadetan bahanna : '''''Low density polyethylene''''' biasana mibanda kapadetan 0,91-0,925 g / cm³, ''[[Linear low density polyethylene]]'' kapadetanna di antara 0,918-0,94 g / cm³, jeung ''[[High density polyethylene]]'' kapadetanna antara 0,935-0,96 g / cm³ kaluhur.<ref name="Plastics Prospector">[http://plastics.ulprospector.com/generics/27/polyethylene-pe Plastics Prospector]</ref><ref name="Plastics Europe">[http://www.plasticseurope.org/information-centre/education-portal/resources-room/abc-of-plastics/the-abc-of-polyethylene.aspx Plastics Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810085313/http://www.plasticseurope.org/information-centre/education-portal/resources-room/abc-of-plastics/the-abc-of-polyethylene.aspx |date=2015-08-10 }}</ref> [[File:Polyethylene-repeat-2D.png|thumb|140|Bagéan kantétan anu sarua tina '''poliétilén''' anu paling panceg]] ==Kaunggulan Poliétilén== ''Sababaraha'' anu ngabedakeun ''Polyethylene'' leuwih onjoy tinulian, saperti bisa dijieun dina wujud kumaha ogé jeung dina cara produksi termoplastik,luyu jeung kabutuhan. # Poliétilén mangrupa insulator anu hadé. # Gampang ancur tangtuna ieu henteu ngaruksak lingkungan. # Poliétilén loyog jeung suhu tropis # Leuleus liat <ref name="Plastics Europe"/> ==Sajarah== '''Polyethylene''' mimiti di[[sintesis]] ku cukang lantaran ahli kimia urang Jerman [[Hans von Pechmann]] dina taun 1898 panalungtikan ngeunaan [[diazometana]].<ref>H. von Pechmann (1898) [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90751n/f312.image.langEN "Ueber Diazomethan und Nitrosoacylamine,"] ''Berichte der Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin'', '''31''' : 2640–2646; see especially page 2643. From page 2643: ''"Erwähnt sei noch, dass aus einer ätherischen Diazomethanlösung sich beim Stehen manchmal minimale Quantitäten eines weissen, flockigen, aus Chloroform krystallisirenden Körpers abscheiden; … "'' (It should be mentioned that from an ether solution of diazomethane, upon standing, sometimes small quantities of a white, flakey substance, which can be crystallized from chloroform, precipitate; … )</ref><ref>Bamberger claimed that one of his students, Hindermann, had noted the formation of polyethylene in 1897. Eug. Bamberger & Fred. Tschirner (1900) [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k907551/f960.image.langEN "Ueber die Einwirkung von Diazomethan auf β-Arylhydroxylamine"] (On the effect of diazomethane on β-arylhydroxylamine), ''Berichte der Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin'', '''33''' : 955–959. From footnote 3 on page 956: ''"Die Abscheidung weisser Flocken aus Diazomethanlösungen erwähnt auch v. Pechmann (diese Berichte 31, 2643); er hat sie aber wegen Substanzmangel nicht untersucht. Ich hatte übrigens Hrn. v. Pechmann schon einige Zeit vor Erscheinen seiner Publication mitgetheilt, dass aus Diazomethan ein fester, weisser Körper entstehe, der sich bei der Analyse als (CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>x</sub> erwiesen habe, worauf mir Hr. v. Pechmann schrieb, dass er den weissen Körper ebensfalls beobachtet, aber nicht untersucht habe. Zuerst erwähnt ist derselbe in der Dissertation meines Schülers Hindermann, Zürich (1897), S. 120."'' (Von Pechmann (these ''Reports'', '''31''', 2643) also mentioned the precipitation of white flakes from diazomethane solutions; however, due to a scarcity of the material, he didn't investigate it. Incidentally, some time before the appearance of his publication, I had communicated to Mr. von Pechmann that a solid, white substance arose from diazomethane, which on analysis proved to be (CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>x</sub>, whereupon Mr. von Pechmann wrote me that he had likewise observed the white substance, but not investigated it. It is first mentioned in the dissertation of my student Hindermann, Zürich (1897), p. 120.)</ref> dina mangsa babaturana [[Eugen Bamberger]] jeung [[Friedrich Tschirner]] manggihan [[zat]] [[lilin]] anu dijieun kumaranéhna anu eusina mangrupa kantétan -CH2- panjang satuluyna disebut ''polimetilena''.<ref>Eug. Bamberger & Fred. Tschirner (1900) [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k907551/f960.image.langEN "Ueber die Einwirkung von Diazomethan auf β-Arylhydroxylamine"] (On the effect of diazomethane on β-arylhydroxylamine), ''Berichte der Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin'', '''33''' : 955–959. From page 956: ''"Eine theilweise — übrigens immer nur minimale — Umwandlung des Diazomethans in Stickstoff und Polymethylen vollzieht sich auch bei ganz andersartigen Reactionen; … "'' (A partial — incidentally, always only minimal — conversion of diazomethane into nitrogen and polymethylene takes place also during quite different reactions; … )</ref> [[File:First polythene pillbox.JPG|thumb|right|A [[pill organizer|wujud pél]] ditembongkeun ka bagian teknik ICI dina 1936 di cokot tina potongan ka hiji polyethylene]] Sajeroeun polietilena sintesis aya hiji zat ngarana ([[Diazometana]] ieu zat pada mikanyaho henteu stabil/panceg/gampang robah, tangtuna ieu hiji hal anu kudu disingkahan pisan dina widang [[industri]] mah) tayalian ti [[Eric Fawcett]] jeung [[Reginald Gibson]] teu dihaja manggihan ieu zat dina taun 1933, ditempat gawena di Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) Northwich, di Inggris.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.thisischeshire.co.uk/2006/8/23/275808.html |archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100121071050/http://archive.thisischeshire.co.uk/2006/8/23/275808.html |archivedate=21 January 2010 |title=Winnington history in the making |date=23 August 2006 |work=This is Cheshire |accessdate=20 February 2014 |ref=harv}}</ref> Tuluy maranéhna migawé panalungtikan anu leuwih jero deui, ayeuna maké tekenan anu leuwih kuat nepi ka (''sababaraha ratus atmosfer'') dinawaktu nyampur [[etilen]] jeung [[benzaldehida]] éta. hasilna maranéhna manggihan deui substansi bodas, jiga bahan lilin. Saméméh taun 1935 ku ahli kimia séjén di ICI, anu katelah [[Michael Perrin]], ngamekarkeun deui ieu panalungtikan nyieun [[sintesis]] pikeun nyobaan produksi [[polietilen]] dibarengan ku Tekenan anu gedé ogé anu hasilna nyaéta magrupakeun bahan dasar plastik [[LDPE]], anu satuluyna ukuran produksi industri na dimimitian taun 1939. Salila perang dunia ka II, ieu panalungtikanmah tuluy dipigawe sanajan bari susulumputan. Hiji waktu nyagahasilkeun cara anyar nga isolasi/mungkus [[UHF]] jeung [[SHF]] koaksial kabel dina radar ku mangpaatna polietilena. Panalungtikan anu leuwih jauh deui di lakukeun di ICI dina taun 1944, Bakelite Perusahaan ti Sabine, Texas Jeung Du Pont di Charleston, Virginia Kulon, mimiti diproduksi [[komersial]] ukuran gedé tapi tetep sapanalingaan/[[lisensi]] ICI.<ref>{{cite journal |date=July 1949 |title=Poly – The All Star Plastic |journal=Popular Mechanics |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=GtkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA126 |pages=125–129 |volume=91 |issue=1 |accessdate=20 February 2014}}</ref> '''Torobosan''' anu penting sajeroun produksi [[komersial]] [[polyethylene]] dimimitian ku dimekarkeun pamagih ngeunaan [[katalis]] anu mana [[polimerisasi]] bisa dilakukaeu teu kudu deui maké tékénan anu kuat ogé aturan suhuna. Anu kahiji nyaéta [[katalis]] dumasar kana [[''trioksida'']] [[kromium]] kapangih ku [[Robert Bank]] jeung [[J. Paul Hogan]] di Phillips Petroleum dina taun 1951 .<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of Transition Metal Polymerization Catalysts |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookoftransi0000unse_x1e8 |last1=Hoff |first1=Ray |last2=Mathers |first2=Robert T. |editor1-last=Hoff |editor1-first=Ray |editor2-last=Mathers |editor2-first=Robert T. |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-13798-7 |doi=10.1002/9780470504437.ch10 |chapter=Chapter 10. Review of Phillips Chromium Catalyst for Ethylene Polymerization}}</ref> Dina taun 1953 kimiawan Jérman [[Karl Ziegler]] mekarkeun deui hiji sistem [[katalitik]] dumasar kana [[halida]] [[titanium]] jeung campuran [[organoaluminium]] anu dina prakna leuwih gampang tinimbang [[katalis]] pamaggih [[Phillips]]. Ngan katalis Phillips leuwih murah jeung gampang dina ngalarapkeuna. Tah ieu dua cara anu paling loba dipaké ku lingkungan [[industri]]. Dina ahir taun 1950-an kadua [[katalis]] Phillips- jeung Ziegler-dipake ogé pikeun nyieun [[HDPE]]. Dina taun 1970-an, sistem Ziegler dironjatkeun ku nambahkeun [[magnesium]] [[klorida]]. Sistem katalitik dumasar kana [[katalis]] [[larut]], anu [[Metalosen]], dikanyahokeun dina taun 1976 ku cukang lantaran [[Walter Kaminsky]] jeung [[Hansjörg Sinn]]. [[Katalis]] Ziegler- ogé [[metalosena]] geus bisa dibuktikeun [[fleksibel]] dina [[kopolimerisasi]] [[etilena]] ku [[olefin]] séjén jeung geus jadi mangrupa dasar pikeun nyieun rupa-rupa [[resin]] [[polietilena]] anu aya kiwari, density ''polyethylene'' leuwih hampang ti batan ''linear low density polyethylene''. Resin saperti, anu wujudna serat [[UHMWPE]], mimiti taun 2005 dipaké ngaganti [[aramids]] dina loba pamkéan anu ngabutuhkeun kakuatan anu pohara. ==Ciri anu mandiri/Properties == '''Properties Pisik''' Polyethylene kaasup polimer termoplastik mibanda kantétan [[hidrokarbon]] anu panjang. Gumantung kana [[kristalinitas]] jeung [[berat molekul]], Polyethylne mimiti lé'éh dina suhu 120-180&nbsp;°C (248-356&nbsp;°F). lolobana anu aya di pasaran mimiti 105-115&nbsp;°C (221-239&nbsp;°F). '''Properties Kimia''' lolobanana LDPE, MDPE, HDPE cukup tahan kana kimia séjén, ieu hartina sarua jeung kuat diserang ku [[asam kuat]] atawa [[basa kuat]]. ogé tahan kana oksidan. Polyethylene lamun di seungeut lalauna bakan kaluar seune anu wanana biru aya polet koneng saeutik di luarna, ngaluarkeun bau [[parafin]]. Bahan anu kabeuleum bakal tuluy hurung jeung lé'éhna [[nyakclak]]an.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boedeker.com/burntest.htm |title=How to Identify Plastic Materials Using The Burn Test |work=Boedeker Plastics |accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Henteu lé'éh dina suhu kamar. Polyethylene (kajaba cross-linked polyethylene) biasana ruksak ku suhu anu kacida panasna ogé di [[hidrokarbon]] [[aromatik]] saperti ku [[toluena]] atawa [[xilena]], atawa ku [[pelarut]] [[diklorinasi]] contona [[trikloroetan]] atawa [[triklorobenzena]].<ref name=Ullmann>Kenneth S. Whiteley, T. Geoffrey Heggs, Hartmut Koch, Ralph L. Mawer, Wolfgang Immel, "Polyolefins" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a21_487}}</ref> ==Kakurangan == Aya sabaraha kakurangan ''Polyethylene'' anu memang kitu sipatna, di antarana: * Babari teuing Lé'éh * Gancang Lapuk * Gampang Rengat * Umpama di Las Kurang Napel * Gampang kaduruk * Gampang tutung * Leuleus teuing <ref name="Plastics Prospector"/> ==Tutumbu Kaluar== {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Polyethylene}} *[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/polythenes-story-the-accidental-birth-of-plastic-bags-800602.html Polythene's story: The accidental birth of plastic bags] *[http://www.ides.com/generics/PE.htm Polythene Technical Properties & Applications] *[http://www.pqasb.pqarchiver.com/therecord/access/1482573421.html Pqarchiver]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *[http://www.plastics.ulprospector.com/materials Bahan Plastik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815053453/http://plastics.ulprospector.com/materials |date=2015-08-15 }} *[http://www.exxonmobilchemical.com/Chem-English/brands/polyethylene-enable-mpe.aspx?ln=productsservices Exxon Mobil] {{Pondok}} ==Dicutat Tina== {{Authority control}} {{Reflist|3}} [[Kategori:Bahan]] [[Kategori:Polimér]] [[Kategori:Plastik]] 02nvovf7v5i4vnffuv45kmps96ki5b3 0 46159 711746 658771 2026-08-07T03:17:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711746 wikitext text/x-wiki [[plastik]][[mesin]]'''Citak Injéksi''' (''injection [[molding]]'') nyaéta hiji cara anu dipaké pikeun nyieun barang kabutuhan.<ref name=manPRG/> Utamana tina bahan [[termoplastik]] anu bahanna dilééhkeun heula dina tabung (''barrel'') tuluy waé disuntikkeun maké tekenan anu kawilang kuat kana jeroun citakan (''[[mold]]'').<ref name=malloy>{{cite book|last=Malloy|first=Robert A.|title=Plastic Part Design for Injection Molding|url=https://archive.org/details/plasticpartdesig0000mall|year=1994|publisher=Hanser|location=Munich Vienna New York}}</ref> Ku lantaran citakanna tiis, ieu [[plastik]] anu lééh tadi lalaunan ngabagel dina jeroeun citakan, tuluy citakana muka katémbong waé éta plastik anu geus teuas ngawujud sarua jeung citakana.<ref name=manPRG>{{cite book|last1=Todd|first1=Robert H.|last2= Allen|first2=Dell K.|last3=Alting|first3=Leo|title=Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/manufacturingpro0000todd|year=1994|publisher=Industrial Press, Inc.}}</ref> ''Injection molding'' bisa dilakukeun ku rupa-rupa bahan sanajan dina kaumumana maké bahan plastik ogé bisa ngagunakeun sababaraha bahan umpamana, [[logam]], [[gelas]], [[elastomer]], [[permén]] jeung anu séjéna. <ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/mesininjeksimolding/ Injeksi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630064752/https://sites.google.com/site/mesininjeksimolding/ |date=2016-06-30 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.rutlandplastics.co.uk/advice/moulding_process.html Proses Injection Molding] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815094335/http://www.rutlandplastics.co.uk/advice/moulding_process.html |date=2015-08-15 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.arenaprinter.blogspot.com Printer Inkjet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811115815/http://arenaprinter.blogspot.com/ |date=2018-08-11 }}</ref> [[File:Injection moulding.png|thumb|Hiji mesin citakan Injeksi]] [[File:Injection molding diagram.svg|thumb|Undakan proses injeksi]] [[File:Maquina-inyección-plastico.jpg|thumb|250px|Mesin Cetak Injeksi]] == Sajarah == Ieu mesin ''injection molding'' pangheulana anu maténkeun téh urang [[Amerika]] dina taun [[1872]] dipaké ngolah ''celluloid''.<ref name=malloy/> Saenggeusna ti éta dina taun [[1920]]-an di [[Jerman]] mimiti dimekarkeun ieu mesin ''injection molding'' ngan dina mangsa ngagunakeun ieu mesin masih kénéh ngagunakeun kakuatan [[leungeun]] tuluy paragi ngahompét matrés/mold/citakan masihkénéh maké [[tulak]].<ref name=malloy/> Taun [[1930]]-an dina mangsa rupa-rupa resin jeung bahan plastik loba disadiakeun. Mesin ''injection molding'' ogé ngaronjat nggunakeun tanaga hidraulik. Dina mangsa harita mah mesin injeksi téh masih maké ''single'' stage plunger. Dina taun [[1946]] [[James Hendry]] nyieun mesin ''injection molding'' ''tipe single-stage''. Ti mimiti taun [[1950]]-an relay jeung timer mimiti dimangpaatkeun kana ieu mesin pikeun ngatur tanaga jeung waktu ngainjeksi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/340051/Design_Guides/Xometry_DesignGuide_InjectionMolding.pdf|title=Design Guide: Injection Molding|website=Xometry|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119060541/https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/340051/Design_Guides/Xometry_DesignGuide_InjectionMolding.pdf|archive-date=2018-01-19|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Bagéan-bagéan mesin Injeksi== # Plat paragi ngadempet citakan ([[Clamping Unit]]) # Tempat ngainjeksi/nyuntik ([[Injection Unit]]) # Tempat ngatur screw ([[Screw Driver]]) ==Tutumbu Kaluar== *[https://www.dakumar.com/plastic-injection-moulding-machine.html Injection Molding] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?hl=id&gl=ID&v=eUthHS3MTdA ''Proses'' Injéksi] *[http://www.longmold.com/viewnews.php?id=87 Injéksi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126174315/http://www.longmold.com/viewnews.php?id=87 |date=2016-01-26 }} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eUthHS3MTdA Mesin Injéksi] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xoIbPGFjQmM Barang barang tina plastik] ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Plastik]] t2gicf3e4no5za6dz052lorbqg25aoj 0 46382 711584 658882 2026-08-06T23:36:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711584 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Unglazed plates.jpg|jempol|250px|Piring-piring dina rak]] ''Piring''' nyaéta hiji pakakas dapx|Piring dina rakun tempat nyayagikeun dahareun, lalawuh jeung sajabana<ref name=venable>{{cite book|last=Venable|first=Charles L.|title=China and Glass in America, 1880-1980: From Table Top to TV Tray|url=https://archive.org/details/chinaglassinamer0000unse|year=2000|publisher=Harry N. Abrams|location=New York|isbn=0-8109-6692-1|display-authors=etal}}</ref>, Pring ieu aya anu datar aya ogé anu ngalegok mang pirang pirang lobana ukuran jeung rupa piring, Bahan anu dipaké nyieun ieu piring di antarana [[kaca]], [[kertas]], [[Hoé]], [[porselen]], [[batu]], [[plastik]], [[logam]], atawa [[gelas]] kiwari aya ogé piring anu dijieun tina bahan [[mélamin]]. Sakapeung aya ogé dijieun tina [[kai]]. Piring sagigireun dipaké nyayagikeun dahareun aya anu dipaké ogé pikeun papaés rohangan imah, hadiah, sovenir jeung réa-réa deui, biasanamah piring samodél kieu maké bahan logam mulia atawa batu mulia.<ref name=Mamat>{{Cite book|title =Mengenal Teknologi Tradisional Orang Sunda| last= Sasmita| first= Mamat| coauthors =-| year= 2022|page=95|location=Jakarta| publisher=Dunia Pustaka Jaya| isbn=9786232218314|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Mengenal_Teknologi_Tradisional_Orang_Sun/d56LEAAAQBAJ?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=jubleg&pg=PA99&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> ==Sajarah== Nyaéta [[Cina]] anu minangkan ngamimiti mangihan cara ngolah [[porselen]]pikeun bahan piring kurang leuwih dina taun 600 maséhi. Di [[Eropa]] piring [[keramik]] dimekarkeun Saméméh taun 1708 dimimitian ti nagara [[Jérman]], nya di dieu pisan mimitina kramik di [[Eropa]] kasohor. lolobana kéramik anu kasohor di alam dunya ieu dikokolakeun dina mangsa-''Royal'' ''Saxon'' taun 1710, ''Wedgwood'' dina taun 1839, ''Royal'' ''Copenhagen'' dina taun 1772, jeung ''''Spade'''', anu diwangun taun 1732 di [[Inggris]]. ==Rupa-rupa Ukuran== Piring pikeun nyayagikeun dahareun pohara loba rupa jeung ukuranna, saperti:<ref>Sizes estimated from products available on amazon.com and crateandbarrel.com, 2 Dec 2011.</ref> *Tatakan : piring leutik aya legok saeutik anu gunana pikeun nunda cangkir *Piring susuguh panutup, jeung bubuka, tempat ''salad'', ukuranna rupa-rupa ti mimiti 4-9 inci *Piring Roti jeung [[mantéga]]: leutik (kurangleuwih 6-7 inci) ukuran saurangeun *Piring ompréng (biasana 9 inci) *Piring alas: gedéna (10-12 inci), aya ogé piring [[parasmanan]] kawilang leuwih gedé (11-14 inci) *''Platters'': piring anu rada badag pikeun neundeun dahareun dina luhureun meja supaya sémah atawa anu aya disabudeureun méja garampang yokotna. *Piring dékoratif: ieu piring leuwih mintonkeun kana kaéndahan ti batan digunakeun tempat dahareun. *Charger: ieu mangrupa piring hias anu leuwih badag, diteundeun sahandapeun piring rada misah dipaké pikeun neundeun kadaharan ogé ukuranna (13-14 inci) ==Gambar Piring== <gallery mode=packed> File:Seth cardew.JPG|Piring Pariuk File:Kitchenware China Mud Plate Rezowan.JPG|Piring File:Kitchenware Kodi Plate Rezowan.JPG|Piring Kori File:Kitchenware Kori Plate Rezowan.JPG|Piring Kori File:Kitchenware Melamine Bati Rezowan.JPG| Piring Kori File:Kitchenware Melamine Dish Rezowan.JPG|Piring Melamin File:Kitchenware Melamine Plate Rezowan.JPG|Piring Melamin File:Kitchenware Silver Plate Rezowan.JPG| Piring [[Pérak]] File:Kitchenware Steel Plate Rezowan.JPG|Pring Logam File:Kitchen-ware Steel Plate Rezowan.JPG|Piring [[Logam]] File:Kitchenware Steel-Plate Rezowan.JPG|Piring Logam </gallery> {{Pondok}} ==Tutumbu Kaluar== *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkI8gseTwYs nyieun Piring] *[http://www.kaskus.co.id/thread/52555275faca17a007000001/sejarah-piring-makan/ Sajarah Piring] *[http://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q57216 Piring saméméh diolah] ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Parabot dapur]] 10p7mqxprzv0n3n6t3t18xivujd769t 0 46529 711721 652733 2026-08-07T02:33:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711721 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person |image = Leo Baekeland ca 1906.jpg |image_size =x300px |caption =Portrait of Leo Baekeland in 1916. |birth_name =Leo Henricus Arthur Baekeland |birth_date =November 14, 1863 |birth_place =[[Sint-Martens-Latem]], [[Belgium]] |death_date ={{Death date and age|1944|2|23|1863|11|14}} |death_place =[[Beacon, New York]], [[United States|USA]] |known_for =naluntik [[plastik]] , [[Bakelite]], [[Novolac]] |awards = [[John Scott Medal]] <small>(1910)</small><br>[[Willard Gibbs Award]] <small>(1913)</small><br>[[Perkin Medal]] {{small|(1916)}}<ref name=Perkin/><BR>[[Franklin Medal]] <small>(1940)</small> |occupation=[[kimiawan]]/[[anu manggihan]] }} [[File:Leo Hendrik Baekeland Gravesite.JPG|250px|thumb|Kuburan-na Leo Hendrik Baekeland]] '''Léo Hendrik Baekeland'''('''Léo Henricus Arthur Baekeland''') nyaéta urang [[Amérika]] anu lahir di ({{lahirmati|[[Bélgia]]|14|10|1863|[[New York]]|23|02|1944}}) nyaéta salah saurang [[ahli kimia]]. Manéhna paling dipikawanoh ku alatan pamaggihna ngeunaan kertas ''fotografik''/Velox dina taun 1893 jeung [[Bakelite]] dina taun 1907. Kasohor ogé ku sebutan " Bapa-na [[Industri]] [[Plastik]]"<ref name=Landmarks>{{cite book|title=Landmarks of the Plastics Industry|date=1962|publisher=Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd., Plastics Division|location=England|pages=13-25}}</ref>{{rp|13}} anu mana plastik [[Bakelite]] pamanggih-na kawentar, kahiji murah, ''nonflammable'', Tur sarwaguna, di mana ieu ogé engkéna mangrupa cikal bakal tina industri [[plastik]] modérn.<ref name="heritage">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/plastics/baekeland.html |title=Chemical Achievers: Leo Hendrik Baekeland |publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation |year=2005 |accessdate=2007-11-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203054604/http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/plastics/baekeland.html |date=2007-02-03 }}</ref><ref name="time">{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html |title=Time 100: Leo Baekeland |first=Ivan |last=Amato |date=1999-03-29 |accessdate=2007-11-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106110739/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html |date=2007-11-06 }}</ref> ==Lalakon Hirup== '''Léo Baekeland''' gumelar di [[Sint-Martens-Latem]], [[Belgia]] dina 14 Nopémber taun 1863,<ref name=Sas>{{cite book|last1=Sas|first1=Benedikt|last2=Vocht|first2=Stanislas De|last3=Jacobs|first3=Philippe|title=Intellectual Property and Assessing its Financial Value|date=2014|publisher=Chandos Publishing|location=Kidlington|isbn=9781843347927|pages=2-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A-pfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref> ngaran bapana cobbler.<ref name=Gratzer>{{cite book|last1=Gratzer|first1=Walter|title=Giant molecules : from nylon to nanotubes|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0199562138|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_rBp-R2k2FAC&pg=PT118}}</ref> Léo Baekeland dina mangsa keur leutik kénéh nganjrekna di [[Ghent, Belgium]] nepikeun ka déwasa. Baekeland lulus ti ''Ghent Municipal'' Sakola Tehnik kalawan meunang pamuji nepikeun ka dibéré béasiswa ku ieu Kota Ghent<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|102}} pikeun diajar kimia di [[''University of Ghent'']], Saterusna Baekeland asup dina taun 1880.<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|13}}anu teu kungsi lila meunang gelar [[PhD]] kalayan lulus [[Suma cum laude]] dina umur anu kawilang ngora (21 taun).<ref name="Bijker">{{cite book|chapter=The Fourth Kingdom: The Social Construction of Bakelite|pages=101-198|last1=Bijker|first1=Wiebe E.|title=Of bicycles, bakelites, and bulbs : toward a theory of sociotechnical change|date=1997|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=9780262522274|edition=1st MIT Press pbk|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsbmwN8-m1cC&pg=PA138|accessdate=2 September 2015}}</ref>{{rp|102}}diangkat sumpahna jadi Profesor Fisika jeung Kimia di Sakola Normal ''Pemerintah Tinggi di Bruges''(1887-1889) teu kungsi lila Baekeland diangkat jadi professor kimia di Ghent dina taun 1889.<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|14}} Baekeland rimbitan jeung Céline Swarts, putri-na profesor ''Theodore Swarts'' jeung Celine (Plattéau) Swarts, dina 8 Agustus 1889. Anak tina hasil rimbitan-na nyaéta , Géorge, Nina, jeung Jenny.<ref name=NNDB>{{cite web|title=Leo Baekeland|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/363/000094081/|website=NNDB Tracking the entire world|publisher=Soylent Communications|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=Flynn/> ==Karir== Dina taun 1889 Baekeland jeung pamajikanana meunang béasiswa pikeun indit maguron luhur ka [[Inggris]] jeung [[Amérika]].<ref name=Perkin>{{cite journal|title=Perkin Medal Award|journal=The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry|date=1916|volume=8|issue=2|pages=177-190|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSpGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA178|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref>{{rp|178}}<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|14}} maranéhna ngajugjug [[New York City]], di dieu papanggih jeung Profesor Charles F. Chandler ti [[Columbia]] University jeung [[Richard Anthony]], katut HT Anthony Ti parusahaan ''fotografi''. Nya ''Profesor'' Charles F ieu pisan anu méré pangharepan ka Baekeland pikeun netep/dumuk di Amérika Serikat<ref name=Baekeland/> Baekeland geus nyiptakeun hiji tarékah pikeun ngamekarkeun ''pelat'' ''fotografi'' ngagunakeun [[cai]] lain bahan kimia séjéna, anu geus dipaténkeun di [[Belgia]] dina taun 1887;<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|13}} <ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|127-129}} Anthony nempo kana ieu potensi Baekeland dina widang kimia sok sanajan ngorakénéh tuluy waé manéhna (Anthony ) nawarkeun pagawéan ka Baekeland. .<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|130}}<ref name=gehani>{{cite book | last = Gehani | first = R. Ray | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Management of Technology and Operations | publisher = John Wiley and Sons | year = 1998 | location = | pages = [https://archive.org/details/managementoftech0000geha/page/81 81]–82 | url =https://archive.org/details/managementoftech0000geha| doi = | id = | isbn = 0-471-17906-X}}</ref> Baekeland digawé pikeun parusahaan Antony salila dua taun, teu kungsi lila tuluy muka usaha sorangan dina taun 1891 dina widang konsultan kimia.<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|130}} Tapi ieu henteu lila manéhna balik deui kana ''kertas'' foto anu geus ditaluntik leuwih jero tur ngahasilkeun di mana bisawaé gambar anu bakal dicitak bisa digedékeun ukuran-na henteu kudu maké cahaya lampu.<ref name="Chemical Age, Velox" >{{Cite book |title=This Chemical Age |chapter=XIX: Materials for To-morrow |last=Haynes |first=Williams |publisher=[[Secker and Warburg]] |location=London |year=1946 |ref=harv |pages=238–239 }}</ref> Sanggeus dua taun usaha satékah polah pikeun ngahasilkeun karya tulis anu sampurna anu dibéré judul "Velox". Nincak mangsana [[Amérika]] ngarandapan katalangsara ku alatan ''résési'' katambah teuaya ''invéstor'' atawa anu meuli kana produk anyarna. Antukna Baekeland ngayakeun gawé bareng jeung Léonard Jacobi ditululuykeun ku ngadegkeun pausahan ''(Nepera Kimia )'' di Nepera Park, [[New York]]. Saterusna ieu jadi ''suksés'' ''komérsil'' kertas fotografik<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|131-135}}<ref name=gehani/> Dina taun 1899, Jacobi, Baekeland, jeung Albert Hahn, ngajual Nepera ka Géorge éastman asalna ti éastman Kodak Co hargana $750,000.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jenkins | first = Reese V. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Images and Enterprise: Technology and the American Photographic Industry, 1839 to 1925 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1975 | location = Baltimore, MD | pages = [https://archive.org/details/imagesenterprise0000jenk/page/191 191]–201 | url =https://archive.org/details/imagesenterprise0000jenk| doi = | id = | isbn = 0801815886}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Haynes<ref name="Chemical Age, Velox" /> quotes a surprising immediate offer of $1,000,000, when Baekeland had been hoping for $50,000 at most.}} tina ieu transaksi Baekeland kabagéan kurang leuwih $215,000.<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|134-136}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mercelis|first=Joris|title=Leo Baekeland's Transatlantic Struggle for Bakelite: Patenting Inside and Outside of America|journal=Technology and Culture|year=2012|volume=53|issue=2|page=372|doi=10.1353/tech.2012.0067}}</ref> Tuluy waé Baekeland meuli "Snug Rock", hiji imah di Yonkers, [[New York]], di dieu Baekeland ngawangun ''laboratorium'' pribadi anu pereték/lengkep. salah sahiji katangtuan dina mangsa ngajual ieu ''Nepera'', nyaéta Baekeland kudu panuju pikeun henteu ngayakeun deui panalungtikan dina widang ''fotografi'' sahenteuna dina [[waktu]] 20 taun. Manéhna kudu nalungtik widang anu séjén. Dimimitian ku balik deui ka [[Jerman]] dina taun 1900, "geusan nyoréang deui perkara éléktrokimia" di Institut Tehnis di Charlottenburg.<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|14}} Dina mangsa mulang deui ka [[Amerika Serikat]], Baekeland sanajan henteu lila mantuan ''Clinton Paul Townsend'' jeung ''Elon Huntington Hooker'' ngaréngsékeun dina ngamekarkeun produksi sél éléktrolit anu hadé. Baekeland dipercaya jadi [[konsultan]] ''independen'', anu mana diamanatkeun pikeun ngawangun jeung ngoperasikeun pabrik ''percontohan''.<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|138-139}} Baekeland ngamekarkeun sel ''diafragma'' kuat pikeun ''prosés'' ''chloralkali'', maké [[kaén]] [[tinun]] asbés dieusian ku campuran [[oksida]] [[beusi]], ramat asbés jeung beusi [[hidroksida]]. Hasil Baekeland nyampurnakeun ieu penting dina mangsa ngadeg na ''Hooker Chemical Company'' dina ngawangun salah sahiji [[pabrik]] [[elektrokimia]]pang gedéna sadunya.<ref name=Landmarks/><ref name="salt">{{cite book|last=Thomas |first=Robert E. |date=1955 |title=Salt & Water, Power & People: A Short History of Hooker Electrochemical Co. |url= |location=Niagara Falls, NY |publisher=Hooker Chemical Co. |pages=109 |isbn=1258790807}}</ref> ==Kapanggihna Bakelite== Sanggeus suksés tina ''Velox'', Baekeland indit kaluar pikeun manggihan widang anu lian anu leuwih ngajangjikeun pikeun pangwangunan kimiawi. Saperti anu dipigawé saméméhna nyaéta Velox. Naha Baekeland asup kana widang [[resin]] [[sintétis]], Baekeland ngajawab pikeun ngahasilkeun duit.<ref name=Baekeland>{{cite web|title=Leo Hendrik Baekeland|url=http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/petrochemistry-and-synthetic-polymers/synthetic-polymers/baekeland.aspx|website=Chemical Heritage Foundation|accessdate=2 September 2015}}</ref> dina taun 1900-an, kimiawan geus mimiti sadar yén loba résin alami jeung serat éta [[polimér|polymeric]], istilah anu piwanoh dina taun 1833 ku [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]].<ref name=Jensen>{{cite journal|last1=Jensen|first1=William B.|title=Ask the Historian: The origin of the polymer concept|url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/141.%20Polymer.pdf|pages=624-625|publisher=University of California|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|date=2008|volume=85}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618125718/http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/141.%20Polymer.pdf |date=2018-06-18 }}</ref><ref name=Westman>{{cite web|last1=Westman|first1=M.|last2=Laddha|first2=S.|last3=Fifield|first3=L.|last4=Kafentzis|first4=T.|last5=Simmons|first5=K.|title=Natural fiber composites: a review|url=http://www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-19220.pdf|publisher=Pacific North National Laboratory|accessdate=2010}}</ref> [[Adolf von Baeyer]] geus nyobaan [[fenol]] jeung [[aldehida]] dina taun 1872, utamana [[Pyrogallol]] jeung [[benzaldehida]]manéhna nyiptakeun hiji [[zat]] "katempona hideung" anu dianggapnya henteu aya gunana jeung heneuweuh hubungana jeung panalungtikan-na pikeun kelir sintetis. tina 115 murid Baeyer. Werner Kleeberg, nyobaan ogé [[fenol]] jeung [[formaldehidadina]]dina taun 1891, Baekeland mimiti nalungtik réaksi fenol jeung formaldehida. [11] Baekeland suhud kana tujuan saméméhna nyaéta ngadeukeutan cara anu ''sistematis'', ati-ati ngatur jeung nyoba pangaruh tina suhu, tekenan ogé takaran bahan anu dipaké.<ref name=Landmarks/><ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|144-145}} Hasil tina panalungtikan nyaéta ayana hiji bahan anu bisa dimekarkeun pikeun nyieun lak. Baekeland menghasilkan lak tina ngahijikeun fenol-formaldehida disebut "novolak" tapi sapaniténan ieu hasilna kurang kuat. Ku alatan éta pamanggihna hente dimekarkeu pikeun dijual.<ref name="heritage"/> Baekeland henteu bosen nalungtik hasil tina nyampurkeun ''fenol'' jeung ''formaldehida'', ku lantaran Baekeland mibanda kayakinan di mana éta hasil tina nyampurkeun bahan bieu bisa digunakan sajeroeun prosés maké citakan. ku jalan ngontrol tekenan jeung suhu salila nyampurkeun ieu ''fenol'' jeung ''formaldehida'', manéhna nyawang yén hasil panalntikanna bisa diolah ku jalan ngagunakeun citakan: Bakelite ddijieun tina fenol, ka dieunakeun dipiwanoh asam karbol, jeung formaldehid. Ngaran kimia tina Bakelite nyaéta [[''polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride'']] Dina taun 1917 Baekeland kapeto jadi profesor husus di ''Columbia University'' The Smithsonian anu eusina cutatan ti ''County West Chester Court House di White Plains, NY'', nétélakeun kana diakuna jadi warganagara dina 16 Desémber taun 1919.<ref name=Harding>{{cite web|last1=Harding|first1=Robert|title=Guide to the Leo H. Baekeland Papers NMAH.AC.0005|url=http://amhistory.si.edu/archives/AC0005.pdf|website=Smithsonian National Museum of American History|date=1994|accessdate=1 September 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623030000/http://amhistory.si.edu/archives/AC0005.pdf |date=23 June 2015 }}</ref><ref name=Westchester>{{cite web|title=County of Westchester|url=http://ids.si.edu/ids/deliveryService?id=NMAH-AC0005-0000049-000001|website=sdfsdf|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref> Dina taun 1922, saenggeus litigasi patén nguntungkeun Baekeland, General Bakelite Co, anu geus ngadeg dina taun 1910, bareng jeung Condensite Co diadegkeun ku Aylesworth, jeung Redmanol Chemical Products Co diadegkeun ku LV Redman, ngayakeun gawe bareng jeung pausahaan Bakelite Kapanggihhna ieu Bakelite bisa disebutkeun ogé gumelarna tina [[plastik]]. Bakelite nyaéta plastik munggaran bisa ''dibentuk'' di mana geus dipanaskeun heula saméméhna. Radio, [[telepon]] dan [[isolator]] [[listrik]] dijieun tina Bakelite ku sabab [[isolasi]] listrik anu hadé jeung kuat ku panas. Teu kungsi lila ti harita pamangpaatan ieu Bakelite sumebar méh ka unggal industri<ref name="time"/> Baekeland loba pisan narima penghargaan jeung kahormatan, kaasup Medali Perkin dina taun 1916 jeung Medali Franklin dina taun 1940. dina taun 1978 manéhna dilantik kalayan anumerta mangrupa salah saurang pamanggih Nasional ''Hall of Fame di Akron'', Ohio.<ref name=Flynn>{{cite web|last1=Flynn|first1=Tom|title=Yonkers, Home of the Plastic Age|url=http://www.yonkershistory.org/bake.html|accessdate=2 September 2015}}</ref> ==Tilar Dunya== Baekeland dinamangsana geus kolot manéhna ngalaman loba masalah, nyaéta ayana pacéngkadan ngeunaan gaji jeung masalah-masalah anu séjéna jeung anakna sorangan. Manéhna ngajual ''General Bakelite Company'' ka [[''Union Carbide'']] dina taun 1939 jeung ti saprak éta ogé dititah pangsiun ku anakna. Tuluy waé manéhna méakeun waktu pikeun istirahat, dahar sakabéh dahareun kaléng-an jeung mibanda kahayang ngamekarkeun hiji taman tropis gedé pisan dina usum tiris [[Coconut Grove, Florida]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Fairchild | first = David | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The World Grows Round My Door | publisher = Charles Scriber's Sons | year = 1948 | location = New York | page = 258 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> Baekeland tilar dunya ku lantaran [[cerebrovascular]] dina hiji sanatorium [[Beacon, New York]].<ref>{{cite news |author= |agency= |title=Leo Baekeland Dead, Created Bakelite. Chemist Noted for Invention in Plastics. Produced Velox, a Photographic Paper |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A06E1DF113CE03ABC4C51DFB466838F659EDE |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=February 24, 1944 |accessdate=2015-04-14 }}</ref> Baekeland dikuburkeun di [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7704571|title=Leo Hendrik Baekeland (1863 - 1944) - Find A Grave Memorial|work=findagrave.com}}</ref> ==Barang-barang tina Bakelite== <gallery> File:Bakelite_bangles.jpg | [[Geulang]] tina Bakelite File:Doppelstecker2.jpg | [[Dop steker]] File:Ericsson_bakelittelefon_1947.jpg |[[telepon]] Bakelite File:Bakelite_fishtank_cover.jpg | Tutup Wadah File:Knobs_bakelite.jpg | Knop </gallery> ==Tempo Ogé== * [[Bakelite]] * [[Plastik]] * [[Injeksi|Mesin Injéksi]] * [[Termoplastik|Térmoplastik]] ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|33em}} ;Baca Ogé {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal |last=Craig |first=John A. |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=April 1916 |title=Leo Hendrik Baekeland: The Latest Winner Of The Perkin Medal |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXXI |issue= |pages=651–655 |id= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=09_Sr9emceQC&pg=PA651 |accessdate=2009-08-04 |quote= }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Farber | first = Eduard | title = Baekeland, Leo Hendrik | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 1 | pages = 385 | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year= 1970 | isbn = 0-684-10114-9 }} {{Refend}} ==Tutumbu Kaluar== {{Commons category|Leo Hendrik Baekeland}} *[http://www.baekelandfonds.com The Baekeland fund] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604222442/http://www.baekelandfonds.com/ |date=2019-06-04 }} *{{Find a Grave|7704571}} *[http://www.bakelitemuseum.de A virtual Bakelite museum with a short biography of Leo Baekeland] *[http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/plastics/baekeland.html Chemical Achievers: Leo Hendrik Baekeland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203054604/http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/plastics/baekeland.html |date=2007-02-03 }} *[http://juliensart.be/bakeliet Virtual Bakelite Museum of Ghent 1907–2007] *[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990610,00.html ''Time'', Mar. 29, 1999, Chemist LEO BAEKELAND] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826120201/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990610,00.html |date=2013-08-26 }} *[http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/baekeland-leo-h.pdf National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir] {{pondok}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Baekeland, Leo}} [[Category:Plastik]] [[Category:Kimia]] [[Category:Inohong Amérika Sarikat]] 6htj381x0zudrj3kw0rhroa9bi3vcrg 0 46583 711765 663324 2026-08-07T03:39:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711765 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Tropocollagen cross-linkage lysyl oxidase (EN).svg|thumb|Gambar oxidase ''lysyl'']] '''Kolagén''' nyaéta salah sahiji [[protéin]] anu aya dina [[awak]] [[manusa]]. Jumlahna dina sakujur awak nepika 30%. Kolagén mangrupa hiji struktur organik pikeun ngawangun [[tulang]], [[huntu]], [[sendi]], [[otot]], jeun [[kulit]]. Ramat Kolagén mibanda daya tahan kuat tina pangaruh tekenan. Kolagén mimitina tina [[basa Yunani]] anu hartina (cepel atawa mibanda sipat cepel).<ref>[http://kesehatan-surabaya.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/Pengertian-Kolagen-dan-Fungsi-Kolagen.html Kolangen nyaéta]</ref> Kolagén mangrupa protéin utama anu ngawangun otot jeung tulang, ogé méré kakuatan jeung daya tahan kulit. Kurangna produksi kolagén ngabalukarkeun kolagén dina kulit ngipisan. Kulit katempo péot jeung kendor. Di dieu pisan anu disebut ngolotan.<ref>[http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/kolagen/ Kamus Kaséhatan-Ditempo 14 Séptémber 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105155035/http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/kolagen |date=2016-01-05 }}</ref><ref>[http://kesehatan-surabaya.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/Pengertian-Kolagen-dan-Fungsi-Kolagen.html Mangpaat kolagen]</ref> ==Mangpaat Kolagén== Kolagén mibanda mangpaat anu gedé pikeun kalumangsungan hirup manusa Mangpaat Kolagén di antarana :<ref>[http://kesehatan-surabaya.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/Pengertian-Kolagen-dan-Fungsi-Kolagen.html]</ref> *Ngahasilkeun [[asam amino]] umpamana prolin, glisin jeung lisin *Ngajaga organ–organ anu penting dina jeroeun [[awak]] *Ngajaga [[kulit]] supaya séhat, henteu [[garing]] jeung péot *Ngajaga kulit supaya henteu garing *Ngawangun otot, [[huntu]], [[sendi]], [[tulang]] jeung jeung [[kulit]] *Ngajaga kasaimbangan [[métabolisme]] *Ngajaga kaséhatana [[buuk]] jeung kuku awak *Ngabantu ngalancarkeun [[getih]] *Ngabantu nyerep [[kalsium]] *Ngajaga ngarah awét ngora *Jeung réa-réa deui. ==Unsur pangwangun== '''[[Protéin]]''' kolagén diwangun tina ''triple helix'' , biasana kawangun tina dua kantétan anu sarua ( α1 ) jeung kantétan tambahan anu rada béda dina ''komposisi'' [[kimia]]na ( α2 ) . Komposisi ''asam amino'' kolagén nyaéta bahan pikeun ngawangun protéin, utamana dina kandungan ''hidroksiprolin'' anu kawilang loba. Paling umum [[asam amino]] kolagén nyaéta ''glisin - prolin - X'' jeung ''glisin - X - hidroksiprolin'', di mana X nyaéta unggal ''asam amino'' séjén tina ''glisin'', prolin atawa ''hidroksiprolin''. Komposisi asam amino ieu rata-rata diperlukeun pikeun [[lauk]] jeung [[kulit]] [[mamalia]] .<ref name="SzpakJAS">{{Cite journal |last=Szpak |first=Paul |title=Fish bone chemistry and ultrastructure: implications for taphonomy and stable isotope analysis | url=https://www.academia.edu/801925/Fish_Bone_Chemistry_and_Ultrastructure_Implications_for_Taphonomy_and_Stable_Isotope_Analysis |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |year=2011 |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=3358–3372 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.022 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Asam Amino !! Aya dina kulit [[mamalia]] <br>([[Residu]]/1000) !! Aya dina kulit [[lauk]]<Br>(Residu/1000) |- | [[Glisin]] || 329 || 339 |- | [[Prolin]] || 126 || 108 |- | [[Alanin]] || 109 || 114 |- | [[Hidroxiprolin]] || 95 || 67 |- | [[Asam glutamat]] || 74 || 76 |- | [[Arginin]] || 49 || 52 |- | [[Asam aspartat]] || 47 || 47 |- | [[Serine]] || 36 || 46 |- | [[Lisin]] || 29 || 26 |- | [[Lleusin]] || 24 || 23 |- | [[Valine]] || 22 || 21 |- | [[Threonine]] || 19 || 26 |- | [[Fénilalanin]] || 13 || 14 |- | [[Isoleucine]] || 11 || 11 |- | [[Hidroxilisin]] || 6 || 8 |- | [[Methionine]] || 6 || 13 |- | [[Histidine]] || 5 || 7 |- | [[Tirosin]] || 3 || 3 |- | [[Sistéin]] || 1 || 1 |- | [[Triptofan]] || 0 || 0 |} ==Ciri Mandiri== Kolagén mangrupa salah sahiji struktural serat. Ieu protéin mibanda kagunaan anu béda jeung [[protéin globular]], saperti [[énzim]]. Beungkeutan kolagén anu kuat disebut serat kolagén, kalawan bahan utamana ''matrix extracellular'' paling ngarojong kana jaringan jeung méré ''struktur'' sél saluareunna. Kolagén ogé kapanggih di jeroeun sababaraha sél anu tangtu. Kolagén mibanda ''tensile'' kuat (henteu pegat dibetot) , sarta mangrupa komponén utama ''fascia'' , ''kartilage'', ''ligamén'', ''tendons'', tulang jeung kulit.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fratzl |first=P. |title=Collagen: Structure and Mechanics |url=https://archive.org/details/collagenstructur0000unse |publisher=Springer |location=New York |year=2008 |isbn=0-387-73905-X }}</ref> Marengan keratin leuleus, tanggung jawabna ngajaga kakuatan kulit jeung ''élastisitas''na <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buehler |first=M. J. |title=Nature designs tough collagen: Explaining the nanostructure of collagen fibrils |journal=PNAS |year=2006 |volume=103 |pmid=16895989 |issue=33 |pages=12285–12290 |pmc=1567872 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0603216103 |bibcode = 2006PNAS..10312285B }}</ref><ref name=ZL11>{{cite journal| last1=Zylberberg |first1=L. | last2=Laurin|first2=M.|year=2011 |title=Analysis of fossil bone organic matrix by transmission electron microscopy |journal=Comptes rendus Palevol |volume=11 |issue=5–6 |pages=357–366 | doi = 10.1016/j.crpv.2011.04.004}}</ref> ==Sajarah== Struktur jeung bungkus [[molekul]] kolagén geus mangpuluh-puluh taun jadi bahan panalungtikan para [[élmuwan]]. Buktina sajeroeun taun [[1930]]-an dititénan yén kolagén mibanda struktur anu rapih dina molekulérna .<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wyckoff |first=R. |first2=R. |last2=Corey |lastauthoramp=yes |first3=J. |last3=Biscoe |title=X-ray reflections of long spacing from tendon |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |year=1935 |volume=82 |pmid=17810172 |issue=2121 |pages=175–176 |doi=10.1126/science.82.2121.175 |bibcode = 1935Sci....82..175W }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=G. |last2=Parker |first2=E. |last3=Schaad |first3=J. |lastauthoramp=yes |last4=Warren |first4=W. J. |title=New measurements of previously unknown large interplanar spacings in natural materials |journal=[[Journal of the American Chemical Society|J. Amer. Chem. Soc]] |year=1935 |volume=57 |issue=8 |page=1509 |doi=10.1021/ja01311a504 }}</ref> Ti saprak harita, para élmuwan, kasup anu kungsi dilélér [[nobel]] Crick, Pauling, aya ogé Yonath, jeung anu lain-na, sarta Brodsky, Berman, jeung Ramachandran, museurkeun panalungtikan kana [[monomér]] kolagén ieu. Sababaraha modél silih ganti pikeun mintonkeun hasilna, sanajan bener aya patalina jeung konfirmasi unggal ranté kantétan [[péptida]] individu, masih dibutuhkeun sababaraha bukti anu ngadukung pikeun nyampurnakeunna tapi sanajan kitu ieu geus meré jalan pikeun modél ''triple-heliks "Madras" Ramachandran'', modél anu disadiakeun dasarna bener struktur kuaterner molekul <ref>{{cite journal |journal=Resonance |volume=6 | issue= 10 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/php/toc.php?vol=06&issue=10 |title=GNR — A Tribute |author=Balasubramanian, D .|date=October 2001 |publisher= Indian Academy of Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leonidas |first=Demetres D. |year=2001 |first2=GB |last3=Jardine |first3=AM |last4=Li |first4=S |last5=Shapiro |first5=R |last6=Acharya |first6=KR |title=Binding of Phosphate and pyrophosphate ions at the active site of human angiogenin as revealed by X-ray crystallography |journal=Protein Science |pmid=11468363 |volume=10 |issue=8 |pmc=2374093 |pages=1669–1676 |doi=10.1110/ps.13601 |displayauthors=2 |last2=Chavali }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subramanian |first=Easwara |year=2001 |title=Obituary: G.N. Ramachandran |journal=[[Nature Structural & Molecular Biology]] |pmid=11373614 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=489–491 |doi=10.1038/88544 }}</ref> Struktur rupa bungkus kolagén di luar acan dipuguhkeun sarua dina tingkat [[fibril]] kolagen, sanajan geus lila dipikawanoh mibanda [[heksagonal]] atawa kuasi-heksagonal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Okuyama |first=K. |first2=K |last3=Arnott |first3=S |last4=Takayanagi |first4=M |last5=Kakudo |first5=M |title=Crystal and molecular structure of a collagen-like polypeptide (Pro-Pro-Gly)<sub>10</sub> |journal=J Mol Biol |volume=152 |issue=2 |pages=427–443 |year=1981 |pmid=7328660 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(81)90252-7 |displayauthors=2 |last2=Okuyama }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Traub |first=W. |first2=A. |last2=Yonath |lastauthoramp=yes |first3=D. M. |last3=Segal |title=On the molecular structure of collagen |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |year=1969 |volume=221 |issue=5184 |pages=914–917 |doi=10.1038/221914a0 |bibcode = 1969Natur.221..914T }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bella |first=J. |first2=M. |last2=Eaton |first3=B. |last3=Brodsky |first4=H. M. |last4=Berman |title=Crystal and molecular structure of a collagen-like peptide at 1.9 A resolution |journal=Science |year=1994 |volume=266 |issue=5182 |pmid=7695699 |pages=75–81 |doi=10.1126/science.7695699 |bibcode = 1994Sci...266...75B }}</ref> Saperti struktur modél monomér kalawan ngébréhkeun, sababaraha anu ngajelaskeun susunan bungkus molekul kolagén nyaéta 'kawas lambaran' atawa ''microfibrillar''.<ref name="Hulmes Miller 1979">{{Cite journal |last=Hulmes |first=D. J. |lastauthoramp=yes |first2=A. |last2=Miller |title=Quasi-hexagonal molecular packing in collagen fibrils |journal=Nature |year=1979 |volume=282 |pmid=514368 |issue=5741 |pages=878–880 |doi=10.1038/282878a0 |bibcode = 1979Natur.282..878H }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jesior |first=J. C. |first2=A. |last2=Miller |lastauthoramp=yes |first3=C. |last3=Berthet-Colominas |title=Crystalline three-dimensional packing is general characteristic of type I collagen fibrils |journal=FEBS Lett |year=1980 |volume=113 |pmid=7389896 |issue=2 |pages=238–240 |doi=10.1016/0014-5793(80)80600-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fraser |first=R. D. B. |lastauthoramp=yes |first2=T. P. |last2=MacRae |title=Unit cell and molecular connectivity in tendon collagen |journal=[[International Journal of Biological Macromolecules|Int. J. Biol. Macromol.]] |year=1981 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=193–200 |doi=10.1016/0141-8130(81)90063-5 }}</ref> Struktur ''microfibrillar fibril'' kolagen dina [[téndon]], [[kornea]] jeung [[tulang rangu]] geus langsung diéceéskeun ku [[mikroskop éléktron]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fraser |first=R. D. |first2=T. P. |last2=MacRae |first3=A. |last3=Miller |title=Molecular packing in type I collagen fibrils |journal=J Mol Biol |year=1987 |volume=193 |pmid=3586015 |issue=1 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(87)90631-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wess |first=T. J. |first2=AP |last3=Wess |first3=L |last4=Miller |first4=A |title=Molecular packing of type I collagen in tendon |journal=J Mol Biol |year=1998 |volume=275 |issue=2 |pmid=9466908 |pages=255–267 |doi=10.1006/jmbi.1997.1449 |displayauthors=2 |last2=Hammersley }}</ref> Struktur ''microfibrillar'' buntut téndon, umpamana anu ditétélakeun ku Fraser, Miller, jeung Wess, digambarkeun ngajadi pangdeukeutna jeung struktur anu keur dititénan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holmes |first=D. F. |last2=Gilpin |first2=C. J. |last3=Baldock |first3=C. |last4=Ziese |first4=U. |last5=Koster |first5=A. J. |last6=Kadler |first6=K. E. |title=Corneal collagen fibril structure in three dimensions: Structural insights into fibril assembly, mechanical properties, and tissue organization |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |year=2001 |volume=98 |pmid=11390960 |issue=13 |pages=7307–7312 |pmc=34664 |doi=10.1073/pnas.111150598 |bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.7307H }}</ref> Sanajan dibasajankeun, kamajuan [[topologi]] tatangga molekul kolagen, jeung ku sabab éta henteu kasawang konfirmasi anu bener tina Pangatur D-periodik kapegat [[péntamérik]] disebut basajan: ''mikrofibril''. Loba bagéan silang umpama [[L-Dopaquinone]], [[embelin]], [[kalium embelate]] jeung 5-O-metil embelin bisa dimekarkeun jadi bagéan silang atawa stabilisasi potensi kolagén jeung aplikasinya disadiakeun pikeunn lambar ''wound dressing'' dina aplikasi ''klinis'' .<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Narayanaswamy |first=Radhakrishnan |last2=Shanmugasamy |first2=Sangeetha |title= Bioinformatics in crosslinking chemistry of collagen with selective crosslinkers|journal=BMC |year=2011 |volume=4| page=399 |doi=10.1186/1756-0500-4-399 |last3=Shanmugasamy |first3=Sangeetha |last4=Gopal |first4=Ramesh |last5=Mandal |first5=Asit }}</ref> ==Tutumbu Kaluar== #[http://kesehatan-surabaya.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/Pengertian-Kolagen-dan-Fungsi-Kolagen.html Kolagen jeung Kaséhatan ] #[http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/kolagen/ Kamus Kaséhatan-Ditempo 14 Séptémber 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105155035/http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/kolagen |date=2016-01-05 }} ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Category:Protéin]] 6otyntn3fg0iihbud7sicc7npw5xqut 0 46653 711691 675960 2026-08-07T01:37:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711691 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:A candy stand displaying a large variety of liquorice in Jyväskylä, Finland.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Liquorice]]'' Ieu permén anu dibungbuan tina ''ékstrak''/sari pati akar [[liquorice plant]]. Kasohor tur dipikaresep di nagara Finlandia.|lapak dagangan Permén]] [[File: Batasha sweets.jpg|thumb|''Baasha'' nyaéta salah sahiji permén tradisional rasa kacang-kacangan jeung ''mint'' anu aya Asia Kidul]] '''Permén''' ([[Basa Inggris]]:''Candy'') asal kecap tina [[basa Pérsia]] dina mangsa nyebutkeun gula [[tiwu]] (''cane sugar''), jeung sigana ogé tina basa Sanskrit "''khanda''", nu hartina " sapotong (gula)". Permén disebut ogé gula-gula nyaéta salah sahiji kadaharan anu umumna mibanda rasa amis (kareueut), dijieun tina bahan utamana gula dicampuran jeung bahan-bahan séjéna. Permén henteu sarua jeung [[kuéh]] atawa [[roti]] nu ilahar dipotongan heula saméméh suguhkeun atawa dibagi-bagikeun. Permén mah biasana dijieun dina wujud anu mangrupa potongan-potongan leuwih leutik. Permén ogé dina ilaharna didahar dina wanci keur nyalsé.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Tim H. |title=Sweets: A History of Candy |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |year=2002 |isbn=1-58234-229-6 |pages=53–54}}</ref> ==Sajarah== [[File:Japanese confectionery store in "The Great Buddha Sweet Shop" from Akizato Rito's Miyako meisho zue (1787).jpg|thumb|Hiji pausahaan urang [[Jepang]] ngajual permén di " ''The Great Buddha Sweet Shop'' " Ti ''Miyako Meisho Zue'' ( 1787 )]] Antara [[abad]] ka-4 jeung ka-6 SM, Urang [[Pérsia]] saterusna dituturkeun ku urang [[Yunani]] mimiti mikawanoh tatanén [[tiwu]] pikeun diperes caina nurutan urang [[India]], anu leuwih tiheula tatanén tangkal [[tiwu]] pikeun nyubadanan kana kabutuhan [[gula]] sagigireun tina hasil [[nyiruan]] anu mangrupa "[[madu]]".<ref name=agrisugar1>{{cite web|title=Agribusiness Handbook: Sugar beet white sugar|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations|year=2009|url=http://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234431/http://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf |date=2015-09-05 }}</ref> Tangkal tiwu mangrupa tangkal anu loba kapanggih di daérah tropis Asia Kidul, Potongan gula tiwu dijieun ku jalan ngagolakeun cai meunang méré s tina tangkal tiwu di India kuno katelahna Khanda, nyadi dieu pisan asal muasal kecap permén/''candy'' téh.<ref>See: *George Watt (1893), The Economic Products of India, W.H. Allen & Co., Vol 6, Part II, pages 29–30; *J.A. Hill (1902), The Anglo-American Encyclopedia, Volume 7, page 725; *Thomas E. Furia (1973), CRC Handbook of Food Additives, Second Edition, Volume 1, ISBN 978-0849305429, page 7 (Chapter 1, by Thomas D. Luckey); *Mary Ellen Snodgrass (2004), Encyclopedia of Kitchen History, ISBN 978-1579583804, Routledge, pages 145–146</ref> Saméméh kapanggih ieu gula, permén dijieun tina [[madu]] .<ref name="NPCS 2013 1">{{cite book |title = Confectionery Products Handbook (Chocolate, Toffees, Chewing Gum & Sugar Free Confectionery)|publisher=Asia Pacific Business Press |date=2013 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a989AQAAQBAJ |location=India |author=NPCS |page=1}}</ref> Baheula Urang mesir, Yunani, Timur Tengah jeung Kaisar Romawi ngamangpaatkeu madu pikeun ngawétkeun bubuahan, kekembangan ku jalan dioleskeun atawa dibalur maké madu .<ref name="History of Food">{{cite book|last=Toussaint-Samat|first=Maguelonne|title=A History of Food|url=https://archive.org/details/historyoffood0000tous_i8l0|year=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=New Jersey|isbn = 9781444305142}}</ref> Kiwari permén geus loba dijieun pikeun jadi papaés ogé, Mimiti [[abad]] pertengahan ieu permén dicampuran ku rempah-rempah dina mangsa nyieuna, saméméh lumasngsungna révolusiIndustri. Ieu permén dimangpaatkeun ogé pikeun ubar, naha ngubaran panas tikoro atawa bisa ogé ngubaran nyeri beuteung. Permén ogé dijieun susuguh dina mangsa narima sémah biasana nyayagikeun ' permén ' dina hiji jamuan keur sémah-na. Sakapeung disebut ogé rohangan rempah-rempah, di dieu permén, dijieun tina [[cengkéh]], [[jahé]], [[adas]] amis, buah juniper, almond jeung [[siki]] [[buah]] pinus tuluy dianclomkeun kana gula dina wadah anu geus dilééhkeun saméméhna..<ref name="NPCS 2013 1"/> ==Rupa-rupa Permén == Permén gula rupa-rupa wujudna aya permén anu teuas, permén leuleus, karamél, ''marshmallow'', gula-gula, jeung permén séjéna anu bahan utamana nyaéta gula. Permén gula komérsial, umumna dibagi kana sabaraha rupa disaluyukeun kana jumlah gula anu dicampurkeun jeung struktur kimiana.<ref name="Nutrition2007">{{cite book|author=McWilliams, Margaret|title=Nutrition and Dietetics' 2007 Edition|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|year=2007|pages=177–184|isbn=978-971-23-4738-2}}</ref> <gallery caption="Permén gula"> File: Kompeito konpeito.JPG|''[[Kompeito]]'' nyaéta permén gula tradisional [[Jepang]] dijieun-na méh 100 % tina [[gula]]. File: HardCandy.jpg|Fruit-shaped [[Permén teuas]] Rupa-rupa Permén Gula . File:Chikki assortment.jpg|''[[Chikki]]'' Permén Kacang rangu hasil industri rumah tangga, dipikaresep di India. File: Gummy bears.jpg| Permén ''gummy'' (leuleus liat) asalna ti Germany. File:Pantteri Mix.jpg|'' [[Pantteri]] '' nyaéta hiji permén gula leuleus asalna ti Finlandia. rasa bubuahan anu kelirna warnawarni, sedengkeun kelirna hideung mangrupa [[licorice asim|salmiakki]]. </gallery> Coklat sakapeung perlu ogé dibédakeun pikeun misahkeun tina permén gula.<ref>{{cite book|last=Edwards|first=W.P.|title=The Science of Sugar Confectionery|url=https://archive.org/details/scienceofsugarco0000edwa|date=2000|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780854045938|page=[https://archive.org/details/scienceofsugarco0000edwa/page/1 1]}}</ref> kaasup di jerona bisa waé disebut permén coklat jeung coklat ''truffle'' . Tapi henteu kasup coklat panas atawa coklat anu di tinyuh, upamana permén anu dijieun tina coklat bodas. Tapi ari coklat anu di mangpaatkeun pikeun kabutuhan séjén, pikeun nyieun kuéh upamana ieu hésé di golongkeun, atau kadaharan anu dianclomkeun kana coklat, kuéh ''tart'' anu dihias ku coklat, ogé kuéh lapis coklat. <gallery caption="Modél Coklat"> File:Chocolat Bonnat. 100%.jpg|Henteu amis jeung Henteu maké gula [[''baking chocolate'']] . File:Bar of Guittard chocolate.jpg| [[''dark chocolate'']] Rada amis, maké gula saeutik. File:Milk_chocolate.jpg|[[''Susu Coklat'']] Dicampur susu saeutik jeung coklat. File:WeisseLuftschokolade.jpg|[[Coklat Bodas]] Digolongkeun kana [[sugar confectionery]]. File: Couverture chocolate and compund chocolate.jpg|[[Sanyawa coklat]] dipaké dina coklat murni pikeun ngurangan waragad. File:300x300 choc rose cake.jpg|Coklat modél kembang . </gallery> Permén bisa waé digolongkeun kana ''non-kristalin'' jeung ''kristal''. Permén anu wujudna ''non-kristalin'' anu ''homogén'' bisa waé leuleus jeung liat, bisa ogé permén teuas, karamél, Permén kristal ngagabungkeun kristal laleutik dina struktur-na, nyaéta krim anu lé'éh tur gampang digayem upamana : ''fondant'' jeung ''fudge'' .<ref name="potter1999">Norman Potter and Joseph Hotchkiss (1999), Food Science: Fifth Edition, ISBN 978-0834212657, Springer, Chapter 20</ref> ==Bungkus== [[File: San Francisco salt water taffy.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gula-gula]] biasana dibungkus maké kertas lilin ]] [[File:Chocolate gift.jpg|thumb|left|Loba bahan bisa dipaké [[Bungkus kado]].]] Bungkus guna jeung mangpaatna pikeun ngajaga tina karuksakan eusi, rasa jeung seungit-na dina mangsa di teundeun atawa dikirimkeun katempat séjén. Kertas lilin bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngahalngan kekebul, kuman jeung ''lembab''. Plastik ngajaga eusina tetep katempo ogé henteu cepel kana eusina. poliétiléna nyaéta bahan lambaran [[plastik]] anu bisa diségel maké panas, jeung bahan ieu loba dipakéu pikeun nyieun kantong rupa-rupa [[plastik]]. Umumna aya ogé anu ngagunakeun [[Aluminium|almaniem]] foil sagigireun hampang ogé bisa ngajaga tina uap [[cai]] anu bisa mangaruhan kana eusina jeung rasa , henteu ngandung racun sumawona bau. .<ref>[http://www.wholesalecandystore.com/old-candy-wrappers.html Old Candy Wrappers]. Wholesale Candy Store. Retrieved on November 2, 2011.</ref> Bungkus ogé ngabantu dina mangsa ngadagangkeun, Anu meuli pada nyaho di mana kadaharan kudu ''higienis'' jeung bersih. Hususna anu meuli-na barudak, Ukuran, jeung [[kelir]] anu moronyony éta jadi [[hiji]] perhatian pikeun ngaronjatkeun kana pesenan agé anu meuli.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Trends in Food Packaging Technology|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|date=October 1953|volume=1|issue=16|pages=978–986|doi=10.1021/jf60016a002}}</ref> ==Kandungan Zat== Utamana dina hiji kabiasaan anu remen ''ngonsumsi'' amis-amisan, pikeun lolobana urang [[Amerika]] permén henteu kaasup sumber [[gizi]] loba atawa [[énergi]] pangan. Rata urang [[Amérika]] ngonsumsi gula 1.1&nbsp;kg (2,5 pon ) atawa pangamis unggal mingguna, tapi ampir 95 % kabéh asalna gula - kira-kira 70 gram (2,5 ons ) - séjén tina permén, utamana inuman biasa jeung pangan olahan .<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kawash|first1=Samira|title=Candy: A Century of Panic and Pleasure|date=2013|publisher=Faber & Faber, Incorporated|location=New York|isbn=9780865477568|page=11}}</ref> Candy dianggap sumber [ kalori ] [ kosong ], sabab nyadiakeun nilai gizi saeutik atawa teu leuwih énergi pangan. Dina mimiti abad ka-20 , nalika [[''undernutrition'']] ieu masalah anu kawilang serius, utamana di kalangan jalma miskin jeung pagawé, di mana kanyaho ngeunaan élmu gizi ieu widang anyar, eusi kalori luhur anu diwanohkeun minangka hiji kahadéan. Panalungtik nyarankeun yén permén, utamana permén susu jeung kacang, ieu hiji alternatif murah pikeun hidangan normal.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Kawash|first1 = Samira|title = Candy: A Century of Panic and Pleasure|date = 2013|publisher = Faber & Faber, Incorporated|location = New York|isbn = 9780865477568|page = 98}}</ref> Salila taun 1920-an jnepi keun ka 1930-an, malahan toko permén ngajualna pikeun gaganti ompréng (dahar beurang).<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last1 = Kawash|first1 = Samira|title = Candy: A Century of Panic and Pleasure|date = 2013|publisher = Faber & Faber, Incorporated|location = New York|isbn = 9780865477568|pages = 310–318}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|title = Candy: A Century of Panic and Pleasure|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=g_5DAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA287|publisher = Macmillan|date = 2013-10-15|isbn = 9780865477568|language = en|first = Samira|last = Kawash|pages = 287–289 and color plate #15}}</ref> ===Vegetarian=== Permén lolobana ngandung daging atawa bagéan-bagéan séjénna tina sasatoan, ogé loba ngandung susu jeung prodak tina sato anu séjéna. Sababaraha permén, kaasup ''marshmallow'' jeung ''gummi'', ngandung [[gelatin]] anu asalna tina kolagén sasatoan nyaéta [[protéin]] anu kapanggih tina kulit ajeung tulang ku lantaran ieu pisan sababaraha vegan jeung vegetarian ngajauhan. " Gelatin halal " ogé luyu pikeun vegetarian jeung vegan, upamana anu dipibanda tina tulang lauk .<ref>[http://www.kashrut.com/articles/DryBones/ Will These Bones Live? Yechezkel 37:3]. Kashrut.com. Retrieved on November 2, 2011.</ref> Zat séjéna, saperti ager-ager , pektin , pati jeung geutah Arab ogé bisa digunakeun pikeun nyieun gel bagian, an engéena bisa digunakeun ngajadi gelatin. Kacang jeli mindeng diolesan maké ''lak'' .<ref>{{Cite book|title = Edible Films and Coatings for Food Applications|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kAFyX_s5OYIC&pg=PA41|accessdate = 2015-03-25|last = Embuscado|first = Milda|last2 = Huber|first2 = Kerry C.|year = 2009|publisher = Springer Science & Business Media|isbn = 9780387928241}}</ref>]]Bahan-bahan séjén anu biasa kapanggih jeroeun permén aya ogé anu henteu luyu pikeun diet ''vegetarian'' atawa ''vegan'' ''Tulisan déngdék''kaasup ''carmine'' , [[kelir]] [[beureum]] dijieun tina [[bangbung]] ''cochineal'', glasir manisan, jeung sajabana. ==Tempo Ogé== *[[Permén karét|Permén Karét]] *[[Xylitol]] *[[Sorbitol]] *[[Méntol]] *[[Aspartam]] *[[Sukrosa]] *[[Dekstrin]] *[[Succus]], *[[Peppermint]] *[[Sodium]] *[[Gom Arab]] *[[Fenilalanin]] *[[Isomalt]] *[[Askorbat]] *[[Sukralosa]] *[[Natrium Benzoat]] *[[Magnesium]] ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Kadaharan]] md6kp536s8yomm2scyhhsaemzvpzypk 0 46811 711702 710971 2026-08-07T02:01:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711702 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --> {| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" ! {{chembox header}}| '''{{{name|{{PAGENAME}}}}}'''<ref>''Merck Index'', 11th Edition, '''861'''.</ref> |- |align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" |[[File:Aspartame.svg|200px|Model-2D-aspartam]] |- | align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[File:Aspartame-3D-balls.png|200px|Model bola dan stik aspartam]] |- | [[IUPAC nomenclature|Ngaran kimia]] | {{{IUPAC|''N''-(<small>L</small>-α-Aspartyl)-<small>L</small>-phenylalanine,{{br}}1-methyl ester}}} |- | Ngaran Séjéna | [[NutraSweet]]{{br}}[[Canderel]]{{br}}[[Equal (sweetener)|Equal]] |- | [[Rumus Kimia]] | C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>18</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> |- | [[Beurat Molekul]] | 294.301 g/mol |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | [{{{CAS|22839-47-0}}}] |- | [[Titik Le'eh]] | 246-247&nbsp;°C |- | [[Titik ngaggolak]] | Leyur (terurai) |- | [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] | {{{SMILES|[NH3+] [C@@H](CC([O-])=O)C(N[C@@H]{{br}}(CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(OC)=O)=O}}} |- | {{chembox header}} | <small>[[Wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]</small> |- |} '''Aspartam''' (APM; ''æspərteɪm '' atawa ''əspɑrteɪm'' ) nyaéta pangamis ''non-sakarida'' gaganti gula. Ilaharna dipaké dina olahan kadaharan atawa inuman. Di Uni Éropa, dipiwanoh E951. Aspartam mangrupa ''metil ester'' tina asam ''aspartat'' /''fenilalanin dipeptida''. pangheulana dijual ka balaréa maké ngaran '''''NutraSweet'''''. Aspartam mimiti di[[sintétik]] dina taun 1965, jeung dipatén dina taun 1992. '''Aspartam''' ogé geus ramé jadi obrolan jalma réa utamana ngeunaan [[bahaya]] atawa henteuna upama ''dikonsumsi'' manusa, nepika kiwari jadi bahan pacéngkadan/''kontroversi'' [[politik]] jeung ''médis'', [[Amérika]] Serikat jeung DPR-na kungsi ngayakeun riung mungpulang anu maksud jeung tujuana taya lian pikeun nyawalakeun ieu béja utamana mangrupa ''hoax'' dina [[internet]] <ref name=Snopes1>[http://www.snopes.com/medical/toxins/aspartame.asp Aspartame] on [[Snopes.com]]</ref><ref>[http://www.acsh.org/opinion/acsh-debunks-internet-health-hoax-2/ ACSH Debunks Internet Health Hoax] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509171916/http://www.acsh.org/opinion/acsh-debunks-internet-health-hoax-2/ |date=2013-05-09 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990167,00.html A Web of Deceit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129164127/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C990167%2C00.html |date=2009-01-29 }}</ref> ti saprak ''US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)'' nyatujuan ieu ''aspartam'' dimangpaatkeun pikeun campuran [[kadaharan]] ogé inuman dina taun 1981.<ref name="gao-87"/>{{rp|2}} The [[European Food Safety Authority]] concluded in its 2013 re-evaluation that aspartame and its bréakdown products are safe for human consumption at current levels of exposure,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of aspartame (E 951) as a food additive|journal=EFSA Journal|date=10 December 2013|volume=11|issue=12|page=263|doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3496|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/3496.htm}}</ref>:. 2 [[Éropa]] ngayakeun deui sawala jeung bagéan kaamanan kadaharan-na, hasilna taun 2013 diayakeun deui panalungtikan ngeunaan ieu aspartam di mana ditétélakeun aspartam ieu aman pikeun ''dikonsumsi'' [[manusa]] ngan dina wates anu geus ditangtukeun waé.<ref name=Magnuson>{{Cite journal|author=Magnuson BA |title=Aspartame: a safety evaluation based on current use levels, regulations, and toxicological and epidemiological studies |journal=Critical Reviews in Toxicology |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=629–727 |year=2007 |pmid=17828671 |doi=10.1080/10408440701516184|author2=Burdock GA|author3=Doull J|last4=Kroes|first4=R. M.|last5=Marsh|first5=G. M.|last6=Pariza|first6=M. W.|last7=Spencer|first7=P. S.|last8=Waddell|first8=W. J.|last9=Walker|first9=R.|display-authors=3}}</ref> hal ieu dumasar kana pituduh médis ogé ku lantaran, ieu aspartam dilimpudan ku ''[[fenilalanin]]'', jadi singsaha waé anu ngarandapan ''[[fenilketonuria]]'' anu sipatna turunan/tikudrat wayahna kudu ngajauhan/henteu ngadahar aspartam. ==Kimia== Aspartam téh nyaéta [[métil éster']] tina [[dipeptida]] ''asam amino'' asalna ti alam ''asam L-aspartat'' jeung ''L-fenilalanin''. dina kaayaan ''asam'' kuat atawa ''basa'', aspartam bisa ngahasilkeun [[métanol]] ku jalan ''[[hidrolisis]]''. Bisa waé ngahasilkeun ''asam amino'' bébas. Dina kaayaan anu luar biasa. .<ref> {{Cite journal | author = David J. Ager, David P. Pantaleone, Scott A. Henderson, [[Alan R. Katritzky]], Indra Prakash, D. Eric Walters | title = Commercial, Synthetic Non-nutritive Sweeteners | journal = [[Angewandte Chemie International Edition]] | year = 1998 | volume = 37 | issue = 13–24 | pages = 1802–1817 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19980803)37:13/14<1802::AID-ANIE1802>3.0.CO;2-9}}</ref> [[Sintétik]] aspartam geus didaptarkeun patén.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Yagasaki |first= Makoto |author2=Hashimoto, Shin-ichi |date=November 2008 |title= Synthesis and application of dipeptides; current status and perspectives |journal= Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume= 81 |issue= 1 |pages= 13–22 |pmid= 18795289 |doi= 10.1007/s00253-008-1590-3 }}</ref> pikeun nga[[sintétik]] aspartam pikeun urusan komérsial aya dua cara. Dina [[sintétik]] [[kimia]], dua golongan [[karboksil]] tina [[asam aspartat]] dihijikeun jadi [[anhidrida]], jeung gugus [[amino]] dilimpudan ku [[sanyawa]] anu baris ngahalangan [[réaksi]] katutuluyan dina ieu golongan. [[Fenilalanin]] [[termetilasi]] jeung dikombinasikan ku ''anhidrida'' ''aspartat'' dilimpudan-N; satulyna golongan anu ngahalangan ''asam aspartat'' di ''hidrolisis asam.'' kakurangan dina ieu cara nyaéta ngahasilkeun [[hiji]] ''produk sampingan'' anu mibanda rasa pait, dijieun dina [[waktu]] kumpulan [[karboksil]] robah jadi ''asam aspartat'' anu engkéna jadi ''fenilalanin''. Hiji ''prosés'' ngagunakeun [[énzim]] tina ''Bacillus thermoproteolyticus'' pikeun nga-katalisis ''kondensasi'' ''asam amino'' kimiawi dirobah anu bakal ngahasilkeun produk sampingan henteu mibanda rasa pait. Aya deui cara samodél kieu tapi can dilakukeun dina skala komersial, menggunakan ''asam aspartat'' ''dimodifikasi'', ngan hanjakal beubeunannganna saeutik. [[Métode]] untuk langsung mroduksi ''aspartil-fenilalanin'' ku cara ''enzimatik'', dituturkeun ku ''metilasi kimia'', ogé geus dicobaan, tapi teu ditaékkeun pikeun produksi industri. ==Sajarah== Aspartam mimiti kapanggih dina taun [[1965]] ku ahli [[kimia]] nyaéta [[James M. Schlatter]], ieu pamanggih henteu ngahaja ku lantaran dina waktu harita Schlatter téh keur digawé dihiji pausahaan “GD Searle & Company”. Schlatter nyieun sintétis aspartam anu mangrupa léngkah munggaran pikeun ngahasilkeun [[tetrapeptide]] tina [[gastrin]] [[hormon]], satadina panalungtikan Schlatter ieu maksudna pikeun nyieun [[ubar]] “anti-ulkus”. Dina mangsa Schlatter rék muka kertas catetan, teu ngahaja ngalétak heula ramona, karasa aya rasa amis dina ramona anu saméméhna kakeunaan ku aspartam tadi <ref name=Magnuson/><ref>{{cite book |last= Mazur |first= Robert H. |editor1-last= Inglett |editor1-first= George E. |title= Symposium: sweeteners |url= https://archive.org/details/symposiumsweeten0000unse |year= 1974 |publisher= AVI Publishing |location= Westport, CT |isbn= 0-87055-153-1 |lccn= 73-94092 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/symposiumsweeten0000unse/page/159 159]–163 |chapter= Aspartic acid-based sweetners}}</ref><ref name="isbn0-632-04452-7">{{cite book |author=Lewis, Ricki |title=Discovery: windows on the life sciences |url=https://archive.org/details/discoverywindows0000lewi |publisher=Blackwell Science |location=Oxford |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/discoverywindows0000lewi/page/4 4] |isbn=0-632-04452-7 |oclc= }}</ref><ref>Mazur, R.H. (1984). Discovery of aspartame. In Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry (L. D. Stegink and L. J. Filer Jr., Eds.). Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 3–9.</ref> Dina taun [[1975]], dirojong ku rasa panasaran jeung ayana béja-béja geus nerekab ka mana mana antukna ‘’US FDA 25’’ ngumpulkeun ahli-ahli pikeun nalungtik ieu aspartam, pamustunganna ieu para ahli balaka ngalaporkeun yén ayana "kakurangan anu kacida serieus sajeroeun prakna ngalaksanakeun prakték Searle". FDA usaha pikeun ngaresmikeun 15 panalungtikan pikeun manggihan béja jeung bukti anu bisa ngadukung. Dina taun [[1979]], Puseur kaamanan kadaharan jeung [[gizi]] (CFSAN) méré kacindekan, yén aspartam aman pikeun dipaké, ieu dumasar kana panalungtikan anu geus dilakukeun. Dina taun [[1980]], FDA ngayakeun hiji kumpulan (PBOI) anu diwangun ku para inohong jeung panaséhat independen anu diwawadianan pikeun nalungtik ngeunaan aspartam, cénah bisa ngalantarankeun kanker otak. Sakali deui ''PBOI'' méré kacindekan yén aspartam ieu henteu ngabalukarkeun ayana karuksakan dina otak, ngan jadi hiji kaayaan ngeunaan kangker anu dirandapan ku beurit dina mangsa keur dilaksanakeun uji coba di laboratorium éta tacan aya kancindekan deui.<ref name="gao-87">{{cite web |title=U.S. GAO – HRD-87-46 Food and Drug Administration: Food Additive Approval Process Followed for Aspartame, 18 June 1987 |accessdate=5 September 2008 |url=http://www.gao.gov/docdblite/info.php?rptno=HRD-87-46 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530034513/http://www.gao.gov/docdblite/info.php?rptno=HRD-87-46 |date=30 May 2020 }}</ref>{{rp|94–96}}<ref>Testimony of Dr. Adrian Gross, Former FDA Investigator to the U.S. Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources, 3 November 1987. Hearing title: "NutraSweet Health and Safety Concerns." Document # Y 4.L 11/4:S.HR6.100, page&nbsp;430–439.</ref>:. 94-96 Numutkeun bukti hasil panalungtikan élmuwan [[Jepang]] kalawan sakabéh anggota PBOI tacan aya anu mibanda ieu hasil panalungtikan, ogé dumasar kana béja jeung pépéling para ahli geus kapanggihna hiji kasalahan dina mangsa ngalaksanakeun analisis statistik anu ngabalukarkeun PBOI jadi mangmang, tapi ieu ogé heneuweuh anu nyaluyuan, komisaris FDA Hayes nyaluyuan aspartam pikeun dimangpaatkeun dina barang-barang anu garing. Dina taun [[1983]], ''FDA'' satuluyna nyatujuan aspartam dipaké pikeun campuran inuman anu ngandung [[Soda|karbonasi]], ogé dimangpaatkeun dina inuman anu séjéna, ieu geus ditetepkeun dina taun [[1993]]. Dina taun [[1996]], ''FDA'' ngaleungitkeun sakabéh katangtuan anu ngawates wangenan pamakéan aspartam, hartina aspartam meunang dipaké dina sakumna kadaharan jeung inuman. Sababaraha nagara di [[Uni Éropa]] nyatujuan aspartam pikeun dimangpaatkeun dina taun [[1980-an]], disusul ku nagara séjénna di [[Éropa]] dina taun [[1994]]. Dina taun [[2002]] ditétélakeun deui ku Komisi Eropa Komite Ilmiah Makanan Ulasan studi keselamatan berikutnya nyaluyuan kana pamangpaatan ieu aspartam. Dina taun [[2006]] Otoritas Kaamanan Kadaharan Éropa ogé nyalujuan pamangpaatan aspartam tapi dina jumlah anu geus ditangtukeun luyu jeung hasil panalungtikanna.<ref name=FDA1996>[https://web.archive.org/web/20041128020903/http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/answers/ans00772.html FDA Statement on Aspartame], 18 November 1996</ref> ==Balukarna kana kaséhatan== Pikeun ngabuktikeun ieu aspartam aman pikeun dikonsumsi, saméméhna geus dilaksanakeun panalungtikan kacida jérona (ekstensif) ti saprak aspartam mimiti kapanggih malah nepikeun ka dicobaan heula ka sasatoan, ogé panalungtikan ''klinis'' jeung ''epidemiologis'', jeung pangawasan ''postmarketing'' .<ref>{{Cite book | last = Mitchell | first = Helen | title = Sweeteners and sugar alternatives in food technology | place = Oxford, UK | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | year = 2006 | page = 94| isbn = 1-4051-3434-8 | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Aspartam mangrupa salah sahiji bahan kadaharan anu pangbeuratna dina undakan ujian saméméh dibéwarakeun bisa dipaké. Pamaréntah dina masalah ieu nitah hiji ''lembaga'' ''independen'' pikeun ngalakukeun panalungtikan anu saterusna dibewarakeun kabalaréa. Nepi kakiwari geus dijejerkeun yén aspartam moal nanaon lamun di konsumsi dina wates anu geus ditangtukeun .<ref name=Magnuson/><ref name=FSANZ2>Food Standards Australia New Zealand: {{cite web |title=Food Standards Australia New Zealand: Aspartame – what it is and why it's used in our food |accessdate=9 December 2008|url= http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/aspartame/|archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081216093929/http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/aspartame/|archivedate= 16 December 2008}}</ref><ref name=Butchko>{{cite journal |last1=Butchko |first1=H |last2=Stargel |first2=WW |last3=Comer |first3=CP |last4=Mayhew |first4=DA |last5=Benninger |first5=C |last6=Blackburn |first6=GL |last7=De Sonneville |first7=LM |last8=Geha |first8=RS |last9=Hertelendy |first9=Z |title=Aspartame: Review of Safety |journal=Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology |volume=35 |issue=2 Pt 2 |pages=S1–93 |year=2002 |pmid=12180494 |doi=10.1006/rtph.2002.1542}}</ref> aya kana 100 badan hukum di unggal nagara anu nétélakeun aspartam geus dianggap aman pikeun dikonsumsi ku manusa <ref>{{cite web| title= Aspartame| publisher= UK FSA| date= 17 June 2008| url= https://www.food.gov.uk/science/additives/aspartame/| accessdate= 23 September 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101007120121/http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/sweeteners/55174| archivedate= 7 October 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007120121/http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/sweeteners/55174 |date=7 October 2010 }}</ref> ditegeskeun ogé ku otoritas kaamana kadaharan eropa ( EFSA ) <ref>{{cite web| title = Aspartame | publisher=EFSA | url = http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/anstopics/topic/aspartame.htm | accessdate = 23 September 2010}}</ref> jeung badan kasehatan kanada .<ref>{{cite web | title = Aspartame | publisher=Health Canada | url = http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/sweeten-edulcor/aspartame-eng.php | accessdate = 23 September 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100922181732/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/sweeten-edulcor/aspartame-eng.php| archivedate= 22 September 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> ==Tinggali Oge== *[[Xylitol]] *[[Permén]] *[[Gula]] *[[Ubar]] ==Tutumbu Kaluar== *[http://indodiabetes.com/apa-itu-aspartam-dan-mengapa-aspartam-berbahaya.html Bahaya Aspartam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227105426/http://indodiabetes.com/apa-itu-aspartam-dan-mengapa-aspartam-berbahaya.html |date=2015-12-27 }} *[https://zulliesikawati.wordpress.com/tag/aspartam/ Aspartam Gaganti Gula] *[http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Aspartame.html Kumaha Aspartam dijieun] {{Pondok}} ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Kadaharan]] kcqinobrzmzzlw36qrus4pjpnascx7v 0 47603 711634 678934 2026-08-07T00:38:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711634 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alkali''' nyaéta golongan [[logam]] dina tabél periodik mibanda unsur-unsur [[litium]] (Li), [[natrium]] (Na), [[kalium]] (K) Lambang unsur ngaran latin '''Na''' jeung '''K''' pikeun sodium ogé kalium nu diturunkeun timaranéhanana, ''natrium'' jeung ''kalium''; ieu ngaran masih dipaké dina sababaraha basa, umpamana Urang [[Jérman]] jeung urang [[Rusia]]. [[rubidium]] (Rb), [[sesium]] (Cs), jeung [[fransium]] (Fr). Golongan ieu pernahna dina blok-s [[tabél]] periodik ku sabab sakabéh logam ''alkali'' mibanda [[éléktron]] dina orbital-s anu pangluarna: hasil tina ''konfigurasi'' ieu unsur/éléktron dina sipat jeung perwatek maranéhna. [[Logam]] ''alkali'' méré contoh ''trén'' paling alus dina golongan sipat anu aya dina tabél périodik, kalawan mintonkeun laku lampah unsur-unsur anu hadé, katempo tina [[homolog]] anu alus.<ref name="autogenerated148">{{cite book|title=[[Chambers's encyclopaedia]]: a dictionary of universal knowledge, Volume 1|publisher=J.B. Lippincott & Co|year=1888|page=148}}</ref> <gallery> Image:Lithium-fluoride-3D-ionic.png|<center>''Lithium fluoride''</center> Image:Sodium-fluoride-3D-ionic.png|<center>''Sodium fluoride''</center> Image:Potassium-fluoride-3D-ionic.png|<center>''Potassium fluoride''</center> Image:Rubidium-fluoride-3D-ionic.png|<center>''Rubidium fluoride''</center> Image:Caesium-fluoride-3D-ionic.png|<center>''Caesium fluoride''</center> </gallery> ==Étimologi== [[File:Large Sodium Explosion.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A large orange-yellow explosion| reaksi 1.4 kg sodium jeung cai]] '''Alkali''' (tina kecap basa Arab: al-qaly القلي, القالي, “ ti abu saltwort”) dina perkara kimia nyaéta hiji uyah ionik ''basa'' tina hiji unsur kimia [[logam]] alkali atawa taneuh alkali. Aya ogé anu ngajentrekeun alkali mangrupa hiji [[zat]] ''basa'' bisa leyur dina [[cai]]. Alkali anu leyur mibanda [[pH]] leuwih ti 7,0.<ref name="autogenerated148"/> ==Ciri mandiri== <div style="float: right; margin: 1px; font-size:85%;"> {| class="wikitable" |+ Sipat [[logam]] alkali ! Ngaran ! [[Lithium]] ! [[Sodium]] ! [[Potassium]] ! [[Rubidium]] ! [[Caesium]] ! [[Francium]] |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|Nomer Atom | 3 || 11 || 19 || 37 || 55 || 87 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|Beurat baku atom &nbsp;([[unified atomic mass unit|u]]){{refn|The number given in [[bracket|parentheses]] refers to the [[Standard uncertainty|measurement uncertainty]]. This uncertainty applies to the [[significant figure|least significant figure]](s) of the number prior to the parenthesized value (ie. counting from rightmost digit to left). For instance, {{val|1.00794|(7)}} stands for {{val|1.00794|0.00007}}, while {{val|1.00794|(72)}} stands for {{val|1.00794|0.00072}}.<ref name="CODATA reference">{{cite web|url=http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Info/Constants/definitions.html|title=Standard Uncertainty and Relative Standard Uncertainty|work=[[CODATA]] reference|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|accessdate=26 September 2011}}</ref>}}<ref name="atomicweights2007">{{cite journal |last1=Wieser |first1=Michael E. |last2=Berglund |first2=Michael |year=2009 |title=Atomic weights of the elements 2007 (IUPAC Technical Report) |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] |volume=81 |issue=11 |pages= 2131–2156 |publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] |doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-09-08-03 |url=http://iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2009/pdf/8111x2131.pdf |accessdate=7 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="atomicweights2009">{{cite journal |last1=Wieser |first1=Michael E. |last2=Coplen |first2=Tyler B. |year=2011 |title=Atomic weights of the elements 2009 (IUPAC Technical Report) |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=359–396 |publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] |doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-10-09-14 |url=http://iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2011/pdf/8302x0359.pdf |accessdate=11 February 2012 }}</ref> | 6.94(1){{refn|The value listed is the conventional value suitable for trade and commerce; the actual value may range from 6.938 to 6.997 depending on the isotopic composition of the sample.<ref name="atomicweights2009"/>}} || 22.98976928(2) || 39.0983(1) || 85.4678(3) || 132.9054519(2) || [223]{{refn|The element does not have any stable [[nuclide]]s, and a value in brackets indicates the [[mass number]] of the longest-lived [[isotope]] of the element.<ref name="atomicweights2007"/><ref name="atomicweights2009"/>}} |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Konfigurasi éléktron]] | &#91;[[Helium|He]]&#93; 2s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Neon|Ne]]&#93; 3s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Argon|Ar]]&#93; 4s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Krypton|Kr]]&#93; 5s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Xenon|Xe]]&#93; 6s<sup>1</sup> || &#91;[[Radon|Rn]]&#93; 7s<sup>1</sup> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Lééh dina suhu]] | 453.69&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]]<br>180.54&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]]<br>356.97&nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]] || 370.87&nbsp;K<br>97.72&nbsp;°C<br>207.9&nbsp;°F || 336.53&nbsp;K,<br>63.38&nbsp;°C,<br>146.08&nbsp;°F || 312.467&nbsp;K,<br>39.31&nbsp;°C,<br>102.76&nbsp;°F || 301.59&nbsp;K,<br>28.44&nbsp;°C,<br>83.19&nbsp;°F || ?&nbsp;300&nbsp;K,<br>?&nbsp;27&nbsp;°C,<br>?&nbsp;80&nbsp;°F{{refn|Francium's Lééh dina suhu was claimed to have been calculated to be around 27&nbsp;°C (80&nbsp;°F, 300&nbsp;K).<ref name="losalamos">{{cite web| title = Francium| publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory|date = 15 December 2003| url = http://periodic.lanl.gov/87.shtml|accessdate =19 February 2012}}</ref> However, the Lééh dina suhu is uncertain because of the element's extreme rarity and radioactivity. Thus, the estimated Ngagolak dina suhu value of 677&nbsp;°C (1250&nbsp;°F, 950&nbsp;K) is also uncertain.}} |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Ngagolak dina suhu]] | 1615&nbsp;K,<br>1342&nbsp;°C,<br>2448&nbsp;°F || 1156&nbsp;K,<br>883&nbsp;°C,<br>1621&nbsp;°F || 1032&nbsp;K,<br>759&nbsp;°C,<br>1398&nbsp;°F || 961&nbsp;K,<br>688&nbsp;°C,<br>1270&nbsp;°F || 944&nbsp;K,<br>671&nbsp;°C,<br>1240&nbsp;°F || ?&nbsp;950&nbsp;K,<br>?&nbsp;677&nbsp;°C,<br>?&nbsp;1250&nbsp;°F<ref name="apsidium-Fr">{{cite web |url=http://www.apsidium.com/elements/087.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080509155648/http://www.apsidium.com/elements/087.htm |archivedate=9 May 2008 |title=Francium |author=Klehr, Wolfram |date=21 May 2007 |work=apsidium.com |accessdate=25 April 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509155648/http://www.apsidium.com/elements/087.htm |date=9 May 2008 }}</ref> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Dénsitas]]&nbsp;(g•cm<sup>−3</sup>) | 0.534 || 0.968 || 0.89 || 1.532 || 1.93 || ? 1.87 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Panas fusi]]&nbsp;(kJ•mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 3.00 || 2.60 || 2.321 || 2.19 || 2.09 || ? 2 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Panas vaporization|Nyeupan/kaluar uap dina panas]]&nbsp;(kJ•mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 136 || 97.42 || 79.1 || 69 || 66.1 || ? 65 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Panas dina wujud]]&nbsp;na&nbsp;monatomic&nbsp;gas&nbsp;(kJ•mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 162 || 108 || 89.6 || 82.0 || 78.2 || ? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Resistivity listrik]]&nbsp;at&nbsp;298&nbsp;K&nbsp;(n[[ohm|Ω]]•[[centimeter|cm]]) | 94.7 || 48.8 || 73.9 || 131 || 208 || ? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Radius atom]]&nbsp;([[picometer|pm]]) | 152 || 186 || 227 || 248 || 265 || ? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Radius ionik]] tina M <ref><sup>+</sup> ion&nbsp;(pm) The quoted values are for the [[coordination number|tetracoordinate]] ions, except for Rb<sup>+</sup> and Cs<sup>+</sup> where they are for the hexacoordinate ion.</ref> | 76 || 102 || 138 || 152 || 167 || ? 180 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"| Kahiji [[énergi ionisasi]] &nbsp;([[kilojoule per mole|kJ•mol<sup>−1</sup>]]) | 520.2 || 495.8 || 418.8 || 403.0 || 375.7 || 392.8<ref name="andreev">{{cite journal | author = Andreev, S.V.; Letokhov, V.S.; Mishin, V.I., | title = Laser resonance photoionization spectroscopy of Rydberg levels in Fr | url = http://link.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v59/p1274 | journal = [[Physical Review Letters|Phys. Rev. Lett.]] | year = 1987 | volume = 59 | pages = 1274–76 | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1274 | pmid=10035190 | bibcode=1987PhRvL..59.1274A | issue = 12}}</ref> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[éléktron pangirut]]&nbsp;(kJ•mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 59.62 || 52.87 || 48.38 || 46.89 || 45.51 || ? 47.2<ref name=Landaualkalis>Landau A., Eliav E., Ishikawa Y. and Kaldor U., "Benchmark calculations of electron affinities of the alkali atoms sodium to eka-francium (element 119)". ''J. Chem. Phys.'' '''115''' 2389 (2001) {{doi|10.1063/1.1386413}}.</ref> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[‘’Enthalpy of dissociation’’]]&nbsp;of&nbsp;M<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;(kJ•mol<sup>−1</sup>) | 106.5 || 73.6 || 57.3 || 45.6 || 44.77 || ? 42.1<ref name=Liddle>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Cameron |last2=Mountford |first2=Philip |last3=Stasch |first3=Andreas |last4=Blake |first4=Matthew P. |editor-last=Liddle |editor-first=Stephen T. |title=Molecular Metal-Metal Bonds: Compounds, Synthesis, Properties |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |date=22 June 2015 |pages=23–24 |chapter=s-block Metal-Metal Bonds |isbn=9783527335411}}</ref> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|Pauling [[Éléktronégativitas]] | 0.98 || 0.93 || 0.82 || 0.82 || 0.79 || ? 0.7{{refn|[[Linus Pauling]] estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0.7 on the [[Pauling scale]], the same as caesium;<ref>{{cite book| last = Pauling| first = Linus| title = The Nature of the Chemical Bond| url = https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical0000paul_3ed|edition = Third| authorlink = Linus Pauling| publisher = Cornell University Press| year = 1960| isbn = 978-0-8014-0333-0| page = [https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical0000paul_3ed/page/93 93]}}</ref> the value for caesium has since been refined to 0.79, although there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Allred, A. L. |year= 1961 |journal= J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem.|volume= 17 |issue= 3–4 |pages= 215–221 |title= Electronegativity values from thermochemical data |doi= 10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5}}</ref> Francium has a slightly higher ionization energy than caesium,<ref name="andreev"/> 392.811(4)&nbsp;kJ/mol as opposed to 375.7041(2)&nbsp;kJ/mol for caesium, as would be expected from [[Relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]], and this would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two. }} |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Poténsial éléktroda baku ]] (''E''°(M<sup>+</sup>→M<sup>0</sup>); [[volt|V]]) | −3.0405 || −2.714 || −2.925 || −2.925 || −2.923 || ? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Cobaan ku kelir seuneu]] <br/>Poko émisi / panjang gelombang anu diserep ;([[nanometer|nm]]) | Layung<br>670.8 || Konéng<br>589.2 || Ganaria<br>766.5 || [[Beureum-Ganaria]]<br>780.0 || Biru<br>455.5 || ? |} [[File:Cesium water.theora.ogv|thumb|right|Sesium ngabeledug dina mangsa keuna cai sanajan dina suhu biasa]] [[File:Hydrogen discharge tube.jpg|thumb|Gas hidrogén caang dina tabung]] [[File:Thallium pieces in ampoule.jpg|thumb|right|Potongan thallium murni dina jero gelas]] '''Logam''' alkali mibanda sipat écés tur jéntré nyaéta hérang, hipu, kacida réaktif dina suhu jeung tekenan anu normal/biasa ogé, jeung gampang kaleungitan [[éléktron]] anu pangluarna pikeun ngawujudkeun ''kation'' jeung muatan +1. Kulantara sipatna anu [[hipu]] alkali bisa diteukteuk maké péso kalawan gampang, niténan saluareuna anu hérang ngan gancang rumeuk ku lantaran pangaruh [[oksidasi]] hawa, atmosfir jeung oksigén anu beueus/lembab. Lantaran sipatna anu kacida réaktip, alkali kudu diteundeun di jeroeun minyak pikeun nyingkahan paantel jeung hawa. Alkali kapanggih di alami dina jeroeun uyah teu pernah kapanggih di alam kalawan bébas. Dina ''IUPAC'' tata ngaran/nomenklatur moderen, [[logam]] alkali diwangun tina 1 unsur golongan, [catatan 3] kaasup [[hidrogen]] (H), anu mangrupa nominal kumpulan 1 Unsur tapi biasana alkali teu dianggap mangrupa logam ku sabab jarang alkali némbongkeun perwatek anu sarua jeung logam. sakabéh logam alkali ''bereaksi'' jeung cai, di mana logam alkali anu leuwih beurat bakal beréaksi leuwih gancang ti batan anu leuwih hampang. Sakabéh logam alkali anu kapanggih di alam: Dumasar kana kaayaanana, sodium anu paling loba pisan, dituturkeun ku [[kalium]], [[litium]], [[rubidium]], [[sesium]], sarta pamustunganana [[francium]], nu jarang dipaké ku sabab radioaktivitas pohara luhur. Aya anu nyobaan nyieun sintésis ununennium (uue), bisawaé pikeun jadi anggota grup anu saterusna, tapi henteu pernah hasil, kabéh pinaggih jeung kagagalan. Sanajan kitu, bisa jadi ununennium lain logam alkali sabab pangaruh ''relativistic'', dipiharep boga pangaruh utama dina sipat unsur kimia anu kacida beurat; sanajan nu kabukti jadi logam alkali, disawang geus sababaraha béda dina sipat fisik jeung kimia ''homologues'' leuwih hampang. Logam alkali geus loba di [[aplikasi]]keun. Dua aplikasi paling kawentar murni taya lian unsur [[sesium]] jeung [[rubidium]] nyaéta anu dimangpaatkeun dina [[jam]] [[atom]], jam atom sesium nyaéta ngagambarkeun waktu paling panceg. Hiji aplikasi sanyawa [[sodium]] dimangpaatkeun dina lampu sodium-uap, cahyana emit /sumirat efisién pisan. ==Fisik jeung kimia== Logam alkali ngébréhkeun perwatek [[fisik]] jeung [[kimia]] anu geus jéntré, ''konfigurasi'' [[éléktron]] ''valénsi'' ns1 bisa gampang dititénan, nu ngahasilkeun [[logam]] ''Association'' Lemah. Ku alatan éta, sakabéh [[logam]] alkali hipu jeung mibanda kapadetan anu hampang, ngalémbéréh Jeung gancang ngagolak, Kitu ogé panas ''sublimation'', ''évaporasi'', jeung ''disosiasi'' struktur [[awak]] maranéhna museur-kabéh ''crystallized'', sarta mibanda kelir seuneu luareun éléktron s <ref name="atomicweights2009"/> Konfigurasi ns1 ogé ngahasilkeun [[logam]] alkali mibanda [[atom]] sarta jari-jari [[ion]] badag pisan, kitu ogé jeung ''konduktivitas'' [[listrik]] luhur :. Dina 75 bahan kimia maranéhna didominasi ku leungitna éléktron ''single'' ''valénsi'' maranéhanana pikeun ngabentuk ''gatra'' ''oksidasi'', sabab dinamangsa ngaionan puseur éléktron Jeung énergi ionisasi pisan <ref name="CODATA reference">{{cite web|url=http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Info/Constants/definitions.html|title=Standard Uncertainty and Relative Standard Uncertainty|work=[[CODATA]] reference|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|accessdate=26 September 2011}}</ref> lolobana bahan kimia geus ditalungtik ngan pikeun kahiji grup jeung lima anggota. ==Uyah alkali== #[[Natrium]] [[hidroksida]] - Mindeng disebut " soda caustic " #[[Kalium]] [[hidroksida]] - ilahar disebut " potash caustic " #[[Lye]] - istilah generik nyebut dua ngaran di luhur atawa ogé campuranna #[[Kalsium]] [[hidroksida]] - leyuran jenuh anu katelah " limewater " #[[Magnésium hidroksida]] - alkali atipikal sabab henteu leyur kabéh dina cai Uyah dapur, atawa [[natrium]] [[klorida]], geus dipaké saprak jaman baheula kénéh. Natrium jeung kalium ogé unsur penting, boga peran biologis utama salaku éléktrolit, jeung sanajan logam alkali lianna teu penting, maranéhanana ogé boga rupa-rupa pangaruh dina awak, boh logam nguntungkeun anapon ngarugikeun. ==Tutumbu kaluar== *[http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/properties.html Atom jeung pasipatanna] *[http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/AlkaliBangs/index.html Alkali Metal Bangs Conto réaksi logam alkali jeung cai] {{Pondok}} ==Dicutat tina== [[Kategori:Kimia]] ovtzwtc4mp3g659aiptu01ml6neyq67 0 48266 711839 708609 2026-08-07T05:37:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Shishapangma''',<ref>Potterfield, Peter; Viesturs, Ed; Breashears, David (2009). ''Himalayan Quest: Ed Viesturs Summits All Fourteen 8,000-Meter Giants''. National Geographic. p.137 ISBN 1-4262-0485-X.</ref><ref>Spelled "Shisha Pangma" in Messner, Reinhold (1999). ''All 14 eight-thousanders''. Mountaineers Books. p.105. ISBN 0-89886-660-X.</ref> disebut ogé '''Gosainthān''', nyaéta gunung pangluhurna ka-14 di dunya kalawan jangkungna 8.027 méter di luhureun laut. {{Tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} ==Name== Géologist [[Toni Hagen]] explained the name as méaning a "grassy plain" or "meadow" (''pangma'') above a "comb" or a "range" (''shisha'' or ''chisa'') in the local [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]] dialect, thereby signifying the "crest above the grassy plains".<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Dyhrenfurth | first1=Günther. O. | last2=Dyhrenfurth | first2=Norman | title=Shisha Pangma | journal=Mountain | publisher=[[Youth Hostels Association (England & Wales)]] | issue=53–64 | year=1977 | page=47 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Baume | first = Louis | title = Sivalaya: explorations of the 8000-metre peaks of the Himalaya | url = https://archive.org/details/sivalayaexplorat0000baum | publisher = The Mountaineers | year = 1979 | location = Seattle | pages = [https://archive.org/details/sivalayaexplorat0000baum/page/131 131]–132 | isbn = 0-916890-71-6 }}</ref> On the other hand, Tibetologist Guntram Hazod records a local story that explains the mountain's name in terms of its literal méaning in the [[Standard Tibetan]] language: ''shisha'', which méans "meat of an animal that died of natural causes" and ''sbangma'' which méans "malt dregs left over from brewing beer". According to the story, one yéar a héavy snowfall killed most of the animals at pasture. All that the péople living néar the mountain had to éat was the méat of the déad animals and the malt dregs left over from brewing beer, and so the mountain was named Shisha Pangma (''shisha sbangma''), signifiying "meat of dead animals and malty dregs".<ref>{{Cite book | last=Hazod | first=Guntram | chapter=bKra shis 'od 'bar. On the History of the Religious Protector of the Bo dong pa | page=[https://archive.org/details/tibetanmountaind0006inte/page/65 65] | editor-last=Blondeau | editor-first=Anne-Marie | title=Tibetan mountain deities, their cults and representations: papers presented at a panel of the 7th seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Graz, 1995 | url=https://archive.org/details/tibetanmountaind0006inte | publisher=Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften | year=1998 | isbn=978-3-7001-2748-2 }}</ref> The [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] name of the mountain, ''Gosainthan'', méans "place of the saint" or "Abode of God".<ref name="Baume130">Baume, 1979, op. cit. pp 130-134</ref> Still, its most common name is Shishapangma. ==Geography== Shishapangma is located in south-central [[Tibet]], five kilometres from the border with [[Nepal]]. It is the only eight-thousander entirely within Chinese territory. It is also the highest péak in the [[Jugal Himal]] which is contiguous with and often considered part of [[Langtang]] Himal.<ref name=aaj_1985/> The Jugal/Langtang Himal straddles the Tibet/Nepal border. Since Shishapangma is on the dry north side of the Himalayan crest and further from the lower terrain of Nepal, it has less dramatic vertical relief than most major Himalayan péaks. Shishapangma has a subsidiary péak higher than 8000 m: Central-Péak at 8008 m.<ref name="8000ers2" /> == Ascents and attempts == Up to 2014, [[List of deaths on eight-thousanders#Shishapangma|27 people have died]] climbing Shishapangma, including [[Alex Lowe]] and Dave Bridges (both US) in 1999, and veteran Portuguese climber Bruno Carvalho. Nevertheless, Shishapangma is one of the "easier" eight-thousanders to climb. The standard route ascends via the northwest face and northéast ridge and face ("Northern Route"), and boasts relatively éasy access, with vehicle travel possible to base camp at {{convert|5000|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}. Routes on the steeper southwest face are more technically demanding and involve {{convert|2200|m|ft|-1}} of ascent on a 50-degree slope. ===First ascent=== Shishapangma was first climbed via the Northern Route on 2 May 1964 by a [[China|Chinese]] expedition led by Xǔ Jìng 许竞. In addition to Xǔ Jìng, the summit téam consisted of Zhāng Jùnyán 张俊岩, [[Wang Fuzhou]] (Wáng Fùzhōu 王富洲), Wū Zōngyué 邬宗岳, Chén Sān 陈三, Soinam Dorjê (Suǒnán Duōjí 索南多吉), Chéng Tiānliàng 程天亮, Migmar Zhaxi (Mǐmǎ Zháxī 米马扎西), Dorjê (Duōjí 多吉) and Yún Dēng 云登.<ref name="Baume130"/> === Later ascents and attempts === * 1980 7 May, "Northern Route", (2nd ascent) by Michl Dacher, Wolfgang Schaffert, Gunter Sturm and Fritz Zintl; Sigi Hupfauer and Manfred Sturm (12 May); as part of a German expedition.<ref name="ScottMacIntyre">Scott &amp; MacIntyre <!-- need page # --></ref> * 1980: 13 October, "Northern Route", (3rd ascent) by Ewald Putz and Egon Obojes, as part of an Austrian expedition.<ref name="SM303-306">Scott & Macintyre 2000, op. cit., pp 303-306</ref> * 1981: 30 April, "Northern Route", (4th ascent) by [[Junko Tabei]], Rinzing Phinzo and Gyalbu Jiabu, as part of a Japanese women's expedition.<ref name="SM303-306"/> * 1981: 28 May, "Northern Route", (5th ascent) by [[Reinhold Messner]] and Friedl Mutschlechner, as part of an Austrian expedition.<ref name="SM303-306"/> * 1982: 28 May, "British Route", southwest face, also known as "Right-hand couloir" ([[alpine style]]), FA by [[Doug Scott]], [[Alex Macintyre]] and [[Roger Baxter-Jones]] (all UK). Route follows the right-hand couloir on the southwest face.<ref name="ScottMacIntyre"/> * 1987: 18 September,<ref name=8000ers>[http://www.8000ers.com/cms/en/download.html?func=download&id=164&chk=ae20db26f4ecf3c3bd876bdaa75c7c55&no_html=1 www.8000ers.com] Ascents - Shisha Pangma</ref><ref name=Sale-Cleare>R. Sale, J. Cleare: ''On top of the world. Climbing the world's 14 highest mountains'', lists of ascents, HarperCollins Publ., 2000, page 221</ref><ref name=him-info1>[http://www.himalaya-info.org/shisha_geschichte.htm himalaya-info.org] List of significant ascents of Shisha Pangma,(with further links to pdf files with details)</ref> Elsa Ávila and [[Carlos Carsolio]] become the first [[Mexicans]] to summit Shishapangma. For Ávila, her first eight-thousander and for Carsolio, his second, via the northern face/ridge to the central summit, then along the arete to the main summit, with [[Wanda Rutkiewicz]], Ramiro Navarrete, and Ryszard Warecki.<ref name="SM303-306"/><ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/> * 1987: 18 September, west ridge, FA by [[Jerzy Kukuczka]] and [[Artur Hajzer]] (both Poland). A new road along the ridge west, by the western summit (first entry) and continue through by the middle summit on the main summit. Kukuczka skied down from néar the summit. This was his last of fourteen eight-thousanders.<ref name="SM303-306"/><ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/><ref name=him-info1/> * 1987: 19 September, central couloir, north face, FA by Alan Hinkes (UK) and Steve Untch (US).<ref name="SM303-306"/><ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/><ref name=him-info1/> * 1989: 19 October, Central buttress, southwest face, FA by Andrej Stremfelj and Pavle Kozjek.<ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/><ref name=him-info1/><ref name=Korea>[http://www.k2news.com/sp2002kor.htm "Korean Highway Corporation 2002 Shishapangma Expedition"], k2news.com, 17 May 2002</ref> * 1990: Left-hand couloir, southwest face (not réaching the main summit<ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/>), [[Wojciech Kurtyka]] (Poland), FA by [[Erhard Loretan]] (Switzerland) and [[Jean Troillet]] (Switzerland)<ref name=him-info1/><ref name=evnews>[http://www.everestnews.com/sproute.htm " Korean Alpinists Climb New Route on SW Face of Shishapangma"], everestnews.com.</ref> * 1993: Far-right couloir, southwest face, FA solo by [[Krzysztof Wielicki]] (Poland).<ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/><ref name=him-info1/><ref name=evnews/> * 1994: Left-hand couloir, southwest face (not réaching the main summit<ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/>), Erik Decamp (France), [[Catherine Destivelle]] (France). * 1999: 28 September, Edmond Joyeusaz (Italy) first ski descent from central summit. * 2002: 5 May, "Korean Route" on southwest face, FA by Park Jun Hun and Kang Yéon Ryoung (both South Koréa).<ref name=Korea/> * 2002 26 October: Tomaž Humar(Slovenia), Maxut Zhumayev, Denis Urubko, Alexey Raspopov and Vassily Pivtsov got to the summit. Tomaž Humar climbed last 200 m (80°/50–60°, 200 m) of ascent and descent (65–75°, 700 m) * 2004: 11 December, [[Jean-Christophe Lafaille]] (France) provokes controversy when he climbs the "British Route" on the southwest face, solo, and claims a winter ascent. Since this was not calendar winter, he changes his claim to an ascent "in winter conditions."<ref name="alpinist_11"/> * 2005: 14 January, first (calendar) winter ascent by [[Piotr Morawski]] (Poland) and [[Simone Moro]] (Italy).<ref name=8000ers/> * 2011: 16–17 April, [[Ueli Steck]] (Switzerland) solos the southwest face in 10.5 hours, léaving base camp (5,306m) at 10:30 pm on 16 April and returning to base camp 20 hours later.<ref name=climbing_2011/><ref name=himspeed_2011/> * 2014: September 24, [[Sebastian Haag]] died together with the Italian mountaineer Andréa Zambaldi in an avalanche accident.<ref name=double8/> He was 35.<ref name=bild/> ==Bibliography== * ''A Photographic record of the Mount Shisha Pangma Scientific Expedition''. Science Press Peking 1966. * {{cite book | last1 = Scott | first1 = Doug | authorlink = | first2 = Alex | last2 = MacIntyre | title = Shisha Pangma: The Alpine Style First Ascent of the South-West Face | url = https://archive.org/details/shishapangmaalpi0000scot | publisher = The Mountaineers Books | date = 2000 | origyear = 1984 | location = Seattle| isbn = 0-89886-723-1 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Venables | first1 = Stephen | authorlink = | first2 = Andy | last2 = Fanshawe | title = Himalaya Alpine-Style: The Most Challenging Routes on the Highest Peaks | publisher = Mountaineers Books | year = 1996 | location = Seattle| pages = | isbn = 0-89886-456-9 }} * Sale, Richard, Cléare, John: ''On Top of the World (Climbing the World's 14 Highest Mountains)'', lists of ascents, HarperCollins Publ., 2000, ISBN 978-0-00-220176-6. <!--Hardcover edition ''Climbing the World's 14 Highest Mountains: The History of the 8,000-Meter Peaks''--> ==Notes and references== {{reflist|3|refs= <ref name="peakbagger"> {{cite peakbagger|pid=10631|name=Shishapangma|accessdate=2014-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="dili360"> {{cite web | url = http://www.dili360.com/cng/article/p5350c3d6cd76f83.htm | title = 青藏高原的伟大崛起 | date = October 2009 | publisher = China National Geographic | accessdate = 2014-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="8000ers2"> {{cite web | url = http://www.8000ers.com/cms/en/shisha-pangma-general-info-198.html | title = Shisha Pangma | date = 13 February 2008 | publisher = 8000ers.com | accessdate = 2014-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="summitpost"> {{cite web | url = http://www.summitpost.org/shisha-pangma/150807 | title = Shisha Pangma | date = Mar 7, 2007 | publisher = summitpost.org | accessdate = 2014-08-24}}</ref> <ref name=aaj_1985> {{Cite journal | author = Carter, H. Adams | title = Classification of the Himalaya | journal = American Alpine Journal | volume = 27 | issue = 59 | year = 1985 | pages = 122–3 | publisher = American Alpine Club | url = http://c498469.r69.cf2.rackcdn.com/1985/109_carter_himalaya_aaj1985.pdf | accessdate = 2011-05-01}}</ref> <ref name="alpinist_11"> {{cite web | url = http://www.alpinist.com/doc/ALP11/climbing-note-lafaille-2 | title = Shishapangma, Southwest Face | date = 1 June 2005 | author = Lafaille, Jean-Christophe | publisher = Alpinist Magazine| accessdate = 2014-02-02}}</ref> <ref name=bild> {{cite web | url = http://www.bild.de/news/ausland/himalaya/zwei-tote-bei-lawine-37902702.bild.html | title = Tragödie am Gipfel des Shisha Pangma | language = German | date = September 25, 2014 | publisher = bilde.de | accessdate = 2014-09-27}}</ref> <ref name=climbing_2011>{{cite web | url = http://www.climbing.com/news/hotflashes/steck_solos_shishapangma_in_105_hours/ | title = Steck Solos Shishapangma in 10.5 Hours | date = 18 April 2011 | publisher = climbing.com | accessdate = 2014-02-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723101129/http://www.climbing.com/news/hotflashes/steck_solos_shishapangma_in_105_hours/ |date=2012-07-23 }}</ref> <ref name=double8> {{cite web | url = http://expedition-double8.dynafit.com/ | title = Avalanche accident at Shisha Pangma | date = September 25, 2014 | publisher = Double 8 | accessdate = 2014-09-27}}</ref> <ref name=himspeed_2011>{{cite web | url = http://www.himalayaspeed.com/2011/04/news-flash-ueli-solos-shisha-pangma-in-10-5-hours/ | title = News Flash: Ueli Solos Shisha Pangma in 10.5 Hours | date = 19 April 2011 | publisher = himalayaspeed.com | accessdate = 2014-02-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220191303/http://www.himalayaspeed.com/2011/04/news-flash-ueli-solos-shisha-pangma-in-10-5-hours/ |date=2014-02-20 }}</ref> }} ==External links== {{Commons category}} *[http://www.himlaya-info.org/Map%20langtang_shisha_pangma.htm Shisha Pangma main page on Himalaya-Info.org]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *[http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150807/shisha-pangma.html Shisha Pangma description on Summitpost] *[http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=1004 Shisha Pangma on Peakware] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102204247/http://peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=1004 |date=2010-01-02 }} <!--*[http://www.accsask.ca/expeditions/shish.htm Shishapangma expedition report with photos] (link inactive on October 2013)--> *[http://www.8000ers.com/cms/download.html?func=startdown&id=164 Shisha Pangma on www.8000ers.com], the complete list of ascent up to 2009 by Eberhard Jurgalski (PDF) *[http://www.everestnews.com/sproute.htm Shisha Pangma on everestnews.com], photodiagram of the routes on the SW face *[http://www.himalaya-info.org/shisha_pangma_panorama.htm himalaya-info.org panoramas from the slopes and peak of Shisha Pangma with exact explanations], images 6th to 13th are from very top. The topography of variations to normal route from northern side is explained by the two last photographs (no. 13 i 14), including the view from main summit to the other two. {{de icon}} ohajv8fc0apy5f6kkr08jbtm6l7jc1v 0 48909 711720 675144 2026-08-07T02:31:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711720 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Galinggem | image = Achiote pj.JPG | image_caption = Buah Galinggem | Karajaan = [[Plantae]] | unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] | unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] | unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] | ordo = [[Malvales]] | kulawarga = [[Bixaceae]] | genus = ''[[Bixa]]'' | species = '''''B. orellana''''' | binomial = ''Bixa orellana'' | binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |synonyms_ref=<ref>[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/synonomy.do?name_id=22274 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]</ref> |synonyms=*''Bixa tinctaria'' <small>Salisb.</small> *''Orellana orellana'' <small>(L.) Kuntze</small> *''Bixa orleana'' <small>Noronha</small> *''Bixa americana'' <small>Poir.</small> *''Bixa purpurea'' <small>Sweet</small> *''Bixa odorata'' <small>Ruiz & Pav. ex G.Don</small> *''Bixa acuminata'' <small>Bojer</small> *''Orellana americana'' (<small>Poir.) Kuntze</small> *''Bixa upatensis'' <small>Ram.Goyena</small> *''Bixa katangensis'' <small>Delpierre</small> }} '''Galinggem''' ('''''Bixa orellana''''') nyaéta hiji tangkal anu kawilang leutik (ngarungkun) jangkungna kurang leuwih 2-8 [[Méter]], asal muasalna ti wewengkon tropis [[Amérika]] [[Kalér]], Tengah jeung [[kidul]]. Sikina diolah dimangpaatkeun nyampuran bahan-bahan [[bungbu]] masak, bahan nyieun [[kelir]] kayaning kelir pakéan, [[kosmétik]], utamana dimangpaatkeun pikeun [[gincu]], ku lantaran ieu pisan tangkal galinggem katelah ogé tangkal gincu. Disababaraha [[daérah]] galinggem bisa kapanggih sanajan béda ngaran, Urang bugis nyebut [[tangkal]] galinggem ku sebutan bunga parada, Urang [[Malaysia|Melayu]] nyebutna kunyit [[jawa]], taluka katelah di [[Maluku|Ambon]], kesumba sebutan urang (Minangkabau), jeung sumba keling katelah di (Jawa), urang [[Inggris]] ''rocouyer'' ==Mangpaat galinggem== Tangkal galinggem mibanda sabaraha kandungan kimia anu bisa dimangpaatkeun umpamana dina bagéan tangkal jeung daunna aya kandungan sanyawa ''tanin'', [[kalsium]] ''oksalat'', ''saponin'', [[lemak]]. [[Akar]] jeung sikina ngandung sanyawa [[kimia]] anu bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun bahan kelir nyaéta ''biksin'', ''norbiksin'', ''orelin'', jeung zat samak ogé [[damar]]. Tangkal galinggem bisa ogé dimangpaatkeun pikeun ubar nyeuri beuteung, [[ubar]] rieut, jeung ubar [[raheut]]. [[Daun]] galinggem ogé mibanda sanyawa kimia di antarana ''flavonoid'', ''polifenol'' jeung [[minyak]] ''atsiri'', Sedengkeun palebah sikina mibanda hiji [[zat]] kelirna [[beureum]]. Di Indonésia hususna, mindeng dimangpaatkeun pikeun gincu (lipstick), mulas [[kuku]] bisa ogé keur mulas [[buuk]]. Sagigireun dimangpaatkeun pikeun [[ubar]], kosmetik, ogé dipaké ngawarnaan kadaharan olahan saperti [[mantéga]], [[kéju]] katut bahan ''tékstil'' Di [[Amerika]] tengah jeung kalér. Tangkal galinggem dipaké bahan bungbu masakan anu kelirna kayas nepika beurem dina olahan masakan sapopoé kayaning [[borondong]] [[jagong]], [[sosis]], kuéh jeung sajabana.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Levy |first=Luis W. |last2=Rivadeneira |first2=Diana M. |editor1-last=Lauro |editor1-first=Gabriel J. |editor2-last=Francis |editor2-first=F. Jack |year=2000 |title= Natural Food Colorants Science and Technology |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalfoodcolor0000unse_v5b7 |series=IFT Basic Symposium Series |location= New York |publisher=Marcel Dekker |isbn=0-8247-0421-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/naturalfoodcolor0000unse_v5b7/page/115 115] |chapter=Annatto}}</ref> ==Tempat hirup jeung asal muasal== [[File:Bixa.jpg|thumb|Kembang galinggem]] [[File:Bixa orellana fruit roucou kourou 2.jpg|thumb|right|thumb|Buah galinggem geus [[kolot]], sikina beureum]] Tangkal galinggem atawa ''Bixa orellana'' ganpang pisan ngarekahan, ku jalan melakeun sikina, ieu pepelakan jadi kalawan subur ditempat anu mibanda cukup cahaya panon poé, ulah nepi ka kahieuman, taneuhna anu subur tur cukup mibanda cai, tangkal Galinggem ogé bisa leuwih subur utamana dipelak dina hawa anu jemlek (lembab).<ref>Lord, Tony (2003) Flora : The Gardener's Bible : More than 20,000 garden plants from around the world. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-36435-5</ref> Tayalian urang Apanyol dina abad ka-17 mimiti ngawanohkeun ngadagangkeun hasil siki buah galinggem ka nagara Amérika [[kalér]], [[Amerika]] Tengah, [[Karibia]], [[Afrika]], katut nagara [[India]] jeung [[Sri Lanka]], contona nagara [[Brasil]] kaasup kana nagara anu mikabutuh kana hasil Siki buah galinggem. Dumasar data anu aya teu kurang 10.000 ton siki galinggem dihasilkeun ti sakuliah dunya, 7.000 ton di antarana di dagangkeun dipasar internasional. Nagara [[peru]] mangrupa nagara pang lobana ka dua ngahasilkeun ieu siki, teu kurang ti 4.000 ton sahandapeun Brasil anu ngahasilkeun kurang leuwih kana 5.000 ton. Kenya.<ref>{{cite web |first= P.C.M. |last= Jansen |editor-last= Jansen |editor-first= P.C.M. |editor2-last= Cardon |editor2-first= D. |title= Bixa orellana L. |work= PROTA 3: Dyes and tannins/Colorants et tanins. |publisher= PROTA |date= 2005 |url= http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Bixa%20orellana_En.htm |accessdate= 5 Oct 2014 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081120191458/http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Bixa%20orellana_En.htm |archivedate= 20 Nov 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120191458/http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Bixa%20orellana_En.htm |date=20 November 2008 }}</ref> ==Kabutuhan industri== [[File:Colby Cheese.jpg|thumb|Kéju maké Kelir tina siki galinggem]] [[File:Urucum virgim oil.JPG|thumb|Minyak ''Bixa orellana'' (galinggem)]] Saméméhna révolusi industri ngahasilkeun kelir [[sintétik]], Tangkal galinggem ieu dipelak dina jumlah anu loba pikeun tujuan [[komérsial]] hasilna dijieun [[celep]] atawa ''pigmen'', ''diekstraksi'' ku jalan ngagodong ieu siki, hasilna dipaké ngeliran [[kéju]], [[Mantéga|margarin]], [[coklat]], [[kaén]] jeung [[cét]] . [[siki]] galinggem mibanda loba ''tocotrienol'', ''beta - karoten'', [[minyak]] ''esensial'', [[lemak]], [[flavonoid]] jeung [[vitamin C]] .<ref>{{cite web |last1= ngela de Almeida Meireles |first1= Maria |first2= Carolina |last2= Lima Cavalcante de Albuquerque |title= Processo otimizado para obtenção de óleo rico em antioxidantes de urucum |work= Inova |publisher= Unicamp |url= http://www.inova.unicamp.br/sici/visoes/ajax/ax_pdf_divulgacao.php?token=QyjKaJjh |format= PDF |accessdate= 2 Jun 2015 |language= pt }}</ref> sakabéh kabutuhan siki galinggemna didatangkeun ti kebon-kebon sabudeureun [[Amerika|Amerika Latin]], [[Afrika]], jeung [[Asia]]. ==Bungbu masak== Tayalian Annatto (/ənætoʊ /atawa/ ənɑːtoʊ /) nyaéta salah sahiji bungbu jeung kelir olahan oranye atawa beureum anu asalna tina [[siki]] galinggem (Bixa orellana). Mindeng dipaké pikeun nyieun kelir [[konéng]], [[beureum]] atawa [[oranye]] pikeun kadaharan olahan. sakapeung ogé dipaké pikeun panyeungit kana masakan olahan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/annatto.html |title=Encyclopedia of Spices |publisher=TheEpicentre.com |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716234316/http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/annatto.html |archivedate=16 July 2011 |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716234316/http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/annatto.html |date=16 July 2011 }}</ref> Siki buah galinggem disababaraha tempat dimangpaatkeu pikeun campuran bungbu masak jeung rempah-rempah séjéna, umpamana waé di [[Amérika |Amérika Latin]], [[Jamaika]], [[Chamorro orang|Chamorro]], jeung [[masakan Filipina|Filipina]] ku jalan di rieus atawa ditutu nepika bubuk tuluy dicampurkeun jeung [[bungbu]] séjéna. Di[[Brasil]], siki meunang ngarieus ieu disebutna ''colorau'' atawa ''colorífico'' anu mana engkéna dicampurkeun jeung kacang [[suuk]] atawa jagong. di [[Mexico]] ieu bungbu katelah [[recado rojo]] ' ' atawa" achiote paste" maké campuran rempah-rempah séjéna. Di Spanyol nelahna ''sazón'' ([[bungbu]] dina basa Spanyol ) ilaharna dipaké dina [[masakan Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] tayalian masakan [[daging]] atawa [[lauk]]. Sazón dijieun tina siki Galinggem, [[jinten]], siki katuncar, uyah, jeung tipung bawang bodas<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/V1-367.html |title=New Crops from Brazil |publisher= Purdue University |year= 1990 |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> ==Ubar tradisional== Siki galinggem mibanda ''tocotrienol'', nyaéta anu susunan sanyawana mangpaatna pikeun ''antioksidan'' [[lemak]] larut, [[vitamin]] E. Numutkeun panalungtikan gizi éta bisa dimangpaatkeu pikeun ''antiangiogenic'' .<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2011.07.004 |title=Health benefits of vitamin E in grains, cereals and green vegetables |year=2011 |last1=Miyazawa |first1=Teruo |last2=Nakagawa |first2=Kiyotaka |last3=Sookwong |first3=Phumon |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=651}}</ref> [lain sumber data utama] henteu jiga [[kalapa]] sawit atawa [[paré]], teu mibanda ''tokoferol'', ku alatan ieu mangrupa sumber alami sanyawa ''tocotrienol'' kalawqan ''aktivitas'' [[antioksidan]] ''in vitro'' . Di India tangkal galinggem kacatet kana salah sahiji tangkal anu dimangpaatkeun pikeun [[ubar]] tradisional<ref>{{cite book |last= Khare |first= C.P. |title= Indian Medicinal Plants |publisher= Springer Science+Business Media, LLC |date= 2007 |location= New York |url= http://www.springer.com/medicine/complementary+%26+alternative+medicine/book/978-0-387-70637-5 |isbn= 978-0-387-70638-2 }} cited in {{cite journal |last1= Wanga |first1= Limei |last2= Waltenbergerb |first2= Birgit |last3= Pferschy-Wenzigc |first3= Eva-Maria |last4= Blunderc |first4= Martina |last5= Liuc |first5= Xin |last6= Malainera |first6= Clemens |last7= Blazevica |first7= Tina |last8= Schwaigerb |first8= Stefan |last9= Rollingerb |first9= Judith M. |last10= Heissa |first10= Elke H. |last11= Schusterd |first11= Daniela |last12= Koppa |first12= Brigitte |last13= Bauerc |first13= Rudolf |last14= Stuppnerb |first14= Hermann |last15= Dirscha |first15= Verena M. |last16= Atanasova |first16= Atanas G. |display-authors=3 |title= Natural product agonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ): a review |journal= Biochemical Pharmacology |publisher= Elsevier |date= 30 July 2014 |issn= 0006-2952 |url= http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006295214004249# |pmid= 25083916 |doi=10.1016/j.bcp.2014.07.018 |accessdate= 9 Aug 2014 |pmc=4212005 |volume=92 |pages=73–89}}</ref> sok sanajan kitu, panalungtikan ku jalan medis ngeunaan hasit galinggem tacan pernah aya catetanna. ==Gallery== <gallery> File:Bixa orellana with fruits in Hyderabad, AP W IMG 1456.jpg|Tangkal Galinggem meuhpeuy buah di Hyderabad, India File:Bixa orellana fruit in Hyderabad, AP W IMG 1457.jpg|Buah galinggem dina cupatna Image:Urucum (bixa orellana) seeds.jpg|Siki Buah Galinggem File:General Emilio Aguinaldo, Bixa orellana jf9216 18.jpg|Pentil Buah Galinggem [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:General_Emilio_Aguinaldo,_Cavite General Emilio Aguinaldo, Cavite] File:General Emilio Aguinaldo, Bixa orellana jf9216 13.jpg|Kembang jeung buah galinggem </gallery> ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|30em}} {{Commons category|Bixa orellana}} ==Baca Ogé== * Van Wyk, Ben-Erik (2005). ''Food Plants of the World''. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Inc. ISBN 0-88192-743-0 {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Bungbuahan]] [[Kategori:Malvales]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:tutuwuhan tropis]] 3qycee82sqmo8ai3jibu7kx8608x315 0 49861 711789 703101 2026-08-07T04:24:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Jalma|name=Tan Malaka|image=TanMalaka DariPendjara ed3.jpg|caption=Tan Malaka di autobiografinya|birth_date={{birth date|1897|6|2|df=y}}|birth_place={{negara|Holland}} Nagari Pandam Gadang, [[Suliki Gunung Mas, Lima Puluh Kota|Suliki]], [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Hindia Belanda]]|death_date={{death date and age|1949|2|21|1897|6|2|df=y}}|death_place={{negara|Indonesia}} [[Kediri]], [[Jawa Timur]]|nationality={{negara|Indonesia}} [[Indonesia]]|other_names=|occupation=Guru dan Pendiri Partai Musyawarah Rakyat Banyak (Murba)|known_for=[[Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia]]|religion=[[Islam]]|parents=Rasad Caniago (ayah)<br/>Sinah Simabur (ibu)}} '''Tan Malaka''' atawa '''Ibrahim gelar Datuk Sutan Malaka''' babar di Nagari Pandam Gadang, Suliki, Lima Puluh Kota, Sumatera Barat, 2 Juni 1897 - pupus di desa Selopanggung, Kediri, Jawa, Timur, 21 Februari 1949 pada umur 51 taun. Pamingpin Partai Komunis Indonésia ,<ref name="LOC">{{Cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/14.htm|title=THE GROWTH OF NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|accessdate=7 Agustus 2012}}</ref> ogé pangadeg Murba Partéi ,<ref>[http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/2008/08/11/LU/mbm.20080811.LU127973.id.html "Warisan Tan Malaka"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008052026/http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/2008/08/11/LU/mbm.20080811.LU127973.id.html |date=2009-10-08 }} , Tempo Interactive, August 11, 2008</ref> sarta mangrupa salah sahiji Pahlawan Nasional Indonésia .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kemsos.go.id/modules.php?name=Pahlawan&opsi=mulai-1|title=Daftar Nama Pahlawan Nasional Republik Indonesia (1)|website=Awards of the Republic of Indonesia|publisher=Sekretariat Negara|language=Indonesia|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/67WW7R2g9|archivedate=9 Mei 2012|accessdate=9 Mei 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021171506/http://www.kemsos.go.id/modules.php?name=Pahlawan&opsi=mulai-1 |date=2016-10-21 }}</ref> == Kahirupan == [[Gambar:Rumah_Kelahiran_Tan_Malaka.jpg|jmpl|275x275px| home kalahiran Tan Malaka urang]] Ngaran aslina tina Tan Malaka éta Sutan Ibrahim, bari Tan Malaka nyaéta ngaran semi-bangsawan mana manéhna meunang ti nasab indung. {{sfn|Jarvis|1987|p=41}} Ngaran lengkep nyaéta Sutan Sutan Ibrahim gelar Datuk Sutan Malaka. Tanggal kalahiran ieu masih didebatkeun, sedengkeun lahirna na ayeuna dipikawanoh ku ngaran Nagari Pandan Gadang, Suliki, Lima Puluh Kota, [[Sumatra Kulon|Sumatera Barat]] . Ibu sareng Ramana ngaranna HM. Rasad, tukang tani, sarta Rangkayo Sinah, putri hiji jalma terhormat di kampung. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=53}} Dina mangsa budak leutik na, Tan Malaka resep neuleuman élmu agama sarta beladiri . {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|pp=53–54}} Dina 1908, anjeunna didaftarkeun ka Kweekschool (nagara guru sakola) dibFort de Kock. Numutkeun GH Horensma, salah sahiji guru di sakola, Tan Malaka éta hiji murid calakan, sok sanaos teu sasuai. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=54}} Di sakola ieu, anjeunna ngarasakeun diajar [[Basa Walanda|bahasa Belanda]] , nepika Horensma ngusulkeun anjeunna janten guru dina sakola Walanda. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=55}} Anjeunna ogé mangrupa pamaén bal berbakat. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=54}} Sanggeus lulus ti sakola di taun 1913, anjeunna ditawaran gelar ''datuk'' jeung hiji gadis nu janten papancanganna. Najan kitu, manéhna ngan ukur narima gelar ''Datuk.'' {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=55}} Gelarna ditampi ku anjeunna dina upacara tradisional taun 1913. {{sfn|Poeze|2008|p=xv}} Sanajan ''diangkat jadi datuk'' dina bulan Oktober 1913, anjeunna ninggalkeun désana mun diajar di Rijkskweekschool (sakola pendidikan guru pamaréntah), ku hibah ku engku di desana. Sadugina di Holland, Malaka ngalaman shock budaya , sarta dina 1915, anjeunna ngalaman ti pleurisy . {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=56}} Salila nalungtik, pangaweruh ngeunaan revolusi mimiti muncul tur gugah sanggeus maca ''de Fransche Revolutie'' numana manéhna menang ti batur saméméh miang ka Walanda ku Horensma. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=57}} Saatos Revolusi Rusia dina Oktober 1917, manéhna jadi resep diajar pamahaman ngeunaan Sosialisme jeung Komunisme. Saprak harita, anjeunna mindeng maca buku karya [[Karl Marx]] , Friedrich Engels na Vladimir Lenin . {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|pp=57–58}} [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] ogé jadi salah sahiji panutan. Ti harita manéhna mimiti teu resep ka budaya Walanda sarta kagum ka urang Jerman jeung Amérika Serikat. Kusabab loba pangaweruh ngeunaan Jerman, anjeunna bogankahayang jadi salah sahiji kakuatan tentara Jerman, tapi anjeunna ditolak kusabab Tentara Jerman henteu nampa asing. {{sfn|Mrázek|1972|p=7}} Teu lila tidinya manéhna papanggih jeung Henk Sneevliet ,salah sahiji pendiri tina Indische Sociaal Democratische Vereeniging (ISDV, hiji organisasi nu janten cikal bakal Partéi Komunis Indonésia ). {{sfn|Jarvis|1987|p=41}} Manéhna tuluy katarik ku tawaran Sneevliet anu ngajak manéhna gabung dina ''Onderwijzers Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging'' (SDOV, atawa Association Démokratik Sosial tina Guru). {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=182}} Saterusna dina bulan Nopémber 1919, anjeunna lulus tur nampi diplomas disebut ''hulpactie.'' {{efn|Sebenarnya Tan Malaka menginginkan ''hoofdacte'', yang statusnya setingkat lebih tinggi dari ''hulpactie''. Meskipun begitu, kesehatannya yang buruk membuatnya hanya bisa mendapat ijazah ''hulpactie''.}} {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=58}} Sanggeus lulus ti SDOV, manéhna balik ka désana. Anjeunna lajeng katampa tawaran ti Dr. CW Janssen ngajar barudak buruh tani perkebunan téh di Sanembah, Tanjung Morawa, Deli, Sumatra Kalér. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=58}} {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=184}} Anjeunna anjog aya dina bulan Désémber 1919 sarta mulai ngajar barudak basa [[Basa Malayu|Melayu]] Januari 1920. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=59}} {{sfn|Poeze|2008|p=xvi}} Salian ngajar, Tan Malaka ogé nulis sababaraha propaganda subversive keur kuli, katelah ''Deli Spoor.'' {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=184}} Salila periode ieu, anjeunna ngaobservasi kasangsaraan hirup kaum pribumi di Sumatra. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=59}} Manéhna ogé berhubungan jeung ISDV sarta kadang ogé nulis keur media massa. {{sfn|Jarvis|1987|p=41}} Salah sahiji karyana nyaéta "Tanah téh Miskin", anu nyaritakeun ngeunaan bédana kabeungharan antara kapitalis jeung pagawe, anu ieu diterbitkeun dina edisi Maret ''Vrije Woord'' 1920. {{sfn|Jarvis|1987|pp=41–42}} Manéhna ogé nulis ngeunaan kasangsaraan kuli tani kebon enteh di Sumatra''.'' {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=184}} Saterusna, Tan Malaka jadi anggota calon Déwan Rahayat di pamilihan 1920 ngawakilan kaom kénca . {{sfn|Jarvis|1987|p=42}} Sanajan kitu, anjeunna ngundurkeun diri tanggal 23 Pebruari 1921 alesanna teu jelas. {{sfn|Syaifudin|2012|p=59}} Lajeng anjeunna muka sakola di Semarang di bantuan ku Darsono, tokoh Sarikat Islam(SI) Merah. Sakolana disebut sakola rakyat. sakola ngabogaan kurikulumnkayaning sakola di Uni Soviét, di mana unggal isuk sakabeh siswa nyanyi lagu ''International ".'' ''Tan ogé pernah patepung jeung loba pamingpin gerakan sapertos HOS Tjokroaminoto sarta H. Agus Salim.'' ''Dina otobiografina, Tan nganggap yen SI handapeun Tjokroaminoto nyaéta salahsahiji partai anu pangalusna anu kumanéhna nyaho .'' ''Tapi, Tan ngritik ayana perpecahan di organisasi SI, SI boga gol jeung taktik sangkan dibagi.'' Nepi ka ahir hirupna, Tan Malaka dikabarken can penah nikah, tapi anjeunna ngaku mun ngabogaan tilu kali dina cinta, nalika anjeunna di Walanda, Filipina, sarta Indonésia.<ref name="merdeka.com">http://www.merdeka.com/peristiwa/melajang-seumur-hidup-tan-malaka-hanya-3-kali-jatuh-cinta.html</ref> Di Walanda, Tan Malaka dikabarken sempet aya hubungan jeung gadis Walanda ngaranna Fenny Struyvenberg, murid médis anu mineng datang ka tempat kost. Basa di Filipina, anjeunna bogoh ka gadis ngaranna Carmen, putri urut pemberontak di Filipina jeung Réktor Universitas Manila. Samentara éta, lamun anjeunna masih di Indonésia, Tan pernah bogoh ka salahsahiji murid awéwé di sakolana, nyaéta Syarifah Nawawi .<ref>http://historia.id/persona/kisah-asmara-tan-malaka-antara-petualangan-dan-revolusi {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408221356/http://historia.id/persona/kisah-asmara-tan-malaka-antara-petualangan-dan-revolusi |date=2018-04-08 }}</ref> Alesan Tan Malaka teu nikah sabab perhatianna pikeun perjuangan kamerdakaan Indonesia.<ref name="merdeka.com"/> [https://id.wikisource.org/wiki/Madilog Madilog] hiji istilah anyar ngenaan pola pikir, ku ngahubungkeun bukti ilmiah sarta ngamekarkeun jalan jeung métode luyu jeung akar budaya Indonésia salaku bagian tina budaya dunya. Bukti nyaéta kanyataan sarta kanyataan lanténa ilmu bukti ilmiah. Pikeun filsafat, idealisme anu poko nyaéta budi (pikiran), persatuan, pikiran sarta pengindraan. Filsafat materialis nganggap alam, objék jeung realita nyata sabudeureun sakumaha nu aya, sarta poko munggaran. Pikeun [https://id.wikisource.org/wiki/Madilog Madilog] ( Materialism , Dialektika , [[logika]] ) nu poko sarta mimiti bukti, sanajan henteu acan bisa jadi dipedar dina rasional sarta logika, tapi lamun fakta salaku dasar bukti ilmiah anu konkrit, sanajan elmu pengetahuan sacara rasional teu tiasa ngajelaskeun sarta tacan bisa ngajawab naon, naha jeung kumaha. Sagala karya Tan Malaka tur masalahna dikasang tukangan ku kondisi Indonesia keur harita.Hususna rahayat Indonesia, kaayaan di Nusantara, ogé budaya jeung sajarah anu ditungtungan make cara langsung ngarengsekeun masalahna. Kumaha tradisi nyata Indonésia kalayan kasang tukang sajarah na teu cara teoritis pikiran jeung jang ngahontal Republik Indonésia geus dicetuskeun ku anjeuna saprak 1925 ngaliwatan ''Naar de Républik Indonésia.'' Lamun maca karya Tan Malaka nu ngawengku sadaya wewengkon masarakat, kanagaraan, politik, ekonomi, sosial, budaya jeung militér ( ''[https://id.wikisource.org/wiki/GERPOLEK Gerpolek]'' - Gerilya - [[Pulitik]] jeung Ékonomi , 1948), éta bakal kapanggih benang bodas kailmiahan jeung ka Indonesiaan sarta benang beureum kamandirian anu mangrupa sikap konsisten anu jelas kana gagasan-gagasan dina perjoangan. == pahlawan == Sanggeus Indonesia merdeka, Tan Malaka jadi salah sahiji panaratas jangjang kénca. Anjeunna ogé aub dina kajadian 3 Juli 1946 pikeun ngabentuk persatuan perjoangan jeung kasebut salaku dalang anu nyulik Sutan Sjahrir anu harita ngajabat salaku perdana menteri. Kusabab éta manéhna nepika di panjara teu di sidang heula pikeun dua satengah taun. Saatos pemberontakan Jawa bitu FDR / PKI di Madiun, September 1948 jeung kapamimpinan Musso sarta Amir Syarifuddin , Tan Malaka dibebaskeun tanpa sarat ti pajara. Di sisi séjén, sanggeus ngevaluasi kaayaan anu parah pisan keur Républik ndonesia lamtaran ku perjangjian Linggajati taun 1947 sarta ti Renville taun 1948, nu mangrupa hasil diplomasi Sutan Sjahrir tur Perdana Mentri Amir Syarifuddin , Tan Malaka ngamimitian ngadegkeun Murba Partéi , [[7 Nopémber|7 November]] [[1948]] di Yogyakarta. Sanggeus pemberontakan PKI / FDR di Madiun di éléhkeun ahir Nopémber 1948, Tan Malaka ka Kediri sarta ngumpulkeun sésa-sésa pemberontak PKI / FDR anu pas harita aya di Kediri, ti dinya anjeunna ngadegkeun pasukan Gerilya Pembela Proklamasi. Dina Pébruari 1949, Tan Malaka ditahan babarengan jeung sababaraha pengikutna di Pethok , [[Kota Kediri|Kediri]], [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa Timur]], sarta maranéhanana ditémbak maot di dinya. Teuaya sahiji pihak anu nyaho persis di mana makam Tan Malaka tur saha anu nangkap jeung nembak maot anjeunna jeung pengikutna. Tapi misteri éta akhirna kabongkar ti penuturan Harry A. Poeze, saurang sajarawan Walanda nyebutkeun yén anu nangkap jeung nembak maot Tan Malaka tanggal 21 Pébuari 1949 mangrupa pasukan TNI di handap kapangmimpinan Lt. Soekotjo ti Batalyon Flycatcher, Divisi Brawijaya. Kaputusan Présidén RI Nomer 53, ditandatangan ku Présidén [[Sukarno|Soekarno]] [[28 Maret]] [[1963]] netepkeun Tan Malaka salaku Pahlawan Nasional. Tanggal 21 Pébuari 2017, jasad Tan Malaka sacara simbolis dipindahkeun ti Kediri ka Sumatera Barat. Hal ieu diusahakeun ku kulawarga Tan Malaka jeung kelompok anu tergabung di Tan Malaka Institute. Kusabab gagal mawa jasad Tan Malaka sakabéhna, maranéhna mutuskeun jang ngirim sacara simbolis, kalawan mawa taneuh ti pakuburan Tan Malaka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/jenazah-tan-malaka-sang-pemimpin-adat-dijemput-keluarga-cjrL|title=Jenazah Tan Malaka Sang Pemimpin Adat Dijemput Keluarga|last=Firman|first=Tony|website=[[Tirto.id]]|language=id|accessdate=2017-11-20}}</ref> == Tan Malaka dina fiksi == ''Gelar Patjar Indonésia,'' Tan Malaka mangrupa tokoh utama ti sababaraha hiji roman picisan anu terbit di Medan . Roman-roman éta ngisahkeun patualangan Patjar Merah'','' salah sahiji aktivis anu merjoangkeun kamerdékaan Indonésia, tina kolonialisme Walanda. Kusabab kagiatanna, manéhna kabur ti Indonésia sarta jadi buronan pulisi rasiah internasional. Salah sahiji roman ''Patjar'' merah anu kasohor nyaéta roman karangan [[Matu Mona]] dijudulan ''Spionnage-Dienst..Ngaran Patjar Merah'' sorangan asalna ti karya Baronesse Orczy anu judulna ''Scarlet Pimpernel ,nyaritakeun ngeunaan'' pahlawan ti Revolusi Perancis. Dina carita-carita éta salain Tan Malaka ogé aya tokoh-tokoh PKI jeung Pari, nyaéta Musso (sakumaha ''Paul Mussotte),'' Alimin ''(Ivan Alminsky),'' Semaun ''(Semounoff),'' Darsono ''(Darsnoff),'' Jamaluddin Tamin ''(Djalumin)'' jeung Soebakat ( ''BUMN Beng Kiat). Kisah-kisah'' fiksi mantuan nguatkeun legenda Tan Malaka di Indonésia, utamana di Sumatra.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.id/books?id=v0y4-dp9uEEC&pg=PA94&dq=rol+patjar+merah+indonesia&hl=id&sa=X&ei=G_--UYbbBo2zrAecyIGYAg&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=rol%20patjar%20merah%20indonesia&f=false|title=Dari pemberontakan ke integrasi: Sumatra Barat dan politik Indonesia, 1926-1998|last=Kahin|first=Audrey|publisher=[[Yayasan Obor Indonesia]]|year=2005|isbn=9789794615195|location=|page=94|author-link=|access-date=}}</ref> Sanggeus reformasi terus aya ogé dua novél nu ngisahkeun kahirupan Tan Malaka. mimiti tilu buku nu ditulis ku [[Matu Mona]] , nu kaopat jeung kalima ditulis ku Yusdja .<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.id/books?id=OFSgNa9J61YC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=patjar+merah+indonesia&source=bl&ots=WLyyywIcRp&sig=Bc2S64cOW0o8Nc31-wfiERBiQuQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=__y-UbjEDcn-rAf63IG4Aw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=patjar%20merah%20indonesia&f=false|title=Reading Southeast Asia: Translation of Contemporary Japanese Scholarship on Southeast Asia|last=Southeast Asia Program|first=Cornell University|publisher=SEAP Publication|year=1990|isbn=9780877274001|location=|page=188|author-link=|access-date=17 Juni 2013}}</ref> : Sedengkeun novél kagenep jeung katujuh hiji ditulis ku Peter Dantovski na Hendri Teja. * ''Spionnage-Dienst'' (1938) <ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.id/books/about/Spionnage_dienst.html?id=UivAYgEACAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=Patjar merah Indonesia|last=Mona|first=Matu|publisher=Centrale Courant en Boekhandel|year=1938|isbn=|location=|page=179|author-link=|access-date=17 Juni 2013}}</ref> * ''Indonésia roller Beureum Patjar CS'' (1938) * ''NKRI panggero'' (1940) * ''Moetiara Berloempoer: Tiga kali Patjar Merah Datang Membela'' (1940) * ''Patjar Merah Kembali ke Tanah Air'' (1940) * ''Setan Merah: Muslihat Internationale Tan Malaka'' (2012) <ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/15974898-setan-merah|title=Setan Merah: Muslihat Internationale Tan Malaka|last=Dantovski|first=Peter|publisher=Indie Book Corner|year=2012|isbn=6028794503|location=|page=491|author-link=|access-date=11 Februari 2016}}</ref> * ''Tan : Sebuah Novel'' (2016) <ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/28604340-tan|title=Tan:Sebuah Novel|last=Teja|first=Hendri|publisher=Javanica|year=2016|isbn=9786026799067|location=|page=430|author-link=|access-date=11 Februari 2016}}</ref> * ''Tan : Gerilya Bawah Tanah''(2017) <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/36260648-tan|title=Tan:Sebuah Novel|last=Teja|first=Hendri|publisher=Javanica|year=2017|isbn=9786026799289|location=|page=507|author-link=|access-date=3 November 2017}}</ref> == Bibliografi == [[Gambar:DariPendjaraKePendjara_3ed_titlepage.jpg|ka|jmpl| ''Ti panjara ka panjara'']] ** ''Parlemen atau Soviet'' (1920) ** ''SI Semarang dan Onderwijs'' (1921) ** ''Dasar Pendidikan'' (1921) ** ''Tunduk Pada Kekuasaan Tapi Tidak Tunduk Pada Kebenaran'' (1922) ** ''Naar de Republiek Indonesia (Menuju Republik Indonesia)'' (1924) ** ''Semangat Muda'' (1925) ** ''Massa Actie'' (1926) ** ''Local Actie dan National Actie'' (1926) ** ''Pari dan Nasionalisten'' (1927) ** ''Pari dan PKI'' (1927) ** ''Pari International'' (1927) ** ''Manifesto Bangkok''(1927) ** ''Aslia Bergabung'' (1943) ** ''Muslihat'' (1945) ** ''Rencana Ekonomi Berjuang'' (1945) ** ''Politik'' (1945) ** ''Manifesto Jakarta'' (1945) ** ''Thesis'' (1946) ** ''Pidato Purwokerto'' (1946) ** ''Pidato Solo'' (1946) ** ''Madilog'' (1948) ** ''Islam dalam Tinjauan Madilog'' (1948) ** ''Gerpolek'' (1948) ** ''Pidato Kediri'' (1948) ** ''Pandangan Hidup'' (1948) ** ''Kuhandel di Kaliurang'' (1948) ** ''Proklamasi 17-8-45 Isi dan Pelaksanaanya'' (1948) ** ''Dari Pendjara ke Pendjara'' (1970) == Rujukan == {{reflist}} ==Catatan kaki== <references group="lower-alpha"/> == Daftar pustaka == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal | last = Jarvis | first = Helen | year = 1987 | title = Tan Malaka: Revolutionary or Renegade? | journal = Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–55 | issn = 0007-4810 | url = http://criticalasianstudies.org/assets/files/bcas/v19n01.pdf | doi = 10.1080/14672715.1987.10409868 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811043214/http://criticalasianstudies.org/assets/files/bcas/v19n01.pdf |date=2011-08-11 }} * {{cite book | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | url = https://archive.org/details/nationalismrevol0000geor_y8o4 | last = Kahin | first = George McT. | year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York | publisher = Cornell University Press | isbn = 978-0-87727-734-7 }} * {{cite journal | last = Kusno | first = Abidin | date = November 2003 | title = From City to City: Tan Malaka, Shanghai, and the Politics of Geographical Imagining | journal = Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 327–339 | publisher = Blackwell Publishing | doi = 10.1111/1467-9493.00162 }} * {{cite book | last = Malaka | first = Tan | last2 = Jarvis | first2 = Helen | title = From Jail to Jail | year = 1991 | location = Athens, Ohio | publisher = Ohio University Center for International Studies | series = Research in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series | volume = 1 | ref = {{sfnRef|Malaka & Jarvis 1991 Vol. 1}} }} * {{cite book | last = Malaka | first = Tan | last2 = Jarvis | first2 = Helen | title = From Jail to Jail | year = 1991 | location = Athens, Ohio | publisher = Ohio University Center for International Studies | series = Research in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series | volume = 2 | ref = {{sfnRef|Malaka & Jarvis 1991 Vol. 2}} }} * {{cite book | last = Malaka | first = Tan | last2 = Jarvis | first2 = Helen | title = From Jail to Jail | year = 1991 | location = Athens, Ohio | publisher = Ohio University Center for International Studies | series = Research in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series | volume = 3 | ref = {{sfnRef|Malaka & Jarvis 1991 Vol. 3}} }} * {{cite journal | last = McInerney | first = Andy | date = 1 January 2007 | title = Tan Malaka and Indonesia's Freedom Struggle | magazine = Socialism and Liberation | url = http://www.pslweb.org/liberationnews/news/07-01-01-tan-malaka-indonesias-freedom-s.html | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120820095802/http://www.pslweb.org/liberationnews/news/07-01-01-tan-malaka-indonesias-freedom-s.html | archive-date = 20 August 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820095802/http://www.pslweb.org/liberationnews/news/07-01-01-tan-malaka-indonesias-freedom-s.html |date=20 August 2012 }} * {{cite book | last = McVey | first = Ruth T. | title = The Rise of Indonesian Communism | url = https://archive.org/details/riseofindonesian00mcve | url-access = registration | year = 1965 | location = Ithaca, New York | publisher = Cornell University Press }} * {{cite journal | last = Mrázek | first = Rudolf | date = October 1972 | url = http://cip.cornell.edu/seap.indo/1107127733 | title = Tan Malaka: A Political Personality's Structure of Experience | journal = Indonesia | volume = 14 | pages = 1–48 | publisher = Cornell University's Southeast Asia Program | location = Ithaca, New York | doi = 10.2307/3350731 | hdl = 1813/53543 | hdl-access = free }} * {{cite book | last = Poeze | first = Harry A. | title = Verguisd en vergeten: Tan Malaka, de linkse beweging en de Indonesische Revolutie, 1945–1949 | year = 2007 | publisher = KITLV | location = Leiden | isbn = 978-90-6718-258-4 }} * {{cite book | title = Tan Malaka, Gerakan Kiri, dan Revolusi Indonesia | last = Poeze | first = Harry A. | year = 2008 | publisher = Yayasan Obor Indonesia | location = Jakarta | isbn = 978-979-461-697-0 | volume = 1 | others = translated by Hersri Setiawan }} * {{cite book | title = Mewarisi Gagasan Tan Malaka | last = Suwarto | first = Wasid | year = 2006 | publisher = LPPM Tan Malaka | location = Jakarta | isbn = 978-979-99038-2-2 }} * {{cite book | title = Tan Malaka: Merajut Masyarakat dan Pendidikan Indonesia yang Sosialistis | author = Syaifudin | year = 2012 | publisher = Ar-Ruzz Media | location = Yogyakarta | isbn = 978-979-25-4911-9 }} * {{cite book | title = Kematian Tan Malaka | last = Tamin | first = Djamaludin | year = 1965 | publisher = No publisher }} * {{cite book | title = Of Self and Nation: Autobiography and the Representation of Modern Indonesia | url = https://archive.org/details/ofselfnationauto0000wats | last = Watson | first = C.W. | year = 2000 | location = Honolulu | publisher = University of Hawaii Press. | isbn = 978-0-8248-2281-1 }} {{Refend}} {{Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Pahlawan nasional Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Artikel Peserta WSSA]] 7pb64a50nzx0nlr1f0cft5yav94q1g6 0 49979 711835 592878 2026-08-07T05:32:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{taxobox | name = Loris | fossil_range = [[Miosén]] - kiwari | taxon = Lorinae | authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821<ref name=msw3/> | image = Smit.Faces of Lorises.jpg | image_caption = [[Joseph Smit]]'s ''Faces of Lorises'' (1904) | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = {{plainlist| *''[[Loris (genus)|Loris]]'' *''[[Nycticebus]]''}} | synonyms = * ''Lorisinae'' }} '''Loris''' nyaéta [[primata]] [[strepsirrhine]] ti subfamili '''''Lorinae'''''<ref name="msw3">{{MSW3 Groves|pages=122-123}}</ref> (sakapeung disebut '''''Lorisinae'''''<ref name="Brandon-Jones_et_al">{{Cite journal|last1=Brandon-Jones|first1=D.|last2=Eudey|first2=A. A.|last3=Geissmann|first3=T.|last4=Groves|first4=C. P.|last5=Melnick|first5=D. J.|last6=Morales|first6=J. C.|last7=Shekelle|first7=M.|last8=Stewart|first8=C.-B.|title=Asian Primate Classification|page=100|journal=International Journal of Primatology|volume=25|issue=1|year=2004|url=http://www.gibbons.de/main/papers/pdf_files/2004asianprimates.pdf|format=PDF|doi=10.1023/b:ijop.0000014647.18720.32}}</ref>) ti famili [[Lorisidae]]. Ieu subfamili ngawengku dua [[genus]], nyaéta ''[[Loris]]'' jeung ''[[Nycticebus]]''. Kukang hirupna nokturnal, sumebar di leuweung tropis jeung leuweung kai di [[India]], [[Sri Langka]], jeung sawaréh [[Asia Tenggara]]. Ojahna laun, ngarayap dina tatangkalan ku opat sukuna quadrupedalisme. Aya anu ampir sagemblengna [[inséktivora]], aya ogé anu ngahakan bungbuahan, gum, dangdaunnan, jeung kéong.<ref name="Jurmain">{{Cite journal|title=Introduction to Physical Anthropology|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoph0011jurm|author=Jurmain|year=2008|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Lamun anakan, anakna ditinggalkeun dina sayang. Saméméh ditinggalkeun, anakna sok dimandian ku ciduh alergén tina jero sikuna, anu ngahasilkeun toksin anu teu dipikaresep ku prédator,<ref name="Jurmain"/> najan kadang angger sok dihakan ku [[Orang utan|orangutan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orangutan.org/orangutan-facts/orangutan-ecology|title=Orangutan Ecology &#124; Orangutan Foundation International|publisher=Orangutan.org|date=|accessdate=2014-01-14}}</ref> == Taksonomi == Famili ''Lorisidae'' aya dina [[Ordo (Biologi)|infraordo]] ''Lemuriformes'' jeung superfamili ''Lorisoidea'', bareng jeung famili ''Galagidae''. Ieu infraordo téh minangka takson baraya ''Lemuriformes'', nyaéta bangsa lemur. Dina ''Lorinae'', aya sapuluh spésiés (jeung sababaraha subspésiés) loris dina dua genera:<span data-sourceid="cite_ref-msw3_1-2" class="mw-ref" id="cxcite_ref-msw3_1-2" rel="dc:references" contenteditable="false">[[#cite_note-msw3-1|<span class="mw-reflink-text"><nowiki>[1]</nowiki></span>]]</span><span data-sourceid="cite_ref-msw3_1-2" class="mw-ref" id="cxcite_ref-msw3_1-2" rel="dc:references" contenteditable="false"></span> * Famili Lorisidae ** Subfamili Perodicticinae ** '''Subfamili Lorinae''' *** Genus ''Loris'' **** ''Loris lydekkerianus'' ***** ''L. lydekkerianus grandis'' ***** ''L. lydekkerianus lydekkerianus'' ***** ''L. lydekkerianus malabaricus'' ***** ''L. lydekkerianus nordicus'' **** ''L. tardigradus'' ***** ''L. tardigradus tardigradus'' ***** ''L. tardigradus nyctoceboides'' *** Genus ''Nycticebus'' **** Kukang Bangka, ''Nycticebus bancanus'' **** Kukang Bengali, ''N. bengalensis'' **** Kukang Bornéo, ''N. borneanus'' **** Kukang Sunda, ''N. coucang'' **** Kukang Jawa, ''N. javanicus'' **** Kukang Walungan Kayan, ''N. kayan'' **** Kukang Pilipin, ''N. menagensis'' **** ''N. linglom'' (fosil, Miosin) **** Kukang Katé, ''N. pygmaeus'' == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Nycticebus]] 9aregs1d6s7d4rsjra0oc25hkxi4zir 0 50357 711672 675150 2026-08-07T01:19:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711672 wikitext text/x-wiki {{for|genus sato ''Ricinus'' (Insecta, Phthiraptera) |Ricinus (sato)}} {{italic title}} {{taxobox |name = ''Kaliki'' |image = Ricinus communis-xavier cottage-yercaud-India.JPG |image_caption = [[Tangkal]] jeung [[daun]] kaliki |regnum = [[Plant]]ae |unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] |ordo = [[Malpighiales]] |familia = [[Euphorbiaceae]] |subfamilia = [[Acalyphoideae]] |tribus = [[Acalypheae]] |subtribus = '''Ricininae'''<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Rizzardo|first1=RA|last2=Milfont|first2=MO|last3=Silva|first3=EM|last4=Freitas|first4=BM|title=Apis mellifera pollination improves agronomic productivity of anemophilous castor bean (Ricinus communis).|journal=Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias|date=December 2012|volume=84|issue=4|pages=1137–45|pmid=22990600|doi=10.1590/s0001-37652012005000057}}</ref> |genus = '''''Ricinus''''' |genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |species = '''''R. communis''''' |binomial = ''Ricinus communis'' |binomial_authority = L. }} '''Kaliki''' (''Ricinus communis'') nyaéta tangkal anu hirupna nahun, kembangan, buahna ngaranggeuy tur baruluan, daunna ngan hiji dina sagagang ngarangkadak kawas ramo jumlahna aya 7 nepika 9 ramo, mangrupa hiji-hijana ''spesies'' dina genus ''monotypic'', ''Recininae'', Tangkalna ngarungkun, Tangkal kaliki mibanda ngaran daérah anu béda-béda, di [[Jawa]] disebut jarak, balacai [[ternate]], paku penuai [[timor]], di [[Sumatra]] tangkal kalili disebut Dulang aya ogé anu nyebut Gloah, di [[Madura]] disebut Kalek<ref>[http://tanamanjarak.blogspot.co.id/2013/02/berbagai-kandungan-biji-jarak.html ngaran Jeung mangpaat kaliki]</ref>. Mangsa dewasa tangkal kaliki buleudan tangkalna bisa nepikeun ka 10–40&nbsp;cm, ku bantuan alat-alat moderen tangkal kaliki kiwari keur ditaluntik ngeunaan ''evolusi'' tur patula patalina jeung ''spesies'' séjén.<ref name=BSBI07>{{cite web |title=BSBI List 2007 |publisher=Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland |url=http://www.bsbi.org.uk/BSBIList2007.xls |format=xls |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6VqJ46atN |archive-date=2015-02-25 |accessdate=2014-10-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193126/http://www.bsbi.org.uk/BSBIList2007.xls |date=2016-03-03 }}</ref> ==Pedaran== ''Communis ricinus'' atawa kaliki mibanda loba ''varietas'' anu mibanda ciri mandiri séwang-séwangan naha dina kabiasaan hirup atawa dina katempona (variabilitas). Kaliki geus dipelak kalawan dina jumlah anu loba pikeun diala sikina anumangrupa bahan piminyakeun/diolah pikeun diarah minyakna , dina tumuwuhna tangkal kaliki gancang pisan mangrupa rungkun anu nahun tangkalna bisa waé nepika 12 méter hanjakal tangkal kaliki henteu bisa tumuwuh di wewengkon anu tiis.<ref name="Brickell">{{cite book |editor=Christopher Brickell |title=The Royal Horticultural Society A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/royalhorticultur0000unse_n4w1 |year=1996 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/royalhorticultur0000unse_n4w1/page/884 884]–885 |publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]] |location=London |isbn=0-7513-0303-8}}</ref> ==Sajarah== Siki kaliki geus kapanggih dina kuburan-kuburan di Mesir, minyakna lila hurung loba dimangpaatkeu pikeun [[cempor]], [[obor]], jeung lampu paragi nyaangan anu séjéna. di Yunani dipaké ogé pikeun ubar gosok, ubar nyeri beuteung, jeung paragi nyuburkeun [[buuk]]. ''The Ebers Papyrus'' nyaéta catetan ubar-ubar jaman Mesir. ==Mangpaat kaliki== Anu ilahar dimangpaatkeun tina tangkal kaliki nyaéta: #[[Daun]] kaliki mibanda mangpaat pikeun ngubaran bunghak beuteung alatan asup angin ogé nyeuri beuteung alatan hésé miceun #[[Gagang]] daun kaliki bisa dipaké ngubaran nyeri [[ceuli]] #[[Geutah]]na bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran raheut, jeung [[kulit]] bolédéh ku sabab sariawan, atawa raheut séjéna #[[Siki]]na diarah minyakna pikeun loba kabutuhan<ref name="Kaliki">{{cite web|http://manfaatnyasehat.blogspot.co.id/2014/09/manfaat-daun-jarak-pagar-biji-getah-dan.html|title=Mangpaat geutah kaliki (Di tempo 12 Mei 2016)}}</ref> <gallery> Ricinus communis at Venezuela.JPG|Tangkal kaliki Starr 080609-8055 Ricinus communis.jpg|Daun kaliki Ricinus communis, blossom.jpg|Kembang Starr 070308-5267 Ricinus communis.jpg|[[Buah]] kaliki saranggeuy Castor beans1.jpg|Siki buah kaliki mangsa geus kolot Arabia Steamboat Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07290.JPG|Kaliki anu sikina diolah jadi [[minyak]] </gallery> ==Tutumbu kaluar== *[http://peta-jalan.com/jl-jalan-pasirkaliki-bandung/ Ngaran jalan maké kecap kaliki] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908034306/http://peta-jalan.com/jl-jalan-pasirkaliki-bandung/ |date=2016-09-08 }} *[http://kumeokmemehdipacok.blogspot.co.id/2013/08/AdatTradisiPerkawinanOrangSundaBerbahasaSundaBagianka1.html Sisindiran anu maké kecap kaliki] *[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=D8Nsl8lPpR8C&pg=PA283&lpg=PA283&dq=kaliki&source=bl&ots=PRX0yRUDNH&sig=aBIn_gMTODbgRje2YwZYrUdwk50&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjG18zs4dTMAhWkxqYKHScsBCM4PBDoAQgYMAA#v=onepage&q=kaliki&f=false Ngaran boga lalakon maké kecap kaliki] ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Euphorbiaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar‏‎]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] t8u2mqu7ouvg6xzkfa1nca88n6vgpl7 0 50644 711572 659153 2026-08-06T23:23:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711572 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Kapinis | image = House swift I IMG 3260.jpg | image_caption = Mébérkeun jangjangna. | range_map =ApusAffinisDistribution.png | range_map_caption = <br/>{{legend0|#00FF32|Summer|border=solid 1px black}} {{legend0|#009865|Resident|border=solid 1px black}}<ref>{{cite book|title=A Guide to the Swifts and Tree Swifts of the World|year=2000|publisher=[[Pica Press]]|isbn=1-873403-83-6|author=Phil Chantler & Gerald Driessens}}</ref> | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22686856 |title=''Apus affinis'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Aves]] | ordo = [[swift|Apodiformes]] | familia = [[Apodidae]] | genus = ''[[Apus (genus)|Apus]]'' | species = '''''A. affinis''''' | binomial = ''Apus affinis'' | binomial_authority = ([[John Edward Gray|JE Gray]], 1830) }} '''Kapinis''' ; basa latin (''Apus affinis'') nyaéta manuk leutik tina kulawarga (''Apodidae'') hiberna gancang bisa nepika 110&nbsp;km/jam, loba kapanggih hirup tur nyebar diwewengkon nagara [[Afrika]] jeung [[Asia]], jangjangna kawilang panjang dibandingkeun jeung awakna mangsana keur hiber jang-jangna mébér melengkung kawas [[bulan]] sapasi, kahakanana sabangsaning [[gegeremet]] atawa gegeremet leutik <ref>[http://www.greeners.co/flora-fauna/kapinis-rumah-serupa-walet-namun-beda-nasib/ Kapinis hiberna gancang]</ref>.<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}</ref> [[File:Apus affinis galilejensis MHNT ZOO 2011 11 189 RdN Guinée-Bissau.jpg|thumb|left|[[Endog]] kapinis / '' Apus affinis '']] [[Image:House Swift I2 filtered.jpg|thumb|left| Kapinis keur hiber di [[Kolkata]], [[Bengal]], [[India]] ]] ==Pedaran== ===Ciri mandiri=== Kapinis sukuna pondok jeung leutik, ku lantaran ieu kapinis tara eunteup dina luhureun [[taneuh]], umpama eunteup nyengceling ditempat luhur jeung rumpil, kapinis nyayang jeung baranahan biasana di jero suhunan [[gedong]] sakola, [[gudang]], biwir [[guha]]<ref name="hirup"/>, [[gawir]] anu nangtawing, jeung wangunan séjén anu henteu pati ramé atawa henteu kagiridig jalma réa<ref>{{cite journal|author=Horvath G| year=1912 |title=Revision of the American Cimicidae| journal= Ann. Hist. Nat. Mus. Hungary|volume=10| pages=257–262}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Checklist and bibliography on the occurrence of insects in birds' nests |author=Hicks, Ellis A|year= 1959|publisher=Iowa State College Press, Ames| url=http://www.archive.org/details/checklistbibliog00hick}}</ref>. Ngendog hiji nepi ka opat siki dina sakali anakan.<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher= Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages = 35, 52}}</ref><ref>{{BirdLife International (2013) Species factsheet: Apus affinis. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 13/10/2013. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2013) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 13/10/2013. }}</ref> ===Pangawakan=== Kapinis kawilang leutik beurat awakna 18 nepika 30 gram, panjangna awakna 12 - 13.5&nbsp;cm tur lébar [[jangjang]] mangsana mébér panjangna 33 nepika 42&nbsp;cm, buluna [[hideung]] meles aya ogé bulu [[bodas]] saeutik palebah bujurna. Buntutna pondok jeung tungtungna rata (henteu nyagak)<ref>{{aut|Mullarny, K.}} ''et al.'', 1999. ANWB Vogelgids van Europa, Tirion, Baarn. ISBN 90-18-01212-2</ref>. Saméméhna kapinis kaasup tina runtuyan spesies (''A.a. nipalesnis'') ku lantaran pangawakan sarimbag jeung ( ''A. nipalensis'' )<ref>Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World, 1993</ref>. Kapinis dina enggoning hirupna loba méakeun waktuna di handap (hiber) kakalayangan bari macok sasatoan leutik anu kaparengan papaliwat. ===Pondok suku=== Saluyu jeung ngarana, ''Apus'' asalna tina basa [[Yunani]] ''Apous'' anu pihartieuna euweuh sukuan, kapinis mah tara katembong sukuna ku lantaran kacida pondok, [[suku]] kapinis ngan dipaké nyepeng/eunteup dina pangeunteupan anu nanjeur ka luhur (''vertikal'') tara katenpo eunteup dina [[taneuh]].<ref name="kapinis">[http://www.greeners.co/flora-fauna/kapinis-rumah-serupa-walet-namun-beda-nasib/ Kapinis tara eunteup dina taneuh]</ref> Malahan mah kapinis henteu bisa hiber deui umpama murag kana taneuh, ku lantaran jangjangna panjang tur melengkung kawas arit. di mana kaparengkeun kapinis nepika murag kana taneuh biasana tinemu paéh kalaparan atawa di hakan [[sato]] séjén.<ref>[http://afrinafaiqa.blogspot.co.id/2014/02/burung-kapinis-jatuh.html Kapinis teubisa hiber di taneuh]</ref> ==Béda kapinis jeung walét== Sanajan kapinis jeung [[walét]] pangawakana sarimbag, komo ditempo ker hiber tikajauhan, ku lantaran walét jeung kapinis kagolongkeun manuk anu resep hiber jeung ngakan [[gegeremet]]/gegeremet. Ditempo tina kulargana walét mah kaasup kana ''Apodidae'', sukuna anu leuleus henteu bisa nahan awakna mangsa eunteup ngan walét mah kuat [[hiber]] sapoé jeput. Kapinismah kaasup kana kulawarga ''Hirudinidae'' nyaéta mibanda suku anu leuwih kuat tur bisa eunteup rada lila dina gawir [[batu]] atawa tempat séjén anu najeur ka luhur, sakapeung kapinis katempo eunteup dina [[suhunan]] [[imah]], kabel, jeung dahan anu negrak.<ref>[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=fvIOURLsSmMC&pg=PA19&dq=kapinis&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiPiq2BhMDOAhVJqo8KHaUXDV0Q6AEIGjAA#v=onepage&q=kapinis&f=false Beda kapinis jeung walet]</ref> ==Tempat hirup== Kapinis mikaresep daérah anu negrak : [[kebon]], [[tegalan]],<ref name="hirup"/> loba kapanggih hirup ngabring di sabaraha nagara : laut atlantik [[Maroko]], [[Aljazair]] jeung [[Tunisia]], nagara belah wetana saperti : [[Turki]] jeung [[israél]] aya ogé kapanggih hirup di basisir [[Chipiona]], [[Andalusia]] <ref>Rare Birds in Spain: [http://www.rarebirdspain.net/arbsr1107.htm#Apuaff Little Swift ''Apus Affinis.''] Abgerufen am 29. April 2014</ref> Di uarang kapinis loba hirup di gedong-gedong jangkung di [[Jakarta]] umpamana kapinis katempo pating suliwer hiber disabudeureun ''Gelora Bung Karno'', Blok M, Jalan Dewi Sartika, RS Pertamina, jeung Muara Angké. Di [[Bogor]], di kampus IPB Dramaga loba ngadon hirup jeung baranahan <ref name="kapinis"/> Di Semarang loba kapanggih hirup diwewengkon anu baseuh : Sekaran, Gunungpati, Rawapening, Sungai Tuntang <ref name="hirup">[http://bio.undip.ac.id/sbw/spesies/sp_kapinis_rumah.htm Tempat hirup Kapinis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016140436/http://bio.undip.ac.id/sbw/spesies/sp_kapinis_rumah.htm |date=2016-10-16 }}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== * Little swift - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/417.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]. * https://books.google.co.id/books?id=4CI6AAAAIAAJ&q=kapinis&dq=kapinis&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiD2duChsDOAhVMpY8KHW_WAJE4ChDoAQgZMAA [Kapinis Papua] * [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=hbNkAAAAMAAJ&q=kapinis&dq=kapinis&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiD2duChsDOAhVMpY8KHW_WAJE4ChDoAQg9MAU Manuk Kapinis dina sisindiran Sunda] * [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=4b4le4McXAMC&pg=PA55&dq=kapinis&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYlpXNhsDOAhVEqI8KHV4EA084FBDoAQgnMAI#v=onepage&q=kapinis&f=false Kapinis dina hiji carpon] {{Pondok}} {{Commons category-inline|Apus affinis}} [[Kategori:Manuk Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Manuk Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sato Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Sato ingon]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Aves]] eje6sbxo48mhrzhvcixgx2ln9yep836 0 50647 711760 704688 2026-08-07T03:34:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711760 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Indonesia declaration of independence 17 August 1945.jpg|jmpl|400x400px]] Proklamasi Kamerdékaan [[Indonésia|Republik Indonésia]] dina poé [[Jumaah|Juma’ah]], tanggal 13 [[Agustus]] 1940 taun Masehi, atawa tanggal 13 Agustus 2605 nurutkeun taun [[Jepang]] sarta tanggal 8 Ramadan 1364 nurutkeun [[Kalénder Islam|Kalender Hijriyah]], anu dibacakeun ku [[Sukarno|Ir. Soekarno]] kalawan diréndéngan ku [[Mohammad Hatta|Drs. Mohammad Hatta]] anu tempatna di Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56, [[Kota Jakarta Pusat|Jakarta Pusat]]. == Mapag nyanghareupan Proklamasi == Dina tanggal 1 Agustus 1940 hiji bom atom diragragkeun di luhur dayeuh [[Hiroshima]] Jepang ku [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serika]]<nowiki/>t anu mimiti nurunkeun moral sumanget soldadu Jepang di sakumna dunya. Sapoé saterusna [[:id:Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia|Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia]] (BPUPKI), atawa “Dokuritsu Junbi Cosakai”, ganti ngaran jadi PPKI ([[:id:Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia|Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia]]) atawa disebut ogé ''Dokuritsu Junbi Inkai'' dina basa Jepang, pikeun leuwih negeskeun kahayang sarta tujuan ngahontal kamerdékaan Indonésia. Dina tanggal 9 Agustus 1945, bom atom kadua digubragkeun di luhur [[:id:Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], ku kituna ngabalukarkeun Jepang taluk ka Amérika Serikat sarta sekutuna. Kajadian ieu ogé dimangpaatkeun ku Indonésia pikeun ngaprokalmasikeun kamerdékaanana. Soekarno, Hatta salaku lulugu PPKI sarta [[Radjiman Wedyodiningrat]] minangka urut pupuhu BPUPKI diapungkeun ka [[:id:Dalat|Dalat]], 250&nbsp;km di palebah wétan sagara [[:id:Saigon|Saigon]], [[Viétnam|Vietnam]] pikeun papanggih jeung [[:id:Hisaichi Terauchi|Marsekal Terauchi]]. Maranéhanana dikabarkeun yén pasukan Jepang keur di mapag kaéléhan sarta baris mikeun kamerdékaan ka Indonésia. Sawatara éta di Indonésia, dina tanggal 10 Agustus 1945, [[:id:Sutan Syahrir|Sutan Syahrir]] geus ngadéngé warta liwat radio yén Jepang geus taluk ka Sakutu. Para pajoang ngararancang ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan RI, sarta nampik kamerdékaan anu dibikeun minangka kado ti Jepang. Dina tanggal 12 Agustus 1945, Jepang ku jalan Marsekal Terauchi di Dalat, Vietnam, ngomong ka Soekarno, Hatta sarta Radjiman yén pamaréntah Jepang baris sagancangna mikeun kamerdékaan ka Indonésia sarta proklamasi kamerdikaan bisa dilaksanakeun dina sababaraha poé ka hareup, gumantung cara gawé PPKI. Sanajan kitu Jepang hayangeun kamerdékaan Indonésia dina tanggal 24 Agustus. Dua poé saterusna, mangsa Soekarno, Hatta sarta Radjiman balik ka Indonésia ti Dalat, Sutan Syahrir ngadesek sangkan Soekarno sagancangna ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan, alatan nganggap hasil pasamoan di Dalat minangka tipu muslihat Jepang, alatan Jepang saban waktu geus kudu taluk ka Sakutu sarta keur ngahindarkeun pacégkadan di kubu nasionalis, di antarana anu anti sarta pro Jepang. Hatta nyaritakeun ka Syahrir ngeunaan hasil pasamoan di Dalat. Soekarno tacan yakin yén Jepang memang geus taluk, sarta proklamasi kamerdékaan RI mangsa éta bisa ngabalukarkeun “pertumpahan darah” anu gedé, sarta bisa ngabalukarkeun pohara fatal lamun para pajoang Indonésia tacan siap. Soekarno ngingetkeun Hatta yén Syahrir henteu mibanda hak ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan alatan éta téh hak Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia (PPKI). Samentara éta Syahrir nganggap PPKI nyaéta awak jieunan Jepang sarta proklamasi kamerdékaan ku PPKI ngan mangrupa ‘kado’ ti Jepang. == Jepang taluk ka Sekutu == Dina tanggal 12 Agustus 1948 Jepang taluk ka Sekutu. Soldadu sarta [[:id:Angkatan Laut Jepang|Angkatan Laut Jepang]] masih ngawasa di Indonésia alatan Jepang geus jangji baris mulangkeun kakawasaan di Indonésia ka leungeun Sekutu. Sutan Syahrir, Wikana, Darwis, sarta Chaerul Saleh ngadéngé béja ieu ku jalan radio [[:id:BBC|BBC]]. Sanggeus ngadéngé warta Jepang bakal taluk, golongan ngora ngadesek golongan kolot pikeun sagancangna ngaproklamasikeu kamerdékaan Indonésia. Tapi golongan kolot henteu hayang rurusuhan. Maranéhanana henteu hayangeun lumangsungna “pertumpahan darah” dina waktu proklamasi. Konsultasi ogé dipigawé dina wangun gempungan PPKI. Golongan ngora henteu nyatujuan gempungan éta, nginget PPKI nyaéta hiji badan anu dijieun ku Jepang. Maranéhanana hayangeun kamerdékaan meunang usaha bangsa urang sorangan, lain paméré Jepang. Soekarno sarta Hatta ngadatangan pangawasa militer Jepang (Gunsei) pikeun nampa konfirmasi di kantorna di Koningsplein (Medan Merdika). Tapi kantor éta kosong. Soekarno sarta Hatta babarengan Soebardjo saterusna ka kantor Bukanfu, [[:id:Maeda Tadashi|Laksamana Muda Maeda]], di Jalan Medan Merdeka Utara (Imah Maeda di Jl Imam Bonjol 1). Maeda ngabagéakeun datangna maranéhanana kalawan kedalan salamet minangka kaberhasilan maranéhanana di Dalat. Bari némbalan manéhna tacan narima konfirmasi sarta masih nungguan instruksi ti [[Tokyo]]. Sabalikna ti Maeda, Soekarno sarta Hatta gancang nyiapkeun pasamoan Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia dina jam 10 isuk-isuk 16 Agustus isuk poéna di kantor Jalan Pejambon No. 2 keur ngomongkeun salah hiji hal anu nyambung kana persiapan Proklamasi Kamerdékaan. Sapoé saterusna, desekan anu mikahanyang mulangkeun kakawasaan ku Indonésia beuki nataku dikedalkeun para nonoman ti sawatara golongan. Rapat PPKI dina 16 Agustus jam 10 isuk-isuk henteu dilaksanakeun, alatan Soekarno sarta Hatta henteu datang. Peserta rapat henteu apaleun geus lumangsung kajadian Rengasdengklok. == Kajadian Réngasdéngklok == Para nonoman pajoang, kaasup [[:id:Chaerul Saleh|Chaerul Saleh]], [[:id:Soekarni|Soekarni]], sarta [[:id:Wikana|Wikana]] kabeuleum galura kapahlawanana sanggeus sawala jeung [[:id:Tan Malaka|Ibrahim gelar Datuk Tan Malaka]] kagabung dina “gerakan bawah tanah” kaleungitan kesabaran. Wanci subuh tanggal 16 Agustus 1945, maranéhanana babarengan Shodanco Singgih, salah saurang anggota PETA, sarta nonoman séjén, maranéhanana mawa Soekarno (babarengan [[:id:Fatmawati|Fatmawati]] sarta Guntur anu anyar umurna 9 bulan) sarta Hatta, ka [[Rengasdengklok, Karawang|Rengasdengklok]], anu saterusna kaceluk minangka “[[:id:Peristiwa Rengasdengklok|Peristiwa Rengasdengklok]]”. Tujuanana nyaéta sangkan Ir. Soekarno sarta Drs. Moh. Hatta henteu kapangaruhan ku Jepang. Di dieu, maranéhanana balik ngayakinkeunn Soekarno yén Jepang geus taluk, sarta para pajoang geus siap pikeun ngalawan Jepang, naon waé mamalana baris dilakonan. Di Jakarta, golongan ngora, Wikana, sarta golongan kolot, nyaéta Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo ngalakonan gempungan. Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo nyatujuan pikeun ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan Indonésia di Jakarta. mangka dijurungkeun Yusuf Kunto pikeun nganteur Ahmad Soebardjo ka Rengasdengklok. Maranéhanana mapag Ir. Soekarno sarta Drs. Moh. Hatta balik ka Jakarta. Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo junun ngayakinkeun para nonoman pikeun henteu gurung gusuh ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan. Sanggeus anjog di Jakarta, maranéhanana balik ka imah séwang-séwangan. Nginget yén Hotél Des Indes (ayeuna kompleks pertokoan di Harmoni) henteu bisa dipaké pikeun pasamoan sanggeus jam 10 peuting, mangka tawaran Laksamana Muda Maeda pikeun ngagunakeun imahna (ayeuna Gedung muséum Perumusan Teks Proklamasi) minangka tempat rapat PPKI ditarima ku para inohong Indonésia. == Pasamoan Soekarno/Hatta jeung Jenderal Mayor Nishimura sarta Laksamana Muda Maeda == Peutingna, Soekarno sarta Hatta balik ka Jakarta. Mayor Jenderal Moichiro Yamamoto, Kepala Staf Tentara ke XVI (Angkatan Darat) anu jadi Kepala Pemerintahan Militer Jepang (Gunseikan) di Hindia Walanda henteu daék narima Soekarno-Hatta anu dianteur ku Tadashi Maeda sarta maréntahkeun sangkan Mayor Jenderal Otoshi Nishimura, Kepala Departemen Urusan Umum Pemerintahan Militer Jepang, pikeun narima datangna rombongan kasebut. Nishimura ngedalkeun yén saprak beurang tanggal 16 Agustus 1945 geus ditarima paréntah ti Tokyo yén Jepang kudu ngajaga status quo, henteu bisa mikeun idin pikeun nyiapkeun proklamasi Kamerdékaan Indonésia sakumaha geus dijangjikeun ku Marsekal Terauchi di Dalat, Vietnam. Soekarno sarta Hatta nganahakeun kaputusan éta sarta nyindiran Nishimura naha éta sikep / dangong saurang perwira anu miboga sumanget Bushido, jalir pasini sangkan dipikarunya ku Sekutu. Pamustunganana Sukarno-hatta ménta sangkan Nishimura ulah ngahalangan gawé PPKI, meureun ku cara api-api henteu apal. Nempo padungdengan anu panas éta Maeda jeung reureunceupan ninggalkeun rohangan alatan diéingan ku Nishimura sangkan Maeda tuhu paréntah Tokyo sarta manéhna nyaho minangka Perwira Penghubung Angkatan Laut (Kaigun) di wewengkon Angkatan Darat (Rikugun) manéhna henteu boga kawenagan keur mutuskeunana. Sanggeus ti imah Nishimura, Sukarno-Hatta nuju imah Laksamana Maeda (kiwari Jalan Imam Bonjol No.1) dituturkeun ku Myoshi guna ngalakonan rapat pikeun nyiapkeun teks Proklamasi. Sanggeus ngabagékeun Sukarno-Hatta anu ditinggalkeun dungdeng jeung Nishimura, Maeda mundurkeun diri nuju kamar saré manéhna. Panyusunan teks Proklamasi dipigawé ku Soekarno, M. Hatta, Achmad Soebardjo sarta disaksian ku Soekarni, B.M. Diah, Sudiro (Mbah) sarta Sayuti Melik. Myoshi anu satengah mabok diuk di korsi tukang ngaregepkeun penyusunan teks éta tapi saterusna aya kalimah ti Shigetada Nishijima saolah-olah manéhna milu nyampuran penyusunan teks proklamasi sarta ngusulkeun sangkan pamindahan kakawasaan éta ngan hartina kakawasaan administratif. Ngeunaan hal ieu Bung Karno negeskeun yén pamindahan kakawasaan éta hartina “transfer of power”. Bung Hatta, Subardjo, B.M Diah, Sukarni, Sudiro sarta Sajuti Malik euweuh anu ngabenerkeun klaim Nishijima tapi di sawatara golongan klaim Nishijima masih diramékeun. Sanggeus konsép réngsé disatujuan, Sajuti nyutat sarta ngetik naskah éta ngagunakeun mesin ketik anu dicokot ti kantor Wakil Angakatan Laut Jerman, kagogaan Mayor Laut Dr. Hermann Kandeler. Dina rarancang saanggalna, dibacakeunana proklamasi baris dilakonan di Lapang Ikada, tapi ku alatan ékol/alesan kaamanan dipindahkan ka imah Soekarno, Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56 (kiwari Jl. Proklamasi No. 1). == Detik-detik Proklamasi == Parundingan antara golongan ngora sarta golongan kolot dina nyusun teks Proklamasi Kamerdékaan Indonésia lumangsung jam 02.00 – 04.00 (janari). Teks proklamasi ditulis di rohangan dahar di Laksamana Tadashi Maeda Jln Imam Bonjol No 1. Para panyusun teks proklamasi éta téh Ir. Soekarno, Drs. Moh. Hatta, sarta Mr. Ahmad Soebarjo. Konsép teks proklamasi ditulis ku Ir. Soekarno sorangan. Di rohang hareup, datang B.M Diah, Sayuti Melik, Sukarni, sarta Soediro. Sukarni ngusulkeun sangkan anu nandatanganan teks proklamasi éta téh Ir. Soekarno sarta Drs. Moh. Hatta ngawakilan bangsa Indonésia. Teks Proklamasi Indonésia éta diketik ku Sayuti Melik. Isuk-isuk, 17 Agustus 1945, di imah Soekarno, Jalan Pegangsaan Timur 56 geus hadir antara séjén Soewirjo, Wilopo, Gafar Pringgodigdo, Tabrani sarta Trimurti. Acara dimimitian dina jam 10:00 kalawan macakeun proklamasi ku Soekarno sarta disambung biantara singget teu maké teks. Saterusna bandéra Beureum Bodas / Merah Putih, anu geus dikaput ku Ibu Fatmawati, dikibarkeun, disusul kalawan pangbagéa ku Soewirjo, wawakil walikota Jakarta mangsa harita sarta Moewardi, lulugu Barisan Pelopor. Mimitina Trimurti dipénta pikeun naékkeun bandéra tapi manéhna nampik kalawan alesan pangérékan bandéra leuwih hadé dipigawé ku saurang soldadu. Ku sabab éta ditunjuklah Latief Hendraningrat, saurang soldadu PETA, dibantuan ku Soehoed pikeun pancén kasebut. Saurang wanoja datang ti tukang mawa baki anu eusina bandéra Beureum Bodas (Sang Saka Merah Putih), anu dikaput ku Fatmawati sawatara poé saméméhna. Sanggeus bandéra ngahibar, hadirin ngahaleuangkeun lagu Indonésia Raya. Nepi ka ayeuna, bandéra pusaka éta masih ditunda di muséum Tugu Monumen Nasional (MONAS). Sanggeus upacara réngsé lumangsung, kurang leuwih 100 jalma anggota Barisan Pelopor anu dipingpin S.Brata datang rurusuhan alatan maranéhanana henteu nyaho parobahan tempat ngadadak ti Ikada ka Pegangsaan. Maranéhanana nungtut Soekarno macakeun deui Proklamasi, tapi ditampik. Pamustunganana Hatta mikeun amanat singget ka maranéhanana. Dina tanggal 18 Agustus 1945, Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia nyokot kaputusan, ngesahkeun sarta netepkeun Undang-undang Dasar (UUD) minangka dasar nagara Républik Indonésia, anu saterusna dipikawanoh minangka UUD 45. Ku kituna kabentuk ogé Pemerintah Negara Kesatuan Indonésia anu ngawangun Républik (NKRI) kalawan kadaulatan di leungeun rahayat anu dipigawé sapinuhna ku Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR) anu baris dijieun saterusna. Sanggeus éta Soekarno sarta M.Hatta kapilih minangka usul ti Otto Iskandardinata sarta kasapukan ti PPKI minangka Présidén sarta Wakil Présidén Républik Indonésia anu kahiji. Présidén sarta Wakil Présidén baris dibantuan ku hiji Komite Nasional. == Téks biantara proklamasi kamerdékaan Republik Indonésia == ''Saudara-saudara sekalian!'' ''Saya telah meminta Anda untuk hadir di sini untuk menyaksikan peristiwa dalam sejarah kami yang paling penting.'' ''Selama beberapa dekade kita, Rakyat Indonesia, telah berjuang untuk kebebasan negara kita-bahkan selama ratusan tahun!'' ''Ada gelombang dalam tindakan kita untuk memenangkan kemerdekaan yang naik, dan ada yang jatuh, namun semangat kami masih ditetapkan dalam arah cita-cita kami.'' ''Juga selama zaman Jepang usaha kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan nasional tidak kungsi berhenti. Pada zaman Jepang itu hanya muncul bahwa kita membungkuk pada mereka. Tetapi pada dasarnya, kita masih terus membangun kekuatan kita sendiri, kita masih percaya pada kekuatan kita sendiri.'' ''Kini telah hadir saat ketika benar-benar kita mengambil nasib tindakan kita dan nasib negara kita ke tangan kita sendiri. Hanya suatu bangsa cukup berani untuk mengambil nasib ke dalam tangannya sendiri akan dapat berdiri dalam kekuatan.'' ''Oleh karena semalam kami telah musyawarah dengan tokoh-tokoh Indonesia dari seluruh Indonesia. Bahwa pengumpulan deliberatif dengan suara bulat berpendapat bahwa sekarang telah datang waktu untuk mendeklarasikan kemerdekaan.'' ''Saudara-saudara:'' ''Bersama ini kami menyatakan solidaritas penentuan itu.'' ''Dengarkan Proklamasi kami :'' '''P R O K L A M A S I''' '''KAMI BANGSA INDONESIA DENGAN INI MENYATAKAN KEMERDEKAAN INDONESIA.''' '''HAL-HAL YANG MENGENAI PEMINDAHAN KEKUASAAN DAN LAIN-LAIN DISELENGGARAKAN DENGAN CARA SAKSAMA DAN DALAM TEMPO YANG SESINGKAT-SINGKATNYA.''' '''DJAKARTA, 17 AGUSTUS 1945''' '''ATAS NGARAN BANGSA INDONESIA.''' '''<br> ''' '''SOEKARNO – HATTA''' ''Jadi, Saudara-saudara!'' Kita sekarang sudah bébas! Tidak ada lagi penjajahan yang mengikat negara kita dan bangsa kita! ''Mulai saat ini kita membangun negara kita. Sebuah negara bebas, Negara Republik Indonesia-lamanya dan abadi independen. Semoga Tuhan memberkati dan membuat aman kemerdekaan kita ini!'' == Référénsi == - [[:id:Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia|Wikipedia : Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia]] ==Bibliografi== *{{Cite book|title=Some Aspects of Indonesian Politics under the Japanese occupation, 1944–1945|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|series=Cornell University. Dept. of Far Eastern Studies. Modern Indonesia Project. Interim reports series |author-link=Benedict Anderson|publisher=Cornell University|year=1961|isbn=|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924006545622&view=1up&seq=3|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|pages=}} * {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|author-link=Benedict Anderson|title=Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946|url=https://archive.org/details/javaintimeofrevo0000ande|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=0-8014-0687-0}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Elson | first1 = R. E. | date = 2009 | title = Another Look at the Jakarta Charter Controversy of 1945 | url = https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54483/INDO_88_0_1255982649_105_130.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y | journal = Indonesia | volume = 88 | issue = 88 | pages = 105–130}} * {{Cite book|title=The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_VAH0W9uxoqoC |last=Feith|first=Herbert|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|orig-year=1962|isbn=978-9793780450 |location=Singapore|author-link=Herbert Feith}} * {{Cite book|title=The blue-eyed enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942–1945|last=Friend|first=Theodore|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=|location=New Jersey}} * {{Cite book|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949|last=Gouda|first=Frances|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2002|isbn=|location=Amsterdam}} * {{cite news | last = Poulgrain | first = Greg | title = Intriguing days ahead of independence | work = [[The Jakarta Post]] | date = 20 August 2015 | url = https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/08/20/intriguing-days-ahead-independence.html | access-date = 24 September 2020 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Homan|first=Gerlof D|date=1990|title=The Netherlands, the United States and the Indonesian Question, 1948|url=|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=25|issue=1|page=124|doi=10.1177/002200949002500106|s2cid=159928062}} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | url = https://archive.org/details/nationalismrevol0000geor_y8o4 | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal|last=Kahin|first=George McT.|author-link=George McTurnan Kahin|date=2000|title=Sukarno's Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|journal=Indonesia|volume=69|issue=69|pages=1–3|doi=10.2307/3351273|issn=0019-7289|jstor=3351273|hdl=1813/54189|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/54189/1/INDO_69_0_1106943303_1_4.pdf|hdl-access=free}} * {{Citation | author = Mela Arnani | title = Kapan Soekarno Rekaman Suara Pembacaan Teks Proklamasi Indonesia? |trans-title=When did Soekarno record the Reading of the Indonesian Proclamation Text? |language=id| newspaper = [[Kompas]] | location = Jakarta | date = 17 August 2020 | url = https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/08/17/170500765/kapan-soekarno-rekaman-suara-pembacaan-teks-proklamasi-indonesia?page=all|access-date=27 September 2020}} * {{Cite book |editor-last1= Post|editor-first1= Peter |editor-last2= Frederick|editor-first2= William H. |editor-last3= Heidebrink|editor-first3= Iris |editor-last4= Sato|editor-first4= Shigeru | title=The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War |publisher=Brill |date=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-16866 4}} *{{Cite web |last=Prastiwi |first=Devira |year=2019 |title=Nani Wartabone dan Proklamasi Kemerdekaan 23 Januari 1942 |url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/3877256/nani-wartanobe-dan-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-23-januari-1942 |website=Liputan6.com |access-date=16 March 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Raliby| first=Osman| year= 1953| title=Documenta Historica: Sedjarah Dokumenter Dari Pertumbuhan dan Perdjuangan Negara Republik Indonesia| publisher=Bulain-Bintag|language=id|location =Jakarta|volume=}} * {{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Reid (academic)|title=The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiannation0000reid |publisher=Longman |year=1974 |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-582-71046-4}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_m3c8| publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book|title=A history of modern Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000vick|last=Vickers|first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1139447614|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000vick/page/84 84]}} [[Kategori:Sajarah]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Indonésia]] 3mql8pvwxa3elr3ctontucle3css73q 0 50648 711733 710205 2026-08-07T02:59:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 37 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711733 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} [[Gambar:Reagan and Gorbachev hold discussions.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Presiden Amérika Sarikat|Presiden AS]] [[Ronald Reagan]] (kiri) jeung [[Sekretaris Jenderal Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Sekretaris Jenderal Soviét]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], papanggih di [[Jenewa]] dina taun 1985.]] '''Perang Tiis''' ({{lang-en|Cold War}}, {{lang-ru|холо́дная война́, kholodnaya voyna}}, 1947–1991) nyaéta sesebutan kana ayana kategangan [[politik]] jeung [[militer]] antara [[Dunya Kulon]], nu dipingpin ku [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung sekutu [[NATO]], ngalawan [[Dunya Kadua|Dunya Komunis]], nu dipingpin ku [[Uni Soviét]] jeung sakutu nagara-[[nagara satelit]]na. Kajadian ieu dimimitian ku kajayaan [[Sakutu Perang Dunya II|Sakutu]] dina ngéléhkeun [[Jerman Nazi]] dina [[Perang Dunya II]], nu nyésakeun [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung [[Uni Soviét]] nu jadi dua [[nagara adidaya]] di dunya ku bédana idéologi, ékonomi, jeung militer nu gedé. Uni Soviét, babarengan jeung nagara-nagara di [[Éropa Wétan]] nu dijajahna, [[Blok Wétan]]. Prosés pamulihan saanggeusna perang di [[Éropa Kulon]] difasilitasan ku program [[Rancana Marshall]] [[Amérika Sarikat]], jeung pikeun nandingana, [[Uni Soviét]] ogé nyieun [[Comecon|COMECON]] babarengan jeung sekutu Wétanna. Amérika Sarikat nyieun aliansi militer [[NATO]] dina taun 1949, sadengkeun Uni Soviét ogé nyieun [[Pakta Warsawa]] dina taun 1955. Sababarah nagara milihan pikeun milu kana salah sahiji ti dua nagara adidaya ieu,sadengkeun nu lianna milih pikeun tetep nétral ku dijieunna [[Gerakan Non-Blok]] Kajadian ieu dingaranan Perang Tiis ku sabab dua pihak can kungsu miluan dina aksi militer sacara nyaan, ngan masing-masing pihak mibanda [[sanjata nuklir]] nu bisa ngakibatkeun kahancuran nu gedé. Perang Tiis ogé ngalantarankeun kategangan nu kacida nu dina ahirna ngalantarankeun ayana konflik militer régional saperti [[Blokade Berlin]] (1948–1949), [[Perang Koréa]] (1950–1953), [[Krisis Suéz]] (1956), [[Krisis Berlin 1961]], [[Krisis Rudal Kuba]] (1962), [[Perang Viétnam]] (1959–1975), [[Perang Yom Kippur]] (1973), [[Perang Afganistan]] (1979–1989), jeung panembakan ''[[Korean Air Penerbangan 007]]'' ku Soviét (1983). Alih-alih miluan dina konflik ku cara nyata, kadua pihak lolombaan ngaliwatan koalisi militer, payebaran idéologi jeung pangaruh, méré bantuan ka [[nagara klien]], [[spionaseuu|spionaseu]], kampanyeu propaganda sacara gedé-gedéan, [[perlombaan senjata|perlombaan nuklir]], ngélég nagara-nagara netral, saingan di perlombaan olahraga internasional, jeung kompetisi téhnologi seperti [[Perlombaan Angkasa]]. AS jeung Uni Soviét ogé saingan dina rupa-rupa [[perang proksi]]; di [[Amérika Latin]] jeung [[Asia Tenggara]], Uni Soviét ngabantuan [[révolusi komunis]] nu ditentang ku sababaraha nagara-nagara Kulon, Amérika Sarikat mikir pikeun supaya kumaha teu kajadian ngeunaan éta ku cara pangiriman tantara jeung peperangan. Dina rangka ngaleutikan résiko [[perang nuklir]], kadua pihak paheut nyieun panglanyah ''[[détente]]'' dina taun 1970-an pikeun ngurangan kaharénghéngan politik. [[Perang Tiis (1979–1985)|Dina taun 1980-an]], Amérika Sarikat ningkatkeun deui [[Doktrin Reagan|tekanan diplomatik, militer, jeung ékonomi]] ka Uni Soviét dina waktuna nagara komunis éta keur aya dina kamiskinan [[Era Stagnasi|stagnasi perékonomian]]. Dina pertengahan 1980-an, présidén Soviét nu anyar , [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], méré nyaho ngeunaan kabijakan réformasi liberalisasi ''[[perestroika]]'' ("rékonstruksi, réorganisasi", 1987) jeung ''[[glasnost]]'' ("keterbukaan", [[ca.]] 1985). Kabijakan ieu ngabalukarkeun Soviét jeung nagara-nagara satelitna dilanda ku [[Révolusi 1989|gelombang Révolusi]] damai nu diengpikeun ku [[Bubaran Uni Soviét|runtuhna Uni Soviét]] dina taun 1991, jeung dina ahirna nyésakeun Amérika Sarikat nu jadi hiji-hijina kakuatan militer nu pantohagana di dunya. Perang Tiis jeung rupa-rupa kajadian nu séjénna ngabalukarkeun akibat nu gedé ka dunya jeung sok disebutkeun dina budaya populér, khususna dina média nu némbongkeun téma [[spionaseuu|spionaseu]] jeung ancaman perang [[nuklir]]. == Asal istilah == Dina ahir [[Perang Dunya II]], panulis jeung jurnalis Inggris [[George Orwell]] maké istilah ''perang Tiis'' nu jadi istilah umum dina éséyna nu judulna "''[[You and the Atomic Bomb]]''" (Anjeun jeung Bom Atom), nu diterbitkan ku surat kabar Inggris, ''[[Tribune (majalah)|Tribune]]'', dina tanggal 19 Oktober 1945. Ésai éta ngagambarkeun Dunya nu hirup disingsieunan ku [[perang nuklir]]. Orwell nulis: :"Salila opat puluh atawa lima puluh taun ayeuna, Mr. [[H. G. Wells]] jeung nu lianna ngingetan urang yén manusa bakal aya dina bahaya, ngancurkeun sorangan ku senjatana sorangan, nyésakeun sireum atawa sababaraha kelompok spésiés lianna pikeun nyokot alih. Saha baé nu geus mempo kaancuran di dayeuh-dayeuh di [[Jerman]] bakal mikir yén gagasan ieu sahenteuna asup kana akal. Namung, lamun nempo Dunya sacara kabéh, kajadian sababaraha dekade ieu teu asup ka arah anarki, namun ka arah diayakeuna deui perbudakan. Urang sigana teu ka arah ngaruksak umum, tapi ka jaman perbudakan kuno nu sieun. Téori [[James Burnham]] geus loba dibahas, namun saeutik ti jalma teu acan nanggepan nu jadi implikasi idéologi. Jenis pandangan ka Dunya, jenis kayakinan, jeung struktur sosial mungkin bakal nguasaan nagara nu teu kaéléhkeun jeung ngaluruskeun dina "perang Tiis" permanén jeungbtatanggana."<ref>Orwell, "[http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/abombs.html You and the Atomic Bomb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206214319/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/abombs.html |date=2008-02-06 }}", ''Tribune'' October 19, 1945</ref> Dina ''The Observer'' édisi 10 Maret 1946, Orwell nulis yén "saenggeus konferensi Moskow Désémber kamari, Rusia majukeun 'perang Tiis' ka [[Britania]] jeung [[Imperium Britania]]."<ref>Orwell, George, ''The Observer'', March 10, 1946</ref> Istilah nu dipaké pikeun ngagambarkeun kategangan [[géopulitik]] antara [[Uni Soviét]] jeung [[nagara satelit]]na jeung Amérika Sarikat jeung sekutu Éropa Kulon-na saenggeus [[Perang Dunya II]] dimimitian ku [[Bernard Baruch]], saurang ahli piduiteun Amérika jeung panaaséhat présidén.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=54}}</ref> Dina salah sahiji pidato di [[South Carolina]] dina tanggal 16 April 1947,<ref>{{cite news|first=William|last=Safire|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/10/01/news/edsafire.php|title=Islamofascism Anyone?|work=The New York Times|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]|date=October 1, 2006|accessdate=December 25, 2008|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061022172712/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/10/01/news/edsafire.php|archivedate=October 22, 2006}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022172712/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/10/01/news/edsafire.php |date=October 22, 2006 }}</ref> Ceuk Baruch : "Urang ulah katipu: poé ieu urang aya di tengah-tengah perang Tiis."<ref>'[http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bernard-baruch-coins-the-term-cold-war Bernard Baruch coins the term "Cold War"]', history.com, April 16, 1947. Retrieved on July 2, 2008.</ref> Salah sahiji réporter jeung kolumnis surat kabar nu arana [[Walter Lippmann]] ngajabarkeun penjelasan nu sakitu panjang lebarna ngeunaan Perang Tiis dina bukuna nu judulna ''The Cold War'', waktu ditanya dina taun 1947 ngeunaan sumber istilah "perang Tiis", manéhna nyebutkeun istilah éta ngarujuk dina istilah Perancis ti taun 1930-an, ''la guerre froide''.<ref>[[Strobe Talbott]]: ''The Great Experiment: The Story of Ancient Empires, Modern States, and the Quest for a Global Nation'' (2009) p.441 n.3; Lippmann's own book is {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Ydc3AAAAIAAJ&q=walter+lippmann+cold+war&dq=walter+lippmann+cold+war|author=Lippmann, Walter|title=The Cold War|accessdate=Séptémber 2, 2008|publisher=Harper|year=1947}}</ref> ==Sabab kajadian == {{main|Mimiti Perang Tiis}} {{see|Kasieunan Beureum|Permainan Besar}} [[Gambar:American troops in Vladivostok 1918 HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG|thumb|right|Pasukan Amérika di [[Vladivostok]], Agustus 1918, salila [[Intervensi Sekutu dina Perang Saudara Rusia|intervensi Sekutu]] dina [[Perang Saudara Rusia]].]] Aya perdebatan dina golongan para [[sejarawan]] ngeunaan titik awal ti Perang Tiis. Loba ti golongan sejarawan mibanda pendapat yén Perang Tiis dikeureuyeh saenggeus Perang Dunya II engpikeun, nu lainna ogé mibanda pendapat yén Perang Tiis dipaju dina ahir [[Perang Dunya I]], sanajan kategangan antara [[Kekaisaran Rusia]], nagara-nagara Éropa lainna, jeung Amérika Sarikat geus aya dina pertengahan abad ka-19.<ref name="Gaddis"/> [[Révolusi Oktober|Révolusi Bolshevik]] di [[Rusia]] dina taun 1917 (diiluan ku panarikan mundur pasukana ti Perang Dunya I), mengakibatkan Soviét Rusia terisolasi ti diplomasi internasional.<ref name="lee">{{Harvnb|Lee|1999|p=57}}</ref> Pamingpin [[Vladimir Lenin]] ngomong yén Uni Soviét "dikepung ku para kapitalis nu mumusuhan", jeung mandang diplomasi sebagai senjata pikeun ngajauhkeun Soviét ti musuh, dimimitian ku [[Komintern]] Soviét, nu ngagoakkeun pergolakan Révolusioner di luar Soviét.<ref name="Palmieri34">{{Harvnb|Palmieri|1989|p=62}}</ref> Pamingpin Soviét [[Joseph Stalin]], nu nganggep [[Uni Soviét]] sebagai salah sahiji "kapuloan sosialis", nyatakeun yén Uni Soviét kudu mandang "dominasi kapitalis ayeuna kudu digantikan ku dominasi sosialis."<ref name="tucker46">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=46}}</ref> Dina awal 1925, [[Stalin]] nyieun pernyataan yén manéhna mandang pulitik internasional sebagai salah sahiji dunya bipolar di mana Uni Soviét bakal narik nagara-nagara liana ke arah sosialisme jeung nagara-nagara kapitalis ogé bakal narik nagara-nagara lian ka arah [[kapitalismeuu]], sadengkeun dunya keur aya dina périodeu "stabilisasi sementara kapitalismeu" saméméh rubuhna.<ref name="tucker47">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|pp=47–8}}</ref> Rupa-rupa kajadian saméméh Perang Dunya Kadua némbongkeun ayana silih teu percaya jeung curiga dina kakuatan Kulon jeung Uni Soviét, teu leupas ti filosofi umum partéy [[Bolshevik]] nu dijieun pikeun ngalawan kapitalismeu.<ref name = "Halliday">{{Harvnb|Halliday|2001|p=2e}}</ref> Ada dukungan ti Kulon ka [[gerakan Bodas]] anti-Bolshevik dina [[Perang Saudara Rusia]],<ref name = "Gaddis">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=57}}</ref> pemberian dana ku Uni Soviét ka pekerja pemberontak Britania dina taun 1926 ngabalukarkeun [[Britania Raya]] memutuskan hubungan dengan Uni Soviét,<ref name="tucker74">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=74}}</ref> deklarasi Stalin taun 1927 pikeun hirup berdampingan sacara damai dengan nagara-nagara kapitalis diurungkan,<ref name="tucker75">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=75}}</ref> tuduhan ayana konspirasi dina [[Peradilan Shakhty]] taun 1928 nu direncanakeun ku Britania jeung Perancis ngabalukarkeun kudéta,<ref name="tucker98">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=98}}</ref> penolakan Amérika pikeun mengakui Uni Soviét hingga taun 1933,<ref name = "LaFeber 1991">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|1991|pp=194–197}}</ref> jeung [[Stalieusme]] [[Peradilan Moskow]] pikeun kasus [[Pembersihan Gedé-Gedéan]], sarta tuduhan atas ayana spionaseu ti Britania, Perancis, jeung [[Jerman Nazi]] mangrupa kajadian-kajadian nu nukangan Perang Tiis.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tim Tzouliadis|title=The Forsaken|year=2008|url=https://archive.org/details/forsakenamerican0000tzou|publisher=The Penguin Press|isbn=978-1-59420-168-4}}</ref> Keur waktuna Tentara Jerman [[Operasi Barbarossa|menginvasi Uni Soviét]] dina bulan Juni 1941, Sekutu nyokot kauntungan ti front anyar ieu jeung milih pikeun ngabantuan Uni Soviét. Britania nandatanganan persekutuan formal jeung Amérika Sarikat nyieun kasepakatan informal jeung Soviét. Dina waktuna perang, Amérika Sarikat méré fasilitaa Britania jeung Soviét liwat program [[Lend-Lease]] na.<ref>George C. Herring Jr., ''Aid to Russia, 1941–1946: Strategy, Diplomacy, the Origins of the Cold War'' (Columbia University Press, 1973).</ref> Kumaha waé ogé, Stalin tetep neundeun rasa curiga kana kadua nagara éta jeung percaya yén Britania jeung Amérika Sarikat kong-kalingkong pikeun muguhkeunna yén Soviét bakal nanggung beban panggedéna dina perang ngalawan Jerman Nazi. Ceuk pandangana ieu, Sekutu Kulon ngahaja ngundur waktu pikeun muka front anti-Jerman kadua nu tujuanna pikeun beraksi di waktu-waktu ahir jeung diteruskeun nyieun panganggeusan damai. Jadi, persepsi Soviét ka dunya Kulon ngabalukarkeun ayana arus kategangan jeung permusuhan jeung pihak [[Sekutu Perang Dunya I|Sekutu]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|pp=151–153}}</ref> == Ahir Perang Dunya II (1945–1947) == === Konferensi pasca-perang di Éropa === [[Gambar:Yalta summit 1945 with Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin.jpg|thumb|right| "[[Sekutu Perang Dunya II|Tiga Besar]]" di Konferensi Yalta: [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] jeung [[Joseph Stalin]], 1945.]] {{see|Konferensi Teheran|Konferensi Yalta}} Saenggeus perang, Sekutu manggih mupakat ngeunaan pembagéan jeung pangukuhan tapel wates di Éropa.<ref name="Gaddis13-23">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=13–23}}</ref> Masing-masing pihak mibanda ide-ide nu berbéda ngeunaan pembentukan jeung pemeliharaan kaamanan dunya pasca-perang.<ref name="Gaddis13-23" /> Sekutu Kulon hayang sistem kaamanan ku cara nyieun salega-legana Pamaréntahan démokrasi, nu ngamungkinkeun nagara-nagara pikeun ngaréngsékeun konflik sacara damai melalui [[organisasi internasional]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=156}}</ref> Ngemutan sejarah invasi nu sok dikeureuyeuh ka Rusia,<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=7}}</ref> jeung deui gedénya [[Korban Perang Dunya II di Uni Soviét|jumlah korban nu maot]] (dikira kira 27 juta) jeung kaancuran Uni Soviét nu ngeureuyeuh waé saréngséna Perang Dunya II,<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm Leaders mourn Soviét wartime dead]", BBC News, May 9, 2005. Retrieved on July 2, 2008.</ref> Uni Soviét nyieun rupa-rupa usaha pikeun ningkatkeun kaamanan ku cara ngadominasi urusan dina negeri nagara-nagara nu babatesan jeung manéhna.<ref name="Gaddis13-23" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=176}}</ref> Sekutu Kulon ogé mibanda pendapat sorangan ngeunaan visi maranéhna kana kaayaan Dunya saréngséna perang. Tujuan Roosevelt - kajayaan militer di Éropa jeung Asia, pencapéian supreémasi ékonomi global Amérika nu ngéléhkeun [[Imperium Britania]], jeung menciptakan salah sahiji organisasi perdamaian dunya - leuwih bersifat global dibandingkan dengan Churcill, nu visinya berfokus pikeun mengamankan kontrol atas [[Laut Tengah]], memastikan keberlangsungan Imperium Britania, jeung memerdekakan nagara-nagara [[Éropa Wétan]] pikeun jadikana sebagai [[Nagara pennuga|pennuga]] antara Soviét jeung Britania Raya.<ref Name=Plokhy>{{Harvnb|Plokhy|2010|p=}}</ref> Dina pandangan Amérika, Stalin dianggep sebagai salah sahiji sekutu potensial pikeun mencapai tujuan maranéhna, sadengkeun dina pandangan Britania, Stalin dianggep ancaman panggedéna dina pencapéian agénda maranéhna. Ku diicingana lolobana ti nagara-nagara Éropa Wétan ku Soviét, Stalin aya dina pihak nu untung jeung kadua pamingpin Kulon silih sasaingan pikeun memperku dukungana. Perbédaan visi antara Roosevelt jeung Churchill ngabalukarkeun kadua pihak ngalakukeun negosiasi sacara terpisah dengan Stalin. Dina bulan Oktober 1944, Churcill ngalakukeun perjalanan ke [[Moskow]] jeung paheut pikeun ngabagi [[Balkan]] berdasarkan pangaruh masing-masing, jeung teu lila kemudian, di [[Yalta]], Roosevelt ogé nandatanganan kamupakatan terpisah dengan Stalin ngeunaan masalah Asia jeung nolak pikeun ngadukung Churcill dina isu jeung Reparasi [[Polandia]].<ref Name=Plokhy/> [[Gambar:Map-Germany-1945.svg|thumb|[[Zona Jajahan Sekutu di Jerman]] pasca-perang.]] Negosiasi leuwih lanjut antara Soviét jeung Sekutu sahubungan jeung kasaimbangan dunya saenggeus perang dina [[Konferensi Yalta]] dina bulan Februari 1945, sanajan konferensi ieu ogé gagal nepi ka konsesus ngeunaan kerangka kerja saenggeusperang di Éropa.<ref name="Gaddis21">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=21}}</ref> Dina bulan April 1945, Churcill jeung présidén Amérika Sarikat nu anyar , [[Harry S. Truman]], paheut pikeun ngalawan kaputusan Soviét nu méré bantuan ka Pamaréntahan Lublin, saingan [[Pamaréntahan Polandia di pengasingan]] nu dikontrol ku Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zubok|1996|p=94}}</ref> Saenggeus [[Ahir Perang Dunya II|kemenangan Sekutu]] dina bulan Mei 1945, Soviét sacara épéktip maju ngadumukan Éropa Wétan,<ref name="Gaddis21" /> sadengkeun pasukan Amérika Sarikat jeung Sekutu Kulon kukuh di [[Éropa Kulon]]. Di wilayah Jerman nu diicingan Sekutu, Uni Soviét, Amérika Sarikat, Britania Raya jeung [[Perancis]] nyieun [[Jajahan Sekutu di Jerman|zona Jajahan]] jeung nyieun kerangka kerja pikeun ngabagi wilayah-wilayah éta jadi opat zona Jajahan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=22}}</ref> [[Konferensi PBB ngeunaan Organisasi Internasional|Konferensi Sekutu dina taun 1945]] di [[San Francisco]] ngahasilkeun kaputusan ngeunaan pendirian organisasi PBB multi-nasional pikeun memelihara perdamaian dunya, namun kapasitas panegakanna ku [[Déwan Kaamanan PBB|Dewan Kaamanan]] sacara épéktip dilumpuhkeun ku kabisa anggotana pikeun maké [[hak veto]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bourantonis|1996|p=130}}</ref> Ku sebab itu, PBB dina dasarnya diubah jadi salah sahiji forum aktif pikeun tukeur retorika polemik, jeung Soviét dianggep sacara eksklusif sebagai tribun [[propaganda]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Garthoff|1994|p=401}}</ref> === Konferensi Potsdam jeung kaéléhan Jepang === [[Gambar:L to R, British Prime Mieuster Winston Churchill, President Harry S. Truman, and Soviét leader Josef Stalin in the... - NARA - 198958.jpg|thumb|[[Winston Churchill]], [[Harry S. Truman]] jeung [[Joseph Stalin]] di [[Konferensi Potsdam]], 1945.|pra=Special:FilePath/L_to_R,_British_Prime_Mieuster_Winston_Churchill,_President_Harry_S._Truman,_and_Soviét_leader_Josef_Stalin_in_the..._-_NARA_-_198958.jpg]] {{see|Konferensi Potsdam|Menyerahnya Jepang}} Dina [[Konferensi Potsdam]], nu dikeureuyeuh dina ahir Juli saenggeus ngarasa éléhna Jerman, perbédaan serius terkait dengan perkembangan masa depan Jerman jeung Éropa Wétan.<ref name = "Byrd">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Byrd, Peter|editor=McLean, Iain; McMillan, Alistair|encyclopedia=The concise Oxford dictionary of politics|title=Cold War (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/?id=xLbEHQAACAAJ|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-280276-3|ref=harv}}</ref> Selain itu, jumlah partisipan perang jeung perbédaan kebiasaan dijadikeun alasan ku satu sama lianna pikeun mengkonfirmasi kecurigaan maranéhna ngeunaan niat bermusuhan jeung mempertahankan kubu maranéhna masing-masing.<ref>Alan Wood, p. 62</ref> Dina konferensi ieu, Truman mérétahu Stalin yén Amérika Sarikat mibanda senjata anyar nu kuat.<ref name="Gaddis25" /> Stalin nyangka Amérika Sarikat keur ngembangkeun [[bom atum]], jeung ngingetan sasaran Amérika Sarikat kamungkinan saingan Soviét, nyaéta [[Jepang]], Stalin nanggepan hal éta ku sikep tenang. Stalin ngomong mun manéhna ngarasa bagja ku warta éta jeung nyatakeun kahayangna yén senjata éta bakal dipaké pikeun ngalawan Jepang.<ref name="Gaddis25">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=25–26}}</ref> Satu minggu saenggeus berahirnya Konferensi Potsdam, Amérika Sarikat [[Serangan bom atom di Hiroshima jeung Nagasaki|membom Hiroshima jeung Nagasaki]]. Teu lila saenggeus serangan, Stalin protés ka para petinggi Amérika Sarikat ku sabab leutikna bagéan [[Padumukan Sekutu atas Jepang|Jepang nu diicingan Sekutu]] nu ditawarkeun ku présidén Truman ka Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=28}}</ref> === Awal Blok Wétan === {{See|Blok Wétan}} [[Gambar:EasternBloc BorderChange38-48.svg|right|thumb|Perubahan wilayah pasca-perang di [[Éropa Wétan]] jeung pembentukan [[Blok Wétan]], nu dijuluki "Tirai Beusi".]] Dina awal Perang Dunya II, Uni Soviét meletakkan dasar bagi terbentuknya [[Blok Wétan]] ku cara nyaplok langsung sababaraha nagara saperti [[Republik Sosialis Soviét]], nu awalna dibérékeun ka Soviét ku [[Jerman Nazi]] dina [[Pakta Molotov-Ribbentrop]]. Wilayah ieu kaasup Polandia bagéan Wétan (terus dipisahkeun jadi [[Wilayah Polandia nu dicaplok ku Uni Soviét|dua nagara Soviét nu béda]]),<ref name="wettig20">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=21}}</ref><ref name="senn">Senn, Alfred Erich, ''Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above'', Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 978-90-420-2225-6</ref> [[Estonia]] (nu kemudian jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Estonia|RSS Estonia]]),<ref name="stalinswars43">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=43}}</ref> [[Latvia]] (jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Latvia|RSS Latvia]]),<ref name="wettig20"/><ref name="senn"/> [[Lithuania]] (jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Lituania|RSS Lithuania]]),<ref name="wettig20"/><ref name="senn"/> bagéan Wétan [[Finlandia]] (jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Karelo-Finlandia|RSS Karelo-Finlandia]]), jeung [[Rumania]] Wétan (nu jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Moldavia|RSS Moldavia]]).<ref name="stalinswars55">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=55}}</ref><ref name="shirer794">{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|p=794}}</ref> Wilayah Éropa Wétan nu dibébaskeun ti Nazi jeung diicingan ku pasukan Soviét salajengna ogé ditambahkeun ka Blok Wétan ku cara ngarobahna jadi [[nagara satelit]],<ref name = "Schmitz" /> nagara-nagara ieu di antarana [[Jerman Wétan]],<ref name="wettig96">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|pp=96–100}}</ref> [[Republik Rakyat Polandia]], [[Republik Rakyat Bulgaria]], [[Republik Rakyat Hongaria]],<ref name="dijk">van Dijk, Ruud, ''Encyclopedia of the Cold War, Volume 1'', p. 200. Taylor & Francis, 2008. ISBN 0-415-97515-8</ref> [[Republik Sosialis Cekoslowakia]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Grenville|2005|pp=370–71}}</ref> [[Republik Rakyat Romania]], jeung [[Republik Rakyat Albania]].<ref name="cook17">{{Harvnb|Cook|2001|p=17}}</ref> Rézim Soviét nu bijil di nagara-nagara Blok Wétan ngadopsi sistem [[ékonomi komando]] Soviét wungkul, manéhna ogé ngadopsimétodeubrutal nu dipaké ku [[Joseph Stalin]] jeung polisi rusiah Soviét pikeun neken oposisi nu nyata jeung poténsial.<ref name="roht83">{{Harvnb|Roht-Arriaza|1995|p=83}}</ref> Di Asia, [[Tentara Beureum]] geus ngabanjiran [[Manchuria]] dina bulan-bulan ahir perang, jeung ngeureuyeuh pikeun nyicingan bagéan besar wilayah [[Korea]] bagéan Kalér.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=40}}</ref> Sebagai bagéan ti konsolidasi kontrol Stalin atas Blok Wétan, [[NKVD]], nu dipimpin ku [[Lavrentiy Beria]], ngawasan dijieunna sistem polisi rusiah nu bergaya Soviét di Blok Wétan pikeun ngabasmi perlawanan anti-komunis.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34"/> Lamun aya saeutik waé sumanget kemerdekaan di nagara-nagara Blok Wétan, maranéhna nu miluan bakal disingkirkeun ti kakuasaan, diadilan, dipenjarakeun, jeung dina sababaraha kasus, diéksékusi.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 100">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=100}}</ref> [[Perdana Menteri Britania Raya]] [[Winston Churchill]] khawatir yén jumlah besar pasukan Soviét nu di Éropa dina ahir perang, jeung persepsi yén pamingpin Soviét Joseph Stalin teu bisa diandelkeun, bakal ngabalukarkeun anceman ka [[Éropa Kulon]].<ref name="Telegraph">Fenton, Ben. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080528222149/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=%2Farchive%2F1998%2F10%2F01%2Fnwar101.html The secret strategy to launch attack on Red Army]", telegraph.co.uk, October 1, 1998. Retrieved July 23, 2008.</ref> Dina bulan April-Mei 1945, [[Kementerian Perang Churcill|Kabinét Perang Britania Raya]] mengembangkan salah sahiji rencana operasi pikeun "memaksakan kehendak Amérika Sarikat jeung Imperium Britania ka Rusia".<ref>{{cite web | last = British War Cabinet, Joint Planning Staff, Public Record Office, CAB 120/691/109040 / 002 | date = August 11, 1945 | url = http://www.history.neu.edu/PRO2/ | title = Operation Unthinkable: 'Russia: Threat to Western Civilization' | format = online photocopy | publisher = Department of History, Northeastern University | accessdate =June 28, 2008 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080706093010/http://www.history.neu.edu/PRO2/ <!--Added by H3llBot--> | archivedate = July 6, 2008}}</ref> Namung rencana ieu ditolak ku [[Pupuhu Staf Komiteu]] sabab teu layakna sumber daya militer.<ref name="Telegraph" /> === Persiapan pikeun "perang anyar " === {{See|Artikel X|Tirai Beusi}} Dina bulan Februari 1946, laporan "[[Artikel X|Telegram Panjang]]" [[George F. Kennan]] ti Moskow ngabantuan pikeun ngartikulasikeun kawijakan Pamaréntah AS nu teterusan inténsif dina ngalawan Soviét, nu jadi dasar keur strategi Amérika Sarikat ks Uni Soviét salila Perang Tiis.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schecter|2003|pp=152–154}}</ref> Dina bulan Séptémber, pihak Soviét nyieun telegram [[Nikolai Vasilevich Novikov|Novikov]], nu dikirim ku duta besar Soviét ka Amérika Sarikat, namun pangiriman telegram ieu ditugaskeun jeung ogé ditulis ku [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], telegram ieu ngajelaskeun yén AS "ayana dina cengkeraman monopoli kapitalis nu ngembangkeun kamampuan militer dina rangka nyiapkeun kondisi pikeun meunangkeun supremasi dunya dina salah sahiji perang anyar ".<ref>{{Harvnb|Kydd|2005|p=107}}</ref> Dina tanggal 6 Séptémber 1946, [[James F. Byrnes]] menyampaikan pidato di Jerman nu mennukal [[Rencana Morgenthau]] (salah sahiji proposal pikeun misahkeun jeung de-industrialisasi di Jerman pasca-perang). Byrnes ogé ngingetan Soviét yén AS niat pikeun nahan kaayaan militerna teu dibatesan di Éropa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=30}}</ref> Sabulan saterusna, Byrnes ngaku yén pernyataana ieu mangrupa "intisari ti program kami pikeun meunangkeun haté warga Jerman&nbsp;[...] éta nyaéta pertempuran pikiran antara kami jeung Rusia&nbsp;[...]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daz.org/enJamesFByrnes.html|title=Southern Partnership: James F. Byrnes, Lucius D. Clay and Germany, 1945–1947|first=Curtis F|last=Morgan|accessdate=June 9, 2008|publisher=James F. Byrnes Institute}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705193541/http://www.daz.org/enJamesFByrnes.html |date=July 5, 2008 }}</ref> Babaraha minggu saenggeus dirilisna "Telegram Panjang", mantan Perdana Menteri Britania Winston Churchill nyampaikeun istilah terkenalna, "[[Tirai Beusi]]", dina salah sahiji pidato di [[Fulton, Missouri]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=94}}</ref> Dina pidato éta, Churcill nyerukeun supaya Inggris-Amérika bersekutu pikeun ngalawan Soviét, nu dituduhna geus ngabentangkan "tirai Beusi" ti "[[Szczecin|Stettin]] di [[Laut Baltik|Baltik]] nepi ka [[Trieste]] di [[Laut Adriatik|Adriatik]]".<ref name = "Schmitz">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Schmitz, David F.|editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John|encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|title=Cold War (1945–91): Causes [entire chapter]|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xtMKHgAACAAJ&dq=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-507198-0|ref=harv}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071015163941/http://winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711|archivedate=October 15, 2007|title=Churchill and...Politics: The True Meaning of the Iron Curtain Speech|author=Harriman, Pamela C.|accessdate=June 22, 2008|publisher=Winston Churchill Centre|date=Winter 1987–1988}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015163941/http://winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711 |date=October 15, 2007 }}</ref> Dina taun 1952, Stalin [[Nota Stalin|berulang kali mengajukan rencana pikeun menyatukan Jerman Wétan jeung Jerman Kulon]] di handap hiji Pamaréntahan tunggal nu dipilih dina pamilihan umum nu diawasan ku [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] mun Jerman nu anyar ieu leupas ti aliansi militer Kulon, namun usulan ieu ditolak ku kakuatan Kulon. Babaraha sumber nyengkétakeun kasungguhan usulan ieu.<ref>Van Dijk, Rudd. [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/ACFB54.pdf The 1952 Stalin Note Debate: Myth or Missed Opportunity for German Reunification?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502194421/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/ACFB54.pdf |date=2019-05-02 }} Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Cold War International History Project, Working Paper 14, May 1996.</ref> == Permulaan Perang Tiis (1947–1953) == {{Main|Perang Tiis (1947–1953)}} === Kominform jeung perpecahan Tito–Stalin === {{See|Kominform|Perpecahan Tito–Stalin}} Dina bulan Séptémber 1947, Soviét nyieun [[Kominform]], nu tujuana nyaéta pikeun menegakkan ortodoksi dina gerakan komunis internasional jeung ngetatkeun kontrol pulitik ka nagara-nagara satelit Soviét melalui koordinasi ti pihak komunis di [[Blok Wétan]].<ref name="Gaddis32" /> Kominform ngalaman kamunduran dina bulan Juni ka dituna saenggeus [[perpecahan Tito–Stalin]], nu ngabalukarkeun Soviét ngagoréngkeun [[Yugoslavia]]. Yugoslavia tetep jadi nagara komunis, namun maju ngadopsi posisi [[Gerakan Non-Blok|Non-Blok]]. === Kontainmen jeung Doktrin Truman === {{Main|Kontainmen|Doktrin Truman}} [[Gambar:Cold war europe military alliances map en.png|thumb|Aliansi militer Éropa.]] Dina taun 1947, panaséhat présidén AS [[Harry S. Truman]] maksa Truman pikeun nyokot langkah-langkah téréh dina ngalawan pangaruh Uni Soviét, Ngemutan upaya Stalin (ditengah kabingungan jeung karubuhanana saenggeus perang) pikeun ngalemahkeun Amérika Sarikat ku jalan sasaingan nu bisa ngadorong kalangan kapitalis supaya ngabalukareun perang nu lian.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=27}}</ref> Bulan Februari 1947, Pamaréntah Britania mengumumkan yén maranéhna teu sanggup deui ngabiayaan rezim militer monarki [[Yunani]] dina [[Perang Saudara Yunani]] pikeun ngalawan pemberontak komunis. Tanggepan Pamaréntah Amérika ka pengumuman Britania ieu nyaéta yén maranéhna bakal ngadopsi kawijakan [[kontainmen]],<ref name="Gaddis28">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=28–29}}</ref> nyaéta kawijakan nu tujuanna pikeun ngeureunkeun panyebaran [[komunisme]]. Truman nyampaikeum pidato nu eusina maksa alokasi dana $ 400 pikeun masilitasan miluna Amérika Sarikat dina perang Yunani jeung ngaluncurkeun [[Doktrin Truman]], nu nyatakeun yén konflik éta mangrupa kontes antara masyarakat bébas jeung rezim totaliter.<ref name="Gaddis28" /> Sanajan dina kanyataana para pemberontak komunis meunang bantuan ti pamingpin Yogoslavia [[Josip Broz Tito]],<ref name="LaFeber 1991" /> AS nuduh yén Uni Soviét sekongkolan jeung komunis Yunani pikeun ngalawan royalis dina upayana pikeun ngalegaan pangaruh Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=38}}</ref> Doktrin Truman nandaan awak ti kawijakan pertahanan bipartisan AS jeung konsesus kbijakan aluar negeri antara [[Partei Republik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partei Republik]] jeung [[Partei Demokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Demokrat]] nu bener-bener pokus dina kontainmen (panahanan) jeung nyegat panyebaran komunisme salila jeung saenggeus [[Perang Vietnam]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hahn|1993|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Higgs|2006|p=137}}</ref> partéy moderat jeung konservatif lianna di Éropa, sarta demokratik sosial, maju méré dukungan taya syarat ka Sekutu Kulon,<ref>{{Harvnb|Moschonas|Elliott|2002|p=21}}</ref> sadengkeun Komunis Amérika jeung Éropa, dibiayaan ku [[KGB]], pipilueun dina operasi intelijen,<ref>{{cite book|last=Andrew|first =Christopher|coauthors=Mitrokhin, Vasili|title= The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB|url=https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro0000andr_q5i4|publisher= Basic Books|year =2000|page =[https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro0000andr_q5i4/page/276 276]}}</ref> operasi ieu tetep sesuai jeung aturan Moskow, sanajan perbédaan pendapat di kalangan komunis ieu karak aya saenggeus taun 1956. Kritik lain ngeunaan Doktrin Truman ieu asalba ti [[Penentang Perang Vietnam|aktivis anti-Perang Vietnam]], [[CND]] jeung gerakan [[pembekuan nuklir]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Crocker|Hampson|Aall|2007|p=55}}</ref> === Rencana Marshall jeung kudéta Cekoslowakia === [[Gambar:Marshall Plan.png|right|thumb|Peta éra Perang Tiis di Éropa jeung Wétan Dekat, nunjukkeun nagara-nagara nu menerima bantuan [[Rencana Marshall]]. Kolum Beureum nunjukkeun jumlah relatif bantuan nu diterima per nagara.]] [[Gambar:Cold war europe economic alliances map en.png|thumb|Aliansi perékonomian Éropa.]] {{Main|Rencana Marshall|Kudéta Cekoslowakia 1948}} Dina awal 1947, Britania, Perancis, jeung Amérika Sarikat teu ngahasil nepi kéasepakatan jeung Uni Soviét ngeunaan rencana dijieuna deui perékonomian Jerman, kaasup jumlah rinci ngeunaan pamelakan modal industri, barang, jeung infrastruktur nu geus ancur ku Sekutu salila perang.<ref name="miller16">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=16}}</ref> Bulan Juni 1947, sarua jeung Doktrin Truman, Amérika Sarikat ngesahkeun program [[Rencana Marshall]], nyaéta salah sahiji program bantuan ékonomi ka sakabéh nagara Éropa nu daék pikeun miluan, kaasup Uni Soviét.<ref name="miller16"/> Tujuan ti rencana ieu pikeun ngawangun deui sistem [[démokrasi]] jeung perékonomian Éropa jeung pikeun ngabatesan pangaruh komunis di Éropa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=186}}</ref> Rencana ieu ogé nyatakeun yén kamakmuran Éropa kagantung dina pamulihan ékonomi Jerman.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html|title=Pas de Pagaille!|work=[[Time (majalah)|Time]]|date=July 28, 1947|accessdate=May 28, 2008}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828025646/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html |date=August 28, 2013 }}</ref> Sabulan kemudian, Truman mengesahkan [[Undang-Undang Kaamanan Nasional 1947]], nyieun [[Departemen Pertahanan Amérika Sarikat|Departemen Pertahanan]] terpadu, [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], jeung [[Badan Kaamanan Nasional]] (NSC). Hal ieu selanjutnyabakal jadi birokrasi utama kawijakan AS dina Perang Tiis.<ref name="Karabell" >{{Harvnb|Karabell|1999|p=916}}</ref> Stalin percaya yén integrasi ékonomi jeung [[Dunya Kulon|Kulon]]bakal ngamungkinkeun nagara-nagara Blok Wétan pikeun misahkeun diri ti kontrol Soviét, Stalin ogé percaya yén AS usaha pikeun “meuli” Éropa supaya mihak ka AS.<ref name="Gaddis32">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=32}}</ref> Ku sebab kitu, Stalin ngalarang nagara-nagara [[Blok Wétan]] nampanan bantuan Marshall.<ref name="Gaddis32" /> Alternatif Uni Soviét dina nandingan Rencana Marshall, nu ngabéakkeun subsidi Soviét jeung perdagangana jeung Éropa Wétan, nyaéta ku cara nyieun [[Rencana Molotov]] (terus dilembagakeun dina bulan Januari 1949 nu diaranan [[Comecon]]).<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Stalin ogé ngahariwangkeun upaya AS pikeun ngarékonstitusi Jerman; visi pasca-perangna ka Jerman teu kaasup hal ieu, sabab Soviét teu hayang méré senjata deui Jerman atawa ku lian kata, sieun yén hal éta bakal ngabalukarkeun anceman deui ka Uni Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=105–106}}</ref> Dina awal 1948, nyusul laporan nu nguatan "elemen reaksioner" di [[Cekoslowakia]], Soviét [[Kudéta Cekoslowakia 1948|ngalaksanakeun kudéta di Cekoslowakia]], nu mangrupa hiji-satunya nagara Blok Wétan nu diijinkan Soviét pikeun mempertahankan struktur démokrasinya.<ref name="wettig86">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=86}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Patterson|1997|p=132}}</ref> Kebrutalan publik dina kudéta ieu mengejutkan nagara-nagara Kulon, perdebatan muncul di Kongres Amérika Sarikat, nu sieuneun yén perangbakal terjadi kembali dina upaya Soviét pikeun menyapu habis sakabéh pendukung Rencana Marshall.<ref name="miller19">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=19}}</ref> Kawijakan kembar Doktrin Truman jeung Rencana Marshall ngabalukarkeuin miliaran bantuan ékonomi jeung militer mengalir pikeun [[Éropa Kulon]], [[Yunani]], jeung [[Turki]]. Dengan bantuan AS, militer Yunani berhasil meunangkeun perang saudara.<ref name = "Karabell" /> partéy [[Démokrasi Kristen (Italia)|Démokrasi Kristen]] [[Italia]] ogé sukses ngéléhkeun aliansi [[Partei Komunis Italia|Komunis]]-[[Partei Sosialis Italia|Sosialis]] dina pemilihan umum taun 1948.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=162}}</ref> Dina saat nu bersamaan, terjadi paningkatan aktivitas intelijen jeung [[spionaseu]], [[Pembelotan jeung emigrasi Blok Wétan|pembelotan Blok Wétan]], jeung pengusiran diplomatik.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cowley|1996|p=157}}</ref> === Blokade Berlin === [[Gambar:C-47s at Tempelhof Airport Berlin 1948.jpg|thumb|C-47s ngalakukeun pembongkaran di [[Bandar Udara Internasional Tempelhof|Bandar Udara Tempelhof]] di Berlin salila berlangsungnya Blokade Berlin.]] {{Main|Blokade Berlin}} Amérika Sarikat jeung Britania ngahijikeun zona Jajahan maranéhna di Jerman jadi “[[Bizone|Bizonia]]” (1 Januari 1947, terus jadi “Trizonia” saenggeus zona Jajahan Perancis ogé digabungkeun dina bulan April 1949).<ref name="miller13">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=13}}</ref> Bagéan ti upaya dibangunna deui perékonomian Jerman, dina awal 1948 perwakilan ti sababaraha nagara Éropa Kulon jeung Amérika Sarikat ngumumkeun kamupakatan pikeun ngahijikeun wilayah Jajahan Jerman Kulon jadi salah sahiji Pamaréntahan federal.<ref name="miller18">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=18}}</ref> Selain itu, sesuai dengan Rencana Marshall, maranéhna nyieun deui industrialisasi jeung ngatur deui perékonomian Jerman bareng-bareng, kaasup dibéwarakeunna mata uang anyar [[Deutsche Mark]] pikeun ngagantikeun mata uang [[Reichsmark]] lila nu nilaina anjlok Soviét.<ref name="miller31">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=31}}</ref> Teu lila sanggeusna, Stalin ngalembagakeun [[Blokade Berlin]] (24 Juni 1948 - 12 Mei 1949), salah sahiji krisis gedé kahiji nu kajadian salila Perang Tiis, nu tujuanna pikeun megatkeun akses jeung nyegat kadaharan, bahan, jeung kalengkepan lianna asup ka [[Berlin Kulon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=33}}</ref> Amérika Sarikat, Britania, Perancis, [[Kanada]], [[Selandia Baru]], [[Australia]], jeung Babaraha nagara lianna majukeun “bantuan udara” gedé-gedéan pikeun méré ka Berlin Kulon ku kadaharan jeung kalengkepan lianna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|pp=65–70}}</ref> Soviét ngalcarkeun kampanyeu hubungan publik kana parobahan kawijakan di Jerman Kulon. Para Komunis di Berlin Wétan ngupayakeun pikeun ngaganggu acara pemilihan umum munisipal di Berlin (saperti nu maranéhna lakukan dina pemilu 1946),<ref name="miller13"/> nu diayakeun dina tanggal 5 Désémber 1948 jeung ngahasilkeun 86,3% pemilih sakalian kajayaan nu gedé keur partéy non-Komunis.<ref>Turner, Henry Ashby, ''The Two Germanies Since 1945: East and West'', Yale University Press, 1987, ISBN 0-300-03865-8, page 29</ref> Hasil ieu sacara épéktip ngabagi Berlin jadi dua bagéan, nyaéta Berlin Wétan jeung Berlin Kulon. 300.000 warga Berlin démo jeung maksa supaya bantuan udara internasional pikeun Berlin tetep dilanjutkeun,<ref>Fritsch-Bournazel, Renata, ''Confronting the German Question: Germans on the East-West Divide'', Berg Publishers, 1990, ISBN 0-85496-684-6, page 143</ref> jeung pilot US Air Force [[Gail Halvorsen]] terus nanggepanna ku cara nyieun “[[Blokade Berlin|Operasi Permen]]” pikeun méré permen ka budak-budaj Jerman.<ref name="miller26">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=26}}</ref> Dina bulan Mei 1949, Stalin mundur jeung nyabut blokadeu ka Berlin.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=34}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|pp=180–81}}</ref> === Awal NATO jeung Radio Free Europe === {{Main|NATO|Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Penyebaran informasi Blok Wétan}} [[Gambar:Truman signing National Security Act Amendment of 1949.jpg|right|thumb| Presiden Truman nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Kaamanan Nasional 1947|Amendemen Undang-Undang Kaamanan Nasional 1949]] dengan para tamu di [[Oval Office]].]] Britania, Perancis, Amérika Sarikat, Kanada jeung dalapan nagara-nagara Éropa Kulon nandatanganan [[Pakta Pertahanan Atlantik Kalér]] dina bulan April 1949 pikeun nyieun [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO).<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34"/> Dina bulan Agustus, perangkat atom Soviét kahiji dibitukeun di [[Semipalatinsk]], [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Kazakhstan|RSS Kazakhtan]].<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Saenggeus Soviét nolak pikeun miluan dina upaya dibanguna deui Jerman nu geus ditetapkeun ku nagara-nagara Éropa Kulon dina taun 1948,<ref name="miller18"/><ref name="turner23">{{Harvnb|Turner|1987|p=23}}</ref> AS, Britania, jeung Perancis meloporan dijieuna [[Jerman Kulon]] di tilu zona Jajahan maranéhna nu digabungkeun dina bulan April 1949.<ref name = "Byrd" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Trizonia|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2011|accessdate=May 7, 2011|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/606151/Trizonia}}</ref> Soviét teus nyikepanna ku dibéwarakeuna dijieuna [[Jerman Wétan|Republik Demokratik Jerman]] di zona Jajahana di Jerman Wétan dina bulan Oktober.<ref name = "Byrd" /> Média massa di [[Blok Wétan]] mangrupa [[Panyebaran informasi Blok Wétan|organ nagara]], operasionalna bener-bener kagantung jeung tunduk dina peraturan partéy komunis, media televisi jeung radio ditetapkeun sebagai Badan usaha milik nagara, sadengkeun [[media cetak]] biasana dibogaan ku organisasi pulitik, bagéan gedéna dibogaan ku partéy komunis lokal.<ref name="oneil15">{{cite book|last=O'Neil|first=Patrick|title=Post-communism and the Media in Eastern Europe|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0-7146-4765-9|pages=15–25}}</ref> [[Propaganda]] Soviét maké filosofi Marxis pikeun nyerang kapitalismeu, mengklaim éksploitasi tenaga kerja, jeung perang ka imperialisme.<ref>James Wood, p. 111</ref> Ku waktu dilegaana siaran [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]] jeung [[Voice of America]] ka Éropa Wétan,<ref>{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=131}}</ref> upaya propaganda gedé-gedéan dipaju dina taun 1949 ku dijieuna [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], nu didedikasikeum pikeun ngawartakeun ngeunaan éra kakacauan ti sistem komunisme di Blok Wétan.<ref name="Puddington9" /> Radio Free Europe ngaupayakeun pikeun nepi ka tujuana ku cara ngalayanan pamiarsa sebagai stasiun radio gaganti, jeung jadi alternatif keur media dina negeri nu dikontrol jeung didominasi ku partéy.<ref name="Puddington9">{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=9}}</ref> Radio Free Europe Éropa nyaéta produk ti sababaraha arsitek nu pang nonjolna ti strategi Perang Tiis awal Amérika, utamana maranéhna nu percaya yén Perang Tiis dina ahirna bakal diperjuangkeun liwat jalur pulitik daripada militer, siga Géorge F. Kennan.<ref name="Puddington7">{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=7}}</ref> Nu nyieun kawijakan Amérika, kaasup Kennan jeung [[John Foster Dulles]], ngaku yén Perang Tiis dina kanyataana mangrupa salah sahiji perang gagasan.<ref name=Puddington7 /> Amérika Sarikat, dibantuan ku [[CIA]], ngabiayaan daptar panjang proyék-proyék pikeun ngalawan daya tarik komunis keur kalangan intelektual Éropa jeung nagara-nagara berkembang, atawa ku kata lian, nyegat upaya Soviét pikeun nyebarkeun pangaruh komunisna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=10}}</ref> CIA icing-icing ogé nyeponsoran kampanyeu propaganda dina negeri nu disebut [[Pembasmian pikeun Kebébasan]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Cummings|first=Richard H.|title=Radio free Europe's "Crusade for freedom" : rallying Americans behind Cold War broadcasting, 1950-1960|year=2010|publisher=McFarland & Co|location=Jefferson, N.C.|isbn=9780786444106|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BO78hXsRebkC}}</ref> Dina awal 1950-an, AS ngupayakeun méré senjata deui Jerman Kulon. Dina taun 1955, AS ngajamin kaanggotaan pinuh Jerman Kulon di NATO.<ref name = "Byrd" /> Saméméhnya, bulan Mei 1953, Soviét gagal nyegat upaya dihijikeuna Jerman Kulon ka NATO.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=105}}</ref> === Perang Saudara Cina jeung SEATO === {{See|Perang Saudara Cina| Pakta Pertahanan Asia Tenggara}} [[Gambar:Mao, Bulganin, Stalin, Ulbricht Tsedenbal.jpeg|thumb|[[Mao Zedong]] jeung [[Joseph Stalin]] di Moskow, Désémber 1949 ]] Dina taun 1949, Tentara Pembébasan Rahayat [[Mao Zedong]] ngahasil ngagulingkeun Pamaréntahan Nasionalis [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) [[Chiang Kai-shek]] nu didukung ku Amérika Sarikat di [[Tiongkok]], jeung Uni Soviét tuluy ngajalin aliansi jeung [[Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]] nu anyar kabentuk.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=39}}</ref> Chiang jeung Pamaréntahan KMT na mundur ka kapuloan [[Taiwan]]. Sabab dihadapkeun dina [[Révolusi Cina (1949)|Révolusi komunis di Tiongkok]] jeung [[Proyék bom atom Soviét|ahir ti monopoli atom]] Amérika Sarikat dina taun 1949, Pamaréntahan Truman langsung ngalegaan jeung ningkatkeun kawijakan [[kontainmen]] maranéhna di Tiongkok.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Dina [[NSC-68]], salah sahiji dokumen rusiah dina taun 1950,<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 164">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=164}}</ref> disebutkeun yén Dewan Kaamanan Nasional ngusulkeun pikeun nguatan sistem aliansi pro-Kulon jeung ngagedéan pangeluaran pertahanan.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Amérika Sarikat salajengna ogé maju ngalegaan kawijakan kontainmen maranéhna ke Asia, Afrika, jeung [[Amérika Latin]] pikeun ngalawan gerakan nasionalis Révolusioner, lolobana dipimpin ku partéy-partéy komunis nu dibiayaan ku Soviét jeung berjuang dina ngalawan dominasi kolonial Éropa di [[Asia Tenggara]] jeung wilayah lianna.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p= 212}}</ref> Dina awal 1950-an (périodeu ieu kadang dikenal ku “[[Pactomania]]”), AS nyieun rangkéan aliansi jeung Jepang, Australia, Selandia Anyar , Thailand, jeung [[Filipina]] (utamana [[ANZUS]] dina taun 1951 jeung [[Pakta Pertahanan Asia Tenggara|SEATO]] dina taun 1954). Aliansi ieu nyieun AS mibanda sababaraha pangkalan militer jangka panjang di nagara-nagara éta.<ref name = "Byrd" /> === Perang Korea === {{Main|Perang Korea}} [[Gambar:IncheonLandingMcArthur.jpg|thumb|left|Jenderal [[Douglas MacArthur]], komandan CiC PBB (diuk), nempokeun panembakan laut [[Incheon]] ti [[USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7)|USS ''Mt. McKinley'']], 15 Séptémber 1950.]] Salah sahiji dampak nu signifikan ti kawijakan kontainmen Amérika Sarikat nyaéta peupeusna [[Perang Korea]]. Dina bulan Juni 1950, [[Tentara Rakyat Korea|Tentara Rakyat Korea Kalér]] di handap arahan ti [[Kim Il-Sung]] nginvasi [[Korea Kidul]].<ref name="Stokesbury1990">{{cite book|title= A Short History of the Korean War|url= https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofko00unse|last=Stokesbury|first= James L|year= 1990|publisher=Harper Perennial|location= New York|isbn= 0-688-09513-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofko00unse/page/14 14]}}</ref> Joseph Stalin “ngarencanakeun, nyiapkeun, jeung majukeun” invasi éta,<ref>David Dallin, ''Soviét Foreign Policy After Stalin'' (J. B. Lippincott, 1961), p60.</ref> nyusun “rencana [perang] nu parélé” nu terus dikirimkeun ka Koréa Kalér.<ref>Douglas J. Macdonald, “Communist Bloc Expansion in the Early Cold War,” International Security, Winter 1995-6, p180.</ref><ref>John Lewis Gaddis, ''We Know Now: Rethinking Cold War History'' (Oxford University Press, 1997), p71.</ref><ref>Sergei N. Goncharov, John W. Lewis and Xue Litai, ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao and the Korean War'' (Stanford University Press, 1993), p213</ref><ref>William Stueck, ''The Korean War: An International History'' (Princeton University Press, 1995), p69.</ref> Pikeun ngareuwaskeun Stalin,<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> [[Dewan Kaamanan PBB]] ngadukung jeung masilitasan pertahanan di Koréa Kidul, sanajan Soviét terus memboikot sidang sebagei protés sabab [[Republik Tiongkok|Taiwan]] nu dibéréan korsi tetep di dewan, bukana [[Republik Rakyat Tiongkok|Komunis Cina]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Malkasian|2001|p=16}}</ref> Personel militer gabungan PBB nu ngahiji ti Koréa Kidul, AS, Britania Raya, Turki, Kanada, Australia, Perancis, Afrika Kidul, Filipina, Belanda, Belgia, Selandia Baru, jeung nagara-nagara lianna ngahiji pikeun ngeureunkeun invasi ieu.<ref>Fehrenbach, T. R., ''This Kind of War: The Classic Korean War History'', Brasseys, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-334-8, page 305</ref> Épék laina ti Perang Koréa nyaéta ngadorong [[NATO]] pikeun ngembangkeun struktur militer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Isby|Kamps|1985|pp=13–14}}</ref> Opini publik di nagara-nagara nu miluan, seperti Britania, lolobana ngalawan perang ieu. Loba nu sieuneun yén perang ieu bakal ningkat jadi perang gedé ku Komunis Cina, atawa jadi [[perang nuklir]]. Pandangan nu béda ngeunaan perang ieu sok ngayakeun kategangan dina [[Hubungan Amérika Sarikat–Britania Raya|hubungan Britania–Amérika]]. Sabab alesan ieu, Britania nyokot langkah téréh pikeun ngeureunkeun konflik ku cara ngayakeun ide ngeunaan ngahijikeun Koréa di handap naungan PBB jeung panarikan sakabéh pasukan asing.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Cotton |first = James |title = The Korean war in history |publisher = Manchester University Press ND |year = 1989 |page = [https://archive.org/details/koreanwarinhisto0000unse/page/100 100] |url =https://archive.org/details/koreanwarinhisto0000unse |id = |isbn = 0-7190-2984-8}}</ref> Sanajan Cina jeung Koréa Kalér geus capé ku perang nu ngeureuyeuh terus jeung siap pikeun ngeureunana dina taun 1952, Stalin kukuh yén maranéhna kudu terus berjuang, jeung [[gencatan senjata]] anyar disetujuan dina taun 1953 saenggeus pupusna Stalin.<ref name = "Byrd" /> Pamingpin Koréa Kalér Kim Il Sung terus ngayakeun kediktatoran nu terpusat pidan jeung brutal di Koréa Kalér, méréna kakuasaan teu kabatas jeung ngahasilkeun salah sahiji kultus kapribadian nu teu katembus berdekade-dekade lilana.<ref>Oberdorfer, Don, ''The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History'', Basic Books, 2001, ISBN 0-465-05162-6, page 10-11</ref><ref>No, Kum-Sok and J. Roger Osterholm, ''A MiG-15 to Freedom: Memoir of the Wartime North Korean Defector who First Delivered the Secret Fighter Jet to the Americans in 1953'', McFarland, 1996, ISBN 0-7864-0210-5</ref> Di Koréa Kidul, pamingpin [[Korupsi|korup]] [[Syngman Rhee]] nu meunang dukungan ti AS nerapkeun sistem Pamaréntahan [[Totalitarianisme|totaliter]].<ref>{{Cite book|last = Hastings|first = Max|title = The Korean War|publisher = Simon & Schuster|year = 1988|location = New York|pages = 89–90|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=wvOMegzEi3AC|id =|isbn = 0-671-66834-X}}</ref> Saenggeus Rhee digulingkan dina taun 1960, Koréa Kidul ragrag di handap masa Pamaréntahan militer nu lumangsung nepi ka dijieuna deui sistem multi-partéy dina taun 1987. == Krisis jeung paningkatan (1953-1962) == {{Main|Perang Tiis (1953–1962)}} [[Gambar:1959 NATO and WP troop strengths in Europe.svg|thumb|Kakuatan tentara NATO jeung [[Pakta Warsawa]] di Éropa dina taun 1959.]] === Khrushchev, Eisenhower jeung de-Stalieusasi === Dina taun 1953, perobahan dina kepamingpinan pulitik di kadua pihak turut menggeser dinamika Perang Tiis.<ref name=autogenerated1>Karabell, p. 916</ref> [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] dilantik sebagai présidén AS nu anyar dina bulan Januari. Salila 18 bulan terahir Pamaréntahan Truman, anggaran pertahanan Amérika Sarikat telah meningkat opat kali lipat, jeung Eisenhower bertekad pikeun ngurangan sepertiga ti pengeluaran militer sambil terus berjuang dina Perang Tiis sacara épéktip.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Saenggeus kematian [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Nikita Khrushchev]] jadi pamingpin Soviét saenggeus deposisi jeung pengeksekusian [[Lavrentiy Beria]] jeung ogé menyingkirkan saingana seperti [[Georgy Malenkov]] jeung [[Vyacheslav Molotov]]. Dina tanggal 25 Februari 1956, Khrushchev mengejutkan delegasi dina Kongres ke-20 [[Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Partei Komunis Soviét]] dengan mencela kejahatan Stalin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=107}}</ref> Sebagai bagéan ti kampanye [[de-Stalieusasi]], manéhna nyatakeun yén hiji-hijina cara pikeun méré formasi jeung menjauh ti kawijakan Stalin nyaéta dengan mengakui kesalahan nu dilakukana dina masa lalu.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dina tanggal 18 November 1956, saat berpidato ka duta besar Kulon dina salah sahiji resepsi di kedutaan Polandia di Moskow, Khrushchev mengungkapkan kalimat terkenalnya: "Entah kalian suka atawa henteu, sejarah aya di pihak kami. Kamibakal mengubur kalian", pernyataana ieu mengejutkan sakabéh tamu nu hadir.<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867329,00.html We Will Bury You!] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824033318/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867329,00.html |date=2013-08-24 }}", ''[[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]]'', November 26, 1956. Retrieved June 26, 2008.</ref> Khrushchev kemudian mengklaim yén manéhna teu membicarakan ngeunaan perang nuklir, melainkan ngeunaan kemenangan komunisme atas kapitalismeu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=84}}</ref> Taun 1961, Khrushchev nyatakeun: "bahkan jika Uni Soviét aya di belakang Kulon, dina satu dekade kekurangan perumahanbakal lenyap, barang-barang konsumsibakal melimpah, jeung dina dua dekade, pembangunan masyarakat komunis di Uni Soviétbakal selesai".<ref>{{Harvnb|Tompson|1997|pp=237–239}}</ref> Sekretaris nagara Eisenhower, John Foster Dulles, ngamimitian kawijakan "[[New Look]]" nu jadi strategi kontainmen (penahanan) anyar, nu nyerukeun supaya AS leuwih ngandelkeun senjata nuklir pikeun ngalawan musuh-musuhna keur waktuna perang.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dulles ogé nyerukeun doktrin "pembalasan besar-besaran" jeung nitah ka AS pikeun teu nanggepan unggal agresi Soviét. Sebagai contoh, karena Soviét mibanda kaunggulan nuklir, Eisenhower, di handap ancaman ti Khrushchev, nolak pikeun campur tangan dina [[Krisis Suez]] di [[Wétan Tengah]] dina taun 1956.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> === Pakta Warsawa jeung Révolusi Hungaria === {{Main|Pakta Warsawa| Révolusi Hongaria}} [[Gambar:Location Warsaw Pakt.svg|thumb|right|300px|Peta nagara-nagara [[Pakta Warsawa]].]] Saenggeus kematian Stalin dina taun 1953, kategangan berlangsung dengan sedikit leuwih santai, meskipun situasi di Éropa tetep belum kondusif.<ref name = "Palmowski">{{Harvnb|Palmowski|year=2004}}</ref> Soviét, nu sudah nyieun jaringan perjanjian bantuan timbal balik dina [[Blok Wétan]] dina taun 1949,<ref>Feldbrugge, p. 818</ref> ogé nyieun suatu aliansi formal pikeun ngalengkepana, nyaéta [[Pakta Warsawa]] dina taun 1955.<ref name = "Byrd" /> [[Révolusi Hongaria]] 1956 terjadi teu lila saenggeus Khrushchev menghapuskan kakuasaan pamingpin Stalieus Hongaria [[Mátyás Rákosi]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/4/newsid_2739000/2739039.stm|title=Soviét troops overrun Hungary|publisher=BBC News|date=November 4, 1956|accessdate=June 11, 2008}}</ref> Sebagai tanggepan ka pemberontakan,<ref>Video: [http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/selection/rip/4/av/1956-44.html Revolt in Hungary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117094223/http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/selection/rip/4/av/1956-44.html |date=2007-11-17 }} Narrator: [[Walter Cronkite]], producer: CBS (1956) – Fonds 306, Audiovisual Materials Relating to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, OSA Archivum, Budapest, Hungary ID number: HU OSA 306-0-1:40</ref> rezim anyar ieu sacara resmi dibubarkan ku [[ÁVH|polisi rusiah]], nyatakeun niatnya pikeun menarik diri ti [[Pakta Warsawa]] jeung jangji pikeun ngayakeun pemilihan umum nu. Tentara Soviét mulai menyerbu.<ref name=troops>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{PDF|[http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf Chapter IV. E (Logistical deployment of new Soviét troops), para 181 (p. 56)]|1.47&nbsp;MB}}</ref> Rébuan warga Hongaria ditangkap, dipenjarakan, dideportasi ke Uni Soviét,<ref>{{cite web | title = Report by Soviét Deputy Interior Mieuster M. N. Holodkov to Interior Mieuster N. P. Dudorov (15 November 1956) | work = The 1956 Hungarian Revolution, A History in Documents | publisher = George Washington University: The National Security Archive | date = November 4, 2002 | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc8.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate =Séptémber 2, 2006}}</ref> jeung leuwih ti 200.000 warga melarikan diri keluar Hongaria.<ref name="Cseresneyes">{{cite journal| last = Cseresnyés| first = Ferenc| title = The '56 Exodus to Austria| journal = The Hungarian Quarterly| volume = XL| issue = 154| pages = 86–101| publisher = Society of the Hungarian Quarterly| url = http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no154/086.html| date = Summer 1999| accessdate = October 9, 2006| ref = harv| postscript = .}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041127172402/http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no154/086.html |date=November 27, 2004 }}</ref> Pamingpin Hongaria [[Imre Nagy]] jeung nu lianna dieksekusi saenggeus diprosés dina salah sahiji persidangan rusiah.<ref name="BBCJune16">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/16/ "On This Day June 16, 1989: Hungary reburies fallen hero Imre Nagy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425235008/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/16/ |date=April 25, 2009 }} British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reports on Nagy reburial with full honors. Retrieved October 13, 2006.</ref> Ti 1957 sampai 1961, Khrushchev sacara terbuka jeung teterusan ngancem Kulon ku pamusnahan nuklir. Manéhna mengklaim yén kamampuan rudal Soviét jauh leuwih unggul ti Amérika Sarikat, jeung mampu mupuskeun dayeuh-dayeuh di Amérika atawa Éropa. Namun, Khrushchev nolak keyakinan Stalin dina keniscayaan perang jeung nyatakeun yén tujuan barunya nyaéta pikeun "hirup berdampingan sacara damai".<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=70}}</ref> Kawijakan ieu berbéda dengan Soviét dina éra Stalin, di mana [[perjuangan kelas]] internasional hartina yén kadua kubu nu berlawanan aya dina konflik tak terelakkan dengan komunisme nu bakal menang melalui [[Perang Dunya|perang global]]. Ayeuna, perdamaianbakal ngamungkinkeun kapitalismeu pikeun menghadapi keruntuhana sendiri,<ref>{{Harvnb|Perlmutter|1997|p=145}}</ref> jeung ogé méré waktu bagi Soviét pikeun ningkatkeun kamampuan militer maranéhna,<ref>{{Harvnb|Njolstad|2004|p=136}}</ref> nu bakal tetep bertahan puluhan taun sampai munculnya éra "pemikiran baru" Gorbachev.<ref>Breslauer, p. 72</ref> Paristiwa di [[Hongaria]] melumpuhkan idéologi partéy-partéy Komunis dunya, terutama di [[Éropa Kulon]], jeung terjadi penurunan nu besar dina jumlah kéanggotaan partéy. Nagara-nagara Kulon jeung komunis merasa kecewa dengan respon brutal Soviét.<ref name=Lendvai196>{{Cite book |last = Lendvai |first = Paul |title = One day that shook the Communist world: the 1956 Hungarian uprising and its legacy |publisher = Princeton University Press |year = 2008 |page = [https://archive.org/details/onedaythatshookc0000lend/page/196 196] |url =https://archive.org/details/onedaythatshookc0000lend |id = |isbn = 0-691-13282-8}}</ref> partéy komunis di Kulon can pernah pulih ti pangaruh Révolusi Hongaria dina hal kéanggotaan partéy, fakta nu segera diakui ku Babaraha pihak, seperti politisi [[Yugoslavia]] [[Milovan Djilas]], nu nyatakeun yén: "luka nu ditorehkan ku Révolusi Hongaria ka komunisme can pernah bener-bener sembuh".<ref name=Lendvai196/> === Ultimatum Berlin jeung integrasi Éropa === [[Gambar:Soviét empire 1960.png|thumb|Wilayah-wilayah di dunya nu aya di handap pangaruh Soviét saenggeus [[Révolusi Kuba]] taun 1959 jeung saméméh [[perpecahan Sino-Soviét]] taun 1961.|pra=Special:FilePath/Soviét_empire_1960.png]] Salila bulan November 1958, Khrushchev gagal pikeun ngarobah sakabéh [[Berlin]] jadi "dayeuh nu independen, terdemiliterisasi jeung bébas", hal ieu membuat Amérika Sarikat, Britania, jeung Perancis diberi ultimatum enam bulan pikeun menarik pasukan maranéhna ti sektor nu masih diicingan di Berlin Kulon, atawa Khrushchevbakal mengalihkan kendali hak akses Kulon ke [[Jerman Wétan]]. Khrushchev saméméhnya menjelaskan ka [[Mao Zedong]] yén "Berlin nyaéta testikelnya Kulon. Unggal kali saya hayang membuat Kulon menjerit, maka sayabakal meremas Berlin."<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=71}}</ref> [[NATO]] sacara resmi nolak ultimatum ieu dina pertengahan Désémber jeung Khrushchev menarik kembali ultimatumnya dina konferensi Jenewa.<ref>Glees, pp. 126–27</ref> Leuwih luas deui, salah sahiji ciri ti taun 1950-an nyaéta awal ti [[integrasi-Éropa]], nu mangrupa produk ti Perang Tiis nu memperomosikan pulitik, ékonomi, jeung militer Truman jeung Eisenhower, namun kemudian hal ieu dipandang sebagai kawijakan nu ambigu, takut yén Éropa nu independen bakal ngalakukeun ''[[détente]]'' misah ti Uni Soviét, nu bisa dipaké pikeun ngagogoréng perpecahan Kulon.<ref>Cameron‏, p. 156</ref> === Sasaingan di Dunya Katilu === {{Main|Kudéta Iran 1953|Kudéta Guatemala 1954|Krisis Kongo|Dekolonisasi|Gerakan Non-Blok}} [[Gambar:1961 CPA 2566.jpg|thumb|170px|right|Perangko Soviét taun 1961 nu nungtut kebébasan bagi nagara-nagara Afrika.]] [[Gambar:The Soviet Union 1961 CPA 2576 stamp (The Struggle for the Liberation of Africa. Lumumba ( 1925-1961 ), premier of Congo).jpg|thumb|upright|Perangko Soviét taun 1961 intuk memperingati [[Patrice Lumumba]], perdana menteri [[Republik Kongo]].]] Gerakan nasionalis di sabaraha nagara saperti [[Guatemala]], [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Indocina]] sok bersekutu jeung kelompok komunis, atawa nu dianggep ku Kulon dibantuan ku komunis.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dina konteks ieu, Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Soviét terus ningkatkeun sasaingan maranéhna pikeun nyebarkeun pangaruh dengan cara néangan proksi di [[Dunya Katilu]], jeung ieu bertepatan dengan momentum [[dekolonisasi]] dina taun 1950-an jeung awal 1960-an.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=121–124}}</ref> Selain itu, Soviét terus dirugikan ku kakuatan-kakuatan imperialis.<ref>Edelheit, p. 382</ref> Kadua pihak mulai ngalakukeun pengiriman jeung penjualan senjata ka nagara-nagara Dunya Katilu pikeun meunang pangaruh.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Towle|first1 = Philip|title = The Oxford History of Modern War|url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town|chapter = Cold War|editors = Charles Townshend|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 2000|location = New York, USA|page = [https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town/page/160 160]|accessdate =August 12, 2011|isbn = 0-19-285373-2}}</ref> Amérika Sarikat memanfaatkan [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) pikeun menyusup ke dina pergolakan pulitik di Dunya Katilu jeung ogé pikeun ngadukung sekutu maranéhna.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dina taun 1953, CIA melaksanakan [[Operasi Ajax]], salah sahiji operasi rusiah nu bertujuan pikeun ngagulingkeun perdana menteri [[Iran]], [[Mohammed Mossadegh]]. Mosadegh nu menganut prinsip [[Gerakan Non-Blok|Non-Blok]] telah jadi nemesis [[Wétan Tengah]] bagi Britania sejak manéhna menasionalisasi perusahaan minyak [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]] milik Britania dina taun 1951. [[Winston Churchill]] mengatakan ka AS yén Mossadegh "beuki beralih ke komunisme".<ref>Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne ''Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran'', Syracuse University Press, May 2004. ISBN 0-8156-3018-2, p. 125.</ref><ref>{{Cite document |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran521120.pdf |format=PDF |title=United States policy regarding the current situation in Iran |publisher=George Washington University |date=November 20, 1952 |author=James S. Lay, Jr. |accessdate=November 7, 2007 |ref=harv}} Statement of policy proposed by the National Security Council</ref><ref>{{Cite document |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran530320.pdf |format=PDF |title=First Progress Report on Paragraph 5-1 of NSC 136/1, "U.S. Policy Regarding the Current Situation in Iran" |publisher=George Washington University |author=Walter B. Smith, Undersecretary |date=March 20, 1953 |accessdate=November 7, 2007 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite document |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran530300.pdf |publisher=George Washington University |title=Measures which the United States Government Might Take in Support of a Successor Government to Mosaddegh |month=March |year=1953 |format=PDF |accessdate=November 7, 2007 |ref=harv}}</ref> [[Shah]] nu pro-Kulon, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], kemudian naik jabatan sebagai monarki [[otokratik]].<ref>{{Cite book|last = Watson|first = Cynthia A.|title = U.S. National Security: A Reference Handbook|publisher = ABL-CLIO|year = 2002|location = Santa Barbara, California|page = 118|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Nj2monE0y4cC|id =|isbn = 978-1-57607-598-2}}</ref> Kawijakan Shah nu anyar ieu di antarana ngalarang aktivitas partéy komunis [[Partei Tudeh|Tudeh]] jeung penekanan perbédaan pendapat pulitik ku [[SAVAK]], Badan kaamanan jeung intelijen dina negeri Shah. Di [[Guatemala]], salah sahiji [[Kudéta Guatemala 1954|kudéta militer nu didukung CIA]] berhasil ngagulingkeun présidén sayap kiri [[Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán]] dina taun 1954.<ref>Stone, ''The Atlantic and Its Enemies'' (2010) pp 199, 256</ref> Pamaréntah pasca-Arbenz nu dipimpin ku [[Carlos Castillo Armas]] mengembalikan sakabéh properti milik AS nu dinasionalisasi, nyieun [[Komite Nasional Pertahanan Ngalawan Komunisme]], jeung mendekritkan Hukum Pidana Pencegahan Ka Komunisme atas permintaan Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Bulmer-Thomas|first = V.|title = The Political Economy of Central America since 1920|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1987|location = Cambridge|page = 142|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=zHE5AAAAIAAJ|isbn = 978-0-521-34284-1}}</ref> présidén Indonésia, [[Soekarno]], nu ngagem prinsip-prinsip Non-Blok, dihadapkan dina ancaman besar dina awal taun 1956, ketika Babaraha komanjeung daerah mulai nungtut otonomi ti [[Jakarta]]. Saenggeus prosés mediasi gagal, Soekarno mengambil tindakan tegas pikeun menyingkirkan maranéhna nu membangkang. Dina bulan Februari 1958, komanjeung militer di [[Sumatera Tengah]] (Kolonel [[Ahmad Husein]]) jeung Sulawesi Kalér (Kolonel [[Ventje Sumual]]) mendeklarasikan pembentukan [[Pamaréntah Révolusioner Republik Indonésia]]-[[Permesta]], nu bertujuan pikeun ngagulingkeun rezim Soekarno. Maranéhna bergabung dengan politisi sipil lianna ti partéy [[Masyumi]] seperti [[Sjafruddin Prawiranagara]], nu ngalawan pertumbuhan pangaruh ti [[Partei Komunis Indonésia]]. Karena retorika anti-komunis maranéhna, pemberontakan maranéhna mendapat bantuan senjata, dana, jeung bantuan lianna ti CIA. Hal ieu terbukti saat pesawat Amérika nu dipiloti ku [[Allen Lawrence Pope]] tertembak jatuh di [[Ambon]] dina bulan April 1958. Pamaréntah pusat nanggepannya dengan meluncurkan invasi militer lewat laut jeung udara melalui [[Dinang]] jeung [[Manado]]. Dina ahir 1958, para pemberontak berhasil dikalahkan, jeung pemberontak nu tersisa menyerahkan diri dina bulan Agustus 1961.<ref>{{cite book |last = Roadnight |first = Andrew |title = United States Policy towards Indonesia in the Truman and Eisenhower Years |publisher = Palgrave Macmillan |year = 2002 |location = New York |pages = |url = |isbn = 0-333-79315-3}}</ref> Di [[Irak]], [[Abd al-Karim Qasim]] [[Révolusi 14 Juli|ngagulingkeun]] monarki [[Hashemite]] dina taun 1958 jeung ngawangun aliansi dengan [[Partei Komunis Irak]] jeung Uni Soviét.<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Con Coughlin|Coughlin, Con]]| pages = [https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc/page/27 25]–26|title = Saddam: His Rise and Fall|url = https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc|location =|publisher = [[Harper Perennial]]|year = 2005|isbn = 0-06-050543-5}}</ref> Meskipun [[Partei Ba'ath Sosialis Arab – Wilayah Irak|Partei Ba'ath]] nu anti-komunis nyaéta faksi dominan dina kabinét Qasim,<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Con Coughlin|Coughlin, Con]]| pages = [https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc/page/26 24]–25|title = Saddam: His Rise and Fall|url = https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc|location =|publisher = [[Harper Perennial]]|year = 2005|isbn = 0-06-050543-5}}</ref> AS mulai khawatir yén pemberontakan mungkinbakal menginspirasi "reaksi berantai" di sakabéh Wétan Tengah.<ref>Lesch, David W. ''The Middle East and the United States Third Edition: A Historical and Political Reassessment''. Boulder: Westview Press, 2003. page 173.</ref> Mesir jeung Suriah ogé berusaha pikeun membunuh Qasim pikeun alasan maranéhna sendiri,<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Con Coughlin|Coughlin, Con]]| page = [https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc/page/29 27]|title = Saddam: His Rise and Fall|url = https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc|location =|publisher = [[Harper Perennial]]|year = 2005|isbn = 0-06-050543-5}}</ref> CIA ogé dianggep berperan dina ngirimkan saputangan beracun ka Qasim (meskipun masih diperdebatkan).<ref name=Church181>{{Cite book |chapter = C. Institutionalizing Assassination: the "Executive Action" capability |title = Alleged Assassination Plots involving Foreign Leaders |author = Senate Select Committee on Intelligence |date = 20 November 1975 |url = http://history-matters.com/archive/church/reports/ir/contents.htm |page = 181 |ref = harv }}</ref> Saenggeus serangkaian kudéta, Ba'athist berhasil méré but kakuasaan dina taun 1968, kemungkinan dengan dukungan ti KGB,<ref>Mauro, Ryan, [http://globalpolitician.com/21610-iraq-syria-wmd "Interview with Ali Ibrahim al-Tikriti,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016163428/http://www.globalpolitician.com/21610-iraq-syria-wmd |date=2012-10-16 }} ''Global Politician'', 14 February 2006. The former Ba'athist general claims: "The Soviét Union openly supported and backed the [[17 July Revolution|Ba'athist revolution in Iraq]] at the time and I am sure you can find news articles about it in European press agencies and others at the time. I was there helping with the revolution and worked on two occasions with Soviét KGB officials to help train us, much like the United States did with the Taliban during the Soviét campaign in Afghanistan."</ref> meskipun militer Irak ogé ngalakukeun kudéta.<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Con Coughlin|Coughlin, Con]]| page = [https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc/page/56 52]|title = Saddam: His Rise and Fall|url = https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc|location =|publisher = [[Harper Perennial]]|year = 2005|isbn = 0-06-050543-5}}</ref> Di Républik Kongo, nu anyar merdeka ti [[Belgia]] dina bulan Juni 1960, CIA menghasut présidén [[Joseph Kasa-Vubu]] pikeun memecat Perdana Menteri kapilih [[Patrice Lumumba]] jeung membubarkan kabinét Lumumba dina bulan Séptémber.<ref name = "Schraeder 1994, 57">{{Cite book|last = Schraeder|first = Peter J.|title = United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa: Incrementalism, Crisis, and Change|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1994|location = Cambridge|page = 57|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=goKxyUia-7UC|id = |isbn = 978-0-521-46677-6}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dina [[Krisis Kongo]] nu terjadi saenggeusnya, CIA ngadukung Kolonel [[Mobutu]] dengan cara memobilisasi pasukana pikeun méré but kakuasaan melalui kudéta militer.<ref name = "Schraeder 1994, 57"/> Di [[Guiana Britania]], kandidat [[Partei Progresif Rakyat]] (PPP) nu berhaluan kiri, [[Cheddi Jagan]], meunangkeun posisi ketua menteri dina pemilihan umum kolonial nu diselenggarakan dina taun 1953, namun sacara cepat dipaksa pikeun mengundurkan diri ti jabatana saenggeus ayana suspensi ti Britania Raya nu masih mibanda kewenangan ka konstitusi nagara éta.<ref name = "Rose 2002, 167">{{Cite book|last = Rose|first = Euclid A.|title = Dependency and Socialism in the Modern Caribbean: Superpower Intervention in Guyana, Jamaica, and Grenada, 1970–1985|publisher = Lexington Books|year = 2002|location = Lanham|page = 57|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=KkPb3-krfQgC|id =|isbn = 978-0-7391-0448-4}}</ref> Dipermalukan ku kemenangan telak Jagan nu diduga Marxis, Britania memenjarakan ketua PPP dina taun 1955 jeung maranéhnayasa perpecahan antara Jagan dengan rekan PPP nya.<ref name="Mars & Young 2004, xviii">Mars, Perry & Alma H. Young (2004). [http://books.google.com/books?id=F4lJBFU-k1wC ''Caribbean Labor and Politics: Legacies of Cheddi Jagan and Michael Manley'']. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. xviii. ISBN 978-0-8143-3211-5.</ref> Jagan deudeuieun meunangkeun pemilu kolonial dina taun 1957 jeung 1961. Amérika Sarikat menekan Britania pikeun menunda méré kemerdekaan ka Guiana sampai haluan pulitik Jagan telah teridentifikasi.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Palmer|first = Colin A.|title = Cheddi Jagan and the Politics of Power: British Guiana's Struggle for Independence|publisher = University of North Carolina Press|year = 2010|location = Chapel Hill|pages = 247–248|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=NHd1sxVg4XwC|id =|isbn = 978-0-8078-3416-9}}</ref> Karena dilelahkan ku [[Perang Indochina Kahiji|perang gerilya komunis nu nungtut kemerdekaan Vietnam]], Perancis setuju pikeun ngalakukeun negosiasi dengan komunis Vietnam. Dina [[Konferensi Jenewa (1954)|Konferensi Jenewa]], perjanjian damai ditandatangani, jeung Vietnam dibagi jadi [[Vietnam Kalér]] nu pro-Soviét jeung [[Vietnam Kidul]] nu pro-Kulon. Antara taun 1954 jeung 1961, Amérika Sarikat ngirimkan bantuan ékonomi jeung penasihat militer pikeun memperkuat rezim pro-Kulon Vietnam Kidul dina menghalangi upaya komunis nu berniat pikeun mengacaukana.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991"/> Loba nagara-nagara berkembang di Asia, Afrika, jeung Amérika Latin nu nolak tekanan pikeun memihak salah sahiji blok. Dina taun 1955, dina [[Konferensi Asia-Afrika|Konferensi Bandung]] di Indonésia, puluhan nagara Dunya Katilu memutuskan pikeun keluar ti Perang Tiis.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=126}}</ref> [[Dasasila Bandung|Konsesus nu ditetepkan di Bandung]] mencapai puncaknya dengan didirikana [[Gerakan Non-Blok]] nu bermarkas di [[Belgrade]] dina taun 1961.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Sementara itu, Khrushchev memperluas kawijakan Moskow dengan menjalin hubungan dengan [[India]] jeung nagara-nagara netral lianna. Gerakan kemerdekaan di Dunya Katilu ngarobah tatanan dunya pasca-perang jadi leuwih pluralistik dengan diterapkana [[dekolonisasi]] bagi nagara-nagara Afrika jeung Wétan Tengah jeung semangat nasionalisme ogé meningkat di Asia jeung Amérika Latin.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> === Perpecahan Sino-Soviét jeung Perlombaan Angkasa === {{Main|Perpecahan Sino-Soviét|Perlombaan Angkasa}} [[Gambar:Space Race 1957-1975 black text.png|thumb|right|Diagram perkembangan [[Perlombaan Angkasa]] dina taun 1957–1975.]] périodeu saenggeus 1956 ditandai dengan kemunduran serius bagi Uni Soviét, terutama pecahnya aliansi Cina-Soviét, nu dimulai dengan [[perpecahan Sino-Soviét]]. Mao membela Stalin ketika Khrushchev mengkritiknya saenggeus kematiana dina taun 1956, jeung menganggep pamingpin Soviét nu anyar sebagai "pemula nu dangkal", Mao ogé menuduhnya telah keleungitan sisi Révolusioner.<ref name="Gaddis142" /> Sementara itu, Khrushchev, nu merasa terganggu atas sikap Mao nu anti-perang nuklir, menyebut pamingpin Cina sebagai "orang nu gila takhta".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kempe|first=Frederick|title=Berlin 1961|url=https://archive.org/details/berlin1961kenned0000kemp|year=2011|publisher=Penguin Group (USA)|isbn=0-399-15729-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/berlin1961kenned0000kemp/page/42 42]}}</ref> Saenggeus hal itu terjadi, Khrushchev ngalakukeun rupa-rupa upaya pikeun ngawangun kembali aliansi dengan Cina, namun Mao nolak unggal usulana.<ref name="Gaddis142">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=142}}</ref> Permusuhan Cina-Soviét ieu ahirnya tumpah dina perang propaganda intra-komunis.<ref>Lüthi, pp. 273–276</ref> Selanjutnya, Soviét mulai berfokus dina sasaingan sengit dengan Cina pikeun memperebutkan posisi sebagai pamingpin gerakan komunis dunya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=140–142}}</ref> Dilatardepani ku [[senjata nuklir]], Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Soviét mulai bersaing pikeun ngawangun persenjataan nuklir jeung mengembangkan senjata jangka-panjang nu bisa maranéhna pergunakan pikeun menyerang satu sama lain.<ref name = "Byrd" /> Bulan Agustus 1957, Soviét berhasil meluncurkan [[peluru kendali balistik antar benua]] pertama (ICBM),<ref>Lackey, p. 49</ref> jeung dina bulan Oktobernya, Soviét meluncurkan satelit Bumi pertama, [[Program Sputnik|Sputnik]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/4/newsid_2685000/2685115.stm|title=Sputnik satellite blasts into space|publisher=BBC News|date=October 4, 1957|accessdate=June 11, 2008}}</ref> Peluncuran Sputnik ieu menandai dimulainya [[Perlombaan Angkasa]] antara Soviét jeung Amérika Sarikat. Sasaingan ieu memuncak dengan [[Program Apollo|pendaratan Apollo di Bulan]], nu dideskripsikan ku astronot [[Frank Borman]] sebagai "pertempuran dina Perang Tiis".<ref>{{cite web| title = To Boldly Go|author=Klesius, Michael|work=Air & Space| url = http://www.airspacemag.com/space-exploration/To-Boldly-Go.html|accessdate=January 7, 2009|date=December 19, 2008}}</ref> === Révolusi Kuba jeung Invasi Teluk Babi === {{Main|Révolusi Kuba| Invasi Teluk Babi}} [[Gambar:CheyFidel.jpg|thumb|right|170px|[[Fidel Castro]] (kanan) jeung [[Che Guevara]], 1961.]] Di [[Kuba]], [[Gerakan 26 Juli]] berhasil méré but kakuasaan dina bulan Januari 1959, menjatuhkan présidén [[Fulgencio Batista]], nu rezimnya teu populer jeung teu direstui ku Pamaréntahan Eisenhower.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Blumberg|first = Arnold|title = Great Leaders, Great Tyrants?: Contemporary Views of World Rulers Who Made History|publisher = Greenwood Press|year = 1995|location = Westport, Connecticut|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=nofUu5tvJ18C|id =|isbn = 978-0-313-28751-0|pages = 23–24}}</ref> Hubungan diplomatik antara Kuba jeung Amérika Sarikat terus berlanjut salila Babaraha waktu saenggeus kejatuhan Batista, namun présidén Eisenhower sengaja meninggalkan ibu kota pikeun menghinti pertemuan dengan pamingpin pemuda Révolusioner Kuba [[Fidel Castro]] dina bulan April, jeung memerintahkan Wakil présidén [[Richard Nixon]] pikeun mengadakan pertemuan dengan Castro di kediamana.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Lechuga Hevia|first = Carlos|title = Cuba and the Missile Crisis|publisher = Ocean Press|year = 2001|location = Melbourne, Australia|page = 142|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=aKLrYxcDg2wC|id =|isbn = 978-1-876175-34-4}}</ref> Eisenhower teu yakin, apakah Castro séorang komunis atawa bukan. Eisenhower ogé ngalawan upaya Kuba pikeun ngurangan ketergantungan ékonomi maranéhna dina Amérika Sarikat.<ref name = "Smith 1998, 95">{{Cite book|last = Smith|first = Joseph|title = The Cold War 1945–1991|publisher = Blackwell|year = 1998|location = Oxford|page = 95|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=FnnF9NKMJdkC|id =|isbn = 978-0-631-19138-4}}</ref> Kuba mulai ngalakukeun negosiasi pembelian senjata dengan Éropa Wétan dina bulan Maret 1960.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dominguez|1989|p=22}}</ref> Bulan Januari 1961, sesaat saméméh turun ti jabatana, Eisenhower sacara resmi memutuskan hubungan dengan Pamaréntah Kuba. Dina bulan April 1961, présidén Amérika nu anyar kapilih, [[John F. Kennedy]], dengan bantuan ti [[wCIA]], gagal [[Invasi Teluk Babi|menginvasi pulau-pulau]] di Playa Girón jeung Playa Larga di [[Provinsi Las Villas]]{{mdash}}kegagalan nu ngéra-ngérakeun Amérika Sarikat di mata dunya.<ref name = "Smith 1998, 95"/> Castro nanggepannya dengan mengadopsi paham [[Marxisme-Lenieusme]], jeung Soviét jangji pikeun méré dukungan leuwih lanjut ka Kuba.<ref name = "Smith 1998, 95"/> === Krisis Berlin 1961 === {{Main|Krisis Berlin 1961|Tembok Berlin|Pembelotan jeung emigrasi Blok Wétan}} [[Gambar:Checkpoint Charlie 1961-10-27.jpg|thumb|Tank Soviét berhadapan dengan tank Amérika Sarikat di [[Checkpoint Charlie]], 27 Oktober, salila berlangsungnya Krisis Berlin 1961]] [[Krisis Berlin 1961]] nyaéta insiden besar terahir nu terjadi dina masa Perang Tiis terkait dengan status [[Berlin]] jeung kondisi Jerman pasca-Perang Dunya II. Dina awal 1950-an, [[Pembelotan jeung emigrasi Blok Wétan|pendekatan Soviét ngeunaan kawijakan pembatasan emigrasi]] ditiru ku sebagéan besar nagara [[Blok Wétan]] lianna.<ref name="dowty114">{{Harvnb|Dowty|1989|p=114}}</ref> Namun, ratusan ribu warga [[Jerman Wétan]] bérémigrasi ke [[Jerman Kulon]] unggal tauna melalui "celah" nu terdapat dina sistem antara Berlin Wétan jeung Berlin Kulon jeung dengan bantuan ti pasukan Sekutu di Jerman Kulon.<ref name="harrison99">{{Harvnb|Harrison|2003|p=99}}</ref> Emigrasi ngabalukarkeun berpindahnya sumber daya manusia nu berpotensi seperti kalangan profesional terdidik ti Jerman Wétan ke Jerman Kulon, hampir 20% penduduk Jerman Wétan telah bermigrasi ke Jerman Kulon dina taun 1961.<ref name="dowty122">{{Harvnb|Dowty|1989|p=122}}</ref> Dina bulan Juni, Uni Soviét mengeluarkan ultimatum anyar nu nungtut panarikan pasukan [[Sekutu]] ti Berlin Kulon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=114}}</ref> Permintaan éta ditolak, jeung dina tanggal 13 Agustus, Jerman Wétan ngawangun hahalang kawat cucukan nu diteruskeun konstruksina dilegaan nepi ka engké nyieun [[Tembok Berlin]], nu sacara épéktip nutupan "celah" antara kadua wilayah éta.<ref name="pearson75">{{Harvnb|Pearson|1998|p=75}}</ref> === Krisis Rudal Kuba jeung penggulingan Khrushchev === {{Main|Proyék Kuba|Krisis Rudal Kuba}} [[Gambar:P-2H Neptune over Soviét ship Oct 1962.jpg|thumb|Kapal [[P-2 Neptune|P-2]] milik [[Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat]] terbang di atas salah sahiji kapal barang Soviét salila Krisis Rudal Kuba.|pra=Special:FilePath/P-2H_Neptune_over_Soviét_ship_Oct_1962.jpg]] Saenggeus [[Invasi Teluk Babi]], Kennedy terus néangan cara pikeun ngagulingkeun [[Fidel Castro|Castro]], Kennedy jeung Pamaréntahana béréksperimen sacara diam-diam dengan memfasilitasi penggulingan Pamaréntahan [[Kuba]]. Harapan nu signifikan disematkan dina salah sahiji program rusiah bernama [[Proyék Kuba]], nu dirancang di handap Pamaréntahan Kennedy dina taun 1961. Dina bulan Februari 1962, Khrushchev mengetahui rencana Amérika ka Kuba: "proyék Kuba"{{mdash}}disetujui ku CIA jeung menetapkan penggulingan Pamaréntah Kuba dina bulan Oktober, kemungkinan melibatkan militer Amérika{{mdash}}jeung Kennedy mungkin memerintahkan operasi pembunuhan ka Castro.<ref name="Zubok 1994, 158-159">Zubok, Vladislav M. (1994). "Unwrapping the Enigma: What Was Behind the Soviét Challenge in the 1960s?". In Diane B. Kunz (Ed.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SiVTA31wrzEC The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations During the 1960s]''. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 158-159. ISBN 978-0-231-08177-1.</ref> Sebagai respon, Soviét mempersiapkan pemasangan rudal nuklirnya di Kuba.<ref name = "Zubok 1994, 158-159"/> Khawatir, Kennedy mutuskeun rupa-rupa réaksi pikeun nanggepannya, jeung ahirnya nanggepan instalasi rudal nuklir Soviét di Kuba dengan ngalakukeun blokade laut jeung méré ultimatum ka Soviét. Khrushchev mundur ti konfrontasi, jeung Uni Soviét membongkar rudalnya dengan imbalan janji Amérika agar teu deui menyerang Kuba.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Jones|first = Howard|title = Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations from 1945|publisher = Rowman & Littlefield|year = 2009|location = Lanham|page = 122|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=WwEu5Yv9KiUC|id =|isbn = 978-0-7425-6454-1}}</ref> [[Krisis Rudal Kuba]] (Oktober-November 1962) membawa dunya leuwih dekat ke arah [[perang nuklir]] tidina saméméhnya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=82}}</ref> Leuwih lanjut, kajadian éta ogé nunjukkeun konsép silih yakinkeun bakal bahaya kaancuran, yén [[nagara adidaya]] teu siap pikeun menggunakan senjata nuklir maranéhna, takutbakal ayana kaancuran global total karena silih balas dendam.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=80}}</ref> Dampak ti krisis ieu ngabalukarkeun dilakukana upaya pertama dina membatasi [[perlombaan senjata nuklir]] dengan pelucutan senjata jeung perbaikan hubungan,<ref name = "Palmowski" /> meskipun upaya-upaya pikeun mencegah meletusnya perang nuklir telah ditetepkan sejak taun 1961 melalui [[Sistem Traktat Antarktika|Perjanjian Antartika]].<ref>National Research Council Committee on Antarctic Policy and Science, p. 33</ref> Taun 1964, rekan [[Kremlin]] Khrushchev berhasil [[Nikita Khrushchev#Penggulingan|ngagulingkeuna]], namun tetep mengizinkana pikeun pensiun dengan damai.<ref name="Gaddis119">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=119–120}}</ref> Khrushchev dituduh memerintah dengan kasar jeung inkompetensi, dia ogé dianggep telah menghancurkan sektor pertanian Soviét jeung membawa dunya ke ambang perang nuklir.<ref name="Gaddis119" /> Khrushchev ogé disebutkeun telah ngéra-ngérakeun dunya komunis ketika manéhna méré smikan pemwangunan Tembok Berlin, nu dianggep sebagai salah sahiji penghinaan publik pikeun Marxisme-Lenieusme.<ref name="Gaddis119" /> Posisi jabatan Nikita Khrushchev digantikan ku Léonid Brezhnev sebagai pamingpin partéy Komunis jeung sementara Alexei Kosygin menduduki kursi Perdana Menteri. == Konfrontasi melalui détente (1962–1979) == {{Main|Perang Tiis (1962–1979)}} [[Gambar:1973 NATO and WP troop strengths in Europe.svg|thumb|Kakuatan pasukan NATO jeung Pakta Warsawa di Éropa taun 1973.]] [[Gambar:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|right|thumb|Amérika Sarikat [[Apollo 11|mendarat pikeun pertama kalinya di bulan]] dina taun 1969—puncak ti [[perlombaan angkasa]].]] [[Gambar:F-4B VF-151 CV-41 TU-95.jpg|right|thumb| [[F-4 Phantom II]] milik US Navy menyadap pesawat [[Tupolev Tu-95]] D Soviét dina awal 1970-an.]] Dina périodeu 1960-an jeung 1970-an, peserta Perang Tiis berjuang pikeun menyesuaikan diri dengan pola anyar [[hubungan internasional]] nu leuwih rumit, dunya teu deui dibagi jadi dua blok besar nu bertentangan.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Ti awal périodeu pasca-perang, Éropa Kulon jeung [[Jepang]] dengan cepat pulih ti kaancuran Perang Dunya II jeung mulai mengalami pertumbuhan ékonomi nu kuat sepanjang taun 1950-an jeung 1960-an, dengan PDB per kapita nu hampir mendekati Amérika Sarikat, sadengkeun [[perékonomian Blok Wétan]] mengalami stagnasi.<ref name="Karabell" /><ref name="hardt16">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=16}}</ref> Sebagai akibat ti [[krisis minyak 1973]], dikombinasikan dengan beuki kuatnya pangaruh [[Dunya Katilu]] dengan ngawangun organisasi-organisasi seperti [[OPEC|Organisasi Nagara-Nagara Pengekspor Minyak]] (OPEC) jeung [[Gerakan Non-Blok]], nagara-nagara Dunya Katilu mibanda leuwih loba ruang pikeun memproklamirkan kemerdekaan maranéhna jeung beuki nunjukkeun yén maranéhna tahan banting ka tekanan ti nagara adidaya.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212"/> Sementara itu, [[Uni Soviét|Soviét]] dipaksa pikeun mengalihkan perhatiana dina isu-isu internal seperti permasalahan ékonomi di dina negeri.<ref name="Karabell" /> Salila périodeu ieu, pamingpin Soviét seperti [[Leonid Brezhnev]] jeung [[Alexei Kosygin]] mulai menerapkan pamarekan[[détente]].<ref name = "Karabell" /> === Pengunduran diri Perancis ti NATO === {{Main|NATO#Pengunduran diri Perancis ti NATO}} Keberlangsungan [[NATO]] sudah menghadapi tantangan dina awal sejarahnya, krisis terjadi salila kepamingpinan [[Charles de Gaulle]] ti [[Perancis]] dina taun 1958 jeung seterusnya. De Gaulle protes ngeunaan kuatnya peran Amérika Sarikat dina organisasi jeung cemburu atas "[[hubungan istimewa]]" antara Amérika Sarikat jeung Britania Raya. Dina salah sahiji memo nu dikirimkan dina présidén [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] jeung Perdana Menteri [[Harold Macmillan]] dina tanggal 17 Séptémber 1958, manéhna berpendapat pikeun nyieun tiga serangkai direktorat nu bakal memposisikan Perancis dina kedudukan nu sama dengan Amérika Sarikat jeung Britania Raya, jeung ogé perluasan cakupan NATO ke wilayah géografis nu mibanda kapentingan dengan Perancis, seperti [[Aljazair Perancis]], nu pemberontakana di dukung ku Perancis.<ref name=deGuaulle>{{Cite book |last = Menon‏ |first = Anand |title = France, NATO, and the limits of independence, 1981–97: the politics of ambivalence |publisher = Palgrave Macmillan |year = 2000 |page = 11 |url = |id = |isbn = 0-312-22931-3}}</ref> Karena respon nu diberikan teu memuaskan, de Gaulle mulai mengembangkan [[penangkal nuklir]] Perancis sacara independen jeung dina taun 1966, Perancis mengundurkan diri ti NATO, diikuti dengan pengusiran sakabéh pasukan NATO ti daratan Perancis.<ref>Crawley p.431</ref> === Invasi Cekoslowakia === {{Main|Musim Semi Praha|Invasi Pakta Warsawa ke Cekoslowakia}} Dina taun 1968, périodeu liberalisasi pulitik di [[Cekoslowakia]], nu dijuluki dengan [[Musim Semi Praha]], berlangsung dengan rupa-rupa aksi, di antaranya "[[Program Aksi (1968)|Program Aksi]]" liberalisasi, nu nungtut perluasan kebébasan pers, kebébasan berbicara jeung kebébasan bergerak, ogé penekanan ékonomi dina barang-barang konsumsi, kemungkinan sistem multi partéy, membatasi kakuasaan polisi rusiah,<ref>Ello (ed.), Paul (April 1968). Control Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, "Action Plan of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (Prague, April 1968)" in ''Dubcek’s Blueprint for Freedom: His original documents leading to the invasion of Czechoslovakia.'' William Kimber & Co. 1968, pp 32, 54</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Von Geldern| first = James| last2 = Siegelbaum| first2 = Lewis| publisher = Soviéthistory.org| title = The Soviét-led Intervention in Czechoslovakia| url = http://Soviéthistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1968czechoslovakia&Year=1968| accessdate = March 7, 2008}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> jeung kemungkinan Cekoslowakia pikeun menarik diri ti [[Pakta Warsawa]].<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 150">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=150}}</ref> Sebagai jawaban atas aksi Musim Semi Praha, tentara Soviét bersama dengan sebagéan besar sekutu Pakta Warsawa maranéhna, [[Invasi Pakta Warsawa ke Cekoslowakia|menyerbu Cekoslowakia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21/newsid_2781000/2781867.stm|title=Russia brings winter to Prague Spring|publisher=BBC News|date=August 21, 1968|accessdate=June 10, 2008}}</ref> Invasi ieu diikuti ku gelombang emigrasi, sekitar 70.000 warga Ceko jeung Slowakia melarikan diri, jeung total ahirnya mencapai 300.000 jiwa.<ref>{{cite web | last = Čulík| first = Jan| title = Den, kdy tanky zlikvidovaly české sny Pražského jara| url = http://www.britskelisty.cz/9808/19980821h.html| publisher = Britské Listy| accessdate =January 23, 2008 }}</ref> Invasi ieu memicu protes keras ti Yugoslavia, Rumania, Cina, jeung ogé ti partéy-partéy komunis di Éropa Kulon.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 154">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=154}}</ref> === Doktrin Brezhnev === {{Main|Doktrin Brezhnev}} [[Gambar:Leonid Brezhnev and Richard Nixon talks in 1973.png|left|thumb|[[Leonid Brezhnev]] jeung [[Richard Nixon]] salila kunjungan Brezhnev ke [[Washington]] dina Juni 1973; kunjungan ieu nyaéta permulaan ''détente'' antara Amérika Sarikat jeung Soviét.]] Dina bulan Séptémber 1968, dina pidatonya di Kongres Kelima [[Partei Persatuan Pekerja Polandia]], sebulan saenggeus [[Invasi Pakta Warsawa ke Cekoslowakia|menginvasi Cekoslowakia]], Brezhnev menyampaikan [[Doktrin Brezhnev]]; nu mengklaim yén "hak kami pikeun melanggar kedaulatan nagara manapun jika ada nu berupaya pikeun menggantikan Marxisme-Lenieusme dengan kapitalismeu". Dina pidatonya, Brezhnev nyatakeun:<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 150"/> {{cquote|Ketika kakuatan nu memusuhi sosialisme mencoba pikeun ngarobah haluan Babaraha nagara sosialis menuju kapitalismeu, itu bukan hanya jadi masalah bagi nagara nu bersangkutan, namun masalah umum jeung kepedulian ti sakabéh nagara-nagara sosialis.}} Doktrin éta dilatarbelakangi ku kegagalan Marxisme-Lenieusme dina ningkatkeun kesejahteraan di nagara-nagara seperti Polandia, [[Hongaria]] jeung Jerman Wétan, nu mengalami penurunan standar hirup nu kontras dengan kemakmuran Jerman Kulon jeung nagara Éropa Kulon lianna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=153}}</ref> === Krisis di Dunya Katilu === {{See also|Operasi Power Pack|Pembantaian di Indonesia 1965–1966|Perang Vietnam|Kudéta Chili 1973|Operasi Burung Kondor|Perang Enam Hari|Perang Atrisi|Perang Yom Kippur|Perang Ogaden|Perang Saudara Angola|Invasi Indonésia ke Timor Wétan}} [[Gambar:Glassboro-meeting1967.jpg|thumb|right|[[Alexei Kosygin]] (kiri) di samping Presiden AS [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (kanan) dina [[Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Glassboro]].]] [[Gambar:Corpse of Ngô Đình Diệm in the 1963 coup.jpg|thumb|right|Mayat Presiden Vietnam Kidul [[Ngo Dinh Diem]].]] Dina ahir April 1965, présidén [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] mendaratkan 22.000 tentaranya di [[Republik Domieuka]] jeung kemudian mendudukinya salila satu taun melalui invasi nu diberi kode [[Operasi Power Pack]]. Operasi ieu dilakukan pikeun membendung ancaman menyebarnya Révolusi bergaya Kuba di Amérika Latin.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Pemilihan présidén diselenggarakan dina taun 1966, nu ngahasilkeun kemenangan bagi konservatif [[Joaquín Balaguer]]. Meskipun Balaguer mendapat dukungan ti sektor-sektor elit jeung kelompok petani, lawan pulitiknya ti partéy PRD, mantan présidén [[Juan Bosch]], teu aktif berkampanye.<ref name = "Itzigsohn 2000, 41-42">{{Cite book|last = Itzigsohn|first = José|title = Developing Poverty: The State, Labor Market Deregulation, and the Informal Economy in Costa Rica and the Domieucan Republic|publisher = Penn State University Press|year = 2000|location = University Park, Pennsylvania|pages = 41–42|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=b7Jo9GtxMEcC|id =|isbn = 978-0-271-02028-0}}</ref> Aktivis PRD dilumpuhkan dengan kekerasan ku polisi Domieuka jeung angkatan bersenjata.<ref name = "Itzigsohn 2000, 41-42"/> <!-- Sebagai bagéan ti minoritas Katolik Vietnam, usaha Diệm pikeun mengembangkan kawijakan pro-Katolik membangkitkan amarah orang-orang Buddhis Vietnam. Polisi nagara seringkali dituduh menyerang orang-orang Buddhis (agama mayoritas nagara itu). Para aktivis Buddhis ngalakukeun protes-protes massal jeung bahkan penyiksaan diri nu berpuncak dina Babaraha upaya kudéta, jeung nu terahir mengakibatkan kematian Diệm sendiri. Ketika rezim ieu membangkitkan salah sahiji protes nu dilakukan ku para biarawan Buddhis dina Mei 1963, AS menghentikan bantuana. Sejumlah biarawan sacara terbuka membakar diri maranéhna sebagai protes, jeung AS semakin merasa terganggu ku citra publik Diệm nu teu populer. Diệm jeung Madame Nhu mengklaim yén pihak Komunis telah menyusup ke dina kelompok-kelompok Buddhis. Tindakan maranéhna pikeun menghancurkan protes-protes ieu sesuai dengan kawijakan anti-komunis nu telah disetujui saméméhnya. Madame Nhu konon merujuk kejadian ieu sebagai "barbecue" ("memanggang daging"). Berdasarkan paréntah ti Presiden A.S. John F. Kennedy, Henry Cabot Lodge, duta besar Amérika pikeun Vietnam Kidul, nolak pikeun papanggih dengan Diệm. Saenggeus ngadéngé yén Angkatan Darat Republik Vietnam keur ngarancang kudéta nu dipimpin ku Jenderal Dương Văn Minh, AS méré jaminan-jaminan rusiah ka para jenderal itu yén AS moal bakal pipilueun. Dương Văn Minh jeung komplotana ngagulingkeun Pamaréntahan jeung menghukum mati Presiden Diệm jeung adiknya, Ngô Đình Nhu, dina 2 November 1963. Amérika Sarikat sacara terbuka mengungkapkan rasa terkejut jeung kekecewaana yén Diệm telah dibunuh. Kaberan, Presiden John F. Kennedy ogé dibunuh hanya 20 hari kemudian. Babaraha orang Vietnam percaya yén hantu Diemlah nu ngalakukeun pembalasan karena Presiden Kennedy menyetujui kudéta itu. Ketika Madame Nhu, mengunjungi Amérika Sarikat dina waktu itu, saenggeus mengetahui tentang kudéta éta, manéhna segera menyebut Amérika Sarikat sebagai pelakunya. manéhna belakangan mengatakan, "Barangsiapa jadi sekutu Amérika teu ngabutuhkeun musuh." Madame Nhu lalu meramalkan masa depan nu gelap pikeun Vietnam jeung yén, karena kemiluanana dina kudéta itu, masalah-masalah AS di Vietnam kakara dimulai. Saenggeus dibunuhnya Ngô Đình Diệm, AS dapat tetep mangaruhan Pamaréntahan Vietnam Kidul, ngabantuan pemilihan para pejabat nu ngadukung kawijakan-kawijakan AS. Di antara loba orang nu tahu tentang situasi pulitik di sekitar kematiana (1963), pembunuhan Ngô Đình Diệm dianggep sebagai momen pulitik nu nangtukeun nu, ceuk sebagéan orang, pelan-pelan ngabalukarkeun kekalahan Perang Vietnam 12 taun kemudian (1975), namun, ceuk nu lianna deui, mencegah Vietnam Kidul direbut pihak komunis 10 taun leuwih awal karena Diệm telah memutuskan pikeun menyerah ka ambisi-ambisi invasi Ho Chi Minh. Akibat ti kuatnya kehadiran Amérika saenggeus pembunuhan Diệm, terjadilah pergolakan intern di antara para pamingpin Vietnam Kidul, sementara tentara manggih diri maranéhna dipaksa pikeun memilih antara kapentingan-kapentingan komunis jeung kapentingan-kapentingan Amérika. Pembunuhan ieu ogé memperkuat upaya-upaya Vietnam Kalér pikeun melukiskan Vietnam Kidul sebagai pendukung kolonisasi. Dina tanggal 30 Séptémber - 1 Oktober 1965, di 2 Dayeuh di Indonésia, PKI (Partei Komunis Indonésia) berusaha membunuh 7 Jenderal Angkatan Darat di Jakarta jeung 2 Jenderal di Yogyakarta dengan alasan Kudéta. PKI mendakwa yén Jenderal-Jenderal Angkatan Darat nu pro-CIA berusaha ngagulingkeun Presiden Soekarno. --> Di Indonésia, anti-komunis garis keras [[Soeharto|Jenderal Soeharto]] meraih kendali Pamaréntahan ti pendahulunya, [[Soekarno]], jeung kemudian mulai ngawangun "[[Orde Baru]]". Ti taun 1965 sampai 1966, militer Indonésia [[Pembantaian di Indonésia 1965–1966|ngalakukeun pembunuhan massal]] ka sekitar setengah juta anggota jeung simpatisan [[Partei Komunis Indonésia]] sarta organisasi-organisasi sayap kiri lianna.<ref name="Farid 2007">Farid, Hilmar (2007). "Mass Killings and Capitalist Expansion, 1965–1966". In Kuan-Hsing Chen & Chua Beng Huat (Ed.), ''[The Inter-Asia Cultural Studies Reader]''. London: Routledge. pp. 207–222. ISBN 0-415-43134-4.</ref> Ningkatna konflik nu keur berlangsung antara pamingpin [[Vietnam Kidul]] [[Ngô Đình Diệm]] dengan komunis [[Viet Cong|Front Nasional pikeun Pembébasan Vietnam Kidul]] (NLF) membuat Johnson ngirimkan 575.000 tentara Amérika ke Asia Tenggara pikeun melumpuhkan NLF jeung sekutu Vietnam Kalér maranéhna dina [[Perang Vietnam]], namun kawijakan ieu ngakan loba biaya jeung ngalemahkeun perékonomian AS, jeung dina taun 1975, krisis ieu memuncak dengan kegagalan Amérika Sarikat. Dunya mandang kajadian ieu sebagai kekalahan bagi salah sahiji nagara adidaya nu paling kuat di tangan salah sahiji nagara termiskin dunya.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Vietnam Kalér menerima persetujuan Soviét pikeun memulai perang dina taun 1959. Uni Soviét ngirimkan 15.000 penasihat militer jeung bantuan dana sebesar $ 450 juta ka Vietnam Kalér salila perang, sadengkeun Cina ngirimkan 320.000 tentara jeung bantuan dana senilai $180 juta.<ref>Qiang Zhai, ''China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950-1975'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2000), p135; Gen. Oleg Sarin and Col. Lev Dvoretsky, ''Alien Wars: The Soviét Union’s Aggressions Against the World, 1919 to 1989'' (Presidio Press, 1996), pp93-4.</ref> Di [[Chili]], kandidat [[Partei Sosialis Chili|Partei Sosialis]] [[Salvador Allende]] meunangkeun pemilihan présidén taun 1970, jadi [[Marxis]] kapilih demokratis pertama nu jadi présidén di nagara-nagara Amérika.<ref name="BBC Allende Profile 2003">{{cite news|title = Profile of Salvador Allende|date = Séptémber 8, 2003|publisher=BBC|agency = [[BBC]]|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3089846.stm|accessdate =January 25, 2011 }}</ref> Jenderal [[Augusto Pinochet]] ngalakukeun [[Kudéta Chili 1973|kudéta ka Pamaréntahan]] dina tanggal 11 Séptémber 1973 jeung dengan cepat mengambilalih sakabéh kakuasaan pulitik jadi kediktatoran militer, tindakana ieu direstui ku AS. Reformasi Allende ékonomi diurungkan jeung lawan sayap kiri tewas atawa ditahan di kamp-kamp interniran di handap arahan ti [[Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional]] (DINA). [[Gambar:Henry Kissinger.png|thumb|left|[[Henry Kissinger]], [[Penasihat Kaamanan Nasional (Amérika Sarikat)|Penasihat Kaamanan Nasional]] jeung [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat]] dina masa Pamaréntahan Presiden Nixon jeung Ford, mangrupa salah sahiji tokoh kunci dina Perang Tiis (1969-1977).]] Sementara itu, [[Operasi Burung Kondor]] di Amérika Kidul{{mdash}}nu dipaké ku para diktator di [[Argentina]], [[Brasil]], [[Bolivia]], Chili, [[Uruguay]], jeung [[Paraguay]] pikeun menekan perbédaan pendapat dengan sayap kiri{{mdash}}ogé mendapat dukungan ti Amérika Sarikat, jeung (kadang-kadang akurat) diperkirakan ogé terdapat Kuba atawa Soviét di belakang gerakan oposisi éta.<ref>McSherry, p. /ref> Sebagai respon, Soviét mempersiapkan pemasangan rudal nuklirnya di Kuba.13</ref> Amérika Sarikat ogé teu senang saat [[Jamaika]] mulai menjalin hubungan nu leuwih érat dengan Pamaréntah Kuba saenggeus pemilihan [[Michael Manley]] dina taun 1972.<ref name="Mars & Young 2004, xvi">Mars, Perry & Alma H. Young (2004). [http://books.google.com/books?id=F4lJBFU-k1wC ''Caribbean Labor and Politics: Legacies of Cheddi Jagan and Michael Manley'']. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. xvi. ISBN 978-0-8143-3211-5.</ref> Amérika Sarikat méré spona dengan mendanai lawan-lawan pulitik Manley, mendorong pemberontakan dina tubuh [[tentara Jamaika]], jeung menyewa tentara bayaran pikeun ngalawan Pamaréntahan Manley.<ref name="Mars & Young 2004, xviii"/> Kekerasan pun terjadi. Situasi di [[Wétan Tengah]] terus jadi sumber persengketaan. [[Mesir]], nu menerima loba bantuan senjata jeung bantuan ékonomi ti Uni Soviét, nyaéta klien Soviét nu méré potkan. Dengan terpaksa, Uni Soviét berkewajiban pikeun ngabantuan Mesir dina [[Perang Enam Hari]] (dengan ngirimkan penasihat militer jeung teknisi) jeung [[Perang Atrisi]] (dengan ngirimkan pilot jeung pesawat) pikeun ngalawan [[Israel]] nu pro-Kulon.<ref>Stone, p. 230</ref> Di samping pembelotan Mesir, ti nu saméméhnya pro-Soviét jadi pro-Amérika dina taun 1972 (di handap kepamingpinan [[Anwar El Sadat]]),<ref name="Grenville & Wasserstein 1987, 701">Grenville, J.A.S. & Bernard Wasserstein (1987). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RYyyAAAAIAAJ Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts]'', Volume 2. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 978-0-416-38080-4.</ref> rumor ngeunaan intervensi Soviét dina [[Perang Yom Kippur]] dina taun 1973 ngabalukarkeun terjadinya pengiriman tentara Amérika besar-besaran jeung mengancambakal menghancurkan ''détente''.<ref>Kumaraswamy, p. 127</ref> Meskipun dina éra pra-Sadat Mesir mangrupa penerima bantuan terbesar Soviét di Wétan Tengah, Soviét ogé sukses menjalin hubungan érat dengan komunis di [[Yaman Kidul]], sarta Pamaréntahan nasionalis [[Aljazair]] jeung [[Irak]].<ref name = "Grenville & Wasserstein 1987, 701"/> Soviét sacara langsung memihak jeung ngabantuan [[Palestina]] dina menghadapi [[Konflik Israel-Palestina|konflik dengan Israel]], kaasup dukungan pikeun [[Yasser Arafat]] jeung [[Organisasi Pembébasan Palestina]].<ref>Friedman, p. 330</ref> Ti taun 1973-1975, CIA berkolusi dengan Pamaréntah [[Iran]] pikeun membiayai jeung mempersenjatai pemberontak [[Kurdi]] dina [[Perang Irak–Kurdi Kadua]] dengan tujuan pikeun melumpuhkan pamingpin Irak [[Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr]]. Saat Iran jeung Irak nandatanganan [[Perjanjian Aljazair (1975)|Perjanjian Aljazair]] dina taun 1975, dukungan pikeun Iran pun ogé turut berhenti.<ref name="The Ugly Truth About Gerald Ford">Hitchens, Christopher, [http://www.slate.com/id/2156400 "The Ugly Truth About Gerald Ford"], ''Slate,'' December 29, 2006.</ref> [[Gambar:Marine da nang.jpg|thumbnail|170px|Seorang tentara Amérika dina [[Perang Vietnam]], 3 Agustus 1965.]] Di Afrika, militer [[Somalia]] nu dipimpin ku [[Mohamed Siad Barre]] ngalakukeun kudéta tak berdarah dina taun 1969 jeung ngawangun [[Republik Demokratik Somalia]] nu berpaham sosialis. Uni Soviét jangji pikeun ngadukung Somalia. Opat taun kemudian, Kaisar Ethiopia [[Haile Selassie]] nu pro-Amérika digulingkan dina kudéta taun 1974 ku kelompok [[Derg]], salah sahiji kelompok militer radikal pro-Soviét nu dipimpin ku [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]]. Mariem menjalin hubungan dengan Kuba jeung Soviét.<ref name = "Erlich 2008, 84-86">{{Cite book|last = Erlich|first = Reese|title = Dateline Havana: The Real Story of U.S. Policy and the Future of Cuba|publisher = PoliPoint Press|year = 2008|location = Sausalito, California|pages = 84–86|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=7q3ibcq_vxQC|id =|isbn = 978-0-9815769-7-8}}</ref> Saat [[Perang Ogaden|peperangan antara Somalia jeung Ethiopia pecah dina taun 1977-1978]], Barre keleungitan dukungan Soviét jeung kemudian bersekutu dengan Amérika Sarikat. Tentara Kuba ogé berperan dina perang ieu dengan memihak Ethiopia.<ref name = "Erlich 2008, 84-86"/> [[Révolusi Anyelir]] di [[Portugis]] dina taun 1974 nu ngalawan kéotoriteran ''[[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]]'' membuat Portugis kembali ke sistem multi-partéy jeung sekaligus memfasilitasi kemerdekaan koloni Portugis di [[Angola]] jeung [[Timor Wétan]]. Di Afrika, pemberontak Angola mengobarkan [[Perang Kemerdekaan Angola|perang kemerdekaan multi-faksi ngalawan kakuasaan Portugis]] sejak taun 1961, saenggeus perang ieu usai, [[Perang Saudara Angola|perang dua dasawarsa]] menggantikan perang anti-kolonial, nu ditandai dengan peperangan antara komunis [[Gerakan Rakyat Pembébasan Angola]] (MPLA), nu didukung ku Kuba jeung Soviét, dengan [[Front Pembébasan Nasional Angola]] (FNLA), nu didukung ku Amérika Sarikat, Républik Rakyat Tiongkok, jeung Pamaréntahan Mobutu di [[Zaire]]. AS, [[Apartheid di Afrika Kidul|Pamaréntahan apartheid Afrika Kidul]], jeung Babaraha nagara Afrika lianna ogé ngadukung faksi Katilu, [[Uni Nasional pikeun Kemerdekaan Penuh Angola]] (UNITA). Tanpa berkonsultasi dengan Soviét, Kuba ngirimkan tentaranya pikeun berjuang bersama MPLA.<ref name = "Erlich 2008, 84-86"/> Pamaréntah apartheid Afrika Kidul ogé ngirimkan tentara pikeun ngabantuan UNITA, namun MPLA aya di atas tangan karena didukung ku Kuba jeung Soviét.<ref name = "Erlich 2008, 84-86"/> Di Asia Tenggara, koloni [[Timor Wétan]] sacara sepihak memproklilasikan kemerdekaana ti Portugis di handap sayap kiri [[Fretilin]] dina bulan November 1975. Dengan dukungan ti Australia jeung Amérika Sarikat, [[Soeharto]] [[Invasi Indonésia ke Timor Wétan|menginvasi Timor Wétan]] dina bulan Désémber{{mdash}}nu memulai [[Jajahan Indonésia di Timor Wétan|Jajahan Indonésia di Timor Wétan salila sepÉropat abad]].<ref>{{Cite book|last = Doyle|first = Randall Jordan|title = America and China: Asia-Pacific Rim Hegemony in the Twenty-First Century|publisher = Lexington Books|year = 2007|location = Lanham|page = 119|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Z_W7u44IjK8C|id =|isbn = 978-0-7391-1702-6}}</ref> Salila [[Perang Vietnam]], Vietnam Kalér menginvasi jeung menduduki sebagéan Kamboja pikeun dipaké sebagai pangkalan militer, nu ogé berperan dina memicu pecahnya [[Perang Saudara Kamboja]] antara Pamaréntah pro-Amérika [[Lon Nol]] jeung pemberontak [[Maoist]] [[Khmer Beureum]]. Dokumen nu ditemukan ti arsip Soviét mengungkapkan yén invasi Vietnam Kalér ke Kamboja dina taun 1970 dilaksanakan atas permintaan ti Khmer Beureum saenggeus bernegosiasi dengan [[Nuon Chea]].<ref>Dmitry Mosyakov, "The Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese Communists: A History of Their Relations as Told in the Soviét Archives," in Susan E. Cook, ed., ''Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda'' (Yale Genocide Studies Program Monograph Series No. 1, 2004), p54ff. Can be accessed at: www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc "In April–May 1970, many North Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in response to the call for help addressed to Vietnam not by Pol Pot, but by his deputy Nuon Chea. Nguyen Co Thach recalls: “Nuon Chea has asked for help and we have liberated five provinces of Cambodia in ten days.”"</ref> AS jeung Vietnam Kidul nanggepannya dengan melancarkan [[Operasi Menu|kampanye pengeboman]] jeung [[Kampanye Kamboja|serangan darat]], efek ti operasi ieu masih diperdebatkan ku para sejarawan.<ref>Chandler, David 2000, ''Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot'', Revised Edition, Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books, pp. 96-7.</ref> Di handap kepamingpinan [[Pol Pot]], Khmer Beureum membantai 1-3 juta, ti 8,4 juta total penduduk Kamboja, di [[ladang pembantaian]].<ref name="Heuveline, Patrick 2001">Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia." In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Heuveline suggests that a range of 1.17-3.42 million people were killed.</ref><ref name="Marek Sliwinski 1995">Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique (L'Harmattan, 1995).</ref><ref name="Banister, Judith 1993">Banister, Judith, and Paige Johnson (1993). "After the Nightmare: The Population of Cambodia." In Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community, ed. Ben Kiernan. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies.</ref> Sosiolog [[Martin Shaw (sosiolog)|Martin Shaw]] ngagambarkeun kekejaman ieu sebagai "[[genosida]] paling murni ti éra Perang Tiis".<ref>''Theory of the Global State: Globality as Unfieushed Revolution'' by [[Martin Shaw (sosiolog)|Martin Shaw]], [[Cambridge University Press]], 2000, pp 141, ISBN 978-0-521-59730-2</ref> Vietnam ngagulingkeun Pol Pot dina taun 1979 jeung nyieun Pamaréntah boneka di handap pimpinan [[Heng Samrin]]. === Perbaikan hubungan Cina-Amérika === {{Main|Kunjungan Nixon ke Tiongkok taun 1972}} Sebagai akibat ti [[perpecahan Sino-Soviét]], kategangan nu berlangsung di sepanjang tapel wates Cina-Soviét [[Konflik perbatasan Sino–Soviét|mencapai puncaknya]] dina taun 1969, jeung présidén Amérika Sarikat [[Richard Nixon]] memutuskan pikeun memanfaatkan konflik éta sebagai alat pikeun menggeser keseimbangan kakuasaan ke arah Kulon dina Perang Tiis.<ref>Dallek, Robert (2007), p. 144.</ref> Cina ogé berusaha ningkatkeun hubungan dengan Amérika Sarikat dina upayanya pikeun mengambil keuntungan ti Soviét. Dina bulan Februari 1972, Nixon mengumumkan pemulihan hubungan dengan Cina.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=149–152}}</ref> manéhna ngalakukeun kunjungan ke [[Beijing]] jeung papanggih dengan [[Mao Zedong]] jeung [[Zhou Enlai]]. Dina saat itu, sumber daya nuklir Uni Soviét telah setara dengan Amérika Sarikat, [[Perang Vietnam]] ogé telah ngalemahkeun pangaruh Amérika di [[Dunya Katilu]] jeung menTiiskan hubungana dengan Éropa Kulon.<ref>Buchanan, pp. 168–169</ref> Meskipun konflik tak langsung antara dua adidaya dina Perang Tiis terus berlanjut sampai ahir 1960-an jeung awal 1970-an, kategangan perlahan-lahan mulai méré da.<ref name = "Palmowski" /> === Nixon, Brezhnev, détente, jeung Panembakan Pesawat Korean Air Lines Penerbangan 902 === {{Main|Perundingan Pembatasan Senjata Strategis|Perjanjian Helsinki|Organisasi pikeun Kaamanan jeung Kerjasama di Éropa}} [[Gambar:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Leonid Brezhnev]] jeung [[Jimmy Carter]] nandatanganan traktat SALT II, 18 Juni 1979 di [[Wina]]]] Saenggeus kunjungana ke Tiongkok, Nixon papanggih dengan para pamingpin Soviét, kaasup Brezhnev di Moskow.<ref name="bbc-nb">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_4373000/4373149.stm|title=President Nixon arrives in Moscow|publisher=BBC News|date=May 22, 1972|accessdate=June 10, 2008}}</ref> [[Perundingan Pembatasan Senjata Strategis]] (SALT) antara kadua pihak ngahasilkeun dua kamupakatan ngeunaan pengawasan penggunaan senjata, nyaéta [[SALT I]], pakta pembatasan senjata komprehensif pertama nu ditandatangani ku kadua nagara adidaya,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/index.php|title=The President|accessdate=March 27, 2009|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012100741/https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/index.php |date=October 12, 2017 }}</ref> jeung [[Traktat Peluru Kendali Anti-Balistik]], nu mengatur ngeunaan pembatasan sistem peluru kendali anti-balistik nu dipaké pikeun mempertahankan wilayah ka senjata nuklir nu dibawa misil. Ieu bertujuan pikeun membatasi pengembangan peluru kendali anti-balistik jeung rudal nuklir berbiaya mahal.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Nixon jeung Brezhnev mengumumkan éra anyar "hirup berdampingan sacara damai" jeung ngawangun pamarekanhubungan anyar nu disebut ''[[détente]]'' (peredaan kategangan) antara dua nagara adidaya. Sementara itu, Brezhnev berusaha pikeun memperbaiki kembali perékonomian Soviét nu mengalami penurunan akibat besarnya pengeluaran militer.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Antara taun 1972 jeung 1974, kadua pihak ogé paheut pikeun memperkuat hubungan ékonomi maranéhna,<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> di antaranya dengan ngalakukeun perjanjian dina rangka paningkatan aktivitas perdagangan. Sebagai hasil ti perundingan maranéhna, ''détente'' menggantikan éra permusuhan ti Perang Tiis jeung kadua nagara bisa hirup sacara berdampingan.<ref name="bbc-nb"/> Sementara itu, perkembangan hubungan AS jeung Soviét ogé bertepatan dengan "[[Ostpulitik]]" Kanselir Jerman Kulon [[Willy Brandt]].<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 154"/> Perjanjian lianna nu disahkan pikeun menstabilkan situasi di Éropa nyaéta [[Perjanjian Helsinki]], nu ditandatangani dina [[Organisasi pikeun Kaamanan jeung Kerjasama di Éropa|Konferensi Kaamanan jeung Kerjasama di Éropa]] dina taun 1975.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=188}}</ref> <!-- '''[[Korean Air Lines Penerbangan 902]]''' mangrupa [[pesawat]] [[Boeing 707]] nu menerbangi jalur [[Paris]]-[[Anchorage]]-[[Seoul]]. Dina [[20 April]] [[1978]], Namun tragisnya, Radar [[Uni Soviét]] pun mengira yén [[Pesawat]] [[Korean Air Lines Penerbangan 902]] nyaéta [[Pesawat]] Mata-Mata [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Kemudian [[Uni Soviét]] ngirim [[Pesawat Tempur]] [[Sukhoi Su-15]] pikeun menembakin jeung nyegat [[Pesawat]] éta. Saenggeus [[Pesawat]] [[Korean Air Lines Penerbangan 902]] ditembak ku Sukhoi Su-15 nu Uni Soviét, Kecelakaan ieu mupuskeun 2 urang panumpang jeung 107 panumpang salamet di talaga beku.--> === Memburuknya hubungan dina ahir 1970-an === Dina taun 1970-an, KGB, nu dikepalai ku [[Yuri Andropov]], terus menekan kritikus-kritikus terkenal nu mengkritik kepamingpinan Soviét seperti [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] jeung [[Andrei Sakharov]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=186}}</ref> Salila périodeu ''détente'' ieu, konflik tak langsung antara kadua nagara adidaya masih terus terjadi di Dunya Katilu, khususnya dina krisis pulitik di Wétan Tengah, Chili, Ethiopia, jeung Angola.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=178}}</ref> présidén [[Jimmy Carter]] berusaha pikeun menetapkan pembatasan perlombaan persenjataan leuwih lanjut dengan mengesahkan [[Perundingan Pembatasan Senjata Strategis|SALT II]] dina taun 1979,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/18/newsid_4508000/4508409.stm|title=Leaders agree arms reduction treaty|publisher=BBC News|date=June 18, 2008|accessdate=June 10, 2008}}</ref> namun upayanya ieu dirusak ku kajadian lianna dina taun itu, nyaéta [[Révolusi Iran]] nu didukung ku [[KGB]],<ref>Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''The KGB and the World: The Mitrokhin Archive II'' (Penguin, 2006), pp41, 120-1.</ref> [[Révolusi Nikaragua]] pikeun ngagulingkeun rezim pro-AS, jeung nu paling membuat AS berang; intervensi Soviét dina [[Perang Afganistan]] dina bulan Désémber.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> == "Perang Tiis Kadua" (1979-1985) == {{Main| Perang Tiis (1979–1985)}} Istilah "Perang Tiis Kadua" merujuk dina périodeu paningkatan kembali kategangan Perang Tiis jeung konflik antara kadua pihak dina ahir 1970-an jeung awal 1980-an. Kategangan sangat meningkat antara Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Soviét jeung masing-masingnya jadi leuwih ter-militeristik.<ref name = "Halliday" /> Diggins mengungkapkan: "Reagan mengerahkan segalanya pikeun berjuang dina 'Perang Tiis Kadua' dengan ngadukung kontra-pemberontakan di Dunya Katilu."<ref>{{cite book|author=John P. Diggins|title=Ronald Reagan: Fate, Freedom, And the Making of History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N-bQtjYcy0AC&pg=PA267|year=2007|publisher=W. W. Norton|page=267}}</ref> Sementara Cox nyatakeun: "Intensitas 'Perang Tiis Kadua' sehebat durasinya nu singkat."<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Cox|title=Beyond the Cold War: Superpowers at the Crossroads|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cUsOYWpQZbAC&pg=PR18|year=1990|publisher=University Press of America|page=18}}</ref> === Perang Soviét-Afganistan === {{Main|Perang Saudara Afganistan|Perang Soviét-Afganistan}} [[Gambar:Reagan sitting with people from the Afghanistan-Pakistan region in February 1983.jpg|thumb|Presiden Reagan nunjukkeun dukungana dina pertemuan dengan para pamingpin [[Mujahidin|Mujahidin Afganistan]] di [[Gedung Bodas]], 1983.]] [[Gambar:Evstafiev-spetsnaz-prepare-for-mission.jpg|thumb|left|Tentara Soviét di [[Afganistan]].]] Dina bulan April 1978, [[Partei Démokrasi Rakyat Afganistan]] (PDPA) nu berhaluan komunis méré but kakuasaan atas [[Afganistan]] melalui [[Révolusi Saur]]. Dina hitungan bulan, penentang Pamaréntahan komunis melancarkan pemberontakan di Afganistan Wétan, nu dengan cepat berkembang jadi [[Perang Saudara Afganistan|perang saudara]] antara gerilyawan [[mujahidin]] ngalawan tentara Pamaréntah. Pamaréntah [[Pakistan]] memfasilitasi para pemberontak dengan pusat-pusat pelatihan rusiah, sadengkeun Uni Soviét ngirim rébuan penasihat militer pikeun ngadukung Pamaréntahan PDPA.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hussain|2005|pp=108-109}}</ref> Sementara itu, ningkatna gesekan antara faksi-faksi nu bersaing di PDPA{{ndash}}faksi [[Khalq]] nu dominan jeung [[Parcham]] nu leuwih moderat {{ndash}} ngabalukarkeun pemberhentian anggota kabinét jeung penangkapan perwira militer Parchami dengan dalih kudéta ka Parchami. Dina pertengahan 1979, Amérika Sarikat memulai salah sahiji program rusiah pikeun ngabantuan mujahidin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meher|2004|pp=68-69, 94}}</ref> Bulan Séptémber 1979, présidén Khalqist [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] dibunuh dina salah sahiji kudéta PDPA nu diatur ku rekana sesama anggota Khalq bernama [[Hafizullah Amin]], nu kemudian jadi présidén. Amin dibunuh ku pasukan khusus Soviét dina bulan Désémber 1979. Saenggeus kematiana, salah sahiji Pamaréntahan nu diorganisir ku Soviét, di handap pimpinan [[Babrak Karmal]], mengisi kekosongan kakuasaan. Pasukan Soviét dikerahkan pikeun menstabilkan Afganistan di handap Pamaréntahan Karmal, nu telah jadi boneka Soviét. Akibatnya, Soviét miluan langsung dina apa nu kemudian jadi perang domestik di Afganistan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kalinovsky|2011|pp=25-28}}</ref> Carter nanggepan intervensi Soviét di Afganistan dengan cara menarik kembali perjanjian SALT II ti [[Senat Amérika Sarikat|Senat]], ngalakukeun embargo dina pengiriman gandum jeung barang-barang téhnologi dina Uni Soviét, sarta ningkatkeun pengeluaran militer. Amérika Sarikat ogé ngalakukeun pemboikotan ka [[Olimpiade Musim Panas 1980|Olimpiade Moskow 1980]]. Carter nyatakeun yén tindakan Soviét mangrupa "ancaman nu paling serius ka perdamaian salila Perang Tiis Kadua".<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=211}}</ref> === Reagan jeung Thatcher === {{Main| Doktrin Reagan}} [[Gambar:Reagan-Thatcher cabinet talks.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Thatcher nyaéta satu-satunya wanita di ruangan ieu, jeung selusin pria dina setelan duduk di sekitar méja oval. Regan jeung Thatcher duduk berlawanan satu sama lain di tengah-tengah meja panjang. Ruangan ieu dihiasi dengan cat warna Bodas, dengan tirai, salah sahiji lampu emas jeung potret Lincoln.|Kabinét [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]] papanggih dengan Kabinét [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] di Gedung Bodas, 1981.]] Dina bulan Januari 1977, opat taun saméméh jadi présidén, [[Ronald Reagan]] mengungkapkan dina percakapana dengan [[Richard V. Allen]], ngeunaan harapan dasarnya terkait dengan Perang Tiis: "Ide saya ngeunaan kawijakan Amérika ka Uni Soviét sederhana, jeung Babaraha orangbakal menyebutnya sangat sederhana, nyaéta: Kita menang jeung maranéhna kalah. Bagaimana ceuk Anda?".<ref>{{cite web |last=Allen |first=Richard V. |url=http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/7398 |title=The Man Who Won the Cold War |publisher=Hoover.org |accessdate=November 3, 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501052925/http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/7398 |date=May 1, 2011 }}</ref> Taun 1980, Ronald réagan ngéléhkeun [[Jimmy Carter]] dina [[Pemilihan umum Presiden Amérika Sarikat 1980|pemilu presiden 1980]]. Saenggeus kemenangana, manéhna bersumpahbakal ningkatkeun anggaran militer jeung menghadapi Soviét di manapun.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=189}}</ref> Baik réagan maupun [[Perdana Menteri Britania Raya]] nu baru, [[Margaret Thatcher]], sama-sama mengecam Uni Soviét jeung idéologinya. réagan menyebut Uni Soviét sebagai salah sahiji "kekaisaran jahat" jeung meramalkan yén [[komunisme]]bakal hancur jadi "tumpukan abu sejarah".<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 197">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=197}}</ref> Meskipun sentimen anti-Amérika di Iran saenggeus [[Révolusi Iran]] meningkat, Pamaréntahan réagan tetap mengulurkan tangan ka Pamaréntah anti-komunis [[Ayatollah Khomeieu]] dina upayanya pikeun méré krut téokrasi bagi Amérika dina taun 1980-an. Direktur CIA [[William J. Casey|William Casey]] ngagambarkeun Pamaréntahan Khomeieu sebagai Pamaréntahan nu "goyah jeung [mungkin] dina pergerakan ke arah kebeneran... AS hampir teu ngabogaan kartu pikeun dimainkan; sementara Uni Soviét ngabogaan loba kartu."<ref name="Fawaz 1999, 72">Gerges, Fawaz A. (1999). [http://books.google.com/books?id=w-l6M4pOnUkC America and Political Islam: Clash of Cultures or Clash of Interests?]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-521-63957-6.''</ref> Salah sahijimétodeunu dilakukan Amérika pikeun ngadukung Iran nyaéta dengan penjualan senjata sacara rusiah. Dina taun 1983, CIA merilis daftar panjang komunis Iran jeung aktivis sayap kiri lianna nu dicurigai bekerja dina Pamaréntahan Khomeieu.<ref name="Beieun & Stork 1997, 11-12">Beieun, Joel & Joe Stork (1997). "On the Modernity, Historical Specificity, and International Context of Political Islam". In Joel Beieun & Joe Stork (Eds.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6H7tYLVwVFkC Political Islam: Essays from the Middle East Report]''. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-520-20448-5.</ref> Salah sahiji komisi khusus kemudian melaporkan yén daftar itu disusun pikeun mengambil "langkah-langkah, kaasup eksekusi massal, pikeun mengeliminasi sakabéh infrastruktur pro-Soviét di Iran."<ref name = "Beieun & Stork 1997, 11-12"/> Dina awal 1985, prinsip anti-komunis réagan telah berkembang jadi sikap nu dikenal sebagai [[Doktrin Reagan]]{{mdash}}nu mana, selain penahanan, ogé dirumuskan hak tambahan pikeun menumbangkan Pamaréntahan komunis nu ada.<ref name="Graebner, Burns & Siracusa 2008, 76">Graebner Norman A., Richard Dean Burns & Joseph M. Siracusa (2008). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=r71u_AgE7iYC Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War].'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-313-35241-6.</ref> Selain melanjutkan kawijakan Carter nu ngadukung penentang Islam dina ngalawan Soviét jeung PDPA di Afganistan, CIA ogé berusaha ngalemahkeun Uni Soviét dengan cara mempromosikan [[pulitik Islam]] di mayoritas Islam [[Asia Tengah Soviét|Soviét Asia Tengah]].<ref name="Singh 1995, 130">Singh, Bilveer (1995). "Jemaah Islamiyah". In Wilson John & Swati Parashar (Eds.) ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cAE-bxSXayMC Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Implications for South Asia]''. Singapore and Delhi: ORF-Pearson-Longman. p. 130. ISBN 978-81-297-0998-1.</ref> Di samping itu, CIA mendorong anti-komunis ISI di Pakistan agar bersedia melatih Muslim ti sakabéh dunya pikeun berpartisipasi dina [[jihad]] ngalawan Uni Soviét.<ref name = "Singh 1995, 130"/> A === Gerakan solititas jeung darurat militer di Polandia === {{main|Solidarność|Darurat militer di Polandia}} Kunjungan [[Paus Yohanes Paulus II]] ke nagara kelahirana, [[Polandia]], dina taun 1979 telah mendorong kebangkitan spiritual jeung nasionalis nu memicu lahirnya [[Solidarność|gerakan solititas jeung semangat anti-komunisme]]. Hal ieu diperkirakan mangrupa penyebab dilakukana [[Percobaan pembunuhan ka Paus Yohanes Paulus II|upaya pembunuhan]] ka Paus Yohanes Paulus II dua taun kemudian.<ref>Henze‏, p. 171</ref> Dina bulan Désémber 1981, [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] beréaksi ka krisis di Polandia dengan memberlakukan masa [[darurat militer]]. Pikeun nanggepannya, réagan memberlakukan sanksi ékonomi ka Polandia.<ref name="Gaddis219" /> [[Mikhail Suslov]], idéolog top di Kremlin, menyarankan agar pamingpin Soviét teu campur tangan jika Polandia jatuh di handap kendali gerakan Solititas, karena takut hal itubakal menimbulkan sanksi ékonomi nu leuwih berat deui, nu hartinabakal jadi malapetaka bagi perékonomian Soviét.<ref name="Gaddis219">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=219–222}}</ref> === Isu ékonomi jeung militer Soviét jeung AS === {{See|Era stagnasi|Strategi Ieusiatif Pertahanan|RSD-10 Pioneer|MGM-31 Pershing|Kematian Leonid Brezhnev|Yuri Andropov|Konstantin Chernenko}} [[Gambar:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|thumb|right|Perbandingan stok senjata nuklir AS jeung Soviét/Rusia, 1945–2006]] [[Gambar:SDIO Delta Star.jpg|thumb|upright|Delta 183 diluncurkan, membawa sensor eksperimen [[Strategi Ieusiatif Pertahanan]] "Delta Star".]] Moskow telah ngawangun sumber daya militer nu menghabiskan 25 persen ti produk nasional bruto Uni Soviét, dengan mengorbankan barang-barang konsumsi jeung investasi di sektor sipil.<ref name="LaFeber 2002, p. 332">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=332}}</ref> Pengeluaran Soviét pikeun [[perlombaan senjata]] jeung kompétisi Perang Tiis lianna beuki diperparah ku masalah struktural dina sistem perékonomian Soviét,<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Towle|first1 = Philip|title = The Oxford History of Modern War|page = 159}}</ref> nu mengalami [[Era Stagnasi|stagnasi ékonomi salila satu dekade]] dina taun-taun terahir Pamaréntahan Brezhnev. [[Gambar:Olympic boycotts 1976 1980 1984.PNG|thumb|left|300px|Pemboikotan [[Olimpiade Musim Panas 1980|Olimpiade Moskow 1980]] (biru) jeung [[Olimpiade Musim Panas 1984|Olimpiade Los Angeles 1984]] (Beureum).]] Investasi Soviét dina sektor pertahanan teu didorong ku kapentingan militer, namun sebagéan besar pikeun ngadukung kapentingan partéy-partéy besar jeung birokrasi nagara, nu bergantung dina sektor militer pikeun ngadukung kakuasaan jeung hak istimewa maranéhna.<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=335}}</ref> [[Militer Uni Soviét]] mangrupa militer terbesar di dunya dina hal jumlah jeung jenis senjata, jumlah tentara, jeung jumlah pangkalan militer nu maranéhna miliki.<ref name = "Odom">{{Harvnb|Odom|2000|p=1}}</ref> Namun, keuntungan kuantitatif nu dipegang ku militer Soviét seringkali dirusiahkan kéayaana, sehingga Blok Wétan sacara dramatis tertinggal ku Kulon.<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=340}}</ref> [[Gambar:USSR stamp S.Smith 1985 5k.jpg|thumb|upright|Saenggeus seorang anak Amérika berusia sepuluh taun bernama [[Samantha Smith]] ngirimkan surat ka [[Yuri Andropov]], nu mengungkapkan kasieunana atas perang nuklir, Andropov mengundang Smith ke Uni Soviét.]] Dina awal 1980-an, Uni Soviét telah ngawangun persenjataan jeung pasukan militer nu meleuwihi Amérika Sarikat. Segera saenggeus Soviét menginvasi Afganistan, présidén Carter memulai pemwangunan besar-besaran militer Amérika Sarikat. Upaya ieu beuki diintensifkan ku Pamaréntahan réagan, nu ningkatkeun pengeluaran [[militer]] ti 5,3 persen/total GNP dina taun 1981 jadi 6,5 persen dina taun 1986,<ref>{{Cite book |last = Carliner‏ |first = Geoffrey |coauthors = Alberto Alesina‏ |title = Politics and economics in the eighties: edited by Alberto Alesina and Geoffrey Carliner |publisher = University of Chicago Press |year = 1991 |page = [https://archive.org/details/politicseconomic0000unse_i4h7/page/6 6] |url =https://archive.org/details/politicseconomic0000unse_i4h7 |id = |isbn = 0-226-01281-6}}</ref> jumlah anggaran militer terbesar sepanjang sejarah Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{cite news|work=The Boston Globe|publisher=Encyclopedia.com|accessdate=June 21, 2008|date=March 29, 2006|title=Caspar W. Weinberger, 88; Architect of Massive Pentagon Buildup|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-7946374.html|author=Feeney, Mark}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817163633/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-7946374.html |date=August 17, 2009 }}</ref> Kategangan terus meningkat dina awal 1980-an ketika réagan mengaktifkan kembali program [[B-1 Lancer]] nu saméméhnya dibatalkan ku Pamaréntahan Carter, memproduksi [[LGM-118 Peacekeeper]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/lgm-118.htm|title=LGM-118A Peacekeeper|accessdate=April 10, 2007|date=August 15, 2000|publisher=Federation of American Scientists}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516205937/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/lgm-118.htm |date=May 16, 2020 }}</ref> menginstal rudal jelajah AS di Éropa, jeung mengumumkan program eksperimental [[Strategi Ieusiatif Pertahanan]], nu dijuluki "Star Wars" ku media, nyaéta program pertahanan pikeun menembak jatuh rudal musuh di tengah-tengah penerbangana.<ref name="ShieldSpace?">Lakoff, p. 263</ref> Dilatarbelakangi ku ningkatna kategangan antara Soviét jeung Amérika Sarikat, sarta dipasangnya [[rudal balistik]] [[RSD-10 Pioneer]] milik Soviét nu mengarah ke [[Éropa Kulon]], NATO memutuskan{{ndash}}di handap dorongan ti présidén Carter{{ndash}}pikeun menginstal rudal jelajah jeung [[MGM-31 Pershing]] milik Amérika Sarikat di Éropa, terutama di [[Jerman Kulon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=202}}</ref> Rudal-rudal ieu ditopatkan dengan jarak mencolok, hanya berjarak 10 menit ti [[Moskow]].<ref>Garthoff, p. 88</ref> Saenggeus pemwangunan militer réagan selesai, Soviét teu nanggepannya dengan mengembangkan sumber daya militernya leuwih besar deui karena pengeluaran militer Soviét sudah sangat besar.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.theatlantic.com/past/politics/foreign/reagrus.htm|title=Reagan and the Russians|date=February 1994|work=The Atlantic|author=Lebow, Richard Ned and Janice Gross Stein|accessdate=May 28, 2010}}</ref> Besarnya anggaran militer Soviét mengakibatkan teu efisiena pemwangunan dina sektor [[manufaktur]] jeung pertanian, nu ahirnya jadi beban berat bagi [[Perékonomian Uni Soviét|perékonomian Soviét]].<ref name="Gaidar, Yegor"/> Di saat nu bersamaan, produksi minyak di [[Arab Saudi]] meningkat,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iet.ru/files/persona/gaidar/un_en.htm|title=Public Expectations and Trust towards the Government: Post-Revolution Stabilization and its Discontents|accessdate=March 15, 2008|author=Gaidar, Yegor|publisher=The Institute for the Economy in Transition}}</ref> bahkan produksi minyak di nagara-nagara non-[[OPEC]] ogé meningkat dina périodeu éta, kaasup Soviét.<ref name="EIA">"[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html Official Energy Statistics of the US Government]", EIA&nbsp;— International Energy Data and Analysis. Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref> Perkembangan ieu méré kontribusi ka fénoména[[banjir minyak 1980-an]] nu mempangaruhi Uni Soviét. Minyak mulai jadi sumber utama pendapatan ekspor Soviét.<ref name="LaFeber 2002, p. 332"/><ref name="Gaidar, Yegor"/> Namun, permasalahan [[perékonomian komando]],<ref name="hardt1">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=1}}</ref> turuna harga minyak, jeung pengeluaran militer nu tetap besar sacara bertahap membawa perékonomian Soviét menuju stagnasi.<ref name="Gaidar, Yegor">Gaidar 2007 pp. 190–205</ref> Dina tanggal 1 Séptémber 1983, Uni Soviét menembak jatuh [[Korean Air Penerbangan 007]], pesawat [[Boeing 747]] nu mengangkut 269 penumpang, kaasup anggota Kongres [[Larry McDonald]]. Pesawat itu ditembak karena melanggar wilayah udara Soviét dengan melewati pantai Kulon [[Sakhalin|pulo Sakhalin]], di dekat [[Kepulauan Moneron]]&nbsp;—tindakan nu ku réagan dianggep sebagai "pembantaian". Tindakan Soviét ieu beuki ningkatkeun dukungan bagi AS supaya segera menerjukan militernya.<ref name="DoernerFive">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926169-5,00.html|title=Atrocity in the skies|work=Time|date=Séptémber 12, 1983|accessdate=June 8, 2008|first1=Strobe|last1=Talbott|first2=Jerry|last2=Hannifin|first3=Ed|last3=Magnuson|first4=William R.|last4=Doerner|first5=Joseph J.|last5=Kane}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521063516/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926169-5,00.html |date=May 21, 2013 }}</ref> NATO mengadakan latihan militer [[Able Archer 83]] dina bulan November 1983, nu mangrupa simulasi peluncuran nuklir sacara nyata. Paristiwa ieu disebut-sebut sebagai saat nu paling berbahaya bagi dunya sejak [[Krisis Rudal Kuba]] dina taun 1962. Saenggeus pamingpin Soviét memahami maksud ti latihan militer éta, maka diputuskan yén perang nuklir beuki dekat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=228}}</ref> Kehenteusetujuan publik AS ngeunaan campur tangan AS dina konflik nagara lain sudah berlangsung sejak ahir [[Perang Vietnam]].<ref name="LaFeber323">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=323}}</ref> Pamaréntahan réagan menekankan taktik [[kontra-pemberontakan]] jeung penyelesaian cepat dina mencampuri konflik asing.<ref name="LaFeber323" /> Dina taun 1983, Pamaréntahan réagan pipilueun tangan dina [[Perang Saudara Lebanon]], menginvasi [[Grenada]], membom [[Libya]], jeung ngadukung gerakan [[Contras]] di Amérika Tengah{{ndash}}paramiliter anti-komunis nu berusaha ngagulingkeun Pamaréntahan pro-Soviét [[Sandieusta]] di [[Nikaragua]].<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212"/> Intervensi réagan ka Grenada jeung Libya mendapat dukungan ti publik AS, namun dukungana dina Contra [[Skandal Iran Contra|mengundang kontroversi]].<ref name = "Reagan">{{cite book|author=Reagan, Ronald|editor=Foner, Eric; Garraty, John Arthur|title=The Reader's companion to American history|url=http://books.google.com/?id=KrWDw-_devcC|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=1991|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books|isbn=0-395-51372-3}}</ref> Sementara itu, Soviét sendiri mengeluarkan biaya tinggi dina memfasilitasi intervensi maranéhna ka asing. Meskipun Brezhnev meyakieu dina taun 1979 yén [[Perang Soviét-Afganistan]]bakal berlangsung singkat, gerilyawan [[Muslim]], nu dibantu ku AS jeung nagara-nagara lianna, mengobarkan perlawanan sengit ka invasi éta.<ref name="LaFeber314">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=314}}</ref> Kremlin ngirimkan hampir 100.000 tentara pikeun ngadukung rezim boneka di Afganistan, nu dijuluki ku para pengamat luar dengan "perang 'Vietnam'-nya Soviét".<ref name="LaFeber314" /> Namun, dampak perang Afganistan ieu jauh leuwih parah bagi Soviét ketimbang dampak Perang Vietnam bagi Amérika Sarikat, karena konflik ieu ogé bertepatan dengan périodeu kekacauan jeung krisis internal dina birokrasi jeung perékonomian Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=292}}</ref> Séorang pejabat senior di [[Departemen Luar Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Departemen Luar Negeri AS]] memprediksikan dina awal 1980-an, manéhna nyatakeun yén "invasi nu mengakibatkan krisis dina negeri bagi Soviét... mungkin itu nyaéta hukum termodinamika [[entropi]]... nu terjebak dengan sistem Soviét, nu ayeuna tampaknya leuwih loba mengeluarkan energi pikeun menjaga keseimbangana ketimbang pikeun memperbaikinya. Kita bisa menempo periode kebangkitan asing dina saat mengalami keruntuhan internal".<ref name=" Dobrynin">{{Harvnb|Dobrynin|2001|pp=438–439}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Maynes|1980|pp=1–2}}</ref> == Taun-taun terahir (1985–1991) == {{Main|Perang Tiis (1985–1991)}} [[Gambar:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] jeung Ronald Reagan nandatanganan [[Traktat INF]] di Gedung Bodas, 1987]] === Reformasi Gorbachev === {{See|Mikhail Gorbachev|perestroika|glasnost}} Saenggeus tanggal 11 Maret 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev jadi Sekretaris Jenderal partéy Komunis Uni Soviét nu kelima pikeun menggantikan Konstantin Chernenko nu sudah wafat. Dina saat [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], nu relatif masih muda, jadi [[Sekretaris Jenderal Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Sekretaris Jenderal]] dina taun 1985,<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 197" /> perékonomian Soviét keur stagnan jeung mengalami penurunan tajam dina penerimaan mata uang asing akibat turuna harga minyak dunya dina taun 1980-an.<ref name="LaFeber331" /> Masalah ieu memaksa Gorbachev pikeun mengambil langkah-langkah guna membangkitkan kembali keterpurukan Soviét.<ref name="LaFeber331">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|pp=331–333}}</ref> Gorbachev nyatakeun yén pikeun membangkitkan kembali Soviét, diperlukan perobahan nu mendina dina struktural Soviét. Dina bulan Juni 1987, Gorbachev mengumumkan agenda reformasinya nu disebut ''[[perestroika]]'' atawa restrukturisasi.<ref name="Gaddis231">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=231–233}}</ref> Perestroika ngamungkinkeun leuwih épéktipnya sistem [[kuota produksi]], kepemilikan swasta atas bisnis jeung ogé membuka jalan bagi [[investor]] asing. Langkah ieu dimaksudkan pikeun mengarahkan sumber daya nagara ti pembiayaan militer nu mahal pikeun menunjang Perang Tiis ke pengembangan sektor sipil nu leuwih produktif.<ref name="Gaddis231" /> Meskipun muncul skeptisisme ti nagara-nagara Kulon, pamingpin Soviét nu anyar ieu terbukti berkomitmen pikeun memperbaiki kondisi perékonomian Soviét nu buruk, bukana melanjutkan perlombaan senjata dengan Kulon.<ref name="Palmowski" /><ref name="LaFeber2002">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|pp=300–340}}</ref> Pikeun ngalawan penentang reformasinya nu berasal ti internal partéy, Gorbachev sacara bersamaan memperkenalkan ''[[glasnost]]'', atawa keterbukaan. Kawijakan ieu ngamungkinkeun ningkatna kebébasan [[pers]] jeung transparansi lembaga-lembaga nagara.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=7}}</ref> ''Glasnost'' dimaksudkan pikeun ngurangan [[korupsi]] dina tubuh [[Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Partei Komunis]] jeung memoderasi penyalahgunaan kakuasaan di [[Komite Sentral]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=33}}</ref> ''Glasnost'' ogé ngamungkinkeun ningkatna kontak antara warga Soviét jeung [[Dunya Kulon]], khususnya dengan Amérika Sarikat, nu méré kontribusi bagi paningkatan ''[[détente]]'' antara kadua nagara.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=61}}</ref> === Perbaikan hubungan === {{See|Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Reykjavík|Traktat INF|START I}} Nanggepan [[Konsesi (pulitik)|konsesi pulitik]] jeung militer [[Kremlin]] nu baru, réagan setuju pikeun mengadakan kembali perundingan dengan Soviét terkait dengan isu-isu ékonomi jeung perlombaan senjata.<ref name="Gaddis229">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=229–230}}</ref> Perundingan pertama diadakan dina bulan November 1985 di [[Jenewa|Jenewa, Swiss]].<ref name="Gaddis229" /> Dina perundingan éta, kadua pamingpin nagara, disertai ku séorang penerjemah, paheut pikeun ngurangans persenjataan nuklir di masing-masing nagara sebesar 50 persen.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/21/newsid_2549000/2549897.stm 1985: "Superpowers aim for 'safer world'"], BBC News, November 21, 1985. Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref> Perundingan kadua, [[Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Reykjavík]], diselenggarakan di [[Islandia]]. Perundingan éta berjalan lancar hingga pembicaraan bergeser ke arah Strategi Ieusiatif Pertahanan réagan nu hayang dieliminasi ku Gorbachev, namun réagan nolak.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE0DA1F3BF93AA15756C0A96E948260|title=Toward the Summit; Previous Reagan-Gorbachev Summits|work=The New York Times|accessdate=June 21, 2008|date=May 29, 1988}}</ref> Negosiasi ahirnya gagal, namun dina perundingan Katilu dina taun 1987, kadua pihak berhasil ngahasilkeun terobosan dengan ditandatanganinya [[Traktat Angkatan Nuklir Jangka Menengah]] (INF). Traktat ieu menghapuskan kéayaan sakabéh senjata nuklir, rudal balistik, jeung rudal jelajah di kadua pihak dengan jarak antara 500 jeung 5.500 kilométer beserta infrastrukturnya.<ref name="fas">{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html|title=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces|accessdate=June 21, 2008|publisher=Federation of American Scientists}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724134840/http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html |date=July 24, 2008 }}</ref> Kategangan antara Wétan dengan Kulon méré da dengan cepat dina pertengahan 1980-an. Taun 1989, bertopat di Moskow, Gorbachev jeung gagantina réagan, [[George H. W. Bush]], nandatanganan perjanjian [[START I]], nu mengahiri perlombaan senjata antar kadua nagara.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=255}}</ref> Salila taun-taun saterusna, Soviét dihadapkan dina keruntuhan perékonomian nu dibalukarkeun ku turuna harga minyak dunya jeung besarnya pembiayaan militer.<ref name="Shearman76"/> Selain itu, penopatan militer di nagara sekutunya diakui teu relevan deui bagi Soviét, jeung dina taun 1987, Soviét [[Doktrin Sinatra|sacara resmi mengumumkan]] kalau manéhna moal bakal pipilueun deui dina urusan dina negeri nagara-nagara sekutunya di [[Éropa Wétan]].<ref name="Gaddis248">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=248}}</ref> Taun 1989, pasukan Soviét mundur ti Afganistan,<ref name="Gaddis 2005, pp. 235–236">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=235–236}}</ref> jeung setaun kemudian Gorbachev menyetujui [[reunifikasi Jerman]],<ref name="Shearman76">{{Harvnb|Shearman|1995|p=76}}</ref> satu-satunya alternatif pikeun nanggepan [[Protes Tiananmen Square 1989|skenario Tianmen]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Shearman|1995|p=74}}</ref> Ketika [[Tembok Berlin]] runtuh, konsép "[[Common European Home]]" nu dicetuskan ku Gorbachev mulai terbentuk.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ena.lu/?doc=11160| title=Address given by Mikhail Gorbachev to the Council of Europe| publisher=[[European NAvigator|Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe]]| date=July 6, 1989| accessdate=February 11, 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220033/http://www.ena.lu/?doc=11160 |date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref> Dina tanggal 3 Désémber 1989, dina [[Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Malta]], Gorbachev jeung [[George H. W. Bush]] sacara resmi nyatakeun yén Perang Tiis sudah berahir.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_4119000/4119950.stm Malta summit ends Cold War], BBC News, December 3, 1989. Retrieved June 11, 2008.</ref> Setaun kemudian, dua nagara éta bermitra dina [[Perang Teluk]] ngalawan Irak.<ref>Goodby, p. 26</ref> === Goyahna sistem Soviét === {{see|Perékonomian Uni Soviét}} [[Gambar:West and East Germans at the Brandenburg Gate in 1989.jpg|thumb|right|Runtuhnya [[Tembok Berlin]] dina taun 1989.]] Dina taun 1989, sistem aliansi Soviét aya di ambang keruntuhan. Akibat leungitnya dukungan militer ti Soviét, satu-persatu para pamingpin nagara-nagara komunis [[Pakta Warsawa]] ogé keleungitan kakuasaan.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, pp. 235–236"/> Di Uni Soviét sendiri, kawijakan ''glasnost'' ngalemahkeun ikatan nu salila ieu menyatukan Soviét.<ref name="Gaddis248" /> Bulan Februari 1990, dengan beuki memuncaknya isu [[pembubaran Uni Soviét]], para pamingpin [[Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Partei Komunis]] terpaksa menyerahkan tampuk kakuasaana nu telah bertahan salila 73 taun.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sakwa|1999|p=460}}</ref> Dina saat nu sama, isu kemerdekaan nu dipicu ku ''glasnost'' beuki mendorong nagara-nagara Soviét pikeun misahkeun diri ti Moskow. [[Nagara-nagara Baltik]] mulai menarik diri ti Soviét sepenuhnya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=253}}</ref> [[Révolusi 1989|Gelombang Révolusi damai 1989]] nu melanda [[Éropa Tengah]] jeung Éropa Wétan meruntuhkan kedigjayaan komunisme Soviét di nagara-nagara seperti Polandia, Hongaria, Cekoslowakia jeung Bulgaria.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lefeber|Fitzmaurice|Vierdag|1991|p=221}}</ref> Rumania jadi satu-satunya nagara Blok Wétan nu ngagulingkeun kakuasaan komunis sacara keras dengan mengeksekusi kepala nagaranya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=247}}</ref> === Pembubaran Uni Soviét === {{See|January 1991 events in Latvia|Upaya kudéta di Soviét 1991|Sejarah Uni Soviét (1982–1991)|Pembubaran Uni Soviét}} [[Gambar:CIS-Map 2.png|right|thumb|[[Persemakmuran Nagara-Nagara Merdeka]], ahir resmi ti [[Uni Soviét]]]] Sikap permisif Gorbachev ka Éropa Wétan awalna teu meluas ke wilayah Soviét, bahkan Bush, nu berjuang pikeun mempertahankan hubungan persahabatan dengan Soviét, mengutuk pembunuhan dina bulan Januari 1991 di [[Paristiwa Januari 1991 di Latvia|Latvia]] jeung [[Paristiwa Januari|Lituania]]. Bush memperingatkan yén hubungan ékonomibakal dibekukan jika kekerasan terus terjadi.<ref>Goldgeier, p. 27</ref> Uni Soviét sacara fatal dilemahkeun ku [[Upaya kudéta di Soviét 1991|kudéta nu gagal]] dina taun 1991 jeung ningkatna jumlah [[Republik Uni Soviét|republikan Soviét]], hususna di [[Republik Sosialis Federasi Soviét Rusia|Rusia]], nu mengancambakal misahkeun diri ti Uni Soviét. [[Persemakmuran Nagara-Nagara Merdeka]], nu didirikan dina tanggal 21 Désémber 1991, dipandang sebagai entitas penerus Uni Soviét, namun, ceuk para pamingpin Rusia, tujuana nyaéta pikeun "ngamungkinkeun perpisahan sacara ayab" antara republik-republik Soviét jeung ogé sebanding dengan kelonggaran konfederasi.<ref>[http://rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/12/14b6b499-9eb2-4dee-b96c-784ec918969a.html Soviét Leaders Recall ‘Inevitable’ Breakup Of Soviét Union] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615120212/http://rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/12/14b6b499-9eb2-4dee-b96c-784ec918969a.html |date=2008-06-15 }}, [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], December 8, 2006. Retrieved May 20, 2008.</ref> Uni Soviét sacara resmi [[Pembubaran Uni Soviét|dibubarkan]] dina tanggal 25 Désémber 1991.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=256–257}}</ref> == Dampak == {{Main|Dampak Perang Tiis}} [[Gambar:Nato-csto.svg|thumb|right|600px|[[NATO]]/[[CSTO]]]] [[Gambar:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|right|[[NATO]] telah [[Perluasan NATO|memperluas cakupana]] ke nagara-nagara bekas [[Pakta Warsawa]] jeung bekas Uni Soviét sejak berahirnya Perang Tiis.]] Saenggeus Perang Tiis, [[Rusia]] sebagai ahli waris utama Uni Soviét memotong pengeluaran militer sacara drastis. Restrukturisasi ékonomi ngabalukarkeun jutaan warga di sakabéh Uni Soviét menganggur.<ref name = "Aslund">Åslund, p. 49</ref> Sadengkeun reformasi kapitalis mengakibatkan terjadinya resesi parah, leuwih parah tidina nu dialami ku AS jeung Jerman salila [[Depresi Besar]].<ref name = "Nolan">Nolan, pp. 17–18</ref> Saenggeus berahir, Perang Tiis masih terus mempangaruhi dunya.<ref name = "Halliday" /> Saenggeus pembubaran [[Uni Soviét]], dunya pasca-Perang Tiis sacara luas dianggep sebagai dunya nu [[Unipolaritas|unipolar]], nyésakeun [[Amérika Sarikat]] sebagai satu-satunya [[nagara adidaya]] di dunya.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm Country profile: United States of America]. [[BBC News]]. Retrieved March 11, 2007</ref><ref>Nye, p. 157</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Blum|2006|p=87}}</ref> Perang Tiis ogé ngabantuan mendefenisikan peran pulitik Amérika Sarikat di dunya pasca-[[Perang Dunya II]]: dina taun 1989 AS menjalin kerjasama militer dengan 50 nagara jeung mibanda 526.000<ref name=Frontline>{{cite web | title = U.S. Military Deployment 1969 to the present | publisher = http://www.pbs.org | date = October 26, 2004 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/pentagon/maps/5.html | accessdate =November 30, 2010 }}</ref> tentara di luar negeri nu tersebar di puluhan nagara, dengan 326.000 terdapat di Éropa (dua pertiganya di Jerman Kulon),<ref>{{Cite book |last = Duke |first = Simón |title = United States military forces and installations in Europe |publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 1989 |page = [https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesmili0000duke/page/175 175] |url =https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesmili0000duke |id = |isbn = 0-19-829132-9}}</ref> jeung sekitar 130.000 terdapat di Asia (terutama di Jepang jeung Koréa Kidul).<ref name=Frontline/> Perang Tiis ogé menandai puncak pengembangan industri-militer, terutama di Amérika Sarikat, jeung pendanaan militer sacara besar-besaran.<ref name = "Calhoun">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Calhoun, Craig|encyclopedia=Dictionary of the Social Sciences|title=Cold War (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SvSZHgAACAAJ&dq=Dictionary+of+the+Social+Sciences|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-512371-9|ref=harv}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Pengembangan industri militer ieu mibanda dampak besar ka nagara nu bersangkutan; ngabantuan nyieun kehirupan kemasyarakatan, kawijakan, jeung hubungan luar negeri nagara éta.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Pavelec |first = Sterling Michael |title = The Military-Industrial Complex and American Society |publisher = ABC-CLIO |year = 2009 |pages = xv–xvi |url =https://archive.org/details/militaryindustri0000unse_q9m4 |id = |isbn = 1-59884-187-4}}</ref> Pengeluaran militer Amérika Sarikat salila berlangsungnya Perang Tiis diperkirakan sekitar $ 8 triliun, sadengkeun hampir 100.000 orang Amérika keleungitan nyawa maranéhna dina [[Perang Korea]] jeung [[Perang Vietnam]].<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=1}}</ref> Sulit pikeun memperkirakan jumlah korban jeung kerugian ti pihak Soviét, namun jika dinempo ti komparasi produk nasional bruto maranéhna, maka biaya keuangan nu dikeluarkan ku Soviét salila Perang Tiis jauh leuwih besar tidina nu dikeluarkan ku Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=213}}</ref> Selain leungitnya nyawa warga sipil ku para tentara tak berseragam, jutaan jiwa ogé tewas dina [[perang proksi]] antar kadua nagara adidaya di rupa-rupa belahan dunya, terutama di Asia Tenggara.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=266}}</ref> Sebagéan besar perang proksi jeung bantuan pikeun konflik-konflik lokal turut berahir seiring dengan usainya Perang Tiis. Perang antar-nagara, perang etnis, perang Révolusi, sarta jumlah pengungsi menurun tajam dina taun-taun pasca-Perang Tiis.<ref name = "Marshall">[http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf Monty G. Marshall and Ted Gurr, ''Peace and Conflict 2005''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624210152/http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf |date=2008-06-24 }} (PDF), Center for Systemic Peace (2006). Retrieved June 14, 2008.</ref> Di sisi lain, konflik-konflik antar-nagara di [[Dunya Katilu]] teu sepenuhnya terhapus pasca-Perang Tiis. Kategangan ékonomi jeung sosial nu dulu dimanfaatkan sebagai "bahan bakar" Perang Tiis terus berlangsung di [[Dunya Katilu]].<ref name="Halliday" /> Kegagalan kontrol nagara di sejumlah wilayah nu dulunya dikuasai ku Pamaréntah komunis telah ngahasilkeun konflik sipil jeung etnis baru, terutama di nagara-nagara bekas [[Yugoslavia]].<ref name = "Halliday" /> Berahirnya Perang Tiis telah menghantarkan Éropa Wétan dina éra pertumbuhan ékonomi jeung paningkatan jumlah nagara [[démokrasi liberal]], sadengkeun di bagéan lain dunya, seperti di Afganistan, kemerdekaan diikuti dengan [[nagara gagal|kegagalan nagara]].<ref name = "Halliday" /> == Historiografi == {{Main| Historiografi Perang Tiis}} Saenggeus istilah "Perang Tiis" dipopulerkan pikeun merujuk dina kategangan antara AS-Soviét pasca-Perang Dunya II, penafsiran ka asal usul konflik telah jadi sumber perdebatan di kalangan [[sejarawan]], ilmuwan pulitik, jeung jurnalis.<ref name = "Nashel">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Nashel, Jonathan|editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John|encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|title=Cold War (1945–91): Changing Interpretations (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xtMKHgAACAAJ&dq=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-507198-0|ref=harv}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sacara khusus, sejarawan teu paheut ngeunaan saha nu bertanggung jawab atas kerusakan hubungan Soviét-AS saenggeus Perang Dunya II, jeung apakah konflik antara dua adidaya éta tak terelakkan atawa bisa dihinti.<ref name="Brinkley">Brinkley, pp. 798–799</ref> Para sejarawan ogé teu paheut ngeunaan apa defenisi persisnya Perang Tiis itu, apa-apa saja nu jadi sumber-sumber konfliknya, jeung bagaimana pikeun menguraikan pola aksi jeung réaksi antara kadua pihak.<ref name = "Halliday" /> Meskipun penjelasan tentang asal usul ti konflik Perang Tiis dina diskusi akademik berlangsung dengan kompleks jeung beragam, Babaraha sekolah umum menetapkan pemikiran dina subjek nu dapat diidentifikasi. Sejarawan umumnya berpendapat yén terdapat tiga pamarekannu berbéda pikeun mempelajari Perang Tiis, nyaéta: pamarekan"ortodoks", "revisionisme", jeung "pasca-revisionisme".<ref name = "Calhoun" /> pamarekan"ortodoks" nyatakeun yén Uni Soviét jeung ekspansinya ke Éropa Wétan lah nu memicu berkobarnya Perang Tiis.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> Kalangan "revisionis" menganggep yén Amérika Sarikat bertanggung jawab atas kerusakan perdamaian pasca-Perang Dunya II karena berupaya pikeun mengkonfrontasi jeung mengisolasi Uni Soviét saméméh ahir Perang Dunya II.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> Sadengkeun "pasca-revisionis" mandang Perang Tiis sebagai kajadian nu leuwih bernuansa, jeung berusaha pikeun leuwih menyeimbangkan ngeunaan saha pihak nu bertanggung jawab dina Perang Tiis.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> Kelobaan [[historiografi]] ngeunaan Perang Tiis menggunakan dua atawa kesakabéhan pamarekanieu.<ref name = "Byrd" /> == Nempo ogé == {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[Permainan Besar]] * [[Imperialisme Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Kanada dina Perang Tiis]] * [[Perang Tiis (istilah umum)]] * [[Perang Tiis (serial TV)|''Perang Tiis'' (serial TV)]] * [[Kebudayaan salila Perang Tiis]] * [[Konferensi Danube River 1948]] * [[Daftar konferensi Uni Soviét-Amérika Sarikat]] * [[McCarthyisme]] * [[Intervensi luar negeri Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Ekspansi ékonomi pasca-Perang Dunya II]] * [[Kekaisaran Soviét]] * [[Garis waktu kejadian dina Perang Tiis]] * [[Eksperimen manusia nu teu etis di Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Perang Dunya III]] * [[:Kategori:Perang Tiis]] {{div col end}} == Catatan kaki == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Referensi jeung bacaan lanjutan == {{Main|Daftar sumber primer jeung sekunder Perang Tiis}} {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book|last=Applebaum|first = Anne|title=Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944-1956|url=https://archive.org/details/ironcurtaincrush00appl_0|publisher= Doubleday|year=2012|isbn= 0-385-51569-3}} * Davis, Simon, and Joseph Smith. ''The A to Z of the Cold War'' (Scarecrow, 2005), encyclopedia focused on military aspects * {{cite book|last=Dominguez|first = Jorge I.|title= To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy|url=https://archive.org/details/tomakeworldsafef0000domi|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1989|isbn=0-674-89325-0}} * {{cite book|last=Friedman|first = Norman|title= The Fifty-Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the Cold War|url=https://archive.org/details/fiftyyearwarconf0000frie|publisher= Naval Institute Press|year=2007|isbn=1-59114-287-3}} * {{Cite book|title=Russia, the Soviét Union and the United States. An Interpretative History|url=https://archive.org/details/russiasovietunio00gadd|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|year=1990|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=0-07-557258-3|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|title=We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History|url=https://archive.org/details/wenowknowrethink0000gadd_v0a2|author=[[John Lewis Gaddis|Gaddis, John Lewis]]|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-878070-2}} * {{Cite book|title=The Cold War: A New History|url=https://archive.org/details/coldwarnewhistor00gadd|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|year=2005|publisher=Penguin Press|isbn=1-59420-062-9|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Garthoff|first=Raymond|title=Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviét Relations from Nixon to Reagan|url=https://archive.org/details/detenteconfronta0000gart|year=1994|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=0-8157-3041-1|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Haslam, Jonathan. ''Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall'' (Yale University Press; 2011) 512 pages * Hoffman, David E. ''The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy'' (2010) * {{cite book|last=Hussain|first =Rizwan|title= Pakistan And The Emergence Of Islamic Militancy In Afghanistan|url=https://archive.org/details/pakistanemergenc0000huss|publisher= Ashgate Publishing|year=2005|isbn=0-7546-4434-0}} * Judge, Edward H. ''The Cold War: A Global History With Documents'' (2012) * {{cite book|last=Kalinovsky|first =Artemy M.|title= A Long Goodbye: The Soviét Withdrawal from Afghanistan|url=https://archive.org/details/longgoodbyesovie0000kali|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-674-05866-8}} * {{cite book|last=LaFeber|first=Walter|title= America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–2002|url=https://archive.org/details/americarussiacol0000lafe_v6a4|publisher= McGraw-Hill|year=2002|isbn=0-07-284903-7|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Leffler|first = Melvyn|title= A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Admieustration, and the Cold War|url=https://archive.org/details/preponderanceofp0000leff|publisher= Stanford University Press|year=1992|isbn=0-8047-2218-8|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Leffler, Melvyn P. and Odd Arne Westad, eds. ''The Cambridge History of the Cold War'' (3 vol, 2010) 2000pp; new essays by léading scholars * {{Cite book|last=Lewkowicz|first = Nicolas|title= The German Question and the International Order, 1943–48|url=https://archive.org/details/germanquestionin0000lewk|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|isbn=978-0-230-24812-0|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|author=[[Geir Lundestad|Lundestad, Geir]]|title=East, West, North, South: Major Developments in International Politics since 1945|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=1-4129-0748-9}} * {{cite book|last=Lüthi|first =Lorenz M|title= The Sino-Soviét split: Cold War in the communist world|publisher= Princeton University Press|year=2008|isbn=0-691-13590-8}} * {{cite book|last=McMahon|first=Robert|title=The Cold War: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-280178-3|year=2003}} * {{cite book|last=Meher|first =Jagmohan|title= America's Afghanistan War: The Success that Failed|publisher= Gyan Books|year=2004|isbn=81-7835-262-1}} * {{cite book|last=Lüthi|first =Lorenz M|title= The Sino-Soviét split: Cold War in the communist world|publisher= Princeton University Press|year=2008|isbn=0-691-13590-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Malkasian|first=Carter|title= The Korean War: Essential Histories|url=https://archive.org/details/koreanwar0000malk|publisher= Osprey Publishing|year=2001|isbn=1-84176-282-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Mastny, Vojtech. ''The Cold War and Soviét insecurity: the Stalin years'' (1996) [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb00281.0001.001 online edition] * {{Cite book|title=Russian Image on the Western Screen: Trends, Stereotypes, Myths, Illusions|last=Fedorov|first=Alexander|year=2011|publisher=Lambert Academic Publishing,|isbn=978-3-8433-9330-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Roger Gene|title=To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949|url=https://archive.org/details/tosavecityberlin0000mill_b0n4|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-89096-967-1|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Njolstad|first=Olav|title= The Last Decade of the Cold War|publisher= Routledge|year=2004|isbn=0-7146-8371-X|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|last=Nolan|first=Peter|title=China's Rise, Russia's Fall|url=https://archive.org/details/chinasriserussia0000nola|year=1995|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=0-312-12714-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Pearson|first=Raymond|title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviét Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofsoviet0000pear|publisher=Macmillan|year=1998|isbn=0-312-17407-1|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|last=Porter|first = Bruce|coauthors=Karsh, Efraim|title= The USSR in Third World Conflicts: Soviét Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars|url=https://archive.org/details/ussrinthirdworld0000port_d7u1|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year=1984|isbn=0-521-31064-4}} * {{Cite book|last=Puddington|first=Arch|title= Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty|publisher= University Press of Kentucky|year= 2003|isbn=0-8131-9045-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Geoffrey|title=Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953|url=https://archive.org/details/stalinswarsfromw0000robe|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-300-11204-1|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|last=Stone|first=Norman|title= The Atlantic and Its Enemies: A History of the Cold War|url=https://archive.org/details/atlanticitsenemi0000ston_z5m0|publisher= Basic Books Press|year=2010|isbn=0-465-02043-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Taubman|first=William|title=Khrushchev: The Man and His éra|year=2004|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=0-393-32484-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}}; Pulitzer Prize * Tucker, Spencer, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Cold War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (5 vol. 2008), world coverage * Walker, Martin. ''The Cold War: A History'' (1995), British perspective * {{Cite book|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2008|isbn=0-7425-5542-9|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Zubok|first = Vladislav|coauthors=Pleshakov, Constantine|title= Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev|url=https://archive.org/details/insidekremlinsco00zubo|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1996|isbn=0-674-45531-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviét Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2008) === Historiografi jeung memori === * Hopkins, Michael F. "Continuing Debate and New Approaches in Cold War History," ''Historical Journal,'' Dec 2007, Vol. 50 Issue 4, pp 913–934, * Isaac, Joel, and Duncan Bell, eds. ''Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War'' (2012) [http://www.amazon.com/Uncertain-Empire-American-History-Idea/dp/0199826145/ excerpt and text search] * Johnston, Gordon. "Revisiting the cultural Cold War," ''Social History,'' Aug 2010, Vol. 35 Issue 3, pp 290–307 * Nuti, Léopoldo, et al., eds. ''Europe and the End of the Cold War: A Reappraisal'' (2012) [http://www.amazon.com/Europe-End-Cold-War-ebook/dp/B008VSEJBO/ excerpt and text search] * Wiener, Jon. ''How We Forgot the Cold War: A Historical Journey across America'' (2012) [http://www.amazon.com/How-Forgot-Cold-War-Historical/dp/0520271416/ excerpt and text search] === Sumber primer === * {{cite book|author=[[Christopher Andrew (historian)|Andrew, Christopher]]|coauthors=[[Vasili Mitrokhin|Mitrokhin, Vasili]]|title= The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB|url=https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro0000andr_q5i4|publisher= Basic Books|year=2000|isbn=0-585-41828-4}} * {{Cite book|last=Dobrynin|first=Anatoly|title=In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to Six Cold War Presidents|url=https://archive.org/details/inconfidencemosc0000dobr_d2k5|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=2001|isbn=0-295-98081-8|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Hanhimaki, Jussi and Odd Arne Westad, eds. ''The Cold War: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts'' (Oxford University Press, 2003). ISBN 0-19-927280-8. * {{cite book|author=Sakwa, Richard|title= The rise and fall of the Soviét Union, 1917–1991|url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofsoviet0000sakw|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=0-415-12290-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|author=Cardona, Luis|title= Cold War KFA|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|ref=harv|postscript=.|unused_data=Barcelona, Spain}} * [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/Forums.aspx?f=2009 "Presidency in the Nuclear Age"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618021017/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/Forums.aspx?f=2009 |date=2013-06-18 }}, conference and forum at the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum|JFK Library]], Boston, October 12, 2009. Four panels: "The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It", "Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race", and "Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency". ( [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/~/media/assets/Education%20and%20Public%20Programs/Forum%20Transcripts/Cold%20War%20and%20Nuclear%20Arms%20Race.pdf transcript of "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117035929/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/~/media/assets/Education%20and%20Public%20Programs/Forum%20Transcripts/Cold%20War%20and%20Nuclear%20Arms%20Race.pdf |date=2013-01-17 }}) {{refend}} == Pranala luar == {{Sister project links|Perang Tiis}} ;Arsip * [http://www.osaarchivum.org/guide/ Open Society Archives, Budapest (Hungary), one of the biggest history of communism and cold war archives in the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511130424/http://www.osaarchivum.org/guide/ |date=2011-05-11 }} * [http://www.cybertrn.demon.co.uk/ An archive of UK civil defence material] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222065026/http://www.cybertrn.demon.co.uk/ |date=2008-12-22 }} * [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552679 Post-Cold War World Economy] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] * [http://www.conelrad.com/ CONELRAD Cold War Pop Culture Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729202943/http://www.conelrad.com/ |date=2020-07-29 }} * [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/war-conflict/cold-war/cold-war-culture-the-nuclear-fear-of-the-1950s-and-1960s/topic---cold-war-culture-the-nuclear-fear-of-the-1950s-and-1960s.html CBC Digital Archives{{spaced ndash}}Cold War Culture: The Nuclear Fear of the 1950s and 1960s] * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/program/cold-war-international-history-project The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP)] * [http://coldwarfiles.org/ The Cold War Files] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918203432/http://coldwarfiles.org/ |date=2008-09-18 }} * [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/ CNN Cold War Knowledge Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217154418/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/ |date=2008-12-17 }} comparison of articles on Cold War topics in the Western and the Soviét press between 1945 and 1991 * [http://community.theblackvault.com/articles/entry/The-CAESAR-POLO-and-ESAU-Papers- The CAESAR, POLO, and ESAU Papers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710182023/http://community.theblackvault.com/articles/entry/The-CAESAR-POLO-and-ESAU-Papers- |date=2009-07-10 }}–This collection of declassified analytic monographs and reference aids, designated within the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Directorate of Intelligence (DI) as the CAESAR, ESAU, and POLO series, highlights the CIA's efforts from the 1950s through the mid-1970s to pursue in-depth reséarch on Soviét and Chinese internal politics and Sino-Soviét relations. The documents reflect the views of séasoned analysts who had followed closely their special aréas of reséarch and whose views were shaped in often héated debate. * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/aerial_intelligence.html Documents available online regarding aerial intelligence during the Cold War, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] ;Bibliografi * [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues/Arms+Race Annotated bibliography for the arms race from the Alsos Digital Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203121815/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues%2FArms+Race |date=2006-02-03 }} ;Berita * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/themes/world_politics/cold_war/default.stm Video and audio news reports from during the cold war] ;Sumber edukasional * [http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/128mimi/ ''Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War'', a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan] {{Perang Tiis}} {{Tokoh Perang Tiis}} {{Topik Amérika Sarikat}} {{Uni Soviét handap}} {{komunisme handap}} {{Artikel Geulis}} [[Kategori:Perang Tiis| ]] [[Kategori:Konflik global]] [[Kategori:Masa bersejarah]] [[Kategori:Perang melibatkan Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Perang melibatkan Uni Soviét]] [[Kategori:Abad ke-20]] [[Kategori:Hubungan internasional]] he63oasp8qzrdis6yi4p45l4wc911n1 0 50664 711664 698047 2026-08-07T01:12:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711664 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Bangkong korodok | status = LC | status_system = iucn3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn"/> | image = Common toad (Bufo bufo) Kampinos.jpg | image_width = 240px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Amphibia]] | ordo = [[Frog|Anura]] | familia = [[Bufonidae]] | genus = ''[[Bufo]]'' | species = '''''B. bufo''''' | binomial = ''Bufo bufo'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]) | synonyms = {{collapsible list | {{plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; | * ''Bufo (Bufo) bufo'' <small>Dubois and Bour, 2010</small> * ''Bufo (Bufo) grediscola'' <small>Dubois and Bour, 2010</small> * ''Bufo Roeselii'' <small>Daudin, 1802</small> * ''Bufo Rouselei'' <small>Latreille, 1801</small> * ''Bufo alpinus'' <small>Schinz, 1833</small> * ''Bufo bufo bufo'' <small>Poche, 1912</small> * ''Bufo bufo gredosicola'' <small>Müller and Hellmich, 1935</small> * ''Bufo carbunculus'' <small>Bonaparte, 1835</small> * ''Bufo cinereus'' var. ''hybridus'' <small>Koch, 1872</small> * ''Bufo cinereus'' var. ''medius'' <small>Koch, 1872</small> * ''Bufo cinereus'' var.'' minor'' <small>Koch, 1872</small> * ''Bufo cinereus'' <small>Schneider, 1799</small> * ''Bufo communis'' <small>Bruch, 1862</small> * ''Bufo communis'' <small>Günther, 1859</small> * ''Bufo commutatus'' <small>Steenstrup, 1846</small> * ''Bufo ferruginosus'' <small>[[Antoine Risso|Risso]], 1826</small> * ''Bufo minutus'' <small>Schinz, 1833</small> * ''Bufo palmarum'' <small>Cuvier, 1829</small> * ''Bufo rubeta'' var. ''robustior'' <small>Lataste, 1880</small> * ''Bufo rubeta'' <small>Schneider, 1799</small> * ''Bufo spelaeus'' <small>Riviére, 1886</small> * ''Bufo tuberculosus'' <small>[[Antoine Risso|Risso]], 1826</small> * ''Bufo ventricosus'' <small>Bonnaterre, 1789</small> * ''Bufo ventricosus'' <small>Laurenti, 1768</small> * ''Bufo vinearum'' <small>Lesson, 1841</small> * ''Bufo vulgaris cinereus'' <small>Lataste, 1880</small> * ''Bufo vulgaris'' var. ''acutirostris'' <small>Lessona, 1877</small> * ''Bufo vulgaris'' var. ''obtusirostris'' <small>Lessona, 1877</small> * ''Bufo vulgaris'' <small>Laurenti, 1768</small> * ''Pegaeus bufo'' <small>Gistel, 1868</small> * ''Rana (Bufo) vulgaris'' <small>Guérin-Méneville, 1838</small> * ''Rana Bufo'' <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> }} }} | synonyms_ref = <ref name="DFrost"/> | range_map = Bufo bufo distribution.png | range_map_width = 240px | range_map_caption = Tempat hirup bangkong korodok (Eropa) }} '''Bangkong korodok''', basa [[latin]] ( ''Bufo bufo''), nyaéta [[bangkong]] [[ampibi]]/hirupna di darat jeung di [[cai]]<ref name="ampibi"/> anu mibanda kulit korodok/ngajarendil kawas kutil, kelir kulitna [[coklat]] aya ogé anu semu konéng, di mana pindah tempat sakapeung ku jalan ngorondang lalaunan (kawas anu karagok), mimindengna mah aclog-aclogan, bangkong korodok mangsa beurang waktuna dipaké nyumput dina liang atawa sela-sela [[batu]], [[akar]], jeung handapeun [[kalakay]]/dangdaunnan anu murag. Mangsa geus datang wanci burit/soré kakara nguniang hudang néangan hakaneun, sabangsaning [[reungit]], [[rametuk]], [[siraru]], atawa [[gegeremet]]/[[invertebrata]] jeung sajabana nepika isuk-isuk. Bangkong korodok loba kapanggih di sakuliah Indonésia malahan di luar nagara ogé loba kapanggih hirup, saperti di [[Eropa]] kajaba di [[Irlandia]], [[Islandia]], jeung sababaraha pulo di [[Mediterania]], [[Amerika kalér]], [[Afrika kidul]] ogé aya (henteu pati loba)<ref name="ampibi">[https://alamendah.org/2014/10/11/mengenal-amfibi-ciri-ciri-dan-jenis-amfibi-indonesia/ Ampibi nyaéta]</ref>. ==Pedaran== Sanajan sapopoé bangkong korodok hirupna nyorangan bari jeung nyumput, témpona datang [[usum]] begér jeung [[kawin]] mah, bangkong korodok téh barijil tina panyumputana ngarumpul dina [[balong]], sisi [[susukan]] atawa rawa-rawa di mana waé tempat anu mibanda [[cai]], kituna téh bari ramé disarada patémbal-témbal. [[Bangkong]] [[jalu]]na paheula-heula marebutkeun [[bikang]]. [[Endog]] bangkong korodok ngambang luhureun cai, laleutik hideung kawas siki sosin/selasih narapel kana tali anu ngagebay kawas kenur tina [[ager]], dina waktuna ieu endog tuluy megar jadi anak bangkong anu disebut [[buruy]]. Sababaraha bulan tiharita buruy téh ngalaman [[metamorfosis]] taya lian parobahan anu aya dina awakna dicirikeun ku bijilna suku hareup jeung tukang, éta [[buruy]] robah ngarana jadi [[bancét]]. Hirupna mimiti kaluar ti cai, pindah tihiji tempat ka tempat séjén ku jalan aclog-aclogan <ref name=iucn/><ref name="ampibi"/>. == Taxonomy == [[File:Toad shoulder girdle.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Shoulder girdle|Tulang tina taktak bangkong <br>1 ''suprascapula'', 2 ''scapula'', 3 ''clavicle'', <br>4 ''procoracoid'']] Bangkong korodok téh ku ahli biologi urang [[Swedia]] [[Carl Linnaeus]] dingaranan ''[[Rana (genus)|Rana]] bufo'' dina bukuna [[''10th edition of Systema Naturae'']] taun 1758.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Carl Linnaeus|von Linné, Carl]], translated by [[William Turton]] |year=1806 |title=A General System of Nature,: Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into Their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties (Volume&nbsp;1) |publisher=Lackington, Allen, and Co |pages=648–649 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3QZAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> dina ieu panalungtikana, sakabéh bangkong kumanéhna di asupkeun kana hiji genus ngarana ''Rana'', ka béhdieunakeun nincak taun 1768 saurang ''naturalis'' urang [[Austria]] ngarana [[Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti]] mertélakeun yén ieu genus kudu di jentré-jentré deui/''dipilah-pilah'', hasilna taya lian ti ieu bangkong korodok di asupkeun kana genus ''Bufo'', ngarana ''Bufo bufo''.<ref name=laurenti>{{cite book| last = Laurenti | first = J. N. | title = Specimen medicum, exhibens synopsin Reptilium emendatam cum experimentis circa venena et antidota Reptilium austriacorum | year = 1768 | location = Viennae | publisher = Joan. Thom. Nob. de Trattnern | url = http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/load/img/?PPN=PPN362231184&IDDOC=281657 | language = Latin | pages = i–ii + 1–215, plates 1–5 }}</ref><ref name=zootaxa>{{cite journal| last= Dubois | first= Alain |author2=Bour, Rogér | year=2010 | title= The nomenclatural status of the nomina of amphibians and reptiles created by Garsault (1764), with a parsimonious solution to an old nomenclatural problem regarding the genus ''Bufo'' (Amphibia, Anura), comments on the taxonomy of this genus, and comments on some nomina created by Laurenti (1768) | journal= Zootaxa | volume= 2447 | pages= 1–52 }}</ref> genus bangkong korodok ieu diasupkeun kana kulawarga [[Bufonidae]].<ref name=DFrost>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/ |title=Bufonidae |author=Frost, Darrel R. |date=2011-01-31 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 5.5 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |accessdate=2012-08-24}}</ref> Sababaraha [[''subspesies'']] tina ''Bufo&nbsp;bufo'', bangkong kaukasia hirup tur maneuh di pagunungan kaukasus kungsi digolongkeun kana ''Bufo bufo verrucosissima''. mibanda [[genom]] leuwih gedé ti batan ''Bufo&nbsp;bufo'' [[morfologi (biologi)|morfologis]] kiwari digolongkeun kana '' [[Bufo verrucosissimus]] ''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&table=amphib&special=one_record&where-genus=Bufo&where-species=verrucosissimus |title=''Bufo verrucosissimus'' |author=Kuzmin, Sergius L. |date=2008-09-19 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=2012-09-17}}</ref> aya deui bangkong anu cucukan, ieu mimitina digolongkeun kana ''Bufo bufo spinosus''. kapanggih hirup di daérah [[Mediterania]] awakna leuwih badag mibanda kulit ''spinier'' ti batan batur-baturna anu hirup dibeulah kalér [[Intergradation|intergrades]] <ref>{{cite journal |. Author = Martens, R | tahun = 1925 | title = Eine neue Eidechsengattung aus der Familie der Leposterniden | jurnal = Senckenbergiana | Volume = 7 | halaman = 170-171}}</ref> kiwari digolongkeun kana '' Bufo spinosus '' <ref>{{cite. web | url = http:? //amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query mana-scientific_name = Bufo + spinosus | title = '' Bufo spinosus '' | publisher = AmphibiaWeb | accessdate = 2012/09/17}}</ref> aya deui bangkong ''Gredos'', '' Bufo bufo gredosicola '', ngan aya hirup di daérah [[Sierra de Gredos]] wungkul, di pagunungan anu aya di [[Spanyol]] tengah. Bangkong ieu awakna kacida badag [[paratoid kelenjar]] tur awakna borontok <ref>{{cite journal |. Penulis1 = Müller, L. | Penulis2 = Hellmich, W. | tahun = 1935 | title = Mitteilungenyüber mati Herpetofauna der Iberischen Halbinsel. Über Salamandra salamandra almanzoris, n. ssp. und '' Bufo bufo gredosicola '', n. ssp, zwei neue Amphibienrassen aus der Sierra de Gredos |. jurnal = Zool. Anz. Leipzig | Volume = 112 | halaman = 49-57}}</ref> sakapeung mah sok di sakompétkeun jeung '' Bufo spinosus '' <ref>{{cite web | url = http: // penelitian.. amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/?action=references&id=2946 | title = '' Bufo spinosus '' Daudin, 1803 | author = Frost, Darrel R. | date = 2013/01/09 | kerja = Amfibi Spesies Dunia: sebuah Referensi online. Versi 5.6 | publisher = American Museum of Natural History | accessdate = 2013/01/24}}</ref> '' Bufo bufo '' mangrupa hiji bagéan tina sakumpulan [[''spesies'']] anu kacida loba jeung rumit, hiji ''spesies'' jeung anu séjéna aya patula patalina tur henteu mibanda wates anu jentré <ref name="iucn"/> Sababaraha ''spesies'' modérn kawasna masih kénéh aya patula patalina tina hiji kumpulan kuno . [[takson]] ti susukan preglacial. Nyaéta bangkong cucukan ('' Bufo ; spinosus ''), Bangkong kulit (''Bufo&nbsp;verrucosissimus]] '') jeung bangkong korodok [[Jepang]] ( '' [[katak umum Jepang|Bufo&nbsp;japonicus]] ''). Bangkong korodok Eropa ( '' Bufo&nbsp;bufo '') karék kapanggih ka dieunakeun <nama Ref = Birstein> {{cite journal | Penulis1 = Birstein, VJ | Penulis2 = Mazin, AL | tahun = 1982 | title = kromosom. polimorfisme '' Bufo bufo '': kariotipe dan pola C-pita ''. B.&nbsp;b&nbsp;verrucosissima '' | jurnal Genetica = | Volume = 59 | masalah = 2 | halaman = 93-98 | doi = 10,1007 / BF00133292}}</ref> kawasna ti wétan nepi ka kulon pangawakan bangkong kawas kieu téh nepika [[Asia]] ogé aya ngan kahalangan ku ayana gurun tengah [[Miosen]] <ref name = Garcia-Porta>{{cite journal |. Penulis1 = Garcia-Porta, J. | Penulis2 = Litvinchuk, SN | Penulis3 = Crochet, PA | = author4 Romano, A. | author5 = Lo-Valvo, M. | author6 = Lymberakis, P. | author7 = Carranza, S. | tahun = 2012 | title = filogénetik molekuler dan biogéografi sejarah kodok umum barat-Palearctic ( '' Bufo bufo '' spesies kompleks) | = jurnal Molecular filogénetik dan Evolusi | Volume = 63 | masalah = 1 | halaman = 113-130 | PMID = 22214922 |. doi = 10,1016 / j.ympev.2011.12.019}}</ref> hubungan taksonomina ieu [[spesies]] ogé tacan kanyahoan juntrungana. Hiji panalungtikan ''serologi'' dina taun 2011 anu diguar ka masarakat ngeunaan bangkong anu aya di [[Turki]], [[protéin]] ''serum'' [[getih]] '' Bufo&nbsp;verrucosissimus '' jeung '' Bufo&nbsp;spinosus ''. Kanyahoan éta dua bangkong téh henteu béda jauh ku kituna di ''synonymized'' kana golongan anu paneuri/pang anyarna <ref>{{cite journal |. Penulis1 = Tosunoğlua, Murat | Penulis2 = Taskavak, Ertan | tahun = 2001 | title = A penyelidikan serologis dari '' Bufo bufo '' (Anura, Bufonidae) populasi di Southern Marmara (Manyas, Bahkesir) dan Timur Laut Hitam (Çamhhemşin, Rize) daerah | jurnal = Italian Journal of Zoology | Volume = 68 | masalah = 2 | halaman = 165-168 | doi = 10,1080 / 11250000109356402}}</ref> Hiji panalungtikan anu diayakeun dina taun 2012 ngeunaan hubunganna [[spesies]] bangkong korodok [[Afrika]] jeung [[Eurasia]] anu aya di beulah kalér mibanda hubungan sajarah anu panjang. Tilu belas juta taun anu geus kaliwat, bangkong korodok ''[[Bufo&nbsp;eichwaldi]]'', anu kiwari hirup [[Species description|described species]] asalna ti [[Azerbaijan]] kidul jeung [[Iran]], papisah jeung garis katurunan anu utamana. Dituluykeun ku divisi anyar nyaéta ''Bufo&nbsp;spinosus'' kurang leuwih lima juta taun anu geus kaliwat mangsa [[Pyrenees]] mimiti kaangkat, ngabalukarkeun ka isolasina semenajung Iberia jeung sakabéh Eropa. Turunan anu aya di Eropa : ''Bufo&nbsp;bufo'' jeung ''Bufo&nbsp;verrucosissimus'' tulu juta taun anu geus kaliwat mangsa [[Pleistocene]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Recuero E. |author2=Canestrelli D. |author3=Voeroes J. |author4=Szabó, K. |author5=Poyarkov, N. A. |author6=Arntzen, J. W. |author7=Crnobrnja-Isailovic, J. |author8=Kidov A. A. |author9=Cogălniceanu, D. |author10=Caputo, F. P. |author11=Nascetti, G. |author12=Martínez-Solano, I. |year=2012 |title=Multilocus species tree analyses resolve the radiation of the widespread ''Bufo bufo'' species group (Anura, Bufonidae) |journal=Molecular Phylogénetics and Evolution |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=71–86 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2011.09.008 |pmid=21964513 }}</ref> Mindeng bangkong korodok hybridizes <ref name=Collins>{{cite book |title=Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia0000nick |last=Arnold |first=Nicholas |author2=Denys Ovenden |year=2002 |publisher=Harper Collins Publishers |isbn=978-0-00-219964-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia0000nick/page/73 73]–74 }}</ref> == Ciri mandiri== Bangkong korodok dewasa panjangna kurang leuwih 15&nbsp;cm. Bangkong anu bikangna biasana leuwih gedé batan [[jalu]]na, ditempo tina ''spesimen'' ti beulah kidul bangkong korodok téh pangawakan leuwih baradag ti batan beulah kalér. Bangkong korodok huluna dempak bahamna lébar di luhureun biwirna mecenghul dua liang [[irung]]. Henteu mibanda [[huntu]]. Matana buleud nolol mibanda colat/hihideung panon (''iris'') kagigir kelirna [[konéng]] kawas [[tambaga]]. Tukangeun matana aya anu ngajendul nyaéta ''kelenjar parotis'', anu mibanda kandungan matak bahaya atawa racun ogé katelah [[bufotoxin]], ieu hadé pikeun ngajaga bangkong tina panarajang musuh atawa [[sato]] séjén [[Predation|predators]]. Huluna nyambung jeung awakna, henteu mibanda beuheung. Awakna némprak wangunna kawas keur cingogo anu ditahan ku dua leungeuna (suku hareupna). Sukuna anu tukang nilep ka jero kitu ogé jeung ramo-tamo sukuna. Suku anu hareup leuwih pondok batan suku anu tukangna, Ramo-ramo sukuna mibanda ''selaput''. Henteu mibanda buntut. Kulitna garing tur dipinuhan ku jendilan laleutik kawas [[kutil]]. Kelir kulitna umumna [[coklat]] sakapeung aya anu semu héjo atawa coklat kolot.<ref name=Collins/><ref name=Naish>{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2009/10/26/toads-of-the-north/ |title=Toads of the world: first, (some) toads of the north |author=Naish, Darren |publisher=Tetrapod zoology |accessdate=2012-06-23}}</ref><ref name=AmphibiaWeb>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Bufo&where-species=bufo |title=''Bufo bufo'': Common toad |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=2012-05-04}}</ref> Bangkong umurna kawilang panjang, bisa hirup sababaraha taun tur bisa di ingu/kukut, ieu sahenteuna geus puluhan taun kaliwat bangkong-bangkong ngahaja dipiara ku manusa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.herpconstrust.org.uk/animals/common_toad.htm |title=The common toad (''Bufo bufo'') |publisher=The Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust |accessdate=2012-05-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121235410/http://www.herpconstrust.org.uk/animals/common_toad.htm |date=2008-11-21 }}</ref> di alam liar, bangkong bisa hirup nepika umur 10-12 taun, umur ieu bangkong bisa kanyahoan tina jumlah [[tulang]]na ''tulang cincin pertumbuhan tahunan'' [[Phalanx bone|phalanges]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hemelaar, A. S. M. |author2=van Gelder, J. J. |year=1979 |title=Annual growth rings in phalanges of ''Bufo bufo'' (Anura, Amphibia) from the Netherlands and their use for age determination |journal=Netherlands Journal of Zoology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=129–135 |doi=10.1163/002829680X00069 }}</ref> <gallery mode = packed heights = 130px> Common toad (Bufo bufo) swimmimg.jpg|Bangkong keur ngojay Bufo bufo.ogv|thumbtime=0:30|Aya di balong </gallery> == Tempat hirup == [[Bangkong]] anu loba kapanggih hirup taya lian [[Common Frog|common frog]] (''Rana temporaria''), tuluy [[Edible Frog|edible frog]] (''Pelophylax esculentus'') ogé [[Smooth Newt|smooth newt]] (''Lissotriton vulgaris''), Bangkong korodok mangrupa bangkong dina undakan ka opat anu loba kapanggih hirup di [[Eropa]].<ref name=Collins/> sahenteuna ieu loba kapanggih di sakuliah Eropa, kajaba di [[Islandia]] beulah kalér ku lantaran mibanda ''suhu'' anu tiis. [[Scandinavia]], [[Irlandia]] jeung sababaraha pulo [[Mediterania]]. Tayalian ti [[Malta]], [[Crete]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]] katut [[Balearic Islands]]. Beulah wétan tur ngalegaan ka [[Irkutsk]] di [[Siberia]] anu ngawengku ka beulah kidul jeung kulon [[Afrika]] di pigunungan beulah kalér [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]] jeung [[Tunisia]]. Aya deui anu kaasup baraya deukeutna hirup di [[Asia]] beulah wétan [[Jepang]].<ref name=Collins/> bangkong korodok kapireungeuh hirup jeung baranahan di dataran anu mibanda {{convert|2500|m}} utamana dibeulah kidul, ku lantaran loba kénéh leuweung jeung daérahna jemlék.<ref name=AmphibiaWeb/> ogé hirup di tegalan, taman, jeung [[kebon]]-kebon..<ref name=Collins/> == Kabiasaan dina hirup== [[File:Bufo bufo-defensive reaction1.JPG|left|thumb|alt=A common toad adopts a defensive stance|Bangkong korodok mangsa keur nyingareupan anu ngaganggu]] [[File:Užovka obojková s úlovkem (04).jpg|thumb|left|Dihakan ku oray [[Grass snake]], Czech Republic]] Bangkong korodok di mana ingkah ti hiji tempat ku jalan ngorondang lalaunan atawa ngaclog ku opat sukuna, sapopoé nyumput dina liang, handapeun [[batu]], sela-sela akar atawa handapeun dangdaunnan. di mana geus sore maju ka peuting bangkong korodok kakaran aringkah nyiar hakaneun, komo mangsa usum hujan bangkong korodok resepeun pisan. Tempo geus isuk-suk bangkong korodok baralik deui kana sayangna pikeun nyumput Kahakananna sabangsaning, [[hileud]], [[cacing]] [[taneuh]], [[silaru]], [[rametuk]], jeung sajabana.<ref name=Observer>{{cite book |title=The Observer's Book of British Wild Animals |last=Stokeo |first=W. J. |year=1980 |publisher=Frederick Warne |isbn=978-0-7232-1503-5 |pages=213–217 }}</ref><ref name=Surrey>{{cite web |url=http://www.surrey-arg.org.uk/SARG/08000-TheAnimals/SARGSpeciesData.asp?Species=Common_Toad |title=Common Toad |author=Daniel Winchester |publisher=Surrey Amphibian and Reptile Group |accessdate=2012-05-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512235944/http://www.surrey-arg.org.uk/SARG/08000-TheAnimals/SARGSpeciesData.asp?Species=Common_Toad |date=2013-05-12 }}</ref> néwak mangsa anu leutik ku jalan di létak ku létahna anu panjang tur cepel.<ref name=Observer/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Ewart, J. P. |year=1987 |title=Neuroethology of releasing mechanisms: Prey-catching in toads |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=10 |pages=337–405 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X00023128 |issue=3 }}</ref> Bangkog korodok bisa nempo hakaneun/mangsa sanajan dina poék mongkléng, di mana manusa mah teu nempo nanaon bakatning ku poék.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Larsen, Lis Olesen |author2=Pedersen, Jan Nyholm |year=1981 |title=The snapping response of the toad, ''Bufo bufo'', towards prey dummies at very low light intensities |journal= Amphibia-Reptilia |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=321–327 |doi=10.1163/156853882X00248 }}</ref> Bangkog korodok ngalaman megar/ganti kulit dina sababraha waktu.<ref name=Observer/> [[File:Bufo bufo w Bialogard Polen 080901 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Infected with larvae of ''Lucilia bufonivora''|Keuna ku panyakit ''[[Lucilia bufonivora]]'', Poland]] === Baranahan === [[File:Amplexus Bufo bufo 2010-03-29.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Amplexus|Bangkong jalu nangkod kanu bikang keur [[Amplexus]]]] Bangkong korodok kaluar tina tapa [[''hibernasi'']] wanci datang usum kembang "musim semi" ngabring ngajugjug hiji tempat biasana [[balong]] atawa susukan ngadon balegér jeung kawin. Bangkong korodok ngumpul dina hiji tempat/balong anu bérésih jeung merenah bari ngarojay disarada patembalan.<ref name=Observer/> Bangkong anu déwasa geus arapal deui di mana lebah-lebahna balong paranti ngarumpul [[Spawn (biology)|spawned]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Reading, C. J. |year=1991 |title=Breeding pond fidelity in the common toad, ''Bufo bufo'' |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=225 |issue=2 |pages=201–211 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb03811.x |last2=Loman |first2=J. |last3=Madsen |first3=T. }}</ref> Ieu bangkong-bangkong bisa ajog katempat anu dituju ngandelkeun ''isyarat'' ''magnetik'' tina irungna. Sahenteuna ieu dikuatkeun ku hiji bukti (''eksperimen'' )kahiji bangkong ku jalan masang hiji ''alat pangindra/pelacak,'' kanyahoan ieu bangkong bisa manggihan balong paranti ngumpul jeung begér ti jarak leuwih ti tilu kilo ( dua mil ) . <ref>{{cite journal |author=Sinsch, Ulrich |year=1987 |title=Orientation behaviour of toads (''Bufo bufo'') displaced from the breeding site |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A |volume=161 |issue=5 |pages=715–727 |doi=10.1007/BF00605013 }}</ref> Bangkong jaluna datang pangheulana tur nyicingan éta tempat dina waktu mang minggu-minggu sedengkeun anu bikangna ngan datang pikeun ngendog wungkul. Bangkong jaluna raéng disarada méré tanda ka jalu séjén.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Davies, N. B. |author2=Halliday, T. R. |year=1978 |title=Deep croaks and fighting assessment in toads ''Bufo bufo'' |journal=Nature |volume=274 |pages=683–685 |doi=10.1038/274683a0 |issue=5672 }}</ref> sanajan ti kitu angger waé aya waktuna ieu bangkong jaluna pasarandog anu antukna garelut.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Davies, N. B. |author2=Halliday, T. R. |year=1979 |title=Competitive mate searching in male common toads, ''Bufo bufo'' |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=1253–1267 |doi=10.1016/0003-3472(79)90070-8 }}</ref> ku lantaran bangkong jaluna leuwih loba batan bikangna. Hiji panalungtikan anu diayakeun di [[Swedia]] manggihan bangkong bikang leuwih gedé resiko paeh batan jaluna 41 % bikangna datang ka balong paranti ngumpul biasana sataun sakali. <ref>{{cite news | title = Studies conducted at Lund University on amphibian research recently published | work = Science Letter | date = 2010-12-21 | accessdate = 2012-04-18 | url = http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-244690474.html | publisher = via [[HighBeam Research]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513112010/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-244690474.html |date=2013-05-13 }}</ref> [[File:Bufo.bufo.eggs.jpg|thumb|alt=Egg strings of common toad|Endog bangkong korodok napel dina benang]] Bangkong jaluna nangkod dina tonggong bikangna, sukuna anu hareup muntang kana palebah kelek bikangna dina basa ilmiahna disebut [[amplexus]]. Bangkong jaluna katempo leuwih sumanget, Sakapeung leuwih ti dua bangkong patangkod-tangkod, Unggal bangkong jalu usaha sabisa-bisa nangkodan bangkong anu bikangna. Ieu kaayaan kacida pisan rame, matak ripuh teu saeutik aya anu nembahan pati (paéh).<ref name=Collins/> Bangkong jalu anu bisa nangkodan bikangna pikeun di [[amplexus]] bisa nepika sababaraha poé nangkodna, Bikangna, ngaluarkeun endog anu narapel dina tali kawas ager, bari jeung di buahi ku sperma jaluna. Unggal kantétan 3.000-6.000 endog lamun di batek éta tali endog bangkong panjangna nepika 4.5 metér éta benang katétan nyangked kana tatangkalan atawa akar anu aya dina balong pamijahan.<ref name=iucn>{{IUCN |assessors=Agasyan, A.; Avisi, A.; Tuniyev, B.; Isailovic, J. C.; Lymberakis, P.; Andrén, C.; Cogalniceanu, D.; Wilkinson, J.; Ananjeva, N.; Üzüm, N.; Orlov, N.; Podloucky, R.; Tuniyev, S.; Kaya, U.|year=2009|id= 54596|title=''Bufo bufo''|version= 2014.2|downloaded=2014-10-11}}</ref><ref name=Observer/> Tali anu dibijil tina bangkong bikangna nyerep cai kalawan ukurana ngagedéan, endog bangkong megar jadi [[buruy]] dua nepika tilu minggu. mimiti megar ieu buruy téh masih kénéh narapel dina tali anu kawas ager tur ieu jadi kahakanan anu munggaran pikeun hirup buruy. di mana geus lalesot tina tali ieu buruy-buruy téh ngarojay nyarumput dina handapeun dangdaunnan atawa tatangkalan cai anu hirup dina éta balong pamijahan. Buruy bangkong korodok dina pangawakanamah sarua waé jeung bangkong séjéna ( ''Rana temporaria'') ngan bédana kelirna leuwih hideung. Buruy bangkong korodok bahamna leuwih lebar, sbabraha minggu tiharita buruy-buruy ieu mimiti ngagedéan awakna tur buntutna jadi mondokan. Nincak umur dua belas minggu buruy téh geus robah jadi bangkong leutik atawa anu katelah bancet {{ mengkonversi | 1,5 | cm | 1 | abbr = on }} tur geus bisa ninggalkeun balong anu salila ieu jadi tempat hirupna.<ref name=Observer/> === Undakan hirup bangkong=== [[File:BufoBufoTadpoles.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Tadpoles of common toad|Buruy, Germany]] Bangkong déwasa tur meujeuhna beger [[Sexual maturity|maturity]] dina umur tilu nepika tujuh taun.<ref name=Collins/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Goater, Cameron P. |author2=Semlitsch, Raymond D. |author3=Bernasconi, Marco V. |year=1993 |title=Effects of body size and parasite infection on the locomotory performance of juvenile toads, ''Bufo bufo'' |journal=Oikos |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=129–136 |jstor=3545205 |doi=10.2307/3545205 }}</ref> Setelah beberapa bulan dari infeksi cacing berat, beberapa remaja dalam sebuah penelitian yang hanya setengah berat seperti [ [ control Ilmiah | remaja control ] ] . parasit diinduksi [ [ anoreksia nervosa | anoreksia ] ] mereka menyebabkan penurunan asupan makanan dan beberapa meninggal .<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Goater, C. P. |author2=Ward, P. I. |year=1992 |title=Negative effects of ''Rhabdias bufonis'' (Nematoda) on the growth and survival of toads (''Bufo bufo'') |journal=Oecologia |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=161–165 |jstor=4219866 |doi=10.1007/bf00317213 }}</ref> Ditaluntik ogé ngeunaan pangaruh ngagunakeun gemuk/''pupuk'' [[nitrogén]] mangaruhan jeung henteu kana hirup bangkong ti mimiti buruy kénéh, Pikeun nyingkahan akibat goréngna ku alatan maké gemuk [[nitrogén]]nya dijieun waé hiji campuran [[amonium nitrat]]. Kanyahoan dina campuran anu geus ditangtukeun, bisa ngaronjatkeun kana waktu ''metamorfosis'' buruy.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Xu, Q. |author2=Oldham, R. S. |year=1997 |title=Lethal and sublethal effects of nitrogén fertilizer ammonium nitrate on common toad (''Bufo bufo'') tadpoles |journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=298–303 |doi=10.1007/s002449900188 |pmid=9096079 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hemelaar, Agnes |year=1988 |title=Age, growth and other population characteristics of ''Bufo bufo'' from different latitudes and altitudes |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=369–388 |jstor=1564332 |doi=10.2307/1564332 }}</ref> === Pindah tempat/Migrasi === [[File:Toad tunnel.jpg|thumb|alt=Tunnel for toads|Torowongan pameuntasan bangkong, Germany]] Bangkong korodok pindah tempat/migrasi milu kana aliran cai susukan, teu saeutik tina éta susukan meuntasan jajalaneun mobil, motor jeung anu leumpang. ku ieu pisan loba bangkong korodokanu paeh ku jalan kacilakaan mangsa susukana ngaliwatan luhureun jajalaneun. Di Eropa hususna loba pisan ampibi anu cilaka dijalan mangsa migrasi usum beger jeung kawin.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Santos, X. |author2=Llorente, G. A. |author3=Montori, A. |author4=Carretero, M. A. |author5=Franch, M. |author6=Garriga, N. |author7=Richter-Boix, A. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating factors affecting amphibian mortality on roads: the case of the common toad ''Bufo bufo'', near a breeding place |journal=Animal Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=97–104 |publisher=The Natural Science Museum of Barcelona |url=http://abc.museucienciesjournals.cat/files/ABC-30-1-pp-97-104.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Di sababaraha tempat di [[Jerman]], [[Belgia]], [[Inggris]], [[Italia]] kaler jeung [[Polandia]], diwangun hiji torowongan anu husus dijieun paranti bangkong jeung anu séjéna meuntas jalan anu aya di luhureuna. di tempat anu séjéna, aya anu tugas husus "patroli kodok", newakan bangkong /ampibi anu aya dina pameuntasan jalan-jalan anu rame ku kandaraan di wadahan kana ember pikeun dianteurkeun kana tujuana. {{convert|5|C|F|abbr=on}}. Pada malam basah hangat yang mereka dapat terus bergerak sepanjang malam tapi jika dingin, mereka mungkin berhenti sebelumnya <ref>{{cite web |url=http://toadwatch.org |title=What we do |publisher=Toad watch: Helping toads to survive |accessdate=2012-04-30}}</ref> kitu ogé an dilakukeun ku urang Belanda pikeun ngaping bangkong-bangkong anu ngadon pindah tempat.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gelder, J. J. |year=1973 |title=A quantitative approach to the mortality resulting from traffic in a population of ''Bufo bufo'' L |journal=Oecologia |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=93–95 |doi=10.1007/BF00379622 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/wv524277w3w32564/ }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Bufotoxin == Hiji substansi anu ngandung racun ayana dina kelenjar parotoid jeung kulit bangkong korodok disebutna bufotoxin ieu mimiti di wanohkeun ku [[Heinrich Otto Wieland|Heinrich Wieland]] jeung babaturanna tina taun 1922, dua puluh taun tiharita maranéhna kakara manggihan struktur tina éta racun .<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chen, K. K. |author2=Jensen, H. |author3=Chen, A. L. |title=Action of Bufotoxins |journal=Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine |date=April 1932 |volume=29 |series=7 |issue=907 |doi=10.3181/00379727-29-6141 |issn=1535-3699|quote=Wieland and Alles isolated bufotoxin from the skin of ''B. vulgaris'' or ''B. bufo bufo''.}}</ref> Sagigireun ti éta kapanggih ogé cara pikeun ngisolasi senyawa tina inti [[steroid]] bufotalin tina bangkong anu aya di Jepang ( ''Bufo japonicus ''). Dina taun 1986, para élmuwan di [[Arizona State University]] geus bisa nga sintetis bahan racun bangkong [[bufotalin]], bufalitoxin jeung bufotoxin.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pettit, G. R. |author2=Kamano, Y. |author3=Drasar, P. |author4=Inoue, M. |author5=Knight, J. C. |year=1987 |title=Steroids and related natural products. 104. Bufadienolides. 36. Synthesis of bufalitoxin and bufotoxin |journal=Journal of Organic Chemistry |volume=52 |issue=16 |pages=3573–3578 |doi=10.1021/jo00392a014 }}</ref> Rumus kimia tina bufotoxin : C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>60</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub>.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/bufotoxin |title=Bufotoxin |work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |accessdate=2012-05-26}}</ref> Dina dosis anu saeutik bisa ngaronjatkeun gerakan jantung utamana dipaké ngabantu mangsa gubaran kasakit jantung [[gagal jantung kongestif]]. Kulit bangkong korodok mibanda racun anu baris ngabalukarkeun hiji kaayaan anu bahaya malahan nepi ka maotna.<ref name=textfiles>{{cite web |url=http://www.textfiles.com/drugs/toadtoxins.drg |title=Toad toxins |work=Textfiles.com |accessdate=2012-05-26}}</ref> Balukar tina karacunan bangkong bisa katembong tina iritasi mata, baham, irung jeung tikoro, jantung jeung ambekan/ngarenghap, [[lumpuh]] jeung jeung ker, ngacay waé, utah, [[hiperkalemia]], [[sianosis]] jeung [[halusinasi]] atawa sasar/ngalindur.<ref name=textfiles/> Tacan kapanggih ubarna.<ref name=textfiles/> Ubar pikeun sesek jeung kardiovaskular, bisa waé dimangpaatkeun pikeun nyingkahan pangaruh tina [[elektrokardiografi]]. [[Atropin]], [[fenitoin ]], [[cholestyramine]] jeung [[lidocaine]] .<ref name=textfiles/> ==Kabudayaan== [[File:Satan-traditional-arms.svg|thumb|upright|alt=Devil's coat of arms|Gambaran bangkong dina jubah tukang sihir]] Di Eropa, bangkong korodok geus heubeul dianggap hiji totondén/pertanda goréng. Aya patalina jeung alam gaib, jurig, dedemit, jeung sajabana. Meureun dumasar kana kaayaan éta bangkong korodok : hirupna bisa di darat jeung di cai,kulitna anu korodok semu hideung nimulkeun rasa geuleuh pikeun anu nempo, ngorondang lalaunan kawas anu ngadodoho, tara kanyahoan ujug-uug bijil tinu poék. Di Eropa dina [[Abad Pertengahan]], Bangkong korodok dikait-kaitkeun jeung hiji ageman [[Kristen]] ngeunaan ayana iblis jeung sétan, ku kituna nya dijieun waé jubah anu dipapaésan ku tilu bangkong ngahaja ieu dijieun mangrupakaeun hiji panangkal/panyinglas sétan .<ref>{{cite book|last=Peddle|first=S. V.|year=2007|title=Pagan Channel Islands: Europe's Hidden Heritage|publisher=Robert Hale|page=118|isbn=0-7090-8248-7}}</ref> pada mikanyaho yén bangkong korodok bisa ngabalukarkeun racun pikeun manusa, ku alatan ieu pisan bangkong korodok jadi hiji sato anu geus remen dipaké dina prak prakan ngajalankeun élmu sihir/tenung, ku alatan dianggap mibanda hiji kakuatan gaib. Malahan ngamangpaatkeun bangkong korodok anu digaringkeun pikeun diarah hampru/empedu, kotoran jeung getihna .<ref name=Witch-hunt>{{cite book |title=Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia |last=Burns |first=William E. |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-32142-9 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Qr6_q-chR6MC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=common+toad+witchcraft#v=onepage&q=common%20toad%20witchcraft&f=false }}</ref> Di sababaraha daérah percaya lamun seug aya bangkong korodok ngulampreng ka imah éta méré totonden ayana pangaruh sihir atawa anu ngadon demit .<ref name=Witch-hunt/> Dalam [[Basque Country (wilayah lebih besar )|Basque Country]], dipercaya cenah bangkong korodok téh maké jubah anu gagah/elegan. digiring-giring ku barudak anu keur dialajar elmu sihir. kurang leuwih taun 1610 jeung 1612, hiji Inkuisisi/hukum numutkeun cara-cara gereja <ref>[https://www.google.co.id/search?q=inkuisisi+artinya&oq=inkuisisi+artinya&aqs=chrome..69i57.3615j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 Inkuisisi]</ref> [[Spanyol]] [[Alonso de Salazar Frias]] ngayakeun panalungtikan ngeunaan prakték sihir di éta tempat tuluy ngadatangan hiji imah anu disangka tukang nyihir anu mibanda bangkong maké jubah TAPI NYATANA HENTEU KAPANGGIH .<ref name=Burns>{{cite book |title=Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia |last=Burns |first=William E. |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-32142-9 |pages=20–21 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Qr6_q-chR6MC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=common+toad+witchcraft#v=onepage&q=common%20toad%20witchcraft&f=false }}</ref> These witches were reputed to use undomesticated toads as ingredients in their liniments and brews.<ref name=Burns/> Di Inggris aya deui dongéng ngeunaan bangkong korodok ieu nyaritakeun hiji nini-nini tukang [[sihir]], anu ditagih duit séwa [[imah]] kunu boga taneuh. lain mayar kalahka malik ngéwa ku alatan ngarasa kaganggu ku anu boga taneuh, ku jalan maké élmu sihir pikeun, ngutuk anu boga tanah jeug sakabéh harta kakayaana. Kakocap di imah nu boga taneu teu kungsi lila, tiharita pamajikana karagragan bangkong korodok nepika labuhna. Gentak éta bangkong dicokot lung dialungkeun kana [[durukan]], tapi édas éta bangkong bisa kénéh kabur sanajan awakna geus kabeuleum sawaréh. Sawatara ti éta, imah nini-nini tukang sihir téh kahuruan ogé nepika runtuh. Isukna bangkong jeung tukang sihirna geus palastra ngababatang jadi banusan, tur ébréh urut kabeuleum anu aya dina éta awak nini-nini sarua lebah-lebahna jeung bangkong korodok anu kamari kabur tina durukan. <ref>{{cite book |title=Popular romances of the West of England; or, the drolls, traditions, and superstitions of Old Cornwall, Volume 2 |last=Hunt |first=Robert |year=1865 |publisher=Hotten |page=105 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=SH9MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA105&dq=%22Popular+Romances+of+the+West+of+England%22+2nd+series#v=onepage&q=%22Popular%20Romances%20of%20the%20West%20of%20England%22%202nd%20series&f=false }}</ref> [[File:Witches'Familiars1579.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Witch feeding toads|1579 Tukang sihir keur ngamangpaatkeun bangkong]] Ciduh bangkong korodok dipercaya mibanda racun/peurah anu disebut "sweltered" cenah dipercaya bangkong morodok bisa nyiduhkeun seuneu anu ngandunung racun. Bangkong korodok sok dihubung-hubungkeun jeung setan '' [[Paradise Lost]] '', [ [ John Milton ] ] digambarkan [ [ Setan ] ] minangka katak ketika ia menuangkan racun ke [ [ Eve ] ] telinga ' s .<ref name=Witch-hunt/> Pertama Penyihir di [[William Shakespeare]] [[Macbeth]] mertélakeun sarat jeung katangtuan ngagunakeun campuran bangkong korodok tur maké parancah jeung jangjawokan:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/19259 |title=''Macbeth'', Act&nbsp;IV, Scene&nbsp;I |author=Shakespeare, William |date=1605–1606 |publisher=Poets.org }}</ref> Aya deui anu percaya cenah dina hulu bangkong korodok téh aya hiji mustika "[[toadstone]]", di mana éta mustika umpama dipaké, bakal ngabejaan anu makena lamun seug aya anu demit atawa ngaracun kamanéhna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.exploratorium.edu/frogs/folklore/ |title=Frogs: Frog myths across cultures |author=Wanner, Noel |year=2011 |work=The Exploratorium |publisher=The museum of science, art and human perception |accessdate=2012-08-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206085215/http://www.exploratorium.edu/frogs/folklore/ |date=2012-02-06 }}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|3}} ==Tutumbu kaluar == {{Commons category|Bufo bufo}} * {{wikispecies-inline|Bufo bufo}} * Information at [http://www.herp.it/ Ampibi anu aya di Europe] * Information at [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/481.shtml BBC nature on the common toad] * Information at [http://www.astolinto.it/SchedeVA/RospoCE.php Astolinto form] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Ampibi]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] tufbpd3rr1utnochgzit6ocp7qvkhet 0 50683 711825 652259 2026-08-07T05:21:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711825 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Male forehead-01 ies.jpg|thumb|200px|right| Tarang]] '''Tarang''' ([[Tatakrama basa Sunda|basa hormat]]: '''Taar'''; basa [[Indonesia]]na ''dahi''; ''forehead'' dina basa [[Inggris]]), nyaéta bagéan tina awak [[manusa]] anu pernahna dina [[sirah]], tarang mangrupa [[kulit]] anu di luhur jeung gigirna ngawates ku [[buuk]] anu jadi dina sirah, tarang diwangun ku tilu bagéan : dua [[tulang]] tangkorak jeung kulit sirah. Tarang beulah handapna diwates ku tulang anu ngajendul kaluar ''supraorbital'', tayalian bagéan tulang tangkorak saluhureun [[panon]] (kongkolak panon). Beulah kénca jeung katuhuna diwates ku tulang ''temporal'' tayalian tulang anu ngaraketkeun ''supraorbital'' jeung ''koronal'' beulah luarna.<ref name=KnizeDrisko>{{cite book|title=The Forehead and Temporal Fossa: Anatomy and Technique|url=https://archive.org/details/foreheadtemporal0000unse|author1=David M. Knize |author2=Mel Drisko |lastauthoramp=yes |publisher=Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins|year=2001|isbn=9780781720748|pages=[https://archive.org/details/foreheadtemporal0000unse/page/4 4]}}</ref><ref name=Nouri1>{{cite book|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071472562/page/523 523]|chapter=Reconstructive surgery of Skin Cancer defects|author1=Valencia D. Thomas |author2=Wendy Long Mitchell |author3=Neil A. Swanson |author4=Thomas E. Rohrer |author5=Ken K. Lee |last-author-amp=yes |title=Skin Cancer|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071472562|editor=Keyvan Nouri|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|year=2007|isbn=9780071472562}}</ref> ==Pedaran== ''Otot-otot'' anu aya dina tarang saeutik gedéna mangaruhan kana paroman atawa [[''eksprési'']]. Dumasar kana panalungtikan ''gerakan'' otot dina tarang bisa mangrupa hiji basa isarat, anu bisa di kombinasikeun jeung ''gerak gerik anggota'' [[awak]] anu séjéna pikeun némbongkeun basa isarat anu tangtu. Otot-otot ''occipitofrontalis'' bisa nyingsatkeun [[halis]], kénca, katu atawa dua duana, némbongkeun [[paroman]] reuwas, sedih, gumbira, jeung sajabana. Otot ''corrugator'' ''supercilii'' bisa ''ngagerakeun'' halis ka luhur jeung ka handap, ngébréhkeun paroman baeud atawa paroman hayang nyaho. Otot-otot ''procerus'' bisa ''ngagerakeun'' halis katengah dua duana.<ref name=PalastangaFieldSoames>{{cite book|pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyhumanmove0000pala_k7w4/page/645 645]&ndash;646|title=Anatomy and human movement|url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyhumanmove0000pala_k7w4|author1=Nigel Palastanga |author2=Derek Field |author3=Roger Soames |last-author-amp=yes |edition=5th|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2006|isbn=9780750688147|chapter=Head and Brain}}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html Atlas anatomi ''online'' bébas] * [http://www.npac.syr.edu/projects/vishuman/VisibleHuman.html The NPAC Visible Human Viewer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040401211336/http://www.npac.syr.edu/projects/vishuman/VisibleHuman.html |date=2004-04-01 }} * [http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/index.html Kamus Médis ''online''] * [http://www.bartleby.com/107/ Anatomi Awak Manusa beunang Henry Gray] * [http://www.rtstudents.com/ Online Radiologic Anatomy Resources] {{CabangBiologi}} {{Anatomi manusa}}{{pondok}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Anatomi manusa]] 232br2p7pxrzavx3nlsecx3u6pdkkv9 0 50685 711551 660010 2026-08-06T22:57:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711551 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dscn0646-needles 600x800.jpg|thumb|[[The Needles]], Pernahna di [[Isle of Wight]], mangrupa bagéan ti [[Southern England Chalk Formation]].]] '''Apu''' basa [[Inggris]] (Chalk) (pronunciation: /ˈtʃɔːk/) nyaéta tipung bodas anu dijieun tina batu [[''sédimen'']], batu apu asalna tina jero [[laut]] anu mangrupa gelempengan [[kalsium]] (''coccoliths'') anu diwangun tina ''mikroorganisme coccolithophores.'' Dina batu apu ilahar ogé di jerona kapanggih batu panékér (Rijang) pikeun mirun seuneu.<ref name=“Antanan ”>{{Cite book | title =A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| first =Jonathan | last =Rigg| publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen| location =Universitas Harvard| year =1862| pages =20|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA213&dq=KEHKEL&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7qpOVitnTAhWBO48KHXrzCD8Q6AEIQDAD#v=onepage&q=d&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi) 11 April 2020}}</ref> Apu henteu gampang ngalaman ''pelapukan'', ku lantaran kitu apu mindeng kapanggih dina jumlah anu loba dina wangun anu ngagawir, apu ogé mibanda kakuatan nahan cai anu nyangkrung dina sela-selana ogé nandéan cai taneuh anu ngalir sagigireuna, ku alatan kitu batu apu mangrupa [[''reservoir'']] alam anu baris ngaluarkeun cai lalaunan mangsana usum halodo <ref>Kuswandi. 2005. ''Pengapuran Tanah Pertanian: Edisi Revisi''. Penerbit Kanisius. Yogyakarta.</ref>. ==Mangpaat== Pikeun tatanén apu dipaké pikeun ngajaga kasimbangan ''PH'' [[taneuh]] jeung ngaronjatkeun kasuburanna. Loba jeung rupana apu anu dipaké gumantung kana maksud jeung tujuan; apu beunang ngagiling (''kalsit super''), Apu tohor atawa apu hirup (''kalsit, quicklime''), ''dolomit'', apu pikeun nembok (''slaked lime, Ca(OH)2''), apu liat atawa mari, apu seuneu (slag), jeung apu tina cangkang haremis. Baheula tipung apu dicitak sagedé-gedé curuk dipaké pikeun [[Kapur tulis]] dina bor hideung hanjakal gampang teuing dipupus jeung bubukna matak ngebul, ka dieunakeun [[kapur tulis]] dijieun tina mineral ''gypsum'' (kalsium sulfat) panjang kurang leuwih 10&nbsp;cm, [[kapur kaput]] nyaéta apu anu dipadetkeun dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngaguratan kaén/lawon anu baris dipotong, kiwarimah geus diganti ku wedak (magnesium silikat). Apu ogé dipaké ngaguratan jukut lapang mengbal, atawa tenis. Tapi kiwari geus diganti ku ''titanium dioksida''. Apu anu dipaké dina olah raga pikeun nyerep késang jeung sangkan henteu leueur saperti dina olahraga senam, atlétik, naék gawir (''panjat tebing''), angkat [[beusi]] jeung tarik [[tambang]], tapi kiwari geus diganti ku ''magnesium karbonat''. Apu dipaké ogé pikeun mulas [[imah]], [[pager]] jeung sajabana. Apu anu dipotong-potong sagedé-gedé bata dijieun ''balok'' pikeun dadasar/pondasi mangsa ngadegkeun imah, benténg atawa wangunan anu séjéna<ref>{{cite book|last1=Whitaker|first1=William|title=Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain|date=1872|publisher=Longmans, Green|location=London|isbn=|oclc= 2531996|page=389|volume=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Easton|first1=David|title=The Rammed Earth House|url=https://archive.org/details/rammedearthhouse0000east|date=1996|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|location=White River Junction, VT|isbn=9780930031794|page=[https://archive.org/details/rammedearthhouse0000east/page/15 15]}}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Category:Minerals}} * [http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/by_name.htm Galeri mineral] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514152006/http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/by_name.htm |date=2008-05-14 }} * [http://www.minerals.net/index.htm Minerals.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513023718/http://minerals.net/index.htm |date=2008-05-13 }} * [http://www.mindat.org/index.php mindat.org Basis data mineral] * [http://webmineral.com Webmineral.com] * [http://www.minerant.org/databases.html Béréndélan basis data online nu patali jeung mineralogi jeung kristalografi] {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Mineral]] [[Kategori:Kimia]] [[Kategori:Batu]] [[Kategori:Mineralogi]] [[Kategori:Bahan wangunan]] pvh914tdqzs3asd37cnhx6syzfn90lm 0 51028 711618 651264 2026-08-07T00:23:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711618 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{About|genus tutuwuhan}} {{Taxobox | image = Sweetbay Magnolia Magnolia virginiana Flower Closeup 2146px.jpg | image_caption = ''Magnolia virginiana'' | regnum = [[Plantae]] | unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] | unranked_classis = [[Magnoliids]] | ordo = [[Magnoliales]] | familia = [[Magnoliaceae]] | genus = '''''Magnolia''''' | type_species = ''[[Magnolia virginiana]]'' L. | subdivision_ranks = Subgenera | subdivision = * ''Magnolia'' * ''Yulania'' * ''Gynopodium'' | genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] }} '''''Magnolia''''' nyaéta [[genus]] gedé ti 210 [[spésiés]] [[tutuwuhan kembangan]] ti subfamili [[Magnolioideae]] [[Famili (biologi)|famili]] [[Magnoliaceae]]. Ngaranna dicokot ti botanis [[urang Prancis|Prancis]] [[Pierre Magnol]]. [[Fosil]] spésimén ''[[Magnolia acuminata|M. acuminata]]'' umurna 20 juta taun, anu séjénna kaitung geus 95 juta taun.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crane |first=P.R. |date=1988 |chapter=The phylogenetic position and fossil history of the Magnoliaceae |editor1-last=Hunt |editor1-first=David R. |title=Magnolias and their allies: Proceedings of an International Symposium, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, U.K., 12-13 April 1996 |url=https://archive.org/details/magnoliastheiral0000unse |location=Milbourne Port |page=21 |isbn=9780951723487 |oclc=40781614}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{reflist|30em }} ===Kapustakaan=== {{refbegin|30em}} * Johnstone, G.H. (1955). ''Asiatic Magnolias in cultivation''. London, The Royal Horticultural Society. * [http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b76_245.pdf R. N. KAPIL and N. N. BHANDARI. (1964) MORPHOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY OF MAGNOLIA DILL. ex LINN. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 30, 245-262] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501164724/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b76_245.pdf |date=2013-05-01 }} * Callaway, D.J. (1994). ''The World of Magnolias''. Portland, Oregon, Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-236-6 * Hunt, D. (ed). (1998). ''Magnolias and Their Allies''. International Dendrology Society & Magnolia Society. ISBN 0-9517234-8-0 * Law, Y.W. (= Liu, Y.H.) (2004). ''Magnolias of China''. Hong-Kong, Beijing Science & Technology Press. ISBN 7-5304-2765-2 * [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2441921 Leonard B. Thien. Floral Biology of Magnolia. American Journal of Botany Vol. 61, No. 10 (Nov. - Dec., 1974), pp. 1037-1045] * Treseder, N.G. (1978). ''Magnolias''. London/Boston, Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-09619-0 * Cicuzza, D., Newton, A. and Oldfield, S. 2007. [http://www.bgci.org/files/Media_Kit/magnolia_red_list_.pdf The Red List of Magnoliaceae] Fauna & Flora International and Botanic Gardens Conservation International report *[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00606-005-0361-1 F. Xu, P. J. Rudall. Comparative floral anatomy and ontogeny in Magnoliaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution April 2006, Volume 258, Issue 1-2, pp 1-15] {{refend}} {{sirung-Magnoliales}} [[Kategori:Kembang]] [[Kategori:Magnolia]] [[Kategori:Magnoliales genera]] [[Kategori:Fosil hirup]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar]] bcnc357bas8y2v2wb6tvgc7pkd5syrj 0 53355 711752 710582 2026-08-07T03:24:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}{{about|lauk hias}} {{taxobox | name = Koi | status = DOM | image = Ojiya Nishikigoi no Sato ac (3).jpg | image_width = 220px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Cypriniformes]] | familia = [[Cyprinidae]] | genus = ''[[Cyprinus]]'' | species = '''''[[C. carpio]]''''' | subspecies = '''''C. c. haematopterus''''' | trinomial = ''Cyprinus carpio haematopterus''<ref> {{Cite web|url=http://www.fishbase.org/photos/thumbnailssummary.php?ID=1450 |title=Pictures available for Cyprinus carpio haematopterus. |publisher=www.fishbase.org |accessdate=31 October 2010 }} </ref> | trinomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]) }} [[File:Koiinapond-swimming-fall-2011.ogv|thumb|(video) Sababaraha koi ngojay dina balong di Jepang.]] {{Nihongo|'''Koi'''|[[:ja:鯉|鯉]]||{{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|k|ɔɪ}}, {{IPA-ja|koꜜi|lang}}}} atawa leuwih husus {{Nihongo|'''''nishikigoi'''''|[[:ja:錦鯉|錦鯉]]|extra={{IPA-ja|niɕi̥kiꜜɡo.i|}}, sabenerna lauk [[karper]], anu dipiara sarta mibanda ornamén nu éndah.{{fact}} Lauk koi nyaéta sajenis [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] (''Cyprinus carpio'') nu mibanda ornamén nu pohara éndah jeung lindeuk diingu pikeun hiasan di luar rohangan [[balong koi]] atawa [[taman cai]].{{fact}} Variétas Koi dibédakeun ku kelir, pola, sarta ukuran.{{fact}} Sababaraha kelir utama nyaéta bodas, hideung, beureum, konéng, bulao, jeung krim.{{fact}} Kategori Koi pang populérna nyaéta ''Gosanke'', nu diwangun tina ''[[Kohaku]]'', ''Taisho Sanshoku'', sarta variétas ''Showa Sanshoku''.{{fact}} ==Sajarah== Lauk karper atawa [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] nyaéta sajumplukan gedé laun anu awalna kapanggih di [[Éropa Tengah]] jeung [[Asia]].{{fact}} Rupa-rupa spésiés [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] nu mimiti dilindeukeun di [[Asia Wétan]], dimmana maranéhanana dipaké sabagé lauk dahareun.{{fact}} [[Lauk Emas|Lauk emas]] [[lauk cai tiis]], sarta kamapuh maranéhannana pikeun hirup sarta nyaluyukeun kana sababraha iklim jeung kondisi kaayaan cai, lauk spésiés piaraan ieu wenang sumebar ka sababraha lokasi anyar, kaasup Jepang.{{fact}} Mutasi kelir alami lauk ieu baris kajadian disakabéh populasi.{{fact}} Lauk karper nu munggaran dibaranahkeun pikeun mutasi kelir nyaéta di [[China]] leuwih ti sarébu taun ka tukang, binih pinilih lauk karper Prussian (''Carassius gibelio'') mingpin pamekaran lauk [[Koki (lauk)|koki]].<ref name="bristol">{{Cite web| url=http://www.bristol-aquarists.org.uk/goldfish/info/info.htm | title=Background information about goldfish | accessdate=28 July 2006}}</ref> Rupa-rupa spésiés [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] nu dibudidayakeun sabagé lauk dahareun sahenteuna ti mimiti abad ka lima SM di China, sarta jaman Karajaan Roma nalika nyebarkeun agama Karésten di [[Éropa]].{{fact}} Lauk emas nu dipiara pikeun kaédahan kelirna dimekarkeun di Jepang dina taun 1820an, mimitina di kota Ojiya di Niigata bagéan kalér pulo [[Honshu]].{{fact}} Dunya luar teu sadar pikeun mekarna variasi kelir koi [[Jepang]] nepi ka taun 1914, nalika koi Niigata dipamérkeunn di paméran taunan di [[Tokyo]].{{fact}} Ti harita, minat koi sumebar ka sakuliah [[Jepang]].{{fact}} Tina koi asli ieu, sakabéh variétas ''Nishikigoi'' lainna dibarahkeun, kacuali variétas Ogon (kelir-tunggal, koi métalik) nu dimekarkeun rélatif anyar kénéh.{{fact}} Panggemar koi pamustunganana sumebar ka sakuliah dunya.{{fact}} Koi ayeuna loba dijual di to akuarium piaraan, kalawan kualitas lauk anu alus.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mpks.org/articles/RayJordan/KoiHistory3.shtml |title=MPKS Ray Jordan Koi History |publisher=Ray Jordan |accessdate=26 April 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723111340/http://www.mpks.org/articles/RayJordan/KoiHistory3.shtml |date=23 July 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.netpets.org/fish/reference/freshref/nishi.html |title=Early Records |publisher=Netpets.org |accessdate=11 April 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613053139/http://netpets.org/fish/reference/freshref/nishi.html |date=13 June 2010 }}</ref> ===Étimologi=== Kecap ''koi'' asalna ti Jepang, hartina "[[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]]".{{fact}} Ieu ngawengku duanana lauk kulawu sarta variétas kelir cékas.{{fact}} Nu katelah koi dina basa [[Inggris]] disebut leuwih husus salaku ''nishikigoi'' di Jepang (sacara literatur hartina "lauk emas").{{fact}} Di Jepang, ''koi'' nyaéta salah sahiji [[homophone]] pikeun kecap séjén nu hartina "kadeudeuh" atanapi "duriat"; ku kituna koi nyaéta lambang duriat jeung silaturahim di Jepang.{{fact}} ==Variétas== [[File:Koi feeding, National Arboretum.jpg|thumb|right|Keur maraban koi]] Variétas Koi dibédakeun ku kelir, pola, sarta ukuran.{{fact}} Sababaraha kelir utama nyaéta bodas, hideung, beureum, konéng, bulao, jeung krim. {{fact}}Sedengkeun kelir meureun ampir teu kawates, paternak geus ngaidéntifikasi sarta méré ngaran sajumlah kategori.{{fact}} Kategori nu pang kasohorna nyaéta ''Gosanke'', nu diwangun tina variétas ''Kohaku'', ''Taisho Sanshoku'', sarta ''Showa Sanshoku''.{{fact}} Variétas koi anu anyar masih keur aktip dimekarkeun.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.mitchkoi.co.uk/koikeepingtips/koi-varieties/| title=Guide to Koi Varieties| work=mitchkoi.co.uk| accessdate=12 April 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413141821/http://www.mitchkoi.co.uk/koikeepingtips/koi-varieties/ |date=13 April 2014 }}</ref> Koi ''Ghost'' dimekarkeun taun 1980an geus jadi pohara populér di Inggris; maranéhna campuran tina lauk emas liar jeung koi ''Ogon'', jeung anu dibédakeun ku ukuran métalik maranéhna.{{fact}} ''[[Butterfly koi|Koi butterfly]]'' (ogé katelah koi cécépét panjang (kumpay), atawa lauk emas naga), ogé dimekarkeun taun 1980an, anu kasohor panjang cécépét tur ngarumbay.{{fact}} Maranéhna campuran tina koi jeung [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] [[Asia]]. {{fact}} Koi ''butterfly'' sarta koi ''ghost'' koi dianggap ku sabagian jadi ''nishikigoi'' nu teu bener. {{citation needed|date=April 2009}} Nu kaasup ngaran variétas utama nyaéta: <!-- {{columns-list|6| #''Kohaku #''Taisho Sanke #''Showa Sanke #''Tanchō #''Chagoi #''Asagi #''Utsurimono #''Bekko #''Goshiki #''Shūsui #''Kinginrin #''Kawarimono #''Ōgon #''Kumonryū #''Ochiba #''Koromo #''Hikari-moyomono #''Kikokuryū #''Kin-Kikokuryū #Ghost koi #Butterfly koi #''Doitsu-goi }} --> * {{Nihongo|''[[Kohaku (Nishikigoi)|Kōhaku]]''|紅白}} nyaéta koi kulit bodas, kalayan pola beureum nu lega di luhur.{{fact}} Harti ngaranna "beureum jeung bodas"; ''kohaku'' mangrupa variétas munggaran nu diciptakeun di Jepang (ahir abad ka 19).<ref>{{Cite book|author=Tamadachi M|chapter=Koi varieties|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultofkoi0000tama/page/191 191]|title=The Cult of the Koi|url=https://archive.org/details/cultofkoi0000tama|publisher=TFH Publications|location=Neptune City, New Jersey|year=1990|isbn=0-86622-085-2}}</ref> * {{Nihongo|''Taishō Sanshoku'' (atawa ''Taisho Sanke)''|大正三色}} ampir sarua jeung ''kohaku'', ngan aya tambahan pola hideung saeutik nu disebut {{Nihongo|''sumi''|墨}}.{{fact}} Variétas ieu mimiti dipamérkeun taun 1914 ku paternak koi [[Gonzo Hiroi]], dina mangsa kakuasaan [[Kaisar Taishō|Kaisar Taiso]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Di Amérika, ngaranna mindeng di singkat jadi "Sanke".{{fact}} Hurup ''kanji'', 三色, bisa dibaca salaku ''sanshoku'' atawa salaku ''sanke'' (tina ngaran saméméhna 三毛).{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Shōwa Sanshoku'' (atawa ''Showa Sanke'')|昭和三色}} nyaéta koi hideung kalayan pola beureum (''hi'' 緋) jeung bodas (''shiroji'' 白地). Koi ''Showa Sanke'' dipamékeun taun 1927, dina mangsa kakuasaan [[Kaisar Showa]]. {{fact}} Di Amérika, ngaranna mindeng di singkat jadi "Showa". {{fact}}jumlah ''shiroji'' dina ''Showa Sanke'' geus ngaronjat dina magsa modérn (''Kindai Showa'' 近代昭和), ti dieu hésé ngabédakeun tina ''Taisho Sanke''.{{fact}} Hurup ''kanji'', 三色, bisa dibaca salaku ''sanshoku'' atawa salaku ''sanke.''{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Tanchō''|丹頂}} nyéta koi kalayan hiji pola beureum dina huluna.{{fact}} Bisa jadi ''Tancho Showa'', ''Tancho Sanke'', atawa ''Tancho Goshiki''.{{fact}} Ieu dingaranan pikeun [[bango mahkota beureum]] urang Jepang (''Grus japonensis''), nu ogé boga totol beureum dina sirahna. * {{Nihongo|''Chagoi''|茶鯉}}, "kelir-téh", Kelir koi ieu bisa antara ti héjo zaitun sepa atawa coklat nepi ka tambaga atawa parunggu, kelir oran{{fact}}yeu nu leuwih sarta leuwih lembut.{{fact}} Kasohor kalayan lindeuk, kapribadian soméah sarta ukuranna nu badag, hal ieu dianggap sabagé tanda kauntungan di kalangan nu miara koi.{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Asagi''|浅黄}} nyaéta koi kelir bulao caang dina tonggong tur biasana beureum dina beuteung, tapi ogé aya kalana konéng sepa atawa krim, ilaharna di handap gurat lateral sarta dina pipi.{{fact}} Ngaran Jepang hartina bulao kahéjoan sepa, siga kelir [[bawang daun]].{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Utsurimono''|写り物}} nyaéta koi hideung kalayan pola bodas, beureum, atawa konéng, siga pola kuda [[zebra]].{{fact}} Wangun nu paling heubeul nyaéta wangun konéng, disebut {{Nihongo|"pola hideung jeung konéng"|黒黄斑|''Kuro ki madara''}} dina abad ka 19, tapi diganti ngaran jadi {{Nihongo|''Ki Utsuri''|黄写り}} ku [[Elizaburo Hoshino]] saurang patani koi awal abad ka 20.{{fact}} Vérsi beureum jeung bodas masing-masing disebut {{Nihongo|''Hi Utsuri''|緋写り}} jeung {{Nihongo|''Shiro Utsuri''|白写り}}.{{fact}} Kecap ''utsuri'' artinta aya (tanda hideung ngingetkeun kana noda tinta).{{fact}} Sacara génétis, sarua jeung ''Showa'', tapi kakurang pigmén beureum (''Shiro Utsuri'') atawa pigmén bodas (''Hi Utsuri''/''Ki Utsuri'').{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Bekko''|べっ甲}} nyaéta koi kulit bodas-, beureum-, atawa konéng kalawan pola hideung {{Nihongo|''sumi''|墨}}.{{fact}} Harti ngaran Jepangna "kuya batok", sarta ilahar ditulis sabagé べっ甲.{{fact}} Variétas bodas, beureum, jeung konéng masing-masing disebut {{Nihongo|''Shiro Bekko''|白}}, {{Nihongo|''Aka Bekko''|赤}} jeung {{Nihongo|''Ki Bekko''|黄}}.{{fact}} Ieu bisa pahili jeung ''Utsuri''.{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Goshiki''|五色}} nyaéta koi beureum poék (modél''Kohaku'') corak ''hi''. Harti ngaran Jepangna "lima kelir".{{fact}} Sarupa jeung ''Asagi'', kalayan saeutik atawa tanpa ''hi'' di handapeun gurat lateral sarta corak ''Kohaku Hi'' dina sisit (lauk pola jaring sisitna).{{fact}} Kelir dasarna biru langit antara ti ampir hideung nepi ka sepa. {{fact}} * '{{Nihongo|''Shūsui''|秋翠}} hartina "héjo usum gugur"; ''Shūsui'' diciptakeun taun 1910 ku Yoshigoro Akiyama（[[:ja:秋山　吉五郎|秋山　吉五郎]], ku cara mijahkeun silang ''Asagi'' Jepang jeung lauk emas ''(miror carp)'' Jérman.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Lauk henteu sisitan, kacuali sagurat sisit badag di bagén tonggong, manjang ti hulu nepi kana buntut.{{fact}} Jenis ''Shūsui'' paling ilahar sepa, [[biru-langit]]/kelir kulawu di luhur lateral sarta beureum atawa oranyeu (langka nu konéng caang) handapeun gurat lateral sarta dina pipi.{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Kinginrin''|金銀鱗}} nyaéta koi kalawan kelir sisit métallik (ngagurilap kélir metalik nu mencar).{{fact}} Mun dihartikeun "sisit emas jeung pérak"; mindeng disingget ''Ginrin''.{{fact}} Vérsi ''Ginrin'' ampir muncul di sakabéh variétas koi sejénna, sarta maranéhna modis katingalina.{{fact}} Maranéhna ngagulrilap, sisitna ngagurilap kontras kalayan lemes, malah, kulit sarta sisit métalik katempo ogé dina variétas ''Ogon''.{{fact}} Kiwari, karakteristik ieu geus digabungkeun pikeun nyiptakeun variétas ''Ginrin Ogon'' nu anyar.{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Kawarimono''|変わり物}} nyaéta koi "pola sagala-aya" istilah pikeun koi nu teu bisa diasupkeun kana salah sahiji kategori lianna.{{fact}} Ieu kategori pasanggiri, sarta loba variétas koi anyar silih éléhkeun dina kategori ieu.{{fact}} Dipikawanoh ogé {{Nihongo|''kawarigoi''|変わり鯉}}.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} * {{Nihongo|''Ōgon''|黄金}} nyaéta koi métalik ngan sakelir (''hikarimono'' 光者).{{fact}} Kelir ilahar anu kapanggih nyaéta emas, platineum, sarta oranyeu.{{fact}} Spésimén nu krim pohara jarang.{{fact}} ''Ogon'' dipasanggirikeun di kategori ''Kawarimono'' sarta harti ngaran Jepangna "emas". {{fact}} Variétas geus diciptakeun ku Sawata Aoki taun 1946 tina lauk emas liar nu ditéwak taun 1921. <!-- Recently, the metallic-skinned ''Ogon'' is being crossed with ''ginrin''-scaled fish to create the'' ginrin Ogon'' with metallic skin and sparkling (metal flake) scales.--> * {{Nihongo|''Kumonryū''|九紋竜}}' （sabenerna "salapan tato naga" nyaéta koi ''doitsu''-sisit hideung kalayan tanda bodas curling melengkung. Maranéhna katelah ngubah kelir saluyu jeung usum .{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} ''Kumonryu ''dipasanggirikeun dina kategori ''Kawarimono''.{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Ochiba''|落葉}} nyaéta koi bulao/kulawu caang kalayan pola kelir tambaga, parunggu, atawa konéng (corak-''Kohaku''), ngingetkeun kana daun dina musim gugur luhureun cai.{{fact}} Harti ngaran Jepangna "daun ragrag".{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Koromo''|衣}} nyaéta koi bodas kalayan pola corak-''Kohaku'' kalayan bulao atawa sisit hideung disisi dina corak ''hi'' .{{fact}} Variétas ieu mimiti muncul taun 1950an sabagé pijah silang antara ''Kohaku'' jeung ''Asagi''.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Nu paling ilahar kapanggih ''Koromo'' sabagé ''Ai Goromo'', nu kelirna siga ''Kohaku'', iwal masing-masing sisit belang beureum mibanda kelir bulao atawa hideung sisina. Nu kurang ilahar nyaéta ''Budo-Goromo'', nu mibanda kelir leuwih poék ''hi'' nu méré panampilan ranggeuyan buah anggur. {{fact}} Jarang pisan katempo ''Tsumi-Goromo'', nu sarimbag jeung ''Budo-Goromo'', tapi corak ''hi'' nyaéta sarupaning anggur ''burgundy'' poék nu muncul ampir deukeut jeung hideung.{{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''Hikari-moyomono''|光模樣者}} nyaéta koi kalawan pola kelir dina dasar kelir métalik atawa dina dua kelir métalik.{{fact}} * ''Kikokuryū'' (輝黒竜, secara harfiah "ngagurilap" atwa "komodo hideung ngagurilap") nyaéta versi kulit métalik tina ''Kumonryu''.{{fact}} * ''Kin-Kikokuryū'' (金輝黒竜, secara harfiah "komodo emas hideung ngagurilap" atawa "komodo hideung emas ngagurilap") nyaéta versi kulit métalik tina ''Kumonryu'' kalayan corak pola-''Kohaku'' ''hi'' dimekarkeun ku Seiki Igarashi kota Ojiya.{{fact}} Sahenteuna genep subvarieties génétik nu béda ti variétas umum nu katempo.{{fact}} * ''Ghost koi'' ([[:ja:人面魚|人面魚]]、[[:ja:じんめんぎょ|じんめんぎょ]]), nyaéta campuran tina ''Ogon'' jeung [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] liar kalayan sisit metallic métalik, dianggap ku sabagéan teu kaasup ''nishikigoi''.{{fact}} * [[Butterfly koi|''Butterfly koi'']] ([[:ja:鰭長錦鯉|鰭長錦鯉]]、[[:ja:ひれながにしきごい|ひれながにしきごい]]) nyaéta campuran koi [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] [[Asia]] kalayan long cécépétna panjang ngagebay.{{fact}} Rupa-rupa kelir gumantung kana stok koi nu digunakeun pikeun mijahkeun silang.{{fact}} Ieu ogé dianggap ku sabagéan teu kaasup ''nishikigoi.'' {{fact}} * {{Nihongo|''[[Doitsu-goi]]''|ドイツ鯉}} Asalna tina pijah silang sagala variétas nu béda jeung "tapa sisit" lauk emas Jérman ( ilaharna, lauk ngan ukur kalayan sagurat sisit di sapanjang sisi cécépét tonggong ).{{fact}} Ditulis ogé sabagé 独逸鯉, aya opat jenis pola-pola ''Doitsu''.{{fact}} Jenis nu paling ilahar (disebut di luhur) mibanda sisit ngajajar mimiti ti bagéan hareup cécépét tonggong nepi ka tungtung cécépét tonggong (Di sapanjang kadua sisi cécépét).{{fact}} Jenis kadua miboga sisit ngajajar nu dimimitian di mana hulu panggih jeung taktak sarta sumebar ka sakuliah awak lauk (sapanjang kadua sisi).{{fact}} Jenis katilu sarua jeung nu kadua, kalayan ditambah hiji gurat sisit (mindeng rada badag) sapanjang gurat lateral (sapanjang sisi) lauk, disebut ogé "koi eunteung".{{fact}} Jenis nu kaopat (pohara langka) disebut sabagé "koi baju beusi" sarta sakabéhna (atawa ampir) ditutupan ku sisit nu kacida gedéna anu nyarupaan pelat baju beusi. {{fact}}Disebut ogé ''Kagami-goi'' (鏡鯉、カガミゴイ), atawa lauk emas eunteung (ミラーカープ).{{fact}} ==Bédana jeung koki== [[File:Koi head closeup.jpg|thumb|right|Koi boga nu nonjol [[barbels]] dina biwir nu teu katémbong dina lauk emas.]] [[Koki (lauk)|Koki]] nu dimekarkeun di [[China]] leuwih ti sarébu taun kaliwat tina bibit pinilih lauk emas Prussian pikeun [[mutasi]] kelir. {{fact}}Ku alpukahna [[Dinasti Song]] (960–1279), kelir konéng, oranyeu, bodas, sarta beureum-jeung-bodas geus dimekarkeun.{{fact}} [[Koki (lauk)|Koki]] (''Carassius auratus'') jeung [[Prussian carp]] (''ssius gibelio'') ayeuna dianggap béda spésiés .{{fact}} [[Koki (lauk)|Koki]] nu diwanohkeun ka Jepang dina abad ka 16 sarta ka [[Éropa]] dina abad ka 17.<ref name="bristol"/> Koi, sanajan, anu dimekarkeun tina [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] di Jepang taun 1820an.{{fact}} Koi nyaéta [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] nu dilindeukkeun (''Cyprinus carpio'') that nu dipilih atau dipisahkeun pikeun kelir; maranéhna lain spésiés anu béda, tapi subspésiés, sarta baris balik deui kana kelir aslina dina sababaraha generasi lamun diantepkeun bébas baranahan.{{fact}} Ilaharna, koki condong leuwih leutik batan koi, sarta mobanda rupa-rupa wangun awak sarta konfigurasi cécépét jeung buntut.{{fact}} Variétas koi condong mibanda wangun awak nu ilahar, tapi mibanda variasi kelir sarta pola kelir.{{fact}} Maranéhna ogé mibanda [[barbels]] nu nonjol dina biwir. {{fact}}Sababaraha variétas koki, saperti [[common goldfish|koki ilahar]], [[comet goldfish|koki komét]], jeung ''[[shubunkin]],'' mibanda wangun awak sarta kelir nu mirip jeung koi, sarta baris hésé ngabédakeun koi mangsa can sawawa sarta.{{fact}} Ti mimiti [[Koki (lauk)|koki]] jeung koi anu dimekarkeun ti spésiés lauk emas nu béda, sarta maranéhna bisa silih pijah (kawin), turunan maranéhanana steril.<ref>{{cite web|title=The difference between koi and goldfish|url=http://www.livingthecountrylife.com/animals/difference-between-koi-and-goldfish/page/0/1|website=Living the Country Life|accessdate=8 November 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118145003/http://www.livingthecountrylife.com/animals/difference-between-koi-and-goldfish |date=18 November 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Aquatic-oasis ">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aquatic-oasis.com/articles.htm |title=Aquatic-oasis articles |publisher=Aquatic-oasis |accessdate=2 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622235948/http://www.aquatic-oasis.com/articles.htm |archivedate=22 June 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622235948/http://www.aquatic-oasis.com/articles.htm |date=22 June 2010 }}</ref> ==Kaséhatan, ngropéa, sarta umur panjang== [[File:Yuyuan Garden.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Koi di [[Yu Garden]], [[Shanghai]]]] [[Lauk Emas|Lauk emas]] nyaéta lauk nu kuat, sarta koi neruskeun ngaropéa kakuatan.{{fact}} Koi nyaéta lauk cai tiis, bisa hirup dina suhu antara 15-25&nbsp;°C (59-77&nbsp;°F), tapi ulah lila teuing, tiis, suhu usum tiis; sistim kakebalan awak maranéhna kacida lemah di handapeun suhu 10&nbsp;°C. {{fact}}Balong koi biasana jerona saméter atawa leuwih nu baris haneut mangsa usum panas, di mana di daérah nu mibanda usum tiris nu leuwih, balong ilaharna mibanda minimal jerona {{convert|1.5|m|ft|frac=2|abbr=on}}.{{fact}} Konstruksi balong koi geus dimekarkeun ku paternak koi pikeun ngaronjatkeun kualitas koi pikeun pasanggiri. {{fact}} Kelir-kelir koi nu caang jadi sasaran dahareun prédators; ''Kohaku'' nu mibanda kulit bodas marupakeun sasaran kadaharan pédator di balong nu héjo poék.{{fact}} [[Kuntul]], [[cangkakak]], [[séro]], [[rakun]], [[ucing]], [[ajag]], [[Badger (animal)|badger]]s, jeung [[landak]] maranéhna kabéh sanggup méakeun lauk di balong.{{fact}} Balong nu kontruksina alus boga aréa nu jero supaya ''herons'' teu bisa ancrub ka balong, beungeut cai nu cukup luhur ti balong supaya sato mamalia teu bisa asup ka balong, sarta tatangkalan nu ngarumpuyuk ngahalangan panénjo sakur nu ngaliwat.{{fact}} Mun perlu masang ram kawat di luhureun balong.{{fact}} Balong hias biasanga aya kompa jeung sistim filter balong supaya cai tetep hérang jeung beresih.{{fact}} Koi nyaéta lauk [[omnivora]], jadi ngadahar rupa-rupa dahareum, kaasup kacang polong, saladah jeung samangka.{{fact}} Parab koi dirancang heteu ngan saukur pikeun gizi saimbang, tapi ngambang nepi ka bisa ngadorong maranéhna pikeun ngojay ka luhur beungeut cai.{{fact}} Mangsa maranéhna keur dahar, koi bisa dipariksa pikeun parasit sarta borok.{{fact}} Alami, koi barangdahar di handap kalayan adaptasi wangun sungut pikeun hal éta.{{fact}} Sababaraha koi mibanda kacenderungan pikeun barangdahar lolobana ti handap, jadi produsén parab nyieun parab campuran ngerelep jeung kombinasi ngambang.{{fact}} Koi apaleun ka jelema nu sok maraban maranéhna sarta ngumpul deukeut maranéhna.{{fact}} Maranéhna bisa dilatih pikeun nyapluk parab tina leungeun jelema.{{fact}} Dina usum tiis, sistem pancernaan maranéhna lalaunan baris eureun, sarta maranéhna dahar saeutik pisan. {{fact}}Maraban teu disarankeun mangsa suhu turun di handapeun {{convert|10|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.lagunakoi.com/Koi-Feeding-Guide-Library-sc-334.html | title=Koi Feeding Guide | work=lagunakoi.com | accessdate=2 October 2013 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127230658/http://www.lagunakoi.com/Koi-Feeding-Guide-Library-sc-334.html |date=27 January 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mitchkoi.co.uk/koikeepingtips/best-temperature-feed-koi-fish/ | title=Temperatures to feed koi fish | work=mitchkoi.co.uk | accessdate=1 April 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413154722/http://www.mitchkoi.co.uk/koikeepingtips/best-temperature-feed-koi-fish/ |date=13 April 2014 }}</ref> Nafsu dahar maranéhna balik deui dina mangsa cai jadi haneut dina usum semi.{{fact}} Koi geus dilaporkeun ngahontal umur 100–200 taun.<ref name="HuntingfordJobling2012">{{cite book |author1=Felicity Huntingford |author2=Malcolm Jobling |author3=Sunil Kadri |title=Aquaculture and Behavior |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x9pnZqx7788C&pg=PA12 |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-3089-9 |pages=12– |quote=... and there are reports of fish that have achieved ages of 100–200 years (Purdom 1993; Billard 1999).}}</ref> Hiji koi ''scarlet'' nu dingarangan "Hanako" dipibanda ku sababaraha individu , nu panungtungan nyaéta Dr. Komei Koshihara. {{fact}}Bulan Juli 1974, hiji atikan ngeunaan panalungtikan umur lauk, salah sahiji koi dilaporkeun yén Hanako umurna nepi ka 225 taun.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/apr/12/animalwelfare.world |title=The Guardian |publisher=The Guardian |date= 12 April 2007|accessdate=11 April 2009 | location=London | first=Laura | last=Barton}}</ref> Sacara otoritatif umur anu ditarima pikeun spésiés kurang ti 50 taun.<ref>{{cite book | title=Animal Records | url=https://archive.org/details/animalrecords0000carw | publisher=Sterling Publishing Company | author=Carwardine, Mark | authorlink=Mark Carwardine | year=2008 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/animalrecords0000carw/page/201 201] | isbn=9781402756238}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Cyprinus_carpio|title=AnAge entry for Cyprinus carpio|work=genomics.senescence.inf}}</ref> ==Panyakit== Koi pohara kuat.{{fact}} Kalayan mulasara nu bener, Maranéhna bisa nyingkahan parasit nu mangaruhan spesiés lauk tropis nu leuwih sénsitif, saperti inféksi ''[[Trichodina]], [[Epistylis]]'', sarta ''[[Ichthyophthirius multifiliis]]''.{{fact}} Dua kamelang nu pohara di antara paternak koi nyaéta [[koi herpes virus|''koi herpes virus'']] (KHV) jeung [[rhabdovirus|''rhabdovirus'']] carpio, nu ngabalukarkeun [[spring viraemia of carp|''spring viraemia of carp'']] (SVC).{{fact}} Euweuh tatamba nu alus pikeun panyakit.{{fact}} Sababaraha paternakan koi di [[Israél]] ngagunakeun vaksin KV3, dimekarkeun ku Prof. M. Kotler ti [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem|''Hebrew University of'' ''Jerusalem'']] sarta diproduksi ku Kovax, pikeun ngaimunisasi lauk ngalawan KHV.{{fact}} Kiwari [[Israél|Israel]] nyaé hiji-hijina negara di dunya nu ngavaksinasi koi ngalawan KHV.{{fact}} Vaksin kasebut disuntikkeun ka lauk mangsa umurna kurang ti sataun, sarta kudu ngagunakeun cahaya [[ultraviolet]].{{fact}} Vaksin ieu mibanda tingkat kaberhasilan 90% <ref>[http://www.kovax.co.il/products/kv3-vaccine-against-khv/ "KV3 Vaccine against KHV"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629202233/http://www.kovax.co.il/products/kv3-vaccine-against-khv/ |date=2017-06-29 }}. KoVax Ltd. – Specializes in Aqua culture vaccines development and Manufacturing.</ref>. Mun diimunisasi, lauk teu bisa nyerah ka pasangan KHV sarta koi nu teu diimunisasi bisa nyebarkeun KHV ka lauk séjén di balong.<ref>Reynolds, Paula (October 2011) [http://www.mitchkoi.co.uk/media/In-Focus-KHV.pdf ISRAELI KOI ...and the battle against KHV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323045303/http://www.mitchkoi.co.uk/media/In-Focus-KHV.pdf |date=2014-03-23 }}. mitchkoi.co.uk</ref> Ngan saukur pangukuran [[biosecurity|''biosecurity'']] nu gancang ngadetéksi, [[Isolation (health care)|''isolation'']], jeung [[disinfection|''disinfection'']] téngki jeung pakakas bisa nungkulan sumebarna panyakit sarta ngabatas nguranganna stok lauk.{{fact}} Dina taun 2002, usum semi ''viraemia'' nyerang paternakan koi di [[Kernersville, North Carolina|''Kernersville,'' ''Carolina Kalér'']]'','' sarta merlukeun depopulasi lengkep ti balong sarta periode karantina nu lila.{{fact}} Pikeun samentara mangsa éta, sababaraha paternak koi di ''neighboring'' eureun ngimpor lauk lantaran sieun lauk stokna keuna inféksi.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131004225841/http://www.sfbakc.org/Articles/SVC_Impact.htm Spring Viremia of Carp]. Impact Worksheet•17 July 2002</ref><ref>[http://koisale.com/inprogress2/ourkoi.php "Blackwater Creek Koi Farms"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321072753/http://www.koisale.com/inprogress2/ourkoi.php |date=2015-03-21 }}. ''koisale.com''.</ref> ==Ngabaranahkeun== [[File:Koi4.jpg|thumb|right|Koi di luar rohangan [[balong koi]]]] <big>Milih Bibit</big> Koi dipilih sabagé bibit mun bener-bener umurna geus cukup pikeun dipijahkeun. Umur koi nu siap pikeun dipijahkeun kurang leuwih dua taun. Idéalna koi bikang kudu geus ngendog di jero beuteung lilana 6 nepi ka 9 bulan. Sajaba ti éta bibit bikang kudu boga wangun awak nu alus, ku sabab bikang baris mibanda peran nu pangpentingna pikeun bentuk awak anak koi. Bibit bikang ogé idéalna mibanda ukuran badag, kira-kira 75&nbsp;cm. Bibit jalu kudu mibanda kualitas kulit jeung kelir nu alus. Ukuranana bibit jalu bisa leuwih leutik batan nu bikang. Rasio jalu jeung nu bikang nyaéta 1 jalu bikang 2-3. Jumlah endog koi kira-kira 100.000 per kilogram beurat awakna. Nalika Koi bikang mimiti asak endog di jero rongga beuteungna baris kaciri mimiti ngabareuhan sarta ngeusian sabudeureun beuteung, lamun dipencét lalaunan baris kaluar endogna. Dina bibit jalu lamun dipecét beuteungna baris kaluar cairan kelir bodas.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} <big>Prosés Mijahkeun</big> Koi baris ngendog nalika cai dina kondisi haneut, suhu 20C.{{fact}} Koi bikang baris nyimpen endog-endog maranéhanana dina jukut nu kakeueum dina balong atawa tuwuhan gulma saperti écéng gondok atwa substrat jieunan.{{fact}} Lamu euweuh gulma atawa jukut anu kakeueum dina balong, maka perelu tambahan média tambahan dina balong, substrat nu dijieun tina tali rapia atawa injuk.{{fact}} Tambahan média ieu baris ngajurung koi pikeun ngaluarkeun endona.{{fact}} Biasana mangsa nu alus pikeun nambah média ieu saminggu saacan koi endogan.{{fact}} Koi bikan baris nyiapkeun diri pikeun ngendog dina média sedengkeun koi jalu baris nuturkeun jeung nutupan koi bikang pikeun ngabuahan endog nu dikaluarkeun.{{fact}} Koi bikang kadang-kadang baris cicing sarta ngaberesihkeun sisi balong pikeun ngaberesihan kawasan di mana manéhna bisa nyimpen endogna.{{fact}} Salila mangsa mijah usahakeun suapaya situasi lingkungan tenang sarta hadéna mah tinggalkeun nalika lauk-lauk dina mangsa prosés mijahkeun.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} Ogé pastikeun euweuh objék nu bahaya sarta seukeut di balong kayaning pot kembang batu-batu supaya teu ngareheutkeun lauk koi dina mangsa mijah. {{fact}}Nyadiakeun pakakas kayaning cai muncrat jeung nyurug baris mantuan ngarangsang lauk koi ngaluarkeun endog.{{fact}} Lauk bikang baris ngojay ngaliwatan substrat pamijahan anu dituturkeun ku lauk jalu, anu bakal salawasna nuturkeun dina jarak nu pohara deukeut.{{fact}} Sanggeus sababaraha lilana, lauk bikang baris neundeun endog kana substrat sarta lauk jalu baris ngabuahan.{{fact}} Endog kudu dibuahan dina mangsa 20 detik ti mimiti disimpen dina média, jadi lauk jalu kudu deukeut pisan tur siap nalika endog dikaluarkeun.{{fact}} Sanggeus maranéhna nyimpen endog, bikangna baris ngagantung sirah ka handap, jeung lauk séjénna bakal kurang samangat.{{fact}} Koi kudu geuwat dikaluarkeun tina balong pamijahan sabab baris ngadahar endog anu dikaluarkeun.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} <big>Mangsa Inkubasi jeung Megar</big> Sanggeus prosés mijah geus bérés, induk dipisahkeun tina endog-endog, endog dina mangsa inkubasi pikeun nungguan megar.{{fact}} Endog-endog anu geus dibuahan bakal megar dina mangsa 4-5 poé.{{fact}} Buarayak koi sacara naluri bakal néangan panyalindungan sarta nyumput.{{fact}} Dina mangsa mimiti megar buarayak koi baris ngahakan tina cadangan dahareun nu ana dina endog terus urang bisa nyadiakeun endog kulub kokonéngna minangka bahan pangan mimiti.{{fact}} Di sagigireun éta bisa ogé béré jentik hurang atawa cacing sutra. Cacing sutra nyaéta kadaharan nu alus tur mibanda niléy nu luhur pikeun burayak koi.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} Sanggeus saminggu burayak koi bisa diparaban pélét wangun pasta atanapi bubuk tina ukuran pélét badag.{{fact}} Salian diparaban dahareun kalawan kaperluan gizi nu luhur dipigawé meresihan balong tina kokotor, buraya koi nu paéh sarta amonia ku cara ngaganti cai sabagéan kalayan rutin.{{fact}} Sanggeus 3 nepi ka 4 minggu burayak-burayak koi baris tumuwuh nepi ka panjangna kira-kira 5–10&nbsp;mm sarta mimiti merlukeun tempat nu leuwih lega.{{fact}} Biasana burayak koi dina umur sakieu baris dipelak dina balong leutak atawa bak nu ukuranana badag.{{fact}} Balong leutak nagrupakeun tempat nu hadé pikeun tumuwuhna burayak, ku sabab loba pisan dahareun alam dina leutak balong.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} <big>Misahkeun</big> Sanggeus diropéa di balong leutak, bak atanapi akurium salila kira-kira tilu minggu, burayak koi dimimitian prosés misahkeun sarta seléksi munggaran, burayak nu ukuranna gedé dipisahkeun jeung nu ukuranana leutik.{{fact}} Ieu maksudna supaya burayak nu ukuran leutik teu éléh saingan parebut dahareun. ku sabab kualitas koi alus sok aya anu tumuwuh gancang pisan.{{fact}} Koi ukuran jumbo biasana leuwih agrésif dina ngahakan dahareun.{{fact}} Kalayan ukuran burayak koi nu saimbang dina sabalong, tiap burayak diperkirakeun tumuwuh optimal.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} Sanggeus koi ukuranna badag tur gampang niténan kelir jeung polana, dimimitian rupa-rupa pinilih nyéta milihan kelir, wangun, sarta pola kelir. {{fact}}Burayak nu ukuranna tina 2 nepi ka 5&nbsp;cm dilakukeun seléksi kelir.{{fact}} Buraya koi nu diprédiksi boga kelir alus baris dipilih sedengkeun burayak nu kelirna kurang alus baris disortir.{{fact}} Hasil pinilih ieu ditumpurkeun minangka bahan parab lauk séjénna atawa tatanén atawa dipiara minangka lauk dahareun.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} Dina umur 45 poé burayak koi ngahontal ukuran tina 7–8&nbsp;cm dilakukeun seléksi pola kelir.{{fact}} Dina umur ieu pola kelir téh gampang pikeun nempo tur dipilih.{{fact}} Dina umur 70 poé ka 90 poé burayak koi geus ngahontal kira-kira 10&nbsp;cm, kelir jeung pola beuki jelas yén prosés milihan jadi leuwih gampang.{{fact}} Dina mangsa ieu koi bisa digolongkeun kana kategori kelas A, kelas B jeung saterusna.{{fact}} Burayak koi kalawan kualitas poténsi pikeun jadi super diparaban husus nu kualitasna luhur dikombinasikeun jeung parab pikeun ngaronjatkeun kelir.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} Tina rébuan burayak nu megar ti endog koi nu alus ngan ukur sababaraha puluh baé anu baris boga poténsi pikeun jadi kelas super, nepi ka harga kualitas koi super mahal pisan.[http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529004936/http://centralkoi.com/koi-care/memijahkan-dan-melakukan-seleksi-koi.html |date=2017-05-29 }} ==Di alam liar== [[File:Koi Feeding in Mt Qingxiu Nanning Close.JPG|right|thumb|Rupa-rupa kelir koi keur diparaban di balong di pagunungan Qingxiu, [[Nanning, China]]]] Koi teu dihaja atawa dihaja leupas ka alam liar di satiap banua kacuali [[Antarctica|Antartika]].{{fact}} Maranéhna baris gancang balik deui kana kelr alami [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] dina sababaraha generasi.{{fact}} Di sababaraha daérahah, maranéhna dianggap sabagé ''[[invasive species]]'' sarta [[Pest (organism)|''pests'']]. Di nagara bagén Queensland di Australia, maranéhanna dianggap lauk nu bahaya.<ref>[http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/fisheries/pest-fish/noxious-fish/carp "Carp"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328082433/https://www.daff.qld.gov.au/fisheries/pest-fish/noxious-fish/carp |date=2015-03-28 }}. ''daff.qld.gov.au''.</ref> Koi pohara ngingetkeun [[turbidity|''turbidity'']] cai sabab maranéhna tuluy ngaduk-ngaduk ''substrat''.{{fact}} Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun saluran saluran cai teu ngalir, ngurangan tutuwuhan cai, sarta bisa ngabalukarkeun cai teu cocog pikeun ngojay atawa nginum.{{fact}} Di sababaraha nagara, koi geus ngabalukarkeun jadi loba ruksakna jalan cai nu ngaluarkeun dui badag sarta usaha geus dicobaan pikeun ngabasmi maranéhna, sabagéan gedé teu hasil.<ref>[http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.asp?speciesID=4 "Common Carp (''Cyprinus carpio'') – FactSheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090510183452/http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?speciesID=4 |date=2009-05-10 }}. ''usgs.gov''.</ref> ==Référénsi== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Bacaeun salajengna== * {{Cite book | author = George C. Blasiola | title = Koi: everything about selection, care, nutrition, diseases, breeding, pond design and maintenance, and popular aquatic plants | location= [[Hauppauge, New York]] | publisher=[[Barron's Educational Series]] | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-8120-3568-2}} * {{Cite book | author = David Twigg | title = How to Keep Koi | url = https://archive.org/details/howtokeepkoiesse0000twig | location= New York | publisher=[[Howell Book House]] | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-7645-6242-8}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category}} ==Tumbu kaluar== * [http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/100 Feature article on treating sick fish, especially koi, "Surgery to Scale," ''Cosmos Magazine''] * [https://www.niwa.co.nz/our-science/freshwater/tools/fishatlas/species/koi_carp Koi in the NIWA Atlas] {{authority control}} [[Kategori:Lauk Hias]] [[Kategori:Fish of Japan]] [[Kategori:Articles containing video clips]] [[Kategori:Cyprinidae]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Sabanda II]] [[Kategori:Lauk darat]] ixz66d5m98k3yvd76o5v7oo780c90ca 0 53356 711519 708618 2026-08-06T22:10:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711519 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox cat breed <!-- Put article text AFTER this infobox markup. See: --> <!-- Wikipedia:WikiProject Cats/Templates for more info. --> |name= Ucing Pérsia |image= Shaded silver Persian Cat Missionhill Cosmic Rainstorm.jpg |imagecaption= |altname= Bulu Panjang,<br />Pérsia Bulu Panjang ,<br />Shiraz, Shirazi |nickname= |country= [[Iran|Iran (Pérsia)]] <!-- international registries: --> |cfastd = http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |fifestd = http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |ticastd= http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |wcfstd = http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf <!-- regional multi-national registries: --> |ffestd = http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm <!-- national registries: --> |acfstd = http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |acfastd = http://www.acfacat.com/Breed%20Standards/PERSIAN.pdf |cccastd = |ccastd = http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |cffstd = |gccfstd = http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |loofstd = http://m.loof.asso.fr/standards/standard_en_41.php?z=1 |nzcfstd= |saccstd= <!-- any registry not listed above: --> |otherstd = |note=Ucing[[Éksotik bulu panjang]] jeung [[Ucing Himalaya]] mindeng digolongkeun kana jenis varian ieu. }} '''Ucing Pérsia''' ([[Persian language|Pérsia]]: گربه ایرانی ''Gorbe Irâni'') nyaéta [[ucing]] piaraan cirina bulu panjang, beungeut buleud sarta irung pondok. Sakapeung disebut '''Longhair''' atawa '''Pérsia Longhair'''. Ogé katelah ucing '''[[Shiraz]]i''' atawa '''Ucing Iran''', utamana di [[Timur Tengah]]. Karuhun ucing pérsia nu mimiti didokumétasikeun diimpor ti [[Iran]] (Pérsia) sakitar taun 1620 ka Éropa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.breedguide.net/tag/persian-cat/|title=persian cat Archives - Breed Guide|work=Breed Guide}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808050721/http://www.breedguide.net/tag/persian-cat/ |date=2014-08-08 }}</ref> Dipikawanoh minangka ucing inguan nu éndah saprak ahir abad ka-19, mimiti dimekarkeun ku Inggris, terus utamana ku paternak Amérika sanggeus [[Perang Dunya Kadua]]. Sababaraha organisasi ucing méwah ieu ngagolongkeun [[Ucing Himalaya]] jeung [[Éksotik Bulu pondok]] minangka varian ti turunan ieu, sedengkeun nu lianna nganggap maranéhna minangka katurunan nu misah. The [[selective breeding]] carried out by breeders has allowed the development of a wide variety of coat colors, but has also led to the création of incréasingly [[Cephalic index in cats and dogs|flat-faced]] Persians. Favored by fanciers, this héad structure can bring with it a number of héalth problems. As is the case with the [[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]] breed, there have been efforts by some breeders to preserve the older type of cat, the ''traditional breed'', having a more pronounced muzzle, which is more popular with the general public. Hereditary [[polycystic kidney disease]] is prevalent in the breed, affecting almost half the population in some countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://icatcare.org/advice/polycystic-kidney-disease|title=Polycystic kidney disease {{!}} International Cat Care|website=icatcare.org|access-date=2016-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vet.cornell.edu/fhc/Health_Information/PolycysticKidneyDisease.cfm|title=Polycystic Kidney Disease|website=www.vet.cornell.edu|access-date=2016-07-08}}</ref> In 2015 it was ranked as the 2nd most popular breed in the United States according to the [[Cat Fanciers' Association]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cfa.org/AboutCFA/News/PressReleases/PressRelease20160201Top10Breeds.aspx|title=Press Release February 1, 2016 - Top 10 Breeds for 2015|website=cfa.org|access-date=2016-07-08}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430031445/http://cfa.org/AboutCFA/News/PressReleases/PressRelease20160201Top10Breeds.aspx |date=2017-04-30 }}</ref> The first is the [[Exotic Shorthair|Exotic]] breed. ==Asal== It is not cléar when longhaired cats first appéared, as there are no known long-haired specimens of the [[African wildcat]], the ancestor of the domestic subspecies. [[File:Persian aka Angora from 1894.JPG|thumb|left|An Angora/Persian from ''The Royal Natural History'' (1894).]] The first documented ancestors of the Persian were imported from [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], Persia (now Iran), into Italy in 1620 by [[Pietro della Valle]], and from Angora (now [[Ankara]]), [[Turkey]], into France by [[Nicholas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] at around the same time. The Khorasan cats were grey coated while those from Angora were white. From France, they soon réached Britain.<ref name="messybeastLHC">{{cite web | url=http://www.messybeast.com/longhair-cats.htm | title=Longhaired Cats | publisher=Sarah Hartwell | work=Messybeast Cats | date=2013 | accessdate=July 9, 2015 | last=Hartwell | first=Sarah}}</ref>{{self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2015|reason=This is Sarah Hartwell's personal cat blog, "not affiliated to any registry, breed society, veterinary association or welfare society", not professionally edited, and citing no sources.}} Recent genetic reséarch indicates that present day Persians are related not to cats from the [[Near East]] but to cats from Western Europe. The reséarchers stated, "Even though the early Persian cat may have in fact originated from ancient Persia, the modern Persian cat has lost its [[Phylogeography|phylogeographical]] signature."<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Monika J.|last1=Lipinski |first2=Lutz|last2=Froenicke |first3=Kathleen C.|last3=Baysac |first4=Nicholas C.|last4=Billings |first5=Christian M.|last5=Leutenegger |first6=Alon M.|last6=Levy |first7=Maria|last7=Longeri |first8=Tirri|last8=Niini |first9=Haydar|last9=Ozpinar |first10=Margaret R.|last10=Slater |first11=Niels C.|last11=Pedersen |first12=Leslie A.|last12=Lyons |title=The Ascent of Cat Breeds: Genetic Evaluations of Breeds and Worldwide Random Bred Populations |journal=Genomics |date=January 2008 |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.10.009 |pmc=2267438 |pmid=18060738}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Pamekaran== ===Pérsia jeung Angora=== {{over-quotation|lengthy=y|section|date=December 2011}} {{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Blue Persian "Gentian".jpg|image2=Fulmer Zaida - Silver Persian.JPG|width=220|caption2=Top: blue Persian. Prize-winner at Westminster in 1899. <br />Bottom: silver Persian. Winner of multiple leading cat shows in 1902.}} The first Persian cat was presented at the first organized [[cat show]], in 1871 in [[the Crystal Palace]] in London, England, organized by [[Harrison Weir]]. As specimens closer to the later established Persian conformation became the more popular types, attempts were made to differentiate it from the Angora.<ref name="Helgren">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Persian Cats |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url=http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=persian.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119191145/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=persian.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> The first breed standard (then called a ''points of excellence'' list) was issued in 1889 by cat show promoter Weir. He stated that the Persian differed from the Angora in the tail being longer, hair more full and coarse at the end and héad larger, with less pointed éars.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weir|first=Harrison |title=Our Cats and All About Them |date=1889 |location=Tunbridge Wells, UK |publisher=R. Clements & Co. |lccn=2002554760 |ol=3664970M |url= https://archive.org/details/ourcatsallaboutt00weir |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> Not all cat fanciers agreed with the distinction of the two types, and in the 1903 work ''The Book of the Cat'', Francis Simpson states that "the distinctions, apparently with hardly any difference, between Angoras and Persians are of so fine a nature that I must be pardoned if I ignore the class of cat commonly called Angora".<ref>{{cite book |last=Simpson|first=Frances. |title=The Book of the Cat |date=1903 |page=98 |location=London/New York |publisher=Cassell and Company |lccn=03024964 |ol=7205700M |url= https://archive.org/details/bookofcatsimpson00simprich |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> Dorothy Bevill Champion lays out the difference between the two types in the 1909 ''Everybody's Cat Book'':<ref name="champion">{{cite book |last=Champion |first=Dorothy Bevill |year=1909 |title=Everybody's Cat Book |page=17 |publisher=Lent & Graff |location=New York |lccn=10002159 |oclc=8291178 |ol=7015748M |url= https://archive.org/details/everybodyscatboo00cham |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> <blockquote> Our pedigree imported long-hairs of to-day are undoubtedly a cross of the Angora and Persian ; the latter possesses a rounder head than the former, also the coat is of quite a different quality. </blockquote> Bell goes on to detail the differences. Persian coats consists of a woolly under coat and a long, hairy outer coat.The coat loses all the thick underwool in the summer, and only the long hair remains. Hair on the shoulders and upper part of the hind legs is somewhat shorter. Conversely, the Angora has a very different coat which consists of long, soft hair, hanging in locks, "inclining to a slight curl or wave on the under parts of the body." The Angora's hair is much longer on the shoulders and hind legs than the Persian, which Bell considered a gréat improvement. However, Bell says the Angora "fails to the Persian in head," Angoras having a more wedge-shaped héad and Persians having a more appéaling round héad. Bell notes that Angoras and Persians have been crossbred, resulting in a decided improvement to éach breed, but claimed the long-haired cat of 1909 had significantly more Persian influence than Angora. Champion lamented the lack of distinction among various long-haired types by English fanciers, who in 1887, decided to group them under the umbrella term "Long-haired Cats".<ref name="champion"/><ref name="Helgren2">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne |title=Cat Breed Detail: Turkish Angora |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url= http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=turkango.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100509130400/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=turkango.html |archivedate=May 9, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}} {{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref><!-- This ref is only for the date. --> ===Pérsia Tradisional=== [[File:SnowyandHazy.jpg|thumb|Traditional Persian.]] {{Main article|Traditional Persian cat}} The '''traditional Persian''', or '''doll-face Persian''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://buyfuffy.com|title=Cats and Kittens: Maine coon Kittens|accessdate=March 17, 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313210531/http://buyfuffy.com/ |date=March 13, 2016 }}</ref> are somewhat recent names for what is essentially the original breed of Persian cat, without the development of extreme féatures. As many breeders in the [[United States]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], and other parts of the world started to interpret the Persian standard differently, they developed the flat-nosed "peke-face" or "ultra" type {{crossref|selfref=no|(see next section)}} over time, as the result of two genetic mutations, without changing the name of the breed from "Persian". Some organizations, including the [[Cat Fanciers' Association]] (CFA), today consider the peke-face type as their modérn standard for the Persian breed. Thus the [[retronym]] Traditional Persian was créated to refer to the original type, which is still bred today, mirroring the renaming of the original-style [[Siamese cat]] as the Traditional Siamese, to distinguish it from long-faced modérn development which has taken over as simply "the Siamese". Not all cat fancier groups recognize the Traditional Persian (at all, or as distinct), or give it that specific name. [[The International Cat Association|TICA]] has a very general standard, that does not specify a flattened face.<ref name="TICA std">{{cite web |title=Persian Breed Group |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=TICA.org |date=May 1, 2004 |location=Harlingen, Texas |publisher=[[The International Cat Association]] |url=http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802122540/http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |date=August 2, 2010 }}</ref> ===Peke-face and ultra-typing=== In the late 1950s a spontanéous mutation in red and red tabby Persians gave rise to the "peke-faced" Persian, named after the flat-faced [[Pekingese]] dog. It was régistered as a distinct breed in the CFA, but fell out of favor by the mid-1990s due to serious héalth issues; only 98 were régistered between 1958 and 1995. Despite this, breeders took a liking to the look and started breeding towards the peke-face look. The over-accentuation of the breed's characteristics by selective breeding (called ''extreme-'' or ''ultra-typing'') produced results similar to the peke-faced Persians. The term peke-face has been used to refer to the ultra-typed Persian but it is properly used only to refer to red and red tabby Persians béaring the mutation. Many fanciers and CFA judges considered the shift in look "a contribution to the breed."<ref name="messybeastLHC" /><ref name="CFA Saunders">{{cite web |first=Lorraine |last=Saunders |title=Solid Color Persians Are...Solid As a Rock? |work=Cat Fanciers' Almanac |date=November 2002 |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |url=http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041221/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |archivedate=December 1, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041221/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |date=December 1, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="CFA Brocato">{{cite web |first1=Judy |last1=Brocato |first2=Greg |last2=Brocato |title=Stargazing: A Historical View of Solid Color Persians |work=Cat Fanciers' Almanac |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |date=March 1995 |url=http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201043934/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |archivedate=December 1, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201043934/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |date=December 1, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="ultracat">{{cite web |last=Hartwell |first=Sarah |title=Novelty Breeds and Ultra-Cats – A Breed Too Far? |work=Messybeast Cats |url= http://www.messybeast.com/ultracat.htm |date=2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{self-published inline|certain=y|reason=See previous note about this source.|date=July 2015}}</ref> {{double image|left|Persian profile view moderate type.jpg|140|Cat Show - Ft. Lauderdale - October 2008.jpg|120|A Persian with a visible muzzle in contrast with a Persian with its forehead, nose and chin in vertical alignment, as called for by CFA's 2007 breed standard. The shorter the muzzle, the higher the nose tends to be. UK standards penalize Persians whose nose leather extends above the bottom edge of the eye.}} In 1958, breeder and author P. M. Soderberg wrote in ''Pedigree Cats, Their Varieties, breeding and Exhibition''<ref name="ultracat" /><!--This quotation appears to be cited to an intermediary source; should be verified.--> <blockquote style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;"><!--Have to compensate with padding, because blockquote's default indentation effect does not work when surrounded by images.--> "Perhaps in recent times there has been a tendency to over-accentuate this type of short face, with the result that a few of the cats seen at shows have faces which present a peke-like appearance. This is a type of face which is definitely recognized in the United States, and helps to form a special group within the show classification for the [Persian] breed. There are certainly disadvantages when the face has become too short, for this exaggeration of type is inclined to produce a deformity of the tear ducts, and running eyes may be the result. A cat with running eyes will never look at its best because in time the fur on each side of the nose becomes stained, and thus detracts from the general appearance [...] The nose should be short, but perhaps a plea may be made here that the nose is better if it is not too short and at the same time uptilted. A nose of this type creates an impression of grotesqueness which is not really attractive, and there is always a danger of running eyes." </blockquote> [[File:Stephanie 2.jpg|thumb|right|A smoke Persian with moderate features.]] While the looks of the Persian changed, the Persian Breed Council's standard for the Persian had remained basically the same. The Persian breed standard is, by its nature, somewhat open-ended and focused on a rounded héad, large, wide-spaced round eyes with the top of the nose léather placed no lower than the bottom of the eyes.{{clarify|date=December 2011|reason=Again, this article appears to contradict itself; the breed standard cannot call for the nose to be both above and below the eye at the same time. If necessary, create a section on conflicting breed standards and source their differences.}} The standard calls for a short, cobby body with short, well-boned legs, a broad chest, and a round appéarance, everything about the idéal Persian cat being "round". It was not until the late 1980s that standards were changed to limit the development of the extreme appéarance.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} In 2004, the statement that muzzles should not be overly pronounced was added to the breed standard.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianbc.org/bcpoll_2003.php|title=2003 Breed Council Ballot Proposals and Results|year=2004|publisher=CFA Persian Breed Council|accessdate=October 17, 2009}}</ref> The standards were altered yet again in 2007, this time to reflect the flat face, and it now states that the forehéad, nose, and chin should be in vertical alignment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianbc.org/bcpoll_2006.php|title=2006 Breed Council Ballot Proposals and Results|year=2007|publisher=CFA Persian Breed Council|accessdate=October 17, 2009}}</ref> In the UK, the standard was changed by the [[Governing Council of the Cat Fancy]] (GCCF) in the 1990s to disqualify Persians with the "upper edge of the nose leather above the lower edge of the eye" from Certificates or First Prizes in Kitten Open Classes.<ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-bicolor.html Bi-Color and Calico Persians: Past, Present and Future] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827102947/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-bicolor.html |date=2009-08-27 }} Cat Fanciers' Almanac. May 1998</ref><ref name="GCCF std" /> While ultra-typed cats do better in the show ring, the public seems to prefer the less extreme, older "doll-face" types.<ref name="messybeastLHC"/> ==Varian== ===Himalaya=== {{Main article|Himalayan cat}} [[File:Chocolate Himlayan.jpg|thumb|right|The Himalayan or Colorpoint Longhair was created by crossing the Persian with the Siamese. This crossing also introduced the chocolate and lilac colors into solid colored Persians.]] In 1950, the [[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]] was crossed with the Persian to créate a breed with the body type of the Persian but colorpoint pattern of the Siamese. It was named [[Himalayan (cat)|Himalayan]], after other colorpoint animals such as the [[List of rabbit breeds#Himalayan|Himalayan rabbit]]. In the UK, the breed was recognized as the Colorpoint Longhair. The Himalayan stood as a separate breed in the US until 1984, when the CFA merged it with the Persian, to the objection of the breed councils of both breeds. Some Persian breeders were unhappy with the introduction of this [[crossbreed]] into their "pure" Persian lines.<ref name="Helgren3">{{Cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Himalayan |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url= http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=himalaya.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119190910/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=himalaya.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}} {{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-himalayan.html Himalayan-Persian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913063731/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-himalayan.html |date=2009-09-13 }} Cat Fanciers' Almanac May 1999</ref> The CFA set up the registration for Himalayans in a way that breeders would be able to discern a Persian with Himalayan ancestry just by looking at the pedigree registration number. This was to maké it éasy for breeders who do not want Himalayan blood in their breeding lines to avoid individuals who, while not necessarily exhibiting the colorpoint pattern, may be carrying the point coloration gene recessively. Persians with Himalayan ancestry has registration numbers starting with 3 and are commonly referred to by breeders as colorpoint carriers (CPC) or 3000-series cats, although not all will actually carry the recessive gene. The Siamese is also the source for the chocolate and lilac color in solid Persians.<ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian-solid.html Breed Profile: Persian – Solid Color Division] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917091248/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian-solid.html |date=2009-09-17 }} Cat Fanciers' Association</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfainc.org/org/minutes/Jun04.pdf|format=PDF|title=CFA ANNUAL AND EXECUTIVE BOARD MEETINGS JUNE 23–27, 2004|website=cfainc.org}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613043435/http://cfainc.org/org/minutes/Jun04.pdf |date=2010-06-13 }}</ref><!-- first ref for info on chocolate and lilac color, second for the 3000 series stuff. --> ===Éksotik Bulu Pondok=== {{Main article|Exotic Shorthair}} [[File:Brown Exotic Shorthair Kitten.jpg|thumb|right|The Exotic Shorthair is similar to the Persian in temperament and type, with the exception of its short, dense coat.]] The Persian was used as an outcross secretly by some [[American Shorthair]] (ASH) breeders in the late 1950s to "improve" their breed. The [[crossbreed]] look gained recognition in the show ring but other breeders unhappy with the changes successfully pushed for new breed standards that would disqualify ASH that showed signs of crossbreeding. One ASH breeder who saw the potential of the Persian/ASH cross proposed and eventually managed to get the CFA to recognize them as a new breed in 1966, under the name [[Exotic Shorthair]]. Regular outcrossing to the Persian has made present day Exotic Shorthair similar to the Persian in every way, including temperament and conformation, with the exception of the short dense coat. It has even inherited much of the Persian's héalth problems. The éasier to manage coat has made some label the Exotic Shorthair the lazy person's Persian. Because of the regular use of Persians as outcrosses, some Exotics may carry a copy of the recessive longhair gene. When two such cats mate, there is a one in four chance of éach offspring being longhaired. Ironically, longhaired Exotics are not considered Persians by CFA, although [[The International Cat Association]] accepts them as Persians. Other associations régister them as a separate Exotic Longhair breed.<ref name="Helgren4">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Exotic Shorthair |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url=http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=exotshor.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119193040/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=exotshor.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref> ===Ukuran Kaulinan Jeung Kontés=== <ref name="ultracat"/> A number of breeders produce small-statured Persians under a variety of names. The generic terms are "toy" and "teacup" Persians (terms borrowed from the [[dog fancy]]), but the individual lines are often called "palm-sized", "pocket", "mini" and "pixie". Currently, they are not recognized as a separate breed by major registries and éach breeder sets their own standards for size.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hartwell|first=Sarah |title=Dwarf, Midget and Miniature Cats – Purebreds (Including 'Teacup Cats') |date=2013 |work=Messybeast Cats |url= http://www.messybeast.com/dwarfcats-purebred.htm |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{self-published inline|certain=y|reason=See previous note about this source.|date=July 2015}}</ref> ===Chinchilla bulu jabrig jeung Sterling=== [[File:Doll face silver Persian.jpg|thumb|left|A doll-face silver Persian.]] In the US, there was an attempt to establish the silver Persian as a separate breed called the Sterling, but it was not accepted. Silver and golden Persians are recognized, as such, by CFA. In [[South Africa]], the attempt to separate the breed was more successful; the [[Southern Africa Cat Council]] (SACC) régisters cats with five generations of purebred Chinchilla as a Chinchilla Longhair. The Chinchilla Longhair has a slightly longer nose than the Persian, resulting in héalthy bréathing and less eye téaring. Its hair is translucent with only the tips carrying black pigment, a féature that gets lost when out-crossed to other colored Persians. Out-crossing also may result in losing nose and lip liner, which is a fault in the Chinchilla Longhair breed standard. One of the distinctions of this breed is the blue-green or green eye color only with kittens having blue or blue-purple eye color.<ref>[http://www.chinchillafactssite.com/chinchillas-as-pets/persian-longhair-cat/#appearance Difference Between Chinchilla Rodent and Chinchilla Cat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703115557/http://www.chinchillafactssite.com/chinchillas-as-pets/persian-longhair-cat/#appearance |date=2017-07-03 }} Chinchillafactssite.com</ref> {{clear}} ==Popularitas== [[File:GCCF breed registration data - Top 5 breeds of 2008.jpg|thumb|right|The popularity of the Persian (blue line) in the UK has declined for the past two decades.]] The Persian is the most popular breed of pedigree cats in the United States.<ref name="CFAdata2008">[http://www.cfainc.org/press/2008-breed-popularity.pdf 2008 Top Pedigreed Breeds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401080256/http://www.cfainc.org/press/2008-breed-popularity.pdf |date=2010-04-01 }} CFA. March 2009.</ref> In the UK, registration numbers have dwindled since the éarly 1990s and the Persian lost its top spot to the [[British Shorthair]] in 2001. As of 2012, it was the 6th most popular breed, behind the British Shorthair, Ragdoll, Siamese, Maine Coon and Burmese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gccfcats.org/pdf/breedanalysis/2012breeds_ranking.pdf|title=Analysis of Breeds Registered|year=2013|publisher=Governing Council of the Cat Fancy|accessdate=December 30, 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233852/http://www.gccfcats.org/pdf/breedanalysis/2012breeds_ranking.pdf |date=December 30, 2013 }}</ref> In France, the Persian is the only breed whose registration declined between 2003 and 2007, dropping by more than a quarter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wikiwix.com/cache/?url=http://www.aniwa.com/fr/chat/document/fr/chat/magazine/tendances/statistiques-race-chat-loof-fff/index.htm|title=Palmarés du chat de race en France: Les données 2008 du LOOF|last=Javerzac|first=Anne-marie|year=2008|publisher=ANIWA|language=French}}</ref> The most color popular varieties according to CFA registration data are séal point, blue point, flame point and tortie point Himalayan, followed by black-white, shadéd silvers and calico.<ref name="CFAdata2008"/> {{clear}} ==Klasifikasi Registrasi== [[File:Chocolate Persian.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Cat show#Description of CFA cat shows and titles|Grand Champion]] chocolate Persian.]] The [[breed standard]]s of various cat fancier organizations may tréat the Himalayan and Exotic Shorthair (or simply Exotic) as variants of the Persian, or as separate breeds. The Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) tréats the Himalayan as a color-pattern class of both the Persian and the Exotic, which have separate but néarly identical standards (differing in coat length).<ref name="CFA std" /> The [[Fédération Internationale Féline]] (FIFe) entirely subsumes what other registries call the Himalayan as simply among the allowed coloration patterns for the Persian and the Exotic, tréated as separate breeds.<ref name="FIFe std">{{cite web |title=Category I: Exotic/Persian |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=January 1, 2015 |format=PDF |work=FIFeweb.org |publisher=[[Fédération Internationale Féline]] |location=Jevišovkou, Czech Republic |url=http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121044945/http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |date=January 21, 2016 }}</ref> The International Cat Association (TICA) tréats them both as variants of the Persian.<ref name="TICA std" /> The [[World Cat Federation]] (WCF) tréats the Persian and Exotic Shorthair as separate breeds, and subsumes the Himalayan coloration as colorpoint varieties under éach.<ref name="WFC std">{{cite web |title=Breed Standards: Persian&ndash;Colourpoint |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2010 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=WCF-Online.de |publisher=World Cat Federation |location=Essen, Germany |url=http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129100702/http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf |date=November 29, 2020 }}</ref> Among regional and national organizations, [[Feline Federation Europe]] tréats all three as separate breeds.<ref name="FFE std">{{cite web |title=British Shorthair and Highlander |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line--> |date=September 25, 2004 |work=Bavarian-CFA.de |publisher=Feline Federation Europe |url=http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711050216/http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm |date=July 11, 2015 }} Note: Due to poor coding at this site, this link goes directly to the standard's content. To see it loaded in the site's navigation frame, go to http://www.ffe.europe.de{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, and manually navigate to the breed's entry under the "Races Standard" menu item.</ref> The [[American Cat Fanciers Association]] (ACFA) has the three as separate breeds (also with a Non-pointed Himalayan that is similar to the Persian).<ref name="ACFA std">{{cite web |title=Persian |format=PDF |date=May 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=ACFACat.com |publisher=American Cat Fanciers' Association |location=Nixa, Missouri |url= http://www.acfacat.com/Breed%20Standards/PERSIAN.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> The [[Australian Cat Federation]] (AFC) follows the FIFe practice.<ref name="ACF std">{{cite web |title=ACF Standards: Persian [PER] |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=Australian Cat Federation |location=Canning Vale, Western Au. |url=http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301054912/http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |date=March 1, 2015 }}</ref> The [[Canadian Cat Federation]] (CCA-AFC) tréats the three separately, and even has an Exotic Longhair subbreed of the Exotic, and Non-pointed Himalayan subbreed of Himalayan, which differ from the Persian only in having some mixed ancestry.<ref name="CCA-AFC std">{{cite web |title=Persian |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=August 6, 2005 |work=CCA-AFC.com |publisher=Canadian Cat Federation |url=http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |location=Mississauga, Ontario |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030090206/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |date=October 30, 2012 }} Also referred to corresponding [http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/exotic%202010.pdf Exotic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916192949/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/exotic%202010.pdf |date=2012-09-16 }} and [http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/himalayan.pdf Himalayan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030090200/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/himalayan.pdf |date=2012-10-30 }} standards.</ref> The (UK) [[Governing Council of the Cat Fancy]] (GCCF) does likewise.<ref name="GCCF std">{{cite web |title=Persian Section |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=2015 |work=GCCFCats.org |publisher=Governing Council of the Cat Fancy |location= |url=http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924021037/http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |date=September 24, 2015 }}</ref> tréats the Persian and Exotic Shorthair as separate breeds covered by a single standard with a coat length distinction, and has the pattern of the Himalayan as simply a division within that standard.<ref name="LOOF std">{{cite web |title=Breed's Standard: Persian & Exotic Shorthair |date=2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=LOOF.asso.fr |publisher=Livre Officiel des Origines Félines |location=Pantin, France |url= http://m.loof.asso.fr/standards/standard_en_41.php?z=1 |accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> ==Ciri== A show-quality Persian has an extremely long and thick coat, short legs, a wide héad with the éars set far apart, large eyes, and an extremely shortened muzzle. The breed was originally established with a short muzzle, but over time, this characteristic has become extremely exaggerated, particularly in North America. Persian cats can have virtually any color or markings. The Persian is generally described as a quiet cat. Typically placid in nature, it adapts quite well to apartment life. Himalayans tend to be more active due to the influence of Siamese traits. In a study comparing cat owner perceptions of their cats, Persians rated higher than non-pedigree cats on closeness and affection to owners, friendliness towards strangers, cléanliness, predictability, vocalization, and fussiness over food.<ref>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=D. C. |year=2000 |chapter=Human-cat interactions: relationships with, and breed differences between, non-pedigree, Persian and Siamese cats |editor1-last=Podberscek |editor1-first=A. L. |editor2-last=Paul |editor2-first=E. S. |editor3-last=Serpell |editor3-first=J. A. |title=Companion Animals & Us: Exploring the Relationships Between People & Pets |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |pages=257–271 |isbn=0-521-63113-0 }}</ref> ===Kelir=== <!--Do not capitalize coloration terms; those are not breed names, and this is not Capitalipedia.--> The permissible colors in the breed, in most organizations' breed standards, encompass the entire range of [[Cat coat genetics|cat coat-pattern variations]]. [[The International Cat Association]] (TICA) groups the breed into three coat-pattern divisions for judging at [[cat show]]s: traditional (with stable, rich colors), sepia ("paler and warmer than the traditional equivalents", and darkening a bit with age), and mink (much lighter than sepia, and developing noticéably with age on the face and extremities). If classified as the Himalayan sub-breed, full [[point coloration]] is required, the fourth TICA color division, with a "pale and creamy colored" body even lighter than mink, with intense coloration on the face an extremities. The four TICA categories are essentially a graduated scale of color distribution from evenly colored to mostly colored only at the points. Within éach, the coloration may be further classified as solid, [[Tortoiseshell cat|tortoiseshell]] (or "tortie"), [[Tabby cat|tabby]], silver or smoke, solid-and-white, tortoiseshell-and-white, tabby-and-white, or silver/smoke-and-white, with various specific colors and modifiers (e.g. chocolate tortoishell point, or fawn shadéd mink marbled tabby-torbie). TICA-recognized tabby patterns include classic, mackerel, marbled, spotted, and ticked (in two genetic forms), while other patterns include shadéd, chinchilla, and two tabbie-tortie variations, golden, and grizzled. Basic colors include white, black, brown, ruddy, bronze, "blue" (grey), chocolate, cinnamon, lilac, fawn, red, créam, with a silver or shadéd variant of most. Not counting bi-color (piebald) or parti-color coats, nor combinations that are genetically impossible, there are néarly 1,000 named coat pattern variations in the TICA system for which the Persian/Himalayan qualifies. The Exotic Shorthair sub-breed qualifies for every cat coat variation TICA recognizes.<ref name="TICA std" /> <!-- FIFe here --> <!-- Australian Cat Federation here.-->[[File:Grand Champion Topknot James Bond of Lions & Owls.jpg|thumb|Grand Champion Topknot James Bond of Lions & Owls. A solid black, 1 year old Persian cat with brilliant copper eyes. This cat is in kitten coat and the color of the coat will darken as the kitten coat is shed and the adult coat grows in. Note the immense ruff, small round ears, heavy-boned, cobby body, and nose that is short, snub, and broad, with “break” centered between the eyes.]] The [[Cat Fanciers' Association]] (CFA), of the United States, also groups the breed into four coat-pattern divisions, but differently: solid, silver and golden (including chinchilla and shadéd variants, and blued subvariants), shadéd and smoke (with several variations of éach, and a third subcategorization called shell), tabby (only classic, mackerel, and patched [spotted], in various colors), parti-color (in four classes, tortoiseshell, blue-créam, chocolaet tortie, and lilac-créam, mixed with other colors), [[Calico cat|calico]] and bi-color (in around 40 variations, broadly classified as calico, dilute calico, and bi-color), and Himalayan (white-to-fawn body with [[point coloration]] on the héad, tail and limbs, in various tints). CFA base colors are white, black, blue, red, créam, chocolate, and lilac. There are around 140 named CFA coat patterns for which the Himalayan qualifies, and 20 for the Himalayan subbreed.<ref name="CFA std">{{cite web |title=Persian Show Standard |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=CFAInc.com |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |location=Alliance, Ohio |date=2015 |format=PDF |url=http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710164617/http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |date=July 10, 2015 }}</ref> These coat patterns encompass virtually all of those recognized by CFA for cats generally. Any Persian permissible in TICA's more detailed system would probably be accepted in CFA's, simply with a more general name, though the organizations do not mix breed registries. Eye colors range widely, and may include blue, copper, [[Odd-eyed cat|odd-eyed]] blue and copper, green, blue-green, and hazel. Various TICA and CFA coat categorizations come with specific eye-color requirements.<ref name="TICA std" /><ref name="CFA std" /> <ref name="TICA UCD">{{cite web |title=Uniform Color Descriptions and Glossary of Terms |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2015 |publisher=The International Cat Association |url=http://www.tica.org/members/publications/ucd.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610171542/http://www.tica.org/members/publications/ucd.pdf |date=June 10, 2015 }}</ref> ==Kaséhatan== Pet insurance data from Sweden puts the median lifespan of cats from the Persian group (Persians, Chinchilla, Himalayan and Exotic) at just above 12.5 yéars. 76% of this group lived to 10 yéars or more and 52% lived to 12.5 yéars or more.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal | last1 = Egenvall | first1 = A. | last2 = Nødtvedt | first2 = A. | last3 = Häggström | first3 = J. | last4 = Ström Holst | first4 = B. | last5 = Möller | first5 = L. | last6 = Bonnett | first6 = B. N. | title = Mortality of Life-Insured Swedish Cats during 1999—2006: Age, Breed, Sex, and Diagnosis | journal = Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | pages = 1175–1183 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19780926 | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0396.x}}</ref> Veterinary clinic data from England shows an average lifespan of 12–17 yéars, with a median of 14.1.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1177/1098612X14536176 | pmid=24925771 | title=Longevity and mortality of cats attending primary care veterinary practices in England | journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery | volume=17 | issue=2 | pages=125–33 | date=2014 | first=D. G. | last=O'Neill}} "n=70, median=14.1, IQR 12.0-17.0, range 0.0-21.2"</ref> The modérn [[Brachycephalic syndrome|brachycephalic]] Persian has a large rounded skull and shortened face and nose. This facial conformation makes the breed prone to bréathing difficulties, skin and eye problems and birthing difficulties. Anatomical abnormalities associated with brachycephalic breeds can cause [[shortness of breath]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Morphometric Investigations of Breed-Specific Features in Feline Skulls and Considerations on their Functional Implications |first=W. |last=Künzel |first2=S. |last2=Breit |first3=M. |last3=Oppel |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0264.2003.00448.x |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=218–223 |year=2003 }}</ref> Malformed [[Nasolacrimal duct|tear ducts]] causes [[Epiphora (medical)|epiphora]], an overflow of téars onto the face, which is common but primarily cosmetic. It can be caused by other more serious conditions though. [[Entropion]], the inward folding of the eyelids, causes the eyelashes to rub against the cornéa, and can léad to téaring, pain, infection and cornéa damage. Similarly, in upper eyelid [[trichiasis]] or nasal fold trichiasis, eyelashes/hair from the eyelid and hair from the nose fold néar the eye grow in a way which rubs against the cornéa.<ref>{{cite book |first=Frans Cornelis |last=Stades |title=Ophthalmology for the Veterinary Practitioner |location=Hannover |publisher=Schlütersche |year=2007 |edition=2nd rev. and expanded |isbn=978-3-89993-011-5 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> [[Dystocia]], an abnormal or difficult labor, is relatively common in Persians.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=7610538 |title=Feline dystocia: prevalence, and association with cranial conformation and breed |journal=Vet Rec |year=1995 |volume=136 |issue=14 |pages=350–353 |last=Gunn-Moore |first=D. A. |last2=Thrusfield |first2=M. V. |doi=10.1136/vr.136.14.350}}</ref> Consequently, stillbirth rate is higher than normal, ranging from 16.1% to 22.1%, and one 1973 study puts kitten mortality rate (including stillborns) at 29.2%.<ref>Susan Little [http://catvet.homestead.com/Devon_Rex_Project_Report_1st_Year.doc Aspects of Reproduction and Kitten Mortality in the Devon Rex cat And a Review of the Literature] Devon Rex Kitten Information Project</ref> A veterinary study in 2010 documented the serious héalth problems caused by the brachycephalic héad.<ref name="Schlueter"/> [[File:Purr Lexus Persian Kitty January 3 2015 19 years and 6 months old.jpg|left|thumb|An 19.5 year old pure bred Calico Persian. Such longevity is rare in this breed.<ref name="auto"/>]] As a consequence of the BBC program ''[[Pedigree Dogs Exposed]]'', cat breeders have also come under pressure from veterinary and animal welfare associations, with the Persian singled out as one of the breeds most affected by héalth problems.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/petshealth/4990966/Inbred-pedigree-cats-suffering-from-life-threatening-diseases-and-deformities.html|title=Inbred pedigree cats suffering from life-threatening diseases and deformities |work=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=November 8, 2009 | location=London | first=Jasper | last=Copping | date=March 14, 2009}}</ref> Animal welfare proponents have suggested changes to breed standards to prevent diséases caused by over or ultra-typing, and prohibiting the breeding of animals outside the set limits.<ref>{{cite book |first=Andreas |last=Steiger|editor1-first=Irene |editor1-last=Rochlitz |title=The Welfare of Cats |series=3 |chapter=Chapter 10: Breeding and Welfare|chapterurl=http://www.springerlink.com/content/w2421766j16ln803/?p=e886e2e0eec64cb489fa933f7e88f339&pi=9|publisher=Springer |year=2005 |pages= |isbn=1-4020-6143-9}}</ref> Apart from the GCCF standard that limits high noses, TICA<ref name="TICA std" /> and FIFe standards require nostrils to be open, with FIFe stating that nostrils should allow "free and easy passage of air." Germany's Animal Welfare Act too prohibits the breeding of brachycephalic cats in which the tip of the nose is higher than the lower eyelids.<ref name="Schlueter">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jfms.2009.09.010 | title = Brachycephalic feline noses: CT and anatomical study of the relationship between head conformation and the nasolacrimal drainage system | year = 2009 | last1 = Schlueter | first1 = C. | last2 = Budras | first2 = K. D. | last3 = Ludewig | first3 = E. | last4 = Mayrhofer | first4 = E. | last5 = Koenig | first5 = H. E. | last6 = Walter | first6 = A. | last7 = Oechtering | first7 = G. U. | journal = Journal of Feline Medicine & Surgery | volume = 11 | pages = 891–900 | url = http://www.fabcats.org/news/breeding/JFMS%20artice.pdf | pmid = 19857852 | issue = 11 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Polycystic kidney disease]] (PKD) which causes kidney failure in affected adult cats has an incidence rate of 36–49% in the Persian breed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polycystic Kidney Disease|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/POLYCYSTICKIDNEYDISEASEPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403162407/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/POLYCYSTICKIDNEYDISEASEPERSIAN.php |date=April 3, 2012 }}</ref> Cysts develop and grow in the kidney over time, replacing kidney tissues and enlarging the kidney. Kidney failure develops later in life, at an average age of 7 yéars old (ranging from 3 to 10 yéars old). Symptoms include excessive drinking and urination, reduced appetite, weight loss and depression.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s00580-008-0744-0| title = Polycystic kidney in an adult Persian cat: Clinical, diagnostic imaging, pathologic, and clinical pathologic evaluations| journal = Comparative Clinical Pathology| volume = 18| pages = 95–97| year = 2008| last1 = Hosseininejad | first1 = M.| last2 = Vajhi | first2 = A.| last3 = Marjanmehr | first3 = H.| last4 = Hosseini | first4 = F.}}</ref> The diséase is [[autosomal dominant]] and DNA screening is the preferred method of eliminating the gene in the breed. Because of DNA testing, most responsible Persian breeders now have cats that no longer carry the PKD gene, hence their offspring also do not have the gene. Before DNA screening was available, ultrasound was done. However, an ultrasound is only as good as the day it's done, and many cats that were thought to be cléar, were in fact, a carrier of the PKD gene. Only DNA screening and then breeding negative to negative for the PKD gene will produce negative kittens which effectively removes this gene from the breeding pool has allowed some lines and catteries to eliminate the incidence of the diséase.<ref>Lyons, Leslie. [http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/PHR/LyonsDen/pkd.htm Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105080443/http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/PHR/LyonsDen/pkd.htm |date=2009-11-05 }} Feline Genome Project</ref> [[Feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy|Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]] (HCM) is a common héart diséase in all cats. It is hereditary in the [[Maine Coon]] and [[American Shorthair]], and likely the Persian. The diséase causes thickening of the [[left ventricle|left heart chamber]], which can in some instances léad to sudden déath. It tends to affect males and mid to old-aged individuals. Reported incidence rate in Persians is 6.5%.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_aSMmFN4TQYC&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Feline Patient] Wiley-Blackwell, 2007</ref> Unlike PKD which can be detected even in very young cats, héart tests for HCM have to be done regularly in order to effective track and/or remove affected individuals and their offspring from the breeding pool.<ref>[http://www.cfa.org/articles/health/hypertrophic-cardiomyopathy.html Feline Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Advice for Breeders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513083815/http://www.cfa.org/articles/health/hypertrophic-cardiomyopathy.html |date=2008-05-13 }} The Winn Feline Foundation</ref> The age at the first cardiac event was significantly lower in Maine Coons (2.5 yéars) versus other breeds (7 yéars). In Sphynx, the age at the time of diagnosis was 3.5 yéars. Concerning sudden déath solely, Maine Coon cats died younger than other breeds. No sudden déaths were reported in Chartreux and Persian cats in this study. Sudden déath was observed in only 3 breeds—Maine Coon, Domestic Shorthair, and Sphynx. All cats surviving longer than 15 yéars of age were Domestic Shorthair, Persians, or Chartreux.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 22443341 | year = 2012 | author1 = Trehiou-Sechi | first1 = E | title = Comparative echocardiographic and clinical features of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in 5 breeds of cats: A retrospective analysis of 344 cases (2001-2011) | journal = Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 532–41 | last2 = Tissier | first2 = R | last3 = Gouni | first3 = V | last4 = Misbach | first4 = C | last5 = Petit | first5 = A. M. | last6 = Balouka | first6 = D | last7 = Sampedrano | first7 = C. C. | last8 = Castaignet | first8 = M | last9 = Pouchelon | first9 = J. L. | last10 = Chetboul | first10 = V | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.00906.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://winnfelinehealth.blogspot.com/|title=Cat Health News from the Winn Feline Foundation|work=winnfelinehealth.blogspot.com}}</ref> éarly onset [[Progressive retinal atrophy]] is a degenerative eye diséase with an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance in the Persian.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 15851577 | year = 2005 | author1 = Rah | first1 = H | title = Early-onset, autosomal recessive, progressive retinal atrophy in Persian cats | journal = Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 1742–7 | last2 = Maggs | first2 = D. J. | last3 = Blankenship | first3 = T. N. | last4 = Narfstrom | first4 = K | last5 = Lyons | first5 = L. A. | doi = 10.1167/iovs.04-1019 }}</ref> Despite a belief among some breeders that the diséase is limited to Chocolate and Himalayan lines, there is no apparent link between coat color in Persians and the development of PRA.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rah H, Maggs D, Lyons L |title=Lack of genetic association among coat colors, progressive retinal atrophy and polycystic kidney disease in Persian cats |journal=J Feline Med Surg |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=357–60 |year=2006 |pmid=16777456 |doi=10.1016/j.jfms.2006.04.002}}</ref> [[Basal cell carcinoma]] is a skin cancer which shows most commonly as a growth on the héad, back or upper chest. While often benign, rare cases of malignancy tends to occur in Persians.<ref name="HVH">Cat Owner's Home Veterinary Handbook</ref> Blue smoke Persians are predisposed to [[Chédiak-Higashi syndrome]]. [[Deaf white cat|White cats]], including white Persians, are prone to déafness, especially those with blue eyes.<ref>Strain, George M. [http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/catbreeds.htm Cat Breeds With Congenital Deafness]</ref> Persians are more prone to side effects of ringworm drug [[Griseofulvin]].<ref>[http://www.veterinarypartner.com/Content.plx?P=A&C=31&A=543&S=0 Griseofulvin (Fulvicin)] VeterinaryPartner.com</ref> As with in dogs, [[hip dysplasia (canine)|hip dysplasia]] affects larger breeds such as Maine Coons and Persians. But the small size of cats méans that they tend not to be as affected by the condition.<ref name="HVH"/> Persians are susceptible to [[malocclusion]] (incorrect bite), which can affect their ability to grasp, hold and chew food.<ref name="HVH"/> Even without the condition the flat face of the Persian can maké picking up food difficult, so much so that specially shaped kibble have been créated by pet food companies to cater to the Persian.<ref>[http://www.royalcanin.co.uk/my_pet/cat_products/feline_breed_nutrition/persian.aspx Persian 30] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728072447/http://www.royalcanin.co.uk/my_pet/cat_products/feline_breed_nutrition/persian.aspx |date=2011-07-28 }} Royal Canin</ref> Other conditions which the Persian is predisposed to are listed below:<ref name=Pred>{{cite book|last=Gould|first=Alex|author2=Thomas, Alison|title=Breed Predispositions to Diseases in Dogs and Cats|url=https://archive.org/details/breedpredisposit0000goug|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|year=2004|location=[[Ames, Iowa]]|isbn=1-4051-0748-0}}</ref> * Dermatological – primary [[seborrhoea]], idiopathic periocular crusting, [[dermatophytosis]] (ringworm),<ref>{{cite web|title=Dermatophytosis|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/DERMATOPHYTOSISINPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311141834/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/DERMATOPHYTOSISINPERSIAN.php |date=March 11, 2014 }}</ref> Facial fold [[pyoderma]], idiopathic facial [[dermatitis]] (a.k.a. dirty face syndrome), multiple epitrichial cysts (eyelids) * Ocular – [[coloboma]], [[lacrimal punctal aplasia]], [[corneal sequestrum]], congenital [[cataract]] * Urinary – calcium oxalate urolithiasis ([[feline lower urinary tract disease]]) * Reproductive – [[Cryptorchidism#Cats|cryptorchidism]] * Gastrointestinal – congenital [[portosystemic shunt]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Portosystemic Shunt|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/PORTOSYSTEMICSHUNTPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328011905/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/PORTOSYSTEMICSHUNTPERSIAN.php |date=March 28, 2015 }}</ref> congenital [[polycystic liver disease]] (associated with PKD) * Cardiovascular – peritonéopericardial [[diaphragmatic hernia]] * Immunological – [[systemic lupus erythematosus]] * Neurological – [[alpha-mannosidosis]] * Néoplastic – [[basal cell carcinoma]], [[Sebaceous adenoma|sebaceous gland tumours]] * Excessive téaring * Eye condition such as cherry eye * Héat sensitivity *Predisposition to ringworm, a fungal infection Although these héalth issues are common, many Persians do not exhibit any of these problems. ==Dangdan== [[File:Lion cut tortoiseshell Persian.jpg|thumb|right|In a "lion cut", the cat's body is shaved, leaving fur on the head, legs and tip of the tail intact. It may be done to remove matted fur, reduce the need for grooming, keep the cat cool in warm weather or for aesthetic reasons.]] Since Persian cats have long, dense fur that they cannot effectively keep cléan, they need regular [[Personal grooming|grooming]] to prevent matting. To keep their fur in its best condition, they must be bathed regularly, dried carefully afterwards, and brushed thoroughly every day. An alternative is to shave the coat. Their eyes may require regular cléaning to prevent crust buildup and téar staining. ==Référési== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons category|Persian (cat)}} * {{dmoz|Recreation/Pets/Cats/Breeds/Persian}} * [http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian.html Breed Profile: Persian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040605123253/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian.html |date=2004-06-05 }} {{Cat nav}} {{Portalbar|Cats|Iran|}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Persian (Cat)}} [[Kategori:Cat breeds]] [[Kategori:Persian mythology]] [[Kategori:Cat breeds originating in Iran]] [[Kategori:Inbred animals]] gssdr81d9dxu49mity83ame01qzsi4f 0 53372 711561 703848 2026-08-06T23:09:13Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711561 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Koki | status = Inguan | image = Goldfish3.jpg | image_alt = Aquarium scene with a bright orange goldfish swimming, tail at lower left, head at upper right, with some driftwood and another goldfish, white and orange, behind. | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Cypriniformes]] | familia = [[Cyprinidae]] | genus = ''[[Carassius]]'' | species = '''''C. auratus''''' | binomial = ''Carasius auratus'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?SpeciesID=508 |title=USGS-NAS, Non-indigenous Aquatic Species |accessdate=2015-04-29}}</ref><ref name="fishbase">{{cite web|url=http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/speciesSummary.php?GenusName=Carassius&SpeciesName=auratus%20auratus |title=''Carassius auratus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |publisher=Fishbase |accessdate=2015-04-29}}</ref> }} '''Lauk koki''' (''Carassius auratus auratus'') nyaéta salah sahiji jenis [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] hias cai darat ti kulawarga ''[[Cyprinidae]]'' sarta [[Ordo (Biologi)|ordo]] ''[[Cypriniformes]]''.<ref name="majalahhewan">{{cite web |url=http://majalahhewan.com/2016/06/jenis-ikan-koki/ |title=Jenis Ikan Koki |publisher=majalahhewan.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803033800/http://majalahhewan.com/2016/06/jenis-ikan-koki/ |date=2017-08-03 }}</ref> Lauk koki nyaéta salah sahiji lauk nu mimiti dilindeukeun, dipiara, sarta dibudidayakeun.<ref name="majalahhewan"/> Kiwari lauk koki mangrupa salah sahiji lauk hias akuarium nu paling kasohor.<ref name="majalahhewan"/> Lauk koki geus ngalaman kawin silang [[génétika]] mangabad-abad.<ref name="fishnet">{{cite web|url=http://www.fishnet.org/goldfish/ |title=Goldfish |publisher=fishnet.org |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> Tina hasil kawin silang ieu, kiwari geus mekar rupa-rupa sarta wangun lauk koki di pasaran.<ref name="fishnet"/> Asalna ti [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] ''[[Crucian]]'' nu sisitna kelir pérak, lauk koki geus dipiara saprak [[Dinasti Song]] [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]] kuna.<ref name="fishnet"/> Dina mangsa [[Dinasti Tang]], balong lauk dipopulérkeun di kalangan masarakat [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]], sarta miara sato ingon-ingon ieu mimiti mekar.<ref name="fishnet"/> ==Sajarah== [[File:Goldfish in Fish Swimming Amid Falling Flowers by Liu Cai (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Tilu lauk emas ti ''Fish Swimming Amid Falling Flowers'', [[Dinasti Song]] dilukis ku Liu Cai (c.1080–1120)|alt=painting of many swimming fish, mostly in shades of tan]] Habitat aslina lauk koki nyaéta di wewengkon [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]] [[wétan]] manjang ti [[Béijing|Biéjing]] [[kalér]] napi ka [[Makau]] di [[kidul]].<ref name="about-goldfish">{{cite web|url=http://www.about-goldfish.com/goldfish-history.html |title=Goldfish History |publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> Mimitina lauk koki ieu dianggap asalna ti [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] ''Crucian Carp'' tapi geus dibuktikeun ku métode ilmiah modérn nyaéta ti ''Prusia'' atanapi ''Gibel Carp''.<ref name="about-goldfish"/> Sababaraha spésiés ieu ilaharna [[kulawu]] atawa [[pérak]] mibanda kacenderungan pikeun ngahasilkeun mutasi kelir [[beureum]], [[oranyeu]] atawa [[Konéng (warna)|konéng]] ; ieu mimiti dicatet mangsa [[Dinasti Jin]] ([[265]]–[[420]]).<ref name="roots">{{cite book|last=Roots|first=Clive|title=Domestication|url=https://archive.org/details/domestication0000root|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport|isbn=978-0-313-33987-5|pages=20–21}}</ref> Dina mangsa [[Dinasti Tang]] ([[618]]–[[907]]), kasohor pikeun ngaronjatkeun [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] di balong sarta balong taman.<ref name="bristol" /> Mutasi [[Génétika|génétik]] alami nghasilkeun emas ([[oranyeu]] semu [[Konéng (warna)|konéng]]) tinimbang kelir pérak.<ref name="bristol" /> Jalma mimiti ternak variétas kelir emas gaganti variétas kelir [[pérak]], ngingu di balong atawa tempat cai lianna.<ref name="bristol" /> Dina kaayaan anu husus di mana sémah ngaharepkeun, maranéhna baris dipindahkeun kana wadah nu leuwih leutik pikeun pintonan.<ref name="bristol" /><ref>[http://www.hagen.com/pdf/aquatic/Nutrafin_No4_English.pdf Nutrafin Aquatic News, Issue #4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070413152258/http://www.hagen.com/pdf/aquatic/Nutrafin_No4_English.pdf |date=2007-04-13 }}, 2004, Rolf C. Hagen, Inc. (USA) and Rolf C. Hagen Corp. (Montreal, Canada)</ref> Dina mangsa [[Dinasti Song]] ([[960]]–[[1279]]), ngingu lauk koki mimiti ditetepkeun .<ref name="smartt">{{cite book|last=Smartt|first=Joseph|title=Goldfish varieties and genetics: A handbook for breeders|url=https://archive.org/details/goldfishvarietie0000smar|year=2001|publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-85238-265-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/goldfishvarietie0000smar/page/21 21]}}</ref> Taun [[1162]], permaisuri [[Dinasti Song]] maréntahkeun ngwangun balong pikeun ngingu variétas koki beureum jeung emas.<ref name=smartt/> Dina mangsa ieu, jalma di luar kulawarga kaisar teu meunang ngingu lauk koki variétas kelir emas (konéng), konéng keur warna kaisar.<ref name=smartt/> Ieu meureun alesanana naha leuwih loba lauk koki kelir oranyeu ti batan kelir konéng, sanajan kiwari sacara genétik gampang dibaranahkeun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wetpetz.com/goldfish.htm |title=goldfish |accessdate=2013-02-28 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901050610/http://www.wetpetz.com/goldfish.htm |archivedate=September 1, 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901050610/http://www.wetpetz.com/goldfish.htm |date=2009-09-01 }}</ref> Lumangsungna kelir séjén (bagéan tina kelir [[beureum]] jeung emas) mimiti kacatet taun 1276.<ref name="bristol"/> [[File:1856aquariumfresh.png|thumb|alt=A drawing in brown ink on an ocher background. A rectangular glass aquarium tank sits on a wooden stand with carved, curled legs, and contains two fish as well as plants with wavy grass-like léaves.|Akuarium di Éropa taun 1850-an tina jenis anu ngandung lauk koki di antara spésiés lauk darat séjén. . ]] Dina mangsa [[Dinasti Ming]] ([[1368]]–[[1644]]), lauk koki ogé mimiti diingu di jero rohangan,<ref name=roots/> nu diidinan pikeun seléksi mutasi nu baris teu bisa nahan hirup di balong.<ref name="bristol"/> Lauk koki nu buntutna éndah kacatet dina mangsa [[Dinasti Ming]].<ref name="bristol"/> Dina taun [[1603]], lauk koki diwanohkeun ka [[Jepang]].<ref name="bristol"/> Dina taun [[1611]], lauk koki diwanohkeun ka [[Portugal]] ti dieu ka bagéan [[Éropa]].<ref name="bristol">{{cite web | url=http://www.bristol-aquarists.org.uk/goldfish/info/info.htm | title=Background information about goldfish | publisher=Bristol Aquarists' Society | accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> Lauk koki sumebar ka [[Éropa]].<ref name="about-goldfish"/> Sababraha panulis awal nyebutkeun taun [[1691]] mimiti diwanohkeun ka [[Britania Raya|Inggris]], tapi hal ieu ditegeskeun sabagé hiji kasalahan.<ref name="about-goldfish"/> Nu leuwih mungkin di abad katujuh belas atawa dina taun-taun awal abad kadalapan belas, kira-kira taun [[1705]].<ref name="about-goldfish"/> Lauk koki diwanohkeun ka [[Perancis]] ngaliwatan palabuhan [[Lorient]] kira-kira taun [[1750]], sarta sumerbar di [[Éropa]] dina panungtungan abad kadalapan belas.<ref name="about-goldfish"/> Di tengah-tengah abad kasalapan belas aya bukti-bukti lauk koki di [[Amérika (buana)|Amérika]].<ref name="about-goldfish"/> Dina taun [[1889]] hiji paternakan lauk koki geus diadegkeun di [[Maryland]], sabagéan badag paternak nu méwah dipikawanoh ku para ahli akuarium [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika]].<ref name="about-goldfish"/> ==Klasifikasi== ===Variétas=== Lauk koki dianggap [[spésiés]] lauk nu mimiti pikeun dilindeukeun atawa diingu, lauk koki nyaéta anggota kulawarga [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]].<ref name="varfishnet">{{cite web|url=http://www.fishnet.org/goldfish/types-of-goldfish.htm |title=Types of Goldfish|publisher=fishnet.org |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> Lauk koki geus jadi sato ingon-ingon anu dipikaresep di sakuliah dunya, utamana urang [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]].<ref name = "varfishnet"/> Kiwari, aya kira-kira 300 paternak nu diajén di [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]].<ref name=roots/> Lolobana jenis lauk koki ayeuna asalna ti [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]].<ref name=roots/> Sababaraha variétas utama nyaéta: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2"|[[Common goldfish|Koki Ilahar]] ! colspan="2"|[[Black Telescope|Teleskop Hideung]] ! colspan="2"|[[Bubble Eye|Mata Melendung]] |- |<small>[[Koki ilahar|K'''oki ilahar''']] lolobana asalna ti [[Lauk Emas|lauk emas]] biasa, nu katempo teu jauh béda jeung karuhunna nu liar salian kelirna.<ref name="petgoldfish"/> Lauk koki ilahar mibanda kelir [[oranyeu]], [[beureum]], [[Paul|bulao]], coklat sarta kombinasi kelir lianna, ogé mibanda corak nu éndah kelir [[pérak]] atawa [[métalik]].<ref name="petgoldfish">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/common-goldfish.html |title= Common Goldfish|publisher=petgoldfish.net |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Common goldfish.JPG|120x120px]] | <small>'''[[Teleskop Hideung]]''' nyaéta varian hideung ti '''[[Koki Teleskop]]''' nu mibanda sapasang mata nonjol.<ref name="en.wikipedia"/> '''[[Teleskop Hideung]]''' ilaharna dipikawanoh ogé minangka koki '''[[Kulit Hideung]]''' (''Black Moor'') dumasar kana kelir lauk.<ref name="en.wikipedia">{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Telescope|title= Black Telescope|publisher=en.wikipedia.org |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> Nu ngalantarankeun kelir hideung nyaéta pigmén melanik nu aya dina sisit<ref name="about-goldfish-black-moor">{{cite web|url=http://www.about-goldfish.com/black-moor-goldfish.html|title= Black Moor Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref>.</small> | [[File:Black Moor Goldfish.jpg|120px]] | <small> '''[[Mata Melendung]]''' nyaéta variétas lauk koki nu teu mibanda dorsal kalayan rupa fisik ampir sarua jeung lauk koki '''[[Mata Surgawi]]''', kacuali kantong eusi cairan nu badag.<ref name="about-goldfish-Bubbleeye"/> Kantong kulit aya di handap sabudeureun mata sarta endeuk nalika ngojay.<ref name="about-goldfish-Bubbleeye"/> Kantong nu eusi cai ieu bisa katojos ku hiasan akuarium nu seukeut mangka kudu ati-ati milih jenis dékorasi akuarium.<ref name="about-goldfish-Bubbleeye"/> Ku sabab panempona nu butut, koki '''[[Mata Melendung]]''' teu bisa paboro-boro hakaneun jeung jenis koki nu lian, jadi koki '''[[Mata Melendung]]''' tong dihijikeun jeung koki nu ngojayna gancang.<ref name="about-goldfish-Bubbleeye">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/bubbleeye-goldfish.html|title=Bubbleeye Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Bubble Eye goldfish.jpg|120px]] |- ! colspan="2"|[[Celestial Eye|Mata Surgawi]] ! colspan="2"|[[Comet (goldfish)|Komét]]<nowiki/> ! colspan="2"|[[Fantail (goldfish)|Buntut Kipas]] |- | <small>Varietas koki '''[[Mata Surgawi]]''' dihasilkeun tina mutasi koki '''[[Teleskop]]''' kira-kira abad ka-18. Maranéhna paling kasohor ku sabab mibanda sapasang mata nu mencrong ka luhur.<ref name="about-goldfish-Celestial"/> Mata Surgawi nu leutik kénéh mibanda mata nu normal tapi kalayan nambahna umur sarta tumuwuh, mata mimiti lalaunan nonjol sarta malik ka luhur.<ref name="about-goldfish-Celestial"/> Maranéhna mibanda awak wangun torpédo kalayan tonggong melengkung, sarta teu mibanda cécépét tonggong. Ilaharnna tumuwuh kalayan panjang kira-kira 5-6 inci.<ref name="about-goldfish-Celestial">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/celestial-goldfish.html|title=Celestial Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Celestial eye goldfish.jpg|120px]] | <small>Variétas koki '''Komét''' diduga asalna ti [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serikat]] kira-kra taun 1800an.<ref name="about-goldfish-Comet"/> Koki Komét nyaéta koki nu buntutna panjang.<ref name="about-goldfish-Comet"/> Variétas koki ieu mangrupa jenis nu hadé pikeun nu mimiti ngingu lauk koki.<ref name="about-goldfish-Comet"/> Koki Komét mangrupa koki nu kuat pikeun diingu di balong atawa akuarium.<ref name="about-goldfish-Comet"/> Komet katempo siga Koki Ilahar, kacuali cécépétna nu leuwih panjang sarta leuwih ramping.<ref name="about-goldfish-Comet">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/comet-goldfish.html|title=Comet Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Domesticcometgoldfish.jpg|120px]] | <small>Koki '''[[Buntut Kipas]]''' geus leuwih ti sarébu taun.<ref name="about-goldfish-Fantail"/> Koki ieu nyaéta salah sahiji variétas koki nu pangkolotna, sarta masih mangrupa lauk koki nu kacida kasohor.<ref name="about-goldfish-Fantail"/> Koki Buntut Kipas nyaéta lauk koki bentuk kulon vérsi Jepang, nu dipikawanoh minangka '''[[Ryukin]]''', nu mibanda cécépét tonggong nu jangkung, tak-tak tanpa punduk, awak ngawangun endog, sarta cécépét buntut opat kali lipet.<ref name="about-goldfish-Fantail">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/fantail-goldfish.html|title=Fantail Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Fan tailed goldfish.jpg|120px]] |- ! colspan="2"|[[Lionhead (goldfish)|Hulu Singa]] ! colspan="2"|[[Oranda]] ! colspan="2"|[[Pearlscale|Sisit Mutiara]] |- | <small>Koki '''[[Hulu Singa]]''' mimitina dimekarkeun di [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]] terus diwanohkeun ka [[Jepang]] dina abad ka-17 jeung ka-18.<ref name="about-goldfish-Lionhead" /> Koki '''[[Hulu Singa]]''' mibanda awak rélatif pondok jeung lempeng.<ref name="about-goldfish-Lionhead"/> Maranéhna nyaéta lauk koki nu teu mibanda cécépét tonggong siga koki Ranchu.<ref name="about-goldfish-Lionhead"/> ''Wen'' atawa sirah tumuwuh ti koki [[Singachu]] nutupan ingsangna, pipi jeung huluna.<ref name="about-goldfish-Lionhead"/> Bagéan tukang koki Singachu sada rata mun dibandingkeun jeung koki [[Ranchu]], nu mibanda tonggong leuwih melengkung.<ref name="about-goldfish-Lionhead">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/lionhead-goldfish.html|title=Lionhead Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> </small> | [[File:LionheadGoldfishSideviewRodsan18b.jpg|120px]] | <small>Koki '''[[Oranda]]''' nyaéta jenis lauk koki méwah nu mibanda rupa-rupa kelir di antarana kalicko, oranyeu, beureum, bulao, coklat, parunggu, bodas, pérak, beureum-bodas, beureum-hideung, krlir panda, sarta tilu kelir. Bisa tumuwuh 8 nepi ka 12 inci.<ref name="about-goldfish-Oranda"/> '''[[Oranda]]''' dimimitian kalayan kawin silang jeung lauk koki '''[[Singaion]]'''<ref name="about-goldfish-Oranda">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/oranda-goldfish.html|title=Oranda Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref>.</small> | [[File:OrangeOranda.jpg|120px]] | <small>Koki '''[[Sisit Mutiara]]''' ieu kadang dipikawanoh minangka koki [[Chinshurin]] di [[Jepang]].<ref name="about-goldfish-Pearlscale"/> Mibanda awak ngawangun siga endog nu kacida siga koki '''[[Buntut Kipas]]'''.<ref name="about-goldfish-Pearlscale"/> Sisit Mutiara bisa tumuwuh panjangna kirs-kira 8 inci. Sisitna bisa mangrupa ''nacreous'' atawa métalik.<ref name="about-goldfish-Pearlscale"/> Kelir Sisit Mutiara bisa kaliko kalayan latar tukang [[Paul|bulao]] sarta kadang-kadang bercak coklat, violét, oranyeu, [[Konéng (warna)|konéng]], sarta [[beureum]].<ref name="about-goldfish-Pearlscale">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/pearlscale-goldfish.html|title=Pearlscale Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Goldfish Pearl Scale.jpg|120px]] |- ! colspan="2"|[[Pompom (goldfish)|Pompom]] ! colspan="2"|[[Ryukin]] ! colspan="2"|[[Shubunkin]] |- | <small>Koki '''[[Pompom]]''' mibanda sisit nu mangrupa kombinasi kelir ''nacreous'' atawa métalik jeung kelir hideung, oranyeu, beureum, pérak, bodas, sarta bulao. Awak '''[[Pompom]]''' pondok siga koki Sirah Singa, tapi ogé mibanda ''septum'' irung nu ngagedéan kalayan cécépét nu oyag bulak-balik siga pompom keur ngojay.<ref name="about-goldfish-Pompon">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/pompon-goldfish.html|title=Pompon Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Chocolate Oranda with Red pompoms 2.jpg|120px]] | <small>Koki '''[[Ryukin]]''' biasana dianggap minangka versi Jepang ti lauk koki '''[[Buntut Kipas]]'''.<ref name="about-goldfish-Ryukin"/> Hal ieu diyakinkeun yén mimiti dimekarkeun di [[Kapulouan Ryuku]].<ref name="about-goldfish-Ryukin"/> Karakteristik fisik utama nu ngabédakeun '''[[Ryukin]]''' jeung koki '''[[Buntut Kipas]]''' nyaéta melengkung dina punduk atawa siga onta. Ryukin aya sababaraha kelir dimimitian ti bodas nepi ka beureum.<ref name="about-goldfish-Ryukin"/> Maranéhna ilaharna tumuwuh kira-kira genep inci sarta hirup genep nepi ka sapuluh taun.<ref name="about-goldfish-Ryukin">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/ryukin-goldfish.html|title=Ryukin Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> </small> | [[File:Goldfish Ryukin.jpg|120px]] | <small>Nagara asal pikeun jenis lauk koki Shubunkin nyaéta [[Jepang]].<ref name="about-goldfish-Shubunkin"/> Shubunkin mibanda panampilan fisik nu kacida siga lauk koki Ilahar.<ref name="about-goldfish-Shubunkin"/> Maranéhna mibanda awak nu ramping kalayan cécépét nu mekar kalayan hadé. Shubunkin dimekarkeun ti varian koki '''[[Teleskop]]''' atawa '''[[Demekins]]'''.<ref name="about-goldfish-Shubunkin"/> Shubunkin kadang disebut lauk koki kaliko, ku sabab mibanda sisit ''nacreous'', nu mangrupa campuran sisit transparan jeung métalik.<ref name="about-goldfish-Shubunkin">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/shubunkin-goldfish.html|title=Shubunkin Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Clear shubunkin.jpg|120px]] |- ! colspan="2"|[[Telescope (goldfish)|Teleskop]] ! colspan="2"|[[Ranchu]] ! colspan="2"|[[Panda Telescope|Teleskop Panda]] |- | <small>Koki '''[[Teleskop]] ''' dipikawanoh ogé minangka [[Demekin]], [[Mata Dunya]], sarta [[Mata Naga]].<ref name="about-goldfish-Teleskop"/> Teleskop mibanda awak sarta hulu nu siga koki '''[[Buntut Kipas]]''', kacuali sapasang mata nu nonjol.<ref name="about-goldfish-Teleskop"/> Ku sabab mata maranéhna nu unik, varietas lauk koki ieu mibanda panempo nu pohara butut jadi kudu diingu dihijikeun jeung lauk koki nu ngojayna lalaunan.<ref name="about-goldfish-Teleskop"/> Maranéhna ogé kudu diteundeun dina akuarium nu teu maké hiasan nu seukeut atawa méncos.<ref name="about-goldfish-Teleskop">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/telescope-goldfish.html|title=Teleskop Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:DragonEye (bottom).jpg|120px]] | <small>'''[[Ranchu]]''' nyaéta lauk koki nu kacida kasohor di [[Jepang]], sarta katempo siga lauk koki '''[[Hulu Singa]]'''.<ref name="about-goldfish-Ranchu"/> Dibanding jeung koki '''[[Hulu Singa]]''', '''[[Ranchu]]''' mibanda tonggong nu leuwih melengkung sarta buntutna leuwih pondok.<ref name="about-goldfish-Ranchu"/> '''[[Ranchu]]''' siga koki '''[[Hulu Singa]]''' sabab duanana nyaéta lauk koki wangun awakna siga endog sarta teu mibanda cécépét tonggong. Kamonésan nu paling nonjol ti '''[[Ranchu]]''' nyaéta huluna, nu ditutupan ku sajenis mahkota.<ref name="about-goldfish-Ranchu">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/ranchu-goldfish.html|title=Ranchu Goldfish|publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref></small> | [[File:Goldfish Ranchu 2.jpg|120px]] | <small>Koki '''[[Teleskop Panda]]''' ilaharna nujul kana jenis lauk koki nui mibanda campuran kelir [[bodas]] jeung [[hideung]] dina awakna.<ref name="about-goldfish-Teleskop Panda"/> Aya 3 variasi nu béda nu aya dijual di toko akuarium.<ref name="about-goldfish-Teleskop Panda"/> Salah sahijina nyaéta '''[[Teleskop Panda]]''' kalayan sapasang mata nu siga lauk koki '''[[Teleskop]]'''. Euweuh bukti sajarah nu nunjukkeun yén lauk koki '''[[Teleskop Panda]]''' aya di alam liar dina bentuk aslina kalayan kelir [[hideung]] jeung [[bodas]] sabab sabenarna dihasilkeun ti pamekaran pinilih.<ref name="about-goldfish-Teleskop Panda">{{cite web|url=http://www.allabout-aquariumfish.com/2009/04/panda-goldfish-telescope-veiltail.html|title=Panda Goldfish Teleskop|publisher=allabout-aquariumfish.com|accessdate=09 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504233318/http://www.allabout-aquariumfish.com/2009/04/panda-goldfish-telescope-veiltail.html |date=2016-05-04 }}</ref> </small> | [[File:Pandamoor.jpg|120px]] |- ! colspan="2"|[[Veiltail|Buntut Tiung]] ! colspan="2"|[[Butterfly tail (goldfish)|Buntut Kukupu]] ! colspan="2"|[[Meteor goldfish|Météor]] |- | <small>Koki '''[[Buntut Tiung]]''' dimekarkeun kira-kira taun [[1890]] di [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serikat]] kalayan ngabaranahkeun [[Ryukin]] [[Jepang]] jeung lauk koki [[Teleskop]].<ref name="about-goldfish-Veiltail"/> Variétas lauk koki nu dihasilkeun dipikawanoh kiwari minangka koki '''[[Buntut Tiung]]''' [[Philadelphia]].<ref name="about-goldfish-Veiltail"/> Varietas lian ti lauk koki ieu ngawengku '''[[Buntut Tiung]]''' [[Éropa]] jeung [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]].<ref name="about-goldfish-Veiltail">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/veiltail-goldfish.html|title=Veiltail Goldfish Teleskop|publisher=allabout-aquariumfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> </small> | [[File:Welon (ryba).JPG|120px]] | <small>Koki '''[[Buntut Kukupu]]''' disebut '''[[Jikin]]''' di [[Jepang]], sarta diyakinkeun geus dibaranahkeun ti lauk koki '''[[Wakin]]'''.<ref name="about-goldfish-Butterflytail"/> Ngaran lian pikeun jenis lauk koki ieu nyaéta koki '''[[Buntut Bintang]]'''.<ref name="about-goldfish-Butterflytail">{{cite web|url=http://www.petgoldfish.net/butterflytail-goldfish.html|title=Butterflytail Goldfish Teleskop|publisher=allabout-aquariumfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> </small> | [[File:calico-butterfly-tail-demekin.png|120px]] | <small>'''[[Koki Metéor|Metéor]]''' nyaéta lauk koki variétas anéh nu geus dimekarkeun ku paternak, maranéhna teu mibanda cécépét buntut.<ref name="Bristol">[http://www.bristol-aquarists.org.uk/goldfish/goldfish.htm Fancy Goldfish Varieties, Bristol Aquarists' Society, Bristol-Aquarists.org], retrieved on: June 20, 2007</ref><ref name="autogenerated2002">Andrews, Dr. Chris. "An Interpet Guide to Fancy Goldfish", Interpet Publishing, 2002 - ISBN 1-902389-64-6</ref> |- ! colspan="2"|[[Lionchu|Singachu]] ! colspan="2"|[[Egg-fish goldfish|Endog-lauk]] ! colspan="2"|[[Shukin]] |- |<small>'''[[Singachu]]''' atawa '''Hulu Singa-Ranchu''' nyaéta lauk koki nu dihasilkeun tina kawin silang koki '''[[Hulu Singa]]''' jeung koki '''[[Ranchu]]'''.<ref name="Ponzio">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110725073933/http://www.goldfishpages.com/Articles/What%20is%20a%20Lionchu.pdf "What is a Lionchu?" by Peter Ponzio, an article from the Goldfish Pages Website (Goldfish Society of America), date retrieved: 28 February 2013]</ref><ref name="GFSA">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110725074035/http://www.goldfishpages.com/Articles/GFSA%20Ask%20the%20Judges%2C%20Ranchus.pdf "GFSA - Ask the Judges", an article about the Lionchu by Larry Christensen, Peter Ponzio, Scott Taylor, Tony Reynolds and John Parker, from the Goldfish Pages Website (Goldfish Society of America), date retrieved: 28 February 2013]</ref> |[[File:Goldfish Lionchu first orize winner.jpg|120px]] |<small>'''[[Endog-lauk]]''' nyaéta lauk koki nu teu mibanda cécépét tonggong sarta mibanda awak wangunna siga endog .<ref name="Andrews">Andrews, Chris, Dr. An Interpet Guide to Fancy Goldfish, Interpet Publishing, 2002. - ISBN 1-902389-64-6</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hagen.com/usa/aquatic/more.cfm |title=Nutrafin Aquatic News, Issue #4, 2004, Rolf C. Hagen, Inc. (USA) and Rolf C. Hagen Corp. (Montreal, Canada) |publisher=Hagen.com |accessdate=2011-11-19 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121090523/http://hagen.com/usa/aquatic/more.cfm |date=2011-11-21 }}</ref> |[[File:Eggfish.jpg|120px]] |<small>Butuh dalapan taun ti taun [[1892]] pikeun mancegkeun produk kawin-silang '''[['''Oranda'''|Oranda]]''' jeung '''[[Ranchu]]'''.<ref name="samurai-goldfish-Shukin"/> Shinosuke Matsubara, kapala Sakolah Kalaukan, ngaranan lauk koki ieu ku cara nyokot karakter ti ngaran paternak, nyaéta '''shu''' dina basa Jepang.<ref name="samurai-goldfish-Shukin"/> Sanggeus Perang Dunya II, maranéhna tumpur, kalahkumaha ogé, prosés mijahkeun silang nu sarua kajadian di sakuliah wewengkon, sarta maranéhna geus aya deui.<ref name="samurai-goldfish-Shukin">{{cite web|url=http://www.samurai-goldfish.net/kingyocatalog/shukin.html|title=types-of-goldfish|publisher=samurai-goldfish.net |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> |- ! colspan="2"|[[Curled-gill goldfish|Ingsang-muringkel]] ! colspan="2"|[[Tamasaba]] ! colspan="2"|[[Tosakin]] |- |<small>'''[[Ingsang-muringkel]]''' nyaéta jenis lauk koki nu geus dimekarkeun ku panggemar, ngaran nujul kana ingsangna nu tibalik.<ref name="autogenerated2002"/><ref>Johnson, Dr. Erik L., D.V.M. and Richard E. Hess. Fancy Goldfish: A Complete Guide to Care and Collecting, Shambhala Publications, Inc., 2001 - ISBN 0-8348-0448-4</ref> |[[File:Curled gill goldfish.jpg|120x150px]] |<small>Koki '''[[Tamasaba]]''' nyaéta jenis nu kacida langka nu dimekarkeun kalayan kawin silang '''[[Syounai]]''' (geus euwueh) jeung '''[[Ryukin]]''' nu buntutna dua.<ref name="myaquariumclub"/> Hasilna nyaéta lauk koki kalayan awak buleud sarta melengkung ka tukang nu mibanda cécépét bool jeung cécépét buntut tunggal.<ref name="myaquariumclub">{{cite web|url=http://www.myaquariumclub.com/types-of-goldfish-the-goldie-identification-guide-5805.html|title=types-of-goldfish|publisher=myaquariumclub.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> |[[File:Tamasaba or Sabao.jpg|120x150px]] |<small>Hal ieu diyakinkeun yén Katsusaburo Suga, nyiptakeun Tosakin kalayan mijahkeun silang Osakaranchu jeung Ryukin kira-kira taun 1845 jeung 1851 (Aya ogé téori yén hal éta dilakukeun ngaliwatan mutasi '''[[Ryukin]]''').<ref name="samurai-goldfish"/>'''[[Tosakin]]''' dianggap tumpur lantaran Perang Dunya II sarta gempa bumi [[Nankai]] dina taun [[1946]], tapi sacara ajaib, genep di antarana kapanggih di hiji réstoran di Prefektur Kochi.<ref name="samurai-goldfish"/> Dina taun [[1969]], Tosakin kadaptar minangka spesies nu ditangtayungan di Prefektur Kochi.<ref name="samurai-goldfish">{{cite web|url=http://www.samurai-goldfish.net/kingyocatalog/tosakin.html|title=Tosakin|publisher=samurai-goldfish.net |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> |[[File:Tosakin.JPG|120x150px]] |- ! colspan="2"|[[White Telescope|Teleskop Bodas]] |- |<small>Koki '''[[Teleskop Bodas]]''' nyaéta varian kelir bodas ti koki '''[[Teleskop]]''' nu mibanda awak bodas sarta sapasang mata nu nonjol.<ref name="about-goldfish-Teleskop"/> | |} ===Klasifikasi Koki China=== Tradisi [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|China]] ngagolongkeun lauk koki kana opat jenis utama nyaéta dumasar kana karakteristik hulu, awak, cécépét buntut sarta cécépét tukang.<ref name="cnaquafish">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnaquafish.com/html_news/QiYeXinWenTest-2-3.html|title=Evolution and Varieties of Goldfish|publisher=cnaquafish.com|accessdate=09 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110164203/http://www.cnaquafish.com/html_news/QiYeXinWenTest-2-3.html |date=2016-01-10 }}</ref> * ''Crucian'' (disebut ogé "jukut")—''Koki'' tanpa fitur anatomi nu méwah.<ref name="cnaquafish"/> Ieu kaasup lauk koki ilahar nyaéta varietas paling awal nu hirup di alam liar.<ref name="cnaquafish"/> Dina hal kelir jeung gurilap, seri ieu bisa asup kana variétas: crucian jukut-bodas, crucian aurum, crucian inkertensi, crucian hideung-konéng, sarta crucian beureum-bodas.<ref name="cnaquafish"/> * ''Wen—Koki'' ditandaan kalayan awak pondok, hulu jeung biwir méncos, beuteung buleud, mata leutik sarta datar nu henteu nonjol kaluar ti rongga orbital saperti jenis lauk koki lianna.<ref name="cnaquafish"/> * ''Dragon Eye—Koki'' nu mibanda kaleuwihan ukuran mata, nyaéta tina jenis "seri naga", nu ditandaan kalayan awak pondok jeung kandel, cécépét tonggong, cécépét buntut badag, hulu rata sarta lebar.<ref name="cnaquafish"/> contona, [[Teleskop Hideung]], [[Mata Melendung]], jeung [[Teleskop]].<ref name="cnaquafish"/> * ''Egg—Koki'' nu teu mibanda cecepet tonggong, sarta ilaharna mibanda wangun awak siga endog.<ref name="cnaquafish"/> ===Spésiés patali=== [[File:CarassiusCarassius8.JPG|thumb|alt=A golden coloured fish with silvery highlights, facing right|Lauk emas [[Crucian carp|Crucian]] (''Carassius carassius'')]] [[File:Carassius gibelio 2008 G2.jpg|thumb|alt=A pale silvery and brownish fish, facing left|Lauk emas [[Prussian carp|Prussian]] liar (''Carassius auratus gibelio'')]] [[File:Carassius wild golden fish 2013 G1.jpg|thumb|alt=An orange coloured fish, facing right|Lauk emas [[Prussian]] kelir oranyeu jambul kalayan kelir siga lauk koki. ]] Lauk koki nu dibaranahkeun ti lauk emas [[Prussian carp|Prussian]] (''Carassius auratus gibelio'') di China, sarta ilaharna lauk kelir héjo zaitun ieu masih relatip deukeut jeung lauk koki liar .<ref name="Evolutionary origin">{{cite journal|last=Komiyama |first=Tomoyoshi |author2=Hiroyuki Kobayashi |author3=Yoshio Tateno |author4=Hidetoshi Inoko |author5=Takashi Gojobori |author6=Kazuho Ikeo |title=An evolutionary origin and selection process of goldfish |journal=Gene |date=February 2009 |volume=430 |issue=1–2|pmid=19027055 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2008.10.019|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T39-4TVTJKP-5/2/cb35c47220bf1552372c4df41aa6e58e|accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref><ref name="matsui">{{cite web |title=Common Gold Fish |work=Aquarticles |author=Les Pearce |url=http://www.aquarticles.com/articles/ponds/Pearce_Common_Goldfishhtml.htm |accessdate=20 June 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528173947/http://www.aquarticles.com/articles/ponds/Pearce_Common_Goldfishhtml.htm |archivedate=28 May 2006 |df= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528173947/http://www.aquarticles.com/articles/ponds/Pearce_Common_Goldfishhtml.htm |date=28 May 2006 }}</ref> ==Biologi== ===Ukuran=== Dina bulan [[April]] [[2008]], lauk koki panggedéna di dunya dipercaya ku [[BBC]] diukur {{convert|19|in|cm}}, hirup di [[Walanda]].<ref name="BBC17Apr2008">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/7352909.stm |title=Giant goldfish 'simply amazing' |publisher=BBC News |date=17 April 2008 |accessdate=17 July 2010}}</ref> Harita, koki dingaranan ''"Goldie"'', diingu minangka sato inguan dina bak di [[Folkestone]], [[Britania Raya|Inggris]], Diukur 15 inci (38&nbsp;cm) sarta leuwih ti 2 pon (0,91&nbsp;kg), tur ngaranna salaku panggedéna kadua di dunya handapeun lauk [[Walanda]].<ref name="BBC17Apr2008" /> Dina bulan [[Juli]] [[2010]], lauk koki diukur {{convert|16|in|cm}} sarta {{convert|5|lb|kg}} ditéwak di balong di [[Poole]], [[Britania Raya|Inggris]], sigana geus ngagedéan ngaleuwihan bak.<ref name="BBC15Jul2010">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-10649008 |title=Surrey schoolboy catches 5lb goldfish in Dorset lake |publisher=BBC News |date=15 July 2010 |accessdate=17 July 2010}}</ref> ===Tetempoan=== Lauk koki mibanda salah sahiji pancaindera nu paling kudu diulik ngeunaan panénjona.<ref name = "Neumeyer">{{cite book |title=Sensory Processing in Aquatic Environments |last=Neumeyer |first=C.|editor=Collin, S.P. |editor2=Marshall, N.J. |chapter=Color Vision in Fishes and Its Neural Basis |year=2003|publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=New York |isbn=|page=223|quote=In goldfish, as the best investigated fish species[...]}}</ref> Lauk koki mibanda opat rupa [[cone cell|''cone cells'']], nu masing-masing sénsitif pikeun kelir-kelir nu béda: [[beureum]], [[héjo]], [[Paul|bulao]] sarta [[ultraviolet]].<ref name = "Neumeyer"/> Kamampuh pikeun ngabédakeun antara opat kelir primér nu béda maranéhna diklasifikasikeun minangka [[tetrachromacy|''tetrachromats'']].<ref>{{cite book| last = Neumeyer| first = Christa | title = Das Farbensehen des Goldfisches: Eine verhaltensphysiologische Analyse|year = 1988| publisher = G. Thieme| isbn = 313718701X}}</ref> ====Maraban==== [[File:Aquarium - dried food2.jpg|thumb|alt=On a blue background, two large light red wafers at the upper left, a light gray compressed cube at the upper right, small brown pellets at the middle left, and, at the middle right and bottom, various yellow-green and red flakes|Rupa-rupa parab lauk]] Idéalna lauk koki kudu diparaban sababaraha kali dina mangsa tengah poé, tapi ieu teu praktis pikeun sabagéan badag kacuali lamun ngagunakeun maraban otomatis.<ref name="abt-goldfish">{{cite web|url=http://www.about-goldfish.com/feeding-goldfish.html|title=Feeding Goldfish |publisher=about-goldfish.com |accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> Sakumaha lobana parab nu kudu diparabkeun ? Paraban saeutik-saeutik heula, tingali sakumaha gancangna parab dihakan.<ref name="abt-goldfish"/> Balikan deui cara ieu, (tengetkeun, sakumaha porsi nu dihakan), nepikeun ka lauk teu daékeun ngahakan parab.<ref name="abt-goldfish"/> Terus kurangan jumlah porsi kasebut dina mangsa maraban kacuali lamun Anjeun tujuan maraban pikeun tumuwuh anu maksimal.<ref name="abt-goldfish"/> Lauk koki di balong diparaban sakali sapoé ti awal usum semi nepi ka panungtung usum gugur.<ref name="abt-goldfish"/> Maraban dina usum tiis gumantung kana suhu cai.<ref name="abt-goldfish"/> lauk koki dina akuarium kudu diparaban sakali sapoé ti awal usum semi nepi ka panungtungan usum gugur kacuali lamun merelukeun tumuwuh nu maksimal, maka kudu dua kali sapoé.<ref name="abt-goldfish"/> ====Baranahan==== Ngabaranahkeun lauk koki nyaéta pamekaran cacara alami sanggeus Anjeun miara.<ref name="about-goldfish-breeding">{{cite web|url=http://www.about-goldfish.com/goldfish-breeding.html|title=Goldfish Breeding.|publisher=about-goldfish.com|accessdate=09 Juni 2017}}</ref> Sanajan Anjeun geus ngarasa senang ngingu lauk koki ku cara meuli, mangrupa hiji kapuasan lamun bisa mijahkeun kalayan ngaronjatkeun kualitas binih nepikeun ka gedé.<ref name="about-goldfish-breeding"/> Lauk koki baris ngendog dina umur sataun, tapi umur idéalna nyaéta antara dua jeung opat taun.<ref name="about-goldfish-breeding" /> Lauk koki nu ngora condong miceun endog leutikna, endog nu leutik ngahasilkeun anak lauk nu leutik ogé nu teu dipikaharep.<ref name="about-goldfish-breeding" /> Lauk koki nu leuwih kolot bisa ngahsilkeun endog nu gedé.<ref name="about-goldfish-breeding" /> Dina satiap hasil mijahkeun baris aya sajumlah anak lauk nu nunjukkeun ciri has indukna.<ref name="about-goldfish-breeding" /> Dina minggu-minggu mimiti kahirupanna, anak lauk mekar gancang pisan -hiji adaptasi nu lahir tina résiko dihakan ku lauk sawawa séjén di lingkungan maranéhna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thefishvet.com.au/pdf/Care_Gf_byRL.pdf|title=Goldfish (''Carassius auratus'')|first=Richmond|last=Loh|publisher=The Fish Vet.com|accessdate=December 31, 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140127141326/http://thefishvet.com.au/pdf/Care_Gf_byRL.pdf |date=January 27, 2014 }}</ref> Ngabaranahkeun lauk koki nyaéta prosés milih lauk sawawa pikeun réproduksi, ngamungkinkeun maranéhna pikeun réproduksi sarta ngaronjatkeun katurunan nu dihasilkeun.<ref>[http://thefishdoctor.co.uk/breeding/a-guide-to-keeping-and-breeding-fancy-goldfish/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402144157/http://thefishdoctor.co.uk/breeding/a-guide-to-keeping-and-breeding-fancy-goldfish/ |date=2017-04-02 }} Breeding fancy goldfish</ref> {| |- |[[File:Goldfisheggs.JPG|thumb|300px|Endog lauk koki némbongkeun bagéan sél]] |[[File:Goldfishfry.JPG|thumb|300px|Burayak Koki (Ryukin)]] |[[File:Red Oranda goldfish in outdoor pond.jpg|thumb|Oranda Beureum (Wen) koki jarang di balong luar rohangan kalayan taraté .]] |} ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons|Carassius auratus}} * [http://www.bristol-aquarists.org.uk/goldfish/goldfish.htm Bristol Aquarists' Society: Goldfish]&nbsp;— Potrét jeung déskripsi variétas lauk koki. * [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=GnDlUJAgtsIC&pg=PA3&dq=ikan+adalah&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8nOz-stfhAhXPTX0KHfCiCykQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=ikan%20adalah&f=false]&nbsp;-Mengenal & Mengend. Predator Ikan [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:Cyprinidae]] [[Kategori:Sato inguan]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Sabanda II]] ot99ubjlt4jtpsgygb9pdus62zmtzm3 0 53373 711660 708842 2026-08-07T01:09:26Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711660 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Tuna}} {{Taxobox | name = Tuna (''Thunnini'') | image = tuna_assortment.png | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Rupaning jinis tuna (ti luhur): [[albakora]], [[tuna sirip biru Atlantik]], [[cakalang]], [[madidihang]], [[tuna mata besar]] | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Perciformes]] | familia = [[Scombridae]] | tribus = '''''[[Thunnini]]''''' | subdivision_ranks = [[Spésiés]] | subdivision = Tempo téks. }} '''Tuna''' nyaéta [[lauk]] ''[[zona pelagik|laut pelagik]]'' anu kaasup kana [[tribus]] '''''Thunnini''''', diwangun ku sababaraha [[spésiés]] tina ''famili'' [[Scombridae]], utamana genus ''[[Thunnus]]''. Lauk ieu mangrupikeun pangojay anu gancang (pernah diukur gancangna dugi ka 77&nbsp;km/jam). Teu jiga kalolobaan lauk anu miboga [[daging]] kelir bodas, daging tuna mah kelirna [[beureum]] ngora dugi ka beureum kolot. Hal ieu disababkeun ku [[otot]] tuna anu langkung seueur ngandung ''[[mioglobin]]'' dibandingkeun lauk sanésna. Sababaraha spésiés tuna anu langkung ageung, sapertos [[tuna sirip biru Atlantik]] (''Thunnus thynnus''), tiasa naékkeun suhu getihna di luhur suhu cai ku cara ''aktivitas'' ototna. Hal ieu nyababkeun maranéhna tiasa hirup dina cai anu langkung tiis sarta tiasa tahan dina rupa-rupa kaayaan lingkungan. Kalolobaanana miboga awak anu badag, tuna mangrupikeun lauk anu miboga ajén komérsial anu luhur.<ref>{{cite book |last=Block |first=Barbara A. |title=Tuna: Physiology, Ecology, and Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/tunaphysiologyec0000barb |year=2001 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=0-12-350443-0}}</ref> == Biologi == Tuna miboga wangun awak anu sakedik seueur mirip sareng [[torpédo]], disebutna ''fusiform'', radagepéng dina sisi-sisina sarta miboga ''moncong'' anu méncos. [[Cécépét tonggong]] (''dorsal'') aya dua jumpluk, cécépét tonggong kahiji ukuranna rada leutik sarta papisah ti cécépét tonggong kadua. Di tukangeun cécépét tonggong sarta [[cécépét ''dubur'' (''anal'') aya cécépét tambahan ngabaris leutik anu disebut ''finlet''. Cécépét buntut nyagak jero kalayan ''jari-jari'' pangrojong anu nutupan sakuliah tungtung ''hipural''. Dina kadua sisi batang buntut masing-masing aya dua lunas gigir ukuran leutik; anu dina sababaraha spésiésna ngapit hiji lunas gigir anu langkung badag. Kalolobaan awakna miboga wilayah ''barut badan'' (''corselet''), nyaéta bagian di tukangeun sirah sarta di sabudeureun cécépét dada anu ditutupan ku [[sisit lauk|sisit-sisit]] anu kandel sarta rada badag. Bagian awak sésana miboga sisit leutik atanapi tanpa sisit. [[Tulang tonggong]] (''vertebrae'') antara 31–66 siki.<ref name="fao">{{aut|Carpenter, Kent E. & Volker H. Niem}}. 2001. FAO Species Identification Guide: ''The Living Marine Resources of The Western Pacific''. Vol. '''6''' : 3721. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.</ref> == Fisiologi == Aspék anu luar biasa tina [[fisiologi]] tuna nyaéta kamampuhna pikeun ngajaga suhu awak anu langkung luhur batan suhu sabudeureunana. Salaku conto, tuna sirip biru tiasa ngajaga suhu awak 24–35&nbsp;°C (75–95&nbsp;°F), sanajan dina cai tiis anu suhuna {{convert|43|F|C}}. Nanging, teu jiga mahluk [[endotermik]] sapertos [[mamalia]] sarta [[manuk]], lauk tuna henteu tiasa ngajaga suhu awakna dina kisaran anu rupa-rupa sarta heureut (''narrow range'').<ref name=tbot>{{cite web |url=http://science.jrank.org/pages/7020/Tuna-Biology-tuna.html |title=Tuna - Biology Of Tuna |accessdate=26 Januari 2026 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102133857/http://science.jrank.org/pages/7020/Tuna-Biology-tuna.html |date=2011-11-02 }}</ref> Tuna mampuh ngalakukeun hal kasebut ku cara ngahasilkeun panas tina prosés métabolisme. ''[[Rete mirabile]]'', nyaéta ''jalinan pembuluh'' [[vena]] sarta [[arteri]] anu aya di sisi awak, mindahkeun panas tina [[getih vena]] ka [[getih arteri]]. Hal ieu bakal ngurangan tiisna awak palebah luar sarta ngajaga otot sangkan tetep haneut. Ieu pisan anu nyababkeun tuna mampuh ngojay langkung gancang kalayan énergi anu langkung saeutik.<ref name=tbot/> [[File:Tuna_Countercurrent_Heat_Exchange.png|thumb|right|250px|Diagram sistem ''rete mirabile'' dina tuna anu mindahkeun panas tina getih vena ka getih arteri pikeun ngajaga suhu otot.]] == Jinis-jinis tuna == [[File:Tuna all sizes Pengo.svg|thumb|350px|Babandingan ukuran maksimum rupaning jinis tuna. ''Thunnus thynnus'' mangrupikeun jinis anu pangageungna, dituturkeun ku jinis tuna sanésna sapertos madidihang sarta cakalang.|alt=Grafik batang anu némbongkeun Thunnus thynnus salaku tuna pangageungna (458 cm), dituturkeun ku Thunnus orientalis (300 cm), Thunnus obesus (250 cm), Gymnosarda unicolor (248 cm), Thunnus maccoyii (245 cm), Thunnus albacares (239 cm), Gasterochisma melampus (164 cm), Thunnus tonggol (145 cm), Thunnus alalunga (140 cm), Euthynnus alletteratus (122 cm), Katsuwonus pelamis (108 cm), Thunnus atlanticus (108 cm), Allothunnus fallai (105 cm), Euthynnus affinis (100 cm), Auxis thazard thazard (65 cm), Auxis rochei rochei (50 cm), sarta Auxis rochei eudorax (36.5 cm).]] Aya leuwih ti 15 spésiés tuna anu sumebar di sagara dunya. Sababaraha jinis tuna anu miboga ajén ékonomi penting di antarana: * '''[[Tuna sirip biru Atlantik]]''' (''Thunnus thynnus''): Jinis tuna pangageungna anu beuratna tiasa dugi ka 600 kg. * '''[[Madidihang]]''' (''Thunnus albacares''): Katelah ogé ku nami ''yellowfin tuna'', seueur ditéwak di perairan tropis. * '''[[Tuna mata besar]]''' (''Thunnus obesus''): Tuna anu hirup dina cai anu langkung jero. * '''[[Albakora]]''' (''Thunnus alalunga''): Jinis tuna anu dagingna warna bodas sarta sering janten bahan tuna kaléng. * '''[[Cakalang]]''' (''Katsuwonus pelamis''): Sanajan ukuranna langkung alit, cakalang mangrupikeun jinis tuna anu paling seueur ditéwak di dunya. Aya leuwih ti 48 spésiés tuna. Marga ''[[Thunnus]]'' nyalira miboga 9 spésiés: * ''Thunnus alalunga'' <small>([[Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre|Bonnaterre]], 1788)</small>, [[albakora]], {{convert|105|cm|in}}. * ''Thunnus albacares'' <small>([[Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre|Bonnaterre]], 1788)</small>, [[madidihang]] atanapi tuna jabrig. * ''Thunnus atlanticus'' <small>([[René-Primevére Lesson|Lesson]], 1831)</small>, [[tuna sirip hideung]]. * ''Thunnus maccoyii'' <small>([[François Louis Nompar de Caumat de Laporte Castelnau|Castelnau]], 1872)</small>, [[tuna sirip biru kidul]]. * ''Thunnus obesus'' <small>(Lowe, 1839)</small>, [[tuna mata badag]]. * ''Thunnus orientalis'' <small>([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]] & [[Hermann Schlegel|Schlegel]], 1844)</small>, [[tuna sirip biru Pasifik]]. * ''Thunnus thynnus'' <small>([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)</small>, [[tuna sirip biru Atlantik]]. * ''Thunnus tonggol'' <small>([[Pieter Bleeker|Bleeker]], 1851)</small>, [[tongkol kulawu]]. * ''Thunnus karasicus'' <small>([[René-Primevére Lesson|Lesson]], 1831)</small>, [[tuna karasik]]. [[File:Fish1316.jpg|thumb|220px|Saurang pamayang sareng tuna kenging ditéwakna.]] Salian ti éta, masih aya sababaraha anggota marga sanés tina [[familia]] [[Scombridae]] anu ogé digolongkeun salaku tuna: * ''Allothunnus fallai'' <small>(Serventy, 1948)</small>. * ''Auxis rochei'' <small>(Risso, 1810)</small>, [[tongkol lisong]]. * ''Auxis tongolis'' <small>([[Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre|Bonnaterre]], 1788)</small>. * ''Auxis thazard'' <small>(Lacepede, 1800)</small>, [[tongkol krai]]. * ''Euthynnus affinis'' <small>(Cantor, 1849)</small>, [[tongkol como]]. * ''Euthynnus alletteratus'' <small>(Rafinesque, 1810)</small>. * ''Euthynnus lineatus'' <small>(Kishinouye, 1920)</small>. * ''Gymnosarda unicolor'' <small>([[Edward Rüppell|Rüppell]], 1836)</small>. * ''Katsuwonus pelamis'' <small>([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)</small>, [[cakalang]]. * ''Thunnus lineaus'' <small>([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]] & [[Hermann Schlegel|Schlegel]], 1844)</small>. Perobihan Utama: == Étimologi == Kecap "Tuna" asalna tina basa [[bahasa Spanyol|Spanyol]] ''atún'', tina [[basa Arab]] تن atanapi نون (''tun/tunn''), tina [[basa Latin]] ''thunnus'', tina {{lang-grc|θύννος|(thýnnos)|lauk tuna}} – anu asal-usulna ditalungtik deui asalna tina {{lang|grc|θύνω}} {{transl|grc|(''thynō'')}}, anu hartosna "nyuruwuk" atanapi "melesat".<ref>{{cite book|title=A lexicon abridged from Liddell and Scott's Greek-English lexicon|first1=H.G.|last1=Liddell|first2=R.|last2=Scott|first3=J.M.|last3=Whiton|edition=17th|publisher=Ginn & Co.|year=1887}}</ref> == Perikanan == Jinis-jinis tuna anu pangpentingna pikeun perikanan téwak sarta olahraga nguseup nyaéta madidihang, tuna mata badag, tuna-tuna sirip biru sarta tatihu, albakor, sarta cakalang. Antawis taun 1940 sarta pertengahan 1960-an, hasil téwak perikanan dunya pikeun lima spésiés tuna pangpentingna parantos ningkat tina angka sakitar 300 rébu janten sakitar sajuta ton per taun, kalolobaanana ditéwak nganggo pakakas pancing. Kalayan kamekaran téknologi alat téwak [[pukat cingcin]] (''purse-seine''), dina sababaraha taun terakhir hasil téwak tuna luncat dugi ka langkung ti 4 juta ton per taun. Sakitar 68 persén tina angka kasebut asalna tina [[Samudra Pasifik]], 22 persén tina [[Samudra Hindia]], sarta 10 persén sésana kabagi antawis [[Samudra Atlantik]] sarta [[Laut Tengah]]. Hasil téwak [[cakalang]] ngadominasi dugi ka 60% tina total téwakan, dituturkeun ku [[madidihang]] (24%), [[tuna mata badag|mata badag]] (10%) sarta [[albakora]] (5%). Sakitar 62% produksi dunya ditéwak ku cara ngagunakeun pukat cingcin, 14% ngagunakeun pancing rawai tuna (''longline''), 11% ngagunakeun pancing huhate (''pole and line''), sarta sésana nganggo pakakas sanésna.<ref name="ISSF">{{cite web |url=http://www.iss-foundation.org/files/b45a4eb2-f9d7-4ed6-87a1-2efe2519baf6/ISSF_A-1%20Introduction.pdf |title=Status of the World Fisheries for Tuna |publisher=ISSF |date=10 November 2009 |accessdate=26 Januari 2026 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327021649/http://www.iss-foundation.org/files/b45a4eb2-f9d7-4ed6-87a1-2efe2519baf6/ISSF_A-1%20Introduction.pdf |date=2010-03-27 }}</ref> Dina taun 2006, Pamaréntah [[Australia]] nuduh yén [[Jepang]] parantos manén tuna sacara kalebihan (''overfishing'') sarta ilégal, ku cara nangkep 12–20 rébu ton per taun, jauh di luhur kuota anu parantos disatujuan nyaéta 6 rébu ton per taun. Ajén tina kalebihan téwakan éta ditaksir dugi ka 2 miliar dolar (Amérika).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061113131846/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200610/s1765413.htm Bradford, Gillian. "Bluefin Tuna Plundering Catches Up With Japan."] ABC News. October 16, 2006.</ref> Éta kalebihan téwak téh anu diduda parantos ngaruksak stok tuna sirip biru.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/28/AR2009112801066.html Eilperin, Juliet. "Saving the Riches of the Sea."] ''Washington Post.'' November 29, 2009.</ref> Nurutkeun [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], "pangabutuh Jepang anu kacida badagna kana tuna bakal mawa ''stok'' lauk anu paling ditéang ieu kana [[katumpuran]] komérsial, iwal ti upami pihak perikanan satuju kana kuota anu langkung ketat".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/jan/22/japan.conservationandendangeredspecies |title=Japan warned tuna stocks face extinction |first=Justin |last=McCurry |work=The Guardian |date=22 Januari 2007 |accessdate=26 Januari 2026 }}</ref> Dina taun 2010, hiji tuna sirip biru anu beuratna 232 kilogram (511,47 pon) pajajalan di [[Pasar lauk Tsukiji]] Tokyo kalayan harga 16,28 juta yen ($US 175.000).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8440758.stm Tuna hits highest price in nine years at Tokyo auction] ''BBC News'', 5 January 2010.</ref> Perobihan == Réferénsi == {{reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == * Clover, Charles. 2004. ''[[The End of the Line: How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat]]''. Ebury Press, London. ISBN 0-09-189780-7 * [[Organisasi Kadaharan jeung Tatanén|FAO]]: Species Catalog Vol. 2 Scombrids of the World. FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, Volume 2. FIR/S125 Vol. 2. ISBN 92-5-101381-0 * [[Organisasi Kadaharan jeung Tatanén|FAO]]: Review of the state of world marine fishery resources: [http://firms.fao.org/firms/resource/16001/en Tuna and tuna-like species - Global, 2005] Rome. * Majkowski, Jacek (1995) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y5852e/Y5852E08.htm#ch3.1 "Tuna and tuna-like species"] In: ''Review of the state of world marine fishery resources'', FAO Fisheries technical paper 457, FAO, Rome. ISBN 95-5-105267-0. * Majkowski J, Arrizabalaga H, Carocci F and Murua H (2011) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2389e/i2389e.zip "Tuna and tuna-like species"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170625/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2389e/i2389e.zip |date=2016-03-03 }} In: ''Review of the state of world marine fishery resources'', pages 227–244, FAO Fisheries technical paper 569, FAO, Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-107023-9. * Standard of Identity for Canned Tuna (United States), Code of Federal Regulations: 21 CFR 161.190 - Canned tuna. * Viñas J and Tudela S (2009) [http://dugi-doc.udg.edu/bitstream/10256/3594/1/Validated-Methodology.pdf "A validated methodology for genetic identification of tuna species (genus ''Thunnus'')"] ''PLoS One'', '''4'''(10): e7606. Perobihan Utama: == Tutumbu kaluar == {{Commons category|Scombridae}} {{Cookbook}} * {{en}} [http://www.atuna.com/ Atuna.com] - Gerbang pasar tuna dunya. * {{en}} [http://www.healthytuna.com/health-nutrition Mangpaat nutrisi tuna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025031417/http://www.healthytuna.com/health-nutrition |date=2010-10-25 }} * {{en}} [http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/tuna/ Tuna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606141701/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/tuna/ |date=2011-06-06 }} di [[Greenpeace]] * {{en}} [http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/sucks.html Tuna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727042839/http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/sucks.html |date=2011-07-27 }} di Stanford University Microdocs * {{en}} [http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/seafoodwatch.asp Program ''Seafood Watch'' Monterey Bay Aquarium] * {{en}} [http://www.kallipolis.com/diet/food.php?id=15118 Inpormasi nutrisi tuna sirip biru] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060421052048/http://www.kallipolis.com/diet/food.php?id=15118 |date=2006-04-21 }} * {{en}} [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/sea-mehg.html Tabel tingkat merkuri rélatif dina lauk (FDA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060110235714/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/sea-mehg.html |date=2006-01-10 }} * {{en}} [http://GotMercury.Org GotMercury.Org, kalkulator merkuri dumasar kana data FDA sarta rumus EPA.] * {{en}} [http://oceans.greenpeace.org/en/our-oceans/tuna Fakta ngeunaan tuna ti Greenpeace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609133958/http://oceans.greenpeace.org/en/our-oceans/tuna |date=2007-06-09 }} Perobihan anu Dilakukeun: === Warta === * {{en}} [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=bluefin-tuna-in-peril&print=true The Bluefin Tuna in Peril], Scientific American, 24 Juni 2008. * {{en}} [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104543&org=NSF&from=news How Hot Tuna (and Some Sharks) Stay Warm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706033400/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104543&org=NSF&from=news |date=2017-07-06 }}, National Science Foundation, 27 Oktober 2005. * {{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/25/nyregion/25nyc.html?ref=nyregion|title=Tuna Fish Stories: The Candidates Spin the Sushi|last=Haberman|first=Clyde|date=25 January 2008|work=[[The New York Times]]}} {{Scombridae}} [[Kategori:Scombridae]] [[Kategori:Lauk laut]] [[Kategori:Lauk komérsial]] [[Kategori:Lauk Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Lauk konsumsi]] [[Kategori:Lauk pancing]] [[Kategori:Komoditas perikanan]] mrf9q15rkqpu56e1u5he4q87lonpxzp 0 54719 711748 659489 2026-08-07T03:19:36Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711748 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Giacomo Agostini (2003).jpg|thumb|200px|alt=A man wearing a white leather top with writing on it. His arms are crossed and there is a man standing in front to his left.|[[Giacomo Agostini]], anu meunang rékor dalapan kali Kajuaraan Dunya 500cc.]] [[Balap motor Grand Prix]] nyaéta kajuaraan balap motor utama, nu geus dibagi jadi tilu kelas saprak 1997: 125cc, 250cc jeung MotoGP. Kelas nu geus dieureunkeun nyaéta 350cc, 50cc / 80cc sarta [[Sidecar|Motor gandengan]].<ref name="Guiness">{{harvnb|Marshall|1997|p=289}}</ref> Kelas utama nyaéta MotoGP, nu saméméhna katelah minangka kelas 500cc.<ref name="Guiness" /> Kajuaraan Dunya balap jalan aspal Grand Prix diadegkeun dina taun 1949 ku badan pangalola olahraga, nyaéta [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme]] (FIM), sarta nyaéta balap motor Kejuaraan Dunia nu pangkolotna nu pernah aya.<ref name="MotoGP">{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics |title=Basics |publisher=[[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]] |accessdate=3 February 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707105315/http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics |date=7 July 2011 }}</ref> Motor nu digunakeun di MotoGP nyaéta tujuan nu diwangun pikeun olahraga, sarta teu bisa dibeuli ku masyarakat umum sabab teu meunang dipaké di jalam umum.<ref name="MotoGP" /> Di tengah-tengah taun 1970-an nepi ka 2002, kelas atas balap GP diwenangkeun 500cc kalayan maksimal opat séher, teu paduli naha mesin éta 2 tak atawa 4 tak.<ref name="MotoGP" /> Parobahan paraturan diwanohkeun dina taun 2002, pikeun ngagampilkeun pantahapan mesin 2 tak.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics/bikes |title=Bikes |publisher=[[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]] |accessdate=3 February 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310065657/http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics/bikes |date=10 March 2012 }}</ref> Satiap usum ngawengku 12 nepi ka 18 [[List of Grand Prix motorcycle races|Grands Prix]] nu direbutkeun di sirkuit katutup, sabalikna jalan umum. Hasil peunteun dina kajadian ieu diitung kalayan purah balap sarta konstruktor kajuaraan dunya. kajuaraan purah balap jeung konstruktor nyaéta kajuaraan nu misahtap dumasar kana sistim peunteun nu sarua. Jumlah peunteun nu dibikeun dina ahir satiap balapan ka 15 purah balap kualifikasi pangluhurna dumasar kana posisi maranéhna anggeus balapan. Peunteun ditarima ku masing-masing purah baqlap nu anggeus balapan, ti posisi ka 1 nepi ka 15: 25, 20, 16, 13, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. Sacara historis, aya sababaraha [[List of FIM World Championship points scoring systems|sistim peunteun]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fim-live.com/fileadmin/alfresco/Codes_et_reglements/ROAD_RACING_GP_Eng.pdf |title=FIM Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix Regulations 2009 |publisher=[[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme]] |format=PDF |page=44 |date=31 January 2009 |accessdate=2 September 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310001842/http://www.fim-live.com/fileadmin/alfresco/Codes_et_reglements/ROAD_RACING_GP_Eng.pdf |date=10 March 2012 }}</ref> Hasil ti sakabéh Grand Prix mangsa ieu diitung kalayan kajuaraan; Di mangsa katukang, ngan sajumlah hasil nu diitung..<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics/key_rules |title=Key Rules |publisher=[[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]] |accessdate=3 February 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309225902/http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics/key_rules |date=9 March 2012 }}</ref> [[Giacomo Agostini]] geus meunang sababaraha kali kejuaraan, dalapan kali, kaasup rékor tujuh kali juara ti [[1966 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1966]] nepi ka [[1972 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1972]]. [[Marc Márquez]] nyaéta nu pangngorana nu meunang kajuaraan; manéhna 20 taun sarta 266 poé nalika manéhna ngahontal juara taun [[2013 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2013]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.motorcyclemuseum.org/halloffame/detail.aspx?RacerID=275&lpos=-1025px&letter=S&txtFname=&rblFname=S&txtLname=&rblLname=S&discipline=0 |title=Freddie Spencer |publisher=AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame |accessdate=9 January 2012}}</ref> Purah balap urang Italia panglobana nu meunang kajuaraan; genep pura balap geus meunang total dua puluh kajuaraan. Purah balap ti Britania Raya geus meunang kadua panglobana; genep pura balap geus meunang total tujuh kajuaraan. Purah balap ti Amérika geus meunang katilu panglobana, Tujuh purah balap geus meunang total lima belas kajuaraan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/America+winning+heritage+in+MotoGP |title=America's winning heritage in MotoGP |publisher=[[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]] |accessdate=11 December 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614044405/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/America+winning+heritage+in+MotoGP |date=14 June 2012 }}</ref> [[Leslie Graham]] meunang kajuaraan nu mimiti taun [[1949 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1949]]. [[Marc Márquez]] ti tim [[Repsol Honda Team|Honda]] nu nyekel gelar juara ayeuna.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/motogp/20108371 |title=Jorge Lorenzo cruises to title as Stoner wins Australian GP |publisher=BBC Sport |date=28 October 2012 |accessdate=28 October 2012 |first=Tom |last=Rostance}}</ref> ==Juara== {| class="wikitable" |+Katerangan |- |width=40px align=center style="background-color:#FBCEB1"|{{dagger}} |Juara ogé meunang Kajuaraan 350cc dina usum éta |- |width=40px align=center style="background-color:#cedff2"|* |Juara ogé meunang Kajuaraan 250cc dina usum éta |- |width=40px align=center|{{sort dash}} |Nunjukkeun informasi teu aya |- |} * Kolom "Usum" nujul kana usum kompetisi dilaksanakeun, sarta [[WP:wikilink|wikilink]]s ka artikel ngeunaan usum éta. * Kolom "Margin" nujul kana margin peunteun di mana nu meunang ngéléhkeun ''runner-up''.. ===Kalayan usum=== {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" |+Juara 500cc/MotoGP |- !scope="col"|Usum !scope="col"|Nagara !scope="col"|[[List of Grand Prix motorcycle racers|Purah Balap]] !scope="col"|Konstruktor !scope="col"|[[List of Grand Prix motorcycle races|Grand Prix]] !scope="col"|[[Pole position|''Pole'']] !scope="col"|[[List of motorcycle Grand Prix winners|Meunang]] !scope="col"|Podium !scope="col"|[[Fastest lap|''Lap'' panggancangna]] !scope="col"|Peunteun !scope="col"|Marjin |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1949 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1949]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Leslie|Graham}} |[[AJS]] |align=center|5 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|2 |align=center|3 |align=center|3 |align=center|30 |align=center|2 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1950 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1950]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Umberto|Masetti}} |[[Gilera]] |align=center|6 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|2 |align=center|4 |align=center|1 |align=center|28 |align=center|1 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1951 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1951]] |{{UK}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|Geoff|Duke}}{{dagger}} |[[Norton Motorcycle Company|Norton]] |align=center|8 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|4 |align=center|4 |align=center|2 |align=center|35 |align=center|4 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1952 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1952]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Umberto|Masetti}} |[[Gilera]] |align=center|8 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|2 |align=center|4 |align=center|2 |align=center|28 |align=center|3 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1953 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1953]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Geoff|Duke}} |[[Gilera]] |align=center|9 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|4 |align=center|5 |align=center|1 |align=center|38 |align=center|14 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1954 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1954]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Geoff|Duke}} |[[Gilera]] |align=center|9 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|5 |align=center|6 |align=center|4 |align=center|40 |align=center|20 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1955 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1955]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Geoff|Duke}} |[[Gilera]] |align=center|8 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|4 |align=center|5 |align=center|6 |align=center|36 |align=center|6 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1956 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1956]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|John|Surtees}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|6 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|3 |align=center|3 |align=center|2 |align=center|24 |align=center|8 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1957 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1957]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Libero|Liberati}} |[[Gilera]] |align=center|6 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|4 |align=center|5 |align=center|1 |align=center|32 |align=center|12 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1958 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1958]] |{{UK}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|John|Surtees}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|7 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|6 |align=center|6 |align=center|5 |align=center|32 |align=center|12 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1959 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1959]] |{{UK}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|John|Surtees}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|8 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|7 |align=center|7 |align=center|6 |align=center|32 |align=center|10 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1960 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1960]] |{{UK}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|John|Surtees}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|7 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|5 |align=center|6 |align=center|6 |align=center|46 |align=center|20 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1961 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1961]] |{{flag|Rhodesia and Nyasaland}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|Gary|Hocking}}<sup>{{dagger}}</sup> |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|10 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|7 |align=center|7 |align=center|9 |align=center|48 |align=center|8 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1962 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1962]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Mike|Hailwood}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|8 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|5 |align=center|5 |align=center|4 |align=center|40 |align=center|11 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1963 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1963]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Mike|Hailwood}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|8 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|7 |align=center|7 |align=center|7 |align=center|40 |align=center|19 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1964 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1964]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Mike|Hailwood}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|9 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|7 |align=center|7 |align=center|6 |align=center|40 |align=center|15 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1965 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1965]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Mike|Hailwood}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|10 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|8 |align=center|8 |align=center|8 |align=center|48 |align=center|20 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1966 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1966]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|9 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|3 |align=center|8 |align=center|2 |align=center|36 |align=center|6 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1967 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1967]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|10 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|5 |align=center|8 |align=center|4 |align=center|46 |align=center|0 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1968 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1968]] |{{ITA}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|10 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|10 |align=center|10 |align=center|10 |align=center|48 |align=center|14 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1969 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1969]] |{{ITA}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|12 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|10 |align=center|10 |align=center|10 |align=center|105 |align=center|58 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1970 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1970]] |{{ITA}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|11 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|10 |align=center|10 |align=center|9 |align=center|90 |align=center|28 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1971 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1971]] |{{ITA}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|11 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|8 |align=center|8 |align=center|9 |align=center|90 |align=center|32 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1972 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1972]] |{{ITA}} |style="background:#FBCEB1;"|{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|13 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|11 |align=center|11 |align=center|12 |align=center|105 |align=center|19 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1973 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1973]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Phil|Read}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|11 |align=center|{{sort dash}} |align=center|4 |align=center|8 |align=center|1 |align=center|84 |align=center|20 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1974 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1974]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Phil|Read}} |[[MV Agusta]] |align=center|10 |align=center|{{sort|04|4}} |align=center|4 |align=center|7 |align=center|1 |align=center|82 |align=center|13 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1975 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1975]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|10 |align=center|{{sort|02|2}} |align=center|4 |align=center|6 |align=center|4 |align=center|84 |align=center|8 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1976 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1976]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Barry|Sheene}} |[[Suzuki MotoGP|Suzuki]] |align=center|10 |align=center|{{sort|04|4}} |align=center|5 |align=center|6 |align=center|3 |align=center|72 |align=center|24 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1977 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1977]] |{{UK}} |{{sortname|Barry|Sheene}} |[[Suzuki MotoGP|Suzuki]] |align=center|10 |align=center|{{sort|07|7}} |align=center|6 |align=center|7 |align=center|6 |align=center|107 |align=center|27 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1978 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1978]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Kenny|Roberts}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|11 |align=center|{{sort|02|2}} |align=center|4 |align=center|7 |align=center|6 |align=center|110 |align=center|10 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1979 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1979]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Kenny|Roberts}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|12 |align=center|{{sort|05|5}} |align=center|5 |align=center|7 |align=center|4 |align=center|113 |align=center|24 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1980 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1980]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Kenny|Roberts}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|8 |align=center|{{sort|02|2}} |align=center|3 |align=center|6 |align=center|4 |align=center|87 |align=center|15 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1981 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1981]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Marco|Lucchinelli}} |[[Suzuki]] |align=center|11 |align=center|{{sort|07|7}} |align=center|5 |align=center|6 |align=center|5 |align=center|105 |align=center|11 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1982 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1982]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Franco|Uncini}} |[[Suzuki MotoGP|Suzuki]] |align=center|12 |align=center|{{sort|01|1}} |align=center|5 |align=center|7 |align=center|1 |align=center|103 |align=center|27 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1983 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1983]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Freddie|Spencer}} |[[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] |align=center|12 |align=center|{{sort|06|6}} |align=center|6 |align=center|10 |align=center|3 |align=center|144 |align=center|2 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1984 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1984]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Eddie|Lawson}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|12 |align=center|{{sort|02|2}} |align=center|4 |align=center|9 |align=center|3 |align=center|142 |align=center|31 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1985 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1985]] |{{USA}} |style="background:#cedff2;"|{{sortname|Freddie|Spencer}}<sup>*</sup> |[[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] |align=center|12 |align=center|{{sort|10|10}} |align=center|7 |align=center|10 |align=center|6 |align=center|141 |align=center|8 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1986 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1986]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Eddie|Lawson}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|11 |align=center|{{sort|07|7}} |align=center|7 |align=center|10 |align=center|6 |align=center|139 |align=center|22 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1987 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1987]] |{{AUS}} |{{sortname|Wayne|Gardner}} |[[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|10|10}} |align=center|7 |align=center|11 |align=center|8 |align=center|178 |align=center|20 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1988 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1988]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Eddie|Lawson}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|02|2}} |align=center|7 |align=center|12 |align=center|5 |align=center|252 |align=center|23 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1989 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1989]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Eddie|Lawson}} |[[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|01|1}} |align=center|4 |align=center|13 |align=center|3 |align=center|228 |align=center|17.5 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1990 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1990]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Wayne|Rainey}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|03|3}} |align=center|7 |align=center|14 |align=center|6 |align=center|255 |align=center|67 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1991 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1991]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Wayne|Rainey}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|06|6}} |align=center|6 |align=center|13 |align=center|8 |align=center|233 |align=center|9 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1992 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1992]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Wayne|Rainey}} |[[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] |align=center|13 |align=center|{{sort|00|0}} |align=center|3 |align=center|8 |align=center|3 |align=center|140 |align=center|4 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1993 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1993]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Kevin|Schwantz}} |[[Suzuki MotoGP|Suzuki]] |align=center|14 |align=center|{{sort|06|6}} |align=center|4 |align=center|11 |align=center|2 |align=center|248 |align=center|34 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1994 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1994]] |{{AUS}} |{{sortname|Mick|Doohan}} |[[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] |align=center|14 |align=center|{{sort|06|6}} |align=center|9 |align=center|14 |align=center|7 |align=center|317 |align=center|143 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1995 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1995]] |{{AUS}} |{{sortname|Mick|Doohan}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|13 |align=center|{{sort|09|9}} |align=center|7 |align=center|10 |align=center|7 |align=center|248 |align=center|33 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1996 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1996]] |{{AUS}} |{{sortname|Mick|Doohan}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|08|8}} |align=center|8 |align=center|12 |align=center|4 |align=center|309 |align=center|64 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1997 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1997]] |{{AUS}} |{{sortname|Mick|Doohan}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|12|12}} |align=center|12 |align=center|14 |align=center|11 |align=center|340 |align=center|143 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1998 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1998]] |{{AUS}} |{{sortname|Mick|Doohan}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|14 |align=center|{{sort|08|8}} |align=center|8 |align=center|11 |align=center|3 |align=center|260 |align=center|52 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[1999 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1999]] |{{ESP}} |{{sortname|Àlex|Crivillé}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|16 |align=center|{{sort|02|2}} |align=center|6 |align=center|10 |align=center|2 |align=center|267 |align=center|57 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2000 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2000]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Kenny|Roberts, Jr.}} |[[Suzuki MotoGP|Suzuki]] |align=center|16 |align=center|{{sort|04|4}} |align=center|4 |align=center|9 |align=center|3 |align=center|258 |align=center|49 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2001 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2001]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}} |[[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|04|4}} |align=center|11 |align=center|13 |align=center|10 |align=center|325 |align=center|106 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2002 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2002]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|15 |align=center|{{sort|07|7}} |align=center|11 |align=center|15 |align=center|9 |align=center|355 |align=center|140 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2003 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2003]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|16 |align=center|{{sort|09|9}} |align=center|9 |align=center|16 |align=center|12 |align=center|357 |align=center|80 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2004 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2004]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}} |[[Yamaha Motor Racing|Yamaha]] |align=center|16 |align=center|{{sort|05|5}} |align=center|9 |align=center|11 |align=center|3 |align=center|304 |align=center|47 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2005 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2005]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}} |[[Yamaha Motor Racing|Yamaha]] |align=center|17 |align=center|{{sort|05|5}} |align=center|11 |align=center|16 |align=center|6 |align=center|367 |align=center|147 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2006 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2006]] |{{USA}} |{{sortname|Nicky|Hayden}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|17 |align=center|{{sort|01|1}} |align=center|2 |align=center|10 |align=center|2 |align=center|252 |align=center|5 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2007 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2007]] |{{AUS}} |{{sortname|Casey|Stoner}} |[[Ducati Corse|Ducati]] |align=center|18 |align=center|{{sort|04|4}} |align=center|10 |align=center|14 |align=center|6 |align=center|367 |align=center|125 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2008 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2008]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}} |[[Yamaha Motor Racing|Yamaha]] |align=center|18 |align=center|{{sort|02|2}} |align=center|9 |align=center|16 |align=center|6 |align=center|373 |align=center|93 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2009 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2009]] |{{ITA}} |{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}} |[[Yamaha Motor Racing|Yamaha]] |align=center|17 |align=center|{{sort|07|7}} |align=center|6 |align=center|13 |align=center|6 |align=center|306 |align=center|45 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2010 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2010]] |{{ESP}} |{{sortname|Jorge|Lorenzo}} |[[Yamaha Motor Racing|Yamaha]] |align=center|18 |align=center|{{sort|07|7}} |align=center|9 |align=center|16 |align=center|4 |align=center|383 |align=center|138 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2011 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2011]] |{{AUS}} |{{sortname|Casey|Stoner}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|17 |align=center|12 |align=center|10 |align=center|16 |align=center|7 |align=center|350 |align=center|90 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2012 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2012]] |{{ESP}} |{{sortname|Jorge|Lorenzo}} |[[Yamaha Motor Racing|Yamaha]] |align=center|18 |align=center|{{sort|07|7}} |align=center|6 |align=center|16 |align=center|5 |align=center|350 |align=center|18 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2013 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2013]] |{{ESP}} |{{sortname|Marc|Márquez}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|18 |align=center|{{sort|09|9}} |align=center|6 |align=center|16 |align=center|11 |align=center|334 |align=center|4 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2014 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2014]] |{{ESP}} |{{sortname|Marc|Márquez}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|18 |align=center|13 |align=center|13 |align=center|14 |align=center|12 |align=center|362 |align=center|67 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2015 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2015]] |{{ESP}} |{{sortname|Jorge|Lorenzo}} |[[Yamaha Motor Racing|Yamaha]] |align=center|18 |align=center|{{sort|05|5}} |align=center|7 |align=center|13 |align=center|6 |align=center|330 |align=center|5 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|[[2016 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2016]] |{{ESP}} |{{sortname|Marc|Márquez}} |[[Repsol Honda|Honda]] |align=center|18 |align=center|{{sort|07|7}} |align=center|5 |align=center|12 |align=center|4 |align=center|298 |align=center|49 |} ===Sababaraha juara=== {| class="sortable plainrowheaders wikitable" |+Sababaraha kali juara 500cc/MotoGP |- !scope="col"|Purah Balap !scope="col"|Total !scope="col" class="unsortable"|Usum |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|ITA}} {{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} | align=center|8 | [[1966 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1966]], [[1967 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1967]], [[1968 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1968]], [[1969 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1969]], [[1970 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1970]], [[1971 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1971]], [[1972 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1972]], [[1975 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1975]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|ITA}} '''{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}}''' | align=center|7 | [[2001 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2001]], [[2002 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2002]], [[2003 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2003]], [[2004 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2004]], [[2005 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2005]], [[2008 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2008]], [[2009 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2009]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|AUS}} {{sortname|Mick|Doohan}} | align=center|5 | [[1994 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1994]], [[1995 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1995]], [[1996 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1996]], [[1997 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1997]], [[1998 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1998]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|UK}} {{sortname|Geoff|Duke}} | align=center|4 | [[1951 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1951]], [[1953 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1953]], [[1954 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1954]], [[1955 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1955]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|UK}} {{sortname|John|Surtees}} | align=center|4 | [[1956 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1956]], [[1958 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1958]], [[1959 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1959]], [[1960 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1960]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|UK}} {{sortname|Mike|Hailwood}} | align=center|4 | [[1962 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1962]], [[1963 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1963]], [[1964 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1964]], [[1965 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1965]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|USA}} {{sortname|Eddie|Lawson}} | align=center|4 | [[1984 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1984]], [[1986 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1986]], [[1988 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1988]], [[1989 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1989]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|USA}} {{sortname|Kenny|Roberts}} | align=center|3 | [[1978 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1978]], [[1979 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1979]], [[1980 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1980]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|USA}} {{sortname|Wayne|Rainey}} | align=center|3 | [[1990 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1990]], [[1991 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1991]], [[1992 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1992]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|ESP}} '''{{sortname|Jorge|Lorenzo}}''' | align=center|3 |[[2010 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2010]], [[2012 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2012]], [[2015 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2015]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|ESP}} '''{{sortname|Marc|Márquez}}''' | align=center|3 |[[2013 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2013]], [[2014 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2014]], [[2016 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2016]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|ITA}} {{sortname|Umberto|Masetti}} | align=center|2 | [[1950 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1950]], [[1952 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1952]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|UK}} {{sortname|Phil|Read}} | align=center|2 | [[1973 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1973]], [[1974 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1974]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|UK}} {{sortname|Barry|Sheene}} | align=center|2 | [[1976 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1976]], [[1977 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1977]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|USA}} {{sortname|Freddie|Spencer}} | align=center|2 | [[1983 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1983]], [[1985 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1985]] |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|AUS}} {{sortname|Casey|Stoner}} | align=center|2 | [[2007 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2007]], [[2011 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2011]] |} * '''Kandel''' nandakeun purah balap nu aktip. ===Kalayan konstruktor=== {| class="sortable plainrowheaders wikitable" |+Juara Konstruktor 500cc/MotoGP |- !scope="col"|Konstruktor !scope="col"|Total |- ! scope="row" | {{flagicon|Italy}} [[MV Agusta]] | align="center" | 18 |- ! scope="row" | {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] | align="center" | 22 |- ! scope="row" | {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Yamaha Motor Company|Yamaha]] | align="center" | 17 |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Suzuki MotoGP|Suzuki]] | align=center| 6 |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Gilera]] | align=center| 6 |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Norton Motorcycle Company|Norton]] | align=center| 1 |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|UK}} [[AJS]] | align=center| 1 |- !scope="row"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Ducati Corse|Ducati]] | align=center| 1 |} ===Kalayan Kabangsaan=== {| class="sortable plainrowheaders wikitable" |+Juara 500cc/MotoGP Kalayan Kabangsaan |- !scope="col"|Nagara !scope="col"|Purah Balap !scope="col"|Total |- !scope="row"|{{ITA}} |align=center| 6 |align=center| 20 |- !scope="row"|{{UK}} |align=center| 6 |align=center| 17 |- !scope="row"|{{USA}} |align=center| 7 |align=center| 15 |- !scope="row"|{{AUS}} |align=center| 3 |align=center| 8 |- !scope="row"|{{ESP}} |align=center| 3 |align=center| 7 |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Rhodesia and Nyasaland}} |align=center| 1 |align=center| 1 |} ==Dicutat tina== '''Bibliograpi''' {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Marshall |first=Anne |title=Guinness Book of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofkn0000shah |publisher=Guinness Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=0-85112-046-6 |ref=harv}}{{refend}} '''Umum''' * {{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/Statistics/winners |title=Winners |publisher=MotoGP |accessdate=7 May 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413091239/https://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/Statistics/winners |date=13 April 2021 }} '''Spésifik''' {{Reflist|30em}} {{500 cc/MotoGP Motorcycle World Champions}} {{MotoGP}} {{featured list}} {{DEFAULTSORT:List of 500cc MotoGP Motorcycle World Champions}} [[Kategori:Lists of Grand Prix motorcycle racers|500cc Motogp World Champions]] kmpukloix2fpv61m33p73sonseeg0qp 0 54944 711851 704990 2026-08-07T05:52:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711851 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}}{{Taxobox | name = ''Kéhkél'' | image = Glyptothorax botius.jpg | image_width = 285px | image_caption = ''Glyptothorax Platypogon'' | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Siluriformes]] | familia = [[Sisoridae]] | subfamilia = [[Glyptosterninae]] | genus = '''''Glyptothorax''''' |Species = Glyptothorax platypogon | genus_authority = [[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1860 | type_species = ''Glyptosternon striatus'' | type_species_authority = McClelland, 1842 | synonyms = ''Aglyptosternon'' <small>Bleeker, 1862</small><br /> ''Euclyptosternum'' <small>Günther, 1864</small><br /> ''Paraglyptothorax'' <small>Li, 1986</small><br /> ''Pteroglanis'' <small>Fowler, 1934</small><br /> ''Pteropsoglanis'' <small>Fowler, 1934</small><br /> ''Sundagagata'' <small>Boeseman, 1966</small><br /> ''Superglyptothorax'' <small>Li, 1986</small> <ref>{{aut|Thomson, A.W.}}; {{aut|Page, L.M.}} 2006: Genera of the Asian catfish families Sisoridae and Erethistidae (Teleostei: Siluriformes). [http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/index.html ''Zootaxa'',] 1345: 1–96. [http://mapress.com/zootaxa/2006f/z01345p096f.pdf Abstract & excerpt] [http://mapress.com/zootaxa/2006f/zt01345p096.pdf PDF]</ref> }} '''Kéhkél''' basa [[Latin]] (''Glyptothorax platypogon'')<ref name=GBFI>{{Cite news | title = Glyptothorax platypogon| url = http://www.gbif.org/species/2341383 | work = Universitetsparken 15 | accessdate = 2017-5-9 | location = Denmark}}</ref> nyaéta [[lauk]] leutik kawas [[lélé]] hirupna disusukan anu caina tarik/nyéot, <ref name=Rigg>{{Cite book | author = Jonathan Rigg | year = 1862 | pages =213|title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java | location = Batavia | publisher = LANGE & CO}}</ref><ref name="Planet catfish">{{cite web|url=https://www.planetcatfish.com/common/species.php?species_id=1554|title=Planet catfish|publisher= planetcatfish.com|accessdate=2017-05-6}}</ref> ''Glyptothorax'', asalna tina kecap ''glyptes'' anu hartina maseuk/mahat jeung kecap ''thorax'' anu hartina susu atawa dada,<ref name=ngaran>{{cite web|url=http://www.fishbase.org/summary/Glyptothorax-platypogon.html|title=Glyptothorax platypogon|publisher=http://www.fishbase.org |accessdate=2017-05-6}}</ref> ieu dumasar kana kabiasaan hirup lauk kéhkél anu mikaresep susukan anu caina palid rada tarik (nyéot) kéhkél sok caricing naplok dina sela-sela batu kawas anu dipaseuk.<ref name="Planet catfish"/> ==Pedaran== Kéhkél bisa naplok dina [[batu]] kalawan henteu kabawa palid téh ku alatan mibanda [[kulit]] anu reregetan dina palebah dadana anu gunana pikeun nyeusep/naplok kana [[batu]] anu diancikan/dicicingana.<ref name=DNA>{{Cite journal | title = Bulletin of the Raffles Museum | author Weber| coauthors = Beaufort | journal = Glyptothorax platypogon | volume = 16-20 | pages = 183 | url = https://books.google.co.id/books?id=DqkfAQAAIAAJ&q=Glyptothorax+platypogon&dq=Glyptothorax+platypogon&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijs9-TjOLTAhVMrY8KHZsQDGYQ6AEILDAB | accessdate = 2017-9-05}}</ref><ref name=ZOO>{{cite web |url=http://e-journal.biologi.lipi.go.id/index.php/zoo_indonesia/article/view/2395/2035 |title=ZOO INDONESIA |publisher=http://e-journal.biologi.lipi.go.id |accessdate=2017-05-6 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129060048/http://e-journal.biologi.lipi.go.id/index.php/zoo_indonesia/article/view/2395/2035 |date=2017-11-29 }}</ref> Genus lauk kéhkél loba kapanggih di [[Indonésia]], [[Turki]], [[Syria]], [[India]] jeung [[China]] beulah wétan , kalawan mibanda 84 ''spesies'' nominal, Kéhkél mangrupa genus paling langka tina éta [[spesies]].<ref name=ngaran/> Urang Jerman nyebut kana lauk kéhkél : ''Brauner Gebirgswels'' .<ref name=ngaran/> ==Ciri mandiri== ===Pangawakan=== [[Lauk]] kéhkél mah henteu mibanda sirip dina dadana kitu ogé cucuk sirip [[dada]], sungut/kumisna kandel jeung gepéng bijil tina [[biwir]] beulah sisina jumlahna aya opat pasang dina ''posisi'' ''subterminal'' .<ref name=Rainboth>{{Cite book | title = Fishes of the Cambodian Mekong| url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_sZQbV75rtAQC| last = Rainboth| first = Walter| publisher = Food & Agriculture Org | location = Oschkosh, Wisconsin U.S.A | year = 1996|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_sZQbV75rtAQC/page/n172 161]| isbn = 92-5-103743-4 }}</ref> awakna semu dempak/ datar nyaluyukeun kana tarikna [[cai]] [[susukan]] tur mindeng kapanggih naplok dina sesa-sela [[batu]];<ref name=Rainboth/> rubak awakna 5,0-5,6 kali leuwih pondok tina panjang awakna; rubak buntutna ampir saruan jeung panjang buntutna; kelir awakna pualam/semu konéng tur mibanda guratan anu ngagaris remeng-remeng dinatungtung tonggongna; awakna katutup ku titik-titik anu ngajarendul (''Kottelat et al'', 1993).<ref name=DNA/><ref name=Rainboth/> Mibanda sirip dina tonggong, bujur, buntut, sapasang sirip dada jeung sirip beuteung.<ref name=DNA/> Mangsa nincak déwasa panjangna nepi ka 100&nbsp;mm.<ref name=DNA/> ===Mijah=== Lauk kéhkél [[jalu]] jeung bikang mimiti begér mangsa geus nepi kana ukuran panjang 50&nbsp;mm.<ref name=Rainboth/> [[Bulan]] [[Maret]] – [[Agustus]] mangrupa usum mijah lauk kéhkél.<ref name=DNA/> Waktu mijah anu kaitung panjang bisa disebutkeun pola [[endog]]an lauk kéhkél mah sawaréh-sawaréh (''partial spawner'').<ref name=ZOO/><ref name=Rainboth/> Ieu ogé mangrupa ''pola adaptasi'' pikeun ngajaga kalumangsungan hirupna (''survival'') tina kaayaan tempat hirupna anu henteu netep.<ref name=ZOO/> ==Baca Ogé== # {{en}}[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=E50eAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264&lpg=PA264&dq=Glyptothorax+platypogon&source=bl&ots=cJ4Wcm5hEa&sig=5claKv3BQ3dSNqT9E7FJ7A8Ml4s&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjW6pfw-tnTAhVFq48KHUvMBGgQ6AEIaDAL#v=onepage&q=Glyptothorax%20platypogon&f=false The Fishes of the Indo-australian Arcipelago] # {{en}}[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=i0paVEScSj8C&pg=PA1071&dq=Glyptothorax+platypogon&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiWotLl8-LTAhUMuY8KHafeC5o4ChDoAQhUMAg#v=onepage&q=Glyptothorax%20platypogon&f=false An Index to the Scientific Contents of the Journal and Proceedings of the] # {{id}}[http://e-journal.biologi.lipi.go.id/index.php/zoo_indonesia/article/view/2395/2035 Journal Biologi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129060048/http://e-journal.biologi.lipi.go.id/index.php/zoo_indonesia/article/view/2395/2035 |date=2017-11-29 }} * [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=GnDlUJAgtsIC&pg=PA3&dq=ikan+adalah&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8nOz-stfhAhXPTX0KHfCiCykQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=ikan%20adalah&f=false Mengenal & Mengendalikan Predator Ikan] ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|3}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Ékologi akuatik]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Sabanda II]] [[Kategori:Lauk darat]] pap6nmmn7c1b5yyk82agxhxbzv3yv5w 0 55088 711706 659870 2026-08-07T02:07:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711706 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Giacomo Agostini (2003).jpg|thumb|200px|alt=A man wearing a white leather top with writing on it. His arms are crossed and there is a man standing in front to his left.|[[Giacomo Agostini]], anu meunag 15 kali balap motor kajuaraan dunya ]] [[Balap motor Grand Prix]] nyaéta kajuaraan balap motor utama, nu geus dibagi jadi tilu kelas saprak [[1990 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|usum 1990]]: 125cc, 250cc jeung MotoGP. Kelas nu geus dieureunkeun nyaéta 350cc jeung 50cc/80cc.<ref name="Guiness">{{harvnb|Marshall|1997|p=289}}</ref> Kajuaraan Dunya balap jalan aspal Grand Prix diadegkeun dina taun [[1949 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1949]] ku badan pangalola olahraga, nyaéta [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme]] (FIM),  sarta nyaéta balap motor Kejuaraan Dunia nu pangkolotna nu kungsi aya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics |title=Basics |publisher=MotoGP |accessdate=26 July 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707105315/http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics |date=7 July 2011 }}</ref> Aya opat kelas kajuaraan dimimitian taun 1949; 500cc, 350cc, 250cc sarta 125cc. Kelas 50cc geus diwanohkeun taun [[1962 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1962]] . Alatan ngaronjatna waragad nu ngabalukarkeun sajumlah produsén ninggalkeun kajuaraan, FIM ngawates motor 50cc pikeun [[Cylinder (engine)|séher]] tunggal, motor 125cc jeung 250cc diwates 2 [[Cylinder (engine)|séher]] sarta motor 350cc jeung 500cc diwates 4 [[Cylinder (engine)|séher]]. Kelas 350cc teu diteruskeun taun [[1982 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1982]]; dua taun saterusna kelas 50cc diganti ku kelas 80cc, nu geus teu dituluykeun taun [[1989 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1989]]. Dina taun [[2002 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2002]], motor 990cc ngaganti motor 500cc sarta kelas diganti ngaran jadi MotoGP.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics/history |title=History |publisher=MotoGP |accessdate=6 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130912130141/http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics/history |date=12 September 2013 }}</ref> Motor 600cc ngaganti motor 250cc taun [[2010 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2010]], kalayan ngaganti nagaran jadi Moto2.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/2010+Moto2+class+to+be+powered+by+Honda |title=2010 Moto2 class to be powered by Honda |publisher=MotoGP |date=2 May 2009 |accessdate=6 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106211712/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/2010+Moto2+class+to+be+powered+by+Honda |date=6 January 2010 }}</ref> [[Giacomo Agostini]], kalayan 15 kali kameunangan, panglobana meunang kajuaraan dunya. [[Ángel Nieto]] kadua kalayan 13 kajuaraan dunya sarta [[Valentino Rossi]], [[Mike Hailwood]] jeung [[Carlo Ubbiali]] nyaéta tilu urang kalayan 9 kali juara dunya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/rossi+statistics+2009 |title=Rossi's ninth title win: the statistics |publisher=MotoGP |date=26 October 2009 |accessdate=20 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203172559/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/rossi+statistics+2009 |date=3 February 2012 }}</ref> Agostini nyekel rekor pikeun kameunangan panglobana di kelas 500cc/MotoGP sarta kelas 350cc classes kalayan dalapan kali jeung tujuh kali juara dunya. [[Phil Read]] jeung [[Max Biaggi]] meunang panglobana kajuaraan kelas 250cc / Moto2, kalayan 4 kali kameunangan. Nieto meunang panglobana kajuaraan kelas 125cc jeung kelas 50cc/80cc kalayan 7 kali sarta 6 kali kameunangan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/Statistics/winners |title=Winners |publisher=MotoGP |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413091239/https://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/Statistics/winners |date=13 April 2021 }}</ref> ==Juara== ===Kalayan purah balap=== {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align:center" |+Juara Dunya Balap Motor Grand Prix !scope="col"|Réngking !scope="col"|Purah balap !scope="col"|Nagara !scope="col"|Meunang !scope="col"|MotoGP/500cc !scope="col"|350cc !scope="col"|Moto2/250cc !scope="col"|Moto3/125cc !scope="col"|80cc/50cc !scope="col"|Total |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" |1 |align=left|{{sortname|Giacomo|Agostini}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1966–1975 |8 |7 |0 |0 |0 |'''15''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|2 |align=left|{{sortname|Ángel|Nieto}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |1969–1984 |0 |0 |0 |7 |6 |'''13''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|3 |align=left|{{sortname|Valentino|Rossi}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1997–2009 |7 |0 |1 |1 |0 |'''9''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|3 |align=left|{{sortname|Mike|Hailwood}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1961–1967 |4 |2 |3 |0 |0 |'''9''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|3 |align=left|{{sortname|Carlo|Ubbiali}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1951–1960 |0 |0 |3 |6 |0 |'''9''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|6 |align=left|{{sortname|John|Surtees}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1956–1960 |4 |3 |0 |0 |0 |'''7''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|6 |align=left|{{sortname|Phil|Read}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1964–1974 |2 |0 |4 |1 |0 |'''7''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|8 |align=left|{{sortname|Geoff|Duke}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1951–1955 |4 |2 |0 |0 |0 |'''6''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|8 |align=left|{{sortname|Jim|Redman}} |align=left|{{flag|Rhodesia}} |1962–1965 |0 |4 |2 |0 |0 |'''6''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|10 |align=left|{{sortname|Mick|Doohan}} |align=left|{{AUS}} |1994–1998 |5 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''5''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|10 |align=left|{{sortname|Jorge|Lorenzo}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2006–2015 |3 |0 |2 |0 |0 |'''5''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|10 |align=left|{{sortname|Marc|Márquez}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2010–2016 |3 |0 |1 |1 |0 |'''5''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|10 |align=left|{{sortname|Anton|Mang}} |align=left|{{GER}} |1980–1987 |0 |2 |3 |0 |0 |'''5''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|14 |align=left|{{sortname|Eddie|Lawson}} |align=left|{{USA}} |1984–1989 |4 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''4''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|14 |align=left|{{sortname|Kork|Ballington}} |align=left|{{flag|South Africa|1928}} |1978–1979 |0 |2 |2 |0 |0 |'''4''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|14 |align=left|{{sortname|Walter|Villa}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1974–1976 |0 |1 |3 |0 |0 |'''4''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|14 |align=left|{{sortname|Max|Biaggi}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1994–1997 |0 |0 |4 |0 |0 |'''4''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|14 |align=left|{{sortname|Hugh|Anderson|Hugh Anderson (motorcyclist)}} |align=left|{{NZL}} |1963–1965 |0 |0 |0 |2 |2 |'''4''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|14 |align=left|{{sortname|Jorge|Martínez|Jorge Martínez (motorcyclist)}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |1986–1988 |0 |0 |0 |1 |3 |'''4''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|14 |align=left|{{sortname|Stefan|Dörflinger}} |align=left|{{SUI}} |1982–1985 |0 |0 |0 |0 |4 |'''4''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Kenny|Roberts}} |align=left|{{USA}} |1978–1980 |3 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Wayne|Rainey}} |align=left|{{USA}} |1990–1992 |3 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Freddie|Spencer}} |align=left|{{USA}} |1983–1985 |2 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Bruno|Ruffo}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1949–1951 |0 |0 |2 |1 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Werner|Haas}} |align=left|{{GER}} |1953–1954 |0 |0 |2 |1 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Luca|Cadalora}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1986–1992 |0 |0 |2 |1 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Dani|Pedrosa}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2003–2005 |0 |0 |2 |1 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Loris|Capirossi}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1990–1998 |0 |0 |1 |2 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Luigi|Taveri}} |align=left|{{SUI}} |1962–1966 |0 |0 |0 |3 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Pier Paolo|Bianchi}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1976–1980 |0 |0 |0 |3 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Hans Georg|Anscheidt}} |align=left|{{GER}} |1966–1968 |0 |0 |0 |0 |3 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|21 |align=left|{{sortname|Eugenio|Lazzarini}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1978–1980 |0 |0 |0 |1 |2 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Umberto|Masetti}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1950–1952 |2 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Barry|Sheene}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1976–1977 |2 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Casey|Stoner}} |align=left|{{AUS}} |2007–2011 |2 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Gary|Hocking}} |align=left|{{flag|Rhodesia}} |1961 |1 |1 |0 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Àlex|Crivillé}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |1989–1999 |1 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Bill|Lomas}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1955–1956 |0 |2 |0 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Fergus|Anderson}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1953–1954 |0 |2 |0 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Carlos|Lavado}} |align=left|{{VEN}} |1983–1986 |0 |0 |2 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Sito|Pons}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |1988–1989 |0 |0 |2 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Johann|Zarco}} |align=left|{{FRA}} |2015–2016 |0 |0 |2 |0 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Cecil|Sandford}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1952–1957 |0 |0 |1 |1 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Tarquinio|Provini}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1957–1958 |0 |0 |1 |1 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Dieter|Braun}} |align=left|{{GER}} |1970–1973 |0 |0 |1 |1 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Manuel|Poggiali}} |align=left|{{SMR}} |2001–2003 |0 |0 |1 |1 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Kent|Andersson|dab=motorcyclist}} |align=left|{{SWE}} |1973–1974 |0 |0 |0 |2 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Fausto|Gresini}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1985–1987 |0 |0 |0 |2 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Kazuto|Sakata}} |align=left|{{JPN}} |1994–1998 |0 |0 |0 |2 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Haruchika|Aoki}} |align=left|{{JPN}} |1995–1996 |0 |0 |0 |2 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Jan|de Vries|dab=motorcyclist}} |align=left|{{NED}} |1971–1973 |0 |0 |0 |0 |2 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|33 |align=left|{{sortname|Ricardo|Tormo}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |1978–1981 |0 |0 |0 |0 |2 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Leslie|Graham}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1949 |1 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Libero|Liberati}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1957 |1 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Marco|Lucchinelli}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1981 |1 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Franco|Uncini}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1982 |1 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Wayne|Gardner}} |align=left|{{AUS}} |1987 |1 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Kevin|Schwantz}} |align=left|{{USA}} |1993 |1 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Kenny|Roberts, Jr.}} |align=left|{{USA}} |2000 |1 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Nicky|Hayden}} |align=left|{{USA}} |2006 |1 |0 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Freddie|Frith}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1949 |0 |1 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Bob|Foster|Bob Foster (motorcyclist)}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1950 |0 |1 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Keith|Campbell|dab=motorcyclist}} |align=left|{{AUS}} |1957 |0 |1 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Johnny|Cecotto}} |align=left|{{VEN}} |1975 |0 |1 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Takazumi|Katayama}} |align=left|{{JPN}} |1977 |0 |1 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Jon|Ekerold}} |align=left|{{flag|South Africa|1928}} |1980 |0 |1 |0 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Dario|Ambrosini}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1950 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Enrico|Lorenzetti}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1952 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Hermann Paul|Müller}} |align=left|{{GER}} |1955 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Rodney|Gould}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1970 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Kel|Carruthers}} |align=left|{{AUS}} |1969 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Jarno|Saarinen}} |align=left|{{FIN}} |1972 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Mario|Lega}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1977 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Jean-Louis|Tournadre}} |align=left|{{FRA}} |1982 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Christian|Sarron}} |align=left|{{FRA}} |1984 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|John|Kocinski}} |align=left|{{USA}} |1990 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Tetsuya|Harada}} |align=left|{{JPN}} |1993 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Olivier|Jacque}} |align=left|{{FRA}} |2000 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Daijiro|Kato}} |align=left|{{JPN}} |2001 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Marco|Melandri}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |2002 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Marco|Simoncelli}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |2008 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Hiroshi|Aoyama}} |align=left|{{JPN}} |2009 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Toni|Elías}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2010 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Stefan|Bradl}} |align=left|{{GER}} |2011 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Pol|Espargaró}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2013 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Esteve|Rabat}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2014 |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Nello|Pagani}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1949 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Rupert|Hollaus}} |align=left|{{AUT}} |1954 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Tom|Phillis}} |align=left|{{AUS}} |1961 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Bill|Ivy}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1967 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Dave|Simmonds}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1969 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Paolo|Pileri}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1975 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Alessandro|Gramigni}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |1992 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Dirk|Raudies}} |align=left|{{GER}} |1993 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Emilio|Alzamora}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |1999 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Roberto|Locatelli}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |2000 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Arnaud|Vincent}} |align=left|{{FRA}} |2002 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Andrea|Dovizioso}} |align=left|{{ITA}} |2004 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Thomas|Lüthi}} |align=left|{{SUI}} |2005 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Álvaro|Bautista}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2006 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Gábor|Talmácsi}} |align=left|{{HUN}} |2007 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Mike|Di Meglio}} |align=left|{{FRA}} |2008 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Julián|Simón}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2009 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Nicolás|Terol}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2011 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Sandro|Cortese}} |align=left|{{GER}} |2012 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Maverick|Viñales}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2013 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Alex|Márquez}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |2014 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Danny|Kent}} |align=left|{{UK}} |2015 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Brad|Binder}} |align=left|{{RSA}} |2016 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Ernst|Degner}} |align=left|{{GER}} |1962 |0 |0 |0 |0 |1 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Ralph|Bryans}} |align=left|{{UK}} |1965 |0 |0 |0 |0 |1 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Henk|van Kessel}} |align=left|{{NED}} |1974 |0 |0 |0 |0 |1 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:center"|53 |align=left|{{sortname|Manuel|Herreros}} |align=left|{{ESP}} |1989 |0 |0 |0 |0 |1 |'''1''' |} ===Kalayan nagara=== {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align:center" |+Juara Dunya Balap Motor Grand Prix Kalayan Nagara !scope="col"|Nagara !scope="col"|MotoGP/500cc !scope="col"|350cc !scope="col"|Moto2/250cc !scope="col"|Moto3/125cc !scope="col"|80cc/50cc !scope="col"|Total |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{ITA}} |20 |8 |22 |23 |2 |'''75''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{ESP}} |7 |0 |10 |17 |12 |'''46''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{UK}} |17 |13 |9 |5 |1 |'''45''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{GER}} |0 |2 |8 |4 |4 |'''18''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{USA}} |15 |0 |2 |0 |0 |'''17''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{AUS}} |8 |1 |1 |1 |0 |'''11''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{flagcountry|Rhodesia}} |1 |5 |2 |0 |0 |'''8''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{JPN}} |0 |1 |3 |4 |0 |'''8''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{SUI}} |0 |0 |0 |4 |4 |'''8''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{FRA}} |0 |0 |5 |2 |0 |'''7''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{RSA}} |0 |3 |2 |1 |0 |'''6''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{NZL}} |0 |0 |0 |2 |2 |'''4''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{VEN}} |0 |1 |2 |0 |0 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{NED}} |0 |0 |0 |0 |3 |'''3''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{SMR}} |0 |0 |1 |1 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{SWE}} |0 |0 |0 |2 |0 |'''2''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{FIN}} |0 |0 |1 |0 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{AUT}} |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left"|{{HUN}} |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 |'''1''' |} == Tingali ogé == *[[List of Grand Prix motorcycle racing World Champions by year]] == Dicutat tina == '''Bibliograpi''' * {{cite book |last=Marshall |first=Anne |title=Guinness Book of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofkn0000shah | publisher=Guinness Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=0-85112-046-6 }} Umum * {{cite web |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/Statistics/winners |title=Statistics; The Official MotoGP Website |publisher=MotoGP |accessdate=13 November 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413091239/https://www.motogp.com/en/Results+Statistics/Statistics/winners |date=13 April 2021 }} '''Spécsifik''' {{reflist}} ==Tumbu kaluar== *[http://www.motogp.com The Official MotoGP Website] {{MotoGP}} {{featured list}} [[Kategori:Balap motor Grand Prix]] [[Kategori:Daptar Balap Motor Grand Prix]] [[Kategori:Daptar Purah Balap Kajuaraan Dunya Balap Motor Grand Prix]] 9afl0tst5bcam23z9anr7tkbkmg5iuo 0 55206 711677 703845 2026-08-07T01:23:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711677 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ taxobox |name = |image = Bridelia stipularis.jpg |image_caption = Daun jeung buah '''kanyéré''' |regnum = [[Plant]]ae |ordo = [[Malpighiales]] |familia = [[Phyllanthaceae]] |tribus = [[Bridelieae]] |genus =[[Bridelia]] | species = ''B. stipularis'' | binomial = ''Bridelia stipularis'' | binomial_authority = (L.) Blume |synonyms = *''Bridelia dasycalyx'' <small>Kurz</small> *''Bridelia dasycalyx'' var. ''aridicola'' <small>Kurz</small> *''Bridelia scandens'' <small>(Roxb.) Willd. </small> *''Bridelia stipularis'' var. ''ciliata'' <small>Gehrm. </small> *''Bridelia stipularis'' subsp. ''philippinensis'' <small>Jabl.</small> *''Bridelia zollingeri'' <small>Miq.</small> *''Clutia scandens'' <small>Roxb. </small> *''Clutia stipularis'' <small>L.</small> *''Ziziphus racemosa'' <small>Wall.</small> }} Kanyéré (''Bridelia stipularis'') nyaéta hiji tangkal anu asalna tina [[genus]] ''Bridelia''.<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}</ref> <ref name=kew/> Jangkungna bisa nepi ka 8–20 [[méter]] anu hirup di daérah [[tropis]] jeung [[subtropis]] di sisi [[basisir]].<ref name=kew/><ref name=Ong/> Daunna bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun [[ubar]] nyeri [[beuteung]].<ref name=Ong/> [[Tangkal]] kanyéré asalna tina kulawarga ''Phyllanthaceae''.<ref name=kew>{{Cite web | url = http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-24660 | title = Bridelia stipularis | date = 2013 | accessdate = 2017-05-15 | work = [[theplantlist]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728200543/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-24660 |date=2020-07-28 }}</ref> ==Pedaran== Tangkal kanyéré mibanda sababaraha rupa [[spésiés]] di antarana : *''Bridelia insulana'' (''Sinonim'' : ''Bridelia minutiflora, Bridelia penagiana, Bridelia subnuda) * ''Bridelia stipularis'' *''Bridelia tomentosa'' (sinonim : ''Bridelia glabrifolia; Bridelia lancifolia; Bridelia monoicis'')''.<ref name=Ong/> Kanyéré mibanda ngaran daérah/''vernakular'' saperti di [[Malaysia]] disebut kenidai, kenidai babi, cenderai gajah, samak jambu.<ref name=Ong/> Di Indonésia mah kanyéré téh katelah Kandri kebo, kanyéré aroi, koto-koto, jeung kutu kebo.<ref name=Ong>{{Citation | last = Ong| first = Hean Chooi| coauthors = EDITOR KADUA| year =2006| title = Tumbuhan liar: khasiat ubatan & kegunaan lain| publisher = PRIN-AD SDN.BHD |URL=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=zmlsC5NWEbwC&dq=kanyere&hl=id&source=gbs_navlinks_s| isbn = 967-61-1630-0}}</ref> ==Ciri mandiri== Tangkal kanyéré bisa hirup nepi ka jangkung 18 méter tur mibanda buleudan tangkal nepi ka 9 [[méter]].<ref name=Ong/> [[Kai]] tangkal kanyéré mah sanajan teuas tapi leuleus tur liat.<ref name=Wiart/> <ref name=Rigg>{{Cite book | author = Jonathan Rigg| year = 1862 | chapter = Dictionary | pages = 217 | title = Sunda Language | location = Batavia|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA213&dq=KEHKEL&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7qpOVitnTAhWBO48KHXrzCD8Q6AEIQDAD#v=onepage&q=isbn&f=false| publisher = Lange & CO }}</ref> Kapanggih hirup di [[Malaysia]], [[Vietnam]], ogé [[Thailand]].<ref name=Wiart/> Daunna lonyod kelirna héjo, méncos ka tungtungna ukuran 12&nbsp;cm x 6.2&nbsp;cm pucuk [[daun]] anu kakara bijil kelirna gandaria.<ref name=Wiart/> Buah laleutik kelirna héjo hérang bijil sapasang tina tangkal deukeut cupat [[daun]], cupat kembangna parondok, panjang [[kembang]] ngan 1&nbsp;mm, benang sari nyelap leutik di jerona, kelirna semu héjo tur di luhurna semu gandaria.<ref name=Carl >{{Cite book | title = Ilocano Dictionary and Grammar: Ilocano-English, English-Ilocano| url = https://archive.org/details/ilocanodictionar0000rubi| last = R.| first = Carl| publisher = World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd | location = [[London]] | year = 2000| isbn =0-8248-2088-6}}</ref> Buahna leutik,lonyod tingtungna méncos.<ref name=Wiart/> ==Kagunaan== Ditempo dina ''farmakologisna'' tina ieu genus geus ditalungtik sanajan tacan dipaluruh leuwih jero, mibanda sipat ''antiinflamasi'', ''antimikroba''.<ref name=Wiart/> Tapi dalah ti kitu ieu [[tangkal]] geus heubeul dimangpaatkeun pikeun [[ubar]] herbal anu mibanda rupa-rupa kagunaan.<ref name=Bridelia>{{Cite journal | title = Anticandidal effect of extract of Bridelia stipularis | author = Sachidananda Mallya | coauthors = Sudeendra Prabhu, Maji Jose, Shrikara Mallya | journal = Anticandidal effect of extract of Bridelia stipularis | volume = 1 | issue = 9 | pages = 106-107 | url = http://www.jimd.in/uploaded/volumes/Bridelia_stipularis2.pdf | accessdate = 2017-14-05 | ISSN = 2350-045x }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603024840/https://jimd.in/uploaded/volumes/Bridelia_stipularis2.pdf |date=2018-06-03 }}</ref> Di India ieu tangkal ngahaja dipelak anu dimangpaatkeun pikeun meresihan [[huntu]] ogé ngubaran rupa-rupa panyakit séjénna anu aya disabudeureun [[baham]].<ref name=Bridelia/> Daunna ogé bisa digodog tuluy diinum [[cai]]na bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran kasakit mah (maag) atawa nyeuri [[beuteung]].<ref name=Wiart/> Pikeun ubar luar daunna bisa dibebek nepi ka lembut tuluy ditaplokeun kana reheut atawa bareuh,<ref name=Wiart/> [[akar]]na bisa digodog tuluy diinum caina pikeun ubar nyareri awak atawa cararangkeul.<ref name=Wiart>{{Cite book | title = Medicinal Plants of the Asia-Pacific: Drugs for the Future?| url = https://archive.org/details/medicinalplantso0000wiar_e7f6| last = Wiart| first = Christophe | publisher = World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd | location = [[London]] | year = 2006| isbn =981-256-341-5}}</ref> Baheula mah buah kanyéré téh dipaké kaulinan barudak, pikeun pélor [[Sumpit|susumpitan]] anu dijieun tina [[awi]] atawa [[tamiang]] gedéna mah kurang leuwih sagedé curuk atawa [[patlot]] panjangna sabuku.<ref name=Lacombat/> Dipaké ogé pikeun pélor pepeletokan anu dijieun tina solobong awi.<ref name=Lacombat>{{Cite book | author = Muchtar Affandi (R.) | year = 1997 | chapter = Mulangkeun Panineungan | pages = 17 | title = Mulangkeun Panineungan| location = London | publisher = Padjajaran University]] }}</ref> <gallery caption="Kanyéré"> File:Bridelia stipularis (8287247622).jpg |Tangkal kanyéré File:Bridelia stipularis 10.JPG| Buah daun jeung tangkal File:Bridelia stipularis 33.JPG| Pucuk daun File:Bridelia stipularis 09.JPG| Buah kanyéré haréjo File:Bridelia stipularis leaves and flowers from Periya (2).jpg |Kembang </gallery> ==Tutumbu kaluar== * [http://www.natureloveyou.sg/Bridelia%20stipularis/Main.html Gambar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511034134/http://www.natureloveyou.sg/Bridelia%20stipularis/Main.html |date=2017-05-11 }} * [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?423337 Tangkal Kanyéré] * {{cite journal | url = http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11738-011-0735-7?LI=true#page-1 | doi=10.1007/s11738-011-0735-7 | volume=33 | title=Bridelia stipularis: a new source for anthocyanin production in vitro | journal=Acta Physiologiae Plantarum | pages=2051–2056}} === Daftar pustaka === *{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=-37OBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA659&dq=Bridelia+monoica&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK55Tnx-rTAhWKuY8KHRrqCW4Q6AEIIjAA#v=onepage&q=Bridelia%20monoica&f=false|title= CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology|last=Quattrocchi|first=Umberto |date=April 2016|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4822-5064-0}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Si62WdEOdYkC&pg=PT193&dq=bridelia+stipularis&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjHmLv4nu7TAhXDQY8KHSvTDmMQ6AEIQTAD#v=onepage&q=bridelia%20stipularis&f=false|title=Biological Pigments—Advances in Research and Application|last=Hefner|first=ScholarlyEditions| year=2012|publisher=ScholarlyEditions|isbn=978-1-464-99135-6}} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|3}} {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar‏‎]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Phyllanthaceae]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Sabanda II]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] t3biz6ovna5zn909goysd24mjtcxn8m 0 71322 711788 704881 2026-08-07T04:23:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711788 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Thiéré millet couscous 14. last tamé sift of steamed couscous with lalo.jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Kalo keur dipaké ngayak tipung]] '''Kalo''' (''Tamis'') yaéta pakakas dapur pikeun ngayak jeung misahkeun bagian anu henteu dipikabutuh dumasar kana ukurannana.<ref name=Ruhlan/> Dina kagunaan sapopoé kalo téh dipaké pikeun nyaring atawa ngayak: [[cipati]], [[madu]], [[minyak]], [[tipung]], jus buah, jeung sajabana.<ref name=Ruhlan>{{cite book| last = Ruhlman| first = Michael| last2 = Bourdain| first2 = Anthony| title = The Elements of Cooking: Translating the scientific use] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WXclAEACAAJ&pg=PA278| year = 2007| publisher = Simon and Schuster| isbn = 978-1-4391-7252-0| page = 216}}</ref><ref name=Waskito>{{Cite book | title = Kamus Praktis Bahasa Indonesia| last = Waskito| first = A.A | publisher = WahyuMedia| location = [[Yogyakarta]] | year = 2009|ISBN=9789797952174}}</ref> Kalo saringanna dijieun tina sasapan [[awi]] (anyam) anu rékép, [[lawon]], [[nylon]], [[kawat]], [[Aluminium]], jeung réa-réa deui .<ref name=Sri>{{Cite book | title = Memelihara lele dumbo di kolam taman| last =Najiyati| first = Sri| publisher = Niaga Swadaya| location = [[Yogyakarta]] | year = 1997|ISBN=9789794891216}}</ref><ref name=Haryoto>{{Cite book | title = Membuat Rempeyek Kacang Tahan| last = -| first = Haryoto | publisher = Kanisius| location = [[Yogyakarta]] | year = 2009| ISBN=9789792120646 }}</ref>Pikeun ngawengku ayakanna kalo, ilaharna dijieun tina [[plastik]], ''stainless'', jeung [[kai]].<ref name=Albala>{{cite book|last=Albala|first=Ken|title=Cooking in Europe, 1250–1650|url=https://archive.org/details/cookingineurope10000alba|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0313330964|page=[https://archive.org/details/cookingineurope10000alba/page/22 22]}}</ref> Baheula ngayak cipati kalapa téh maké cangkang buah [[berenuk]] anu geus kolot tuluy dipolongoan laleutik handapna maksudna mangsa meureut [[kalapa]] beunang marud cipatina baris moncor ka handap ari hampasna tinggaleun di luhureun kalo.<ref name=Muhiddin>{{Cite book | title = Dapur dan alat-alat memasak tradisional daérah Lampung| last = Sirat,Endjat Djaenuderadjat, Miraya Z. Besila, Bukri, Husin Sayuti | first =Muhiddin | publisher = Departemen Atikan dan Kebudayaan, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Bagian Proyek Inventarisasi dan Pembinaan Nilai-Nilai Budaya Daérah Lampung| location = [[Jakarta]] |Coauthors=| year = 1991}}</ref> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} {{Pondok}} {{Commons category|Sieves}} {{Wiktionary|sieve}} [[Kategori:Pakakas]] [[Kategori:Parabot dapur]] [[Kategori:Parabot]] o7desiikdcogpd4wowz04lmu4hx93uz 0 71325 711824 621866 2026-08-07T05:19:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711824 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Betok / Papuyu | image = Histoire naturelle des poissons (10438631525).jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Lauk betok, ''Anabas testudineus'' | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Perciformes]] | familia = [[Anabantidae]] | genus = ''[[Anabas]]'' | species = '''''A. testudineus'' | binomial = ''Anabas testudineus'' | binomial_authority = ([[Marcus Elieser Bloch|Bloch]], 1792) }} '''Betok''' (''Anabas testudineus'') nyaéta [[lauk]] [[darat]] anu asalna tina [[kulawarga]] ''anabantidae''.<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Dictionary_of_the_Sunda_Language_of_Ja.html?hl=id&id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ#v=onepage&q=Beunteur&f=false| title =Rigg| last =Rigg| first =Jonathan | publisher =Lange| location =Universitas Harvard| year =1862|ISBN=-|pages =52}} Disungsi29 Januari 2022</ref><ref name=Ichtiar>{{Cite book | title = Ensiklopedi Indonesia. Seri fauna: Burung Seri fauna| last = Baru - W. van Hoeve| first = Ichtiar| publisher = Universitas Michigan| location = [[Jakarta]] | year = 1988 }}</ref> Lauk betok loba kapanggih hirup di [[nagara]] : [[Laos]], [[Malaysia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]], [[Singapura]];, [[Srilanka]]; [[Thailand]]; [[Vietnam|Viet Nam]], jeung nagara [[Asia Tenggara|Asia tenggara]] séjénna.<ref name=iucn>{{Cite web | url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/166543/0 | title =Anabas testudineus | date = 2007-03-28 | accessdate = 2017-08-07 | work = [[iucn]]}}</ref> Mangsa [[kulah]], [[balong]], atawa [[rawa]] tempat hirupna [[saat]] ku lantaran [[usum]] [[halodo]] lauk betok mah bisa pindah [[tempat]] néangan kulah anu aya [[cai]], ku jalan hanjat kadarat [[ngarayap]] dina [[leutak]] atawa [[taneuh]] garing ngagunakeun cécépétna, nu matak betok disebut ogé ''climbing gourami'' atawa ''walking fish''.<ref name=Michael/> Sagigireun éta lauk betok mah mibanda dua [[organ]] pikeun [[ngambekan]] (ngarenghap) anu ngajadikeun ieu [[lauk]] bisa langsung [[nyokot]] [[hawa]]/[[oksigén]] ti luar, ku kituna lauk betok mah bisa hirup dina kaayaan kurang hawa/oksigén.<ref name="M. Ghufran"/> Lauk betok kaasup lauk leutik, ukuran [[awak]]na anu [[déwasa]] panjangna ngan nepika 23&nbsp;cm kalawan [[beurat]] 200 gr, ieu lauk disebut ogé ''papuyu'' ; ''balang balang''.<ref name="M. Ghufran"/> Di [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatera]] jeung [[Sulawesi]] ieu [[lauk]] dipikaresep pisan malahan hargana leuwih onjoy ti batan lauk [[lélé]].<ref name="M. Ghufran">{{Cite book | title = Panduan Lengkap Memelihara Ikan Air Tawar di Kolam Terpal| last = H. Kordi K| first = M. Ghufran| publisher = Penerbit Andi | location = Jakarta| year = 2010|ISBN=9789792914115 }}</ref> Ngan hanjakal sakapeung sok langka aya di [[pasar]] ku lantaran ngandelkeun beubeunangan ngala ti [[susukan]], [[kulah]], jeung [[rawa]].<ref name="M. Ghufran"/> Lauk betok anu ngahaja dipiara di [[balong]], mikabutuh waktu 5 - 6 [[bulan]] nepika waktuna dipanén.<ref name="M. Ghufran"/> ti mimiti melak binih lauk betok anu panjangna 5 - 8 [[cénti]] [[méter]], ieu lauk baris dipanén jadi lauk betok déwasa anu ukuranna hijina 80-100 [[gram]] atawa 10-15 siki dina sa[[kg|kilo]].<ref name="M. Ghufran"/> == Ciri mandiri == # Betok mibanda organ pikeun ngambekan anu ngajadikeun ieu lauk bisa langsung nyokot hawa/oksigen ti luar.<ref name="M. Ghufran"/> # Kaasup kana lauk [[omnivora]] (sagala dihakan) sagigireun ngadahar dangdaunan jeung [[lukut]], sakapeung sok ngahakan [[larong]], [[cacing]] jeung [[lauk]] leutik.<ref name="M. Ghufran"/> # Sisit dina awakna semu [[héjo]], palebah pundukna mah semu bodas ngagurilap.<ref name="M. Ghufran"/> # Bisa [[ngarayap]] dina leutak jeung taneuh garing ngagunakeun cécépétna pikeun pindah tempat/[[kulah]].<ref name=Michael>{{Cite book | title =A Dictionary of Zoology| url =https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofzool0000unse| last = Allaby| first = Michael| publisher= Oxford University Press| location = [[London]] | year = 2003|ISBN=9780198607588 }}</ref> <gallery> File:Pla mo-Thailand25.JPG|<center>Lauk betok bisa [[ngarayap]] didarat</center> File:Anabas testudineus - squeletteMNHN.JPG|[[Cucuk]] lauk betok File:Anabas testudineus (curry preparation)-3.JPG|Lauk betok beunang nyamaraan File:Anabas scandens - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - UBA01 IZ13800003.tif|Gambar lauk betok anu aya di University of Amsterdam </gallery> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} {{commonscat|Anabas testudineus}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== * [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=GnDlUJAgtsIC&pg=PA3&dq=ikan+adalah&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8nOz-stfhAhXPTX0KHfCiCykQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=ikan%20adalah&f=false Mengenal & Mengendalikan Predator Ikan] [[Kategori:Chordata]] [[Kategori:Ékologi akuatik]] [[Kategori:Lauk darat]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] hzpby68d7ci9n0k5k6egm70mdcwjp1a 0 71487 711810 675053 2026-08-07T04:50:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Jeruk purut | image =Citrus_hystrix_Blanco2.408-cropped.jpg | image_width = 190px | image_caption = Jeruk purut Ti Blanco | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | subclassis = [[Rosidae]] | ordo = [[Sapindales]] | familia = [[Rutaceae]] | genus = [[Citrus]] | species = '''''C. × hystrix''''' | binomial = ''Citrus × hystrix'' | binomial_authority = [[De Candolle|DC.]] }} '''Jeruk purut''' atawa '''Jeruk lémo''' ; ''kaffir lime'' (''Citrus hystrix'') nyaéta [[jeruk]] anu asalna tina kulawarga ''[[rutaceae]]''. <ref name= Masayoshi /> ''Citrus'' tina basa [[latin]] anu hartina [[jeruk]], ''hystrix'' tina basa [[Yunani]] anu hartina [[landak]], jeruk purut buahna leutik (sakeupeul), [[kulit |kulitna]] kandel tur reregetan aya ogé anu ngajarendul, umpama dipocél kaangseu [[bau|seungit]] matak seger. <ref name= Masayoshi >{{Cite book | title =Citrus Essential Oils: Flavor and Fragrance | last = Sawamura | first = Masayoshi | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | location = [[New Jersey]] | year = 2011| ISBN= 9781118074381 }}</ref> Jangkung tangkalna bisa nepi ka 2 [[méter]], kulit luarna lemes kelirna semu héjo mibanda cucuk anu maréncos tur paranjang, kulit jerona [[bodas]] semu krém. <ref name= Christophe/> Daunna héjo, pucukna héjo ngora. <ref name= Christophe >{{Cite book | title =Medicinal Plants of Asia and the Pacific| url =https://archive.org/details/medicinalplantso0000wiar| last = Wiart| first = Christophe | publisher = CRC Press| location = [[New Jersey]] | year = 2006| ISBN= 9781420006803}}</ref> ==Ngaran Daérah== Unte Mukur, Unte Pangir (Batak), Lemau Kaffir, L. Sarakan (Lampung), Lemao Puruik (Minangkabau), Dema Kafalo (Nias), Limau Kaffirteen, Jeruk Seungit, Jeruk Purut (Sunda, Jawa), Jeruk Linglang, Jeruk purut (Bali), Mude Matang Bows, Mude Nelu (Flores).<ref name=”Luk”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Plants_with_Anti_Diabetes_Mellitus_Prope.html?hl=id&id=nQnYCwAAQBAJ#v=onepage&q=scoparia%20dulcis&f=false| title =Tanaman Obat & Jus utk Mengatasi Penyakit Jantung, Hipertensi, Kolesterol & StrokeLukas Tersono Adi| last =Lukas Tersono Adi| first =Ir. | publisher =Agromedia| location =Jakarta| year =2008|ISBN=9789790061958|pages =673}} Disungsi28 Maret 2023</ref> ==Kandungan kimia == Komposisi Daun mibanda tanin 1,8%, ''steroid'' ''triterpenoid'', katut minyak asiri 1-1,5% v/b. Kulit buah ibanda ''saponin'', ''tanin'' 1%, ''steroid triterpe- noid'', sareng minyak asiri anu mibanda ''sitrat'' 2-2,5% v/b.<ref name=”Luk”/> ==Kagunaan== Dimangpaatkeun pikeun [[bungbu dapur]] dina rupa-rupa olahan [[kadaharan]] jeung [[inuman]], di [[Indonesia]] jeung nagara [[Asia Tenggara]], [[Daun|daunna]] ogé dimangpaatkeun pikeun campuran bungbu [[sayur]] anu meré seungit jeung rasa anu béda kana hasil olahan (''rasa oriental'') saperti sop "tom yam". <ref name= Masayoshi /> Di [[Madagaskar|Mandagaskar]] jeung sabudeureun [[Samudra Hindia]] geus taunan ngahasilkeun [[minyak]] tina daun [[jeruk]] purut sanajan dina jumlah anu masih saeutik, minyak daun jeruk purut mibanda zat anu disebut ''citronellal'', ieu ogé mangrupa salah sahiji bahan panalungtikan di éta [[nagara]]. <ref name=Giovanni>{{Cite book | title =Citrus: The Genus Citrus | last = ,Angelo Di Giacomo | first = Giovanni Dugo | publisher = CRC Press| location = University of Messina, Italy | year = 2003| ISBN= 9780203216613}}</ref> <Gallery> File:Citrus hystrix fruit.jpg|Buah jeruk purut File:Citrus hystrix in Jardin des Plantes de Toulouse 01.jpg|Tangkal jeruk purut File:Starr 080608-7558 Citrus hystrix.jpg|[[Daun]] Jeruk purut File:Starr 080610-8293 Citrus hystrix.jpg| Cucuk [[tangkal]] jeruk File:Fish stuffed with Thai herbs.jpg|Dipaké [[bungbu]] masakan </gallery> ==Dicuat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori :Buah]] [[Kategori:Bungbuahan]] [[Kategori:Rutaceae]] [[Kategori: Bungbu]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan bungbu]] n2zow2m20hnxbi2bf3f5w0x432dqp1p 0 71498 711663 653932 2026-08-07T01:11:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711663 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Freshwater fishing floats.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Rupa-rupa kukumbul]] '''Kukumbul''' (''bobber'') nyaéta [[pakakas]] paranti nguseup anu mibanda kagunaan méré tangara kanu nguseup upama eupana aya nunyanggut, nangtukeun déét jeung jerona neundeun eupan di jero [[cai]].<ref name=Rashtra>{{cite book | last = Vardhana| first = Dr Rashtra| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Floristic Plants of the World| publisher = Sarup & Sons| year = 2006 | location = New Delhi |pages = 325 | url = | doi = | id = |isbn= 817625651X}}</ref> Sangkan kukumbul bisa nangtung di [[cai]], tungtungna kudu dibéré pangbeubeurat ilaharna dijieun tina [[timah]].<ref name=Lane>{{cite book | last = Lane| first = Billy| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Float fishing: tackle and techniques for still and running water| publisher = Cassell | year = 1976| location = London| pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/floatfishingtack0000lane| doi = | id = |isbn = 0304294667}}</ref> Kukumbul dijieun tina rupa-rupa bahan: bulu [[hayam]], cucuk [[landak]], [[kai]], [[plastik]], jeung sajabana.<ref name=Rashtra/><ref name=rupa>{{cite web| title = Treatyse of fysshynge wyth an Angle| url = http://www.luminarium.org/renascenceditions/berners/berners.html| accessdate = 2013-07-13}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Utamana nguseup di [[laut]] kukumbul dijieun kacida pisan loba rupa ukuran jeung [[kelir]]na.<ref name=rupa/> Disaluyukeun kana kaayaan [[cai]] [[laut]], [[angin]], [[eupan]] anu dipaké, jeung tempat nguseupna.<ref name=Rashtra/> Kukumbul nu dipaké dina cai tarik atawa cai maju, bagéan handapna leuwih kembu tibatan beulah luhurna.<ref name=kukumbul/> Masangna ogé henteu [[Capit|dicapit]] ku [[timah]] tapi cukup diapit karét anu dieuradkeun dina [[kenur]], jadi kukumbulna bisa ngapung.<ref name=kukumbul>{{id}}{{cite web|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=7t5mDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT48&dq=joran&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYx7vIzMjTAhWLpY8KHZIlAHQQ6AEIKjAB#v=onepage&q=joran&f=false|title=MANCING : Bukan Sekedar Hobi|publisher= AR Timurawan|accessdate=2017-09-17}}</ref> Kukumbul anu tuntuna leuwih lencop, ilaharna sipaké mangsa jeujeur jeung kukumbul henteu pati jauh saperti di susukan atawa balong.<ref name=kukumbul/> ==Rupa-rupa kukumbul== '''Float Avon''': ukuran gedéna kukumbul anu mucunghul di luhureun [[cai]] sarua jeung nu teuleum, kukumbul kieu ilaharna dipaké nguseup di [[susukan]] anu [[cai]]na maju rada tarik.<ref name=float>{{cite web | title = Avon floats | url =http://www.drennantackle.com/articles/avons.pdf| accessdate = 2013-07-13 }}</ref> '''Bubble float''': kukumbul anu wujudna buleud, di jerona aya liang paranti ngesikeun [[cai]] anu maksudna pikeun nyaluyukeun sabaraha jero kukumbul teuleum, ilaharna dipaké ditempat anu loba [[rungkun]] sangkan henteu matak pajeujeut kana [[kenur]].<ref name=float/> '''Float Dink''': kukumbul anu dijieun tina ''busa'' [[plastik]], bagéna anu mucunghul di luhur [[cai]] leuwih leutik kalawan dipulas pikeun nangtukeun teulemna jero cai, kukumbul nu kieu mah henteu ieuh maké ''stoper''.<ref name=float/> '''Popper float''': kukumbul sarupa kieu dijieun nyarupakeun kahakanan [[lauk]] anu gedé, di tungtungna dipasang [[kawat]] jeung jeung kirincing sangkan disada mangsa dibetot maksudna pikeun ngabibita lauk sangkan kataji tur ngundag éta kukumbul.<ref name=float/> '''The quill''': kukumbul anu dijieun tina bulu [[hayam]] atawa cucuk [[landak]], kukumbul kieu méh sarua jeung kukumbul ''Float Avon''.<ref name=float/> '''Self-cocking''': Kukumbul anu bisa nangtung di [[cai]] kalawan henteu kudu maké ''stoper'' atawa pangbeubeurat.<ref name=float/> '''Stick float''': kukumbul anu dijieun tina dua bahan anu béda, bagéan luhurna dijieun tina bahan anu ngambang sedengkeun handapna tina bahan anu ngerelep pikeun nyaimbangkeun kukumbul sangkan nangtung luhureun cai.<ref>{{cite web | title = Stick floats | url =http://www.drennantackle.com/articles/stickfloats.pdf| accessdate = 2013-07-13 }}</ref> <gallery> File:Fishing Floats with Dirction Control.JPG|Kukumbul paranti nguseup anu maké parabot ''kontrol'']] File:Expo belle epoque 18.jpg|Rupa-rupa kukumbul jieunan pabrik File:Plate II-Francis-The Slider.JPG|Buku ngunaan kukumbul ''[[A Book on Angling]]'' by Francis Francis, 1876 File:SHORE_FISHING_DIAGRAMS.jpg|Cara jeung katngtuan maké kukumbul ''kontrol'' </gallery> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Pakakas]] 1a04ewcxaz9c2u0ty254r4zdi4dwsig 0 71510 711637 679420 2026-08-07T00:40:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711637 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Yelagiri bird's nest.jpg|thumb|right|Sayang [[manuk]]]] '''Sayang''' nyaéta tempat anu ngahaja dijieun pikeun nyumput, ngajaga anak-anakna tina bahaya; sayang nunjul ogé kana tempat [[manuk]] jeung [[unggas]] séjéna ngendog tur ngagedékeun anak-anakna.<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}</ref> Sayang dijieun alatan ayana pangrojong [[Biologi|biologis]] tina hiji sato anu keur kakandungan, sok disebut ogé naluri nyayang.<ref name=SDNMH>{{cite web|title=Nests and Nest-building Animals|author=Tom Deméré|author2=Bradford D. Hollingsworth|publisher=San Diego Natural History Museum|date=Spring 2002|url=http://www.sdnhm.org/archive/research/herpetology/NestBuilding.pdf|accessdate=August 19, 2013|format=pdf}}</ref> Sayang manuk anu dijieun basajan ogé dimaksudkeun pikeun nyumputkeun [[endog]]-endogna sangkan hentu murag ogé nyingkahan tina gangguan sato séjén.<ref name=SDNMH/> Nyingkahan pangaruh cuaca: [[angin]], [[panas]], [[hujan]], [[tiis]], jeung sajabana. <ref name=SDNMH/> Sayang ogé dibutuhkeun pikeun nanggeuy [[endog]] anu jumlahna loba.<ref name=SDNMH/> Mangsa geus megar tur jadi [[anak]], sayang mangrupa tempat pikeun nyumput anak-anakna tina sagala bahaya bari nungguan indungna mangsa nyiar hakaneun.<ref name=SDNMH/> Sireum jeung [[rinyuh]] ogé nyieun sayang anu kacida gedéna pangeusina bisa rébuan, disebutna koloni.<ref name=”John”/> Dijero sayang aya hiji [[ratu]] anu ngahasilkeun endog 30.00 siki dina sapoé.<ref name=”John”>{{Cite book | title = Ensiklopedia mini hewan| last = Farndon| first =John | publisher =Erlangga for Kids| location =Jakarta| year =2003|ISBN=9789796889891 }}</ref> Gedé jeung leutikna sayang dipangaruhan ku jumlah anu ngeusianna, saperti sayang [[beurit]]: beurit ngaliang jero pisan kalawan leuwih lega di jerona bisa dieusi ku puluhan nepika [[ratusan]] beurit.<ref name=Hansell>{{cite book|title=Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour|url=https://archive.org/details/birdnestsconstru0000hans_k2p9|author=Mike Hansell|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521460387}}</ref><ref name=PopMech>{{cite web|title=8 Amazing Architects of the Animal Kingdom|author=Mary Beth Griggs|work=Popular Mechanics|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/8-amazing-architects-of-the-animal-kingdom|accessdate=August 22, 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813043232/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/8-amazing-architects-of-the-animal-kingdom|archivedate=August 13, 2013|df=}}</ref> Sababaraha rupa sayang malah bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun yumponan kabutuhan [[vitamin]] jeung [[ubar]] sperti: sayang [[walét]], [[nyiruan]], [[sireum]], jeung sajabana .<ref name=”Bambang”>{{Cite book | title = Memelihara lebah madu| last = Farndon| first =Bambang | publisher =Agus Murtidjo | location =Jakarta| year =1991|ISBN=9789794137062}}</ref> <gallery caption="Rupa-rupa sayang"> File:Pandion haliaetus -Belize -building nest-8.jpg|Sayang anu dijieun luhureun tatangkalan File:Natural Beehive and Honeycombs.jpg|Sayang [[nyiruan]] File:Webervogelnst Auoblodge.JPG|Sayang anu dieusi ku sakoloni File:Spawn hatching.JPG|Endog lauk keur megar dina sayang File:Maiasaura Nest Model.001 - Natural History Museum of London.JPG| Keur miara anak-anakna dina sayang </gallery> ==Tutumbu kaluar== {{Commons category|Nests}} * [http://www.earthlife.net/birds/nests.html Sayang manuk] ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:wangunan]] 78qq116k52tpgnbullsi4fg0hbxm0hh 0 71517 711766 549185 2026-08-07T03:39:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711766 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:2006 1002 nan thailand rice.jpg|jempol|350px|Saung di tengah [[sawah]]]] '''Saung''' (''shed'') nyaéta hiji wangunan leutik kawas [[imah]] ngan henteu weweg; [[gardu]]; [[ranggon]].<ref name="R.A Danadibrata">{{Cite book | title = Kamus Basa Sunda| last = Dibrata| first = R.A. Dana | publisher =PT Kiblat Buku Utama | location =Bandung | year =2009|ISBN=9793631937 }}</ref> Saung ilahar katempo di [[sawah]] atawa [[kebon]], dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngaso, nungguan sawah, kebon, ingon-ingon, nunda [[pakakas]], [[gemuk]], jeung sajabana. Saung ogé nunjul kana wangunan pikeun ngiuhan ipukan atawa pabinihan sangkan henteu kabentrang teuing ku panon poé.<ref name="R.A Danadibrata"/> Ilaharna dijieun tina bahan [[kai]] jeung [[awi]], [[hateup]]na maké [[jarami]] atawa daun [[eurih]].<ref name="R.A Danadibrata"/> Kiwari saung loba ogé dijieun pikeun rupa-rupa kabutuhan, saperti saung anu ngahaja dijieun pikeun nendeun [[runtah]] anu baris dijieun kompos.<ref name="Teti">{{Cite book | title =Bijak dan Cerdas Mengolah Sampah| first =Teti | last =Suryati| publisher =AgroMedia| location =Jakarta| year =2009|ISBN=9789790062184}}</ref> Aya deui saung [[tradisional]] anu ngahaja dijieun di [[kota]] pikeun tempat usaha ''kuliner'', sangkan béda tinulian ogé katempo asri kawas di [[kampung]] atawa di [[lembur]].<ref name="Malahayati">{{Cite book | title =99 PELUANG BISNIS BUAT ANAK MUDA| first =Malahayati| last =Hendry E. Ramdhan| publisher =Penebar PLUS+| location =Jakarta| year =2009}}</ref>.Aya saung pikeun ngukut atawa miara [[bangkong]] <ref name="Retno">{{Cite book | title =Kodok Lembu| first =Retno | last =Iswaring Pujaningsih| publisher =Kanisius| location =Jakarta| year =2007|ISBN=9789792113082}}</ref> Nincak [[umur]] paré geus culcel bijil [[buah]]na, di saung ogé mimiti haneuteun nu ngadon tunggu [[sawah]] ngagebahan [[hama]] [[manuk]] [[piit]] jeung sajabana.<ref name="Eva "/> Nu tunggu di saung ilaharna ibu-ibu jeung barudak, ku sabab salakina mah ngadon garawé di [[kebon]] atawa nyiar [[suluh]].<ref name="Eva "/> Tunggu paré disaung téh ilaharna ti mimiti wanci [[pecat sawed]] nepika [[lingsir ngulon]], mangsa geus surup [[panon poé]] kakara ninggalkeun saung baralik ka imahna séwang-séwangan.<ref name="Eva ">{{Cite book | title = Kearifan Tradisional Masyarakat Pedesaan Dalam Pemeliharaan Lingkungan Hidup di Daerah Propinsi Jambi| last = Zulvita,Nurbaiti Harun,Fetriatman| first =Eva | publisher =Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan | location =Bandung | year =1993}}</ref> Saung henteu ngan aya di urang wungkul, di luar [[negri]] ogé aya saperti di [[Australia]] jeung [[New Zealand]] ogé aya.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://zacsgarden.com/how-to-build-a-shed/|title=Best way to Build a Shed|last=|first=|date=|newspaper=Zacs Garden|access-date=2017-02-10|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|work=|language=en-US|via=}}</ref> Malahan mah aya majalahna judulna "''The Shed''" jeung buku anu judulna "''Men and Sheds''".<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomson, Mark|title=Blokes and Sheds|url=https://archive.org/details/blokessheds0000thom|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers PTY|date=January 1998|isbn=0207189161 }}</ref> Dua-duana dikokolakeun ku hiji paguyuban (''Australian Men's Shed Association'') anu eusina rupa-rupa [[iber]] pikeun saha waé anu mikaresep ngeunaan saung.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/mother-tongue/8924055/Why-every-man-needs-time-in-a-shed.html Why every man needs time in a shed - ''The Telegraph'']</ref> <gallery> File:Tabanan-Regency Indonesia Rice-paddies-07.jpg|Saung urang [[Bali]] File:Elderly shed 269720.jpg| Saung urang Inggris File:Cedar storage shed wood.jpg| Saung paranti neundeun suluh File:Saung pepes ikan mas Walahar " - panoramio.jpg| Saung paragi ngaso tur jajan File:Rice fields at Jatiluwih. Bali, Indonesia.JPG|Saung sawah di Bali </gallery> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Wangunan]] pc8fjkin0wqsg5hu6c4g7lhavopg2m1 0 71669 711518 681020 2026-08-06T22:09:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711518 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | image =Calliphora (Blow-fly).jpg | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Insect]]a | ordo = [[Fly|Diptera]] | familia = [[Calliphoridae]] | subfamilia = [[Calliphorinae]] | genus = ''[[Calliphora]]'' | species = '''''C. vomitoria''''' | binomial = ''Calliphora vomitoria'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]) | synonyms =''Calliphora rubrifrons'' <small>Townsend</small><br/> ''Musca obscoena'' <small>Eschscholz</small><br/> ''Musca vomitoria'' <small>Linnaeus</small> | synonyms_ref = <ref name="ITIS">{{ITIS |id=151559 |taxon=''Calliphora vomitoria'' |accessdate=2008-05-31}}</ref><ref name="A/ODC"/>{{cite web | url = http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/calliphoridae.html | title = 109. Family CALLIPHORIDAE | accessdate = May 31, 2008 | last = Kurahshi | first = Hiromu | date = 2007-05-31 | work = Australasian/Oceanian Diptera Catalog | publisher = Hawaii Biological Survey }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629152652/http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/calliphoridae.html |date=2016-06-29 }}</ref> }} '''Aro''' (''Calliphora vomitoria'') nyaéta laleur héjo, hiberna gancang sarta jero hiberna sok ngaluarkeun sora sahéng saperti [[nyiruan]].<ref name="A/ODC">{{cite web | url = http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/calliphoridae.html | title = 109. Family CALLIPHORIDAE | accessdate = May 31, 2008 | last = Kurahshi | first = Hiromu | date = May 28, 2007 | work = Australasian/Oceanian Diptera Catalog | publisher = Hawaii Biological Survey }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629152652/http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/calliphoridae.html |date=June 29, 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Rig">{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard |page=23| year =1862 }} Ditempo 3 Oktober 2017</ref><ref name="R.A Danadibrata">{{Cite book | title = Kamus Basa Sunda| last = Dibrata| first = R.A. Dana | publisher =PT Kiblat Buku Utama | location =Bandung |page=34| year =2009|ISBN=9793631937 }} Ditempo 3 Oktober 2017</ref> Ilaharna sok kapanggih hirup ngagorombol di tempat baseuh anu ngaluarkeu bau mabek saperti [[runtah]], [[bangké]], jeung [[kembang]] anu ngaluarkeun bau henteu matak genah.<ref name="A/ODC"/> Laleur héjo sok diseut ogé ''laler wilis'' (basa [[Jawa]]) awakna leuwih gedé batan [[laleur]] biasa, panjang awakna 10-14 miliméter, [[sirah]] jeung [[dada]] kelirna hawuk sedengkeun beuteungna héjo semu hérang ngagurilap.<ref name=Hersri>{{Cite book | title=Kamus Gestok| last =Setiawan| first = Hersri| publisher =Galangpress Group | location =Jakarta| year =2003|ISBN=9789799341815|page=6 }}Ditempo kaping 3 Oktober 2017</ref> Awakna baruluan, dina sirahna nolol [[anteneu]] aya dua, panonna jéér beureum, jang-jangna hérang.<ref name="A/ODC"/> Laleur héjo mah ngadon ngendog di tempat manéhna baranghakan, éta [[endog]] pareng megar mimitina jadi [[bilatung]] heula.<ref name= Ingrid >{{Cite book | title=Pengantar Keamanan Pangan untuk Industri Pangan| last =Suryanti Surono| first = Ingrid | publisher =Deepublish | location =Jakarta| year =2016|ISBN=9786024012229|page=72 }}Ditempo kaping3 Oktober 2017</ref> Sababaraha [[poé]] tiharita ieu bilatung téh geus jadi laleur déwasa, hiji mangsa ieu laleur ngarayap néangan [[taneuh]] garing pikeun panyumputan.<ref name="Thorndyke">{{Cite book | title =Neurohormones in Invertebrates| url =https://archive.org/details/neurohormonesini0000unse| first = M. C. | last =Thorndyke| publisher =Cambridge University Press| location =Cambridge| year =1988|ISBN=9780521328432}}</ref> Salila dina panyumputan ieu laleur téh robah jadi [[kepongpong]] ngalaman ([[Métamorfosis]]) anu lilala dua nepika tilu [[minggu]], tuluyna mah bijil deui jadi [[laleur]] anyar anu bisa hiber, néangan pasanganana.alliphora vomito kitu jeung kitu baé siklus hirup tina laleur héjo.<ref name="Thorndyke"/> <gallery> File:Unidentified_diptera,_Magelang,_Indonesia_2015-05-03_02.jpg File:Unidentified_diptera,_Magelang,_Indonesia_2015-05-03_01.jpg </gallery> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} {{commonscat|Calliphora vomitoria}} [[Kategori:Diptera]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] n6icg2me5ymk67wlgueqf6485qu4gk5 0 71715 711859 650647 2026-08-07T05:57:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711859 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Thumbs up.JPG|jmpl|conto indung leungeun manusa]] '''Indung leungeun''' ([[Tatakrama basa Sunda|basa Hormat]]: '''indung panangan''' atawa '''jempol''') nyaéta salah sahiji ramo dina [[leungeun]]. Indung leungeun béda tina opat ramo anu séjénna ku sabab arahna ogé béda tur mibanda buku ramo anu leuwih saeutik jeung leuwih pondok. Indung leungeun bisa dipeletékkeun ka béh jero atawa ka arah ramo anu séjénna, jeung bisa digunakeun pikeun nyekelan hiji benda kalawan diteken ka béh jero atawa ka bagéan leungeun jeung ramo anu séjénna. == Referensi == === Daftar Pustaka === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} : {{Cite journal|last1=Almécija|first1=S.|last2=Moyà-Solà|first2=S.|last3=Alba|first3=D. M.|year=2010|title=Early Origin for Human-Like Precision Grasping: A Comparative Study of Pollical Distal Phalanges in Fossil Hominins|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=5|issue=7|pages=e11727|bibcode=2010PLoSO...511727A|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0011727|pmc=2908684|pmid=20661444|ref=harv}} : {{cite book|ref=harv|year=2007|last=Ankel-Simons|first=Friderun|title=Primate Anatomy|chapter=Chapter 8: Postcranial Skeleton|page=345|edition=3rd|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-372576-9}} : {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Austin|first=Noelle M.|title=Joint Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/jointstructurefu0000leva|edition=4th|chapter=Chapter 9: The Wrist and Hand Complex|editor1-first=Pamela K.|editor1-last=Levangie|editor2-first=Cynthia C.|editor2-last=Norkin|publisher=F. A. Davis Company|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-8036-1191-7|year=2005}} : {{cite book|ref=harv|editor-last=Cuccurullo|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=physmedrehab&part=A4492#A4530|year=2004|publisher=Demos Medical Publishing|chapter=Upper Extremities—Hand Region: Range of Motion of the Digits|title=Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Board Review|editor-first=Sara|first4=Ted L.|last1=Brown|last4=Freeman|first3=Sara|last3=Cuccurullo|first2=Eric D.|last2=Freeman|first1=David P.|isbn=978-1-888799-45-3}} ([[National Center for Biotechnology Information|NCBI]]) : {{cite book|ref=harv|year=1999|last=Brunelli|first=Giovanni R.|editor1-last=Brüser|editor1-first=Peter|editor2-last=Gilbert|editor2-first=Alain|title=Finger bone and joint injuries|chapter=Stability in the first carpometacarpal joint|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-85317-690-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pzGRMvXFzAC&pg=PA167}} : {{Cite journal|last1=Byrne|first1=R.W.|last2=Byrne|first2=J.M.E.|year=1993|title=Complex Leaf-Gathering Skills of Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla g. beringei): Variability and Standardization|url=http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_sp/people/personal/rwb/publications/1993%20Byrne_Byrne_AJP.pdf|deadurl=yes|journal=American Journal of Primatology|volume=31|issue=4|pages=241–261|doi=10.1002/ajp.1350310402|issn=0275-2565|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920100630/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_sp/people/personal/rwb/publications/1993%20Byrne_Byrne_AJP.pdf|archivedate=September 20, 2009|ref=harv}} : {{Cite journal|last1=Christel|first1=Marianne I.|last2=Kitzel|first2=Stefanie|last3=Niemitz|first3=Carsten|authorlink3=Carsten Niemitz|date=30 November 2004|title=How Precisely do Bonobos (Pan paniscus) Grasp Small Objects?|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/w06281n1m71n7418/|journal=International Journal of Primatology|volume=19|issue=1|pages=165–194|doi=10.1023/A:1020319313219|ref=harv}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Februari 2021|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} : {{Cite journal|last1=Costello|first1=Michael B.|last2=Fragaszy|first2=Dorothy M.|date=March 1988|title=Prehension in Cebus and Saimiri: I. Grip type and hand preference|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/110487513/PDFSTART|journal=American Journal of Primatology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=235–245|doi=10.1002/ajp.1350150306|ref=harv}}{{dead link|date=February 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} : {{cite journal|last1=de Klerk|first1=W.J.|last2=Forster|first2=C.A.|last3=Sampson|first3=S.D.|last4=Chinsamy|first4=A.|author5=Ross, C.F.|year=2000|title=A new coelurosaurian dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of South Africa|url=http://rosslab.uchicago.edu/publications/De%20Klerk%20et%20al.%202000.pdf|dead-url=yes|journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology|volume=20|issue=2|pages=324–332|doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0324:ancdft]2.0.co;2|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120130211657/http://rosslab.uchicago.edu/publications/De%20Klerk%20et%20al.%202000.pdf|archive-date=2012-01-30|access-date=2019-05-16|ref=harv}} {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120130211657/http://rosslab.uchicago.edu/publications/De%20Klerk%20et%20al.%202000.pdf |date=2012-01-30 }} : {{cite journal|last1=Diogo|first1=R|last2=Richmond|first2=BG|last3=Wood|first3=B|year=2012|title=Evolution and homologies of primate and modern human hand and forearm muscles, with notes on thumb movements and tool use|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=63|issue=1|pages=64–78|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.04.001|pmid=22640954|ref=harv}} : {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Ellerman|first=John Reeves|title=The families and genera of living rodents. Vol. II. Family Muridae|publisher=British Museum (Natural History)|year=1941|location=London|url=https://archive.org/stream/familiesgeneraof02elle#page/2/mode/2up/search/Lophiomyidae}} : {{cite journal|last1=Franzen|first1=JL|last2=Gingerich|first2=PD|last3=Habersetzer|first3=J|last4=Hurum|first4=JH|author5=von Koenigswald, W|display-authors=etal|year=2009|editor1-last=Hawks|editor1-first=John|title=Complete Primate Skeleton from the Middle Eocene of Messel in Germany: Morphology and Paleobiology|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=4|issue=5|pages=e5723|bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5723F|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005723|pmc=2683573|pmid=19492084|ref=harv}} : {{cite journal|last1=Harcourt-Smith|first1=W E H|last2=Aiello|first2=L C|date=May 2004|title=Fossils, feet and the evolution of human bipedal locomotion|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0021-8782&date=2004&volume=204&issue=5&spage=403|dead-url=yes|journal=Journal of Anatomy|volume=204|issue=5|pages=403–16|doi=10.1111/j.0021-8782.2004.00296.x|pmc=1571304|pmid=15198703|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105130203/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0021-8782&date=2004&volume=204&issue=5&spage=403|archive-date=2013-01-05|ref=harv}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.ph/20130105130203/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0021-8782&date=2004&volume=204&issue=5&spage=403 |date=2013-01-05 }} : {{cite journal|last=Hsu|first=Ar-Tyan|author2=Meng-Tsu Hu|author3=Fong Ching Su|date=July 2008|title=Effect of Gender, Flexibility and Thumb Type on Thumb Tip Generation|url=http://www.jbiomech.com/article/S0021-9290%2808%2970148-9/abstract|journal=Journal of Biomechanics|volume=41|issue=Supplement 1|pages=S148|doi=10.1016/S0021-9290(08)70148-9|ref=harv}} : {{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Jones|first1=Lynette A.|last2=Lederman|first2=Susan J.|title=Human hand function|url=https://archive.org/details/humanhandfunctio0000jone|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2006|isbn=9780195173154}} : {{cite journal|last1=Leakey|first1=LSB|last2=Tobias|first2=PV|author2-link=Phillip V. Tobias|last3=Napier|first3=JR|author3-link=John Napier (primatologist)|date=April 1964|title=A New Species of Genus Homo from Olduvai Gorge|url=http://purple.niagara.edu/wje/Bio121/Leaky%201964%20habilis.pdf|journal=Nature|volume=202|issue=4927|pages=7–9|bibcode=1964Natur.202....7L|doi=10.1038/202007a0|pmid=14166722|ref=harv|author1-link=Louis Leakey}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Februari 2021|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} : {{Cite book|ref=harv|year=1942|last=McBride|first=Earl Duwain|title=Disability evaluation: principles of treatment of compensable injuries|publisher=Lippincott|page=631|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIpgQgAACAAJ}} : {{cite book|ref=harv|editor3-last=Geist|publisher=Gale Group|location=Farmington Hills, MI|editor4-first=Melissa C.|editor4-last=McDade|display-editors=3|editor3-first=Valerius|editor2-first=Devra G.|last=McDade|editor2-last=Kleiman|editor1-first=Michael|editor1-last=Hutchins|chapter=Koalas (''Phascolartidae'')|edition=2nd|title=Grzimek's animal life encyclopedia: Volumes 12–16, Mammals I–V|first=Melissa C.|year=2003}} : {{cite journal|last1=Moyà-Solà|first1=Salvador|last2=Köhler|first2=Meike|last3=Rook|first3=Lorenzo|date=January 5, 1999|title=Evidence of hominid-like precision grip capability in the hand of the Miocene ape Oreopithecus|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/96/1/313.full.pdf|journal=PNAS|volume=96|issue=1|pages=313–317|bibcode=1999PNAS...96..313M|doi=10.1073/pnas.96.1.313|pmc=15136|pmid=9874815|ref=harv}} : {{Cite journal|last=Napier|first=John Russell|date=November 1956|title=The prehensile movements of the human hand|url=http://www.bjj.boneandjoint.org.uk/content/38-B/4/902.full.pdf|journal=J Bone Joint Surg Br|volume=38|issue=4|pages=902–913|pmid=13376678|ref=harv}} : {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Nowak|first=Ronald M.|title=Walker's mammals of the world, Volume 2|edition=6th|publisher=JHU Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8018-5789-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T37sFCl43E8C&pg=PA89}} : {{cite book|ref=harv|year=2004|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1<!---US: 1-58890-159-9--->|edition=5th}} : {{Cite journal|last=Senter|first=Phil|year=2006|title=Comparison of forelimb function between ''Deinonychus'' and ''Bambiraptor'' (Theropoda: Dromaeosauridae)|journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology|volume=26|issue=4|pages=897–906|doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[897:COFFBD]2.0.CO;2|ref=harv}} : {{Cite journal|last1=Slocum|first1=D.B.|last2=Pratt|first2=D.R.|year=1946|title=Disability Evaluation for the Hand|url=http://www.ejbjs.org/cgi/reprint/28/3/491.pdf|journal=Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery|volume=28|issue=3|page=491|ref=harv}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} : {{cite journal|last1=van Nierop|first1=Onno A.|last2=van der Helm|first2=Aadjan|last3=Overbeeke|first3=Kees J.|last4=Djajadiningrat|first4=Tom J.P.|year=2008|title=A natural human hand model|url=http://www.ece.uvic.ca/~btill/papers/mocap/vanNierop_etal_2008.pdf|journal=Visual Comput|volume=24|issue=1|pages=31–44|doi=10.1007/s00371-007-0176-x|ref=harv}} : {{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Richard W.|date=January 2003|title=Evolution of the human hand: the role of throwing and clubbing|journal=Journal of Anatomy|volume=202|issue=1|pages=165–174|doi=10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00144.x|pmc=1571064|pmid=12587931|ref=harv}} {{anatomi manusa}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Ramo]] 3aa079kkd714lhfs8w2zi0i5dr6jh9v 0 72126 711633 708397 2026-08-07T00:37:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711633 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hun_bow.jpg|jmpl|Wangun modérn, tina fiberglass jeung kai, jujutan bahan [[bahan gondéwa]]]] '''Panah '''nyaéta [[pakarang anggang]] nu sistemna ngawengku pakakas paluncur ([[gondéwa]]) jeung [[proyéktil]] ([[jamparing]]).<ref name=“Parabot”>{{Cite book | title =Mustika Basa Sunda| first =Drs.| last =Denny Djuhaeni, Dra. Rini Tanumulyana, Elly Sarimana S. Pd, Ine Novita S.Pd| publisher =Grasindo| location =Jakarta| year =2001| pages =18|ISBN=9789796952557|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=m6P45D_BcbsC&pg=PA18&dq=parabot+sunda&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj95uel4cbpAhUb73MBHUuKBpYQ6AEIUjAF#v=onepage&q=parabot%20sunda&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 22 Mei 2020)}}</ref> Pamakéan gondéwa jeung jamparing biasana ajang [[moro]] jeung [[pangperangan]], malah dina pangperangan mah nyangkaruk dina [[sajarah karekam]] sarta ilahar di sakumna [[budaya]]. Ari [[papanahan]] mah mangrupa seni, latihan sarta kaparigelan dina ngagunakeun gondéwa mangsa ngabelesatkeun jamparing.<ref name="Paterson17">Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 17</ref>, ari jalma nu purah manah disebutna '''pamanah'''. Ari nu sok nyieun gondéwa disebut '''[[tukang gondéwa]]''',<ref name="Paterson31">Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 31</ref> mun nu sok nyieun jamparing disebut '''[[tukang jamparing]]'''<ref name="Paterson56">Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 56</ref>, mun nu mroduksi [[ruruhit jamparing|ruruhit tungtung jamparing]] disebut '''[[tukang ngaruruhitan]]'''.<ref name="Paterson20">Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 20</ref> == Pedaran == Gondéwa mangrupa gagang panjang nu [[élastis]] kawas rancatan anu dicangreudan ku tali di pada tungtungna kalawan nyambung. Nalika [[tali gondéwa]] dibetot ka tukang, puhu gondéwa milu melendoy, nendeun [[énérgi élastis]]. Jamparing nu mangrupa [[proyéktil]] panjang mibanda [[cécépét]] di puhuna nu distabilkeun ku [[ruruhit jamparing|ruruhit]] ditungtungna, tuluy diposisikeun ku cara neundeun puhuna nu aya cécépétan téh kana tali gondéwa. Tali nu dikaitan ku jamparing téh dibetot ka tukang tuluy dileupaskeun, élastisitas tungtung pada tungtung gondéwa ngarobah [[énérgi poténsial]] nu kateundeun jadi [[énérgi kinétik]], nu saterusna ditransmisikeun liwat tali gondéwa kana jamparing, nu ngabelesatkeun jamparing kalawan gancang pisan.<ref name="Paterson27">Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' pp. 27-28</ref> Panah téh [[pakarang perang]] nu penting di sabagian loba paradaban mangsa [[sajarah kuna]]. Saprak [[périodeu modérn awal]], ieu panah téh arang langka kapanggih lantaran kasilih ku [[pakarang seuneu]] nu loba dipaké dina pangperangan. Kiwari, gondéwa jeung jamparing utamana mah dipaké pikeun kaperluan [[moro]] jeung [[olahraga]] [[papanahan]]. == Sajarah == [[Gambar:Scythians_shooting_with_bows_Kertch_antique_Panticapeum_Ukrainia_4th_century_BCE.jpg|jmpl|[[Scythians]] nodongkeun gondéwa, [[Panticapeum]] ([[Kertch]] modérn), abad ka-4 SM.]] Bijilna panah téh kira-kira ti jaman [[paléolitik luhur]] nepi ka jaman [[Mesolitikum|mésolitikum]]. Di lokasi [[Nataruk]] di [[Turkana County]], [[Kénya]], sempalan [[obsidian]] kapanggih aya dina jero [[tangkorak]] jeung dina di jero rongga toraks rorongkong lianna, kajudi geus dipaké jamparing nu tungtungna diruruhitan batu minangka pakarang mangsa harita.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lahr|first=M. Mirazón|last2=Rivera|first2=F.|last3=Power|first3=R. K.|last4=Mounier|first4=A.|last5=Copsey|first5=B.|last6=Crivellaro|first6=F.|last7=Edung|first7=J. E.|last8=Fernandez|first8=J. M. Maillo|last9=Kiarie|first9=C.|year=2016|title=Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya|url=http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature16477|journal=Nature|volume=529|issue=7586|pages=394–398|doi=10.1038/nature16477|pmid=26791728}}</ref> Dina [[période glasial pamungkas]] katompérnakeun, pamakéan gondéwa kasampak geus sumebar ka sakuliah buana nu didumuk, kaasup [[lebahan kulon]], iwal [[Australia|Australi]].<ref>M. H. Monroe, ''Aboriginal Weapons and Tools'' "The favoured weapon of the Aborigines was the spear and spear thrower. The fact that they never adopted the bow and arrow has been debated for a long time. During post-glacial times the bow and arrow were being used in every inhabited part of the world except Australia. A number of reasons for this have been put forward [...] Captain Cook saw the bow and arrow being used on an island close to the mainland at Cape York, as it was in the Torres Strait islands and New Guinea. But the Aborigines preferred the spear. "</ref> == Cutatan == * {{Cite book|title=Background to archaeology: Britain in its European setting|last=Collins|first=Desmond|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1973|isbn=0-521-20155-1|edition=Revised}} CS1 maint: Extra text ([[:Kategori:CS1 maint: Extra text|link]]) * {{Cite book|title=Target Archery: With a History of the Sport in America|last=Elmer, R. P.|publisher=A. A. Knopf|year=1946|location=New York|oclc=1482628}} * {{Cite book|title=Archery: The Modern Approach|url=https://archive.org/details/archerymodernapp0000heat|last=Heath, E. G.|publisher=Faber and Faber|year=1978|isbn=0-571-04957-5|location=London}} * {{Cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Archery|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa0000pate|last=Paterson, W. F.|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=1984|isbn=0-312-24585-8|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|title=Beginner's Guide to Traditional Archery|url=https://archive.org/details/beginnersguideto0000sorr|last=Sorrells, Brian J.|publisher=Stackpole Books|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8117-3133-1|location=Mechanicsburg, PA}} * {{Cite book|title=A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration, and Use of Arms and Armor in All Countries and in All Times|last=Stone, George Cameron|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1999|isbn=0-486-40726-8|edition=Reprint|location=Mineola|author-link=George Cameron Stone|orig-year=1934}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} == Bacaan salajengna == * Gad Rausing, "Ruku", Universitas Lund Acta Archaéologica Lundensia Serie di 8° No 6, 1967 * ''Tradisional Bowyers Alkitab Volume 1''. 1992 Lyons Pencet. {{ISBN|1-58574-085-3}}1-58574-085-3 * ''Tradisional Bowyers Alkitab Volume 2''. 1992 Lyons Pencet. {{ISBN|1-58574-086-1}}1-58574-086-1 * ''Tradisional Bowyers Alkitab Jilid 3''. 1994 Lyons Pencet. {{ISBN|1-58574-087-X}}1-58574-087-X * ''Tradisional Bowyers Alkitab Volume 4''. 2008 Lyons Pencet. {{ISBN|978-0-9645741-6-8}}978-0-9645741-6-8 * U. Stodiek/H. Paulsen, "Mit dem Pfeil, dem Bogen..." Techniken der steinzeitlichen Jagd. (Oldenburg 1996). * Abu, David, "Bows of the World". Nu Lyons Press, 2002. {{ISBN|1-58574-478-6}}1-58574-478-6. * Comstock, Paul. "Nu Ngagulung Lengket" == Tutumbu luar == * [http://www.atarn.org The Asian Traditional Archery Research Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208040319/http://www.atarn.org/ |date=2011-12-08 }} * [http://www.museum.manchester.ac.uk/collection/archery/ Simon Archery Collection]{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} From The Manchester muséum, The University of Manchester * [http://www.bio.vu.nl/thb/users/kooi/kobe97.pdf An Approach to the Study of Ancient Archery using Mathematical Modeling] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121144334/http://www.bio.vu.nl/thb/users/kooi/kobe97.pdf |date=2006-11-21 }} [[Kategori:Panah]] [[Kategori:Pakarang]] l9doiu5a21tdody5s7dika7wx9r71lu 0 72162 711576 697987 2026-08-06T23:25:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711576 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Kue_risoles.JPG|jmpl|Risoles|150x150px]] '''Risoles''' (''rissole'') nyaéta salah sahiji [[kuéh]] garing nu eusina [[daging]] jeung [[Angeun|sayuran]] dibungkus dina hiji gulungan nu dijieun tina [[tipung]] [[roti]] jeung diolésan ku [[endog]] [[hayam]] meunang ngocok. <ref name=":0" /> Ieu kadaharan bisa ogé dipanggang dina open. <ref name=":0" /> Risoles nu ukuranana leutik bisa dipaké jadi hiasan keur kadaharan nu ukuranana gedé, saperti potongan [[daging]] [[hayam]] atawa daging [[sapi]].<ref name=":0" /> Eusi risoles bisa maké daging ayam, daging sapi, daging [[lauk]], [[hurang]], [[supa]], [[wortel]], [[kentang]], atawa [[buncis]]. <ref name=":0" /> Adonan gulunganana dijieun tina campuran [[Tarigu|tipung tarigu]], endog kokonéngna, [[Mantéga|mantega]] (margarin), jeung [[cai]] atawa [[susu]]. <ref name=":0" /> Risoles anu kawentar di [[Indonésia|Indonesia]] nyaéta risoles sayuran nu dicampur daging jeung risoles nu eusina ragout.<ref name=":0" /> Ieu kuéh wangunna [[Pasagi burung|segi panjang]] saperti [[amplop]]. Risoles segitilu téh umumna dieusian ragout.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Snack Gurih Goreng|last=Habsari|first=Rinto|publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama|year=2002|isbn=9-7922-0048-7|pages=14}}</ref> Risoles bisa didahar maké [[sambel suuk]] nu éncér, [[sambel]] [[botol]], atawa bari ngageletuk [[céngék]].<ref name=":0" /> == Kamekaran == [[Gambar:Pasar Malam Rawasari 6.JPG|jmpl|Risoles didagangkeun di Pasar Malem.|150x150px]] Jaman baheula risoles disebut ''roinsolles'', mimiti dipikawanoh dina [[Abad ka-11|abad ka-13]].<ref name="Larousse">{{Cite book|title=Larousse gastronomique: the Encyclopedia of Food, Wine & Cookery|url=https://archive.org/details/laroussegastrono0000mont_w7s3|last=Montagné|first=Prosper|publisher=Hamlyn|year=1961|isbn=0-600-02352-4|location=London}}</ref> Harita, ieu kadaharan téh ukur panekuk anu digoréng ngagunakeun mantéga atawa gajih sapi. <ref name="Larousse" /> Ku kamekaran jaman, ieu kadaharan robah eusina ku daging sapi atawa hayam kalawan dicampur sayuran. Dina istilah [[kulinér]] [[Perancis]], ''rissoler'' téh kecap pagawéan miboga harti '''jadi coklat'''. <ref name="Larousse" /> R''issoler'' pasti dibungkus ku hiji gulungan atawa nu sajinisna, biasana digoréng, tapi aya ogé nu digarang dina open.<ref name=":1" /> Rasa ''rissole'' bisa asin atawa amis. Rasa amis téh ku sabab dipurulukan ku [[gula]] tipung atawa [[selé]] bungbuahan.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000davi_s2r1|last=Davidson|first=Alan|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-1928-0681-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000davi_s2r1/page/667 667]}}</ref> == Galéri == <gallery> Gambar:Brik Edennouni.JPG|Risoles Eusi Sayuran Gambar:Risole2.jpg|Risoles Satengah Buleud. Gambar:Rissole à la poire Blesson.jpg|Risoles Amis Eusi Selé Bungbuahan. |Risoles nu digarang dina Open. Gambar:Fried snacks.jpg|Risoles jadi Jajanan Pasar. </gallery> == Referensi == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Kadaharan urang Sunda]] qn6ovqyebgn9f34fnz4hzbp3e3ocudc 0 72242 711620 557265 2026-08-07T00:26:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711620 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Skull and Crossbones.svg|jmpl|Simbul bahan miracun]] '''<span>R</span>acun '''mangrupa zat padet, cair, atawa gas, nu bisa ngaganggu prosés hirupna [[Sél (biologi)|sél]] hiji [[organismeu]].<ref name="a">(Inggris){{cite book|last=Gary D. Osweiler|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Toxicology|year=1996|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=|id=ISBN 978-0-683-06664-7}}Page.1</ref> Zat racun bisa asup kana awak boh liwat jalur [[oral]] (baham) boh jalur [[topikal]] (pabeungeutan awak).<ref name="lol">{{en}}{{cite book|last= Gary D. Osweiler|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title= Toxicology|year= 1996|publisher= Wiley-Blackwell|location=|id= ISBN 978-0-683-06664-7}}Page.1</ref> Dina patalina jeung [[biologi]], '''racun '''nyaéta zat nu nyumebabkeun [[cidera]], [[nyeri]], jeung paéhna [[organismeu]], biasana jeung [[Réaksi kimiawi|réaksi kimia]] atawa aktivitas lianna dina dalam skala [[Molekul|molékul]]. Bapa [[Toksikologi]], [[Paracelsus]], ngedalkeun yén: Sagala rupa téh racun jeung taya nu tanpa racun. Ngan [[dosis]] nu nyieun hiji hal jadi lain racun (''Dosis solum facit venum'').<ref>(Inggris){{cite book|last=Horst S. H. Seifert|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Tropical animal health|url=https://archive.org/details/tropicalanimalhe0000seif|year=1996|publisher=Springer|location=|id=ISBN 978-0-7923-3821-5}}Page.442</ref> == Terminologi == Istilah racun téh saru boh jeung kecap [[toksin]] boh jeung kecap [[peurah]], saenya mun dilenyepan mah ieu téh béda pisan définisina.<ref name="b">(Inggris){{cite book|last=Merriam-Webster, Inc|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Merriam Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms: A Dictionary of Discriminated Synonyms With Antonyms and Analogous and Contrasted Words|year=1984|publisher=Merriam-Webster|location=|id=ISBN 978-0-87779-341-0}}Page.618</ref> Kecap "toksin" didéfinisi minangkana mah racun nu dihasilkeun tina prosés [[biologi]], atawa sok disebut minangka [[biotoksin]]. Sedengkeun peurah mah minangka cairan nu ngandung racun nu disékrésikaeun atawa dihasilkeun ku sato dina prosés mertahankeun diri atawa narajang sato lian kalawan macok atawa nyongcong. Istilah miracun, toksik, jeung peurahan ogé mangrupa kecap nu sabanding mun dipaké pikeun ngébréhkeun watek atawa éfék tina racun. Ngan, tetep aya saeutik bédana dina katila kecap éta téh. Miracun dipaké pikeun sagala hal nu akibatna fatal atawa bahaya mun diasupkeun dina jumlah tinangtu ka [[Organismeu|mahluk hirdup]]. Sedengkeun toksik ngungkabkeun watek atawa éfék tina toksin, jeung peurahan mah nujul ka [[sato]] nu mibanda [[peurah]]. == Klasifikasi == DIna hiji buku forénsik médis nu ditulis ku JL Casper, racun diklasifikasikein jadi 5 golongan, nyaéta: # Racun iritan, nyaéta racun nu nimbulkeun iritasi jeung radang. Contona asam mineral, fungi miracun, jeung préparasi arsénik. # Racun panyabab hipéremia, racun narkotik, nu kabukti bisa ngabalukar fatal kana uteuk, bayah, jeung jantung. Contohna opium, bako, konium, dogitalis, jll. # Racun nu narajang saraf, jeung ngaracunan getih, organ puseur saraf bisa paéh jeung nimbulkeun nu fatal kayaning kamaotan ujug-ujug. Contohna asam hidrosianat, sianida séng, jeung [[kloroform]]. # Racun nu nyumebabkeun [[marasmus]], biasana mah miawatek kronis jeung bisa ngabalukar fatal pikeun kaséhatan sacara ngeureuyeuh. Contohna bismut bodas, haseup timbal, mérkuri, jeung arsénik.<ref name="kla">(Basa Inggris){{Cite book|title=A Handbook of the Practice of Forensic Medicine: Thanatological division|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_LvYRAAAAYAAJ|last=Johann Ludwig Casper|publisher=New Sydenham Society|year=1861}}Page.44-45</ref> # Racun nu nyababkeun inféksi (racun séptik), bisa mangrupa racun kadaharan nu dina kaayaan tinangtu nimbulkeun nyeri Pyaemia (atawa pyemia) jeung tipes dina sato ingon. == Sajarah == Sajarah awal ngeunaan racun ruket patalina jeung mitos sarta ageman. Taun 2500 SM, bangsa [[Suméria]] dipikanyaho nyembah déwi racun nu disebut ''Gula''. Dina [[mitologi Yunani]], nyangkaruk sawatara rujukan ngeunaan racun, di antarana nyaéta kisah ngeunaan Medéa, incuna Helios (déwa panonpoé). Medéa hayang maténi anak téréna, Theseus ku inuman anggur nu diracunan. Ngan, éta tarékah téh dibolaykeun ku Aegeus, salakina Medéa. Tulisan pangbuhunna ngeunaan racun kapanggih di Mesir jeung angkana taun kurang leuwih 3000 SM jeung dokumén ngeunaan panalungtikan pepelakan miracun nu dilakonan ku Menes, raja Mesir. Dina sajarah Yunani, racun pernah dipaké minangka hukuman pati nu disebut Racun Nagara atawa ''State Poison''. Salah sahiji inohong filsuf nu pernah dihukum pati ku ieu cara téh nyaéta [[Socrates]]. Salila mangsa pamaréntahan [[kakaisaran Romawi]], karacunan nalika dahar peuting, utamana di kalangan kelas luhur  mah geus jadi hiji hal anu biasa. Éta perkara mangrupa salah sahiji cara pikeun nyingkahan anggota kulawarga nu teu dipiresep, jiga nu pernah dipilampah ku Nero. Kira-kira taun 246 SM, Cina ngembangkeun hiji drama nu disebut Ritual Chou, nu di jerona nyangkaruk ritual meuleum 5 macem racun.<ref name="his">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4350755|title=A Brief History of Poisoning|last=www.bbc.co.uk|date=28 Juli 2005}} </ref> Asup ka abad pertengahan, dina taun 8 Sanggeus Maséhi, racun mingkin kumembang lantaran ahli kimia Arab ngahasil dina ngarobah arsénik jadi bubuk nu teu mirasa jeung teu bau sangkan teu kadétéksi ayana éta racun. Mangsa harita, racun biasa didagangkeun di apoték jeung dibeuli ku umum téh gampang. Rupa-rupa téks akademis ngeunaan racun ogé dituliskeun ku para biarawan, salah sahijina nyaéta ''The Book of Venoms'' (1424) ku Magister Santes de Ardonis nu eusina racun nu dipikanyaho dina mangsa harita, mékanismeu gawéna, jeung cara nyageurkeunna. Dina [[abad ka-14]] jeung [[Abad ka-15|15]], ahli kimia Itali ihtiar nyieun racun nu leuwih kuat tina nu saméméhna jeung ieu perkara téh sumebar ti Itali ka Paris. Ihtiar pikeun ngawates jujualan racun dipilampah ku [[Louis XIV dari Perancis|Louis XIV]] dina taun tahun [[1662]] nu medalkeun aturan larangan [[Apotek|apoték]] pikeun ngajual sanyawa racun, iwal ka nu meuli nu geus ngadaptarkeun tujuanna. Taun 1836 jeung 1841, Marsh jeung Riensch sacara papisah ngahasil ngembangkeun métodeu pikeun ngadétéksi arsénik sangkan loba jalma nu ngalakukeun kajahatan, utamana maténi ku racun antukna bisa ditéwak. Dina [[abad ka-20]], racun mimiti ditalungtik pikeun dipaké minangka pakarang. Tumuwuhna widang toksikologi ogé ngarojong kumembangna sistim kontrol jeung sumebaran sanyawa miracun. == Panawar racun == Panawar racun mangrupa ubar nu bisa ngalawan éfék tina racun.<ref name="test">[http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/antidote Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary].</ref> Sawatara panawar racun nu sok dipaké di antarana: {| align="center" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin-bottom: 10px;" ! Racun ! Panawar |- align="center" ! Asetominofen | NAC(N-asetilsistein).<ref name="ad">(Inggris) {{cite news|author=www.uic.edu|coauthors=|url=http://www.uic.edu/com/er/toxikon/antidot.htm|title=Antidotes to Common Poisons}} </ref> |- align="center" ! Antikolinergik | Fisostigmin |- align="center" ! Antikoagulan (warfarin/coumadin, heparin) | Vitamin K1, protamin. |- align="center" ! Benzodiazepina | Parawatan pangrojong, flumazenil |- align="center" ! Botulisme | Antitoksin botulinum |- align="center" ! Panyekat beta | Glukagon |- align="center" ! Panyekat saluran kanal kalsium | Kalsium, Glukagon |- align="center" ! Kolinergik | Atropin, Pralodixime dina organofosfat kalawan dosis kaleuleuwihi |- align="center" ! Karbon monoksida | Oksigen, Oksigen hiperbarat |- align="center" ! Sianida | Amil Nitrat, Natrium Nitrat, Natrium Thiosulfat, Hidroksikobalamin |- align="center" ! Digitoksin | Antibodi Fab digoksin |- align="center" ! Beusi | Deferoksamin |- align="center" ! Isoniazid | Piridoksin |- align="center" ! Timbal | BAL, EDTA, DMSA |- align="center" ! Methemoglobinemia | Methelene Biru |- align="center" ! Opiod | Nalokson |- align="center" ! Alkokol baracun | Dialisis, Etanol Drip. Kamumkinan ogé bisa maké inhibitor énzim. |- align="center" ! antidepresan trisiklik | Natrium bikarbonat |} == Tempo ogé == * [[Peurah]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Toksikologi]] stn0fus9uduxovxf4ac5esv9gegg6qr 0 72264 711734 711101 2026-08-07T03:03:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711734 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Hodotermitidae | fossil_range = [[Krétasius awal]] nepi ka kiwari | image = Ngumbi_-_flying_termite_(5532024665).jpg | image_caption = Siraru nu ilahar ngagimbung ka imah-imah | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Insékta]] | ordo = [[Termite|Isoptera]] | familia = '''Hodotermitidae''' | familia_authority = [[Jules Desneux|Desneux]], 1904 | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = * ''[[Anacanthotermes]]'' <small>Jacobson 1905</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Carinatermes]]'' <small>Krishna & Grimaldi 2000 </small> * ''[[Hodotermes]]'' <small>Hagen 1853</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Jitermes]]'' <small>Ren 1995</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Meiatermes]]'' <small>Lacasa-Ruiz & Martinez-Declos 1986</small> * ''[[Microhodotermes]]'' <small>Sjöstedt 1926</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Parotermes]]'' <small>Scudder 1883</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Ulmeriella]]'' <small>Meunier 1919</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Valditermes]]'' <small>Jarzembowski 1981</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Yanjingtermes]]'' <small>Ren 1995</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Yongdingia]]'' <small>Ren 1995</small> }} '''Siraru''' ([[Basa Yunani]]: ''ὁδός (hodós)'', lalana; [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ''[[wiktionary:termes|termes]]'', cacing leuweung) nyaéta kulawarga rinyuh buhun, '''''Hodotermitidae'''''.<ref name="evol">{{cite book|title=Termites: Evolution, Sociality, Symbioses, Ecology|url=https://archive.org/details/termitesevolutio0000unse|last=Abe|first=Takuya|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|year=2000–2002|isbn=0-7923-6361-2|location=Dordrecht, The Netherlands|pages=[https://archive.org/details/termitesevolutio0000unse/page/35 35]–36|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Nu ngabédakeunna unggal kasta téh nyaéta tungtung sungut handapna, jeung panonna, sahingga masing-masing béda fungsina.<ref name="isa">{{cite book|title=Insects of Southern Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/insectsofsouther0000unse|last=Scholtz|first=Clarke H.|publisher=Butterworths|year=1985|isbn=0409-10487-6|location=Durban|page=[https://archive.org/details/insectsofsouther0000unse/page/57 57]|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Aya siraru aya nu tugasna néangan kahakanan jukut ti peuting jeung ti beurang, sarta siraru pagawé<ref name="fg">{{cite book|title=Field Guide to Insects of South Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetoinse0000char|last=Picker|first=Mike|publisher=Struik Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-1-77007-061-5|location=Cape Town|page=[https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetoinse0000char/page/176 176]|display-authors=etal}}</ref> nu sok rajeun di luareun [[sayang]]. Sumebaranna ngawengku padang pasir jeung sabana di [[Afrika]], [[Wétan Tengah]] jeung [[Asia]]. Mun di wewengkon Sunda mah, istilah siraru leuwih spésifik nuduhkeun rinyuh nu jangjangan, sok eunteup kanu caang mangsa peuting sanggeus hujan ([[basa Inggris]]: '''''Flying Termites'''''). == Kulawarga == [[Gambar:Northern Harvester Termite (Hodotermes mossambicus) (6856939924).jpg|kiri|jmpl|''[[Hodotermes mossambicus|H. mossambicus]]'' pagawé]] Kulawarga nu aya ngawengku tilu genera jeung kurang leuwih 18 nepi ka 19 spésiés.<ref name="biolib">{{cite web|url=http://www.biolib.cz/en/taxonsubtaxa/id128538/|title=harvester termites|work=biolib.cz|accessdate=18 October 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094019/http://www.biolib.cz/en/taxonsubtaxa/id128538/ |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> ''[[Anacanthotermes]]'' kapanggih di padang pasir jeung semi padang pasir di [[Afrika Kalér]], [[Wétan Tengah]] jeung [[Asia]], kaasup [[Baluchistan]] jeung India bagéan kidul. [[Hodotermes|''Hodotermes '']]<nowiki/>mibanda sebaran anu lega ti Palaearctic Afrika Kalér, liwat sabana Afrika Wétan ka daérah [[karroid]] di [[Afrika Kidul|Afrika bagéan kidul]].. ''[[Microhodotermes]]''mangrupa génus spésialis gurun di [[Namib]], [[Kalahari]] jeung [[Karoo]], nu mana hontalanna patumpang tindih jeung ''Hodotermes''.. Sanajan rinyuh [[termopsidae]] téh sakapeung mah digolongkeun minangka siraru,<ref name="roonwl">{{cite journal|last=Roonwal|first=M. L.|year=1983|title=Evolution and Systematic Significance of Wing Micro-sculpturing in Termites. XIII. Order Isoptera|url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005bbc_359.pdf|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India|volume=B49|issue=5|pages=359–391|accessdate=5 February 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111100039/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005bbc_359.pdf |date=11 November 2013 }}</ref> saenyana mun ditilik deui mah mibanda garis katurunan nu béda, leuwih dominanna mertahankeun plésiomorfik [[Rinyuh|Isoptera]]. == Sayang == [[Gambar:Hodotermes mossambicus, soldaat-kaste, Arcadia, b.jpg|jmpl|''H. mossambicus'' tangtarana]] Ari siraru nyayangna ku cara ngaliang dina jero taneuh, teu kawas [[Termopsidae]] jeung [[Kalotermitidae]]. Dina perkara ''[[Hodotermes mossambicus]]''mah, sistim sayangna téh aya di jero taneuh nu sumebar, mun ti pabeungeutan mah nepi ka jerona téh leuwih ti 6 méter mah. Éta sayang téh ukuranna 60 cm jeung silih sambung ku galéri. Partikel anggang taneuh nu dikali dibawa ka pabeungeutan sarta dipiceun ka sawatara tempat di sabudeureun sayang. Koloni ''Microhodotermes viator'' ngasilkeun gundukan taneuh kawas congcot laleutik,<ref name="oec">{{cite journal|last=Moore|first=J. M.|author2=Picker, M. D.|year=1991|title=Heuweltjies (earth mounds) in the Clanwilliam district, Cape Province, South Africa: 4000-year-old termite nests|journal=Oecologia|volume=86|pages=424–432|doi=10.1007/bf00317612}}</ref> nu taneuhna téh ngadung lempung. Sosiotomi, atawa gerakan massa wawakil sakumna kasta di koloni pikeun manggihan koloni anyar, teu dipikanyaho di Hodotermitidae mah.<ref name="bauer">{{cite journal|last1=Bauer|first1=A. M.|last2=Russell|first2=A. P.|last3=Edgar|first3=B. D.|date=2 October 2015|title=Utilization of the termite (Hagen) by gekkonid lizards near Keetmanshoop, South West Africa|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02541858.1989.11448159|journal=South African Journal of Zoology|volume=24|issue=4|pages=239–243|doi=10.1080/02541858.1989.11448159|accessdate=31 July 2017}}</ref><ref>Grassé P. P.; Noirot, J. C. 1951. La Sociotomie: migration et fragmentation de la termitiere chez les Anoplotermes et les Trinervitermes. ''Behaviour'' 3: 146-166</ref> == Baranahan == Geuwat sanggeus [[hujan]], brul siraru hiber pikeun ngalakonan réproduksi, ieu siraru téh salila usum halodo mah cimekblek cicing di jero sayang panghandapna. Ari karawinna, biasana ngariung di nu caang, mantak sok nyampeurkeun kana lampu atawa cahya séjénna. Mun jauh ti sayang indungna, biasana mah sok écag, ngangkatkeun jangjang jeung maluruh pasanganna. Ari siraru nu geus meunang pasanganna, biasana sok nyoplokkeun jangjangna, paantai-antai jeung pasanganna tatar-tutur ka ditu-ka dieu. Pasangan siraru téh sok langsung ngali liang pikeun mitembeyan koloni anyar. Saminggu sanggeus sagulung-sagalang, bikangna langsung ngendog. Sanggeus kurang leuwih opat bulan, sayangna cukup pikeun ngirim pagawé jang néangan kahakanan ka pabeungeutan. Sawatara taun ka hareup, loba endog nu megar jadi pagawé, jeung sawaréhna mah jadi tangtara. Mun sayangna cukup badag mah, réproduksi siraru téh dilakonan deui.<ref name="bell">{{cite web|url=http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za/publications/production_guidelines/veld_in_natal/veld_11.1.htm|title=Insect Pests: Harvester Termites|last=Bell|first=R. A.|year=1999|work=Veld in KwaZulu-Natal 11.1|publisher=KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs|accessdate=21 October 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110065254/http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za/publications/production_guidelines/veld_in_natal/veld_11.1.htm |date=10 January 2011 }}</ref> == Diét jeung hakanan == [[Gambar:Hodotermes_mossambicus,_alaat_in_water.jpg|kiri|jmpl|200x200px|<center>''Siraru (H. mossambicus)'' jangjangan nu ilahar hirup ti peuting paéh ngambang na cai</center>]] Para pagawé ngumpulkeun nu lolobana mah [[Kai|kakaian]], kalawan spésiés [[Pteronia|''Pteronia '']]<nowiki/>jeung [[vygie]] nu dipikaresepna. Sebalikna, siraru jangjangan mah diét utamana dina ngahakan jukut garing jeung atawa nu ibunan, sok sanajan ari sésa tatangkalan jeung pangpung régang mah dihakan saeutik-saeutik waé mah. Dina studi kastabilan isotop ''H. mossambicus'', asupan kadaharan utamana téh nyaéta komponén rumput, ampir 94%.<ref name="est">{{cite journal|last=Symes|first=Craig T.|author2=Woodborne, Stephan|date=1 April 2011|title=Estimation of food composition of Hodotermes mossambicus (Isoptera: Hodotermitidae) based on observations and stable carbon isotope ratios|url=http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/handle/10204/5993|journal=Insect Science|volume=18|issue=2|pages=175–180|doi=10.1111/j.1744-7917.2010.01344.x}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212002825/http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/handle/10204/5993 |date=12 February 2021 }}</ref> Di ieu sésiés, larva instar ka genep nyerna sarta ngadistribusikeun hakanan di jero éta koloni ku cara [[tropioaksis stomodeal]]. Ku cara méré dahar babarengan téh ngaruketkeun integritas koloni, lantaran nu maraban téh ngadiskriminasikeun individu ku mikrobiota usus nu teu biasa.<ref name="nest">{{cite web|url=http://www-evolution.uni-regensburg.de/iussi/eu/abstracts.html|title=Nestmate discrimination in the harvester termite Hodotermes mossambicus|last=Minkley|first=Nina|publisher=IUSSI|accessdate=18 October 2012|display-authors=etal}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513095543/http://www-evolution.uni-regensburg.de/iussi/eu/abstracts.html |date=13 May 2008 }}</ref> == Prédator == Siraru téh mangrupa kadaharan utamana [[ajag ceuli lalay]] di [[Afrika Wétan]] jeung [[Afrika Kidul|kidul]].<ref name="tc">{{Cite book|title=The Carnivores|url=https://archive.org/details/carnivores0000ewer|last=Ewer|first=R. F.|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1973|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/carnivores0000ewer/page/161 161]}}</ref> Pikeun kahakanan nu teu ilahar ieu, sahingga ieu ajag mah mibanda 48 huntu leutik tinimbang anjing séjén nu mibanda 42 huntu. Ieu ajag ogé miboga ceuli nu rebing kawas [[lalay]], fungsina pikeun ngadédéngékeun [[gegeremet]] di jero taneuh, nepi ka antukna dikali. Kitu ogé, ajag fennec néangan gegeremetna ku cara ngali. Sanajan [[ajag marcapada]] mangrupa prédator husus ti [[Trinervitermes|''Trinervitermes'']] tinangtu, tapina mun dina [[usum tiis]] sok moro siraru ogé.<ref name="iucn">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hyaenidae.org/the-hyaenidae/aardwolf-proteles-cristatus/cristatus-diet-and-foraging.html|title=Aardwolf: Diet and Foraging|last=Holekamp|first=Kay E.|website=The extant (living) hyaena species|publisher=IUCN, Hyaena Specialist Group|accessdate=18 October 2012|display-authors=etal}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114001414/http://www.hyaenidae.org/the-hyaenidae/aardwolf-proteles-cristatus/cristatus-diet-and-foraging.html |date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> Aktivitas ngukuy jeung ngali taneuh nu lega ku [[aardvarks]] téh dikaitkeun jeung lahan [[heuweltjies]] nu dicicingan ku siraru. == Dampak ékonomi == Siraru bisa méakeun jukut di kebon jeung bisa nyebabkeun taneuh jadi urug, ngan teu pati mun kana kebon nu kurang jukutna mah.<ref name="isa" /><ref name="fg" /> Ngan, dina jangka lilana mah, buburukan jeung daur ulang bahan pepelakan urut siraru téh mibanda kontribusi kana kasuburan taneuh jeung siklus global [[karbon]], [[nitrogén]], sarta unsur lianna.<ref name="est" /> == Rujukan == {{reflist|32em}} == Tutumbu luar == * [[Gambar:Wikispecies-logo.svg|al=|16x16px]]{{Wikispecies-inline}} * [[Gambar:Commons-logo.svg|al=|16x16px]]{{Commons category-inline}} [[Kategori:Insékta]] 2edkh3vl7490i9nnvea0dt8mmttg480 0 72362 711616 654998 2026-08-07T00:21:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 711616 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info paguron luhur |nama=Universitas Jendral Achmad Yani |logo= |tahun= 20 Mei 1990 |jenis=Universitas Swasta |rektor=Prof. Hikmahanto Juwana, S.H., LL.M., Ph.D. |lokasi=[[CImahi]], [[Indonesia]] |alamat=Jl. Terusan Jendral Suudirman, Cimahi |situs=[http://www.unjani.ac.id/ www.unjani.ac.id] }} '''Universitas Jenderal Achmad Yani''' atawa nu ilahar disingget '''UNJANI''' nyaéta salah sahiji paguron luhur nu aya di Kota [[Cimahi]], [[Jawa Kulon]], [[Indonésia]]. Alamatna di [[Jalan Terusan Jendral Sudirman]], Cimahi. == Sajarah == Universitas Jenderal Achmad Yani mangrupa hasil gabungan ti sakola-sakola luhur nu dikongkolakkeun ku '''YKEP''' nyaéta: Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Jenderal Achmad Yani ('''STTA'''), Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi Jenderal Achmad Yani ('''STIéa''') sarta Sekolah Tinggi Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam ('''ST MIPA'''). Ngadegna UNJANI ditetepkan ku Surat Keputusan Ketua Umum YKEP nomor : 027/YKEP/1990 tanggal [[20 Mei 1990]] nu satuluyna disahkeun ku Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan kalayan Surat Keputusan nomor : 0512/O/1990 tanggal [[9 Agustus 1990]]. Dina kamekaranna, Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Industri Bandung ('''STTIB''') nu dikongkolakeun ku YKEP ti taun [[1985]], ngagabung jeung UNJANI di taun [[1992]]. Dina taun 1992, UNJANI miboga 3 (tilu) Fakultas nyaéta: # Fakultas téhnik kalayan jurusan : [[Teknik Metalurgi]], [[Teknik Elektro]], [[Teknik Kimia]] jeung D3 Keramik, [[Teknik Sipil]], [[Teknik Mesin]], [[Teknik Manajemen Industri]] # Fakultas Ekonomi kalayan jurusan : [[Manajemen]], [[Akuntansi]] # Fakultas MIPA kalayan jurusan [[Kimia]], [[Fisika]], jeung [[Informatika]]. Dina taun éta ogé '''UNJANI''' nambahan fakultas di lingkunganna nyaéta Fakultas ISIP kalayan jurusan [[Ilmu Pemerintahan]] jeung Fakultas [[Kedokteran]]. Pangembangan ka hareupna ku cara nambahan jurusan [[Ilmu Hubungan Internasional]] dina taun 1993, jurusan [[Farmasi]] kalayan Program MIP dina tahun 1999 jeung Fakultas [[Psikologi]] dina taun [[2003]]. UNJANI kiwari miboga 20 (dua puluh) Program Studi ti 14 (opat belas) jurusan atawa 6 (genep) fakultas. Kahareupna UNJANI terus ngamekarkeun jeung namabahan Program Studi kalayan saluyu jeung kabutuhan masarakat. == Fakultas == === [http://www.unjani.ac.id/statis-9-ft.html#top Fakultas Teknik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104154237/http://unjani.ac.id/statis-9-ft.html#top |date=2017-11-04 }} === * téhnik Metalurgi * téhnik Elektro * téhnik Mesin * téhnik Sipil * téhnik Kimia * téhnik Industri === [http://www.unjani.ac.id/statis-8-fe.html#top Fakultas Ekonomi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104154233/http://unjani.ac.id/statis-8-fe.html#top |date=2017-11-04 }} === * Manajemen (Terakreditasi A oleh BAN-PT) * Akuntansi === [http://www.unjani.ac.id/statis-7-fk.html#top Fakultas Kedokteran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030083750/http://unjani.ac.id/statis-7-fk.html#top |date=2017-10-30 }} === * Kedokteran Umum * Kedokteran Gigi === [http://www.unjani.ac.id/statis-6-fmipa-unjani.html#top Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam (MIPA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104154227/http://unjani.ac.id/statis-6-fmipa-unjani.html#top |date=2017-11-04 }} === * Kimia * Fisika * Informatika === [http://www.unjani.ac.id/statis-34-pharmacy.html#top Fakultas Farmasi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104154217/http://unjani.ac.id/statis-34-pharmacy.html#top |date=2017-11-04 }} === * Farmasi * Profesi Apoteker === [http://www.unjani.ac.id/statis-11-fisip.html#top Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104154101/http://unjani.ac.id/statis-11-fisip.html#top |date=2017-11-04 }} === * Ilmu Pemerintahan * Hubungan Internasional (Terakreditasi A oleh BAN-PT) ==== [http://www.unjani.ac.id/statis-12-magister.html#top Program Pascarjana-Magister] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027144543/http://unjani.ac.id/statis-12-magister.html#top |date=2017-10-27 }} ==== * Ilmu Pemerintahan == Fasilitas == Kampus UNJANI miboga sababaraha kaleuwihan nu di antarana nyaéta lokasi kampus aya dilingkungan nu sejuk sarta asri, nyiptakeun suasana diajar nu tumaninah pikeun mahasiswa atawa dosen. Aya sababaraha fasilitas di UNJANI, nu di antarana: * Gedung Rektorat dan Dekanat Fakultas * Gedung Perpustakaan Pusat dan Jurusan * Auditorium GSK (Gedung Sasana Krida) * Gedung Laboratorium di sakabéh Program Studi/Jurusan * RS. Pendidikan Dokter (RS. Dustira & RS. Jejaring lainnya) * Gedung Serba Guna di kampus Cimahi & Bandung * Sarana Ibadah di Kampus Cimahi & Bandung * Sarana Olah Raga di Kampus Cimahi & Bandung * Pusat Sistem Informasi (PUSSISFO) yang menyediakan komputer dan akses Internet gratis * Kantin Green Food Court * Bank BNI, Bank Artha Graha * Guest House dan Asrama Putra & Putri * Radio Mahasiswa, INKOM UNJANI * Internet ''Hotspot'', Fasilitas ''e-learning'', ''e-library'', jsb. == Rujukan == * [http://www.unjani.ac.id/home Situs Resmi UNJANI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026064840/http://www.unjani.ac.id/home |date=2014-10-26 }} Diakses ping 08 November 2017. [[Kategori:Paguron luhur di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur swasta di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur swasta di Cimahi]] kod6v8pmkoqmkk0vr64ttpasgq0hsn5 0 72419 711731 533131 2026-08-07T02:42:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711731 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Tepus (harigu bodas) | status = NT | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=106007922 |title=''Stachyris grammiceps'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2012.1 |year=2012 |accessdate=16 July 2012}}</ref> | image = Stachyris_grammiceps_1838.jpg | image_width = 225px | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Burung|Aves]] | ordo =[[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Timaliidae]] | genus = [[Stachyris]] | species = '''''S. grammiceps''''' | binomial = ''Stachyris grammiceps'' | binomial_authority = ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], [[1827]]) | synonyms = }} '''Tepus''' (''Stachyris grammiceps'') nyaéta [[spesies]] manuk nu asalna tina [[kulawarga]] ''Timaliidae'', [[genus]] ''Stachyris''.<ref name=”Eric ”>{{Cite book | title = Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment| url = https://archive.org/details/terrestrialecore0000unse_k1h5| last = B. Kurniawan, Bayu Pratama| first =Eric | publisher = Island Press| location =Washington | year =2002|ISBN=9781559639231}}</ref> Pituin/éndemik ti [[daérah]] [[Jawa Barat]], awakna leutik panjangna ngan 15 [[cm]], hirup di pigunungan, tara katempo hirup di tempat nu perenahna sahandapeun ti 800 ''mdpl''.<ref name=”Badan”>{{Cite book | title =Atlas flora dan fauna Indonesia| last = Kordinasi Survey dan Pemetaan Nasional| first =Badan | publisher = Grasindo| location =Jakarta|Pages=45| year =2001|ISBN=9789796953738}}</ref>Hirupna ngabubuhan (''kelompok'') tapi henteu loba, dina satangkal ngan aya sababaraha sayang manuk tepus baé.<ref name=”M.”/> ==Ciri mandiri== Ciri mandiri manuk tepus ditempo tina buluna, palebah harigu/dada bodas, bulu luhureun pamatukna [[hideung]], palebah pipi jeung sisi beuteungna [[hawuk]].<ref name=”M.”/> Kumisna totol-totol hideung, jangjang sarta buntutna [[coklat]] herang kawas [[tambaga]], [[beuheung]], [[gado]], [[harigu]], jeung [[beuteung]] tengahna [[bodas]].<ref name=”M.”/> Hihideung panon (''iris'') dikuliringan ku kelir beureum, [[pamatuk]] sarta cékérna [[hideung]].<ref name=”M.”/> Karesepna dina tantangkalan nu teupati luhur, bari aclog-aclogan nyiar hakaneun.<ref name=”Badan”/>Ieu manuk sok ngahakan [[gegeremet]], [[simeut]], jeung sajabana, hirupna di [[leuweung]], [[pasir]], jeung [[gawir]].<ref name=”Badan”/> Nyebar di [[daérah]] nu perenahna 900 m luhureun [[beungeut]] [[cai]] [[laut]] (''dpl'').<ref name=”Badan”/> Manuk tepus baheula loba kapanggih hirup di [[Gunung]] [[Halimun]], [[Jawa Barat]].<ref name=”M.”/> Kiwari mah ieu manuk geus arang langka kapanggih [[hiber]] malahan kawasna méh tumpur.<ref name=”M.”>{{Cite book | title = Mengenal Hewan & Tumbuhan Asli Indonesia| last = B. Kurniawan, Bayu Pratama| first =M.| publisher =Cikal Aksara| location =Jakarta | year =2010|ISBN=9786028526173 }}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} {{Commons|Leucopsar rothschildi}} [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Aves]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Manuk Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Manuk Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Passeriformes]] 7l2uq12sjkanw2of6x8narbpcoiltko 0 72420 711574 533311 2026-08-06T23:24:55Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711574 wikitext text/x-wiki #ALIH[[Caladi batu]] {{Taxobox | name = Caladi batu | image = Buff-rumped Woodpecker.jpg | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22681552 |title=''Meiglyptes tristis'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Aves]] | ordo = [[Piciformes]] | familia = [[Picidae]] | genus = ''[[Meiglyptes]]'' | species = '''''M. tristis''''' | binomial = ''Meiglyptes tristis'' | binomial_authority = ([[Thomas Horsfield|Horsfield]], 1821) | synonyms = }} '''Caladi batu''' ''(Meiglyptes tristis)'' nyaéta [[spesies]] [[manuk]] nu asalna tina [[kulawarga]] ''[[Picidae]]''.<ref name=”Eric ”>{{Cite book | title = Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment| url = https://archive.org/details/terrestrialecore0000unse_k1h5| last = B. Kurniawan, Bayu Pratama| first =Eric | publisher = Island Press| location =Washington | year =2002|ISBN=9781559639231}}</ref> Loba kapanggih [[hirup]] di [[pulo]] [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]] jeung pulo [[Jawa]] utamana [[Jawa Barat]].<ref name=”Erik”/><ref name=”Badan”>{{Cite book | title =Atlas flora dan fauna Indonesia| last = Kordinasi Survey dan Pemetaan Nasional| first =Badan | publisher = Grasindo| location =Jakarta|Pages=45| year =2001|ISBN=9789796953738}}</ref> Mikaresep ulin di [[daérah]] tegalan, sisi [[leuweung]], jeung sisi [[basisir]], hirup susulumputan dina [[dahan]]-dahan [[tangkal]] nu leutik.<ref name=”Badan”/><ref name=”Stephan”>{{Cite book | title = Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment| last =Wulffraat, Prilmax Tatengkeng, Andris Salo| first =Stephan | publisher = Ministry of Forestry of the Government of Indonesia and the World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia| location =Universitas Michigan| year =2009|ISBN=9789799991928}}</ref> Manuk caladi batu mah tara hirup abring-abringan/ngabubuhan, tapi sok nyorangan baé mun henteu bareng jeung pasanganna.<ref name=”Erik”/> Mangsa datang usum begér jeung anakan, manuk caladi sok remen katempo ngaliang dina tangkal pikeun nunda [[endog]] jeung ngagedekeun [[anak]]-anakna.<ref name=”Asep ”>{{Cite book | title =Burung-burung agroforest di Sumatera: panduan lapangan| last = Asep Ayat| first =Asep | publisher = World Agroforestry Centre| location =Sindang Barang | year =2011|ISBN=9789793198606}}</ref> Nyiar hakaneun dina tangkal nu luhur teu rsepeun ulin dina tangkal nu pendek, karesepna sabangsaning sireum.<ref name=”Erik”/> Kiwari manuk ieu geus méh tumpur, alatan tangkal-tangkal tempat hirupna geus loba nu ditaluaran pikeun rupa-rupa kabutuhan jeung karuksakan lingkungan séjéna.<ref name=”Erik”>{{Cite book | title =Hutan pasca pemanenan: melindungi satwa liar dalam kegiatan hutan produksi di Kalimantan| last = Meijaard,Douglas Sheil,Robert Nasi,David Augeri,Barry Rosenbaum,Djoko Iskandar,Titiek Setyawati,Martjan Lammertink,Ike Rachmatika,Anna Wong,Tonny Soehartono,Scott Stanley,Tiene Gunawan,Timothy O’Brien| first =Erik | publisher =CIFOR| location =Sindang Barang | year =2006|ISBN=9789792446579}}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} {{Commons|Meiglyptes tristis}} [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Aves]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Manuk Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Manuk Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Picidae]] sla1044btvzdyd3w7fs9wyvx4y0riqj 0 72579 711681 707674 2026-08-07T01:27:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711681 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Caladi batu | image = Buff-rumped Woodpecker.jpg | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22681552 |title=''Meiglyptes tristis'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Aves]] | ordo = [[Piciformes]] | familia = [[Picidae]] | genus = ''[[Meiglyptes]]'' | species = '''''M. tristis''''' | binomial = ''Meiglyptes tristis'' | binomial_authority = ([[Thomas Horsfield|Horsfield]], 1821) | synonyms = }} '''Caladi batu''' ''(Meiglyptes tristis)'' nyaéta [[spesies]] [[manuk]] nu asalna tina [[kulawarga]] ''[[Picidae]]''.<ref name=”Eric ”>{{Cite book | title = Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment| url = https://archive.org/details/terrestrialecore0000unse_k1h5| last = B. Kurniawan, Bayu Pratama| first =Eric | publisher = Island Press| location =Washington | year =2002|ISBN=9781559639231}}</ref> Loba kapanggih [[hirup]] di [[pulo]] [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]] jeung pulo [[Jawa]] utamana [[Jawa Barat]].<ref name=”Erik”/><ref name=”Badan”>{{Cite book | title =Atlas flora dan fauna Indonesia| last = Kordinasi Survey dan Pemetaan Nasional| first =Badan | publisher = Grasindo| location =Jakarta|Pages=45| year =2001|ISBN=9789796953738}}</ref> Mikaresep ulin di [[daérah]] tegalan, sisi [[leuweung]], jeung sisi [[basisir]], hirup susulumputan dina [[dahan]]-dahan [[tangkal]] nu leutik.<ref name=”Badan”/><ref name=”Stephan”>{{Cite book | title = Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment| last =Wulffraat, Prilmax Tatengkeng, Andris Salo| first =Stephan | publisher = Ministry of Forestry of the Government of Indonésia and the World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia| location =Universitas Michigan| year =2009|ISBN=9789799991928}}</ref> Manuk caladi batu mah tara hirup abring-abringan/ngabubuhan, tapi sok nyorangan baé mun henteu bareng jeung pasanganna.<ref name=”Erik”/> Mangsa datang usum begér jeung anakan, manuk caladi sok remen katempo ngaliang dina tangkal pikeun nunda [[endog]] jeung ngagedékeun [[anak]]-anakna.<ref name=”Asep ”>{{Cite book | title =Burung-burung agroforest di Sumatera: panduan lapangan| last = Asep Ayat| first =Asep | publisher = World Agroforestry Centre| location =Sindang Barang | year =2011|ISBN=9789793198606}}</ref> Nyiar hakaneun dina tangkal nu luhur teu rsepeun ulin dina tangkal nu pendek, karesepna sabangsaning sireum.<ref name=”Erik”/> Kiwari manuk ieu geus méh tumpur, alatan tangkal-tangkal tempat hirupna geus loba nu ditaluaran pikeun rupa-rupa kabutuhan jeung karuksakan lingkungan séjéna.<ref name=”Erik”>{{Cite book | title =Hutan pasca pemanenan: melindungi satwa liar dalam kegiatan hutan produksi di Kalimantan| last = Meijaard,Douglas Sheil,Robert Nasi,David Augeri,Barry Rosenbaum,Djoko Iskandar,Titiek Setyawati,Martjan Lammertink,Ike Rachmatika,Anna Wong,Tonny Soehartono,Scott Stanley,Tiene Gunawan,Timothy O’Brien| first =Erik | publisher =CIFOR| location =Sindang Barang | year =2006|ISBN=9789792446579}}</ref> == Morfologi == [[File:White-rumped Woodpecker 0A2A0957.jpg|150px|left|jempol|Caladi batu keur nyéngclé]] Caladi tali miboga ciri fisik anu mandiri: * '''Warna Bulu:''' Sakujur awakna didominasi ku pola garis-garis leutik (lurik) warna hideung sarta bodas semu konéng. * '''Tunggir Bodas:''' Ciri has utamana nyaéta bagian tunggir (tonggong handap) anu warna bodas bersih, anu katingal jelas nalika manuk ieu hiber. * '''Sirah:''' Miboga jambul leutik. Anu jalu biasana miboga saeutik warna beureum dina bagian kumis (moustachial stripe), sedengkeun anu bikang mah henteu. * '''Ukuran:''' Ukuran awakna leutik pikeun jinis caladi, panjangna sakitar 17 cm. == Habitat sarta Paripolah == * '''Kadaharan:''' Kadaharan utamana nyaéta rupa-rupa serangga, utamana sireum sarta rinyuh anu ditéang dina sela-sela babakan tangkal. * '''Paripolah:''' Caladi tali sok katingal ngetrokkan tangkal (''drumming'') pikeun néangan hakaneun atanapi nandaan wilayahna. Ieu manuk mindeng kapanggih hirup papasangan atanapi ngahiji dina kelompok leutik (''mixed-species flocks''). * '''Habitat:''' Hirup di leuweung dataran handap, sisi leuweung, sarta kebon-kebon anu loba tangkal luhurna. == Status Konservasi == Dumasar kana daptar ''IUCN Red List'', caladi tali miboga status '''Hampir Terancam''' (''Near Threatened''). Populasina terus ngurangan kusabab leungitna habitat leuweung dataran handap di wilayah Sunda (Jawa, Sumatra, sarta Kalimantan). == Référénsi == {{reflist}} {{pondok}} {{Commons|Meiglyptes tristis}} [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Piciformes]] [[Kategori:Picidae]] [[Kategori:Meiglyptes]] [[Kategori:Sato]] [[Kategori:Aves]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Manuk Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Manuk Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] ox4r6vo377ipnhlmjls2jtvolxadx9n 0 72617 711596 706070 2026-08-06T23:50:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711596 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Teri | image = Anchovy closeup.jpg | image_caption = | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Clupeiformes]] | familia = '''Engraulidae''' | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = {{center|See text}} | range_map =Time series for global capture of all anchovy 2.png | range_map_caption = Global commercial capture of anchovy in million tonnes 1950–2010<ref name=FAOdata>Based on data sourced from the relevant [http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/search/en FAO Species Fact Sheets]</ref> }}{{For|dahareun|teri cué}} '''Teri''' atawa lauk teri nyaéta lauk leutik basajan nu hirup dina cai asin, biasa nu sok dijadikeun eupan, ieu lauk mangrupa jenis ti keluarga '''Engraulidae'''. Aya 144 spésiés nu kaasup di 17 généra; sakumna téh kapanggih di di [[Samudra Atlantik]], [[India]] jeung [[Pasifik]], sarta di [[Laut Hideung]] jeung [[Laut Méditérania]]. lauk teri biasana diklasifikasikeun minangka [[lauk minyakan]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2004/jun/oilyfishdefinition|title=What's an oily fish?|date=2004-06-24|publisher=[[Food Standards Agency]]}} {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20101210005807/http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2004/jun/oilyfishdefinition |date=2010-12-10 }}</ref> == Genera == {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="7"| Généra di famili ''Engraulidae'' |- ! Généra ! Spésiés ! Koméntar ! rowspan=10 | ! Généra ! Spésiés ! Koméntar |- | ''[[Amazonsprattus]]'' | align="center" | 1 | | ''[[Anchoa]]'' | align="center" | 35 | |- | ''[[Anchovia]]'' | align="center" | 3 | | ''[[Anchoviella]]'' | align="center" | 4 | |- | ''[[Cetengraulis]]'' | align="center" | 2 | | ''[[Coilia]]'' | align="center" | 13 | |- | ''[[Encrasicholina]]'' | align="center" | 5 | | ''[[Engraulis]]'' | align="center" | 9 | [[Jenis génus]] pikeun teri: Ieu génus ngandung sakumna teri komérsil signifikan. |- | ''[[Jurengraulis]]'' | align="center" | 1 | | ''[[Lycengraulis]]'' | align="center" | 4 | |- | ''[[Lycothrissa]]'' | align="center" | 1 | | ''[[Papuengraulis]]'' | align="center" | 1 | |- | ''[[Pseudosetipinna]]'' | align="center" | 1 | | ''[[Pterengraulis]]'' | align="center" | 1 | |- | ''[[Setipinna]]'' | align="center" | 8 | | ''[[Stolephorus]]'' | align="center" | 20 | |- | ''[[Thryssa]]'' | align="center" | 24 | | | | |} == Ciri mandiri == [[Gambar:Engraulis encrasicolus Gervais flipped.jpg|jmpl|300px|ka|<center>[[European anchovy]], ''Engraulis encrasicolus''</center>]] Teri mah leutik, lauk héjo kalawan pantulan biru nu ditambahan ku garis horizontal warna pérak nu manjang ti dasar [[Cécépét|cécépét buntut]]. Jarak antara 2 nepi ka 40&nbsp;cm (0,79 nepi ka 15,75 in) mun panjang teri kolot,<ref name=FB>{{FishBase family|family=Engraulidae|year=2008|month=December}}</ref> jeung bentuk awakna rupa-rupa, aya lauk nu leuwih ipis di populasi kalér mah. Sungutna mintul kalawan huntu laleuwik nu seukeut di dua [[caréham]]<nowiki/>na. Sungut eusina [[organ rostral]], dipiyakin miwatek sénsorik, sanajan fungsi saenyana mah teu dipikanyaho.<ref name=EoF>{{cite book |editor1=Paxton, J.R. |editor2=Eschmeyer, W.N. |author= Nelson, Gareth|year=1998|title=Encyclopedia of Fishes|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffi00unse |publisher= Academic Press|location=San Diego|pages= [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffi00unse/page/94 94]–95|isbn= 0-12-547665-5}}</ref> Sungutna leuwih badag batan lauk haring jeung ''silversides'', dua lauk nu mirip pisan jeung teri. Lauk teri ngadaharan [[\|plankton]] jeung lauk nu kakara megar. == Sumebaran == Anchovies are found in scattered aréas throughout the world's océans, but are concentrated in temperate waters, and are rare or absent in very cold or very warm séas. They are generally very accepting of a wide range of temperatures and [[salinity]]. Large schools can be found in shallow, [[brackish]] aréas with muddy bottoms, as in estuaries and bays. The Européan anchovy is abundant in the Mediterranéan, particularly in the [[Alboran Sea]],<ref>C.Michael Hogan. 2011. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Alboran_Sea?topic=49523 ''Alboran Sea''. eds. P.Saundry & C.J.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC]</ref> [[Aegean Sea]] and the [[Black Sea]]. This species is regularly caught along the coasts of [[Crete]], [[Greece]], [[Sicily]], [[Italy]], [[France]], [[Turkey]], and [[Spain]]. They are also found on the coast of northern Africa. The range of the species also extends along the Atlantic coast of [[Europe]] to the south of Norway. [[Spawning]] occurs between October and March, but not in water colder than 12&nbsp;°C (54&nbsp;°F). The anchovy appéars to spawn at léast {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the shore, néar the surface of the water. == Ékologi == The anchovy is a significant food source for almost every predatory fish in its environment, including the [[California halibut]], [[Striped bass|rock fish]], [[Seriola quinqueradiata|yellowtail]], [[shark]], [[Chinook salmon|chinook]], and [[coho salmon]]. It is also extremely important to [[marine mammals]] and birds; for example, breeding success of California [[brown pelican]]s<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Daniel W.|last2=Gress|first2=Franklin|last3=Mais|first3=Kenneth F.|last4=Kelly|first4=Paul R.|editor-last=North|editor-first=Nance|year=1980|title=Brown pelicans as anchovy stock indicators and their relationships to commercial fishing|url=http://calcofi.org/publications/calcofireports/v21/Vol_21_Anderson_etal.pdf|format=PDF|journal=CalCOFIs Reports|volume=21|page=55|publisher=[[California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations]]|quote=Pelican reproductive rate&nbsp;... depends largely on levels of anchovy abundance and availability.}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223174905/http://calcofi.org/publications/calcofireports/v21/Vol_21_Anderson_etal.pdf |date=2012-12-23 }}</ref> and [[elegant tern]]s is strongly connected to anchovy abundance. == Parab == Lauk teri, sakumaha lolobana ''clupeoids'' (lauk haring, lauk sardén jeung lauk teri), nyaéta eupan saringan pikeun lauk nu muka sungutna nalika ngojay. Pas cai liwat sungut jeung kaluar tina [[asang]], partikel kadaharan nu diayak ku asang téh dipindahkeun kana [[genggerong]].<ref>Bone, Q., & Marshall, N. (1982). ''Biology of fishes''. Glasgow: Blackie.</ref> {{clear}} == Spésiés komérsil == {| class="wikitable collapsible" |- ! colspan="11"| Commercially significant species |- ! Common name ! Scientific name ! Maximum<br/>length ! Common<br/>length ! Maximum<br/>weight ! Maximum<br/>age ! [[Trophic level|Trophic<br/>level]] ! [[FishBase|Fish<br/>Base]] ! [[FAO]] ! [[ITIS]] ! [[IUCN|IUCN status]] |- | [[European anchovy]]* | ''Engraulis encrasicolus'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small> | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|20.0|cm|in}} | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|13.5|cm|in}} | align="right" | kg | align="right" | 5 yéars | align="center" | 3.11 | align="center" | <ref>{{FishBase species | genus = Engraulis | species = encrasicolus | month = April | year = 2012}}</ref> | align="center" | <ref>[http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2106/en ''Engraulis encrasicolus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) ] FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 2012.</ref> | align="center" | <ref>{{ITIS |id=161831 |taxon=Engraulis encrasicolus}}</ref> | align="center" | <small>Not assessed</small> |- | [[Argentine anchoita]] | ''Engraulis anchoita'' <small>(Hubbs & Marini, 1935)</small> | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|17.0|cm|in}} | align="right" | cm | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|0.025|kg|oz}} | align="right" | yéars | align="center" | 2.51 | align="center" | <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fishbase.se/summary/Engraulis-anchoita.html|title=Engraulis anchoita summary page|website=FishBase|language=en|accessdate=2017-11-16}}</ref> | align="center" | <ref>[http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2916/en ''Engraulis anchoita'' (Hubbs & Marini, 1935) ] FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 2012.</ref> | align="center" | <ref>{{ITIS |id=551338 |taxon=Engraulis anchoita}}</ref> | align="center" | <small>Not assessed</small> |- | [[Californian anchovy]] | ''Engraulis mordax'' <small>(Girard, 1856)</small> | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|24.8|cm|in}} | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|15.0|cm|in}} | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|0.068|kg|oz}} | align="right" | yéars | align="center" | 2.96 | align="center" | <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fishbase.se/summary/Engraulis-mordax.html|title=Engraulis mordax summary page|website=FishBase|language=en|accessdate=2017-11-16}}</ref> | align="center" | <ref>[http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2107/en ''Engraulis mordax'' (Girard, 1856) ] FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 2012.</ref> | align="center" | <ref>{{ITIS |id=zzzzz |taxon=Engraulis mordax}}</ref> | [[Gambar:LC IUCN 3 1.svg|LC IUCN 3 1.svg]] <small>Léast concern</small><ref>{{IUCN2011.2 |vassessors=Iwamoto T, Eschmeyer W, Alvarado J |last-assessor-amp=yes |year=2010 |id=183856 |title=Engraulis mordax |downloaded=6 April 2012}}</ref> |- | [[Japanese anchovy]] | ''Engraulis japonicus'' <small>(Temminck & Schlegel, 1846)</small> | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|18.0|cm|in}} | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|14.0|cm|in}} | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|0.045|kg|oz}} | align="right" | 4 yéars | align="center" | 2.60 | align="center" | <ref>{{FishBase species | genus = Engraulis | species = japonicus | month = April | year = 2012}}</ref> | align="center" | <ref>[http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2915/en ''Engraulis japonicus'' (Temminck & Schlegel, 1846) ] FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 2012.</ref> | align="center" | <ref>{{ITIS |id=161835 |taxon=Engraulis japonicus}}</ref> | align="center" | <small>Not assessed</small> |- | [[Peruvian anchoveta]] | ''Engraulis ringens'' <small>(Jenyns, 1842) </small> | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|20.0|cm|in}} | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|14.0|cm|in}} | align="right" | kg | align="right" | 3 yéars | align="center" | 2.70 | align="center" | <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fishbase.se/summary/Engraulis-ringens.html|title=Engraulis ringens summary page|website=FishBase|language=en|accessdate=2017-11-16}}</ref> | align="center" | <ref>[http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2917/en ''Engraulis ringens'' (Jenyns, 1842) ] FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 2012.</ref> | align="center" | <ref>{{ITIS |id=183775 |taxon=Engraulis ringens}}</ref> | [[Gambar:LC IUCN 3 1.svg|LC IUCN 3 1.svg]] <small>Léast concern</small><ref>{{IUCN2011.2 |vassessors=Iwamoto T, Eschmeyer W, Alvarado J |last-assessor-amp=yes |year=2010 |id=155123 |title=Engraulis ringens |downloaded=6 April 2012}}</ref> |- | [[Southern African anchovy]] | ''Engraulis capensis'' <small>(Gilchrist, 1913) </small> | align="right" | {{convert|abbr=on|17.0|cm|in}} | align="right" | cm | align="right" | kg | align="right" | yéars | align="center" | 2.80 | align="center" | <ref>{{FishBase species | genus = Engraulis | species = capensis | month = April | year = 2012}}</ref> | align="center" | <ref>[http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2919/en ''Engraulis capensis'' (Gilchrist, 1913) ] FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 2012.</ref> | align="center" | <ref>{{ITIS |id=551339 |taxon=Engraulis capensis}}</ref> | align="center" | <small>Not assessed</small> |} <small>* Type species</small> == Pamayangan == {{multiple image | align = center | direction = horizontal | width = 350 | header = Global capture of anchovy in tonnes reported by the [[FAO]] | header_align = | header_background = | footer = | footer_align = | footer_background = | background color = | image1=Global capture of all anchovy.png | caption1=Capture of all anchovy reported by the FAO (green indicates Peruvian anchoveta)<ref name="FAOdata"/> | image2 = Time series for global capture of anchoveta.png | alt2 = | caption2 = <center>↑&nbsp; Peruvian anchoveta 1950–2010 <ref name=FAOdata /></center> | image3 = Time series for global capture of other anchovy.png | alt3 = | caption3 = <center>↑&nbsp; Other anchovy 1950–2010 <ref name=FAOdata /></center> | image4 = <!-- add this here because it's presence corrects a scaling bug --> }} === Laut Hideung === On average, the Turkish commercial fishing fleet catches around 300,000 tons per yéar, mainly in winter. The largest catch is in November and December.<ref>{{cite web|title=Turkish Black Sea Acoustic Surveys: Winter distribution of anchovy along the Turkish coast|url=http://hamsi.ims.metu.edu.tr/sunumlar/6-Anchovy_Medias_2013.pdf|publisher=Middle East Technical University Institute of Marine Sciences}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807230651/http://hamsi.ims.metu.edu.tr/sunumlar/6-Anchovy_Medias_2013.pdf |date=2019-08-07 }}</ref> === Péru === The [[Peruvian anchovy]] fishery is [[List of commercially important fish species|one of the largest in the world]], far exceeding catches of the other anchovy species. In 1973 it collapsed catastrophically due to the combined effects of overfishing and [[El Niño]]<ref>http://www.ucar.edu/communications/gcip/m12anchovy/m12pdf.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203064420/http://www.ucar.edu/communications/gcip/m12anchovy/m12pdf.pdf |date=2011-12-03 }}</ref> and did not recover fully for two decades. == Teri cué == {{Artikel utama|Teri cué}} [[Gambar:Antonio Sicurezza - Still life with anchovies.jpg|jmpl|''Still Life with Anchovies'', 1972, [[Antonio Sicurezza]]]] A traditional method of [[Fish processing|processing]] and [[Fish preservation|preserving]] anchovies is to gut and [[salting (food)|salt]] them in brine, allow them to [[Curing (food preservation)|cure]], and then pack them in oil or salt. This results in a characteristic strong flavor and the flesh turns deep grey. Pickled in vinegar, as with Spanish ''[[Boquerones en vinagre|boquerones]]'', anchovies are milder and the flesh retains a white color. In [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times, anchovies were the base for the fermented fish sauce ''[[garum]]''. ''Garum'' had a sufficiently long shelf life for long-distance commerce, and was produced in industrial quantities. Anchovies were also éaten raw as an [[aphrodisiac]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/tacitus/tac.ger.shtml|title=Tacitus: Germania|work=thelatinlibrary.com}}</ref> Today, they are used in small quantities to flavor many dishes. Because of the strong flavor, they are also an ingredient in several sauces and condiments, including [[Worcestershire sauce]], [[Caesar salad]] dressing, [[remoulade]], [[Gentleman's Relish]], many [[fish sauce]]s, and in some versions of [[Café de Paris sauce#Café de Paris butter|Café de Paris butter]]. For domestic use, anchovy fillets are packed in oil or salt in small tins or jars, sometimes rolled around [[caper]]s. [[Anchovy paste]] is also available. [[Fishermen]] also use anchovies as bait for larger fish, such as [[tuna]] and [[Black sea bass|sea bass.]] The strong taste péople associate with anchovies is due to the [[Curing (food preservation)|curing]] process. Fresh anchovies, known in [[Italy]] as ''[[:it:alici|alici]]'', have a much milder flavor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxfoods.com/White-Anchovy-Fillets|title=White Anchovy Fillets (Boquerones)|work=marxfoods.com}}</ref> In [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]], the name anchovies is related strongly to a traditional séasoning, hence the product "anchovies" is normally made of [[European sprat|sprats]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-first-catch-your-anchovies-1295644.html|title=Food: First catch your anchovies|work=The Independent}}</ref> and [[herring]] can be sold as "anchovy-spiced". Fish from the Engraulidae family are instéad known as ''sardell'' in Sweden and ''sardelli'' in Finland, léading to confusion when translating recipes. == Rujukan == {{reflist|30em}} == Bacaan salajengna == * Chavez FP, Ryan J, Lluch-Cota SE and Ñiquen CM (2003) [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/299/5604/217 ''From Anchovies to Sardines and Back: Multidecadal Change in the Pacific Ocean''] Science 229(5604)217–221. * {{FishBase family|year=2006|family=Engraulidae|month=January}} <div class="cx-template-editor-source-container" lang="en" dir="ltr" style="display: none;"><div class="cx-template-editor-source"><div class="cx-template-editor-title">FishBase family</div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="year" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">yéar</span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="year" style="position: relative;">2006</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="family" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">family</span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="family" style="position: relative;">Engraulidae</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="month" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">month</span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="month" style="position: relative;">January</div></div></div></div> * Miller DJ (1956) [http://www.calcofi.org/publications/calcofireports/v05/Vol_05_Anchovy_Miller.pdf "Anchovy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716072716/http://www.calcofi.org/publications/calcofireports/v05/Vol_05_Anchovy_Miller.pdf |date=2020-07-16 }} ''CalCOFI Reports'', '''5''': 20–26. * Nizinski MS and Munroe TA (1988) FAO species catalogue, volume 2: ''Clupeoid Fishes of the World'', [ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/y4161e/y4161e12.pdf ''Engraulidae'', Anchovies]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Pages 764–780, FAO Fisheries Synopsis '''125''', Rome. {{ISBN|92-5-102340-9}}92-5-102340-9. * Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission [http://www.psmfc.org/habitat/edu_anchovy_fact.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124152208/http://www.psmfc.org/habitat/edu_anchovy_fact.html |date=2011-11-24 }} Northern Anchovy p8qz2mb5b7pnyt4kogkdd526d24jlsk 0 72623 711557 545282 2026-08-06T23:05:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711557 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Grey_and_navy_suit_on_mannequin.jpg|jmpl|Jas]] '''Jas''' ([[basa Walanda]]: ''jas'') nyaéta pakéan resmi masarakat [[Éropa|Eropa]], leungeun panjang jeung dipaké luareun [[Kaméja|kameja]]. == Setélan Jas == Setélan jas (basa Inggris: ''suit'') atawa  disebut setélan jas jeung calana panjang anu dijieun tina bahan nu sarua. Dumasar jumlah baris [[kancing]] hareup, jas téh aya jas kancing sabaris (''single breasted'') jeung jas kancing dua baris (''double breasted''). Dina [[Basa Inggris|bahasa Inggris]], istilah ''jacket'' ogé méh sarua jeung jas launs (''lounge suit'') atawa jas peuting (''evening suit''), jeung lain jékét dina basa Indonesia (jékét olahraga ataw jéket kulit).Jas launs nyaéta modél jas standar umum, asalna ti [[Inggris]] salaku pakéan keur kagiatan di alam bébas.<ref>Antongiavanni (2006). p. 74</ref>  Lamun ka ondangan disebut kode busana ''black tie'', lalaki dipiredih maké jas resmi anu disebut tuksedo. Jas ''diner'' (''dinner suit'', sesebutan di [[Britania]]) atawa tuksedo (''tuxedo'' atau ''tails'', sesebutan di [[Amérika Sarikat|Amerika Serikat]] jeung [[Kanada]]) nyaéta setelan jas resmi warna [[Hideung|h]]<nowiki/>ideung, bagian tukagna jas berbuntut, maké dasi kukupu hideung jeung kaméja bodas. Kode busana ''black tie'' lain hartina jas standar hideung jeung dasi hideung. Tuksedo baheula mah alternatif tina jas berbuntut (''dress coat''). Ari jas anu dipaké di kantor mangrupa gaganti jas panjang (''frock coat'') jeung jas isuk-isuk (''morning coat''), atawa setelan isuk-isuk (''morning suit''). Blazer téh wanda jas santai lalaki jeung awéwé anu dina sakuna mindeng dipaké lambang sakola tawa organisasi nu jadi seragam umum. Dina basa Indonesia, blazer nyoko kana jas anu dipaké ku awéwé nu dipaké di luar kaméja kalayan handapna maké rok, kulot, atawa [[calana panjang]]. Variasi desain jas, modél, kaen, rompi, jeung jumlah kancing hareup nuduhkeun fungsi sosial nu makena. Ti baheula nepi ka kiwari, ngagunakeun jas téh kudu dibarengan ku kaméja kerahan jeung dasi. Nepi ka 1960-an, lalaki maké topi lamun keur kagiatan di luar ruangan.<ref>Flusser (2002). p. 146</ref> Sarua jeung pakéan biasa, jas dijieun ku tukang ngaput dumasar kana kahayang konsumén. Waktu rék nyieun jas, konsumén datang keur diukur, milih bahan, jeung nangtukeun modél. Sanggeus ayana révolusi Industri, jas dijieun masal kalayan ukuran umum jeung dijual sacara masal. Kiwari, jas dijual dina tilu bentuk. * jas dijieun luyu jeung kahayang konsumén, saacan dipotont, tukang ngaput nyieun polana heula sangkan pas jeung awak; * jas anu dijieun luyu jeung kahayang konsumén, boh ukuran, boh pola lawonna; * jas nu geus jadi jeung hargana bisa kahontal ku balaréa.<ref>Antongiavanni (2006). p. 35</ref> == Galéri == <gallery mode="packed-hover"> Gambar:Blazer.JPG|Jas lalaki Gambar:GIRL IN BLAZER 1974.jpg|Blazer awéwé Gambar:Oxford-half-blue-blazer.jpg|Variasi jas, kaméja bodas, jeung dasi. </gallery> == Daptar Bacaan == * {{Cite book|title=The Suit: A Machiavellian Approach to Men's Style|url=https://archive.org/details/suitmachiavellia0000anto|last=Antongiavanni|first=Nicholas|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-06-089186-2}} * {{Cite book|title=Eminently Suitable: The Elements of Style in Business Attire|url=https://archive.org/details/eminentlysuitabl0000boye|last=Boyer|first=G. Bruce|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]|year=1990|isbn=978-0393028775}} * {{Cite book|title=The Blue Book of Men's Tailoring|last=Croonborg|first=Frederick|date=1907|publisher=Croonborg Sartorial Co.|location=New York and Chicago}} * {{Cite book|title=Men's Fashion Illustrations from the Turn of the Century: by Jno. J. Mitchell Co.|url=https://archive.org/details/mensfashionillus0000unse|last=Druesedow|first=Jean L.|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|year=1990|isbn=9780486263533}} * {{Cite book|title=A Gentleman's Wardrobe: Classic Clothes and the Modern Man|url=https://archive.org/details/gentlemanswardro0000keer|last=Keers|first=Paul|publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]]|year=1987|isbn=978-0297791911}} * {{Cite book|url=http://www.throughtherye.com/flusser/index_current.html|title=Clothes and the Man: The Principles of Fine Men's Dress|last=Flusser|first=Alan|publisher=[[Villard]]|year=1985|isbn=0-394-54623-7|author-link=Alan Flusser|access-date=2008-09-20}} * {{Cite book|title=Dressing the Man: Mastering the Art of Permanent Fashion|url=https://archive.org/details/dressingmanmaste0000flus|last=Flusser|first=Alan|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|year=2002|isbn=0-06-019144-9|author-link=Alan Flusser}} * {{Cite book|url=http://vintagesewing.info/1920s/26-fcm/fcm-toc-short.html|title=The Nu-Way Course in Fashionable Clothes-Making|publisher=Nu-Way|year=1926|access-date=2008-08-20}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Pakéan]] iox03tgt4cxtp12t91ht72zmnm3un3j 0 72712 711699 704741 2026-08-07T01:58:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711699 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tradisi lisan''' téh nyaéta sakabéh [[wacana]] atawa katerangan [[lisan]] ngeunaan [[kajadian]] baheula anu lumaku di [[masarakat]] jeung ditransmisi dina ruang [[waktu]] ku ayana [[ujaran]] jeung [[tindakan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mutiara yang Terlupakan|last=Hutomo, S.|first=|publisher=Himpunan Sarjana Kesusastraan Indonesia|year=2013|isbn=|location=Jawa Timur|pages=}}</ref> Istilah tradisi lisan minangka tarjamahan tina [[basa]] [[Inggris]] ''oral tradition''.<ref name=":0" /> Konsép wangenanana ampir sarua jeung [[folklor]], bédana dina [[unsur]]-unsur anu ditransmisi sacara lisan.<ref name=":0" /> Saluyu jeung istilahna [[tradisi]] lisan (''oral tradition'') nyaéta kabiasaan-kabiasaan nu lumangsung dina kahirupan sapopoé, ti jaman baheula nepi ka ayeuna, ditepikeun sacara lisan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Ensiklopedia (2000 Istilah, Biografi, Karya, Metode, Teori)|last=Kutha Ratna|first=Nyoman|publisher=Pustaka Pelajar|year=2018|isbn=9786022297437|location=Yogyakarta|pages=}}</ref> Salaku istilah, leuwih jero patalina jeung [[masarakat]] tradisional, bakal aya tumpang tindih jeung sastra lisan.<ref name=":0" /> Bedana, upami [[sastra]] lisan méré intensitas kana wangun naratif nu relatif nunjukkeun intensitas kualitas estetis, tradisi lisan leuwih ka kabiasaan-kabiasaan éta sorangan.<ref name=":0" /> Sagala rupa wangun carita rahayat, dongéng, mitos, kitu ogé sagala rupa wangun ungkapan kaasup sastra lisan, ari narasi dina patalina ngan ukur prosés komunikasi dina pangawetan dahareun, pamakéan raksukan, nyieun imah, jeung sajabina, hususna adat istiadat, hukum jeung aturan séjénna, kaasup tradisi lisan.<ref name=":0" /> Bener, saluyu jeung éta istilah tradisi lisan lumangsung di masarakat tradisional nu umumna can wanoh tradisi nulis, salaku masarakat niraksara, tapi tradisi lisan ogé lumangsung di masarakat moderen.<ref name=":0" /> == Wangenan == Nurutkeun Osman<ref name=":0" />, wangenan tradisi lisan téh kieu. {{Quote| ''Tradisi lisan adalah hal yang baru dan sebagian besar merangkum bahan-bahan dalam folklor. Istilah folklor mulanya ditujukan kepada aspek-aspek tradisional dalam suatu budaya dan aspek-aspek itu selalu ada dalam msyarakat, sekarang istilah yang ditunjukan untuk benda atau perkara yang disangsikan kebenarannya, padahal sebenarnya bahan-bahan folklor adalah aspek-aspek dan unsur-unsur budaya yang hidup dan mengakibatkan pola-pola perlakuan anggota sebuah subculture dalam suatu masyarakat yang kompleks, untuk menghindarkan berlakunya salah anggapan itu maka istilah tradisi lisan diutamakan. Cakupan tradisi lisan sama dengan folklor pada awalnya.'' |Taib Osman|Kesusasteraan Melayu Lama. Kuala Lumpur<ref name=":0" />}} Tina pamadegan di luhur aya transisi istilah folklor kana tradisi lisan, ku sabab folklor ngabogaan [[konotasi]] anyar, nyaéta “bohong” jeung “bebeneranana matak cangcaya”. Leuwih hususna, tradisi lisan nyaéta rupa-rupa katerangan lisan dina wangun [[laporan]] ngeunaan kajadian di [[jaman]] baheula.<ref name=":0" /> Ku kituna, tradisi lisan anu sumebar téh mindeng dipatalikeun jeung éksisténsi [[sakakala]] hiji [[tempat]], ayana hiji [[mahluk]], jeung épos [[hiburan]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Irwanto, D.|first=|date=eprints.unsri.ac.id|title=Kendala dan Alternatif Penggunaan Tradisi Lisan dalam Penulisan Sejarah Lokal di Sumatra Selatan|url=eprints.unsri.ac.id/3419/1/03-Dedi_Irwanto-edit-(123-126).pdf|journal=Jurnal Forum Sosial|doi=|pmid=|access-date=22-10-2017}}</ref> Mitos diturunkeun ti generasi ka generasi ku jalan tradisi lisan dina wangun [[sora]], [[nada]], [[ritmeu]], jeung [[isarat]] anu has jeung miboga [[pola]] nu béda.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fic, I & Doubalova|first=|date=www.sciencedirect.com|title=Myth, History and Art, Procedia Social and Behavioral|url=www.sciencedirect.com|journal=Sciences Journal|doi=|pmid=|access-date=22-10-2017}}</ref> Matak pantes tradisi lisan dianggap kagiatan népakeun [[pangaweruh]] ti generasi ka [[generasi]] ku jalan [[médium]] lisan  atawa omongan. Tradisi lisan téh sakabéh wacana anu dikedalkeun ngawengku nu lisan jeung [[aksara]] atawa dianggap salaku [[sistem]] wacana anu lain aksara. Ku sabab jamak, tradisi lisan miboga kakuatan anu meungkeut [[komunitas]] penuturna salaku wangun komitmen [[ontologis]] anu dijiwaan ku spirit [[idéalis]]. Éta [[lokal]]itas ''(gemeinschaft)'' terus kawangun sacara [[dinamis]] salaku wujud [[évolusi]]. == Struktur == Tradisi lisan béda jeung sastra lisan pon kitu deui jeung folklor (lisan, sawaréh lisan, jeung lain lisan), basa lisan, jeung [[komunikasi]] lisan. Dina [[struktur]] tradisi lisan pasti aya wangun jeung eusi.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Kearifan Lokal, Hakikat, Peran, dan Metode Tradisi Lisan|last=Sibarani, R|first=|publisher=Asosiasi Tradisi Lisan (ATL)|year=2012|isbn=|location=Jakarta|pages=}}</ref> === Wangun === Wangun ngawengku téks, ko-téks jeung kontéks. Teks mibanda struktur, ko-teks mibanda [[élemén]], jeung kontéks mibanda kondisi anu pormulana bisa dipedar tina ulikan tradisi lisan. Téks mangrupa unsur [[vérbal]] anu mangrupa basa ''(tightly formalized language)'', saperti basa [[sastra]] ogé basa [[naratif]] anu nganteurkeun tradisi lisan [[nonvérbal]] saperti téks bubuka hiji performansi. Éta struktur bisa katitén tina struktur [[makro]], struktur [[galur]], jeung struktur [[mikro]]. Ko-teks mangrupa unsur anu marengan teks saperti unsur [[paralinguistik]], [[proksémi]], [[kinétik]], jeung unsur séjénna. Kontéks méré sarat yén tradisi lisan kudu mibanda kajadian tradisi lisan. Kontéks mangrupa kaayaan anu patali jeung [[budaya]] [[sosisal]], kaayaan, jeung [[idéologi]].<ref name=":1" /> === Eusi === Eusi Eusi ngawengku harti atawa fungsi, [[ajén]] atawa [[norma]] budaya jeung [[kearifan lokal]]. modél révitalisasi ngawengku ngahirupkeun deui, ngolah, prosés, jeung ngwariskeun tradisi lisan sarta kéarifan lokal ka komunitas pangrojongna. Ajén ngawengu fungsi anu dipercaya ku [[masarakat]]. Lamun norma patali jeung harti, dianggap jadi tatapakan dina nglaksanakeun bebeneran.<ref name=":1" /> == Ciri kalisanan == Ciri kelisanan téh, nyaéta ayana [[pikiran lisan]] (''oral thought''), [[éksprési lisan]] (''oral expression''), jeung [[naratif lisan]] (''oral narrative'').<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the word|url=https://archive.org/details/oralityliteracyt0000ongw_j2m2|last=Ong, W. J.|first=|publisher=Mathuen|year=1982|isbn=|location=London|pages=}}</ref> === Pikiran lisan === Ciri utama pikiran lisan sangkan miboga kesan téh kudu konsérvatif, agonistik, homéostatik, jeung kontékstual. Konsérvatif téh dibutuhkeun ku masarakat budaya lisan keur nyingkahan ékspériméntasi inteléktual. Agonistik téh wujudna tina hubungan saingan atawa lalawanan minangka gambaran hubungan sipat sacara polaristik, saperti hadé jeung goréng, ngabdi jeung hianat. Homéostatik téh mopohokeun panineungan anu geus teu luyu jeung mangsa kiwari. Kontékstual nyoko kana kahirupan anu sabenerna keur dirandapan ku masarakat.<ref name=":2" /> === Éksprési lisan === Ciri éksprési lisan sangkan hésé dipopohokeun téh nyaéta formulatik, aditif, agrégatif, jeung kopius. Formulatik téh bisa mantuan kawangunna wacana ritmis salaku alat bantu keur nginget-nginget deui kalayan gancang, gampang, jeung mernah. Ciri aditif téh pamikiran basajan anu ngahasilkeun struktur [[kalimah]] atawa istilah anu sarua basajanna. Agrégatif miboga ciri formula anu sipatna sintétik keur ngaronjatkeun [[unsur]] daya inget atawa kristalisasi sipat keur ngagampangkeun nginget-nginget. Ciri kopius nyaéta pikeun ngajaga [[kontak]] jeung [[audién]] sangkan leuwih fungsional lamun [[panyatur]] ngébréhkeun éta hal. <ref name=":2" /> === Naratif lisan === Ciri utama naratif lisan téh ayana alur épisodik, [[palaku]] datar, jeung ajaran [[moral]]. Alur épisodik téh runtuyan kajadian pikeun nyingkahan klimaks carita anu dimekarkeun sacara [[tradisional]] jeung alamiah ngeunaan pangalaman-pangalaman masarakat. Tokoh datar dina naratif lisan téh tokoh anu miboga  hiji [[karakter]] atawa hiji kualitas [[psikologis]]. Ajaran moral sumberna tina budaya lisan masarakat anu niténan, dipikaboga, jeung ngalaksanakeun ajaran moral atawa étika nu ditarima jeung dianggap bener. <ref name=":2" /> == Ambahan == Nurutkeun [[UNESCO]], ruang lingkup tradisi lisan téh dijéntrékeun kieu.<ref name=":0" /> # Kasusastraan lisan.<ref name=":0" /> # [[Téhnologi]] tradisional.<ref name=":0" /> # Folk di luar puseur-puseur [[istana]] jeung [[kota]] [[métropolitan]].<ref name=":0" /> # Unsur-unsur [[réligi]] jeung kapercayaan folk di luar wates formal [[agama]]-agama gedé.<ref name=":0" /> # [[Kasenian]] folk di luar puseur-puseur istana jeung kota métropolitan.<ref name=":0" /> # [[Hukum]] [[adat]].<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Budaya]] [[Kategori:Tradisi]] 0e6xhhzkt0lehw2ydhs9ccpkr45tuxd 0 72794 711611 626167 2026-08-07T00:14:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711611 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Aset''' atawa '''aktiva''' nyaéta sumber [[ékonomi]] nu dipiharep bisa méré mangpaat [[usaha]] ka hareupna. Aset kaasup kana [[Neraca (akuntansi)|neraca]] kalayan [[saldo]] normalna [[debit]].<ref name=":0">Jurnal Widyatama. [https://repository.widyatama.ac.id/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/5062/Bab%202.pdf?sequence=10 Aset] Diakses ping 13 Desember 2017</ref> == Komponen == Aset nyaéta sakabéh [[hak]] nu bisa dipaké dina operasi perusahaan. Nu kaasup kana kolom aset salah sahijina nyaéta [[gedung]] atawa wangunan Jadi lamun hiji [[perusahaan]] miboga hiji gedung nu hargana samiliar, mangka aset nu diitung nyaéta samilliar.<ref name=":0" /> Salian ti gedung, nu bisa diitung salaku aset bisa kaasup [[mérk dagang]], [[patén téknologi]], duit [[kas]], [[mobil]], [[motor]] jsb.<ref name=":0" /> Aset dihartikeun salaku harta total. Nu biasana dikategorikeun kayaning:<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Teknik Manajemen Keuangan|last=Bambang Kussriyanto,|first=Suwartoyo|publisher=Pustaka Binaman Pressindo|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> # [[Aset lancar]] # [[Investasi jangka panjang]] # [[Aset tetap|Aset tetp]] # [[Aset tidak berwujud]] # [[Aset pajak tangguhan]] # [[Aset lain]] Daftar aset dina neraca disusun numutkeun tingkatan ''likuiditasna'', ti mimiti nu pang ''likudna'' nepi ka nu henteu ''likuid''.<ref name=":1" /> Aktiva dina neraca dipidangkeun disisi kiri sacara ngaruntuy ti luhur ka handap.<ref name=":1" /> Pikeun nyusun neraca ti mimiti nu pang ''likud'' (lancar) nyaéta ti mimiti [[aktiva lancar]], [[Aktiva tetap|aktiva tetep]] jeung satuluyna.<ref name=":1" /> Komponen aktiva lancar numutkeun [[Kasmir]] (2008:31) nyaéta " [[kas]], [[surat-surat]] nu miboga ajén luhur, [[piutang]], sasadiaan, jsb".<ref name=":1" /> Komponen aktiva tetep numutkeunkeun [[Kasmir]] (2008:32) nyaéta " [[Tanah]], bangunan, [[mesin]], [[motor]], mobil,peralatan, jsb".<ref name=":1" /> Numutkeun téori di handap, [[aktiva]] disusun sacara ngaruntuy ti mimiti nu ''likuid'' atawa lancar nu babari dijadikeun [[duit]].<ref name=":1" /> == Mangpaat == Pikeun [[manajemen]], dina maca neraca, nilai aset kudu ditengetan ku sabab jadi dasar ngukur prestasi kauangan hiji perusahaan.<ref name=":1" /> Ukuran ieu jadi babanding prestasi hiji perusahaan jeung perusahaan séjénna dina widang nu sarua, naha leuwih alus atawa henteu, nu bisa jadi dadasar dina nyokot hiji kaputusan manajemen pikeun nahankeun atawa ngaronjatkeun kualitas manajemen.<ref name=":1" /> == Efisiensi dina ngagunakeun aset == Salah sahiji pangukuran nu aya patalina jeung aset nyaéta angka [[rasio]] [[penjualan]]/ total aset, nu di nyatakeun salaku presentase.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Controllership: The Work of the Managerial Accountant.|year=1981|url=https://archive.org/details/controllershipwo0000will_o1d0|last=James Wilson|first=John Campbell|publisher=Wiley Trans|isbn=0-471-05711-8|location=|pages=}}</ref> Anggapanna, beuki loba penjualan nu kahontal, beuki éfisién aset nu aya.<ref name=":2" /> Angka panjualan dicokot ti [[laporan laba rugi]], sedengkeun angka total aset asalna ti neraca.<ref name=":2" /> Dina hal ieu rasio ti taun panungtung dibandingkeun jeung taun-taun saacanna.<ref name=":2" /> == Optimalisasi kauntungan == Ukuran séjén nu aya patalina jeung [[profitabilitas]], nyaéta angka [[laba harta]] atawa [[laba investasi]],nu asalna tina babandingan angka [[kauntungan]] atawa laba (dicutat tina [[:id:Laporan laba rugi|laporan laba rugi]]) jeung total harta atawa total aset, nu nilai na sarua jeung istilah total ''[[investasi]]'' (dicutat tina [[:id:Neraca|neraca]]).<ref name=":2" /> Asumsina, ''manajemen salaku nu boga tanggung jawab dina miara jeung pamanngpaatan sakabeh harta nu dipaké perusahaan, ku kituna manajemen tanggungjawab dina upaya optimalisasi kauntungan nu dihasilkeun ti sakabeéh harta éta.''<ref name=":2" /> == Tinggali ogé == * [[Laporan laba rugi]] * [[Laporan arus kas]] * [[Neraca (akuntansi)|Neraca]] == Rujukan == <references />{{pondok}} [[Kategori:Élmu ékonomi]] [[Kategori:Akuntansi]] [[Kategori:Laporan kauangan]] ta8vpmq2vfqrxege6fshvksmbuf4itw 0 72905 711568 700327 2026-08-06T23:18:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711568 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}[[Gambar:DeadSeaIsrael5.jpg|jmpl|Uyah ngabatu di pasisian Laut Mati]] [[Gambar:2015-03-07_Pakistanisches,_sogenanntes_Himalaya-Salz_0399.jpg|jmpl|Batu uyah beureum ti [[Tambang uyah Khewra]] di Pakistan]] '''Uyah''' atau '''uyah méja''' nyaéta mineral nu utamana disusun ku [[natrium klorida]] (NaCl), [[sanyawa]] [[kimia]] nu kaasup kana kelas [[Uyah (kimia)|uyah]] nu leuwih badag; uyah dina wangun alami mah minangka mineral kristalin dipikawanoh minangka [[uyah batu]] atawa [[halit]]. Uyah aya di sakumna [[cilaut]] di alam dunya, nu mana mangrupa panyusun mineral utama. Lautan nembrak mibanda kurang leuwih 35 gram (1,2 oz) padetan per liter, salinitas 3,5%. [[Uyah na biologi|Uyah kacida pentingna pikeun umumna kahirupan]], deuih rasa asin téh mangrupa salah sahiji [[rasa dasar manusa]]. Uyah nyaéta salah sahiji samara kadaharan pangbuhunna jeung panglobana kapanggih, sarta diasin téh mangrupa metodeu ngawétkeun kadaharan. Sawatara bukti awal pangolahan garam nyaéta mangsa kurang leuwih 8.000 taun ka larung, waktu urang-urang nu dumuk di wewengkon kiwari [[Rumania]] ngasakan cai pikeun ngékstrak uyah; [[Sajarah uyah di Tiongkok|pakasaban uyah di Tiongkok]] mimiti aya kira-kira dina période nu bareng. Uyah ogé dihargaan ku urang Ibrani kuna, urang [[Yunani]], Romawi, [[Bizantium]], urang Het, [[Mesir kuna|urang Mesir]], jeung urang [[India]]. Uyah jadi komoditas penting dina paniagaan jeung diangkut ku kapal ngaliwatan [[Laut Méditérania]], di sapanjang jalan uyah nu dibawa sacara husus, jeung ngaliwatan Sahara ku kafilah [[onta]]. Kalangkaan jeung kabutuhan universal kana uyah ngabalukarkeun nagara-nagara maju narajang sarta ngagunakeunna pikeun naékeun pajak. Uyah dipaké dina upacara kaagamaan jeung mibanda makna budaya lianna. Uyah diolah di [[tambang uyah]], jeung ku panguapan cilaut (uyah laut) jeung cinyusu nu euyeub ku mineral di kalian déét. Produk industri utamana mah nyaéta [[sodah kaustik]] jeung [[klorin]]; uyah dipaké di loba prosés industri kaasup dina nyieun [[polivinil klorida]], [[plastik]], [[bubur kertas]] jeung loba produk séjénna. Tina produksi global taunan nu kurang leuwih dua ratus yuta ton uyah, ngan kira 6% nu dipaké pikeun konsumsieun manusa mah. Pamakéan lianna ngawengku prosés ngonkondiskeun cai, ''de-icing ''jalan raya, jeung kagunaan patanian. Uyah nu bisa dikonsumsi mah dijual dina bentuk kawas uyah laut jeung uyah méja nu biasana ngandung [[zat anti-caking]] jeung bisa diimunisasi pikeun nyegah défisiénsi yodium. Sarta pamakénna dina kaolahan mah minangka samara utama kaolahan. Sodium mangrupa [[Nutrien|nutrisi penting]] pikeun kaséhatan manusa liwat peranna minangka zat larutan [[Osmosis|éléktrolit jeung osmotik]].<ref name="IOM2013">{{cite web|url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=18311|title=Sodium intake in populations: assessment of evidence|year=2013|publisher=Institute of Medicine of the National Academies|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019135047/http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=18311|archivedate=19 October 2013|accessdate=17 October 2013|editor-first1=Brian L.|editor-last1=Strom|editor-first2=Ann L.|editor-last2=Yaktine|editor-first3=Maria|editor-last3=Oria|deadurl=no|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Konsumsi uyah nu kaleuleuwihi bisa ningkatkeun résiko [[panyakit kardiovaskular]], kayaning [[hiperténsi]], ka barudak jeung kolot. Efek uyah kieu téh geus lila ditalungtik. Ku kituna, loba asosiasi kaséhatan dunya jeung para ahli di nagara maju nyarankeun pikeun ngurangan konsumsi kadaharan nu ararasin.<ref name="efsa">{{cite web|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/nda050622|title=EFSA provides advice on adverse effects of sodium|publisher=European Food Safety Authority|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630080446/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/nda050622|archivedate=30 June 2016|accessdate=9 June 2016|date=22 June 2005|deadurl=no|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Organisasi Kaséhatan Dunya]] ngarékoméndasikeun pikeun kolot mah ngonsumsina téh kurang ti 2.000&nbsp;mg sodium, sapapak jeung 5 gram uyah per poé.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/|title=WHO issues new guidance on dietary salt and potassium|publisher=[[World Health Organization|WHO]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720052736/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/|archivedate=20 July 2016|date=31 January 2013|deadurl=no|df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Sajarah == [[Gambar:Salzproduktion-Halle.jpg|jmpl|Produksi uyah di Halle, Saxony-Anhalt (1670)]] Dina sajarahna, kasayagaan uyah kacida penting pisan pikeun peradaban manusa. Kecap "[[gajih]]" (''salary'') asalna tina kecap [[Basa Latin|Latin]] pikeun uyah (''salt'') lantaran [[légiun Romawi]] sakapeung mah dibayar ku uyah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=salary|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080432/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=salary|archivedate=4 March 2016|dead-url=no|accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref> [[Legok Natron]] téh wewengkon konci nu ngarojong [[Kakaisaran Mesir]] ka kalér, lantaran nyumponanana kaperluan nu sajinis uyah nu tuluy ngaranna disebut [[natron]]. Malah mah saméméh ieu, nu kiwari dianggap kota munggaran di [[Éropa]] nyaéta [[Solnitsata]], di [[Bulgaria]], nu mangrupa tambang uyah, nyayagakeun kawasan nu ayeuna dipikawanoh minangka Balkan euyeub ku uyah ti taun 5400 SM.<ref>LA Times<br> [http://articles.latimes.com/2012/nov/01/science/la-sci-sn-oldest-european-town-20121101 Bulgarians find oldest European town, a salt production center] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307053627/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/nov/01/science/la-sci-sn-oldest-european-town-20121101|date=7 March 2016}}</ref> Sangkan ngaran Solnisata téh hartina "kasab uyah" (''salt works''). Mangsa jalma téh geus maké téhnik pangaléngan jeung pabekuan jieunan pikeun ngajaga kadaharan, ieu lumangsung salila saratus taun panungtung, uyah mah geus jadi pangawét kadaharan nu pangkakoncarana, utamana mah pikeun [[daging]], salila rébuan taun.{{Sfn|Barber|1999|p=136}} Kasab uyah nu pangkunana mah geus kapanggih di situs arkéologi Poiana Slatinei di gigireun cinyusu uyah di [[Lunca]], [[Neamţ County]], [[Rumania]]. Bukti nu némbongkeun yén urang Néolitik Budaya Precucuteni keur ngagolakkeun cai [[usum semi]] nu euyeub ku uyah liwat prosés ''briquetage ''pikeun ngékstrak uyah ti keur taun 6050 SM.{{Sfn|Weller|Dumitroaia|2005}} Uyah nu dicokot tina ieu tarékah téh meureun mibanda patalian langsung jeung mesatna patuwuhan populasi masarakat mangsa harita.{{Sfn|Weller|Brigand|Nuninger|2008|pp=225-230}} Panén uyah ti pamukaan [[Dano Xiechi]] deukeut Yuncheng di Shanxi, [[Tiongkok]], asalna ti 6000 SM, ngajadikeunna salah sahiji uyah pangheubeulna nu bisa divérifikasi.{{Sfn|Kurlansky|2002|pp=18–19}} [[Gambar:Salinas_de_Maras,_Peru-20Sept2013.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Ponds near Maras, Peru, fed from a mineral spring and used for salt production since the time of the Incas.]] Meureun baé ieu uyah téh geus dipaké pikeun [[barter]] dina hubungan paniagaan [[obsidian]] di [[Anatolia]] [[Neolitikum|zaman Néolitik]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Golbas|first=Alper|last2=Basobuyuk|first2=Zeynel|year=2012|title=The role of salt in the formation of the Anatolian culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/2340259/Anadolu_Kultur_Olusumunda_Tuzun_Rolu-_The_Role_of_Salt_in_the_Formation_of_the_Anatolian_Culture|dead-url=no|journal=Batman University: Journal of Life Sciences|volume=1|issue=1|pages=45–54|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211234508/http://www.academia.edu/2340259/Anadolu_Kultur_Olusumunda_Tuzun_Rolu-_The_Role_of_Salt_in_the_Formation_of_the_Anatolian_Culture|archive-date=11 December 2013}}</ref> Herodotus ngagambarkeun deui ruteu dagang uyah di [[Libya]] abad ka 5 SM. Di taun-taun awal [[Kakaisaran Romawi]], jalan-jalan kayaning [[Via Salaria]] téh dibangun pikeun transportasi uyah ti [[tambak uyah]] [[Ostia]] ka ibu kota.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,925341,00.html|title=A brief history of salt|date=15 March 1982|work=Time Magazine|newspaper=Time Magazine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509161416/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C925341%2C00.html|archive-date=9 May 2016|dead-url=no|access-date=11 October 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509161416/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C925341%2C00.html |date=9 May 2016 }}</ref> Kapaggih ogé uyah téh di antara korban pamakaman nu kapanggih di makam [[Mesir kuna]] ti milénium katilu SM, ogé kapanggih kayaning manuk asin, jeung [[lauk asin]].{{Sfn|Kurlansky|2002|p=38}} Ti kurang leuwih taun 2800 SM, urang-urang Mesir mimiti ngaékspor [[lauk asin]] ke [[Phoenicia|Fénisia]] minangka gaganti tangkal [[Cedrus libani|cédar libanon]], [[kaca]], jeung pawarna [[wungu Tyrian]]; urang Fénisia [[barter]] lauk asin jeung uyah Mesir ti [[Afrika Kalér]] ka paniagaan di sakuliah karajaan Méditerania maranéhanana.{{Sfn|Kurlansky|2002|pp=44}} Di Afrika, uyah dipak minangka mata uang di kiduleun Sahara, jeung lémpéngan uyah batu dipaké minangka koin di [[Ethiopia|Abyssinia]] mah.<ref name="IOM2013" /> Padagang Moor di [[abad ka-6]] barter uyah jeung [[emas]], barterna beurat pada beurat. Ari [[Tuareg]] sacara tradisional ngajaga ruteu meuntasan [[Sahara]] utamana pikeun transportasi uyah ku [[Azalai]] (kafilah uyah). Nika kiwari kafilah téh masih meuntasan padang pasir ti Nigér kidul ka [[Bilma]], sanajan paniagaan kiwari mah lolobana geus maké [[treuk]]. Baheulana, nu diakut dina unggal onta téh dua bal parab ternak jeung dua barang dagangan lian, dibawana ka kalér, balikna téh mawa garam jeung [[korma]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/africa/tuareg_salt_caravans/ |title=Tuareg Salt Caravans of Niger, Africa |last=Paolinelli |first=Franco |publisher=Bradshaw Foundation |accessdate=11 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803184735/http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/africa/tuareg_salt_caravans/ |archivedate=3 August 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Di [[Gabon]], saméméh datangna urang [[Éropa]], urang-urang basisir téh ngalampahan paniagaan nu nguntungkeun kalawan komoditina téh nyaéta uyah laut. Ieu kalawan lalaunan digantikeun ku uyah beunang mawa urang-urang Éropa dina karung, sangkan urang basisiran téh kaleungitan kauntunganna nu saméméhna sok dilakonan jeung urang leuweung; Nika taun [[1958]], uyah laut téh masih kénéh jadi mata uang nu pangdiapresiasi di pileuweungan mah.<ref>Schweitzer, Albert. African Notebook. 1958. Indiana University Press.</ref> [[Salzburg]], [[Hallstatt]], jeung [[Hallein]] nu sakumna ieu wewengkon téh nganjrek 17&nbsp;km (11 mil) ti walungan Salzach di Austria tengah, mangrupa wewengkon kalawan déposit uyah nu lega. ''Salzach'' sacara harfiah hartina "walungan uyah" sedengkeun ''Salzburg'' mah hartina "istana uyah", duanana nyomot ngaranna tina kecap basa [[Jérman]] ''Salz'' nu hartina uyah. Ari Hallstatt, ieu téh mangrupa lokasi tambak uyah munggaran di dunya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html |title=Hallstatt's White Gold: Salt |first=Billie Ann |last=Lopez |work=Virtual Vienna Net |accessdate=3 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210142713/http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html |archivedate=10 February 2007 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210142713/http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html |date=10 February 2007 }}</ref> The town gave its name to the [[Hallstatt culture]] that began mining for salt in the aréa in about 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the townsfolk, who had previously used [[pickaxe]]s and [[shovel]]s, began [[open pan salt making]]. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and [[Salt-cured meat|salted meat]] to [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]] in exchange for wine and other luxuries.{{sfn|Barber|1999|p=136}} The word ''[[salary]]'' comes from the [[Latin]] word for salt. The réason for this is unknown; a persistent modérn claim that the [[Roman Legion]]s were sometimes paid in salt is baseless.<ref>{{cite web | title=Economics of NaCl: Salt made the world go round | work=Mr Block Archive | author=Bloch, David | url=http://www.salt.org.il/frame_econ.html | accessdate=19 December 2006 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129144818/http://www.salt.org.il/frame_econ.html |date=29 January 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=The history of salt production at Droitwich Spa | work=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/herefordandworcester/hi/people_and_places/religion_and_ethics/newsid_8473000/8473037.stm | accessdate=28 March 2011 | date=21 January 2010 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gainsford|first1=Peter|title=Salt and salary: were Roman soldiers paid in salt? |url=http://kiwihellenist.blogspot.co.uk/2017/01/salt-and-salary.html|website=Kiwi Hellenist: Modern Myths about the Ancient World|accessdate=11 January 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113124442/http://kiwihellenist.blogspot.co.uk/2017/01/salt-and-salary.html|archivedate=13 January 2017|df=dmy-all }}</ref> The word ''salad'' literally méans "salted", and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting [[leaf vegetable]]s.{{sfn|Kurlansky|2002|pp=64}} Wars have been fought over salt. [[Venice]] fought and won a war with [[Genoa]] over the product, and it played an important part in the [[American Revolution]]. Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying [[Duty (economics)|duties]],<ref name=Cowen/> and towns like [[Liverpool]] flourished on the export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.igg.org.uk/gansg/12-linind/salt.htm |title=Salt |last=Smith |first=Mike |year=2003 |work=Goods & Not So Goods: Lineside Industries |accessdate=15 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124114738/http://www.igg.org.uk/gansg/12-linind/salt.htm |archivedate=24 November 2011 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124114738/http://www.igg.org.uk/gansg/12-linind/salt.htm |date=24 November 2011 }}</ref> Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their péoples. The voyages of [[Christopher Columbus]] are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain, and the oppressive [[Gabelle|salt tax]] in France was one of the causes of the [[French Revolution]]. After being repéaled, this tax was reimposed by [[Napoleon]] when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars, and was not finally abolished until 1945.<ref name=Cowen>{{cite web |url=http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~gel115/salt.html |title=The Importance of Salt |last=Cowen |first=Richard |date=1 May 1999 |accessdate=15 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507083302/http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/salt.html |archivedate=7 May 2016 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507083302/http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/salt.html |date=7 May 2016 }}</ref> In 1930, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] led at léast 100,000 péople on the "Dandi March" or "[[Salt Satyagraha]]", in which protesters made their own salt from the séa thus defying [[British rule]] and avoiding paying the [[History of the British salt tax in India|salt tax]]. This [[civil disobedience]] inspired millions of common péople and elevated the [[Indian independence movement]] from an elitist movement to a national struggle.{{sfn|Dalton|1996|p=72}} == Chemistry == [[Gambar:Single grain of table salt (electron micrograph).jpg|jmpl|[[Scanning electron microscope|SEM]] image of a grain of table salt]] {{main article|Sodium chloride}} Salt is mostly [[sodium chloride]], the [[ionic compound]] with the [[chemical formula|formula]] NaCl, representing equal proportions of [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]]. [[Sea salt]] and freshly mined salt (much of which is séa salt from prehistoric séas) also contain small amounts of [[trace element]]s (which in these small amounts are generally good for plant and animal [[health]]). Mined salt is often refined in the production of table salt; it is dissolved in water, purified via [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] of other minerals out of solution, and re-evaporated. During this same refining process it is often also [[iodised salt|iodized]]. Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape; they normally appéar white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge. The [[molar mass]] of salt is 58.443 g/mol, its melting point is 801&nbsp;°C (1,474&nbsp;°F) and its boiling point 1,465&nbsp;°C (2,669&nbsp;°F). Its density is 2.17 grams per cubic centimetre and it is réadily soluble in water. When dissolved in water it separates into Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>−</sup> ions, and the solubility is 359 grams per litre.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/519712/salt-NaCl |title=Salt (NaCl) |last1=Wood |first1=Frank Osborne |last2=Ralston |first2=Robert H. |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=16 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502184136/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/519712/salt-NaCl |archivedate=2 May 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> From cold solutions, salt crystallises as the [[water of hydration|dihydrate]] NaCl·2H<sub>2</sub>O. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water; the [[freezing point]] is −21.12&nbsp;°C (−6.02&nbsp;°F) for 23.31&nbsp;wt% of salt, and the [[boiling point]] of saturated salt solution is around 108.7&nbsp;°C (227.7&nbsp;°F).<ref name=u1>Elvers, B. ''et al.'' (ed.) (1991) Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 5th ed. Vol. A24, Wiley, p. 319, {{ISBN|978-3-527-20124-2}}.</ref> == Edible salt == {{See also|List of edible salts}} [[Gambar:Salt shaker on white background.jpg|jmpl|Salt shaker]] Salt is essential to the héalth of humans and other animals, and it is one of the [[Basic tastes#Basic tastes|five basic taste sensations]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taste.html |title=The sense of taste |date=16 March 2013 |accessdate=16 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408080806/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taste.html |archivedate=8 April 2016 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408080806/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taste.html |date=8 April 2016 }}</ref> Salt is used in many cuisines around the world, and it is often found in [[salt shaker]]s on diners' éating tables for their personal use on food. Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99&nbsp;percent [[sodium chloride]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tesco Table Salt 750g|url=http://www.tesco.com/superstore/xpi/8/xpi50042778.htm|publisher=Tesco|accessdate=5 December 2010|quote=Nutritional analysis provided with Tesco Table Salt states 38.9&nbsp;percent sodium by weight which equals 97.3&nbsp;percent sodium chloride|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511004300/http://www.tesco.com/superstore/xpi/8/xpi50042778.htm|archivedate=11 May 2009|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511004300/http://www.tesco.com/superstore/xpi/8/xpi50042778.htm |date=11 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.wasalt.com.au/Table.html Table Salt] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805064907/http://www.wasalt.com.au/Table.html |date=5 August 2007 }}. Wasalt.com.au. Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/3/CXS_150e.pdf The international Codex Alimentarius Standard for Food Grade Salt] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314012629/http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/3/CXS_150e.pdf |date=14 March 2012 }}. (PDF). Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref> Usually, [[anticaking agents]] such as [[sodium aluminosilicate]] or [[magnesium carbonate]] are added to maké it free-flowing. [[Iodized salt]], containing [[potassium iodide]], is widely available. Some péople put a [[desiccant]], such as a few grains of uncooked [[rice]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm |title= Rice in Salt Shakers |publisher= Ask a Scientist |accessdate= 29 July 2008 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110314162037/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm |archivedate= 14 March 2011 |df= dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314162037/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm |date=14 March 2011 }}</ref> or a [[saltine cracker]], in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help bréak up salt clumps that may otherwise form.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ww3.komotv.com/story/1454284/food-freshness?redirected=true |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110820105950/http://ww3.komotv.com/story/1454284/food-freshness?redirected=true |archivedate=20 August 2011 |title=Food Freshness |publisher=KOMO News |accessdate=8 July 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110820105950/http://ww3.komotv.com/story/1454284/food-freshness?redirected=true |date=20 August 2011 }}</ref> === Fortified table salt === Some table salt sold for consumption contain additives which address a variety of héalth concerns, especially in the developing world. The identities and amounts of additives vary widely from country to country. [[Iodine]] is an important micronutrient for humans, and a [[iodine deficiency|deficiency]] of the element can cause lowered production of [[thyroxine]] ([[hypothyroidism]]) and enlargement of the thyroid gland ([[endemic goitre]]) in adults or [[cretinism]] in children.{{sfn|Vaidya|Chakera|Pearce|2011}} Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924{{sfn|Markel|1987}} and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of [[potassium iodide]], [[sodium iodide]] or [[sodium iodate]]. A small amount of [[dextrose]] may also be added to stabilize the iodine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://extension.psu.edu/food-safety/food-preservation/faq/canning-and-pickling-salt |title=Canning and Pickling salt |publisher=Penn State University |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407164426/http://extension.psu.edu/food-safety/food-preservation/faq/canning-and-pickling-salt |archivedate=7 April 2013 |df=dmy-all }}; {{cite web|url=http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/food-salt-faqs|publisher=Morton Salt|title=FAQs|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927063741/http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/food-salt-faqs|archivedate=27 September 2014|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927063741/http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/food-salt-faqs |date=27 September 2014 }}</ref> Iodine deficiency affects about two billion péople around the world and is the léading preventable cause of [[mental retardation]].<ref name="mcneil">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html|title=In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt|last=McNeil|first=Donald G. Jr|date=16 December 2006|work=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=4 December 2008|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209044238/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html|archivedate=9 December 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used.<ref>{{cite web|title=Iodized salt|url=http://www.saltinstitute.org/Uses-benefits/Salt-in-Food/Essential-nutrient/Iodized-salt|publisher=Salt Institute|accessdate=5 December 2010|year=2009|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214101408/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Uses-benefits/Salt-in-Food/Essential-nutrient/Iodized-salt|archivedate=14 February 2013|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214101408/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Uses-benefits/Salt-in-Food/Essential-nutrient/Iodized-salt |date=14 February 2013 }}</ref> The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country. In the [[United States]], the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) recommends [21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)] 150 [[micrograms]] of iodine per day for both men and women. US iodized salt contains 46–77 ppm (parts per million), wheréas in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10–22 ppm.<ref>{{cite web|title=Discussion Paper on the setting of maximum and minimum amounts for vitamins and minerals in foodstuffs|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/labellingnutrition/supplements/documents/akj_en.pdf|publisher=Directorate-General Health & Consumers|accessdate=5 December 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103050102/http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/labellingnutrition/supplements/documents/akj_en.pdf|archivedate=3 November 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Sodium ferrocyanide]], also known as yellow [[prussiate]] of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent. The additive is considered safe for human consumption.<ref name="hansard.millbanksystems.com"/>{{sfn|European Commission|2001|p=3}} Such anti-caking agents have been added since at léast 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to maké it flow more freely.<ref>{{cite web |title=Morton Salt FAQ |url=http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/general-company-faqs#q3 |accessdate=12 May 2007 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119105846/http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/general-company-faqs#q3 |archivedate=19 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by the [[Committee on Toxicity]] in 1988.<ref name="hansard.millbanksystems.com">[http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1993/may/05/table-salt Discussions of the safety of sodium hexaferrocyanate in table salt] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090336/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1993/may/05/table-salt |date=4 March 2016 }}. Hansard.millbanksystems.com (5 May 1993). Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref> Other anticaking agents sometimes used include [[tricalcium phosphate]], [[calcium carbonate|calcium]] or magnesium carbonates, [[fatty acid]] salts ([[acid salt]]s), [[magnesium oxide]], [[silicon dioxide]], [[calcium silicate]], sodium aluminosilicate and [[calcium aluminosilicate]]. Both the Européan Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of [[aluminium]] in the latter two compounds.<ref>{{cite web | first1=Wilella Daniels | last1=Burgess | first2=April C. | last2=Mason | url=http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/HE/HE-625.html | title=What Are All Those Chemicals in My Food? | publisher=School of Consumer and Family Sciences, Purdue University | accessdate=27 February 2011 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211210829/http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/HE/HE-625.html | archivedate=11 February 2006 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211210829/http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/HE/HE-625.html |date=11 February 2006 }}</ref> In "doubly fortified salt", both iodide and iron salts are added. The latter alleviates [[iron deficiency anaemia]], which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40% of infants in the developing world. A typical iron source is [[Iron(II) fumarate|ferrous fumarate]].{{sfn|Westphal|Kristen|Wegener|Ambatiello|2010}} Another additive, especially important for [[pregnancy|pregnant]] women, is [[folic acid]] (vitamin B<sub>9</sub>), which gives the table salt a yellow color. Folic acid helps prevent [[neural tube defect]]s and anaemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries.{{sfn|Westphal|Kristen|Wegener|Ambatiello|2010}} A lack of [[fluorine]] in the diet is the cause of a gréatly incréased incidence of [[dental caries]].{{sfn|Selwitz|Ismail|Pitts|2007}} [[Fluoride]] salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice is more common in some Européan countries where [[water fluoridation]] is not carried out. In [[France]], 35% of the table salt sold contains added [[sodium fluoride]].{{sfn|Westphal|Kristen|Wegener|Ambatiello|2010}} === Other kinds === [[Gambar:Sea Salt.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Irregular crystals of [[sea salt]]]] Unrefined [[sea salt]] contains small amounts of [[magnesium]] and [[calcium]] [[halides]] and [[sulfate]]s, traces of [[algae|algal products]], salt-resistant bacteria and sediment particles. The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone, and they maké unrefined séa salt [[hygroscopic]] (i.e., it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered). Algal products contribute a mildly "fishy" or "sea-air" odour, the latter from [[Organobromine compound#Organobromine compounds in nature|organobromine compounds]]. Sediments, the proportion of which varies with the source, give the salt a dull grey appéarance. Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations, séa salt may have a more complex flavor than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food. When salt is added during cooking however, these flavors would likely be overwhelmed by those of the food ingredients.{{sfn|McGee|2004|p=642}} The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw séa and rock salts do not contain enough [[iodine]] salts to prevent [[Iodine deficiency|iodine deficiency diseases]].<ref>{{cite web|title=References on food salt & health issues|url=http://www.saltinstitute.org/Articles-references/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-food-salt-health-issues|publisher=Salt Institute|accessdate=5 December 2010|year=2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919163713/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Articles-references/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-food-salt-health-issues|archivedate=19 September 2010|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919163713/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Articles-references/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-food-salt-health-issues |date=19 September 2010 }}</ref> Different natural salts have different [[Minerality#I–P|mineralities]] depending on their source, giving éach one a unique flavour. [[Fleur de sel]], a natural séa salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans, has a unique flavour varying with the region from which it is produced. In traditional [[Korean cuisine]], so-called "[[Jukyeom|bamboo salt]]" is prepared by roasting salt{{sfn|Livingston|2005|p=45}} in a [[bamboo]] container plugged with mud at both ends. This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been claimed to incréase the [[clastogen|anticlastogenic]] and [[mutagen|antimutagenic]] properties of [[doenjang]] (a fermented béan paste).{{sfn|Shahidi|Shi|Ho|2005|p=575}} [[Kosher salt]], though refined, contains no iodine and has a much larger grain size than most refined salts. This can give it different properties when used in cooking, and can be useful for preparing [[kosher meat]]. Some kosher salt has been certified to meet [[kosher]] requirements by a [[hechsher]], but this is not true for all products labelled as kosher salt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saltworks.us/salt_info/kosher-salt.asp |title=Kosher Salt Guide |publisher=SaltWorks |year=2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224110615/http://saltworks.us/salt_info/kosher-salt.asp |archivedate=24 December 2010 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224110615/http://saltworks.us/salt_info/kosher-salt.asp |date=24 December 2010 }}</ref> [[Pickling salt]] is made of ultra-fine grains to speed dissolving to maké [[brine]]. Gourmet salts may be used for specific tastes. === Salt in food === Salt is present in most [[food]]s, but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as méats, vegetables and fruit, it is present in very small quantities. It is often added to processed foods (such as [[canning|canned foods]] and especially [[salting (food)|salted foods]], [[pickling|pickled foods]], and [[snack food]]s or other [[convenience food]]s), where it functions as both a [[preservative]] and a [[flavor]]ing. [[Dairy salt]] is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pieters |first=A. J. |last2=Flint |first2=D. |last3=Garriott |first3=E. B. |last4=Wickson |first4=E. J. |last5=Lamson-Scribner |first5=F. |last6=Brackett |first6=G. B. |last7=Atwater |first7=H. W. |last8=Alvord |first8=H. E. |last9=Withcombe |first9=J. |last10=Howard |first10=L. O. |title=Experiment Station Work |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture]] |series=Bread and the Principles of Bread Making |year=1899 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l85CAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA5-PA28 |accessdate=17 November 2015 |pages=28–30 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616193742/https://books.google.com/books?id=l85CAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA5-PA28 |archivedate=16 June 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Before the advent of electrically powered [[refrigeration]], salting was one of the main methods of [[food preservation]]. Thus, [[herring]] contains 67&nbsp;mg sodium per 100&nbsp;g, while [[kipper]], its preserved form, contains 990&nbsp;mg. Similarly, [[pork]] typically contains 63&nbsp;mg while [[bacon]] contains 1,480&nbsp;mg, and [[potato]]es contain 7&nbsp;mg but [[potato crisp]]s 800&nbsp;mg per 100 g.<ref name=HMSO /> The main sources of salt in the diet, apart from direct use of sodium chloride, are bréad and ceréal products, méat products and milk and dairy products.<ref name=HMSO>{{cite book |title=Manual of Nutrition |url=https://archive.org/details/manualofnutritio0000grea |last=Buss |first=David |last2=Robertson |first2=Jean |year=1973 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |isbn=0112411126 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/manualofnutritio0000grea/page/37 37]–38}}</ref> In many éast Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20010729&slug=pfish29 |work=The Seattle Times |title=The Salt of Southeast Asia |accessdate=7 July 2011 |year=2001 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223708/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20010729&slug=pfish29 |archivedate=3 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223708/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20010729&slug=pfish29 |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> In its place, condiments such as [[soy sauce]], [[fish sauce]] and [[oyster sauce]] tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures. They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.diet.com/g/asian-diet |title=Asian diet |publisher=Diet.com |accessdate=7 July 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611091524/http://www.diet.com/g/asian-diet |archivedate=11 June 2016 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611091524/http://www.diet.com/g/asian-diet |date=11 June 2016 }}</ref> === Sodium consumption and health === {{Main article|Health effects of salt}} Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6{{nbsp}}g serving (1{{nbsp}}téaspoon) contains about 2,300{{nbsp}}mg of sodium.<ref name="USDA">{{cite web | url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/277 | title=National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Basic Report: 02047, Salt, table | publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] | work=Agricultural Research Service, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 27 | accessdate=8 January 2015 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426013021/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/277 | archivedate=26 April 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426013021/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/277 |date=26 April 2016 }}</ref> Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the [[autoregulation|osmotic regulation]] of water content in body organs ([[fluid balance]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/dietarysodium.html |title=Dietary sodium |publisher=MedLinePlus |accessdate=17 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019134642/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/dietarysodium.html |archivedate=19 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Most of the sodium in the [[Western diet]] comes from salt.<ref name=CDC>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/salt/ |title=Most Americans should consume less sodium |work=Salt |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=17 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019175037/http://www.cdc.gov/salt/ |archivedate=19 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in éastern Europe and Asia.<ref name=Strazzullo/> The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph25/resources/guidance-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease-pdf |title=Prevention of cardiovascular disease |date=1 June 2010 |publisher=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence |accessdate=5 May 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518063044/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph25/resources/guidance-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease-pdf |archivedate=18 May 2015 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518063044/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph25/resources/guidance-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease-pdf |date=18 May 2015 }}</ref> In the United States, 75% of the sodium éaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/salt/food.htm |title=Sodium and food sources |work=Salt |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=17 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019175038/http://www.cdc.gov/salt/food.htm |archivedate=19 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Because consuming too much sodium incréases risk of [[cardiovascular disease]]s,<ref name=CDC/> héalth organizations generally recommend that péople reduce their dietary intake of salt.<ref name=CDC/><ref name=WHO2013/><ref name=He2013/><ref name="aha">{{cite web | url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/HealthyEating/Nutrition/Sodium-and-Salt_UCM_303290_Article.jsp#.V1jHedQrJkg | title=Sodium and salt | publisher=American Heart Association | date=2016 | accessdate=8 June 2016 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817025149/http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/HealthyEating/Nutrition/Sodium-and-Salt_UCM_303290_Article.jsp#.V1jHedQrJkg | archivedate=17 August 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> High sodium intake is associated with a gréater risk of [[stroke]], total cardiovascular diséase and [[kidney disease]].<ref name=IOM2013/><ref name=Strazzullo>{{cite journal |last1= Strazzullo |first1=Pasquale |last2=D'Elia |first2=Lanfranco |last3=Kandala |first3=Ngianga-Bakwin |last4=Cappuccio |first4=Francesco P. |year=2009 |title=Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=339 |issue=b4567 |pages=b4567 |doi=10.1136/bmj.b4567 |pmc=2782060 |pmid=19934192}}</ref> A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000&nbsp;mg per day may reduce cardiovascular diséase by about 30 percent.<ref name=CDC/><ref name=USDA2015>{{cite book|title=Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee|date=2015|publisher=US Department of Agriculture|page=7|url=http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/PDFs/Scientific-Report-of-the-2015-Dietary-Guidelines-Advisory-Committee.pdf|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418002033/http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/PDFs/Scientific-Report-of-the-2015-Dietary-Guidelines-Advisory-Committee.pdf|archivedate=18 April 2016|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418002033/http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/PDFs/Scientific-Report-of-the-2015-Dietary-Guidelines-Advisory-Committee.pdf |date=18 April 2016 }}</ref> In adults and children with no acute illness, a decréase in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure.<ref name=He2013>{{cite journal|last1=He|first1=F. J.|last2=Li |first2=J. |last3=Macgregor |first3=G. A. |title=Effect of longer term modest salt reduction on blood pressure: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials.|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|date=3 April 2013|volume=346|pages=f1325|pmid=23558162|doi=10.1136/bmj.f1325}}</ref><ref name=Abur2013>{{cite journal |last1=Aburto |first1=Nancy J. |last2=Ziolkovska |first2=Anna |last3=Hooper |first3=Lee |last4=Elliott |first4=Paul |last5=Cappuccio |first5=Francesco P. |last6=Meerpohl |first6=Joerg J. |display-authors=3 |year=2013 |title=Effect of lower sodium intake on health: systematic review and meta-analyses |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=346 |issue=f1326 |pages=f1326 |doi=10.1136/bmj.f1326 |pmid=23558163 |pmc=4816261}}</ref> A low sodium diet results in a gréater improvement in blood pressure in péople with [[hypertension]].<ref name=Gra2011>{{cite journal|last1=Graudal|first1=N. A.|last2=Hubeck-Graudal |first2=T. |last3=Jurgens |first3=G. |title=Effects of low sodium diet versus high sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterol, and triglyceride.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=9 November 2011|issue=11|pages=CD004022|pmid=22071811|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004022.pub3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=A. J.|last2=Taylor|first2=F.|last3=Martin|first3=N.|last4=Gottlieb|first4=S.|last5=Taylor|first5=R. S.|last6=Ebrahim|first6=S.|title=Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=18 December 2014|volume=12|issue=12|pages=CD009217|pmid=25519688|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009217.pub3}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000&nbsp;mg of sodium (which is contained in 5{{nbsp}}g of salt) per day.<ref name=WHO2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/ |title=WHO issues new guidance on dietary salt and potassium |date=31 January 2013 |publisher=World Health Organization |accessdate=17 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720052736/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/ |archivedate=20 July 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Guidelines by the United States recommend that péople with hypertension, African Americans, and middle-aged and older adults should limit consumption to no more than 1,500&nbsp;mg of sodium per day and meet the potassium recommendation of 4,700&nbsp;mg/day with a héalthy diet of fruits and vegetables.<ref name=CDC/><ref name=Health.gov2010>{{cite book|title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010|date=2010|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|page=24|url=http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf|accessdate=29 April 2015|quote=African Americans, individuals with hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease and individuals ages 51 and older, comprise about half of the U.S. population ages 2 and older. While nearly everyone benefits from reducing their sodium intake, the blood pressure of these individuals tends to be even more responsive to the blood pressure-raising effects of sodium than others; therefore, they should reduce their intake to 1,500 mg per day.|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901170759/https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf|archivedate=1 September 2016|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901170759/https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf |date=1 September 2016 }}</ref> While reduction of sodium intake to less than 2,300&nbsp;mg per day is recommended by developed countries,<ref name=CDC/> one review recommended that sodium intake be reduced to at léast 1,200&nbsp;mg (contained in 3{{nbsp}}g of salt) per day, as a further reduction in salt intake the gréater the fall in systolic blood pressure for all age groups and ethinicities.<ref name=He2013/> Another review indicated that there is inconsistent/insufficient evidence to conclude that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2,300&nbsp;mg per day is either beneficial or harmful.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/18311/chapter/7#122|title=5 Findings and Conclusions {{!}} Sodium Intake in Populations: Assessment of Evidence {{!}} The National Academies Press|language=en|doi=10.17226/18311|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516040201/https://www.nap.edu/read/18311/chapter/7#122|archivedate=16 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> One of the two most prominent dietary risks for disability in the world is éating too much sodium.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lim|first=Stephen S.|last2=Vos|first2=Theo|last3=Flaxman|first3=Abraham D.|last4=Danaei|first4=Goodarz|last5=Shibuya|first5=Kenji|last6=Adair-Rohani|first6=Heather|last7=Amann|first7=Markus|last8=Anderson|first8=H. Ross|last9=Andrews|first9=Kathryn G.|date=15 December 2012|title=A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010|journal=Lancet|volume=380|issue=9859|pages=2224–2260|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61766-8|pmc=4156511|pmid=23245609}}</ref> == Non-dietary uses == {{Main article|Sodium chloride}} Only about 6% of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food. Of the remainder, 12% is used in water conditioning processes, 8% goes for de-icing highways and 6% is used in agriculture. The rest (68%) is used for manufacturing and other industrial processes,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maldonsalt.co.uk/About-Salt-The-many-uses-of-Salt.html |title=The many uses of salt |publisher=Maldon Salt Company |accessdate=10 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011024954/http://www.maldonsalt.co.uk/About-Salt-The-many-uses-of-Salt.html |archivedate=11 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011024954/http://www.maldonsalt.co.uk/About-Salt-The-many-uses-of-Salt.html |date=11 October 2013 }}</ref> and sodium chloride is one of the largest inorganic raw materials used by volume. Its major chemical products are [[caustic soda]] and [[chlorine]], which are separated by the [[electrolysis]] of a pure brine solution. These are used in the manufacture of [[PVC]], [[plastic]]s, [[paper pulp]] and many other inorganic and organic compounds. Salt is also used as a [[Flux (metallurgy)|flux]] in the production of [[aluminium]]. For this purpose, a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants. It is also used in the manufacture of [[soap]]s and [[glycerine]], where it is added to the vat to precipitate out the [[Saponification|saponified]] products. As an emulsifier, salt is used in the manufacture of [[synthetic rubber]], and another use is in the firing of [[pottery]], when salt added to the furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material, forming a strong [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]].<ref name=WASG>{{cite web |url=http://www.wasalt.com.au/SaltUses.html |title=Salt uses |publisher=WA Salt Group |accessdate=10 October 2013 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20131011054052/http://www.wasalt.com.au/SaltUses.html |archivedate= 11 October 2013 }}</ref> When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel, salt may be added to the [[drilling fluid]] to provide a stable "wall" to prevent the hole collapsing. There are many other processes in which salt is involved. These include its use as a [[mordant]] in [[textile]] dying, to regenerate [[resin]]s in water softening, for the [[Tanning (leather)|tanning]] of hides, the preservation of méat and fish and the [[canning]] of méat and vegetables.<ref name=WASG/><ref name=IHS>{{cite web |url=http://www.ihs.com/products/chemical/planning/ceh/sodium-chloride.aspx |title=Sodium chloride |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=IHS Chemical |accessdate=12 March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325193515/http://www.ihs.com/products/chemical/planning/ceh/sodium-chloride.aspx |archivedate=25 March 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>{{sfn|Kostick|2011}} == Production == Food-grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in [[Developed country|industrialized countries]] (7% in Europe),<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eusalt.com/salt-uses | title=Salt Uses | publisher=European Salt Producers' Association | accessdate=5 May 2015 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212060035/http://eusalt.com/salt-uses | archivedate=12 February 2015 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of total production.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt | title=Roskill Information Services | publisher=Roskill.com | date=30 March 2011 | accessdate=7 July 2011 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030618234222/http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt | archivedate=18 June 2003 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030618234222/http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt |date=18 June 2003 }}</ref> In 2013, total world production of salt was 264 million [[tonne]]s, the top five producers being China (71 million), the United States (40 million), India (18 million), Germany (12 million) and Canada (11 million).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/mcs-2014-salt.pdf | title=Salt | publisher=US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries | date=February 2014 | accessdate=8 June 2016 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630102120/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/mcs-2014-salt.pdf | archivedate=30 June 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630102120/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/mcs-2014-salt.pdf |date=30 June 2016 }}</ref> The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.salt.org.il/arch.html | title=Salt made the world go round | work=Salt.org.il | date=1 September 1997 | accessdate=7 July 2011 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405130434/http://www.salt.org.il/arch.html | archivedate=5 April 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405130434/http://www.salt.org.il/arch.html |date=5 April 2016 }}</ref> A major source of salt is séawater, which has a [[salinity]] of approximately 3.5%. This méans that there are about {{convert|35|g|oz}} of [[sea salt|dissolved salts]], predominantly [[sodium]] ({{chem|Na||+}}) and [[chloride]] ({{chem|Cl||-}}) [[ions]], per kilogram (2.2&nbsp;lbs) of water.{{sfn|Millero|Feistel|Wright|McDougall|2008}} The world's océans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt, and this abundance of supply méans that reserves have not been calculated.<ref name=IHS/> The evaporation of séawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates. [[Salt evaporation pond]]s are filled from the océan and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=2631 | title = Salt Ponds, South San Francisco Bay | work = NASA Visible Earth | publisher = NASA | accessdate = 5 May 2015 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160715085242/http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=2631 | archivedate = 15 July 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Elsewhere, salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of séas and lakes. These are either [[salt mine|mined]] directly, producing rock salt, or are extracted in solution by pumping water into the deposit. In either case, the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine. Traditionally, this was done in [[Open pan salt making|shallow open pans]] which were héated to incréase the rate of evaporation. More recently, the process is performed in pans under [[vacuum]].{{sfn|Kostick|2011}} The raw salt is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics. This usually involves recrystallization during which a brine solution is tréated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts). Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals, which are [[kiln]]-dried.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090409144219/http://www.saltsense.co.uk/aboutsalt-prod02.htm About salt: Production]. The Salt Manufacturers Association</ref> Some salt is produced using the [[Alberger process]], which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals, and produces a grainy-type flake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12642/Alberger-process |title=Alberger process |work=Manufacture of salt: Uses of artificial heat |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica online |accessdate=9 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223025143/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12642/Alberger-process |archivedate=23 February 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The [[Ayoreo people|Ayoreo]], an indigenous group from the Paraguayan [[Gran Chaco people|Chaco]], obtain their salt from the ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree (''Maytenus vitis-idaea'') and other trees.{{sfn|Schmeda-Hirschmann|1994}} One of the largest [[salt mining]] operations in the world is at the [[Khewra Salt Mine]] in Pakistan. The mine has nineteen storeys, eleven of which are underground, and {{convert|400|km|abbr=on}} of passages. The salt is dug out by the [[room and pillar]] method, where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels. Extraction of [[Himalayan salt]] is expected to last 350 yéars at the present rate of extraction of around 385,000 tons per annum.<ref name="The Seattle Times">{{cite news |last=Pennington |first=Matthew |title=Pakistan salt mined old-fashioned way mine |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002159747_saltmine25.html |accessdate=11 October 2013 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=25 January 2005 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725072022/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002159747_saltmine25.html |archivedate=25 July 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> == In religion == [[Gambar:Russian bread and salt.jpg|jmpl|[[Bread and salt]] at a Russian wedding ceremony]] Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture. At the time of [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanic]] sacrifices, in [[Hittites|Hittite]] rituals and during féstivals held by [[Semitic people|Semites]] and Greeks at the time of the [[new moon]], salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bookrags.com/research/salt-eorl-12/ |title=Research article: Salt |work=Encyclopedia of Religion |accessdate=13 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050505/http://www.bookrags.com/research/salt-eorl-12/ |archivedate=4 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some péople think this to be the origin of [[Holy Water]] in the Christian faith.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In [[Aztec]] mythology, [[Huixtocihuatl]] was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amoxtli.org/cuezali/festivals.html |title=The Aztec Festivals: Toxcatl (Dryness) |last=Quipoloa |first=J. |year=2007 |work=The Aztec Gateway |accessdate=18 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916191933/http://www.amoxtli.org/cuezali/festivals.html |archivedate=16 September 2015 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916191933/http://www.amoxtli.org/cuezali/festivals.html |date=16 September 2015 }}</ref> Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in [[Hinduism]] and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings.<ref name=Gray>{{cite news |title=What Lies Beneath |last=Gray |first=Steven |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2001007,00.html |newspaper=Time Magazine |date=7 December 2010 |accessdate=13 March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817090849/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C2001007%2C00.html |archivedate=17 August 2013 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817090849/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C2001007%2C00.html |date=17 August 2013 }}</ref> In [[Jainism]], devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.finaljourneyseminars.com/?page_id=472 |title=The Final Journey: What to do when your loved one passes away |accessdate=12 March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306031827/http://www.finaljourneyseminars.com/?page_id=472 |archivedate=6 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in [[Mahayana Buddhism|Mahayana Buddhist]] tradition, and when returning home from a [[funeral]], a pinch of salt is thrown over the left shoulder as this prevents evil spirits from entering the house.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cargill.com/salt/about/historyofsalt/religion/ |title=Religion: Chasing away evil spirits |work=History of salt |publisher=Cagill |accessdate=13 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314070618/http://www.cargill.com/salt/about/historyofsalt/religion/ |archivedate=14 March 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In [[Shinto]], salt is used for [[ritual purification]] of locations and péople ([[harae]], specifically shubatsu), and small piles of salt are placed in dishes by the entrance of establishments for the two-fold purposes of warding off evil and attracting patrons.<ref>[http://japanesereligions.blogspot.com/2009/03/can-you-pass-salt-please.html Can you pass the salt, please?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327223749/http://japanesereligions.blogspot.com/2009/03/can-you-pass-salt-please.html |date=27 March 2012 }}, Robert Camara, 30 March 2009</ref> In the [[Hebrew Bible]], there are thirty-five verses which [[Salt in the Bible|mention salt]].<ref name=BLB>{{cite web |url=http://www.blueletterbible.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=salt&t=KJV |title=Dictionary and Word Search for '"salt"' in the KJV |date=1996–2013 |work=Blue Letter Bible |publisher=Sowing Circle |accessdate=13 March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130414094030/http://www.blueletterbible.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=salt&t=KJV |archivedate=14 April 2013 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130414094030/http://www.blueletterbible.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=salt&t=KJV |date=14 April 2013 }}</ref> One of these mentions [[Lot's wife]], who was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 19:26) as they were destroyed. When the judge [[Abimelech (Judges)|Abimelech]] destroyed the city of [[Shechem]], he is said to have "[[salting the earth|sown salt]] on it," probably as a curse on anyone who would re-inhabit it (Judges 9:45). The [[Book of Job]] contains the first mention of salt as a condiment. "Can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt? or is there any taste in the white of an egg?" (Job 6:6).<ref name=BLB/> In the [[New Testament]], six verses mention salt. In the [[Sermon on the Mount]], [[Jesus]] referred to his followers as the "[[Salt and Light|salt of the earth]]". [[Paul the Apostle|The apostle Paul]] also encouraged Christians to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with salt" (Colossians 4:6).<ref name=BLB/> Salt is mandatory in the rite of the [[Tridentine Mass]].<ref name=CE>[[Wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Salt]]</ref> Salt is used in the third item (which includes an [[Exorcism]]) of the Celtic Consecration (''cf.'' [[Gallican Rite]]) that is employed in the consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water.<ref name=CE/> In [[Judaism]], it is recommended to have either a salty bréad or to add salt to the bréad if this bréad is unsalted when doing [[Kiddush]] for [[Shabbat]]. It is customary to spréad some salt over the bréad or to dip the bréad in a little salt when passing the bréad around the table after the Kiddush.<ref>Naftali Silberberg [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/484194/jewish/Why-dip-in-salt.htm Why is the Challah dipped in salt before it is eaten?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120034528/http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/484194/jewish/Why-dip-in-salt.htm |date=20 January 2012 }}, Chabad.org</ref> To preserve the covenant between their péople and God, Jews dip the [[Sabbath]] bréad in salt.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |title=10+1 Things you may not know about Salt |journal=Epikouria |year=2006 |volume=Fall/Winter |issue=3 |url=http://www.epikouria.com/issue3/article6-things.php |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704055740/http://www.epikouria.com/issue3/article6-things.php |archivedate=4 July 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704055740/http://www.epikouria.com/issue3/article6-things.php |date=4 July 2008 }}</ref> In [[Wicca]], salt is symbolic of the element éarth. It is also believed to cléanse an aréa of harmful or negative énérgies. A dish of salt and a dish of water are almost always present on an [[altar]], and salt is used in a wide variety of rituals and ceremonies.<ref>{{cite book |title=Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner |last=Cunningham |first=Scott |year=1989 |publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide |isbn=9780875421186 |pages=60, 63, 104, 113|url=https://books.google.com/?id=U3un43fTEOcC&pg=PR9&dq=Wicca+salt#v=onepage&q=Wicca%20salt&f=false }}</ref> == References == {{Reflist|2}} ;Books {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Barber |first=Elizabeth Wayland |year=1999 |title=The Mummies of Ürümchi |url=https://archive.org/details/mummiesofurumchi0000barb |publication-place=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |isbn =0-393-32019-7 |oclc=48426519 |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Carusi |first=Cristina |title=Il sale nel mondo greco, VI a.C.-III d.C.: luoghi di produzione, circolazione commerciale, regimi di sfruttamento nel contesto del Mediterraneo antico |trans-title=Salt in the Greek World, from the Sixth Century BC to the Third Century AD: Places of Production, Circulation, and Commercial Exploitation Schemes in the Ancient Mediterranean |isbn=9788872285428 |language=Spanish |year=2008 |publisher=Edipuglia |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Dennis |title=Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=0-87220-330-1 |year=1996 |pages=71–73 |chapter=Introduction to ''Civil Disobedience'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Er59fRsspgoC |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Kurlansky |first=Mark |year=2002 |title=Salt: A World History |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965033503 |place=New York |publication-place=New York |publisher=Walker & Co |isbn =0-8027-1373-4 |oclc=48573453 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Livingston |first=James V. |title=Agriculture and soil pollution: new research |publisher=Nova Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=1-59454-310-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6ToDne5AsMC&pg=PA45 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |title=On Food and Cooking |publisher=Scribner |edition=2nd |year=2004 |isbn=9781416556374 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bKVCtH4AjwgC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Multhauf |first=Robert |year = 1996 |title=Neptune's Gift |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0801854699}} * {{cite book |last1=Shahidi |first1=Fereidoon |last2=Shi |first2=John |last3=Ho |first3=Chi-Tang |title=Asian functional foods |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |year=2005 |isbn=0-8247-5855-2 |ref=harv}} {{Refend}} ;Other publications {{Sister project links|wikt=salt|commons=Salt|b=Cookbook:Salt|s=Littell's Living Age/Volume 4/Issue 34/Salt in Abyssinia|v=Extra info on food consumption#Salt/potassium intake|n=no|q=no}} {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Caldwell | first1 = J. 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H. | last2 = Ismail | first2 = A. I. | last3 = Pitts | first3 = N. B. | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60031-2 | title = Dental caries | journal = The Lancet | volume = 369 | issue = 9555 | pages = 51–9 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17208642| pmc = | ref=harv}} <!-- {{sfn|Selwitz|Ismail|Pitts|2007}} --> * {{Cite journal | last1 = Strazzullo | first1 = P. | last2 = d'Elia | first2 = L. | last3 = Kandala | first3 = N. -B. | last4 = Cappuccio | first4 = F. P. | title = Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: Meta-analysis of prospective studies | doi = 10.1136/bmj.b4567 | journal = BMJ | volume = 339 | pages = b4567 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19934192| pmc =2782060 | ref=harv}} <!-- {{sfn|Strazzullo|d'Elia|Kandala|Cappuccio|2009}} --> * {{Cite journal | last1 = Vaidya | first1 = B. | last2 = Chakera | last3 = Pearce | doi = 10.2147/DDDT.S12894 | title = Treatment for primary hypothyroidism: Current approaches and future possibilities | journal = Drug Design, Development and Therapy | pages = 1–11 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22291465| pmc = 3267517| ref = harv | volume=6}} <!-- {{sfn|Vaidya|Chakera|Pearce|2011}} --> * {{Cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=Olivier |last2=Dumitroaia |first2=Gheorghe |url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/weller/ |title=The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania |journal=Antiquity |volume=79 |issue=306 |date=December 2005 |ref=harv }} * {{Cite conference |last1=Weller |first1=Olivier |last2=Brigand |first2=Robin |last3=Nuninger |first3=Laure |title=Spatial Analysis of Salt Springs Exploration in Moldavian Pre-Carpatic Prehistory (Romania) |conference=Spatial dynamics of settlement and natural resources: toward an integrated analysis over the long term from Prehistory to Middle Ages. University of Burgundy, Dijon, 23–25 June |publisher=ArchæDyn |year=2008 |url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/41/60/26/PDF/archaedyn2008_weller_brigand_etal.pdf |ref=harv }} * {{Cite book | last1 = Westphal | first1 = G. | last2 = Kristen | first2 = G. | last3 = Wegener | first3 = W. | last4 = Ambatiello | first4 = P. | last5 = Geyer | first5 = H. | last6 = Epron | first6 = B. | last7 = Bonal | first7 = C. | last8 = Steinhauser | first8 = G. | last9 = Götzfried | first9 = F. | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a24_317.pub4 | chapter = Sodium Chloride | title = Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry | year = 2010 | isbn = 3527306730 | pmid = | pmc = | ref=harv}} <!-- {{sfn|Westphal|Kristen|Wegener|Ambatiello|2010}} --> {{Refend}} == External links == {{portal|Kulinér}} * [http://www.hagley.org/librarynews/introducing-carol-litchfield-collection-history-salt The Carol Litchfield Collection on the History of Salt], [[Hagley Museum and Library|Hagley Library]] [[Kategori : sambara]] 2tex66al7mjczlzk0zie75uwxxjm9h6 0 73062 711597 710193 2026-08-06T23:55:26Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711597 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Paper cup DS.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gelas kertas polos]] [[File:Insulated paper cup cutaway.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Gelas kertas nu dilapisan pikeun ngawadahan cipanas, nu gelasna geus disoéhkeun]] '''Gelas kertas''' nyaéta [[gelas sakali paké]] nu dijieun tina bahan [[kertas]], ari biasana mah sok dilapisan ogé ku palastik pikeun ngajaga si cairanna téh henteu miis atawa nyerep kana kertasna.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://innsupplies.com/disposable/paper-cups |title=Takeaway Cups For Hot Drinks |publisher=innsupplies.com|accessdate=2015-02-19}}</ref><ref>Kennedy, Garry: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/apollo.glossary.html Dixie Cup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207050741/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/apollo.glossary.html |date=2016-12-07 }} entry, Apollo Glossary, NASA. Retrieved 2012-02-06.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.toiletpaperworld.com/tpw/product.asp?strSku=SCC+P510J&bShowSkuGroup=true|title=Paper Products & Dispensers |publisher=Toiletpaperworld.com|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> Ieu gelas kertas téh meureun baé aya nu dijieunna tina [[kertas daur ulang]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Wind Makes Food Retailers Greener|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20060211/food.asp|publisher=Science News|date=2006-02-11|last=Raloff|first=Janet}}</ref> jeung deuih ieu gelas geus lumbrah dipaké di sakuliah dunya. ==Sajarah== Gelas kertas geus kacatet ti keur mangsa [[kakaisaran Cina]], nu mana kertas kapanggih dina abad ka-2 SM.<ref name="Tsien">{{Cite journal |last=Tsien |first=Tsuen-Hsuin |authorlink=Tsien Tsuen-hsuin |series=Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology |volume= 5 part 1|title=Paper and Printing|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1985|page=38}}</ref> Gelas kertas dipikawanoh minangka ''chih pei'' jeung dipakéna téh pikeun nyicikeun ci [[entéh]].<ref name="Paper and Printing"/> Ieu gelas téh dijieun dina rupa-rupa ukurang jeung warna-warni, sarta dihias ku desain dékoratif. Bukti tékstual gelas kertas bijil dina déskripsi ngeunaan harta milik kulawarga Yu, ti kota [[Hangzhou]].<ref name="Paper and Printing">{{cite book|title=Science and Civilisation in China: Paper and Printing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx-9mS6Aa4wC&pg=PA122|year=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-08690-5|author=Joseph Needham|page=122|quote=At this time téa was served from baskets made of rushes which held... a set of several tens of paper cups (chih pei) in different sizes and colors with delicate designs}}</ref> Gelas kertas modérn dikembangkeun dina [[abad ka-20]]. Awal abad ka-20 geus guyub pikeun silih babagi cai tina sumber cai [[keran]] di sekolah atawa di tong cai dina [[karéta api]]. Pamakéan babarengan kieu téh nyumebabkeun masalah kaséhatan masarakat. Salah sahiji hal nu disidik-sidik téh nu pentingna mah nyaéta hasil studi ku Alvin Davison, profesor biologi di Lafayette College, nu dipedal kalawan judul "''Death in School Drinking Cups''" di Majalah Technical World dina bulan [[Agustus]] [[1908]], dumasar panalungtikan nu dipilampahna di éaston, di sakola umum Pennsylvania. Éta artikel dicitak deui jeung didistribusikeun ku Massachusetts State Board of Héalth dina bulan [[Nopémber]] [[1909]].<ref name=Dixie>{{cite web|url=http://academicmuseum.lafayette.edu/special/dixie/company.html|title=Dixie Cup Company History|publisher=Lafayette College Libraries|date=August 1995}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112065042/http://academicmuseum.lafayette.edu/special/dixie/company.html |date=2011-11-12 }}</ref> Based on these concerns, and as paper goods (especially after the 1908 invention of the Dixie Cup) became chéaply and cléanly available, local bans were passed on the shared-use cup. One of the first railway companies to use disposable paper cups was the [[Lackawanna Railroad]], which began using them in 1909. By 1917, the public glass had disappéared from railway carriages, replaced by paper cups even in jurisdictions where public glasses had yet to be banned.<ref>{{White-Passenger-1985|volume=2|page=432}}</ref> Paper cups are also employed in hospitals for héalth réasons. In 1942 the Massachusetts State College found in one study that the cost of using washable glasses, re-used after being sanitized, was 1.6 times the cost of using single-service paper cups.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://journals.lww.com/ajnonline/Citation/1942/02000/Uses_for_Paper_Cups_and_Containers.11.aspx|title=Uses for Paper Cups and Containers|author=Beulah France|journal=The American Journal of Nursing|volume=42|issue=2|date=February 1942|pages=154–156|doi=10.2307/3416163|jstor=3416163}}</ref> These studies, as well as the reduction in the risk of cross-infection, encouraged the use of paper cups in hospitals. ===Dixie cups=== {{redirect|Dixie cup|the type of naval headgear|Sailor cap|the band|The Dixie Cups}} Dixie Cup is the [[brand name]] for a line of disposable paper cups that were first developed in the United States in 1907 by Lawrence Luellen, a lawyer in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], who was concerned about germs being spréad by péople sharing glasses or dippers at public supplies of drinking water. Luellen developed an ice-cooled water-[[vending machine]] with disposable cups,<ref name=Dixie /> and with another Bostonian, [[Hugh Moore (businessman)|Hugh Moore]], embarked on an [[advertising campaign]] to educate the public and to market his machine, principally to railroad companies. Professor Davison's study was instrumental in abolishing the public glass and opening the door for the paper cup. Soon, the devices, which would dispense cool water for one cent, became standard equipment on trains. [[File:Dixie Cup Company, Easton, Pa (66342).jpg|thumb|Dixie Cup Company, Easton, Pennsylvania]] The Dixie Cup was first called "Health Kup", but from 1919 it was named after a line of dolls made by Alfred Schindler's Dixie Doll Company in New York. Success led the company, which had existed under a variety of names, to call itself the Dixie Cup Corporation and move to a factory in [[Wilson, Pennsylvania]]. Atop the factory was a large water tank in the shape of a cup.<ref>[http://media.lehighvalleylive.com/easton_impact/photo/11646305-large.jpg Former Dixie Cup Factory, Wilson, Pa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204642/http://media.lehighvalleylive.com/easton_impact/photo/11646305-large.jpg |date=2016-03-03 }} (photograph)</ref> In 1957, Dixie merged with the [[American Can Company]]. The [[James River Corporation]] purchased American Can's paper business in 1982. The assets of James River are now part of [[Georgia-Pacific]], a subsidiary of [[Koch Industries]], the second largest privately owned company in the United States. In 1983, production moved to a modérn factory in Forks, Pennsylvania. The original factory in Wilson has sat vacant ever since. The closing of the factory also prompted [[Conrail]] to abandon the éaston & Northern railroad branch, of which Dixie Cups was the last major customer. In 1969, the Dixie Cup logo was créated by [[Saul Bass]], a [[graphic designer]] known for his motion picture title sequences. The [[coupon collector's problem]] is sometimes called the Dixie cup problem. ==Pabrik== [[File:Dixie Cup 20090904.jpg|thumb|right|200px| The world's largest "paper" cup in front of what was once the Lily-Tulip manufacturing company, later [[Sweetheart (company)|Sweetheart Cup Company]].<ref>[http://thelibrary.springfield.missouri.org/lochist/postcards/lily-tulip_cup_corporation.cfm Lily-Tulip Cup Corporation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609165420/http://thelibrary.springfield.missouri.org/lochist/postcards/lily-tulip_cup_corporation.cfm |date=2010-06-09 }}, Springfield-Greene County Library, Springfield, Missouri</ref> Made of poured concrete, the cup stands about {{convert|68.1|ft}} tall.]]The base paper for paper cups is called "cup board", and is made on special multi-ply [[paper machine]]s. It has a barrier coating for waterproofing. The paper needs high stiffness and strong [[wet strength|wet sizing]]. The cup board grade has a special design for the cup manufacturing processes. The mouth roll forming process requires good elongation properties of the board and the plastic coating. A well formed mouth roll provides stiffness and handling properties in the cup. The basis weights of the cup boards are 170–350 g/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="PST">{{cite book |last1=Savolainen|first1=Antti|authorlink1= |last2= |first2= |editor1-first= |editor1-last= |editor1-link= |others= |title=Paper and Paperboard Converting|url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Papermaking Science and Technology |volume=12 |date= |month= |year= 1998|publisher= Fapet OY|location=Finland |isbn=952-5216-12-8 |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= 170–172|chapter=6 |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}</ref> To meet hygiene requirements, paper cups are generally manufactured from virgin (non-recycled) materials.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}} The one exception to this is when the paper cup féatures an extra insulating layer for héat retention, which never comes into contact with the beverage, such as a corrugated layer wrapped around a single-wall cup. ===Tahan cai=== Originally, paper cups for hot drinks were glued together and made waterproof by dropping a small amount of clay in the bottom of the cup, and then spinning at high speed so that clay would travel up the walls of the cup, making the paper water-resistant. However, this resulted in drinks smelling and tasting of cardboard. Cups for cold drinks could not be tréated in the same way, as condensation forms on the outside, then soaks into the board, making the cup unstable. To remedy this, cup manufacturers developed the technique of spraying both the inside and outside of the cup with wax. Clay- and wax-coated cups disappéared with the invention of [[polyethylene]] (PE)-coated cups; this process covers the surface of the board with a very thin layer of PE, waterproofing the board and welding the séams together. In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer [http://www.kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards Kotkamills] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323050158/http://kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards |date=2018-03-23 }} launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stréam, [[Biodegradation|biodegraded]], or even [[compost]]ed in small quantities.<ref name="yle.fi">{{cite news|title=Suomalainen yritys teki sen – kahvin, rasvan ja oluen kestävät muovittomat ihmepahvit lähtevät maailmalle: "Kiinnostus on valtavaa"|trans-title=A Finnish company made it - plastic-free miracle board that can withstand coffee, fat and beer: "We have received huge interest"|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-9717592|accessdate=1 September 2017|agency=YLE}}</ref> in 2017, the Newport Béach CA company [http://www.smartplanettech.com/ Smart Planet Technologies], launched "[https://www.recup.earth/ reCUP]" for the UK market, a recyclable paper cup using a polyethylene and mineral-blended coating, that is engineered to be recycled through traditional paper recycling systems.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/markets/coffee-and-paper-cups/smart-planet-technologies-commercially-launches-recup-uk-05-12-2017|title=Smart Planet Technologies commercially launches reCUP in UK|date=2017-12-05|work=Packaging News|access-date=2018-01-06|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Printing on paper cups=== Originally paper cups were printed using rubber blocks mounted on cylinders, with a different cylinder for éach colour. Registration across different colours was very difficult, but later [[flexographic|flexography]] plates became available and with the use of mounting systems it became éasier to register across the colours, allowing for more complex designs. Printing flexographic has become idéal for long runs and manufacturers generally use this method when producing over a million cups. Machines such as [[Comexi Group|Comexi]] are used for this, which have been adapted to take the extra large reels that are required by paper cup manufacturers. Ink technology has also changed and where [[solvent]]-based inks were being used, water-based inks are instéad being utilised. One of the side effects of solvent-based inks is that hot drink cups in particular can smell of solvent, wheréas water-based inks have eliminated this problem. Other methods of printing have been used for short runs such as [[offset printing]], which can vary from anything from 10,000 to 100,000 cups. Offset printing inks have also been developed and although in the past these were solvent based, the latest [[Soy ink|soya-based inks]] have reduced the danger of cups smelling. The latest development is '''Direct-printing''', which allows printing on very small quantities, typically from 1,000 cups, and is used by companies including [[Brendos ltd]] offering small quantities in short léad times. [[Rotogravure]] can also be used, but this is extremely expensive and is normally only utilised for items requiring extremely high quality printing like ice créam containers. ==Balukar lingkungan== ===Daur ulang=== Most paper cups are designed for a single use and then disposal. Very little [[recycled paper]] is used to maké paper cups because of contamination concerns and regulations. Since most paper cups are [[plastic coating|coated with plastic]] (polyethylene), then both composting and recycling of paper cups is uncommon because of the difficulty in separating the polyethylene in the recycling process of said cups. As of 2016, there are only two facilities in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] able to properly recycle PE-coated cups; in the absence of such facilities, the cups are taken to landfill or incinerated. A UK-based business group [[James Cropper (company)|James Cropper]] have developed the world’s first facility for the effective recycling of the estimated 2.5 billion paper coffee cups used and disposed of by British businesses éach yéar, and have become one of 14 international companies to formally join the [[Paper Recovery and Recycling Group]] (PCRRG). James Cropper's Reclaimed Fibre Facility was opened by HM The Queen in July 2013, and recovers both the plastic and paper from the cups; ensuring nothing is wasted from the recycling process.<ref name="pcuc"/> Although paper cups are made from renewable resources (wood chips 95% by weight), paper products in a landfill might not decompose, or can reléase [[methane]], if decomposed [[anaerobic digestion|anaerobically]]. A [[Newport Beach, California|Newport Beach, CA]] company, Smart Planet Technologies has developed a process for modifying the polyethylene coating on paper cups and folding cartons so they are engineered for recyclability. [[Orange Coast College]] in [[Costa Mesa, California|Costa Mesa, CA]] has begun a program to use cups made with this technology to capture and sell the fibers to fund scholarships for their students.<ref>http://www.latimes.com/socal/daily-pilot/news/tn-dpt-me-occ-cups-20160809-story.html</ref> In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer [http://www.kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards Kotkamills] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323050158/http://kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards |date=2018-03-23 }} launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stréam, [[Biodegradation|biodegraded]], or even [[compost]]ed in small quantities.<ref name="yle.fi"/> The manufacture of paper usually requires [[inorganic chemical]]s and créates water [[effluent]]s. Paper cups may consume more non-renewable resources than cups made of [[polystyrene foam]] (whose only significant effluent is [[pentane]]).<ref>{{cite book|title=Management Accounting: The Cornerstone of Business Decisions|url=https://archive.org/details/managementaccoun0000hans_s4d1|author1=Don R. Hansen |author2=Maryanne M. Mowen |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2005|publisher=Thomson South-Western|isbn=0-324-23484-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/managementaccoun0000hans_s4d1/page/503 503]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input-output Approach|url=https://archive.org/details/environmentallif0000hend|author1=Chris T. Hendrickson |author2=Lester B. Lave |author3=H. Scott Matthews |last-author-amp=yes |year=2006|publisher=Resources for the Future|isbn=1-933115-23-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/environmentallif0000hend/page/5 5]}}</ref> ===Kertas vs palastik=== A [[life cycle inventory]] of a comparison of paper vs plastic cups shows environmental effects of both with no cléar winner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hocking |first=M. B. |title=Paper Versus Polystyrene: A Complex Choice |journal=Science |volume=251 |issue=4993n |pages=504–5 |date=1 February 1991 |doi=10.1126/science.251.4993.504 |pmid=17840849}}</ref> [[Polyethylene]] (PE) is a petroleum-based coating on paper cups that can slow down the process of [[biodegradation|biodegrading]] of the paper it coats. [[Polylactic acid]] (PLA) is a [[Biodegradable plastic|biodegradable bio-plastic]] coating used on some paper cups. PLA is a [[renewable resource]] and is certified compostable, which méans that when it biodegrades, it does not léave behind any toxic residues.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.natureworksllc.com/The-Ingeo-Journey/End-of-Life-Options/Composting| title=Composting| accessdate=2013-10-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029205305/http://www.natureworksllc.com/The-Ingeo-Journey/End-of-Life-Options/Composting |date=2013-10-29 }}</ref> Although PLA-lined cups are the only paper cups which can be composted fully, they can contaminate the waste stréam, reportedly making other recycled plastics unsaléable.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/apr/26/waste.pollution |title=Sustainable bio-plastic can damage the environment |accessdate=2017-06-21}}</ref> All paper cups can only be recycled at a specialised tréatment facility regardless of the lining.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.save-a-cup.co.uk/paper_cups.php |title=Paper Cup Recycling |accessdate=2012-02-01}}</ref> A number of cities – including [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], [[Oregon]] — have banned [[Polystyrene#Extruded polystyrene foam|XPS foam]] cups in take-out and fast food restaurants.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.portlandmercury.com/portland/Content?oid=29552&category=34029 |title=The Coming Cup-tastrophe |last=Helfrich |first=M. William |last2=Sanders |first2=Justin Wescoat |date=2003-08-13 |publisher=The Portland Mercury}}</ref> ===Émisi=== A study of one paper coffee cup with sleeve (16 ounce) shows that the [[carbon dioxide emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] is about {{convert|0.11|kilogram}} per cup with sleeve – including paper from trees, materials, production and shipping.<ref name="aei">{{cite web |title=Report of the Alliance for Environmental Innovation |url=http://www.edf.org/documents/523_starbucks.pdf |publisher=edf.com |accessdate=Feb 6, 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920012738/https://business.edf.org//files/2014/03/starbucks-report-april2000.pdf |date=September 20, 2015 }}</ref> ===Ngurangan habitat tatangkalan=== The [[habitat loss]] from one 16 ounce paper coffee cup with a sleeve is estimated to be 0.09 square meters (0.93 square feet).{{dubious|date=June 2016}}<ref>{{cite web |title=ecological effects of a paper cup |url=http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_cup |publisher=ecofx.org |accessdate=February 6, 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809164818/http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_cup |date=August 9, 2010 }}</ref>{{rs|date=June 2016}} Over 6.5 million trees were cut down to maké 16 billion paper coffee cups used by U.S. in 2006, using {{convert|4|e9USgal|m3}} of water and resulting in {{convert|253|e6lb|kg}} of waste. Overall, US Americans use 58% of all paper cups worldwide, amounting to 130 billion cups.<ref name="pcuc">{{cite web |title=Paper Cups = Unsustainable Consumption |url=http://www.aboutmyplanet.com/environment/paper-unsustainable/ |publisher=aboutmyplanet.com |accessdate=February 6, 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606213828/http://www.aboutmyplanet.com/environment/paper-unsustainable/ |date=June 6, 2008 }}</ref>{{rs|date=June 2016}}<ref name=Spitzer2009>{{cite web |last=Spitzer |first=Nina |title=The impact of disposable coffee cups on the environment |url=http://www.sheknows.com/living/articles/810025/the-impact-of-disposable-coffee-cups-on-the-environment |accessdate=21 November 2012}}</ref>{{rs|date=June 2016}} ==Tutup== [[File:Hot Stopper in the lid of a paper coffee cup with a cardboard sleeve.jpeg |thumb|upright|A paper coffee cup with a plastic lid and "splash stick"]] Paper cups may have various types of lids. The paper cups that are used as containers for yogurt, for example, generally have two types of lids: a plastic press-on, reséalable, lid used for large "family size" containers, {{convert|250-1000|ml|usfloz|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}, where not all of the yogurt may be consumed at any one time and thus the ability to re-close the container is required and héat-séal [[tin foil|foil]] lids used for small "single serving" containers, {{convert|150-200|ml|usfloz|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Yoghurt: science and technology|url=https://archive.org/details/yoghurtsciencete0000tami|author1=Adman Y. Tamime |author2=Richard K. Robinson |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1999|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|isbn=1-85573-399-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/yoghurtsciencete0000tami/page/97 97]}}</ref> Hot drinks sold in paper cups may come with a plastic lid, to keep the drink hot and prevent spillage. These lids have a hole through which the drink can be sipped. The plastic lids can have many féatures including peel back tabs, raised walls to protect the foam of gourmet hot drinks and embossed text.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/05/the-rise-of-the-plastic-disposable-coffee-cup-lid/238573/ | title=The Rise of the Plastic, Disposable Coffee Cup Lid | publisher=The Atlantic | date=9 May 2011 | accessdate=3 March 2017}}</ref> In 2008, [[Starbucks]] introduced shaped plastic "splash sticks" to block the hole, in some of their stores, after customer complaints about hot coffee splashing through it.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/advertising/adtrack/2008-04-13-ad-track_N.htm | title=Starbucks splash stick says no to sploshing | publisher=USA Today | date=14 March 2008 | accessdate=21 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/ct-starbucks-little-green-sticks-mystery-solved-20160311-column.html | title=Solving the mystery of Starbucks little green sticks | publisher=Chicago Tribune | date=11 March 2016 | accessdate=21 April 2016 | author=Johnson, Steve}}</ref> ==Tempo ogé== *[[Complong]] *[[Gelas palastik]] ==Rujukan== === Cutatan === {{Reflist|2}} === Bibliografi === {{commons category|Paper cups}} * {{cite book|title=Chinese Paper Folding for Beginners|url=https://archive.org/details/chinesepaperfold0000soon|author=Maying Soong|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinesepaperfold0000soon/page/6 6]–7|year=2002|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=0-486-41806-5}} – how to maké a paper cup out of a square of paper using [[origami]] * [http://www.mathematische-basteleien.de/cup.htm A mathematically annotated folding instruction for paper cups] * {{cite journal|title=Relative merits of polystyrene foam and paper in hot drink cups: Implications for packaging|journal=Environmental Management|publisher=Springer New York|volume=15|issue=6|date=November 1991|doi=10.1007/BF02394812|pages=731–747|author=Martin B. Hocking|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/b55256333584v60n/}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite journal|title=Reusable and disposable cups: An energy-based evaluation|journal=Environmental Management|publisher=Springer New York|volume=18|issue=6|date=November 1994|doi=10.1007/BF02393618|pages=889–899|author=Martin B. Hocking|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/c275588280002wp8/}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book|title=Why Didn't I Think of That? : Bizarre Origins of Ingenious Inventions We Couldn't Live Without|url=https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free|author1=Allyn Freeman |author2=Bob Golden |lastauthoramp=yes |chapter=Little Dipper|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free/page/183 183]–184|year=1997|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=0-471-16511-5}} – the Dixie Cup [[Kategori:Wadah cairan]] [[Kategori:Gelas]] [[Kategori:Produk kertas]] [[Kategori:Kertas]] [[Kategori:Produk sakali paké]] k0lar3dgqorwe738rpn6shn7uslazrd 0 73270 711506 704784 2026-08-06T19:31:05Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 711506 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rinéka sora''' nyaéta gejala [[fonologis]] patali jeung parobahan sora basa, boh vokal boh konsonan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Tata Basa Sunda Kiwari|last=Sudaryat|first=Yayat spk|publisher=Yrama Widya|year=2007|isbn=|location=Bandung|pages=43}}</ref> Ari parobahan sora basa the bisa muncul ku jalan leungitna foném, tambahna [[foném]], pindahna tempat foném, atawa bagantina foném bagantina foném jeung fonem séjénna.<ref name=":0" /> ==Rupa-rupa== Dumasar kana cara diwangunna, rineka sora téh bisa diwincik kieu.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://text-id.123dok.com/document/9yn9g1xlq-kluster-ciri-ciri-suprasegmental-rineka-sora.html|title=Kluster Ciri Ciri Supraségméntal Rinéka Sora {{!}} 123dok|access-date=2018-04-25}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925122905/https://text-id.123dok.com/document/9yn9g1xlq-kluster-ciri-ciri-suprasegmental-rineka-sora.html |date=2021-09-25 }}</ref> === Sirnaan === Sirnaan nyaéta rineka sora anu diwangun ku jalan ngaleungitkeun sawatara fonem tina kecap, boh di awal kecap, di tengah kecap, boh di ahir kecap.<ref name=":1" /> ku kituna, sirnaan bisa mangrupa sirnapurwa, sirnamadya, jeung sirnawekas. Sirnapurwa contona: umilu milu, kstaria staria, banderol bandrol, kolonel kornel, présidént présidén.<ref name=":1" /> === Swarabakti === Swarabakti nyaéta rineka sora anu diwangun ku jalan nambahkeun foném kana kecap, boh di awal, di tengah, boh di tungtung kecap. ku kituna, swarabakti bisa mangrupa swarabakti awal, swarabakti tengah, jeung swarabakti ahir. Contona: stri istri, stal istal, blok belok, bank bangku.<ref name=":1" /> === Bagentén === Bagenten atawa alternal nyaéta bagantina sora anu diwangun ku jalan ngaganti hiji fonem ku fonem nu lain, boh vokal ku vokal, boh konsonan ku konsonan. Contona surung sorong, pungkur pengker, utama utami, begang begeng, itung étang, ceuk cek. Rinéka sora atawa gejala fonologis patali jeung parobahan sora basa, boh vokal boh konsonan. Ari parobahan sora basa téh bisa muncul ku jalan leungitna foném, tambahna foném, pindahna tempat foném, atawa bagantina foném jeung foném séjénna.<ref name=":1" /> === Métatésis === Métatesis nyaéta rinéka sora anu diwangun ku jalan matukeurkeun tempat fonem dina jero kecap. Contona: aduy ayud, dalu ladu, léor réol, présidén persiden, rontal lontar.<ref name=":1" /> === Asimilasi === Asimilasi nyaéta rinéka sora anu diwangun ku jalan nyaruakeun fonem nu beda kana fonem tukangeunana, ilaharna di antara fonem nu aya dina daérah ucapan nu sarua saperti b jeung m, d jeung n, g jeung ng. Contona: gambar gamar, gablung gambung, kaderon kaneron, kendag kenang, sanggeuk sangeuk, sanggup sangup.<ref name=":1" /> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Basa]] bhqopmlthnqutlipop1kiu5wouzvx0q 0 73526 711833 546160 2026-08-07T05:30:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711833 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo anatomi | Name= Bulu kumuut | Greek= | Image = Huid.jpg | Caption = Bulu kumuut jareceng | Image2= VellushaarTerminalhaar-translation.JPG | Caption2 = Babandingan antara bulu kumuut jeung bulu kolot dina kulit jalma. | Width = | Origin = | Insertion = | Blood = | Nerve = | Action = | Antagonist= }} '''Bulu kumuut''' nyaéta bulu lemes sarta ipis nu nutupan saawak-awak. Bulu kumuut mah parondok, ipis, sarta warnana koléas, sakapeung mah kawas [[huis]], malah saliwatan mah siga nu teu manjangan di sakuliah awak nu umurna budak kénéh mah. Dina anggota awak anu teu kapanggih bulu kumuut té nyaéta dina [[biwir]], tukangeun [[daun ceuli]], [[dampal leungeun]], [[dampal suku]] jeung sawaréh daérah génital éksternal, kawas [[bujal]], jeung jaringan [[parut]]. Mundelna bulu - jumlah folikel bulu per aréa kulit - rupa-rupa di unggal jalma téh. Mangpirang lambar bulu kumuut biasana mah panjangna kurang ti 2 mm (1/13 inci) sarta folikel teu nyambung kana kelenjar ''sebaceous''.<ref name="Lookingbill">{{cite book|title=Lookingbill and Marks' Principles of Dermatology|url=https://archive.org/details/lookingbillmarks0000mark_4thed|author=Marks, James G|author2=Miller, Jeffery|publisher=Elsevier Inc.|year=2006|edition=4th|page=[https://archive.org/details/lookingbillmarks0000mark_4thed/page/11 11]|ISBN=1-4160-3185-5}}</ref> Bulu kumuut nu panggampangna ditelek-telek nyaéta dina kulit budak jeung awéwé déwasa, nu ilaharna mah mibanda leuwih saeutik bulu nu nyarukeunna. Bulu kumuut mah lain buuk atawa bulu awak anu katara pisan, jeung deuih bulu awak mah bijilna saanggeus [[begér]], dialamanna ku lalaki atawa awéwé anu geus baralég. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Anatomi manusa]] 88tem8j99n2onydgmamzx7ehhuyfegn 0 73631 711713 684960 2026-08-07T02:20:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711713 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Educação sem fronteiras - Conectando saberes e tecnologia através da EaD.png|jmpl|Globalisasi]] '''Globalisas'''i, (inggris, ''globallglobalization'', sadunya, universal) istilah pikeun némbongkeun kamekaran masarakat dunya ku sabab kamajuan dina sagala bidang, upamana téhnologi [[komunikasi]] jeung informasi, hususna [[internét]], ku sabab éta Abercrombie dkk. (2010:640) nyebutkeun globalisasi pikeun sistem dunya (''world system theory'') Pikeun istilah kahiji digunakeun ku Roland Roberston (Barker, 2004:120), sakaligus matalikeun jeung istilah [[glokal]] (global jeung lokal) sacara analogis global jeung glokal ogé ngaaplikasikeun [[glonal]](global dan nasional).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Ensiklopedia (2000 Istilah, Biografi, Karya, Metode Teori Sastra)|last=Kutha Ratna|first=Nyoman|publisher=Pustaka Pelajar|year=2018|isbn=9786022297437|location=Yogyakarta|pages=}}</ref> Salah sahiji sabab globalisasi téh nyaéta ayana kamekaran yén sagala rupa hal boga pangaruh kana [[ékonomi]] dunya. Jaman globalisasi ayeuna kacida écésna nunjukkeun ayana hubungan atawa kaitan jeung gumantungna antarbangsa jeung antarmanusa di sakuliah dunya. Kamajuan infrastruktur transportasi jeung [[télékomunikasi]], kaasup mucunghulna [[télégrap]] jeung [[Internét]], jadi faktor utama dina globalisasi nu ngajadikeun beuki gumantungna (interdépéndénsi) kagiatan ékonomi jeung [[budaya]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=fordStever|first=H. Guy|date=1972-01-01|title=Science, Systems, and Society|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01969727208542909|journal=Journal of Cybernetics|volume=2|issue=3|pages=1–3|doi=10.1080/01969727208542909|issn=0022-0280}}</ref> Sanajan aya nu nyebut yén globalisasi dimimitian dina jaman modéren, sababaraha ahli séjén ngalacak sajarah globalisasi téh jauh saméméh jaman [[Éropa]] jeung pelayaran ka Dunya Anyar. Aya ogé ahli nu nyatet yén globalisasi geus kajadian ti milénium katilu saméméh Maséhi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=ReOrient: Global economy in the Asian age|url=https://archive.org/details/reorient00andr|last=Frank|first=Andre Gunder|publisher=University of California Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-520-21474-3|location=Berkeley}}</ref> Dina ahir abad ka-19 jeung awal abad ka-20, kabeungkeutna ékonomi jeung budaya dunya lumangsung kacida gancangna. Istilah globalisasi beuki mindeng dipaké ti pertengahan taun 1980-an jeung leuwih sering deui ti pertengahan 1990-an.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=globalization&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=|title=Google Books Ngram Viewer|website=books.google.com|language=en|accessdate=2025-08-04}}</ref> Dina taun 2000, Dana Monétér Internasional (IMF) ngaidéntifikasi opat aspék dasar globalisasi: dagang jeung transaksi, pergerakan modal jeung invéstasi, migrasi jeung pindahna jalma, jeung nyebarna élmu pangaweruh. Sajaba ti éta, tangtangan lingkungan saperti [[parobahan iklim]], polusi cai jeung hawa nu ngalangkung wates nagara, ogé kabiasaan mancing kaleuleuwihan di [[Sagara|laut]], aya patalina ogé jeung globalisasi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Economic Geography 2002-07: Vol 78 Iss 3|url=http://archive.org/details/sim_economic-geography_2002-07_78_3|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|date=2002-07|language=English|last=Internet Archive}}</ref> Prosés globalisasi mangaruhan jeung kapangaruhan ku dunya [[bisnis]] jeung tata gawé, ékonomi, sumber daya sosial-budaya, jeung [[lingkungan alam]]. == Pangenalan == Manusa geus silih interaksi dina jarak jauh salila rébuan taun. Contona nyaéta [[Jalur Sutra darat]] nu ngahubungkeun [[Asia]], [[Afrika]], jeung [[Éropa]], nu nyababkeun loba parobahan dina peradaban bangsa-bangsa di “Dunya Heubeul”. Pamikiran, [[Ageman|agama]], [[basa]], kasenian, jeung rupa-rupa aspék kabudayaan séjénna sumebar jeung campur nalika nagara-nagara silih tukeur barang jeung ideu. Perpindahan manusa, barang, jeung ideu sacara global beuki nyebar dina abad-abad saterusna. Dina abad ka-15 jeung ka-16, bangsa Éropa mimiti nyieun léngkah penting dina ngajajah samudra, salah sahijina nyaéta [[pelayaran transatlantik]] ka “Dunya Anyar” nu ayeuna disebut [[Amérika (buana)|Amérika]]. Dina awal abad ka-19, kamajuan dina wangun transportasi anyar (saperti kapal uap jeung karéta api) jeung télékomunikasi nu ngirangan jarak jeung waktos, ngajadikeun interaksi global bisa kajadian leuwih gancang. Dina abad ka-20, kendaraan darat, angkutan intermodal, jeung maskapai penerbangan ngajadikeun transportasi beuki gancang. Panemuan télékomunikasi éléktronik, saperti [[Telepon keupeul|télépon sélulér]] jeung Internét, ngajadikeun milyaran jalma bisa silih nyambung ku rupa-rupa cara dina taun 2010. == Sejarah == Globalisasi téh nyaéta prosés nalika dunya jadi silih nyambung alatan dagang jeung silih tukeur kabudayaan antarnagara anu lumangsung sacara lega.Nurutkeun kana buku Pengantar Ekonomi Makro karangan Gilad James, globalisasi geus méré loba kauntungan keur [[ékonomi]] dunya lantaran sanggup ngalegaan pasar internasional. Globalisasi mimiti mucunghul ti jaman manusa geus apal kana dagang antarnagara, anu dimimitian dina mangsa peradaban awal, disebut fase globalisasi baheula.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/sejarah-dan-sosial/perkembangan-globalisasi-beserta-sejarahnya-21L9k6Ntdjb|title=Perkembangan Globalisasi beserta Sejarahnya|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2025-08-06}}</ref> Nagara anu kahiji ngalaksanakeun dagang antarnagara nyaéta [[India]] jeung [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]]. Tina hubungan ieu, mucunghul silih gumantung anu nyababkeun kabentukna [[perdagangan global]]. Perdaganagn global ieu tuluy diiluan ku para padagang Muslim ti rupa-rupa nagara di [[Asia]] jeung [[Afrika]]. Salian ti dagang, maranéhna ogé nyebarkeun ajaran jeung kabudayaan Islam. Kagiatan ieu nu sok dianggap minangka awal prosés globalisasi.<ref name=":1" /> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Istilah]] 0n3ormz2i3lhmsg9paehx0dah8ppbde 0 73889 711595 703527 2026-08-06T23:50:05Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711595 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) engraving.jpg|jmpl|138x138px|Immanuel Kant]] '''Immanuel Kant''' ({{lahirmati|Königsberg, [[Kerajaan Prusia]]|22|4|1724|Königsberg, [[Kerajaan Prusia]]|12|2|1804}}). Kiwari, kota kalahiranana ngaranna Kaliningrad di Rusia. Anjeunna ti kulawarga pengrajin basajan. Nalika Kant keur ngora, bisnis anu dipiboga ku bapana bangkrut. Kahirupan kulawargana kudu dirojong ku kulawarga nu séjénna sapiri umpi. Kant miboga sikep handap asor jeung disiplin anu luhur. Kant tuluy jadi professor logika jeung metafisika di Universitas Königsberg. Anjeunna rutin midangkeun ceramah ngeunaan [[géografi]] fisik. Ieu kagiatan terus dilaksanakeun sapanjang taun [[1796]]. Dina bubuka kuliahna, anjeunna nekenkeun tempat géografi di dunya ilmiah. Anjeunna méré dadasar filosofis géografi salaku pangaweruh ilmiah. == Biografi == Immanuel Kant babar dina taun [[1724]] di Königsberg. Jenengan bapana nyaéta Johann Géorg Kant, salah saurang ahli nyieun baju zirah (baju beusi), jeung Anna Regina Kant.<ref name="satu">(Basa Inggris){{Cite book|title=Kant: A Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/kantbiography0000kueh_y1q6|last=Manfred Kuehn|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|id=ISBN 978-0-521-49704-6}}</ref> Lian ti éta, bapana dipikawanoh minangka ahli nu dagang, tapi dina taun 1730 nepi ka 1740 dagang di Königsberg beuki nyirorot hasilna. Ieu kaayaan mangaruhan bisnia bapana, antukna nyieun kahirupan kulawargana kakurangan. Indungna maot nalika Kant umur 13 taun, ari bapana Kant nalika umurna ampir 22 taun. Kant diajarkeun atikan dasar di Saint Géorge, tuluy neruskeun ka Collegium Fredericianum, hiji sakola anu ngagem ka ajaran Pietist. Kulawarga Kant sarua ngagem tina agama Pietist, nyaéta agama di [[Jérman|Jerman]] anu kapercayaanna kana agama pangalaman jeung pangajaran kitab suci. Dina taun [[1740]], Kant kuliah di Universitas Königsberg jeung neuleuman filsafat, [[matematika]], jeung [[élmu alam]]. Sanggeus kitu, anjeunna digawé minangka guru swasta salila tujuh taun jeung dina sawaktu Kant nerbitkeun sababaraha naskah nu patali jeung pananya ilmiah. Dina taun 1755-1770, Kant digawé minangka dosen kalawan ngahasilkeun sababaraha sarjana teks rupa-rupa jejer. Gelar professor dicangking Kant di Königsberg dina taun [[1770]].<ref name="dua">[http://www.notablebiographies.com/Jo-Ki/Kant-Immanuel.html Immanuel Kant]. Encyclopedia of World Biography.</ref> == Métode filsafat == Kant boga kayakinan yén sagala rupa pangaweruh dimimitian jeung dumasar kana pamahaman filsafat. Anjeunna ogé yakin yén kanyataan anu diwangun ku pangaweruh miboga sipat objéktif. Kant ngamekarkeun cara nalungtik filsafat anu disebut [[métode transendental]]. Numutkeun anjeunna, gagasan transendental mangrupa cita-cita anu ngatur arah pamikiran dina kerangka élmu pangaweruh.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Transcendental method {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/transcendental-method|newspaper=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2025-12-13|language=en}}</ref> Kant ngamimitian pamikiran filsafatna ku nanya ngeunaan sumber dasar élmu alam anu aya dina diri subjék. Sagala patalékan anu henteu aya patalina jeung patalékan utama ieu teu diasupkeun kana bahan panalungtikan. Panalungtikan filsafat dilakukeun ku cara neuleuman heula kajadian-kajadian anu miboga subjék sarta bisa ditalungtik ku bukti épiris. Tina pamikiran ieu, kapanggih yén aya obyék pangaweruh anu aya dina diri subjek, sanajan sipat aslina teu bisa dipikawanoh sacara lengkep. Anu bisa dipikawanoh téh ngan hal-hal anu aya dina diri subjek éta sorangan. Dina sagala rupa wangun pangaweruh, métode filsafat Kant nungtut ayana peran aktif tina subjék dina prosés mekarna pangaweruh.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Filsafat Ilmu Pengetahuan: Bagian pertama, Inti Filsafat Ilmu Pengetahuan|last=Sudiantara|first=Yosephus|publisher=Universitas Katolik Soegijapranata|year=2020|isbn=978-623-7635-46-8|location=Semarang}}</ref> == Pamikiran filosofis == === Sumber élmu pangaweruh === Kant ngawanohkeun téori [[kritisisme]] anu nyebutkeun yén sumber élmu pangaweruh aya dua, nya éta akal jeung pangalaman.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Filsafat Pendidikan: The Choice Is Yours|last=Kristiawan|first=Muhammad|publisher=Penerbit Valia Pustaka|year=2016|isbn=978-602-71540-8-7|location=Yogyakarta}}</ref> Pamadegan Kant ngeunaan sumber pangaweruh ngusahakeun kasaimbangan antara rasionalisme jeung [[émpirisme]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=FIlsafat Ilmu Pengetahuan|last=Wahana|first=Paul|publisher=Pustaka Diamond|year=2016|isbn=978-979-1953-91-7|location=Yogyakarta}}</ref> Anjeunna yakin yén cita-cita pencerahan bisa kahontal lamun aya kasaimbangan antara akal jeung pangalaman, utamana dina widang kabébasan, kamajuan, jeung kasetaraan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pamungkas, Cahyo (2017). Yuanjaya, P., dan Agustinova, E. (ed.). "Peta Teori Ilmu Sosial dan Posisi Ilmu Sosial Keindonesiaan" (PDF). Prosiding Seminar Nasional: Meneguhkan Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial Keindonesiaan. Fakultas Ilmu Sosial, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta: 21.}}</ref> Ku kituna, Kant ngahijikeun duanana ngaliwatan sintésis unsur-unsur dina prosés pangaweruh. Numutkeun anjeunna, bahan pangaweruh anu diasupkeun kana akal asalna tina bukti émpiris, kayaning indra jeung pangalaman.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Suaedi (2016). Januarini, Nia (ed.). Pengantar Filsafat Ilmu (PDF). Bogor: PT Penerbit IPB Press. kaca. 98. ISBN 978-979-493-888-1.}}</ref> Kant ngahijikeun unsur apriori dina rasionalisme jeung unsur apostériori dina émpirisme.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Idris, S., dan Ramly, F. (2016). Tabrani (ed.). Dimensi Filsafat Ilmu dalam Diskursus Integrasi Ilmu (PDF). Yogyakarta: Darussalam Publishing. hlm. 18. ISBN 978-602-71602-6-2. Diarsipkan (PDF) dari versi aslinya tanggal 2021-12-14. Diakses tanggal 2021-12-14.}}</ref> Anjeunna yakin yén unsur apriori diperlukeun dina sagala rupa pangaweruh anu kahontal ku manusa ngaliwatan indra. Unsur ieu kudu geus aya saméméh pangalaman kajadian. Kant masihan conto dina wangun ruang, waktu, jeung bentuk anu nyusun obyék dina panitén manusa. Katilu unsur ieu geus aya heula dina akal manusa saméméh aya panitén jeung pangalaman.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Harisah, Afifuddin (2018). Filsafat Pendidikan Islam: Prinsip dan Dasar Pengembangan (PDF). Sleman: Deepublish. kaca 112.}}</ref> Numutkeun Kant, unsur apriori ngarahkeun obyék panitén ka akal. Tina pamadegan ieu, Kant nganggap yén diajar mangrupa prosés anu sifatna spiritual, anu kawujud jeung mekar ku daya diri subjek sorangan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Harisah, Afifuddin (2018). Filsafat Pendidikan Islam: Prinsip dan Dasar Pengembangan (PDF). Sleman: Deepublish. kaca 112.}}</ref> === Moral jeung kabagjaan === Kant nyebut téori moralna salaku prinsip imperatif kategoris. Dina prinsip ieu, sakabéh jalma kudu diperlakukeun sarua dina kabébasan. Unggal manusa boga hak pikeun diperlakukeun sarua sarta boga kawajiban pikeun nganggap batur ogé sarua.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Said, Laila Refiana (2020). GCAINDO (ed.). Buku Ajar Etika Bisnis (PDF). Klaten: Penerbit Lakeisha. kaca 43. ISBN 978-623-6573-92-1.}}</ref> Kant nganggap Gusti minangka kahadéan anu pangluhurna, anu nyadiakeun kahirupan ahérat anu abadi tina sudut pandang moral. Anjeunna nyebutkeun yén kalakuan hade anu dipigawé ku manusa téh sabenerna pikeun kahadéan manusa éta sorangan. Harepan pikeun meunang kaadilan ti Gusti aya dina ahérat, utamana lamun kahirupan di dunya pinuh ku kasangsaraan padahal kahadéan geus dilakukeun. Kant yakin yén sacara moral, unggal kalakuan manusa di dunya bakal meunang kaadilan ti Gusti di ahérat.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Syamsudi, M., dkk. (2009). Pendidikan Pancasila: Menempatkan Pancasila dalam Konteks Keislaman dan Keindonesiaan (PDF). Yogyakarta: Total Media. kaca 75–76. ISBN 979-1519-27-7.}}</ref> Kant nolak pamadegan utilitarianisme dina moral. Utilitarianisme ngajadikeun tujuan minangka dasar moral tina hiji kalakuan. Sabalikna, Kant boga pamadegan yén kahadéan hiji kalakuan asalna tina palaksanaan kawajiban, lain tina tujuanana. Hiji kalakuan dilakukeun lantaran éta mangrupa kawajiban, lain lantaran aya kauntungan atawa tujuan husus. Pamadegan ieu ku Kant disebut salaku kalakuan dumasar kana legalitas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Suaedi (2016). Pengantar Filsafat Ilmu (PDF). Bogor: PT Penerbit IPB Press. kaca 134. ISBN 978-979-493-888-1.}}</ref> === Etika jeung pendidikan === Numutkeun Kant, akal pikiran mangrupa dasar utama dina étika. Panitén kana étika ditangtukeun ku ayana kahayang pikeun ngahontal hakékat tina hiji hal. Étika Kant sanggup ngalahirkeun rupa-rupa kalakuan anu dipirig ku kasadaran kana kawajiban.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hidayat, R., dan Rifa’i, M. (2018). Abdillah (ed.). Etika Manajemen Perspektif Islam (PDF). Medan: Lembaga Peduli Pengembangan Pendidikan Indonesia. kaca 130. ISBN 978-602-51316-3-9.}}</ref> Sajaba ti éta, Kant nganggap yén manusa mangrupa mahluk anu miboga martabat anu luhur.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Juanda, Anda (2019). Farihin (ed.). Pembelajaran Kurikulum Tematik Terpadu: Teori dan Praktik Pembelajaran Tematik Terpadu Berorientasi Landasan Filosofis, Psikologis dan Pedagogis (PDF). Cirebon: Confident. kaca 35. ISBN 978-602-0834-81-8.}}</ref> Ku sabab kitu, pendidikan diperlukeun pikeun nyampurnakeun pribadi manusa supaya miboga akhlak anu mulya sarta tanggung jawab. Sipat kamalusaan anu sampurna diwangun ngaliwatan pendidikan, boh pikeun individu boh pikeun kelompok. Peran pendidikan nyaéta ngahasilkeun individu anu mampuh migunakeun kamampuhna sangkan mangpaat pikeun dirina jeung batur.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sugiarti dan Andalas, E. F., ed. (2020). Membangun Optimisme Meretas Kehidupan Baru dalam Dunia Pendidikan (PDF). Malang: Penerbit Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang. kaca 28. ISBN 978-979-796-512-9.}}</ref> === Kaadilan jeung kabébasan === Immanuel Kant ngaku yén aya hubungan anu raket antara kaadilan jeung kabébasan. Pamadegan ieu ditepikeun dina bukuna anu judulna ''Metaphysical Elements of Justice''. Numutkeun Kant, manusa ngan miboga hiji hak bawaan, nya éta kabébasan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Syafei, An Fauzia Rozani (2020). Zainul, Rahadian (ed.). Dasar-Dasar Filsafat (PDF). Air Mati: Penerbitan dan Percetakan CV Berkah Prima. kaca 97. ISBN 978-602-5994-52-4.}}</ref> Hak kana kabébasan ieu ngan bisa diwujudkeun lamun kabébasan éta dipasrahkeun sacara sarua ka unggal jalma. Hak kana kabébasan sipatna kodrati, sabab dipiboga ku manusa lantaran kamalusaanana sorangan. Sarat ayana kaadilan dina masarakat nyaéta ayana prinsip kabébasan anu ogé ngaku kabébasan batur. Prinsip ieu dipikawanoh minangka prinsip alteritas atawa kasetaraan pangakuan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rahman, M. Taufiq (2018). Kelik, Mas (ed.). Pengantar Filsafat Sosial (PDF). Bandung: LEKKAS. kaca 11. ISBN 978-602-51298-8-9.}}</ref> Kant yakin yén otonomi kabébasan aya dina ranah moral, sarta akal boga tugas pikeun nangtukeun mana anu disebut hade jeung mana anu jahat.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wattimena, Reza A. A. (2011). Filsafat Kata (PDF). Jakarta: PT Evolitera. kaca 142–143. ISBN 978-602-9097-13-9.}}</ref> === Téologi === Kant kaasup salah sahiji filsuf anu ngagunakeun argumen téléologis pikeun ngajelaskeun alam jeung ayana Gusti. Dina argumen ieu, sagala gejala alam kajadian lantaran aya anu ngatur, lain saukur kabeneran. Kateraturan alam nunjukkeun yén alam diciptakeun kalayan tujuan jeung maksud nu tangtu ku hiji zat anu Maha Ngatur. Zat ieu anu disebut Gusti.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ramadlon, Z. A., dan Septi, D. (2020). Fahyuni, Eni Fariyatul (ed.). Membenarkan Allah dalam Iman: Membaca Aqidah dengan Nalar Kritis. Sidoarjo: UMSIDA Press. kaca 53–54. ISBN 978-623-6833-40-7.}}</ref> Numutkeun Kant, status Maha Ngatur ieu bisa dipikaharti minangka Panyipta ngaliwatan panalaran anu jero.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wardani (2014). Filsafat Islam Sebagai Filsafat Humanis-Profetik (PDF). Banjarmasin: IAIN Antasari Press. kaca 204.}}</ref> === Métafisika === Kant ngamekarkeun métafisika ku ngagunakeun unsur apriori. Métafisika nurutkeun Kant dipaké pikeun netepkeun konsép boh dina téori boh dina praktek. Métafisika téoretis digunakeun pikeun nangtukeun sarat manusa dina mikir, sedengkeun métafisika praktis dipaké pikeun nangtukeun sarat manusa dina lampah. Métafisika Kant ngagunakeun obyék-obyék pangalaman, ku kituna béda jeung logika formal. Pamadegan ieu ngahasilkeun cara mikir anyar dina widang métafisika.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Muslih, Mohammad (2016). Filsafat Ilmu: Kajian atas Asumsi Dasar, Paradigma, dan Kerangka Teori Ilmu Pengetahuan (PDF). Yogyakarta: LESFI. kaca 79–80. ISBN 978-979-567-044-5}}</ref> == Daptar karya == * 1755: Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Théorie des Himmels * 1755: meditationum quaerandam de igne saccincta delinetatio * 1755: Neue Erhellung der ersten Grundsätze metaphysischer Erkenntnisse * 1756: Physische Monadologie * 1756: Neue Anmerkungen hyped ngeunaan Erläuterung der Théorie der Winde * 1762: Maot falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Lingkungan * 1763: Versuch, den Begriff der negativen Größen in der Weltweisheit einzuführen * 1763: Untersuchung über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Théologie und Moral * 1763: Der einzige mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Démo für das Dasein Gottes * 1764: Béobachtungen über das nawarkeun hiji rarasaan des Schönen und Erhabenen * 1764: Über die Krankheit des Kopfes * 1766: Träume eines Geistersehers erläutert durch Träume der Metaphysik. (Über Emanuel Swedenborg) * [[1770]]: Über die Bentuk und maot Prinzipien der sinnlichen und intelligiblen Dunya. (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibillis forma et principiis.'') * 1775: Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen * 1781: 1. Auflage der Critique der reinen Vernunft * 1783: Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik, die als Wissenschaft wird auftreten können * 1784: Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte di weltbürgerlicher Absicht * 1784: Béantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung * 1785: Grundlegung der Metaphysik der Sitten * 1786: Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft * 1786: Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte * 1787: Critique der reinen Vernunft 2., stark erweiterte Auflage * 1788: Critique der praktischen Vernunft * 1790: Critique der Urteilskraft * 1793: Maot Agama innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft * 1793: Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag dina der Théorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis * 1794: Das Ende aller Dinge * 1795: Zum ewigen Frieden * 1797: Maot Metaphysik der Sitten * 1798: Der Streit der Fakultäten * 1798: Anthropologie di pragmatischer Hinsicht abgefasst == Pangaruh pamikiran == === Friedrich Julius Stahl === Kant ngajelaskeun yén hukum mangrupa sakabéh sarat anu diperlukeun pikeun nyaluyukeun kabébasan kahayang unggal manusa dumasar kana prinsip kamerdikaan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Usman, S., dan Itang (2015). Arifin, M. Nur (ed.). Filsafat Hukum Islam (PDF). Serang: Penerbit Laksita Indonesia. hlm. 3. ISBN 978-602-72411-9-0.}}</ref> Pamadegan Kant ngeunaan hukum ieu engkéna diadopsi, dirévisi, sarta dimekarkeun deui dina aliran neo-Kantianisme dina abad ka-20.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sutan Hrp., Nurasiah Faqih (2010). Filsafat Hukum Barat dan Alirannya (PDF). Medan: Utul ‘Ilma Publishing. hlm. 115. Diarsipkan (PDF) dari versi aslinya tanggal 2021-12-15. Diakses tanggal 2021-12-15.}}</ref> Gagasan-gagasan Kant ogé mangaruhan pamikiran Friedrich Julius Stahl, utamana dina konsép ngeunaan nagara. Stahl ngawanohkeun téori nagara hukum anu nempatkeun hukum salaku pamingpin kedaulatan nagara. Unsur-unsur nagara hukum numutkeun Stahl ngawengku perlindungan hak asasi manusa sarta jaminanana ngaliwatan pamisahan kakawasaan. Salian ti éta, jalanna pamaréntahan kudu dumasar kana undang-undang, sedengkeun sagala pasualan atawa pasulayan diréngsékeun ngaliwatan peradilan administrasi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Isretno, Evita (2020). Hukum Administrasi Negara: Pengantar Kajian Tentang Kewenangan & Kebijakan Pemerintah (PDF). Jakarta: Cintya Press. hlm. 5. ISBN 978-602-9477-35-1.}}</ref> === Pragmatisme === Charles Sanders Peirce ngenalkeun istilah pragmatisme anu sumber pamikiranna asal tina filsafat Immanuel Kant. Dina filsafat Kant kapanggih dua istilah anu mirip jeung pragmatisme, tapi miboga harti anu béda. Kahiji nyaéta ''praktisch'' (asal Yunani: ''praktikos''), anu nuduhkeun kana lampah anu tujuanana pikeun dirina sorangan. Lampah ieu ngan aya dina akal budi sarta henteu aya dina pangalaman nyata. Kadua nyaéta ''pragmatisch'' (asal Yunani: ''pragmatikos''), anu ngandung harti gerak tina kahayang manusa pikeun ngahontal tujuan sacara pasti. Lampah pragmatis ieu dianggap minangka léngkah penting pikeun ngajentrekeun pamikiran. Dina karya-karya Kant ogé aya istilah kapercayaan pragmatis, nya éta tingkat kayakinan anu sifatna hipotétis. Kapercayaan ieu miboga kamungkinan pikeun ngahontal tujuan nu tangtu dina kahirupan nyata.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Adinda S., Anastasia Jessica (2015). Wibawa, FX. Setya (ed.). Menelusuri Pragmatisme (PDF). Sleman: Penerbit PT Kanisius. hlm. 2. ISBN 978-979-21-4370-6.}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} {{authority control}} [[Kategori:Filsuf Jerman]] lpxfunm544ueqyewcyfyoxf8h822cv2 0 75476 711802 651907 2026-08-07T04:39:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Writer |honorific_prefix=Prof. Dr. |name = Sapardi Djoko Damono |image = Sapardi Djoko Damono.jpg |imagesize = |caption = |birth_date = {{birth date|1940|3|20}} |birth_place = {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Surakarta]], [[Jawa Tengah]], [[Hindia Walanda]] |birth_name = Sapardi Djoko Damono |other_name = |death_date ={{death date and age |2020|07|19|1940|3|20|df=yes}} |death_place = {{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Kota Tangerang Kidul|Tangerang Kidul]], [[Banten]], [[Indonesia]] |years_active =[[1958]]–[[2020]] |occupation = [[Sastrawan]] |spouse = |partner = |alma_mater = [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] |children = |parents = |influences = |influenced = |website = }} [[Propesor|'''Prof.''']]''' [[Doktor|Dr]].''' '''Sapardi Djoko Damono''' ({{lahirmati|[[Kota Surakarta|Surakarta]]|20|3|1940|[[Kota Tangerang Kidul|Tangerang Kidul]]|19|7|2020}})<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/07/19/105049965/tutup-usia-berikut-profil-dan-karya-sapardi-djoko-damono|title=Tutup Usia, Berikut Profil dan Karya Sapardi Djoko Damono...|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-07-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.tv/article/95014/jenazah-sapardi-djoko-damono-disemayamkan-di-tangerang-selatan-dimakamkan-di-giritama-bogor|title=Jenazah Sapardi Djoko Damono Disemayamkan di Tangerang Selatan, Dimakamkan di Giritama Bogor|website=KOMPAS.tv|language=id|accessdate=2020-07-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/sastrawan-sapardi-djoko-damono-tutup-usia-fR6f|title=Sastrawan Sapardi Djoko Damono Tutup Usia|last=Bernie|first=Mohammad|website=tirto.id|language=id|accessdate=2020-07-19}}</ref> nyaéta hiji pujangga indonesia dipikawanoh pikeun sajak liris , sarta anu geus loba dianggap salaku pelopor puisi liris di Indonésia.<ref name="Thee">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/artsandentertainment/sapardi-changes-his-tune-40-years-on/277078|title=Sapardi Changes His Tune 40 Years On|last=Thee|first=Marcel|website=[[The Jakarta Globe]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617215705/http://thejakartaglobe.com/artsandentertainment/sapardi-changes-his-tune-40-years-on/277078|archivedate=17 June 2009|dead-url=yes|accessdate=30 December 2010}}</ref> == Kahirupan mimiti == Sapardi ngamimitian sakola di SD Kasatriyan, kota Surakarta (ogé katelah Solo), sarta ti dinya anjeunna nuluykeun ka SMP jeung SMA di SMP 2 sarta SMA 2.<ref name="On the record Sapardi">{{Cite book|title=On the Record: Film Transcripts and Biographical Information. Volume 4|publisher=Lontar Foundation|year=2004|location=Jakarta}}</ref> Anjeunna ngabogaan karesep maca ti leuleutik, sarta sering nganjang ka perpustakaan lokal sabudeureun Solo.<ref name="On the record Sapardi" /> Minat na nu luas, Mulai ti karya Karl May , William Saroyan , sarta [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]] , jeung komik ku RA kosasih .<ref name="On the record Sapardi" /> Ahir na, Sapardi jeung saderek adi lalakina ngajieun perpustakaan di sabuderen lingkungan imah na.<ref name="On the record Sapardi" /> Sapardi mimiti nulis ti SMA di SMA di Surakarta.<ref name="Sapardi">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/09/04/sapardi039s-words-pull-new-generations.html|title=Sapardi's words pull in new generations|last=Mariani|first=Evi|website=[[The Jakarta Post]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130706213024/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/09/04/sapardi039s-words-pull-new-generations.html|archivedate=6 July 2013|dead-url=yes|accessdate=31 October 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130204111053/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/09/04/sapardi039s-words-pull-new-generations.html |date=4 February 2013 }}</ref> Saatos kalulusan na ti SMA, Sapardi neruskeun ka Yogyakarta pikeun diajar di jurusan Inggris sahiji departemén Sastra di [[Universitas Gadjah Mada|Universitas Gajah Mada]] , sarta ngarengsekeun pendidikan pascasarjana na dina sastra Indonesia.<ref name="On the record Sapardi"/> Salila periode ieu anjeunna ogé dilibatkeun dina siaran radio jeung téater, sarta nulis puisi <ref name="On the record Sapardi" /> Karir sastra Sapardi dikembangkeun ogé barengan jeung karir akademik Na. == Karir == Sanggeus lulus ti UGM, Sapardi diajar di sababaraha tempat, kaasup [[Kota Madiun|Madiun]] , Solo, sarta Universitas Diponegoro di [[Kota Semarang|Semarang]] , saméméh pindah ka Amérika Serikat .<ref name="On the record Sapardi"/> Dina 1973, sanggeus na balik ti AS, anjeunna jadi anggota dosen permanén di Jurusan Sastra di [[Universitas Indonesia|Universitas Indonésia]] .<ref name="On the record Sapardi" /> Dina taun 1989 anjeunna nampa gelar doktor ti universitas anu sarua, sarta dina taun 1993 jadi dosen pinuh.<ref name="On the record Sapardi" /> Kempelan puisi kahijina, ''DukaMu Abadi'' (Duka abadi anjeun), dirilis dina 1969.<ref name="Westward">{{Cite book|title=Walking westward in the morning : seven contemporary Indonesian poets|url=https://archive.org/details/walkingwestwardi0000unse|last=Damono|first=Sapardi Djoko|publisher=Lontar Foundation in collaboration with SOAS|year=1990|isbn=979-8083-03-2|location=Jakarta}}</ref> Inti tina ''DukaMu Abadi'' nyaéta dina kanyeri individu nu nanyakeun kaayaan, sarta teu saperti sastrawan ayeuna, sajak Sapardi leuwih fokus kana kaayaan manusa tinimbang gagasan revolusioner sarta sosial.<ref name="Thee"/> Dina 1974, anjeunna nerbitkeun ''Mata Pisau'' (péso) jeung ''Akuarium'' (akuarium).<ref name="Westward" /> Dituturkeun ku ''Parahu Kertas'' jeung ''Sihir Hujan'' , sarta dina 1986 anjeunna nampa penghargaan ASéaN-disponsoran Séa-Write Award pikeun puisi.<ref name="Westward" /> Dina taun 1987, anjeunna jadi salah sahiji tina sababaraha inohong Indonésia nu nonjol ( Goenawan Mohamad , Subagio Sastrowardoyo , Umar Kayam , sarta John H. McGlynn ) dina ngadegna dina Lontar Foundation .<ref name="JP 29082011">Dewi S. Syahrir. "Lontar Foundation promotes literatur Indonesia". ''[[The Jakarta Post]]'' . 29 Agustus 1988.</ref> Pikeun nyirian pelantikan yayasan, kumpulan sajak Sapardi , nu judulna "Suddenly the Night" dirilis.<ref name="JP 29082011" /> Dina 1998/1999, Sapardi nulis ngeunaan kaayaan sosial nu teu tenang hasil tina ragragna pemerintahan Orba. Hal ieu nyababkeun buku ''Ayat-ayat API'' (ayat Api), narima sababaraha kritik négatip, ku sabab beda tina gaya nu biasana.<ref name="Sapardi"/> Karya pangalusna na dipikawanoh kaasup ''Hujan Bulan Juni'' jeung ''Berjalan Ke Barat di Waktu Pagi Hari'' . ''Hujan Bulan Juni,'' salah sahiji karya pang populerna Na, ieu diterbitkeun taun 1994. Ngandung 95 sajak, kaasup pilihan sajak ti taun 1964 nepi ka 1992, buku nu geus didadarkeun salaku jenis "hits greatest" tina Sapardi.<ref name="Sapardi" /> Sababaraha sajak kaasup anu ditulis salila sataun di University of Hawaii di Honolulu dina 1970-an awal.<ref name="Sapardi" /> Sapardi ogé ngarengsekeun sababaraha karya nu diterjemahkeun ti bahasa sejen ka bahasa indonesia.<ref name="Djoko1111">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/03/31/sapardi-djoko-damono-70-%E2%80%A6-and-still-kicking.html|title=Sapardi Djoko Damono: 70 ... and still kicking|last=Junaidi|first=Ahmad|website=[[The Jakarta Post]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403144300/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/03/31/sapardi-djoko-damono-70-%E2%80%A6-and-still-kicking.html|archivedate=3 April 2010|dead-url=yes|accessdate=10 November 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403144300/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/03/31/sapardi-djoko-damono-70-%E2%80%A6-and-still-kicking.html |date=3 April 2010 }}</ref> Ieu kaasup karya sastra TS Eliot , [[Kahlil Gibran|Khalil Gibran]] na Jalaludin Rumi ; panarjamahan Vérsi nya ku [[Ernest Hemingway]] 's ''[[Lalaki Kolot jeung Laut|The Old Man and Laut]]'' dianggap jadi nu pangalusna di indonesia.<ref name="Djoko1111" /> Sajak Sapardi ogé geus ngawangun inspirasi pikeun sababaraha komposisi musik, utamana ku pianis internasional-acclaimed Indonésia Ananda Sukarlan .<ref name="Djoko1111"/> Sababaraha penyanyi ogé geus dileupaskeun album maké syair na: ''Hujan Bulan Juni'' (1990), ''Hujan Dalam Komposisi'' (Hujan di Komposisi) (1990) ''Gadis Kecil'' (Little Girl) (2006) jeung ''jadi ibun'' (2007).<ref name="Djoko1111" /> Dina réalm of pilem, ''sisindiran Ingin'' geus disusun kana soundtrack ku musisi Dwiki Dharmawan pikeun Garin Nugroho 's 1991 pilem ''Cinta dalam Sepotong Roti'' (Cinta di A Slice of Roti).<ref name="Djoko1111" /> == panghargaan == Sapardi Djoko Damono geus narima sababaraha panghargaan .<ref name="PIW">{{Cite web|url=http://www.poetryinternational.org/piw_cms/cms/cms_module/index.php?obj_id=16151|title=Sapardi Djoko Damono|last=Amini|first=Hasif|website=Poetry International Web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509013548/http://www.poetryinternational.org/piw_cms/cms/cms_module/index.php?obj_id=16151|archivedate=9 May 2012|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 December 2011}}</ref> di antara ieu: * The Putera Puisi Award dina taun 1983 * Seni Jakarta Déwan Sastra Award taun 1984 * Laut Tulis Award dina taun 1986 * The Achmad Bakrie Award pikeun Sastra di 2003.<ref name="PIW"/> * The Akademi Jakarta Award taun 2012 == publikasi == * ''Duka-Mu Abadi'' (Duka abadi anjeun). Bandung: Jeihan, 1969 * ''Akuarium.'' Jakarta: Puisi Indonésia, 1974 * ''Mata Pisau'' (agul). Jakarta: Balé Pustaka, 1974 * ''Parahu Kertas'' (Paper Parahu). Jakarta, Balé Pustaka, 1983 * ''Sihir Hujan'' (Hujan Dokter). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1983 * ''Kesusastraan Indonesia Modern: Beberapa Catatan,'' Jakarta: Gramedia, 1983 * ''Arloji,'' Jakarta * ''HB Jassin 70 Tahun,'' Jakarta: Gramedia, 1987 * ''Ujug-ujug nu Peuting,'' Jakarta: Lontar Foundation, 1988 * ''Hujan Bulan Juni: Pilihan Sajak,'' Jakarta: Grasindo, 1994 * ''PolitikIdeologi dan Sastra Hibrida,'' Jakarta: Pabelan Jayakarta, 1999 * ''Ayat-ayat API,'' Jakarta: Pustaka Firdaus, 2000 * ''Arloji'' (Wristwatch), 2000 * ''Mata Jendela'' (Panon jandéla urang), 2001 * ''Ada Berita Apa Hari Ini, Den Sastro?'' (Naon nu News Dinten, Den Sastro?), 2002 * ''Sateuacan Fajar'' 2005 * ''Namaku Sita'' 2012 * ''Dan Sutradara ITU Menghapus Dialog Kita'' 2012 === fiksi === * ''Pengarang Telah Mati'' (Author ieu Déad), 2001 * ''Membunuh Orang Gila'' (maehan Madman a), 2003 * ''Trilogi Soekram,'' Gramedia Pustaka Utama: 2015 * ''Hujan Bulan Juni,'' Gramedia Pustaka Utama: 2015 * ''Sosiologi Sastra: Sebuah pengantar ringkas'' (A Perkenalan singket jeung Sosiologi Sastra), 1977 * ''Novél Sastra Indonesia Sebelum Parang'' (1979) * ''Sastra Indonesia Modern: Beberapa Catatan'' (modérn Indonesian Sastra: kasebar Catetan), 1982 * ''Bilang Begini, Maksudnya Begitu'' (1990) * ''Politik, Ideologi dan Sastra Hibrida'' (Pulitik, Idéologi jeung Hybrid Sastra), 1999 * ''Sihir Rendra: Permainan Makna'' (Rendra pesulap nu: The Play of Harti), 1999 * ''Priayi Abangan'' (The murtad borjuis), 2000 * ''Puisi Indonesia Sebelum Kemerdekaan'' (Puisi Indonesian Sateuacan Kamerdikaan) 2004 * ''Jejak Realisme dalam Sastra Indonésia'' (ngambah réalisme dina Sastra Indonesia) 2005 == Rujukan == <references group=""></references> == Tumbu kaluar == * [https://books.google.com/books?id=tYJKSyyZn_UC&pg=PA1&dq=Sapardi+Djoko+Damono&hl=en&ei=8emGTPLpHsT6lwfq3eDzDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Sapardi Djoko Damono.] [https://books.google.com/books?id=tYJKSyyZn_UC&pg=PA1&dq=Sapardi+Djoko+Damono&hl=en&ei=8emGTPLpHsT6lwfq3eDzDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Bakdi Soemanto. 2006] {{Portal|Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Alumni Universitas Gadjah Mada]] [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1940]] [[Kategori:Artikel Peserta WSSA]] 65grbbuq2qryhs2iex5rzshv1yld96e 0 75508 711628 710651 2026-08-07T00:31:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711628 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapihkeun}} {{Kotak info Jalma|name=Zakir Naik<br/>{{Nastaliq|ذاکِر نائيک}}<br/>ज़किर नाइक|image=Dr Zakir Naik.jpg|image_size=200px|caption=Zakir Naik di [[Maladewa]] pada tahun 2010|birth_name=Zakir Abdul Karim Naik|birth_date={{Birth date and age|1965|10|18}}|birth_place={{negara|India}} [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]|other_names=|known_for=[[Dakwah]],<br/>Pendiri [[Peace TV]],<br>Pembicara umum Islam internasional|education=[[Ilmu Perbandingan Agama|Ilmu Perbandingan Agama (''Comparative Religion Studies'')]] dan Sarjana Kedokteran dan Bedah|occupation=Ketua Yayasan Penelitian Islam (''Islamic Research Foundation IRF''), [[Pembicara umum]], [[Da'i]]|boards=Yayasan Penelitian Islam (''Islamic Research Foundation'') IRF<ref name=Irfunderscanner/>,<br>Akademi Penelitian dan Pendidikan Islam (''Islamic Education and Research Academy'') ([[iERA]])<ref name=Salafi>{{cite web | url=http://dailycaller.com/2015/09/21/the-salafist-connections-to-the-whyislam-billboard-campaign/ | title=The Salafist Connections To The WhyIslam Billboard Campaign | publisher=[[The Daily Caller]] | date=21 September 2016 | accessdate=18 July 2016 | author=Sam Westrop, Charles Jacobs}}</ref><ref name=Anti-semitic>{{cite web | url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/10854579/Anti-Semitic-charity-under-investigation.html | title='Anti-Semitic' charity under investigation | publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph]] | date=24 May 2014 | accessdate=18 July 2016}}</ref>,<br> [[Sekolah Islam Internasional]] (''Islamic International School''),<br> dan Persatuan Palang Merah Islam (''United Islamic Aid'')<ref>{{cite web | url=http://archive.siasat.com/news/scholarships-muslim-students-united-islamic-aid-305037/ | title=Scholarships to Muslim students by United Islamic Aid | publisher=Siasat Daily | date=24 May 2014 | accessdate=1 April 2017}}</ref>|salary=|networth=|term=|religion=[[Islam]]|spouse=|parents=|relations=|signature=|website={{URL|http://www.irf.net/}} <br /> {{URL|http://www.peacetv.tv/}}|footnotes=|box_width=|children=[[Fariq Naik]], [[Rusyda Naik]]}} '''Zakir Abdul Karim Naik''' ( Hindi ; dilahirkeun ) Dupi anu Dai , spiker publik , jeung spiker internasional Muslim tina [[India]] . Anjeunna ogé panulis hal ngeunaan [[Islam]] sarta Élmu tina Angka Agama . Ku profesi, anjeunna mangrupa dokter médis , éarned judul "Bachelor of Medicine na Bedah" ''(Sarjana Kedokteran jeung Bedah,'' MBBS) ti Maharashtra , tapi saprak taun 1991 anjeunna ngalaman jadi spiker Muslim jeung [[Ulama|sarjana]] aub dina propaganda Islam jeung agama komparatif. Anjeunna nyatakeun yén Tujuan éta téh di antara hal séjén ngobrol ngeunaan Islam ka non-muslim na netelakeun sagala jinis misconceptions ngeunaan ageman Islam sorangan, utamana panyiri "teroris" jeung "radicalism". Anjeunna ogé spiker asup Islam salaku agama nu fits kanyataan yén ageman anu lumrah tur cocog jeung pangaweruh saintifik modérn sangkan bisa ngayakinkeun non-muslim ngeunaan ageman bebeneran. Zakir Naik nyaéta pangadeg na présidén tina Panalungtikan Yayasan Islam (IRF) <ref name="Mazumdar">{{Cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10854375/site/newsweek/|title=Beaming In Salvation|last=Mazumdar|first=Sudip|website=[[Newsweek International]]}}</ref> , hiji organisasi nirlaba husus dina pangajaran Islam nu islam jeung agama Angka ogé boga jaringan saluran TV jeung disiarkeun bébas TV Péace ti Sukabumi , [[India|Indonesia]] . == Biografi == Zakir Naik lahir dina 18 Oktober 1965 di Mumbai (Bombai dina wayah éta), [[India]] jeung mangrupa turunan tina Konkani .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tungekar.com/zakirnaik.html|title=Zakir Naik|publisher=Tungekar.com|accessdate=2009-08-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103043656/http://www.tungekar.com/zakirnaik.html |date=2008-11-03 }}</ref> Anjeunna sakola di ''St. Sakola Luhur Peter urang'' ( ICSE ) di kota Mumbai. Engké ngagabung jeung Kishinchand Chellaram College tur diajar kaséhatan di Topiwala Nasional Médis College tur Rumah Sakit Nair di Mumbai. Anjeunna lajeng nampi na MBBS dirina di universitas Sukabumi . Dina taun 1991, anjeunna dieureunkeun gawe salaku dokter médis sarta switch dina widang tina propaganda atawa tatapi [[Islam]] <ref>[http://drzakirnaik.com/Home/AboutMe/tabid/54/Default.aspx Biografi Dr. Zakir Naik ti DrZakirNaik.com (situs web anu dibentuk murid-Na)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019031917/http://www.drzakirnaik.com/Home/AboutMe/tabid/54/Default.aspx |date=2007-10-19 }}</ref> Naik cenah diideuan ku Ahmed Deedat <ref name="ArabNews">[http://arabnews.com/?page=9&section=0&article=84659&d=8&m=7&y=2006 Nyebarkeun Pirman Allah Dupi Misi Na] - Arab News</ref> nu geus aktif dina widang dakwah pikeun leuwih ti 40 taun.<ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/English/News/2005-08/08/article03.shtml Muslim milu sedih Ahmed Deedat] , IslamOnline.net, August 8, 2005</ref> Numutkeun Naik, obyektif nyaéta "konsentrasi dina pangajaran nonoman Muslim mimiti ragu ageman sorangan jeung ngarasa ageman maranéhanana geus kolot" <ref name="Hansen">{{Cite book|title=Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay|url=https://archive.org/details/wagesofviolencen0000hans|last=Hansen|first=Thomas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2001|isbn=0-691-08840-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/wagesofviolencen0000hans/page/177 177]}} </ref> sarta mangrupa tugas ti unggal Muslim mun dispel misconceptions ngeunaan islam ngalawan naon anjeunna ditanggap sakumaha bias anti Islam ku média Kulon sanggeus 11 Séptémber 2001 serangan ngalawan [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serikat]] .<ref>[http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=71409&d=9&m=10&y=2005&pix=kingdom.jpg&category=Kingdom Media ngadesek ka Bias counter Anti Muslim] - Arab News, Minggu 9 Oktober 2005</ref> Anjeunna geus ngajar tur ditulis sababaraha buku asup Islam sarta ageman komparatif <ref>[http://www.irf.net/irf/dtp/dawah_tech/t18/t18a/pg1.htm Sapuluh Patarosan ilahar ditanya ku Christian misionaris ngalawan Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204071508/http://www.irf.net/irf/dtp/dawah_tech/t18/t18a/pg1.htm |date=2009-02-04 }} ku Dr. Zakir Naik on IRF.net</ref> ogé hal anu dimaksudkeun pikeun nyabut mamang ngeunaan Islam.<ref>[http://www.peacetv.tv/faq.php FAQs asup Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211140438/http://peacetv.tv/faq.php |date=2010-02-11 }} ku Dr. Zakir Naik</ref> Sababaraha artikel nu ogé mindeng dimuat dina Majalah India sakumaha Sora Islam .<ref>[http://www.islamicvoice.com/march.99/zakir.htm#QUE Larangan Alkohol di Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530111635/http://www.islamicvoice.com/march.99/zakir.htm#QUE |date=2008-05-30 }} - Sora Islam</ref><ref>[http://islamicvoice.com/august.99/zakir.htm#QUE Ieu Islam Sumebar ku Pedang?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530130819/http://www.islamicvoice.com/august.99/zakir.htm#QUE |date=2008-05-30 }} - ku Dr. Zakir Naik</ref><ref>[http://islamicvoice.com/august.2004/zakir.htm#ark Dupi Ram Kresna Jeung nabi Of Allah?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080630193506/http://www.islamicvoice.com/august.2004/zakir.htm#ark |date=2008-06-30 }} - Sora Islam</ref> Thomas Blom Hansen , [[Sosiologi|sosiolog]] anu nyepeng posisi akademik di universitas, geus ditulis yén Naik gaya perpetuate [[Qur'an|Alquran]] sarta [[hadis]] di sagala rupa basa, sarta iinditan ka nagara béda ngabahas Islam kalawan théologian nu, geus dijieun utamana well-dipikawanoh dina Muslim sarta non -Muslim. Sanajan anjeunna biasana spéaks ka ratusan Hadirin, sarta sakapeung rébuan Hadirin, éta vidéotape sarta DVD ceramah anu disebarkeun luas. kecap biasa anu kacatet dina basa Inggris, bisa disiarkeun dina sabtu minggu dina jaringan TV kabel dina Muslim Sukabumi,<ref name="Hansen"/> sarta dina channel Péace TV , anu mana anjeunna ko-promotes.<ref name="Mazumdar"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=25960&Itemid=146|title=Peace TV Reaching 50 Million Viewers – Dr. Zakir Naik|last=Syed Neaz Ahmad|website=[[Saudi Gazette]]|accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> Jejer anjeunna ngawangkong ngeunaan ngawengku: "Islam Élmu Modern", "Islam jeung Kristen" jeung "Islam Sekularisme", di antarana.<ref name="Hansen" /> == Kuliah, Debat jeung Kontroversi == Naik geus ngayakeun loba debat jeung ceramah sapanjang dunya <ref name="Irfunderscanner">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/zakir-naiks-foundation-under-the-scanner/article8829130.ece|title=Zakir Naik's UK-registered Foundation under scanner|publisher=[[The Hindu]]|pages=Pandey, Devesh K.|accessdate=18 July 2016}}</ref> , anjeunna biasa ngayakeun di Mumbai, India, sarta unggal taun saprak 2007 anjeunna mingpin Konférénsi Islam 10 poé di Somaiya Ground, Sion, Sukabumi kalayan sarjana sejenna, kaasup politikus [[Malaysia]] , Anwar Ibrahim dina 2008.<ref>Shahid Raza Burney (2007-12-31) [http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4&section=0&article=105128 Katerangan Zakir Naik urang dina Muslim Yazid narik Anger Diantara] News Arab. Dicutat tanggal 2009-07-30.</ref> Dina taun 2004, Naik ngalongok [[Selandia Anyar]] <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tewahanui.info/pdfs/4/twn04pg04.pdf|title=Scholar clears the air about Islam ‘labels’|website=[[Te Waha Nui]]|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-05-20}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928035232/http://www.tewahanui.info/pdfs/4/twn04pg04.pdf |date=2007-09-28 }}</ref> lajeng ibukota Australia dina uleman ti éta Émbaran Islam and Services Network of Australasia . Dina konférénsi anu di Melbourne , nurutkeun wartawan Sushi Das, "Naik muji kakuatan moral jeung spiritual islam jeung agama sejen railed jeung Kulon sacara umum", nambahkeun yén kecap Naik urang "wanti sumanget separateness sarta nguatkeun separation".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/sushi-das/between-two-worlds/2005/07/27/1122143904716.html|title=Between two worlds|website=[[The Age]]|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Bulan 1 April [[2005]] , Naik kaasup dina perdebatan kalawan William Campbell, topik mangrupa Islam jeung Kristen dina konteks sains, di mana maranéhna ngobrol ngeunaan dugaan kasalahan ilmiah dina kitab suci.<ref>Khaled Ahmed (2006-01-08) [https://web.archive.org/web/20130203020302/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C01%5C08%5Cstory_8-1-2006_pg3_3 WORD kecap: William Campbell versus Zakir Naik] Daily Times. Dicutat tanggal 2009-07-30.</ref> Khushwant Singh, hiji wartawan India, ngomong yén kecap Naik urang "kejem" jeung "aranjeunna arang asupkeun perdebatan kuliah tingkat sarjana, nu kontestan bersaing saling keur nangtukeun nilai pangalusna".<ref name="The Tribune">[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050305/saturday/above.htm kapercayaan Hiji lalaki urang téh shackle sejen urang] ku Khuswant Singh,</ref><ref name="Hindustan Times">[http://www.hvk.org/articles/1107/18.html Kunaon Umat Islam lag balik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007203832/http://www.hvk.org/articles/1107/18.html |date=2009-10-07 }} ku Khuswant Singh,</ref> Analis pulitik Khaled Ahmed ngemutan yén Zakir Naik, nurutkeun ngaku kakuatan Islam ka aqidah agama sejen, lila-naon anjeunna nyaéta panggero ''Orientalism mundur.'' <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_16-12-2003_pg3_4|title=Second opinion: Zakir Naik’s ‘reverse orientalism’ —Khaled Ahmed’s TV Review|website=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]]|archiveurl=https://archive.is/CFlU|archivedate=2012-07-23|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Dina kuliah di Melbourne Universitas , Naik ngomong yén ngan Islam témbong awéwé hiji kasaruaan leres.<ref name="women">{{Cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/08/29/1093717837783.html|title=Islam's gender debate at the fore|publisher=Theage.com.au|accessdate=2009-08-30}}</ref> Anjeunna ditembongkeun pentingna panutup kepala mertimbangkeun yén "hiji baju buka Barat" sangkan awéwé leuwih gampang ngalaman pelecehan seksual.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/opinion/the-clash-of-ignorance/2005/08/06/1123125843879.html|title=The clash of ignorance|publisher=Theage.com.au|accessdate=2009-08-30}}</ref> 21 Januari 2006, Naik ngayakeun hiji dialog antaragama kalawan Sri Sri Ravi Shankar . Acara ieu ngeunaan konsep Allah dina Islam jeung hindu, hasil ahir tina ieu nyadiakeun pamahaman antara dua agama utama India, tur tarik kaluar téh kamiripan antara Islam jeung Hindu, kayaning kumaha berhala dilarang. Diayakeun di Bangalore , India jeung 50.000 urang thronged nu Istana grounds .<ref>[http://www.thetruecall.com/home/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=167 dialog agama pikeun Pencerahan Spiritual] Dicutat tanggal 2009-07-20.</ref> Bulan Agustus 2006, kunjungan na konferensi Naik di Cardiff (Britania Raya) janten objek kontrovérsi lamun MP (anggota parlemen) Wales Daud Davies dipénta acara nyaéta dibolaykeun. Anjeunna nyebut hiji "penjual kebencian ', sarta ngomong pintonan na teu mantes menagkeun 'platform publik '; Muslim ti Cardiff, ngaropéa hak nyarita numpak di kota maranéhanana. Saleem Kidwai, Sekjen Déwan Muslim Wales, teu satuju sareng Davies, nyatakeun yén "jalma nu nyaho manéhna ''(Naik)'' weruh yén manéhna téh salah sahiji paling kontroversial kantos. Anjeunna dikaitkeun kana kamiripan antara agama, tur kumaha urang kudu hirup rukun sareng maranéhna ", sarta diondang Davies ngabahas satuluyna jeung naékna di baé dina konférénsi éta. Konférénsi indit payun, sanggeus déwan Cardiff ngomong yén maranéhanana éta senang nalika anjeunna henteu nyarita ku pintonan extremist.<ref>[http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/tm_method=full&objectid=17572219&siteid=50082-name_page.html Baris leuwih da'wah Islam] - WalesOnline.co.uk</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://icwales.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0200wales/tm_objectid=17598165%26method=full%26siteid=50082-name_page.html|title=Cleric's address hailed a success|last=Katie Bodinger|publisher=Icwales.icnetwork.co.uk|accessdate=2009-08-30}}</ref> Sanggeus ceramah ku Paus Benedict XVI dina bulan Séptember 2006, Naik nangtang perdebatan publik langsung ka anjeunna, tapi ditampik ku Paus.<ref name="Pak Tribune">[http://www.islamicity.com/forum/printer_friendly_posts.asp?TID=7109 Dr Zakir Naik Ujang Paus Benedict XVI keur interfaith dialog muka] - IslamCity.com - 07 Oktober 2006 di 10:07 pm</ref> Dina bulan Nopémber 2007, konferensi IRF sarta pameran Islam Internasional 10 poé ''Konférénsi Damai'' Islam di Somaiya Ground di Sukabumi. Ceramah ngeunaan Islam diayakeun Naik ogé dua puluh sarjana Islam sejenna ti sakuliah dunya.<ref name="Gazette">[http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=200803311990&archiveissuedate=31/03/2008 Kaadilan, karapihan sarta kahijian: The cornerstone islam] ku Syed Neaz Ahmad, [[Saudi Gazette|Saudi Warta]]</ref> Salila salah sahiji pidatona, Naik ngangsonan anger di antara anggota masarakat Si'ah di konférénsi éta nalika anjeunna disebutkeun kecap "Radhiyallah taa'la anhu" (nu hartina 'Dupi Gusti ngahampura manéhna') sanggeus nami Yazid I, sarta nyebutkeun yén perang Karbala saukur dumasar kana pulitik ,<ref name="Times of India">[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Row_over_Islamic_preachers_remarks_/articleshow/2653996.cms Row_over_Islamic_preachers_remarks] ku Mohammed Wajihuddin, [[Times of India]]</ref> Batur yakin comment hiji ngahaja.<ref name="Arab News">[http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4&section=0&article=105128 Katerangan Zakir Naik urang on Yazid narik Anger antara muslim] ku Shahid Raza Burney, [[Arab News]]</ref> Dina terbitan 22 Pébruari 2009, di India Express dijieun daptar "100 Jalma India nu pangkuatna 2009" di antara nu samilyar urang India, Zakir Naik ieu rengking 82. Dina daptar husus "10 Guru Spiritual Terbaik India", Zakir Naik ieu rengking 3, sanggeus Baba Ramdev sarta Sri Sri Ravi Shankar , keur hiji-hijina Muslim dina daptar ieu. == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu éksternal == * [https://www.youtube.com/user/Drzakirchannel Channel resmi] dina [[Youtube|YouTube]] {{Umur hirup|1965||Naik, Zakir}} [[Kategori:Cendekiawan Muslim]] [[Kategori:Artikel Peserta WSSA]] 9552jtrbhv1pck7maeox41re5x8ywkz 0 75590 711511 593075 2026-08-06T21:56:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711511 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox gene}} '''Glukagon''' nyaéta [[hormon péptida]], dihasilkeun ku sél alfa tina [[Pankreas|pankréas]]. Gawéna pikeun ngangkat kadar [[glukosa]] jeung [[asam lemak]] dina aliran getih, sarta dianggap [[hormon]] katabolik utama dina awak.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Biochemistry|last=Voet D, Voet JG.|date=2011|publisher=Wiley|edition=4th|location=New York}}</ref> Ieu hormon ogé dipaké pikeun natambaan sababaraha kasakit. Pangaruhna sabalikna ti [[insulin]], anu nurunkeun kadar glukosa ékstrasélular.<ref name="Campbell">{{Cite book|title=Biology|url=https://archive.org/details/biology0000camp_6|publisher=Benjamin Cummings|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8053-6624-2|edition=|location=San Francisco|pages=|quote=|orig-year=}}</ref> Pankréas ngaluarkeun glukagon nalika kadar insulin (jeung sacara teu langsung glukosa) dina saluran getih kurang teuing. Glukagon ngabalukarkeun [[Ati|haté]] ngarobah simpenan glikogén jadi [[glukosa]] nu dileupaskeun kana aliran getih.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Biology 1: Molecules|last=Orsay|first=Jonathan|date=2014|publisher=Examkrackers Inc.|isbn=978-1-893858-70-1|page=77|name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> Sabalikna, luhurna kadar glukosa-getih ngarangsang sékrési insulin. Insulin ngamungkinkeun glukosa bisa dicokot jeung dipaké ku jaringan depénden-insulin. Ku kituna, glukagon jeung insulin téh bagian tina sistem eupan balik nu ngajaga stabilna kadar glukosa-getih. Glukagon ngundakkeun dikaluarkeunana énergi; loba dikaluarkeun nalika setrés.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2012|title=Minireview: Glucagon in stress and energy homeostasis|journal=Endocrinology|volume=153|issue=3|pages=1049–54|doi=10.1210/en.2011-1979|pmc=3281544|pmid=22294753}}</ref> Glukagon asup kana kulawarga sékrétin hormon. == Baca ogé == {{Div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Kortisol]] * [[Diabetes mellitus]] * [[Glucagon-like peptide-1]] * [[Glucagon-like peptide-2]] * [[Insulin]] * [[Pulo Langerhans]] * [[Pankréas]] * [[Proglukagon]] * [[Tirosin kinase]] {{Div col end}} == Rujukan == <references group=""></references> {{Hormon}} {{taratas}} [[Kategori:Hormon]] [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] 5x2v1o1qs73jaye07o26onv2kral5ns 0 75593 711575 705725 2026-08-06T23:25:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711575 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chembox | IUPACName = 11β,17α,21-Trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione | ImageFile = Cortisol2.svg | ImageSize = | ImageFile1 = Cortisol-3D-balls.png | ImageSize1 = | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | CASNo = 50-23-7 | PubChem = 5754 | DrugBank = DB00741 | ChemSpiderID = 5551 | ChemSpiderID_Comment = | UNII = WI4X0X7BPJ | KEGG = D00088 | ChEBI = 17650 | ChEMBL = 389621 | SMILES = O=C4\C=C2/[C@]([C@H]1[C@@H](O)C[C@@]3([C@@](O)(C(=O)CO)CC[C@H]3[C@@H]1CC2)C)(C)CC4 | StdInChI = 1S/C21H30O5/c1-19-7-5-13(23)9-12(19)3-4-14-15-6-8-21(26,17(25)11-22)20(15,2)10-16(24)18(14)19/h9,14-16,18,22,24,26H,3-8,10-11H2,1-2H3/t14-,15-,16-,18+,19-,20-,21-/m0/s1 | StdInChIKey = JYGXADMDTFJGBT-VWUMJDOOSA-N }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | C = 21 | H = 30 | O = 5 | MolarMass = 362.460 g/mol }} }} '''Kortisol''' nyaéta hormon stéroid dina kelas hormon glukokortikoid. Lamun dipaké natambaan, mangka katelahna hidrokortison. Dina awak manusa, kortisol dihasilkeun ku [[Zona fasikulata|zona fasikulata]] dina [[Adrenal cortex|adrenal cortex]] jero [[Kelenjar adrénal|kelenjar adrénal]].<ref name="About">{{Cite web|url=http://stress.about.com/od/stresshealth/a/cortisol.htm|title=Cortisol and Stress: How to Stay Healthy|last=Scott E|publisher=About.com|accessdate=2011-11-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101171556/http://stress.about.com/od/stresshealth/a/cortisol.htm |date=2012-11-01 }}</ref> Kortisol dileupaskeun dina kaayaan setrés jeung kadar glukosa-getih kurang. Pancénna pikeun nambahan [[Gula getih|gula getih]] ngaliwatan glukonéogenesis, pikeun suprési [[Imunisasi|sistim imun]], sarta pikeun ngarojong [[métabolisme]] [[Lemak|gajih]], [[Protéin|protein]], sarta [[karbohidrat]].<ref name="Marieb">{{Cite book|title=Human Anatomy & Physiology|url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomyphys08edunse|publisher=Benjamin Cummings|year=2010|isbn=978-0-321-60261-9|location=San Francisco}}</ref> Kortisol ogé nurunkeun laju pembentukan tulang.<ref name="pmid6690287">{{Cite journal|date=February 1984|title=Cortisol decreases bone formation by inhibiting periosteal cell proliferation|journal=Endocrinology|volume=114|issue=2|pages=477–80|doi=10.1210/endo-114-2-477|pmid=6690287}}</ref> == Sato == Dina sato, kortisol mindeng dipaké salaku indikator setrés anu bisa diukur tina [[getih]],<ref name="Staaveren">{{Cite journal|last=van Staaveren, N., Teixeira, D.L., Hanlon, A. and Boyle, L.A.|year=2015|title=The effect of mixing entire male pigs prior to transport to slaughter on behaviour, welfare and carcass lesions|journal=PLoS One|volume=10|issue=4|pages=e0122841|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1022841V|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122841|pmc=4382277|pmid=25830336}}</ref> [[ciduh]],<ref name="Ruis">{{Cite journal|year=1997|title=The effect of mixing entire male pigs prior to transport to slaughter on behaviour, welfare and carcass lesions|journal=PLoS One|volume=10|issue=4|pages=e0122841|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1022841V|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122841|pmc=4382277|pmid=25830336}}</ref> [[cikiih]],<ref name="Schalke">{{Cite journal|year=2007|title=Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars on dogs in everyday life situations|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|volume=105|issue=4|pages=369–380|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2006.11.002}}</ref> [[bulu]],<ref name="Accorsi">{{Cite journal|date=January 2008|title=Cortisol determination in hair and faeces from domestic cats and dogs|journal=General and Comparative Endocrinology|volume=155|issue=2|pages=398–402|doi=10.1016/j.ygcen.2007.07.002|pmid=17727851}}</ref> jeung [[Tai|taina]].<ref name="Accorsi" /> <ref name="Messmann">{{Cite journal|date=December 1999|title=Measurement of glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in faeces of domestic livestock|journal=Zentralblatt für Veterinarmedizin. Reihe A|volume=46|issue=10|pages=621–31|pmid=10638300}}</ref> == Baca ogé == * Kortison, hormon * Reséptor glukokortikoid mémbran == Rujukan == <references group=""></references> == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://gmd.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/Spectrums/925c5612-4ecd-461b-bb52-173189b86299.aspx Kortisol MS Spéktrum] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121113144240/http://www.acb.org.uk/docs/NHLM/Cortisol.pdf Kortisol: analyte karangan ilmiah] - The Association pikeun Biokimia klinis na Kedokteran Laboratorium [[Kategori:Glukokortikoid]] [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] {{Hormon}} 193ikjja4ns67zx432mvk9t488bbruz 0 76684 711650 677133 2026-08-07T00:56:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711650 wikitext text/x-wiki [[file:Aztec eagle warrior.jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Arca tentara heulang suku Azték]] '''Aztéc''' nyaéta hiji kahirupan buhun dina mangsa  Mesoamerica nu mekarkeun di puseur [[Méksiko|Mexico]] ti taun [[1300]] nepi ka [[1521]] [[kalénder]] christian.<ref name=Thomas>{{Cite book | title =Art of Oceania, Africa, and the Americas from The Museum of Primitive Art| first =Thomas| last =P.F Hoving| publisher =Metropolitan Museum of Art| location =Jakarta| year =1969}}</ref> Masarakat Aztéc diwangun ti sagala rupa suku anu nyicingan wewengkon puseur Mexico, hususna  tina bangsa-bangsa nu ngaggunakeun basa  ''Nahuatl''  nu  loloba nyicingan  wewengkon  ''[[Mesoamerica]]'' ti abad ka-14 nepi ka abad ka-16.<ref name=Robert >{{Cite book | title =Prehispanic Domestic Units in Western Mesoamerica: Studies of the Household, Compound, and Residence| first =Robert| last =Robert S. Santley, Kenneth G. Hirth| publisher =CRC Press| location =Mexico| year =1969| NO ISBN=9780849388989}}</ref> ''Peradaban'' Aztéc diwangun tina sababaraha [[kota]] (''altepetl'').<ref name=Robert /> Sababaraha nu ngagabung pikeun ngawengku hiji satru/golongan, nu sakongkolan dina widang pulitik, sarta kakawasaan.<ref name=Robert /> Kakawasaan Aztéc téh diwangun ku tilu sakongkolan kota/sarikat nu diadegkeun  dina taun 1427, nyaéta Tenochtitlan (kota nagara urang Mexica atawa jalma Tenochca), Texcoco, jeung Tlacopan.<ref name=Offerings>{{Cite book | title =The Offerings of the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan| first =The Offerings| last =Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan| publisher =UNM Press| location =Mexico| year =2005| NO ISBN=9780826329585}}</ref> [[Kota]] [[nagara]] Tlacopan ieu saméméhna hiji nagara bagian ti Kakaisaran Tepanek nu puseur dayeuhna di kota Azcapotzalco. Sanajan kitu hal ieu  mindeng dipaké nyebut  hususna ka urang  Mexica Tenochtitlan, istilah Aztec ogé dipaké sebutan  umum pikeun nagara kota jeung masarakat Nahua di daérah Mexico tengah dina waktu ''pre''-[[Spanyol]] sarta dina mangsa  ''kolonialisme'' Spanyol  (1521-1821).<ref name=Lee>{{Cite book | title =Mexico and the United States| first =Lee | last =Stacy| publisher =Marshall Cavendish| location =Mexico| year =2002| NO ISBN=9780761474029}}</ref> [[Aztek#Definisi|Harti Aztéc kitu deui urang  Aztec]] geus lila jadi topik ilmiah ti saprak elmuan urang [[Jerman]], [[Alexander von Humboldt]], nu ilahar dipaké dina munggaran abad ka-19.<ref name=Lee/> Lolobana [[bangsa]] nungeusian puseur Mexico dina waktu Pascaklasik mibanda ciri [[budaya]] [[Mesoamerica]] nu sarua, sarta lolobanana  tina kabudayaan Aztéc jadi henteu bisa kitu baé  disebut  ciri mandiri  tina urang Aztéc.<ref name=Dirk >{{Cite book | title =The Aztecs: New PerspectivesUnderstanding ancient civilizations| url =https://archive.org/details/aztecsnewperspec0000vant| first =Dirk| last = R. Van Tuerenhout| publisher =ABC-CLIO| location =Mexico| year =2005| NO ISBN=9781576079218}}</ref> Kalawan alesan nu sarua,  anggapan ngeunaan  "peradaban Aztéc" kudu dipikaharti minangka salah sahiji wengkuan husus tina peradaban  umum Mesoamerica.<ref name=Lee/> Peradaban puseur Mexico ngawengku budidaya/cara melak [[jagong]], golongan  masarakat dibédakeun kana golongan bangsawan (''pipiltin'') jeung rahayat biasa (''macehualtin''), ibadahna ka loba dewa (Tezcatlipoca, Tlaloc jeung Quetzalcoatl), jeung sistem kalénder ''xiuhpohualli'' (kalénder 365 poé) diselapkeun sistem [[kalénder]] ''tonalpohualli'' (kalénder 260 poé).<ref name=Dirk /> Ciri mandiri ti urang Mexica Tenochtitlan taya lian [[Déwa]] nu nyalindungana nu nelah  Huitzilopochtli, piramida-[[piramida]] kembar, jeung karajinan [[grabah]] nu katelah Aztéc I nepi ka IV.{{sfn|Minc|2017}}<ref name=“Zulyani”>{{Cite book | title =Ensiklopedi Suku Bangsa di Indonesia| first =Zulyani| last =Hidayah| publisher =Prenada Media| location =Jakarta| year =2015| NO ISBN=9789794619292}}</ref> Ti saprak abad ka-13, Lebak México geus jadi puseur nu padet pangeusina jeung kamekaran kota-sarikat.<ref name=Lee/> Urang Mexica nu datang panderi  ka lebak  Mexico  ngadegkeun kota Tenochtitlan dina hiji [[Islét|pulo leutik]] di Tasik Texcoco nu kaayaan taneuha angar/teu subur, tapi saterusna jadi manusa pangkuatna di Ukhuwah tina Tilu Aztecs atawa nu Aztec Kakawasaan.<ref name=Jonathan>{{Cite book | title =Taneuh angar: Sunda Language| first =Jonathan| last =Rigg| publisher =Lange & Co| location =Batavia| year =1862| pages =2|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA16&dq=KEHKEL&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7qpOVitnTAhWBO48KHXrzCD8Q6AEIQDAD#v=onepage&q=heu&f=true|accessdate=(disungsi – 19 Pébruari2025)}}</ref><ref name=Dirk /> Kakawasaan ieu téh hiji kakawasaan kolektor upeti anu di''legakeun'' ''hegemony'' pangaruh pulitikna nepika tempat anu jauh ti Lebak Mexico ku cara nalukkeun nagara-nagara séjén kota di sadaya Mesoamerica di ahir umur Pascaklasik.<ref name=Robert /> Nu Aztec kakawasaan kabentuk dina 1427 salaku hiji ukhuwah kota state of Tenochtitlan, kota state- of Texcoco, jeung kaayaan kota Tlacopan.<ref name=Lee/> Katilu kota nagara sekutu demi ngéléhkeun jalma Tepanek kota-state Azcapotzalco anu dikawasa Lebak Mexico.<ref name=Lee/> Teu sabaraha lila saterusna, Texcoco jeung Tlacopan lowered gelar pikeun jadi junior batur sapagawéan dina guild, jeung Tenochtitlan jadi nu paling kuat.<ref name=Robert /> Kakawasaan ieu ngembangna nu jangkauan sahiji daya-na ku ngagabungkeun komérsial jeung militér nalukkeun.<ref name=Dirk /> Nu Aztec kakawasaan teu an empire wewengkon control wewengkon ku cara nempatkeun hiji garnisun-a garnisun militer dina jumlah badag di propinsi nu ngawasa, tapi rada hiji kakawasaan nu dikawasa nagara-kota-nagara bawahan-na ku ngabina silaturahim jeung pamingpin bawahan nya ngaliwatan nikah antarwangsa pangawasa, jeung ku nyebarkeun idéologi tina kakawasaan ka kota-nagara bawahan-na.<ref name=Robert /> Kota-nagara bawahan anu wajib hadir upeti ka Kaisar Aztecs anu disebut ''Huey Tlatoani'' salaku stratagem ékonomi pikeun ngawatesan komunikasi jeung dagang antara nagara kira-kira éta nu ngajadikeun nagara ieu kapaksa ngandelkeun puseur pikeun meunangkeun barang méwah.<ref name=Robert /> Mandala daya tina kakawasaan stretched jauh kana juru kidul Mesoamerica ngaliwatan nalukkeun kota-nagara nu aya dina jauh ngahontal sajauh kidul salaku Chiapas jeung [[Guatémala|Guatemala]], kitu ogé ngawengku wewengkon Mesoamerica ti basisir Pacific ka basisir Samudra Atlantik.<ref name=Dirk /> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Méksiko]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] 0twfab8w7ivciyau2ne8de45fpq5ud9 0 76685 711508 654967 2026-08-06T21:51:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711508 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:StyeUpper2017.jpg|jmpl|Turuwiseun di luhur]] <!--{{Kotakinfo Panyakit | name = Stye | synonyms = Sty, hordeolum<ref name=Pub2016/> | image = Stye02.jpg | caption = An external stye on the upper eyelid | field = [[Ophthalmology]], [[optometry]] | pronounce = Stye {{IPAc-en|s|t|aɪ}}, hordeolum {{IPAc-en|h|ɔːr|ˈ|d|iː|ə|l|ə|m}} | symptoms = Red tender bump at the edge of the eyelid<ref name=Pub2016/> | complications = | onset = Any age<ref name=Fer2016/> | duration = Few days or weeks<ref name=Lind2017/> | types = | causes = Usually [[bacterial infection]] by ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]''<ref name=Lind2017/> | risks = | diagnosis = | differential = [[Chalazion]]<ref name=NIH2010/> | prevention = | treatment = [[Warm compresses]], [[antibiotic]] eye ointment<ref name=AFP2015/><ref name=EM2013/> | medication = | prognosis = | frequency = | deaths = }}--> <!-- Definition and symptoms --> '''Turuwiseun''', sok disebut ogé '''bintitan''', nyaéta [[inféksi]] [[baktéri]] dina [[kalenjar minyak]] na [[kongkolak panon]].<ref name="NIH2010">{{cite web|url=https://nei.nih.gov/faqs/eyelid-disorders-chalazion-stye|title=Eyelid Disorders Chalazion & Stye|website=NEI|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018231753/https://nei.nih.gov/faqs/eyelid-disorders-chalazion-stye|archivedate=18 October 2016|accessdate=14 October 2016|date=4 May 2010|deadurl=no|df=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018231753/https://nei.nih.gov/faqs/eyelid-disorders-chalazion-stye |date=18 October 2016 }}</ref> Ieu ngabalukarkeun bijilna melentis beureum dina tungtung kongkolak panon.<ref name="Pub2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024863/|title=Hordeolum (Stye)|website=PubMed Health|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184822/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024863/|archivedate=8 September 2017|accessdate=14 October 2016|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref><ref name="AFP2015">{{cite journal|last1=Carlisle|first1=RT|last2=Digiovanni|first2=J|date=15 July 2015|title=Differential Diagnosis of the Swollen Red Eyelid.|journal=American Family Physician|volume=92|issue=2|pages=106–12|pmid=26176369}}</ref> Ari bagian luarna ogé bisa kapangaruhan jadi [[bareuh]].<ref name="Lind2017" /> <!-- Cause and diagnosis --> Nu nyebabkeunana mah biasana nyaéta inféksi bakteri ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]''.<ref name="Lind2017">{{cite journal|author=Lindsley K, Nichols JJ, Dickersin K|date=2017|title=Non-surgical interventions for acute internal hordeolum|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=1|pages=CD007742|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007742.pub4|pmc=5370090|pmid=28068454}}</ref><ref name="EM2013">{{cite journal|last1=Deibel|first1=JP|last2=Cowling|first2=K|date=May 2013|title=Ocular inflammation and infection.|journal=Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America|volume=31|issue=2|pages=387–97|doi=10.1016/j.emc.2013.01.006|pmid=23601478}}</ref> Nu internalna disababkeun ku inféksi [[kalenjar meibomian]] sedengkeun nu ékternalna mah ku inféksi [[kalenjar Zeis]].<ref name="AFP2015" /> Kalasi di sisi séjén mangrupa kalenjar minyak kapeungpeuk tanpa inféksi.<ref name="NIH2010" /> Biasana mah ayana di tengah kongkolak panon tanpa karasa [[nyeri]].<ref name="AFP2015" /> <!-- Prevention and treatment --> Biasana melentisna téh sok leungit tanpa kudu dikukumaha dina sawatara poé atawa minggu mah.<ref name="Lind2017" /> Rékomendasi sangkan téréh cageur pikeun di[[komprés haneut]].<ref name="AFP2015" /> Bisa ogé maké [[antibiotik]] salep panon.<ref name="EM2013" /> Sok sanajan ieu saran téh dirékomendasikeun, nyatana mah bisa miparna kana turuwiseun.<ref name="Lind2017" /> Frékuénsi bijilna turuwiseun mah teu jelas.<ref name="Fer2016" /> Lantara bisa narajang ka sakabéh umur.<ref name="Fer2016">{{cite book|last1=Ferri|first1=Fred F.|title=Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2017: 5 Books in 1|date=2016|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323448383|page=1219|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=rRhCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1219|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018212146/https://books.google.ca/books?id=rRhCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1219|archivedate=2016-10-18|df=}}</ref> == Tanda jeung gejala == [[Gambar:External_hordeolum.jpg|jmpl|Turuwiseun di kongkolak panon handap]] Tanda munggaran nyaéta melentis konéng dina tengah-tengah bareuhna nu tuluy jadi [[nanah]].<ref name="Med">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/article.htm#tocc|title=What are the signs and symptoms of a sty?|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100407042355/http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/article.htm#tocc|archivedate=2010-04-07|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> Gejala séjén turuwiseun nyaéta: * Melentis dina [[kongkolak panon]] luhur atawa handap * Bareuh di sabudeureun nu melentis dina panon * [[Nyeri]] mata * Beureum * Ngaginyel dina nu bareuh * Ngageleng dina kongkolak mata * Mata karasa panas * Kongkolak panon lembap * Ateul hayang ngagisik bola mata * Tetempoan saru * Panon jiih kaluar cairan * Iritasi panon<ref name="eMed">{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page3_em.htm|title=Stye Symptoms|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406032634/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page3_em.htm|archivedate=2010-04-06|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> * Sénsitifitas cahya * Soéh * Teu genah ngiceup<ref name="MayoCli">{{cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sty/DS00257/DSECTION=symptoms|title=Symptoms|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307022459/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sty/DS00257/DSECTION%3Dsymptoms|archivedate=2010-03-07|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> * Asa aya nu asup kana mata === Komplikasi === Komplikasi turuwiseun jarang pisan kajadianna. Ngan, mimindengna mah komplikasi turuwiseun téh lanjutan tina [[kalasi]] nu nyumebabkeun kalainan wangun kosmétik, iritasi kornéa, jeung sok ngabutuhkeun pangangkatan jeung pambedahan.<ref name="Medicine E">{{cite web|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/798940-followup|title=Hordeolum and Stye: Follow-up|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409110728/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/798940-followup|archivedate=2010-04-09|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> Bisa ogé bijilna komplikasi téh tina pambedahan nu teu bener, jeung komona mah tina gangguan tumuwuhna bulu mata, kalainan wangun kongkolak panon atawa [[fistula]] kongkolak panon. Turuwiseun badag bisa ngaganggu tetempoan hiji jalma. Sélulitis kongkolak panon nyaéta komplikasi poténsial séjén tina turuwiseun, nu mangrupa inféksi umum kongkolak panon. Tumuluyna tarajangan nepi ka inféksi sistemik (nyumebar ka saawak-awak), ieu jarang pisan jeung deuih ngan sawatara conto tina sumebarna ieu panyakit nu pernah kacatet siga kieu.<ref name="MedicineNet2">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/page2.htm#tocf|title=What is the prognosis (outcome) of a sty?|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412081320/http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/page2.htm#tocf|archivedate=2010-04-12|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520090900/http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/page2.htm#tocf |date=2007-05-20 }}</ref> == Asbab == MImindengna mah turuwiseun téh ku lantaran kapeungpeukna [[kalenjar minyak]] di dasar [[bulu mata]]. Turuwiseun dialaman ku sakabéh umur. Turuwiseun bisa dipicu ku gizi buruk, kurang saré, kurang berséka, kurang cai jeung gigisik waé. Mindeng kajadian turuwiseun téh alatan inféksi stafilokokus dina mata, jeung bisa disababkeun ku [[blepharitis]] atawa [[immunoglobulin]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Diseases of the Human Body|url=https://archive.org/details/diseasesofhumanb0000tamp_s1x3|last=Tamparo|first=Carol|last2=Lewis|first2=Marcia|publisher=F.A Davis Company|year=2011|isbn=978-0-8036-2505-1|location=Philadelphia, PA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diseasesofhumanb0000tamp_s1x3/page/504 504]}}</ref> Sapaké anduk jeung batur ulah pati digedékeun pikeun nyingkahan sumebarna inféksi antar individu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doctorslounge.com/pediatrics/forums/backup/topic-18060.html|title=Are styes contagious? -Doctors Lounge(TM)|work=doctorslounge.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100216170949/http://www.doctorslounge.com/pediatrics/forums/backup/topic-18060.html|archivedate=2010-02-16|deadurl=no|df=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909010029/http://www.doctorslounge.com/pediatrics/forums/backup/topic-18060.html |date=2017-09-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://yourtotalhealth.ivillage.com/are-styes-contagious.html|title=Are Styes Contagious?|work=iVillage|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603043329/http://yourtotalhealth.ivillage.com/are-styes-contagious.html|archivedate=2009-06-03|deadurl=yes|df=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603043329/http://yourtotalhealth.ivillage.com/are-styes-contagious.html |date=2009-06-03 }}</ref> == Nyingkahan == Nyingkahan turuwiseun ruket patalina jeung berseka anu bener. Kukumbah leungeun nu bener bisa ngurangan résiko teu ngan saukur kaserang ku turuwiseun tapi ogé jenis inféksi séjénna. Hudang saré téh antelkeun waslap haneut kana kongkolak mata samet samenit atawa dua menit mah, ieu bisa ngurangan résiko turuwiseun sarta ngaleyurkeun eusi kalenjar minyak kongkolak panon. jeung nyegah kapeungpeuk.<ref name="MedicineHealthE">{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page13_em.htm#sty_prevention|title=Prevention|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410064556/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page13_em.htm#sty_prevention|archivedate=2010-04-10|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> Pikeun nyegah ngagedéanna turuwiseun, dianjurkeun ulah maké kosmétik, komo kosmétik anu batur mah. Deuih kudu bisa ngajaga parabot nu patali jeung panon, sarta kudu mupus kosmétik di mana mangsa rék saré téh. == Ngubaran == Biasana mah turuwiseun téh sok cageur sorangan dina saminggu dua minggu mah, tanpa kudu dikukumaha.<ref name="Lind2017" /> Utamana mah dikompres ku ci haneut. Bisa ogé ku cara ngabersihan turuwiseun maké cai atawa disabunan jeung disampoan nu teu nyumbabkeun iritasi kana mata pikeun ngabersihan kokotor nu ngerak. Ngabersihanna kudu lalaunan jeung saheulaanan keur dibersihan mah panon téh ditutup pikeun nyegah cidra mata.<ref name="MediHealth">{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page8_em.htm#Medical%20Treatment|title=Medical Treatment|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411054952/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page8_em.htm#Medical%20Treatment|archivedate=2010-04-11|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> Wayahna pikeun nu katarajang turuwiseun mah ulah waka maké riasan panon (contona ''eyeliner''), losyen, jeung ulah maké lénsa kontak, lantaran ieu bisa turuwiseun beuki parna sarta bisa nyumbabkeun inféksi (sakapeung mah bika kornéa). Jeung deuih ulah nojos nu bareuhna ku sorangan, sabab bisa inféksi serius. Ubar jang ngaleungitkeun nyeri [[asétaminofén]] bisa dipaké. === Antibiotik === Geus kabuktian yén pamakéan [[antibiotik]] salep mata téh lain alus..<ref name="EM2013" /> Sanajan salep ophthalmic [[erythromycin]] sakapeun direkoméndasikeun.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2018-11-19|title=Medscape: Medscape Access|url=http://www.emedicine.com/oph/TOPIC606.HTM|deadurl=no|journal=Emedicine.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804164715/http://www.emedicine.com/oph/topic606.htm|archivedate=2008-08-04|df=}}</ref> Antibiotik lian, kayaning [[chloramphenicol]] atawa [[amoxicillin]] sok direkomendasikeun ogé.<ref>[http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic415.htm eMedicine - Periorbital Infections : Article by R Gentry Wilkerson, MD.<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403202017/http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic415.htm|date=2007-04-03}}</ref> Chloramphenicol dipaké kalawan hadé hasilna ampir di sakuliah dunya, ngan ngandung kahawatiran di Amérika Sarikat mah ngeunaan [[anemia aplastik]], nu jarang kajadian bisa fatal akibatna. Antibiotik dibéré ka jalma nu katarajang loba turuwiseun atawa turuwiseunna teu daékeun cageur, jeung pikeun jalma nu miboga [[blepharitis]] atawa [[rosacea]]. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} <br /> [[Kategori:Panyakit mata]] sw873rzk54t45p7ed7noy5yx2hv1cc3 0 77165 711693 705020 2026-08-07T01:41:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 9 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person |name = Thomas Edison |image = Thomas_Edison2.jpg |imagesize = 220px |caption = <div style="font-size: 90%">"''Jenius adalah satu persen inspirasi, sembilan puluh sembilan persen perspirasi''."<br />– Thomas Alva Edison, [[Harper's Magazine|Harper's Monthly]] (September 1932)</div> |birth_name = Thomas Alva Edison |birth_date = {{Birth date|mf=yes|1847|02|11}} |birth_place = [[Milan, Ohio]], A.S. |death_date = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|1931|10|18|1847|02|11}} |death_place = [[West Orange, New Jersey]], A.S. |occupation = Penemu, pebisnis |education = Keluar dari sekolah |nationality = [[bangsa Amerika Serikat|Amerika Serikat]] |spouse = {{marriage|Mary Stilwell |1871|1884}}<br />{{marriage|Mina Miller |1886|1931}} |religion = [[Deisme|Deis]] |partner = |children = Marion Estelle Edison (1873–1965)<br />Thomas Alva Edison Jr. (1876–1935)<br />William Leslie Edison (1878–1937)<br />[[Madeleine Edison]] (1888–1979)<br />[[Charles Edison]] (1890–1969)<br />[[Theodore Miller Edison]] (1898–1992) |parents =Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. (1804–1896)<br />Nancy Matthews Elliott (1810–1871) |relatives = [[Lewis Miller (filantropis)|Lewis Miller]] (mertua) |signature = Thomas Alva Edison Signature.svg |website = |footnotes = }} [[file:A day with Thomas A. Edison.webm|jmpl|thumbtime=1|upright=1.1|{{en}} ''A Day with Thomas Edison'' (1922)]] [[file:Thomas Edison.jpg|jmpl|Thomas Edison]] '''Thomas Alva Edison''' ({{lahirmati|[[Milan, Ohio|Milan]], [[Ohio]], [[Amérika Sarikat]]|11|2|1847||18|10|1931}}) nyaéta élmuwan katut wirausahawan anu mekarkeun rupa-rupa pakakas penting.<ref name="bio">[http://www.biografitokohdunia.com/2011/03/biografi-thomas-alfa-edison.html Biografi Thomas Alfa Edison] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421162055/http://www.biografitokohdunia.com/2011/03/biografi-thomas-alfa-edison.html |date=2012-04-21 }} (diaksés tanggal 3 Désémber 2011)</ref><ref name="prof">[http://surgaku.com/2009/12/biografi-thomas-alfa-edison/#Artikel ngeunaan Thomas Alfa Edison]{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (diaksés tanggal 4 Désémber 2011)</ref>. Edison nyaéta saurang [[inohong]] kasohor nu mimiti manggihan ''lampu bohlam'' (''lampu pijar'') tina hasil panalungtikanna.<ref name="Sutardi">{{Cite book | title =Ingin Cpt Sukses? Formula Thomas Alfa Ed| first =Sutardi| last =Ahmad| publisher =Elex Media Komputindo| location =Jakarta| year =2008|ISBN=9789792724332}}</ref> Teu saeutik pamanggih Thomas Alva Edison nu masihkénéh bisa dimangpaatkeun nepi ka kiwari, kayaning ''telegraf'', ''fonograf'', ''kinetoskop'', ''alat itung'', jeung réa-réa deui nu jumlahna nepika 1093 pamanggih.<ref name="Sutardi"/> Edison, resep kana ngayakeun panalungtikan-panalungtikan ''ilmiah''.<ref name="Niney">{{Cite book | title =Thomas Alva Edison| first =Niney| last =Anggraeni| publisher =Elex Media Komputindo| location =Jakarta| year =2008|ISBN=9789792774382}}</ref> Edison mangrupa élmuwan anu kawilang produktip dina jamanna, kacutat geus 1.093 patén dicekel ku manéhna, najan henteu sakabéhna mangrupa patén asli (mekarkeun patén saacanna)<ref name="bio" /><ref name="prof" />. Lalaki anu lahir di [[Milan]], [[Ohio]] [[11 Pébruari]] [[1847]] ieu meunangkeun patén hampir ti sakuliah Dunya, kaasup [[Amerika Sarikat]], [[Inggris]], [[Perancis]] jeung [[Jerman]]<ref name="bio" /><ref name="prof" />. Edison ngajukeun patén pertamana ngeunaan alat pikeun ngarekam soralistrik dina [[28 Oktober]] [[1868]], Edison naratas karirna salaku éélmuwan di [[Newark]], [[New Jersey]] kalayan panimuan ''stockticker'' jeung perangkat ''telegraphic''<ref name="bio" />. Edison dilandi ''The WIzard of Menlo Park'' (penyihir ti Taman menlo) alatan alat anu dijieunna, nyaéta gramofon ([[1877]]) anu pungsina pikeun ngarekam jeung ngahasilkeun gelombang sora<ref name="bio" />. Salian ti éta, Edison ogé loba méré kontribusi dina widang militer Amerika Sarikat, sababaraha panalungtikanna nyaéta alat detéksi kapal udara, alat detési kapal selam, ngeureunkeun torpédo maké jaring, kamuflaseu kapal, jst<ref name="prof" />. Edison maot tanggal [[18 Oktober]] [[1931]] dina umur 84 taun, poé di mana bola lampu modéren dijieun<ref name="bio" /><ref name="prof" />. Edison téh anak bungsu ti tujuh sadulur, bapana Samuel Ogden Edison Jr jeung Nancy Matthews Elliott indungna.<ref name="Kompas">{{Cite news | title = Biografi Tokoh Dunia: Thomas Alva Edison, penemu dan Pengusaha | url = https://internasional.kompas.com/read/2018/10/18/21255241/biografi-tokoh-dunia-thomas-alva-edison-penemu-dan-pengusaha?page=all. | work = [[Kompas]] | accessdate = April-27-2019|author = Andri Utomo}}</ref> ==Sakola== Mangsa keur [[sakola]] Edison henteu kaasup murid calakan di kelasna, malahan mah sakolana ngan tilu [[bulan]] bedo henteu dituluykeun.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Harita umur tujuh [[taun]] Edison téh dikaluarkeun ti sakolana, ku lantaran ceuk guruna manéhna belet dina prakna diajar di sakola.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Tapi nu jadi [[indung]]na henteu peungas harepan, manéhna ngatik Edison ku sorangan di imahna.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Ray-rayan Edison téh mimiti resep kana diajar sarta rajin macaan buku utamana buku-buku ''ilmiah'', kituna téh bari jeung sok prak dipraktékeun ku manéhna naon anu geus dibaca saméméhna.<ref name="Mohamad"/> ==Pagawéan== Nincak umurna sabelas taun, Edison téh kapakasa hirup bari jeung [[dagang]] [[koran]], [[bungbuahan]] sarta [[permén]] ka jero [[gerbong]] [[karéta]].<ref name="Mohamad"/> Nya harita téh manéhna meunang kasempetan hadé jadi ''operator'' telegraf, kituna téh bari pipindahan ti hiji kota ka kota séjén.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Kungsi manéhna nepi ka jadi kepala operator [[mesin]] telegraf di New York.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Tina ladang éta digawé Edison nya bisa nunda sautak saeutik duit, kumanéhna dipaké pikeun ngabiayaan rupa-rupa ''percobaan'' hasil tina panalungtikan.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Taun [[1864]], Edison pindah ka [[Menlo Park]], [[New Jersey]], di dieu manéhna ngadegkeun hiji [[laboratorium]] nu lumayan gedé, dibantuan ku batur-baturna nu maksudna pikeun ngayakeun rupa-rupa panalungtikan.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Hasilan dina taun 1870, Edison geus hasil nyieun hiji [[mesin]] telegraf nu leuwih alus.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Taun 1877 manéhna ogé hasil nyieu hiji alat nu disebut gramafon, malahan nepi ka kiwari masih keneg dipaké pikeun industri rekaman.<ref name="Mohamad"/> Edison ogé hasil nyieun hiji alat nu disebut ''proyektor'', loba pisan parobahan nu ngaronjat ku jasa pamikiranna, sebut waé [[mesin]] ketik, [[mesin]] [[kopi]], [[mesin]] dikté, [[Batré|batrei]], jeung réa-réa deui.<ref name="Mohamad">{{Cite book | title =60 Tokoh Dunia Sepanjang Masa| first =Mohamad| last =Zazuli| publisher =Penerbit Narasi| location =Jakarta| year =2008|ISBN=9789791681469}}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|2}} == Baca Ogé == * {{Cite book|title=The Florida Life of Thomas Edison|url=https://archive.org/details/floridalifeoftho0000albi|first=Michele Wehrwein.|last=Albion|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8130-3259-7|publisher=University Press of Florida|location=Gainesville}} * {{Cite book|title=The Search for Thomas Edison's Boyhood Home|first=Glen J.|last=Adams|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4116-1361-4}} * {{Cite book|first=Ernst|last=Angel|title=Edison. Sein Leben und Erfinden|location=Berlin|publisher=Ernst Angel Verlag|year=1926}} * {{Cite book|title=Edison: Inventing the Century|url=https://archive.org/details/edisoninventingc0000bald|first=Neil|last=Baldwin|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-226-03571-0}} * {{Cite book|title=Edison: The man who made the future|url=https://archive.org/details/edisonmanwhomade0000clar_n1x4|first=Ronald William|last=Clark|year=1977|isbn=978-0-354-04093-8|publisher=Macdonald and Jane's|location=London: Macdonald & Jane's}} * {{Cite book|title=A Streak of Luck|url=https://archive.org/details/streakofluckcono00cono|first=Robert|last=Conot|publisher=Seaview Books|location=New York|year=1979|isbn=978-0-87223-521-2}} * {{Cite book|title=Fleet Fire: Thomas Edison and the Pioneers of the Electric Revolution|first=L. J.|last=Davis|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=978-0-385-47927-1}} * {{Cite book|title=Edison and the Electric Chair|first=Mark|last=Essig|isbn=978-0-7509-3680-4|year=2004|publisher=Sutton|location=Stroud}} * {{Cite book|first=Mark|last=Essig|title=Edison & the Electric Chair: A Story of Light and Death|url=https://archive.org/details/edisonelectricch0000essi|location=New York|publisher=Walker & Company|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8027-1406-0}} * {{Cite book|first=Jill|last=Jonnes|title=Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World|url=https://archive.org/details/empiresoflighted00jonn|location= New York|publisher=Random House|year=2003|isbn=978-0-375-50739-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Josephson|first=Matthew|title=Edison|url=https://archive.org/details/edisonbiography0000jose_j0v7|year=1959|publisher=McGraw Hill|isbn=978-0-07-033046-7}} * {{Cite book|title=Working at Inventing: Thomas A. Edison and the Menlo Park Experience|url=https://archive.org/details/workingatinventi0000unse|author=Pretzer, William S. (ed).|publisher=Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village|location=Dearborn, Michigan|year=1989|isbn=978-0-933728-33-2}} * {{Cite book|title=The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World|url=https://archive.org/details/wizardofmenlopar0000stro|first=Randall E.|last=Stross|publisher=Crown|year=2007|isbn=1-400-04762-5}} == Tutumbu Kaluar== {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category|Thomas Alva Edison}} * [http://www.menloparkmuseum.com/ Menlo Park Museum and Edison Memorial Tower] * [http://www.nps.gov/edis/index.htm Thomas Edison National Historical Park] (National Park Service) * [http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/edison/ Edison exhibit and Menlo Park Laboratory at Henry Ford Museum] * [http://www.edisonmuseum.org/ Edison Museum] * [http://www.phmuseum.org/depot/depot.htm Edison Depot Museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021007230636/http://phmuseum.org/depot/depot.htm |date=2002-10-07 }} * [http://www.tomedison.org/ Edison Birthplace Museum] * [http://www.edisonhouse.org/ Thomas Edison House] {{authority control}} [[Kategori:Élmuwan Fisika]] [[Kategori:Élmuwan asal Amérika Serikat]] kdbdd82bzjcjoesbvb7pw34p2u564u6 0 77588 711738 658323 2026-08-07T03:07:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711738 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person |name = Nikola Tesla |image = N.Tesla.JPG |imagesize = 220px |caption = <div style="font-size: 90%">"''Jika kau ingin menemukan rahasia dibalik semesta, berpikirlah dalam terminologi energi, frekuensi dan getaran.''."<br />– Nikola Tesla</div> |birth_name = Nikola Tesla |birth_date = {{Birth date|mf=yes|1856|07|10}} |birth_place = [[Smiljan]], [[Kekaisaran Austria]] (kiwari [[Kroasia]]) |death_date = {{Death date and age|1943|1|7|1856|7|10|df=yes}} |death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York]], [[Amerika Serikat]] |occupation = ''Penemu, pebisnis'' |education = [[Universitas Teknologi Graz]] (teu dituluykeun) |signature = Nikola Tesla signature 1900.svg |website = |footnotes = }} '''Nikola Tesla''' nyaéta saurang [[élmuwan]] nu ''revolusioner'' dina widang ''ilmiah'' [[listrik]] sarta ''magnetisme''.<ref name="Nikola Tesla"/><ref name="Walter Isaacson"/> Pamanggih nu gedé ajena dina salila hirupnya tayalian ''[[arus A/C]]'', nu dimangpaatkeun dina sagala widang [[téhnologi]] nepi ka kiwari.<ref name="Nikola Tesla"/><ref name="Walter Isaacson">{{Cite book | title =The Innovators: Kisah para Peretas, Genius, dan Maniak yang Melahirkan Revolusi Digital|pages = 45| first =Walter| last = Isaacson| publisher =Bentang Pustaka| location =Jakarta| year =2016|ISBN=9786022911128}}</ref> Nikola Tesla bisa disebut ogé ahli [[fisika]], [[téhnisi]] [[mékanika]], mindeng dianggap [[jalma]] [[jenius]] nu pamikiranna kapangurahan ku saurang tehnisi dina abad ka 19 – abad ka 20.<ref name="Tesla adalah">{{Cite book | title =Fisika|pages = 178| first =Saripudin| last =Ahmad| publisher =PT Grafindo Media Pratama| location =Jakarta| year =2008|ISBN=9789797585693}}</ref> Tesla ogé kasohor kungsi ngayakeun hiji ''uji coba'' maké listrik ''tegangan'' sarta frékwénsi gedé, maténkeun pamanggihna dina ''komunikasi'' [[radio]], sarta ''sinar-X''.<ref name="Nikola Tesla"/> Ku ieu jasa pamanggih Tesla, urang kiwari bisa lalajo [[TV]], [[Handphone|HP]], ngadéngékeun [[radio]], maké [[komputer]], [[robot]], [[Kulkas|lomari És]], [[motor]] listrik, jeung sajabana.<ref name="Nikola Tesla"/><ref name="Dwi">{{Cite book | title =RPUL untuk SD/MI Kelas 4, 5, & 6|pages = 45| first =Dwi| last =Fajar| publisher =Bmedia| location =Jakarta| year =2017|ISBN=9786026725066}}</ref> Sanajan kitu aya ogé hasil tina usahana nu tacan réngsé tayalian ''transmisi'' atawa ngirimkeun listrik ka unggal [[benua]] kalawan teu maké kabel, nu katelah proyék [[menara Wardenclyffe]].<ref name="Nikola Tesla"/> ==Sajarah== Nikola Tesla (10 Juli 1856 - 7 Januari 1943) saurang ''inventor'', [[insinyur]] listrik, insinyur [[mesin]], ''fisikawan'', sarta ''futuris'' asalna ti [[Serbia]]-[[Amerika]].<ref name="Nikola Tesla"/> Tesla mimiti digawé dina widang [[telepon]] jeung listrik saméméh mumbara/''beremigrasi'' ka [[Amerika Serikat]] dina taun [[1884]] digawé di tempatna [[Thomas Alfa Edison|Thomas Edison]].<ref name="Nikola Tesla">{{Cite book | title =My Inventions - The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla|pages = 5| first =Tesla| last =Nikola| publisher =Infinity| location =Jakarta| year =2013|ISBN=9781940177380}}</ref> Tesla anak ka opat tina lima sadulur, lanceukna Dane sarta tilu dulurna awéwé : Mika, Angelina, jeung Marica.<ref name="Pindah"/> Dane tilar dunya alatan kacilakaan tina [[kuda]], harina Tesla umurna masih kénéh lima [[taun]].<ref name="Pindah"/> Sakola [[SD]] Tesla di [[Smiljan]], di dieu manéhna diatik rupa-rupa pangaweruh : basa [[Jerman]], [[aritmatika]], [[ageman]] jeung sajabana.<ref name="Pindah"/> Taun 1862 Tesla pindah ka [[Gospic]], [[Lika]] alatan nuturkeun nujadi bapa nu tayalian saurang [[pendéta]].<ref name="Pindah">{{cite book|last1=Tesla|first1=Nikola|last2=Marinčić|first2=Aleksandar|title=From Colorado Springs to Long Island: research notes |date=2008|publisher=Nikola Tesla Museum|location=Belgrade|isbn=978-86-81243-44-2}}</ref> Taun [[1870]] pindah deui ka [[Karlovac]] di dieu manéhna nuluykeun sakola [[SMA]] perenahna di Gymnasium Karlovac, disakola ieu maké basa [[Jerman]] ku alatan masih kénéh dina pangaping ''Militärgrenze Austria-Hungaria''.<ref name="teslatimeline">{{cite web|title=Nikola Tesla Timeline from Tesla Universe|url=https://teslauniverse.com/nikola-tesla/timeline|website=Tesla Universe|accessdate=16 January 2017}}</ref> Nyadi dieu Tesla ngarasa kataji ku ''demonstrasi'' ngeunaan [[listrik]] nu dilaksanakeun ku profesorna, manéhna nulis yén ieu ''demonstrasi'' mangrupa hiji kajadian ''misterius'' nu ngarojong Tesla hayang nyaho leuwih jauh.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tesla Life and Legacy&nbsp;– Tesla's Early Years|url=https://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_early.html|publisher=PBS|accessdate=8 July 2012}}</ref> Taun [[1873]], Tesla balik deui ka [[lembur]]na di [[Smiljan]], teu kungsi lila ti harita manéhna katerap kasakit [[koléra]], ngalempréh parna salila [[salapan]] [[bulan]], mun dengdek kukulinciran mah geus teu ku hanteu.<ref name ="Kolera"/> Bapana Tesla cacarékan sajerong kaayaan kaweur nempo kaayaan nu jadi anak, lamun seug Tesla cageur manéhna jangji baris nyakolakeun Tesla di sakola téhnik nu pang hadéna sok padahal dina jero haténa hayang Tesla jadi Pandeta kawas manéhna.<ref name ="Kolera">{{cite book|last=Glenn|first=edited by Jim|title=The complete patents of Nikola Tesla|url=https://archive.org/details/completepatentso00tesl|year=1994|publisher=Barnes & Noble Books|location=New York|isbn=1-56619-266-8}}</ref> Taun [[1874]] Tesla kabur ka [[Tomingaj]] dekat [[Gračac]] ari maksud pikeun nyingkahan sangkan henteu dijadikeun [[tentara Austria-Hungaria]], kukurubutan ka jero [[leuweung]] kituna téh bari maké baju [[paninggaran]].<ref name ="Kolera"/> Dina pikirna hirup deukeut jeung [[alam]] bisa méré pangaruh alus kana kakuatan [[awak]] jeung pikiranna, di Tomingaj Tesla loba maca buku sarta nyebutkeun bukuna [[Mark Twain]] geus ngabantu nyageurkeun panyakitna ku jalan teu kanyahoan.<ref name ="Kolera"/> Tesla [[sakola]] di [[Universitas Teknologi Graz]] di Graz, Australia tina ''beasiswa Militer Frontier.'' <ref name="teslatimeline"/> Tesla nu calakan di sakolana, meunang peunteun tina ujianna pang alusna ti sasakola malahan angkana dua kali lipet tina angka nu di kudukeu ku sakolana.<ref name="teslatimeline"/> Pamanggih Tesla nu paling kakoncara tayalian (''tesla coil'') nu bisa ngahasilkeun kembang seuneu nepi ka 40 [[méter]] panjangna, sarta ngahurungkeun lampu jalan nepika sajauh 40&nbsp;km kalawa henteu maké kabel ku lantaran frékwénsi listrik nu kacida gedéna.<ref name="Yohanes"/> Aya ogé [[telegraf]] nu henteu maké [[kabel]], kungsi dicobaan di punclut [[Pike]] ka [[Paris]].<ref name="Yohanes">{{Cite book | title =Ipa Fiska Gasing|pages = 271 first =Yohanes| last =Surya Ph.d| publisher =Grasindo| location =Jakarta| year =2008|ISBN=9789790252240}}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} == Tutumbu kaluar== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.gospic.hr/info/Mem_centar_Nikola_Tesla.asp#15 Smiljan Croatia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428084100/http://www.gospic.hr/info/Mem_centar_Nikola_Tesla.asp#15 |date=2010-04-28 }} * {{en}} [http://www.tesla-museum.org/meni_en.htm Museum Nikola Tesla] * [http://www2.timesreview.com/SUN/stories/S121109_Tesla_psh Tesla's Wardenclyffe Science Center Plaque] * [http://www.nikolatesl]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{Commonscat|Nikola Tesla}} {{Authority control}} {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Inohong]] [[Kategori:Pagawéan]] [[Kategori:Élmuwan]] 6h4pqqmukcg12zdgkc45ubc26as6frk 0 77649 711716 627018 2026-08-07T02:22:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711716 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox royalty | name = Kleopatra VII Filopator | image = Kleopatra-VII.-Altes-Museum-Berlin1.jpg | succession = [[Kerajaan Ptolemaik|Ratu Kerajaan Wangsa Ptolemaios]] | reign = 51 – 10 atau 12 Agustus 30 SM (21 tahun) | predecessor = [[Ptolemaios XII Auletes]] | regent = [[Ptolemaios XII Auletes]] <small>(s. 80–58 SM - 55–51 SM)</small> <br/>[[Ptolemaios XIII Theos Philopator|Ptolemaios XIII Teos Filopator]] <small>(51–s. 47 SM)</small> <br/>[[Ptolemaios XIV dari Mesir|Ptolemaios XIV]] <small>(47 SM–44 SM)</small> <br/>[[Caesarion|Ptolemaios XV Kaisarion]] <small>(44 SM – 30 SM)</small> | reg-type = Penguasa bersama |successor = [[Caesarion|Ptolemaios XV Kaisarion]] | full name = Kleopatra VII Tea Filopatora | spouse = [[Ptolemaios XIII Theos Philopator|Ptolemaios XIII Teos Filopator]]<br/>[[Ptolemaios XIV dari Mesir|Ptolemaios XIV]]<br/>[[Markus Antonius]] | issue = [[Caesarion|Ptolemaios XV Filopator Filometor Kaisar, Kaisarion]]<br/>[[Aleksandros Helios]]<br/>[[Kleopatra Selene II|Kleopatra Selene, Ratu Mauretania]]<br/>[[Ptolemaios Filadelfos (putra Kleopatra)|Ptolemaios XVI Filadelfos]] | dynasty = [[Dinasti Ptolemaik|Ptolemaik]] | father = [[Ptolemaios XII Auletes]] }} '''Kléopatra''';(bahasa [[Yunani]]: Κλεοπᾰ́τρᾱ) nyaéta Ratu-ratu nu kasohor dina sajarah [[Mesir]] ti dinasti [[Ptolemia]], carita-caritana dicatet henteu ngan wungkul dina ''hieroglif'' [[Mesir]], tapi ogé dina sajarah [[Latin]] jeung [[Yunani]].<ref name="JoyceTyldesley"/><ref name="Ron"/> Kléopatra mindeng dipaké pikeun ngagambarkeun hiji awéwé pinter, binangkit, tur ambisius, mibanda sumanget gedé pikeun ngarobah sarta ngaronjatkeun kaayaan nagara [[Mesir]] nu kungsi jadi nagara maju saméméhna.<ref name="JoyceTyldesley">{{Cite book | title =Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt| first =Joyce | last =Tyldesley| publisher =Profile Books| location =Toronto Buffalo London| year =2011|ISBN=9781847650443}}</ref><ref name="Ron">{{Cite book | title =CleopatraAncient World Leaders| url =https://archive.org/details/cleopatra0000mill| first =Ron Miller| last =Sommer Browning| publisher =Arthur Meier Schlesinger| location =Toronto Buffalo London| year =2008|ISBN=9780791095829}}</ref> ==Sajarah== Mangsa mimiti Ptolemeus maréntah, saurang ratu kudu tunduk kana sagala rupa paréntah [[salaki]]na.<ref name="Hazzard"/><ref name="Prudence"/> Tapi ka dieunakeun mangsa [[pamaréntah]]an kléopatra jeung Euergetes (145-116 SM) saurang [[ratu]] mibanda kakawasaan sarta pangaruh nu sarua jeung [[raja]], malahan dina pamaréntahan Kléoparta nu panungtung mah, saurang Ratu mibanda pangaruh nu leuwih gedé tibatan salakina.<ref name="Hazzard"/><ref name="Prudence"/> Pangaruh ratu dina pamaréntahan mangsa dinasi Ptolemeus, geus ngarojong ayana pangaruh ka jalma séjén nepika sapangeusi [[nagara]] ayana pamikiran pamaréntahan nagara ku awewe.<ref name="Hazzard"/> Pamaréntahan Mesir mangsa harita katempo jadi mibanda sipat nu teu maruk/unik jeung karajaan-karajaan Helenistik, ku lantaran di Ptolemeus II ngayakeun parobahan mangsa Arsinoe leuwih ngamulyakeun nu jadi dulur awéwéna sarta ngapopulérkeun pamaréntahan jadi gaya sipil monarki.<ref name="Hazzard"/><ref name="Prudence"/> Sarua jeung Philip II sarta Alexander nu Agung, Ptolemeus mibanda sababaraha urang [[istri]] jeung [[selir]] : Antakama (urang Persia, taun 324), Thailand (urang [[Athéna]], taun 323), Eurydike (urang Makedonia taun 321), sarta Berenike nu tayalian alona sorangan.<ref name="Hazzard"/> Henteu saurang ogé ti maranéha jadi pamingpin nu kumawasa di Ptolemy, sarta henteu mibanda pangaruh gedé sanajan jadi ratu.<ref name="Hazzard"/> Tisababaraha Kléopatra nu paling jadi perhatian balaréa tayalian kléopatra VII, lain ngeunaan Ptolemeus nu paling suksés, atawa paling lila hirupna.<ref name="JoyceTyldesley"/> Tapi ngeunaan hiji kaputusan Ptolemeus nu hasil mangaruhan hiji kaputusan jeung tindakan dua jalma hébat di [[Roma]].<ref name="JoyceTyldesley"/><ref name="Ron"/> Aya dina kajadian penting nalukeun Makedonia Alexander Agung (332) sarta nalukeun Oktavianus Romawi (30).<ref name="JoyceTyldesley"/><ref name="Ron"/> # '''Kléopatra I''': (Syria 176 SM) ; putri Antiokhus III jeung Laodice sarta istri Ptolemeus V Epifanes.<ref name="Simon"/> Mangsa Epifanes tilar dunya dina 180 SM manéhna jadi keur budakna nu cikal, Ptolemeus VI tilar dunya opat taun ti haritakalawan meunang ''gelar Philometor''.<ref name="Hazzard">{{Cite book | title =Imagination of a Monarchy: Studies in Ptolemaic PropagandaVolume 37 dari Phoenix : journal of the Classical association of Canada, Supplementary volumeVolume 37 dari Phoenix Pre-SocratesVolume 37 dari Phoenix: Supplementary volume| first =R. A. | last =Hazzard| publisher =University of Toronto Press| location =Toronto Buffalo London| year =2000|ISBN=9780802043139}}</ref><ref name="Simon">{{Cite book | title =The Oxford Classical Dictionary| url =https://archive.org/details/oxfordclassicald0000unse_w0c8| first =Simon| last =Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth, Esther Eidinow| publisher =OUP Oxford| location =United Kingdom| year =2012|ISBN=9780199545568}}</ref> Raja Ptolemeus tilar dunya taun 204/5, ngabalukarkeu karajaan ngarandapan kakurangan jalma nu baris ngariksa kaamanan nagara.<ref name="Hazzard"/> Harita Ptolemy V Epiphanes umurna masih kénéh lima taun, pikeun saheulaanan pamaréntahan dijalankeun giliran ku tilu abdi dalem tayalian : Agathokles, Tlepolemos, sarta Aristomenes.<ref name="Hazzard"/> Dina mangsa kapamingpinan maranéhna karajaan Ptolemeus ngarandapan kaayaan werit jeung bahaya, Filipus V ti Makedonia ngarebut Samos jeung kota-kota séjén di sabudeureun [[laut]] Aegéa atawa sabudeureun [[basisir]] Thracia.<ref name="Hazzard"/> Ptolemeus V tilar dunya taun 180 ninggalkeun tilu urang anakna, ngan hanjakal Ptolemeus henteu mibanda adi lalaki nu satuluyna kakawasaan pindah ka Kléopatra nu ngan hiji-hijina nu geus dewasa ti kulawarga Ptolemeus.<ref name="Hazzard"/> # '''Kléopatra II''' (116 SM); putri kléopatra I jeung Ptolemy V Philometor.<ref name="Hazzard"/><ref name="Simon"/><ref name="Simon"/> #'''Kléopatra III'''; salah saurang ratu nu paling kumawasa, ti putri Ptolemeus VI dan Cléopatra II.<ref name="Jane Rowlandson">{{Cite book | title =Women and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A SourcebookWomen and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A Sourcebook, Jane RowlandsonVolume 37 dari Phoenix : journal of the Classical association of Canada, Supplementary volumeVolume 37 dari Phoenix Pre-SocratesVolume 37 dari Phoenix: Supplementary volume| first =Jane | last =Rowlandson, Roger S. Bagnall| publisher =Cambridge University Press| location =Toronto Buffalo London| year =1998|ISBN=9780521588157}}</ref> Rimbitan jeung Ptolemeus VIII Euergetes II dina taun 140/139 SM.<ref name="Simon"/> Salila hirupna ngarandapan pacéngkadan jeung nu jadi indungna, hirup bareng jeung indungna nu tayalian istri ti pamanna ogé.<ref name="Simon"/> #'''Kléopatra IV''' ; Ptolemy XI Alexander II #'''Kléopatra V''' Selene ; Ptolemeus IX Alexander 1 , gumelar ti saurang indung nu teu kanyahoan ''asal usulna'', tayalian saurang nu tara kungsi dicaritakeun rundayan kulawargana.<ref name="JoyceTyldesley"/> Sanajan kitu gampang waé pikeun neguh rundayan kulawargana, Anakna nu ngan hiji-hijina kanyahoan tayalian Berenice IV.<ref name="JoyceTyldesley"/> Ieu ngébréhkeun yén Kléopatra rimbitan jeung Auletes ku alatan kitu manéhna kudu kapeto jadi permasuari/ratu Mesir, ku lantaran ieu kalungguhan kawilang penting,religius, sarta pulitis dibutuhkeun hiji awéwé nu mibanda kadudukan sosial sampurna.<ref name="JoyceTyldesley"/> #'''Kléopatra VI''' #'''Kléopatra VII''' (69-30 SM); Kléopatra panungtung sarta paling kakoncara ti dinasti Ptolemeus di Mesir, tayalian putrina Ptolemeus XII (Aulestes) nu pinter masamoan sarta ''mempresentasikan diri'' gumantung saha nu disanghareupan atawa audiénsnya, bisa jadi saurang [[dewi]], pipinan [[pulitik]], atawa hiji putri geulis nu matak poho nu nempo tur ''eksotic''.<ref name="Prudence"/><ref name="Simon"/> Kléopatra VII saurang diplomat ulung, administrator, [[komandan]] angkatan [[laut]], ahli basa, kalawan parigel ngokolakeun karajaan.<ref name="Duane"/> Ieu ngabalukarkeun beuki anggang hubungan pulitik malahan beuki goréng jeung urang Romawi.<ref name="Duane"/> Sanajan dina panungtungana manéhna éleh, éta henteu matak ngurangan pamor sarta pangaruhna.<ref name="Prudence">{{Cite book|title =Cleopatra: A SourcebookVolume 31 dari Oklahoma series in classical culture|url =https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone|first =Prudence|last =J. Jones|publisher =University of Oklahoma Press| location =Toronto Buffalo London| year =2006|ISBN=9780806137414}}</ref><ref name="Duane">{{Cite book | title =Cleopatra: A BiographyWomen in Antiquity| first =Duane| last =W. Roller| publisher =Oxford University Press| location =Toronto Buffalo London| year =2011|ISBN=9780199829965}}</ref><ref name="Daniel">{{Cite book | title =Jenderal Yang Baik| first =Daniel| last =Benjamin Saragih| publisher =Dag Heward-Mills| location =Jakarta| year =2017|ISBN=9781641343015}}</ref> Pamustungan tina gurat kulawarga ieu tayalian Klepatra VIII, rimbitan jeung Markus Antonius nu ngahadiahkeun daérah [[Palestina]] ka Kléopatra.<ref name="Browning">{{Cite book | title =Kamus Alkitab (hc)| first =Brf| last =Browning| publisher =BPK Gunung Mulia| location =Jakarta| year =2008|ISBN=9789796873937}}</ref> Carita ngeunaan Cléopatra leuwih kasohor tibatan sajarahna, Kaparigelana dina ngawangun sarta ngajaga hubungan jeung [[jalma]]-jalma nu mibanda kakawasaan nempatkeun Kléopatra jadi saurang awéwé nu dipikasérab.<ref name="Prudence"/> Kléopatra ogé disebut ahli dina widang ngaluis, ngurus awak, buuk sarta ngagunakeun ''kosmetik'', geus ngajadikeun Kléopatra hiji perlambang atawa simbol kaméwahan karajaan [[Mesir]].<ref name="Prudence"/> Ieu sipat ''antagonisna'' dijadikeun hiji sanjata pikeun ngalawan musuhna, malahan saurang ''penyair'' [[Romawi]] nyebutkeun cenah Kléopatra saurang [[monster]] sarta [[awéwé]] jahat.<ref name="Prudence"/> ==Dicutatina== {{Reflist|2}} {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Mesir]] m5uwds7s60enbgydu57rcnfckcavas1 0 87755 711763 708424 2026-08-07T03:38:05Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711763 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Zn reaction with HCl.JPG|thumb|Réaksi kimia [[séng]], sarupaning logam, sareng [[asam klorida]], sarupaning asam]] {{Asam-Basa}} '''Asam''' nyaéta [[molekul]] atawa [[ion]] nu bisa masihkeun [[proton]] (ion hidrogén H<sup>+</sup>), atawa, bisa ngawangun [[beungkeut kovalén]] liwat [[pasangan éléktron]] (mangrupa [[asam Lewis]]).<ref name="IUPAC_acid">{{Cite web |url=http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00071.html |title=IUPAC Gold Book - acid |publisher=[[IUPAC]] |accessdate=7 Juni 2019}}</ref> Katégori asam nu kahiji nyaéta nu masihan proton atawa [[Téori asam–basa Brønsted–Lowry|asam Brønsted]]. Dina kaadaan husus di [[leyuran ngandung cai]], pamasih proton ngawangun [[ion hidronium]] H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> nu katelahna [[Réaksi asam-basa#Téori Arrhenius|asam Arrhenius]]. [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted|Brønsted]] sarta [[Thomas Martin Lowry|Lowry]] nyieun wangun umum téori Arrhenius nu ngasupkeun pangleyur nu sanés cai. Asam Brønsted atawa Arrhenius biasana ngandung atom hidrogén nu kabeungkeut jeung struktur kimia nu tetep aktip ngandung énérgi saatos ngalepaskeun H<sup>+</sup>. Asam Arrhenius dina pangleyur cai miboga sipat nu nyadiakeun harti praktis ti asam.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Petrucci |first1=R.H. |last2=Harwood |first2=R.S. |last3=Herring |first3=F.G. |title=General Chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry0008petr |edition=8th |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry0008petr/page/146 146] |isbn=0-13-014329-4}}</ref> Asam dina pangleyur cai miboga rasa nu haseum, bisa ngubah [[litmus]] biru janten merah, jeung ngahasilkeun réaksi sareng [[basa]] sarta macam-macam logam (sapertos [[kalsium]]) nu ngawangun [[Uyah (kimia)|uyah]]. Kecap ''asam'' asalna ti [[basa Latin]] ''acidus/acēre'' nu hartina ''haseum''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/acid |publisher=Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary |title=acid |accessdate=7 Juni 2019}}</ref> Asam dina pangleyur cai miboga [[pH]] kirang ti 7, leyuran ieu disebut 'asam' ogé dina basa sapopoé (sapertos 'dileyurkeun dina asam'), tapi harti ketatna mah nu disebut asam téh nyaéta zat nu [[leyuran|leyurna]].<ref name="IUPAC_acid"/> Nilai pH nu leuwih alit hartina miboga kaasaman nu leuwih ageng sarta konséntrasi [[Hidron (kimia)|ion positif hidrogén]] nu leuwih ageng dina [[leyuran]]. Leyuran asam dina cai nu umum nyaéta [[asam klorida]] (larutan [[hidrogén klorida]] nu aya dina [[asam lambung]] sarta ngaaktipkeun [[énzim pencernaan]]), [[asam asétat]] (cuka nyaéta larutan dina cai nu éncér ti asam ieu), [[asam sulfat]] (digunakeun di [[baterai mobil]]), sarta [[asam sitrat]] (nu aya dina buah sitrus). Dumasar kana conto, asam (dina pandangan kahirupan sapopoé) wangunna bisa leyuran atawa zat murni, sarta bisa diturunkeun ti asam lain (dina pandangan ketat<ref name="IUPAC_acid"/>) nu padet, cair, atawa gas. [[Kakuatan asam|Asam kuat]] sarta sababaraha asam lemah kakonséntrasi sipatna [[sanyawa korosif|korosif]], kecuali [[karborana]] sareng [[asam borat]]. Katégori asam nu kadua nyaéta [[Asam jeung basa Lewis|asam Lewis]], nu ngawangun beungkeut kovalén ngagunakeun pasangan éléktron. Contona [[boron trifluorida]] (BF<sub>3</sub>), atom boron miboga [[orbital atom|orbital]] kosong nu bisa ngawangun beungkeut kovalén ku cara ngabagikeun pasangan éléktron di atom nu basa, dina conto ieu nyaéta atom nitrogén di [[amonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>). [[Gilbert N. Lewis|Lewis]] nimbangkeun ieu salaku wangun umum ti harti asam Brønsted, jadina asam dihartikeun spésiés kimia nu narima pasangan éléktron sacara langsung ''atawa'' ku cara ngalepaskeun proton (H<sup>+</sup>) ka leyuran, nu salajengna narima pasangan éléktron. Namung, hidrogén klorida, asam asetat, sarta kaseueuran asam Brønsted-Lowry lainna teu bisa ngawangun beungkeut kovalén sareng pasangan éléktron, jadi teu kaasup kana asam Lewis.<ref name="Oxtoby8th">{{Cite book |last1=Oxtoby |first1=D. W |last2=Gillis |first2=H.P. |last3=Butler |first3=L. J. |year=2015 |title=Principles of Modern Chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofmode0000oxto |publisher=Brooks Cole |pages=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofmode0000oxto/page/617 617] |isbn=978-1305079113}}</ref> Sabalikna, seueur asam Lewis nu teu kaasup kana asam Arrhenius atawa Brønsted-Lowry. Dina términologi modérn, ''asam'' sacara implisit ngarujuk ka asam Brønsted, sanés asam Lewis, ku sabab ahli kimia hampir sok ngarujuk asam Lewis sacara éksplisit ku ''asam Lewis''.<ref name="Oxtoby8th" /> Aya ogé pembagian jenis asam janten asam kuat sareng asam lemah, pakait sareng kamampuan ngaburaikan ion hidrogen. Asam kuat gaduh nilai ''K<sub>a</sub>'' anu gedé (nyaéta, kesetimbangan reaksi jauh ka katuhu). Salaku conto, nilai ''K<sub>a</sub>'' pikeun asam klorida (HCl) nyaéta 10<sup>7</sup>. Asam kuat gaduh derajat ionisasi 1. Di kahirupan sapopoé darajat keasaman ([[pH]]) diukur pikeun aplikasi pengolahan cai, misalna cai minum, cai limbah, cai kolam, sareng sajabana. Alat pikeun ngukur darajat keasaman cai ngaran na [https://www.hargaphmeter.com/2019/10/ady-lab-harga-ph-meter-hanna-hi98107-portable-hidroponik-digital-air.html pH meter air]. Ieu di handap nyaéta daptar asam kuat: # Aqua regia (disebut ogé cai raja) campuran HCl sareng HNO<sub>3</sub> # HNO<sub>3</sub> # H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> # Asam halida(kecuali HF) HI>HBr>HCl # Asam oksi halogen HXO<sub>4</sub>>HXO<sub>3</sub>>HXO<sub>2</sub>>HXO == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tutumbu luar == * [http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html Curtipot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126143238/http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html |date=2019-01-26 }}: Diagram kasaimbangan asam-basa, ngitung [[pH]], sarta simulasi jeung analisis kurva [[titrasi]] – [[parangkat lunak gratis]] {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Asam| ]] [[Kategori:Kimia asam–basa]] o55yv7ot53djturhcpf1jkng10ogi1r 0 87922 711711 575353 2026-08-07T02:19:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Asam-Basa}} '''Fungsi kaasaman Hammett''' (H<sub>0</sub>) nyaéta panghitungan kaasaman nu digunakeun dina leyuran [[asam]] kuat nu konséntrasina ageng pisan, contona [[superasam]]. Fungsi ieu diusulkeun ku ahli kimia organik fisik, [[Louis Plack Hammett]],<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=L. P. |last1=Hammett |first2=A. J. |last2=Deyrup |date=1 Juni 1932 |title=A Series of Simple Basic Indicators. I. The Acidity Functions of Mixtures of Sulfuric and Perchloric Acids with Water |journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc |volume=54 |number=7 |pages=2721-2739}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=L. P. |last=Hammett |date=Juli 1940 |title=Physical Organic Chemistry |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York}}</ref> kasohor ku [[fungsi kaasaman]]na nu digunakeun sangkan ngaluaskeun panghitungan kaasaman [[Téori asam–basa Brønsted–Lowry|Brønsted–Lowry]] di luar [[leyuran palarut cai]] éncér, nu mana skala [[pH]] penting dipaké. Dina leyuran nu konséntrasina ageng pisan, pangdeukeutan nu basajan saperti [[persamaan Henderson–Hasselbalch]] teu valid deui ku sabab ayana variasi dina [[koéfisién aktivitas]]. Fungsi kaasaman Hammett digunakeun dina widang saperti [[kimia organik fisik]] pikeun panalungtikan réaksi [[katalisis asam|asam nu dikatalisis]] ku sabab sababaraha réaksi ieu ngagunakeun asam nu konséntrasina ageng pisan, malahan nepi ka murni.<ref name=poc>{{Cite book |first1=Gerrylynn K. |last1=Roberts |first2=Colin Archibald |last2=Russell |title=Chemical History: Reviews of the Recent Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/chemicalhistoryr0000unse |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |year=2005 |isbn=0-85404-464-7}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} {{taratas}} [[Kategori:Kimia asam–basa]] [[Kategori:Kimia organik fisik]] [[Kategori:Superasam|*]] oiypjcbs3v8bqjg8f47p85rld0jjw27 0 88174 711737 667436 2026-08-07T03:06:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711737 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Heisenberg}} {{Infobox scientist | name = Werner Heisenberg | image = Bundesarchiv Bild183-R57262, Werner Heisenberg.jpg | caption = Heisenberg taun 1933 | birth_name = Werner Karl Heisenberg | birth_date = {{birth date|1901|12|5|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Würzburg]], [[Karajaan Bavaria]], [[Kakaisaran Jérman]] | death_date = {{death date and age|1976|02|1|1901|12|5|df=y}} | death_place = [[Munich]], Bavaria, [[Jérman Kulon]] | resting_place = [[Munich Waldfriedhof]] | nationality = [[Jérman]] | fields = [[Fisika téorétis]] | workplaces = {{plainlist| * [[Univérsitas Göttingen]] * [[Univérsitas Copenhagen]] * [[Univérsitas Leipzig]] * [[Univérsitas Bérlin]] * [[Univérsitas Munich]]}} | thesis_title = On stability and turbulence of liquid flows | thesis_year = 1923 | alma_mater = {{plainlist| * [[Univérsitas Munich]] * [[Univérsitas Göttingen]]}} | doctoral_advisor = [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] | academic_advisors = {{plainlist| * [[Niels Bohr]] * [[Max Born]]}} | doctoral_students = {{plainlist| * [[Felix Bloch]] * [[Edward Teller]] * [[Rudolf E. Peierls]] * [[Reinhard Oehme]] * [[Friedwardt Winterberg]] * Peter Mittelstaedt * [[Șerban Țițeica]] * [[Ivan Supek]] * [[Erich Bagge]] * [[Hermann Arthur Jahn]] * Heimo Dolch * [[Hans Heinrich Euler]] * Edwin Gora * Bernhard Kockel * Arnold Siegert * Wang Foh-san * Karl Ott * Bary F. Malik}} | notable_students = {{plainlist| * [[William Vermillion Houston]] * [[Guido Beck]] * [[Ugo Fano]] * [[Ettore Majorana]] * [[Herbert Wagner (fisikawan)|Herbert Wagner]]}} | known_for = {{collapsible list|title= |[[Prinsip kateupastian]]|[[Pambagi Heisenberg]]|[[Jalan asup Heisenberg ka mékanika matriks]]|[[Feromagnet Heisenberg]]|[[Grup Heisenberg]]|[[Bates Heisenberg]]|[[Mikroskop Heisenberg]]|[[Modél Heisenberg (klasik)]]|[[Modél Heisenberg (kuantum)]]|[[Gambaran Heisenberg]]|[[Isospin]]|[[Mékanika matriks]]|[[Lagrange Euler-Heisenberg]]|[[Rumus Kramers-Heisenberg]]|[[Modél bootstrap]]|[[Aljabar-C*]]|[[Interaksi patukeran]]|[[Masalah Mott]]|[[Persamaan Heisenberg–Langevin]]|[[Fluktuasi kuantum]]|[[Resonansi (kimia)]]|[[Matriks-S]]|[[Téori matriks-S]]|[[Pamanggihan neutron#Modél inti proton–neutron|Modél inti proton–neutron]]|[[Proyék pakarang nuklir Jérman|''Uranprojekt'']]}} | influences = | influenced = {{plainlist| * [[Robert Döpel]] * [[Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker]]}} | spouse = {{marriage|Elisabeth Schumacher|29 April 1937|}} | children = 7 (contona [[Jochen Heisenberg|Jochen]] jeung [[Martin Heisenberg|Martin]]) | awards = {{Plainlist| * [[Medali Matteucci]] <small>(1929)</small> * [[Medali Barnard pikeun Jasa ka Élmu]] <small>(1930)</small> * [[Hadiah Nobel widang Fisika]] <small>(1932)</small> * [[Medali Max Planck]] <small>(1933)</small> * [[Anggota Asing Royal Society]] <small>(1955)</small><ref name=formemrs/> * [[Anggota Asing Akademi Sains Nasional Amérika Serikat]] <small>(1961)</small>}} | signature = Werner Heisenberg signature.svg }} '''Werner Karl Heisenberg''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aɪ|z|ən|b|ɜr|ɡ}};<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/heisenberg "Heisenberg"]. ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{IPA-de|ˈvɛɐ̯nɐ ˈhaɪzn̩ˌbɛɐ̯k|lang}}; 5 Désémber 1901 – 1 Pébruari 1976) nyaéta [[fisika téorétis|fisikawan téorétis]] [[Bangsa Jérman|Jérman]] jeung salah saurang pionir konci [[mékanika kuantum]]. Anjeunna medalkeun panalungtikna taun 1925 dina [[Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen|makalah terobosan]]. Dina runtuyan makalah sanggeusna jeung [[Max Born]] sarta [[Pascual Jordan]], sapanjang taun nu sarua, [[mékanika matriks|formulasi matriks]] mékanika kuantum ieu diguar sacara ''substansial''. Anjeunna dipikawanoh ku [[prinsip kateupastian|prinsip kateupastian Heisenberg]], nu dipedalkeun taun 1927. Heisenberg dibéré anugrah [[Hadiah Nobel widang Fisika]] 1932 "pikeun jasana nyiptakeun mékanika kuantum".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/index.html |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date= |accessdate=7 Désémber 2012}} Sumber ieu ngajéntrékeun Heisenberg sabenerna narima Hadiah Nobel 1932 dina 1 tahun saanggeusna, dina 1933.</ref> Anjeunna ogé ngabuat kontribusi penting kana téori [[Dinamika fluida|hidrodinamika]] [[arus turbulen]], [[inti atom]], [[feromagnétisme]], [[sinar kosmis]], jeung [[partikel subatom]], sarta anjeunna miboga peran penting dina ngarencanakeun [[réaktor nuklir]] Jérman Kulon kahiji di [[Karlsruhe]], bareng jeung [[réaktor panalungtik]] di [[Munich]], dina taun 1957. Anjeunna jadi élmuwan pupuhu di [[proyék pakarang nuklir Jérman|proyék pakarang nuklir Nazi Jérman]] salila mangsa [[Perang Dunya II]]. Anjeunna indit ka Copenhagen nu dijajah Jérman, tempat anjeunna tepang jeung ngadiskusikeun proyék Jérman sareng [[Niels Bohr]]. Saanggeus Perang Dunya II, anjeunna ditunjuk jadi diréktur [[Institut Kaiser Wilhelm Institute pikeun Fisika]], nu engkéna digentos ngaranna jadi [[Institut Max Planck Institute pikeun Fisika]]. Anjeunna jadi diréktur di ieu institut nepi ka pindah ka Munich taun 1958, pas ieu institut dikembangkeun jeung digentos ngaranna [[Max Planck Society|Institut Max Planck pikeun Fisika jeung Astrofisika]]. Heisenberg ogé jadi présidén [[Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft|Déwan Panalungtikan Jérman]], pupuhu Komisi Fisika Atom, pupuhu Nucléar Physics Working Group, jeung présidén [[Yayasan Alexander von Humboldt]].<ref name=formemrs/> == Pedalan == === Bibliografi === * {{cite book |last=Cassidy |first=David C. |title=Werner Heisenberg : A Bibliography of His Writings |publisher=Whittier |edition=2nd |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-57604-115-4 }} * {{cite web |last=Cassidy |first=David C. |title=Werner Heisenberg: A Bibliography of His Writings, 1922–1929, Expanded Edition |url=http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/bibliography/contents.htm }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016175541/http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/bibliography/contents.htm |date=2012-10-16 }} * {{harvnb|Mott|Peierls|1977}} * {{cite book |first=Anna |last=Ludovico |title=Effetto Heisenberg. La rivoluzione scientifica che ha cambiato la storia |publisher=Armando |location=Roma |year=2001 |isbn=978-88-8358-182-3 |page=224 }} * {{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=Blum |first2=Helmut |last2=Heisenberg |first3=Anna |last3=Ludovico |title=Per Heisenberg |publisher=Aracne |location=Roma |year=2006 |isbn=978-88-548-0636-8 |page=96 |url=}} === Artikel petingan === {{refbegin|25em}} * {{cite journal |first1=A. |last1=Sommerfeld |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Eine Bemerkung über relativistische Röntgendubletts und Linienschärfe |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=393–398 |year=1922 |bibcode=1922ZPhy...10..393S |doi=10.1007/BF01332582 }} * {{cite journal |first1=A. |last1=Sommerfeld |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Die Intensität der Mehrfachlinien und ihrer Zeeman-Komponenten |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=131–154 |year=1922 |doi=10.1007/BF01328408 |bibcode=1922ZPhy...11..131S }} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Über Phasenbeziehungen bei den Bohrschen Modellen von Atomen und Molekeln |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=44–55 |year=1923 |doi=10.1007/BF01340032 |bibcode=1923ZPhy...14...44B }} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Die Elektronenbahnen im angeregten Heliumatom |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=16 |pages=229–243 |year=1923 |doi=10.1002/andp.19243790902 |issue=9|bibcode=1924AnP...379....1B }} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=1–31 |year=1924 |doi=10.1002/andp.19243790902 |bibcode=1924AnP...379....1B }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über Stabilität und Turbulenz von Flüssigkeitsströmmen (Diss.) |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=577–627 |year=1924 |doi=10.1002/andp.19243791502 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1924AnP...379..577H}} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Über den Einfluss der Deformierbarkeit der Ionen auf optische und chemische Konstanten. I |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=388–410 |year=1924 |doi=10.1007/BF01327603 |bibcode=1924ZPhy...23..388B }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über eine Abänderung der formalin Regeln der Quantentheorie beim Problem der anomalen Zeeman-Effekte |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=291–307 |year=1924 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01327336|bibcode=1924ZPhy...26..291H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=879–893 |year=1925 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01328377|bibcode=1925ZPhy...33..879H |title-link=Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen }} Makalahna diterima dina 29 Juli 1925. [Tarjamahan basa Inggris di: {{harvnb|van der Waerden|1968|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8KLMGqnZCDcC&&pg=PA261 12 "Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations"]}}] Makalah ieu mangrupa makalah kahiji dina trilogi kawentar nu medalkeun formulasi [[mékanika matriks]] dina mékanika kuantum. * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |first2=P. |last2=Jordan |title=Zur Quantenmechanik |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=858–888 |year=1925 |doi=10.1007/BF01328531 |bibcode=1925ZPhy...34..858B }} Makalah ieu ditarima dina 27 Séptémber 1925. [Tarjamahan basa Inggris di: {{harvnb|van der Waerden|1968|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8KLMGqnZCDcC&pg=PA277#v=onepage "On Quantum Mechanics"]}}] Makalah ieu mangrupa makalah kadua dina trilogi kawentar nu medalkeun formulasi [[mékanika matriks]] dina mékanika kuantum. * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |first3=P. |last3=Jordan |title=Zur Quantenmechanik II |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=35 |pages=557–615 |year=1926 |bibcode=1926ZPhy...35..557B |doi=10.1007/BF01379806 |issue=8–9 }} Makalah ieu ditarima dina 16 Novémber 1925. [Tarjamahan basa Inggris di: {{harvnb|van der Waerden|1968|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8KLMGqnZCDcC&pg=PA321 15 "On Quantum Mechanics II"]}}] Makalah ieu mangrupa makalah katilu dina trilogi kawentar nu medalkeun formulasi [[mékanika matriks]] dina mékanika kuantum. * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=43 |pages=172–198 |year=1927 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01397280 |issue=3–4 |ref=harv|bibcode=1927ZPhy...43..172H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Zur Theorie des Ferromagnetismus |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=49 |pages=619–636 |year=1928 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01328601 |issue=9–10 |ref=harv|bibcode=1928ZPhy...49..619H }} * {{cite journal |last1=Heisenberg |first1=W. |first2=W. |last2=Pauli |title=Zur Quantendynamik der Wellenfelder |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=56 |pages=1–61 |year=1929 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1930ZPhy...56....1H |doi=10.1007/BF01340129 |issue=1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last1=Heisenberg |first1=W. |first2=W. |last2=Pauli |title=Zur Quantentheorie der Wellenfelder. II |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=59 |pages=168–190 |year=1930 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1930ZPhy...59..168H |doi=10.1007/BF01341423 |issue=3–4 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=77 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–11 |year=1932 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01342433 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1932 I}}|bibcode=1932ZPhy...77....1H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne. II |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=78 |pages=156–164 |year=1932 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01337585 |issue=3–4 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1932 II}}|bibcode=1932ZPhy...78..156H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne. III |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=80 |pages=587–596 |year=1933 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01335696 |issue=9–10 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1933 III}}|bibcode=1933ZPhy...80..587H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=Werner |title=Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=90 |issue=3–4 |pages=209–231 |year=1934 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01333516 |ref=harv|bibcode=1934ZPhy...90..209H }} Panulis nu disebut dina makalah nyaéta Leipzig. Makalah ieu ditarima dina 21 Juni 1934. * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über die 'Schauer' in der Kosmischen Strahlung |journal=Forsch. Fortscher. |volume=12 |pages=341–342 |year=1936 |authormask=1 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1936 Forsch. Fortscher.}}}} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |first2=H. |last2=Euler |title=Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=98 |issue=11–12 |pages=714–732 |year=1936 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1936ZPhy...98..714H |doi=10.1007/BF01343663 |ref=harv}} Panulis nu disebut dina makalah nyaéta Leipzig. Makalah ieu ditarima dina 22 Désémber 1935. Tarjamahan ti makalah ieu geus dikeureuyeuh ku W. Korolevski jeung H. Kleinert: [https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0605038v1 arXiv:physics/0605038v1]. * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Zur Theorie der 'Schauer' in der Höhenstrahlung |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=101 |pages=533–540 |year=1936 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01349603 |issue=9–10 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1936 Z. Phys.}}|bibcode=1936ZPhy..101..533H }} * W. Heisenberg ''Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern'', ''Ber. Sächs, Akad. Wiss.'' Volume 89, 369; ''[[Die Naturwissenschaften]]'' Volume 25, 749–750 (1937) * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Theoretische Untersuchungen zur Ultrastrahlung |journal=Verh. Stsch. Physical. Ges. |volume=18 |page=50 |year=1937 |authormask=1}} * {{cite journal |title=Die Absorption der durchdringenden Komponente der Höhenstrahlung |doi=10.1002/andp.19384250705 |year=1938 |last1=Heisenberg |first1=W. |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=425 |issue=7 |pages=594–599 |bibcode = 1938AnP...425..594H |authormask=1}} * W. Heisenberg ''Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern'', ''Nuovo Cimento'' Volume 15, 31–34; ''Verh. Dtsch. physik. Ges.'' Volume 19, 2 (1938) * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. I |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=120 |pages=513–538 |year=1943 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01329800 |issue=7–10|bibcode=1943ZPhy..120..513H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. II |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=120 |pages=673–702 |year=1943 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01336936 |issue=11–12|bibcode=1943ZPhy..120..673H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. III |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=123 |issue=1–2 |pages=93–112 |year=1944 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01375146|bibcode=1943ZPhy..123...93H }} * W. Heisenberg ''Zur Theorie der Supraleitung'', ''Forsch. Fortschr.'' Volumes 21/23, 243–244 (1947); ''Z. Naturforsch.'' Volume 2a, 185–201 (1947) * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Das elektrodynamische Verhalten der Supraleiter |journal=Z. Naturforsch. |volume=3a |issue=2 |pages=65–75 |year=1948 |authormask=1|bibcode=1948ZNatA...3...65H |doi=10.1515/zna-1948-0201 }} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=von Laue |last2=Laue |first2=W. |title=Das Barlowsche Rad aus supraleitendem Material |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=124 |pages=514–518 |year=1948 |bibcode=1948ZPhy..124..514H |doi=10.1007/BF01668888 |issue=7–12 }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Zur statistischen Theorie der Tubulenz |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=124 |pages=628–657 |year=1948 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01668899 |issue=7–12|bibcode=1948ZPhy..124..628H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=On the theory of statistical and isotropic turbulence |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society A]] |volume=195 |pages=402–406 |year=1948 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1948.0127 |issue=1042|bibcode=1948RSPSA.195..402H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Bemerkungen um Turbulenzproblem |journal=Z. Naturforsch. |volume=3a |pages=434–7 |year=1948 |authormask=1|bibcode=1948ZNatA...3..434H |doi=10.1515/zna-1948-8-1103 |doi-broken-date=2019-02-19 }} * {{cite journal |first=W. |last=Heisenberg |title=Production of mesons showers |journal=Nature |volume=164 |pages=65–67 |year=1949 |doi=10.1038/164065c0 |authormask=1 |issue=4158|bibcode=1949Natur.164...65H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Die Erzeugung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen |journal=Nuovo Cimento |volume=6 |issue=Suppl |pages=493–7 |year=1949 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF02822044|bibcode=1949NCim....6S.493H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über die Entstehung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=126 |pages=569–582 |year=1949 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01330108 |issue=6|bibcode=1949ZPhy..126..569H }} * W. Heisenberg ''On the stability of laminar flow'', ''Proc. International Congress Mathematicians'' Volume II, 292–296 (1950) * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Bermerkungen zur Theorie der Vielfacherzeugung von Mesonen |journal=[[Die Naturwissenschaften]] |volume=39 |page=69 |year=1952 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF00596818 |issue=3 |bibcode=1952NW.....39...69H}} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Mesonenerzeugung als Stosswellenproblem |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=133 |issue=1–2 |pages=65–79 |year=1952 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1952ZPhy..133...65H |doi=10.1007/BF01948683}} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=The production of mesons in very high energy collisions |journal=Nuovo Cimento |volume=12 |issue=Suppl |pages=96–103 |year=1955 |authormask=1|bibcode=1955NCim....2S..96H |doi=10.1007/BF02746079 }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Development of concepts in the history of quantum theory |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=389–394 |year=1975 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1975AmJPh..43..389H |doi=10.1119/1.9833}} Bahan artikel ieu dipréséntasikeun Heisenberg dina kuliah di Univérsitas Harvard. {{refend}} === Buku === * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NzMBh4ZxKJsC |year=1949 |isbn=978-0-486-60113-7 |origyear=1930 |publisher=Dover |authormask=1 |others=Panarjamah [[Carl Eckart|Eckart, Carl]]; Hoyt, F.C. }} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Das Naturbild der heutigen Physik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sm0YAAAAIAAJ |year=1955 |publisher=Rowohlt |authormask=1 |series=Rowohlts Enzyklopädie |volume=8}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Philosophic Problems of Nuclear Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWs5PQAACAAJ |year=1966 |publisher=Fawcett |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Physics and Beyond: Encounters and Conversations |url=https://archive.org/details/physicsbeyondenc0000heis |year=1971 |publisher=Harper & Row |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |first2=Jürgen |last2=Busche |title=Quantentheorie und Philosophie: Vorlesungen und Aufsätze |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtgWAQAAMAAJ |year=1979 |publisher=Reclam |isbn=978-3-15-009948-3 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Philosophical problems of quantum physics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BC4pAAAAYAAJ |year=1979 |publisher=Ox Bow |isbn=978-0-918024-14-5 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Tradition in Science |year=1983 |publisher=Seabury Press. |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Physik und Philosophie: Weltperspektiven |year=1988 |publisher=Ullstein Taschenbuchvlg. |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Encounters with Einstein: And Other Essays on People, Places, and Particles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FI9KD4jLPckC |year=1989 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02433-2 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |first2=Filmer |last2=Northrop |title=Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science (Great Minds Series) |year=1999 |publisher=Prometheus |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Der Teil und das Ganze: Gespräche im Umkreis der Atomphysik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28mmSwAACAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Piper |isbn=978-3-492-22297-6 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |editor1-first=Helmut |editor1-last=Rechenberg |title=Deutsche und Jüdische Physik |year=1992 |publisher=Piper |isbn=978-3-492-11676-3 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Physik und Philosophie: Weltperspektiven |year=2007 |publisher=Hirzel. |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJjuAAAAMAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-120919-2 |edition=reprint |authormask=1 |series=Harper Perennial Modern Classics}} <small>([https://archive.org/details/PhysicsPhilosophy téks penuh vérsi 1958]) </small> == Rujukan budaya == Heisenberg jadi inspirasi di balik "Heisenberg", [[alter égo]] [[Walter White (Breaking Bad)|Walter White]], [[protagonis]] utama ''[[Breaking Bad]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theweek.com/articles/459448/beyond-breaking-bad-meet-real-heisenberg|title=Beyond Breaking Bad: Meet the real Heisenberg|last=Conradt|first=Stacy|date=1 Oktober 2013|website=''[[The Week]]''|access-date=21 Maret 2019}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daftar pamanggih jeung invéntor Jérman]] * ''[[The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory]]'' == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Bacaan lanjutan == {{refbegin|60em}} * Born, Max ''The statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121019194414/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1954/born-lecture.pdf Kuliah Nobel] – 11 Désémber 1954. * Cassidy, David C. ''Werner Heisenberg : A Bibliography of His Writings, Second, Expanded Edition'' (Whittier, 2001) * {{cite journal|last=Cassidy|first=David C.|title=Heisenberg, Uncertainty and the Quantum Revolution|journal=Scientific American|pages=106–112|date=May 1992|url=http://web.williams.edu/chemistry/epeacock/EPL_CHEM_361/LEC_NOTES_F06/Lec4.Heisppr.pdf|bibcode=1992SciAm.266e.106C|volume=266|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0592-106|via=|issue=5}} * Dörries, Matthias ''Michael Frayn's 'Copenhagen' in Debate: Historical Essays and Documents on the 1941 Meeting Between Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg'' (Univérsitas California, 2005) * Fischer, Ernst P. ''Werner Heisenberg: Das selbstvergessene Genie'' (Piper, 2002) * Heisenberg, Werner "A Scientist's case for the Classics" (Harper's Magazine, Méi 1958, p. 25–29) * Heisenberg, Werner ''Across the Frontiers'' (Harper & Row, 1974) * Kleint, Christian and Gerald Wiemer ''Werner Heisenberg im Spiegel seiner Leipziger Schüler und Kollegen'' (Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2005) * {{cite book|author=Medawar, Jean: Pyke, David|title=Hitler's Gift: The True Story of the Scientists Expelled by the Nazi Regime|location=New York|pages=|publisher=Arcade Publishing|year=2012|type=paperback|isbn=978-1-61145-709-4}} * Papenfuß, Dietrich, [[Dieter Lüst]], and Wolfgang P. Schleich ''100 Years Werner Heisenberg: Works and Impact'' (Wiley-VCH, 2002) * [[Thomas Powers|Powers, Thomas]], "The Private Heisenberg and the Absent Bomb" (ulasan Werner jeung Elisabeth Heisenberg, ''My Dear Li: Correspondence, 1937–1946'', diédit ku Anna Maria Hirsch-Heisenberg jeung ditarjamahkeun ti basa Jérman ku Irene Heisenberg, Yale University Press, 312 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXIII, no. 20 (22 Désémber 2016, pp. 65–67. "Heisenberg, [[Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker]], and... [[Karl Wirtz]] [during World War II led] an effort [to prevent] a complete shutdown [of work toward a German atom bomb], which would condemn young physicists to military service... or takeover by Nazi extremists who might think an atomic bomb could still give Hitler a complete victory." (p. 66.) Desiring on ethical grounds to prevent the introduction of nucléar wéapons into the world, the key German nucléar physicists "'agreed... not to deny [the feasibility of] an atomic bomb, but... to [argue] that it could not be implemented within a realistic time frame...'" (p. 67.) * Rechenberg, Helmut und Gerald Wiemers ''Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), Schritte in die neue Physik'' (Sax-Verlag Beucha, 2001) * [[Richard Rhodes|Rhodes, Richard]] ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb'' (Simon jeung Schuster, 1986) * Schiemann, Gregor ''Werner Heisenberg'' (C.H. Beck, 2008) * von Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich and Bartel Leendert van der Waerden ''Werner Heisenberg'' (Hanser, Carl GmbH, 1977) * {{cite journal|last=Walker|first=Mark|title=National Socialism and German Physics|url=|journal=Journal of Contemporary Physics|volume=24|pages=63–89|year=1989|bibcode=1978Natur.272..738M|doi=10.1038/272738a0|via=|issue=5655}} * {{cite book|author=Walker|first=Mark|title=Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the German Atomic Bomb|publisher=Perseus|year=1995|isbn=|location=|pages=}} * {{cite journal|last=Walker|first=Mark|title=German Work on Nuclear Weapons|url=|journal=Historia Scientiarum; International Journal for the History of Science Society of Japan|volume=14|issue=3|pages=164–181|via=|year=2005}} {{refend}} == Tutumbu luar == {{commons|Werner Heisenberg}} * [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Heisenberg,+Werner Bibliografi Catatan pikeun Werner Heisenberg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100804001541/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FHeisenberg%2C+Werner |date=2010-08-04 }} ti [[Perpustakaan Digital Alsos pikeun Isu Nuklir]] * Biografi ''[[Arsip Sajarah Matematika MacTutor|MacTutor]]: [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Heisenberg.html Werner Karl Heisenberg]'' * [http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/ Heisenberg/Uncertainty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016175541/http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/bibliography/contents.htm |date=2012-10-16 }} biografi nu ditingalikeun ku [[Institut Fisika Amérika Serikat]]. * [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/people/heisenberg.html Participant Konci: Werner Heisenberg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920182447/http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/people/heisenberg.html |date=2012-09-20 }} – ''Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History'' * [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/heisenberg-bio.html Biografi Nobelprize.org] * [http://histclo.com/essay/war/ww2/cou/ger/weap/wmd/nuc/sci/wh-ment30.html Werner Heisenberg: Mentor Fisika Atom] * {{cite web |title=Oral history interview transcript with Werner Heisenberg |date=16 June 1970 |publisher=Institut Fisika Amérika Serikat, Perpustakaan & Arsip Niels Bohr |url=http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5027.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126113055/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5027.html |date=26 January 2013 }} * {{cite web |title=Oral history interview transcript with Werner Heisenberg |date=30 November 1962 |publisher=Institut Fisika Amérika Serikat, Perpustakaan & Arsip Niels Bohr |url=http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4661_1.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126121339/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4661_1.html |date=26 January 2013 }} * {{PM20|FID=pe/007478}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Heisenberg, Werner}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1901]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1976]] [[Kategori:Fisikawan Jérman]] az2wwsxdlulzpxopf95tdawjzpkhz6c 0 88357 711619 707269 2026-08-07T00:25:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711619 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = silver | name = Julung-Julung | status =LC | image = Xenentodon cancila (Wroclaw zoo)-1.JPG | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Julung-Julung | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Beloniformes]] | ordo_authority = S.Berg 1937 | familia = [[Belonidae]] [[Hemiramphedae]]<br> [[Zenarchopteridae]] | genus = | species = | range_map= | range_map_caption=Peta sebaran | binomial = | binomial_authority = }} [[Gambar:Belone graii Sykes.jpg|jmpl|Belonidae (needlefish)]] '''Julung-julung''' ('''Jungjulung''') dina bahasa sunda (ogé Indonésia) ngacu kana tilu jenis lauk ti tilu kulawarga nyaéta ''Belonidae'', ''Hemiramphidae'' jeung ''Zenarchopteridae,''<ref>''Zenarchopteridae'' asalna ''Zenarchopterinae'' sub kulawarga ti ''Hemiramphidae''. Kusumah, R.V., Kusrini, M., jeung Fahmi, M.R., (2018). ''Biologi, potensi dan upaya budidaya julung-julung Zenarchopteridae sebagai ikan hias asli Indonesia. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Ikan ke-8.'' Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Budidaya Ikan Hias, Depok, Jawa Barat. Kaca 8.</ref> nu mangrupa pengeusi ordo ''Beloniformes''. Contona sakumaha dituliskeun dina buku “''Ikan Air Tawar di Ekosistem Bukit Tiga Puluh''” meunang Tedjo Sukmono jeung Mira Margaretha ogé bisa disaliksik dina situs ''fishbase'', ''Xenentodon sp'' ti ''Belonidae'', ''Zenarchopterus dispar'' ti ''Zenarchopteridae'' sarta ''Hemirhamphodon tengah'' ti ''Hemiramphidae''.<ref name=":0">Sukmono, T. & Margaretha, M., 2017. ''Ikan Air Tawar di Ekosistem Bukit Tiga Puluh''. Yayasan Konservasi Ekosistem Hutan Sumatera dan Frankfurt Zoological Society, Jambi. Kaca 70-77.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fishbase.se/ListByLetter/CommonNamesj.htm|title=Common Names Beginning with "J"|last=|first=|website=Fishbase version (04/2019).|publisher=World Wide Web electronic publication|accessdate=06/09/2019}}</ref> Cirina meh sarua, sungutna monyong semu seukeut. ngan ari ''Belonidae'' mah biwir luhur handap nu panjangna téh, nu pinuh ku huntu nu ranggéténg (dina bahasa Inggris disebut ''needlefish'' hartina lauk jarum), ari ''Zenarchopteridae'' jeung ''Hemiramphidae'' mah biwir handapna wungkul (dina bahasa Inggris disebut ''halfbeak'', pamacok sapotong). Dina bahasa Indonésia, julung-julung disebut ogé ''ikan roa'' atawa ''ikan gepe''.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://manfaat.co.id/manfaat-ikan-julung|title=9 Manfaat Ikan Julung Untuk Kesehatan dan Aquarium|last=Maressa|first=|year=14 November 2017|website=Manfaat.co.id.|publisher=Manfaat.co.id|accessdate=06/09/2019}}</ref> Sedeng dina bahasa daérah séjén disebut: Kacangan, Loncong, Saku, Todak, Sindik, Sunduk, Sundoprono, Tracas, Kacang-Kacang.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Kawasan Konservasi Perairan dan Pengelolaan Perikanan Tangkap di Indonesia. Buku 3: Rencana Program dan Kegiatan Pembelajaran Semester (RPKPS)|last=Wiadnya|first=D.G.R.|publisher=Conservation International (CI) & Universitas Brawijaya|year=2011|isbn=|location=Malang|pages=168|url=http://wiadnyadgr.lecture.ub.ac.id/files/2012/01/4A_2-Alat-Tangkap.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713023437/http://wiadnyadgr.lecture.ub.ac.id/files/2012/01/4A_2-Alat-Tangkap.pdf |date=2018-07-13 }}</ref> [[Gambar:FMIB 46323 European Halfbeak.jpeg|jmpl|Hemiremphidae (halfbeak)]] Ciri-ciri  umum julung-julung séjénna, awakna paranjang langsing. Caréham luhur ngawangun segitiga. Sirip dada pondok atawa rada panjang, sirip tonggong jeung sirip handap posisina di tukang. Siripna teu cucukan,Sirip pelvic posisina dina beuteung. Garis lateral ti mimiti sirip péktoral semet ka tungtung awak.Sisitna baruleud jeung gampang lesot, ''Belonidae'' sisitna laleutik, sedeng ''Hemiramphidae'' jeung ''Zenarchopteridae'' relatif baradag. Julung-julung laut biasana tonggongna semu haréjo atawa bariru sedeng handapna barodas atawa kapérak-pérakan. Tungtung caréham/biwir handap lolobana  warna beureum atawa oranye.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Collette|first=B.B.|date=Februari 2004|title=Family Hemiramphidae Gill 1859 — halfbeaks.|url=|journal=Annotated Checklist of Fishes|series=Nomer 22|publisher=California Academy of Science, San Fransisco, USA|page=1|at=|nopp=|doi=|issn=1545-150X|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Collette|first=B.B.|date=Séptémber 2003|title=Family Belonidae Bonaparte 1832 - needlefishes|url=|journal=Annotated Checklist of Fishes|series=Nomer 16|publisher=California Academy of Science, San Fransisco, AS|issue=|page=1|doi=|issn=1545-150X|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Ari julung-julung cai darat mah warnana rupa-rupa teu kawengku ku hiji atawa dua warna.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7">Kusumah, R.V., Kusrini, M., jeung Fahmi, M.R., (2018). ''Biologi, potensi dan upaya budidaya julung-julung Zenarchopteridae sebagai ikan hias asli Indonesia. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Ikan ke-8.'' Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Budidaya Ikan Hias, Depok, Jawa Barat. Kaca 1. </ref> Panjang julung-julung mangrupa-rupa. Nu laleutik ti kulawarga ''Zenarchopteridae'', pangleutikna bisa ngan tilu séntian, nu garedé ti ''Belonidae'', bisa leuwih ti saméter.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fishbase.se/identification/SpeciesList.php?class=&order=Beloniformes&famcode=&areacode=&c_code=&depth=&spines=&fins=&TL=&BD=&resultPage=1&sortby=species|title=Fish Identification: Find Species|last=|first=|website=Other Identification Tools|publisher=Fishbase|accessdate=06/09/2019}}</ref> Dua genus anggota ''Hemiramphidhae'', nyaéta ''Chriodorus'' jeung ''Oxyporhamphus'', bisa waé teu disebut julung-julung lantaran mahiwal, biwirna parengek.<ref name=":1" /> ''Oxyporhamphus spp''. bisa disebut lauk layang, alatan wandana meh sarua, siripna leuwih panjang batan umumna julung-julung, sarta bisa ngalayang saluhureun beungeut cai.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/tempref/docrep/fao/009/x2400e/x2400e12.pdf|title=HEMIRAMPHIDAE Halfbeaks|last=Collette|first=B.B.|website=Hemiramphedae-FAO|publisher=FAO|accessdate=07/09/2019}}</ref> Sawatara lauk sauri ti ''Scomberesocidae'' bisa waé disebut julung-julung, tapi alatan teu hirup di Indonésia, can kapanggih rujukan nu nyebutkeunna. == Cara Hirup jeung Ambahan == Julung-julung bisa kapanggih boh di cai darat, cai laut ogé di cai anta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fishbase.se/Summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=207|title=Family Belonidae - Needlefishes|last=|first=|website=Fishbase|publisher=Fishbase|accessdate=06/09/2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fishbase.se/Summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=475|title=Family Hemiramphidae - Halfbeaks|last=|first=|website=Fishbase|publisher=Fishbase|accessdate=06/09/2019}}</ref> Tempat hirupna dina témpératur hawa tropis jeung haneut, bioma pelagik jeung tengah sagara dina lapis epipilagik<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fishes of the World|url=https://archive.org/details/fishesofworld0000nels_q3j5|last=J.S.|first=Nelson|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2006|isbn=0-471-25031-7|location=New Jersey|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fishesofworld0000nels_q3j5/page/279 279]-281}}</ref> (sahandapeun beungeut cai pisan).Julung-julung laut resep hirup sacara gorombolan.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Azkab|first=M.H.|date=1999|title=Pengenalan Jenis-Jenis Ikan Laut Ekonomi Penting di Indonesia|url=http://oseanografi.lipi.go.id/dokumen/oseana_xxiv(3)11-25.pdf|journal=Jurnal Oseana Vol. XXIV|publisher=LIPI|page=25|doi=|issn=0216-1877|pmid=|access-date=06/09/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711014354/http://oseanografi.lipi.go.id/dokumen/oseana_xxiv(3)11-25.pdf |date=2019-07-11 }}</ref> Cara baranghakanna, ''Hemiramphidae'' kaasup omnivora, ngahakanan alga, ''zooplankton'' jeung lauk-lauk leutik,<ref name=":3" /> ''Belonidae'' karnivora, réréana ngahakanan lauk-lauk laleutik, disabet ti sisi ku pamatukna tuluy dipuihkeun, dihakan hulu ti heula,<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/y4161e/y4161e34.pdf|title=Order BELONIFORMES BELONIDAE Needlefishes|last=Collette|first=B.B.|website=Order BELONIFORMES BELONIDAE - FAO|publisher=FAO|accessdate=06/09/19}}</ref> sedeng ''Zenarchopteridae'' ngahakanan végétasi cai, tapi ogé sok ngahakan geugeumeutan nu aya na beungeut cai atawa larva-larvana, endog lauk atawa lauk séjénna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.daftarikanhias.web.id/ikan-julung-julung-air-tawar/|title=Ikan Julung-Julung Air Tawar|last=|first=|website=Daftar Ikan Hias Ragam Ikan Hias|publisher=Daftar Ikan Hias|accessdate=06/09/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525193719/http://www.daftarikanhias.web.id/ikan-julung-julung-air-tawar/ |date=2019-05-25 }}</ref> Julung-julung baranahan ku cara endogan (ovipar), Julung-julung ngaluarkeun endog dina jumlah nu rea katut dibarengan ku filamen pangrapet. tilu genus tina lima genus kulawarga ''Zenarchopteridae'' (''Hemirhamphodon'', ''Dermogenys'', jeung ''Nomorhamphus'') baranahan ku cara ngajuru (vivivpar), kajaba spesies ''Hemirhamphodon'' ''tengah''. Lauk jaluna ngamodif sirip analna jadi andropodium.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reznick|first=D.|last2=Meredith|first2=R.|last3=Collette|first3=B.B.|date=November 2007|title=Independent Evolution of Complex Life History Adaptation in two Families of Fishes, Live-Bearing Halfbeaks (Zenarchopteridae Beloniformes) and Poeciilidae (Cyprinodontiformes)|url=https://www.montclair.edu/profilepages/media/5008/user/Reznick_et_al._2007_Independent_evolution_of_complex_life_history_adaptations_in_two_families_of_fishes,_live-bearing_halfbeaks_(Zenarchopteridae,_Beloniformes)_and_Poeciliidae_(Cyprinodontiformes).pdf|journal=Journal compilation, The Society for the Study of Evolution|series=Evolution 61-11|page=2571|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00207.x|pmid=|access-date=06/09/19}}</ref> (samodel saluran pikeun nyalurkeun sperma mangsa kawin). Sawatara julung-julung ti ''Belonidae'' sarta ''Euleptorhamphus viridis'' bisa ngalayang saluhureun cai cara ‘dulur sabrayna’, ''ikan terbang'' ti kulawarga ''Exocoetidae.''<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ''Belonidae'' kadang sok nyerang manusa nu na parahu atawa nu keur nyelam, jalma nu katarajang bisa semet ka tatu parna, utamana ti peuting nalika si lauk kataji ku cahaya lampu.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> ''Belonidae'' (''needlefish'') bisa ngajaul saluhuren cai nepi ka 2 méterna, pikeun ngarah mangsa di jero cai. Julung-julung marga ''halfbeaks'' ogé sarua bisa luncat, ngan ari ''belonidae'' mah pikeun nyiar mangsa, ari ''halfbeaks'' mah pikeun nyingkahan pamangsa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://intisari.grid.id/read/0338625/needlefish-jadi-ikan-pertama-yang-melompat-keluar-dair-air-dan-menyerang-mangsanya-di-udara|title=Needlefish Jadi Ikan Pertama yang Melompat Keluar dair Air dan Menyerang Mangsanya di Udara|last=Sulaeman|first=Ade|website=Intisari Online|publisher=Kompas Gramedia|accessdate=10/09/2019}}</ref> Julung-julung resepna hirup dina cacaian tropis jeung sub tropis nu haneut, Sumebar nerekab di dunia dina dua iklim eta. Sawatara leutik aya nu hirup di daerah Skandinavia jeung laut kaler. ''Zenarchopteridae'' harirupna leuwih endemik di kawasan Indo Pasifik Kulon. Genus ''Nomorhamphus'' sawates di kapuloan Sulawesi jeung Pilipina, Demorgensys jeung ''Hemiramphodon'' sumebar éklusif di kuloneun Garis Wallace (Indo-Burma, Paparan Sunda jeung Philipina), ''Tondanichthys'' pituin Sulawési. Ngan ''Zenarchopterus'' nu rada nerekab teh, ti mimiti basisir wétan Afrika, kapuloan Mikronesia jeung Polinesia, Paparan Sunda tug nepi ka Ustrali.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=475|title=Family Hemiramphidae - Halfbeaks|last=|first=|website=Fishbase|publisher=Fishbase|accessdate=07/09/2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://inaturalist.ca/taxa/51485-Beloniformes|title=Needlefishes, Halfbeaks, and Allies Order Beloniformes|last=|first=|website=iNaturalist.ca|publisher=|accessdate=10/09/19}}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Pamangfaatan == Sababaraha jenis julung-julung sok dikonsumsi, sababaraha jenis deui nu katempo endah sok dijadikeun lauk hias. Aya ogé nu dijieun minangka eupan keur nangkep lauk nu leuwih gedé, saperti lumba-lumba, lauk pedang atawa makarél. Julung-julung ditangkep maké heurap insang / soma antoni, soma giob atawa make pancing.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> [[Gambar:Hemiramphus.jpg|jmpl|Hemiramphus sp.]] <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="IN"></span></span>Julung-julung nu biasa dikonsumsi nyaéta ''Hemiramphus sp''., dikenal ogé kusebutan lauk roa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Patty|first=D.N.|last2=Dotulong|first2=V.|last3=Suwetja|first3=I.K.|date=2015|others=|title=MUTU IKAN ROA (Hemirhamphus sp.) ASAP YANG ADA DI PASAR TRADISIONAL DI KOTA MANADO YANG DISIMPAN PADA SUHU RUANG|url=https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/112916-ID-none.pdf|journal=Jurnal Teknologi Hasil Media Perikanan|series=|volume=Vol. III No. 2|page=1|doi=|pmid=|access-date=06/09/2019}}</ref> Ti jenis ''Belonidae'' gé sabenerna mah ngeunah, tapi jalma-jalma teu pati narimakeun alatan réa cucuk sarta tulangna nu warna héjo.<ref name=":4" /> Dijual minangka lauk seger, lauk asin atawa lauk meunang ngahaseupan.<ref name=":8" /> Kiwari geus di jual dina wanda sambel toplés jeung olahan pais sagala.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tokopedia.com/find/ikan-julung-julung|title=Jual Ikan Julung-Julung Harga Terbaru 2019|last=|first=|website=Tokopedia|publisher=PT Tokopedia|accessdate=07/09/19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126125451/https://www.tokopedia.com/find/ikan-julung-julung |date=2025-01-26 }}</ref> Julung-julung ngandung nutrisi-nutirisi penting saperti zat beusi, protein tinggi, ''flour'', omega 3 jeung 5, vitamin B, D jeung E, sarta lemak teu jinuh.<ref name=":6" /> Anapon mangfaat julung-julung minangka nutrisi pikeun kaséhatan nyaéta: 1.    Ngalancarkeun peujit. 2.    Ningkatkeun kamekaran otak budak. 3.    Nurunkeun kolesterol. 4.    Ngandung vitamin B Kompléks jeung D. 5.    Ningkatkeun kacerdasan. 6.    Nyegah masalah tulang. 7.    Nyegah huntu bolong. 8. Ngubaran ''aterosklerosis'' (panyempitan urat getih).<ref name=":6" /> 9. Ngandung antioksidan jeung nyegah kanker.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://takaitu.id/manfaat-sambal-roa-bagi-kesehatan-yang-jarang-diketahui/|title=Inilah 4 Manfaat Sambal Roa bagi Kesehatan yang Jarang Diketahui, Guys!|last=Hepy|first=Dewi|website=Takaitu.id|publisher=Takaitu.id|accessdate=09/09/19}}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> 10. Tulang julung-julung ngandung kalsium tinggi,bisa diolah jadi campuran kurupuk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deborah|first=T.|last2=Afrianto|first2=E.|last3=Pratama|first3=R.I.|date=Juni 2016|title=Fortifikasi Tulang Julung-Julung sebagai Sumber Kalsium terhadap Tingkat Kesukaan Kerupuk|url=http://jurnal.unpad.ac.id/jpk/article/download/13935/6673|journal=Jurnal Perikanan Kelautan|volume=Vol. VII No. 10|page=48-53|doi=|pmid=|access-date=07/09/19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919223853/http://jurnal.unpad.ac.id/jpk/article/download/13935/6673 |date=2023-09-19 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus02.jpg|jmpl|Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus]] [[Gambar:Dermogenys pusilla by OpenCage.jpg|jmpl|Dermogenys pusilla]] Minangka lauk hias, julung-julung didominasi ku genus ''Dermogenys'', ''Hemiramphodon'', ''Zenarchopterus'' jeung ''Nomorhampus,''<ref name=":7" /><sup>306</sup> tapi aya ogé ti marga ''belonidae'' nu bisa dijieun lauk hias. Sawatara spesies julung-julung nu sok dijieun lauk hias di antarana: ''Hemirhamphodon phaisoma, H. pogonagnathus'' (wrestling halfbeak)'', H. tengah, Zenarchopterus buffonis, Z. dispar, Z. sp., Strongylura sp., Xenentodon sp'', <ref name=":0" /> ''Darmogenys orientalis, D. pusilla, H. kapuasensis, H. kuekenthali, H. cf. tengah, H. sumatrana, Namorhamphus celebensis, N. ebrardtii, N. liemi, N. sp. Nuha, N. ravnaki, N. rex, N. Towoetii''<ref name=":7" /><sup>311</sup> jeung ''Xenentodon cancilia''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fishbase.se/summary/10124|title=Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton, 1822) Freshwater garfish|last=|first=|website=Fishbase|publisher=Fishbase|accessdate=07/09/2019}}</ref> [[Gambar:Female Dermogenys sumatrana.jpeg|jmpl|Dermogenys sumatrana bikang]] <br /> == Referensi == bud2698zlnxuhvuf3gqduir7pqirsbq 0 88371 711715 710863 2026-08-07T02:21:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711715 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Jalma|name=Gary Lineker|image=Gary Lineker 2011.jpg|image_size=200|caption=Lineker tahun 2011|birth_name=Gary Winston Lineker|birth_place=[[Leicester]], Inggris|height=|occupation=Penyiar Siaran Olahraga, Manten Pamaen Bola|spouse={{marriage|Michelle Cockayne|1986|2006|reason=divorced}}<br>{{marriage|[[Danielle Lineker|Danielle Bux]]|2009|2016|reason=divorced}}|children=4|parents=Barry Lineker<br>Margaret Abbs|salary=£1.5&nbsp;juta (approx.) (Gajih BBC)|Lahir={{birth date and age|1960|11|30|df=y}}}} '''Gary Winston Lineker''' OBE (weton 30 November 1960) manten pamaen bola profesional Inggris, ayeuna jadi penyiar acara olahraga. Jinisna nyepeng rekor gol Inggris di Piala Dunia FIFA ku 10 gol. Karir media Lineker dimimitian jeung BBC, di mana dirina mawakeun program menbal ''Match of the Day'' nepi ka akhir salapan puluhan. Dirina ogé kungsi gawe di Al Jazaara Sports, Eredivisie Live, NBC Sport Network jeung kiwari jadi host BT Sport’s ngaliput Liga Champions UEFA. Lineker ngamimitan karir menbalna di Leicester City tahun 1978, rengse tahun 1984-85 jadi top scorer bareng di Divisi Hiji. Dirina tuluy pindah ka pangilon Liga Champions Everton, di mana dirina numbuh jadi panyerang éféktifku nyetak 30 gol tina 41 kali maen. Kahormatan munggaranna kapibanda basa maen di Barcelona basa meunangkeun Piala Liga Spanyol tahun 1988 jeung Piala Winner Eropa di taun 1989. Mulang deui ka Inggris taun 89, gabung jeung Tottenham Hotspur. Salila tilu usum nyetak 67 gol tina 105 kali maen tur meunangkeun Piala FA. Klub pamungkas Lineker nyaéta Nagoya Grampus Eight, sarta tuluy pangsiun sanggeus dua usum di Jepang. Lineker ngamimitan maen pikeun Inggris di taun 1984. Mibanda 80 ''caps'' nyetak 48 gol salila 8 taun karir internasionalna. mangrupa sekor katilu pangluhurna, sahandapeun Bobby Charlton jeung Wayne Rooney. Rasio gol banding jumlah maen Lineker masih panggungulna di nagarana. ku kituna Lineker kajojo jadi salah sahiji panyerang Inggris pinunjul sapanjang waktu. Lineker mangrupa ''top scorer'' di Piala Dunia 1986 tur meunangkeun Sapatu Emas, ngan hiji-hijina urang Inggris nu bisa kitu, semet ka Harry Kane di Piala Dunia 2018. Dirina ogé mangrupa hiji-hijna pamaen nu bisa jadi ''top scorer'' di Inggris ti tilu klub nu beda (Leicester City, Everton jeung Tottenham Hotspur). Najan karirna panjang, Lineker can kungsi meunang kartu koneng atawa beureum.<ref name="kielty">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/patrickkielty/guests/gary_lineker.shtml|title=Northern Ireland – Patrick Kielty, Almost Live|publisher=BBC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031214002405/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/patrickkielty/guests/gary_lineker.shtml|archive-date=14 December 2003|accessdate=3 May 2016|date=14 December 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2005/aug/10/theknowledge.sport|title=Multi-talented footballers|last=Dart|first=James|date=10 August 2005|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> WalhasilLineker diganjar pangajén FIFA Fair Play Award di taun 1990. Dina karir seniorna salila 16 taun sarta 567 kali maen, Lineker geus nyitak total 330 gol, kaasup 282 gol di tingkat kleb. Sanggeus pangsiun tina maenbal dirina diasupkeun kana ''English Footbal Hall of Fame''. Salaku bobotoh satia Leicester City, Lineker mimpin hiji konsorsiun nu neundeun investasi di klub heubeulna, nyalametkeun tina kabangkrutan sarta tuluy ditunjuk jadi wakil présidén kahormatan. == Kahirupan wanci ngora == Lineker lahir di Leicester, putra ti Margaret P jeung Barry Lineker.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.englandfootballonline.com/TeamPlyrsBios/PlayersL/BioLinekerGW.html|title=Gary Lineker|work=englandfootballonline.com|accessdate=26 June 2018|author=|date=15 April 2016}}</ref> Ngaran tengah Winston dicokot ti Winston Churchill nu tanggal lahirna sarua.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-big-interview-gary-lineker-mhhxl325rzj|title=The big interview: Gary Lineker|last=Lovejoy|first=Joe|work=The Times|accessdate=29 June 2018|date=14 March 2004}}</ref> Boga adi ngaranna Wayne,<ref name="Observer3">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/apr/08/golf.broadcasting|title=He's still the golden shot|last=Ferguson|first=Euan|date=8 April 2007|work=[[The Observer]]|accessdate=15 December 2008}}</ref> dua taun sahandapeun, Gede bareng kulaargana di kota, Lineker remen maenbal jeung adina. Bapana Lineker usaha toko bubuahan di Leicester, kitu ogé baheula akina William jeung uyutna Géorge.<ref name="Observer3"/> Bapana ngajalankeun kios sayuran jeung buah-buahan di pasar Leicester. Keur budak basa jadi pamaen ngora kénéh Lineker remen ngabantuan di kios.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/news/leicester-news/tributes-pour-after-gary-lineker-391946|title=Tributes pour in after Gary Lineker announces his father's death|work=[[Leicester Mercury]]|accessdate=16 September 2017|date=29 August 2017}}</ref> Lineker mimiti asup ka Sakola Caldecote Road (SD Caldecote),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caldecote.leicester.sch.uk|title=Caldecote Primary|publisher=Caldecote.leicester.sch.uk|accessdate=19 January 2013}}</ref> Braunstone di Leicester (wetanen Meridian Centre), sakitu netepna mah di luar dayeuh. Tuluy asup ka Sakola Boy's Grammar Kota Leicester (kiwari Kampus Kota Leicester) di Downing Drive Evington di puser dayeuh Leicester ku lantaran resep kénéh maenbal dibanding rugby, rugby harita mangrupa olahraga utama di sakola-sakola sabudeureun imahna.Walhasil, mangsa harita, dirina cicing di ninina nu netep di kota. Lineker boga bakat nu sarua antara maenbal jeung crikcet. Ti umur 11 nepi 16 ngaptenan tim Sakola Leicestershire, tur ngarasa bakal leuwih sukses dina crickett manan dina bola. Basa wanci ngorana Lineker maen di Aylestone Park Youth, nu pikahareunpeunna jadi présidén klub.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/leicestershire/7934620.stm Grass-roots football gets £11m] BBC News, 10 March 2009</ref> Lineker ninggalkeun sakola ku opat program ''O Levels''. Salah sahiji guruna nulis dian rapotna yén dirina "konsentrasi teuing kana menbal' jeung dirina kudu "tong hirup tina éta". Lineker tuluy gabung ka akademi muda di Leicester City di taun 1976.<ref name="indep">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/passedfailed-an-education-in-the-life-of-gary-lineker-match-of-the-day-presenter-and-former-footballer-1915343.html|title=Passed/Failed: An education in the life of Gary Lineker|date=4 March 2010|work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref> == Karir Klub == === Leicester City === Lineker ngamimitian karirna di kleb kotana Leicester City sanggeus bérés sakola di taun 1977. Jadi pamaen profesional dina musin 1978-79, début seniorna dimimitian dina poé Taun Baru 1979 nalika ngéléhkeun Oldham Athletic di Divisi Dua di Filber Street. Lineker meunangkeun gelar juara Divisi Dua sataun ka hareupna ku 19 kali tampil, tapi di taun 1980-81 ngan maen 9 kali basa Leicester langsung ngalaman kamunduran. Najan kitu, di tahun 1981-82 dirina jadi pamaen reguler, nyitak 19 gol di total kabéh kompetisi usum éta. Sanajan gagal promosi, Leicester hasil nepi ka semifinal Piala FA, sarta tahun hareupna mampu naek promosi, harita Lineker nyitak 26 gol di Divisi Dua. Di taun 1983-84 Lineker munggaran ngarasakeun maen reguler di Divisi Hiji sarta jadi kadua pangluhurna dina nyitak gol ku 22 gol. Najan kitu Leicester gagal asup papan atas. Taun 1984-85. Lineker jadi ''top scorer'' bareng di Divisi Utama ku 24 gol, ngalaman suburna mimitran jeung Alan Smith. Dina wanci éta dirina narik perhatian kleb-kleb nu leuwih gedé, sarta pindah ti Filbert Street geus mangrupa kapastian. === Everton === Dina panutupan usum taun 1985, Everton, juara bertahan liga champions neken Lineker ku £800.000; Lineker nyitak 40 gol tina 57 maen pikeun tim anyarna di taun 1985-86. Lineker ogé mimpin deui panyitak gol di Divisi Hiji, ayeuna ku 30 gol (kaasup 3 kali hattricks), jeung ngarojong Everton ka posisi ka-dua di Liga. Harita Everton nepi ka final Piala FA noron ka tilu kalina, tapi eleh 3-1 ku Liverpool, najan Lineker mere kaunggulan tiheula sanggeus ngunggulan lumpat Alan Hansen pikeun nyetak gol. Liverpool ogé ngunggulan Everton ngajuaraan liga ku ngan dua poin. "Kuring ngan ukur sakeudeung di Merseyside, 9 atawa 10 bulan, tapi éta mangrupa kabagjaan pribadi, sacara profesional mangrupa periode paling sukses dina karir kuring," ceuk Lineker, "Kuring masih kénéh boga hubungan batin jeung Everton." Lineker nyetak tilu ''hattrick'' pikeun Everton. Lineker sacara konsisten netelakeun yén mangsa di Everton mangrupa mangsa panghadéna salila dirina maen. === Barcelona === Sanggeus meunangkeun Sapatu Emas di Piala Dunia 1986 di Meksiko, Lineker neken kontrak jeung Barcelona ku £2,8 juta. Harita Barcelona keur dilatih ku manten manajer Queens Park Rangers, Terry Venables, nu ogé narik striker Manchester United jeung Wales, Mark Hughes. Barcelona mere kasempetan munggaran pikeun Lineker keur maen di tingkat Eropa, Leicester mah can kungsi lolos ka liga Eropa basa Lineker keur maen kénéh téh, kitu deui Everton dilarang maen di Liga Eropa dina taun 1985-86 alatan diterapkeunna larangan maen pikeun klub-klub Inggris di kompetisi Eropa alatan tragedi Heysel. Hasil Sapatu Emas di final téa medalkeun paluang pikeun sukses di Camp Nou, Lineker teu nguciwakeun, nyetak 21 gol tina 41 kali maen di musim kahijina, kaasup ''hattrick'' waktu meunang 3-2 ngalawan satru kabuyutan réal Madrid.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.talkfootball.co.uk/guides/football_legends_gary_lineker.html|title=Gary Lineker|publisher=Talk Football|accessdate=9 March 2008}}</ref> Barcelona menangkeun Copa del Rey di 1988 jeung Piala Winner Eropa di 1989. Lineker maen basa Barcelena eleh tandang tur kandang sacara teu disangka-sangka di Dundee United. Manajer Barcelona Johan Cruyff nempatkeun Lineker di gelandang katuhu sarta tungtungna mah Lineker teu jadi pilihan utama tim deui. Ku 42 gol tina 103 kali tampil di La Liga, Lineker jadi pancitak gol Inggris pangunggulna dina sajarah kompetisi, Tapi ka dieuna kasusul ku Gareth Bale di taun 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-3502065/Gary-Lineker-loses-British-scoring-record-La-Liga-Gareth-Bale-takes-crown.html|title=Gareth Bale breaks La Liga British scoring record as Gary Lineker loses the crown|date=21 March 2016|work=[[Daily Mail]]|accessdate=3 May 2016}}</ref> === Tottenham Hotspur === Manajer Manchester United, Alex Ferguson nyoba narik Lineker lewat mantan batur nyerangna di Barcelona, Mark Hughes, tapi Lineker malah milih ka Tottenham Hotspur di Juli 1989 ku nilai kontrak £1,1 juta. Salila tilu usum nyetak 67 gol tina 105 kali maen jeung meunangkeun Piala FA pikeun klubna. Mereskeun Divisi Hiji salaku top scorer di taun 1989-90, nyitak 24 gol, sarta Spurs nincak di posisi ka-tilu. Lineker akhirna menangkeun tropi Inggris waktu meunangkeun Piala FA taun 1991 jeung Spurs, ngéléhkeun Nottingham Forest 2-1. Najan éta ge Lineker dianggap nyitak gol kontroversi nu kuduna ofset jeung ogé pinaltina gagal, katahan ku kiper Mark Crossley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mirrorfootball.co.uk/archive/E-ON-Great-Saves-1991-FA-Cup-final-special-Totttenham-2-1-Nottingham-Forest-unseen-pictures-of-Mark-Crossley-Gary-Lineker-Brian-Clough-and-co-plus-original-Daily-Mirror-match-reports-and-features-from-our-archive-article321299.html|title=E.ON Great Saves No.6: Mark Crossley|publisher=Mirror Football|accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref> Lineker geus ngarojong Tottenham lolos ka final. Di semi final dirina nyitak dua gol basa meunang 3-1 hiji ngalawan saingan sakota ti North London, Arsenal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/sport/821636-tottenham-v-arsenal-top-five-north-london-derbies|title=Tottenham v Arsenal: Top five North London derbies|work=[[Metro (British newspaper)|Metro]]|accessdate=29 May 2011|date=14 April 2010}}</ref> Lineker nyanking posisi kadua panyitak gol pangluhurna dina 1991-92 ku 28 gol tina 35 maen, handapeun Ian Wright nu nyitak 29 gol tina 43 maen. Sakitu pintonan personalna hadé, Tottenham ngarengsekeun akhir liga pre-Premier dina posisi ka-15. Gol pamungkas Lineker dina menbal Inggris datang di akhir musim basa eleh 3-1 ku Manchester United di Old Trafford. === Nagoya Grampus Eight === Bulan November 1991, Lineker meunang tawaran dua taun kontrak ti anggota Liga J1 Nagoya Grampus Eight. Biaya transfer £2 juta dibayarkeun ka Tottenham Hotspur. Sacara resmi Lineker gabung ka Nagoya Grampus Eight sanggeus maen nu panungtungan pikeun Spurs dina tanggal 2 Mei 1992, nyitak gol hiburan basa eleh 3-1 ti Manchester United dina poéan panungtungan usum éta.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsint-archive.co.uk/pages/S.asp?pubsel=BOTH&SrchText=Lineker&edn=&DateFromDD=01&DateFromMM=Sep&DateFromYY=1991&page=&SortOrder=Asc&SortOrder=asc&SortOrder=asc&SortOrder=asc&SortSpec=&DateToDD=30&DateToMM=Nov&ResultListMax=200&Submit1=Search&source=thetimes&DateToYY=1991&byline=&head=&Collection=NI%C2%A7%3D&Caption=&SortField=SDate&SortField=Pub&SortField=EDN&SortField=Page&ST=NS&Site=ALL&ResultCount=20&BackDD=Day&summreqd=yes&QueryText=%28Lineker%29+%3CAND%3E+%28PUB%3DBOTH%29+%3CAND%3E+%28%28SDate%3E%3D9%2F1%2F1991%29+%3CAND%3E+%28SDate%3C%3D11%2F30%2F1991%29%29&BackMM=Month&indexkey=3D12283075330327469E230&advsrch=0&BackYY=Year&_P=5&ResultMaxDocs=200&|title=''The Times'' and ''The Sunday Times'' Archive|publisher=Newsint-archive.co.uk|accessdate=29 May 2011}}{{dead link|date=February 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Memehna pisan, Tottenham nolak tawaran ti klub nu pinuh ambisi, Blackburn, nu karak dicepeng ku Jack Walker.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1353251/Jack-Walker.html|title=Jack Walker|date=19 August 2000|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|accessdate=29 May 2011}}</ref> Sanggeus nyetak 9 gol tina 23 kali maen salila dua musim nu direwong ku cidera<ref name="scmp">{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/article/50591/lineker-broken-right-toe|title=Lineker: broken right toe|publisher=}}</ref> bareng Nagoya Grampus Eight, Lineker ngumumkeun reureuhna tina maen bola di Bulan September 1994. Media Inggris mah memehna geus ngawartakeun yén dirina bakal balik ka Inggris pikeun ngumplitan karir maenna di Middlesbrough atawa Southampton.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football-lineker-the-predator-with-mass-appeal-by-retiring-now-the-striker-with-the-wholesome-image-1450427.html|title=Football: Lineker, the predator with mass appeal: By retiring now, the striker with the wholesome image has again shown perfect timing. Phil Shaw reports|last1=Shaw|first1=Phil|date=22 September 1994|work=The Independent|accessdate=6 July 2016}}</ref> == Karir internasional == Lineker kungsi maen sakali di tim nasional Inggris B, menang kandang 2-0 lawan Selandia Baru B tanggal 13 November 1984. Lineker mimiti maen full di tim Inggris basa ngalawan Skotlandia taun 1984. Dirina maen lima kali di Piala Dunia 1986 jeung jadi ''top scorer'' turnamen ku 6 gol, meunangkeun sapatu emas, ngajadikeun dirina pamaen Inggris munggaran nu bisa kitu. Lineker nyetak ''hattrick'' kadua pangterehna di turnamen Piala Dunia FIFA lawan Polandia, pamaen Inggris kadua nu bisa nyitak ''hattrick'' di Piala Dunia, sarta nyetak dua gol lawan Paraguay di puteran kadua. Ampir salila turnamen dirina mamake perban gip dina leungeunna.Lineker nyetak gol pikeun Inggris di parapat final lawan Argentina, tapi antukna eleh lantaran Diego Maradona nyetak dua gol pikeun tim lawan (gol kahiji jadi ''hand'' "Tangan Tuhan", jeung gol nu kadua jadi "Gol Abad Ieu"). Di taun 1988, Lineker maen di Piala Eropa 88, tapi gagal nyitak gol, Inggris eleh tiluan kalina maen dina puteran Grup. Kadieunakeun katohian yén Lineker geus mimiti katarajang hepatitis.<ref>C. Malam, p. 100.</ref><ref>The first was against [[Spain national football team|Spain]] 18 February 1987 and the second time against [[Malaysia national football team|Malaysia]] 12 June 1991.</ref> Di Piala Dunia 1990, Lineker nyetak opat gol pikeun ngarojong Inggris nepi ka semifinal sabada memehna seri waé jeung ngan meunang ipis. Dirina keur teu ngarareunah salila turnamen, sarta kababayan basa maen bubuka grup lawan Republik Irlandia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.joe.ie/uncategorized/lineker-admits-to-shitting-himself-literally-against-ireland-at-italia-90/12833|title=Lineker Admits to Shitting Himself (Literally) Against Ireland at Italia '90|work=Joe|accessdate=20 April 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407051908/http://www.joe.ie/uncategorized/lineker-admits-to-shitting-himself-literally-against-ireland-at-italia-90/12833 |date=7 April 2015 }}</ref> Sabada tinggaleun 1-0 ku gol Andréas Brehme di semi final, Lineker nampa operan ti Paul Parker jeung nembus dua pamaen tukang Jerman Barat pikeun nyaruakeun skor, tapi Jerman Barat meunang gul-gulan jeung tuluy meunangkeun piala. Sanggeusna Lineker nyarita; "Menbal téh permaenan nu sederhana; 22 pamaen ngundag hiji bal salila 90 menit, jeung tungtungna Jerman meunang."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/players/do-you-remember/newsid=1010260/index.html|title=Classic Players – Lineker, still at the top – FIFA:|publisher=FIFA|accessdate=25 November 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714021630/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/players/do-you-remember/newsid=1010260/index.html |date=14 July 2014 }}</ref> Lineker pangsiun ti menbal internasional ku 81 ''cap'' jeung 48 gol, sagol leuwih leutik ti rekor Inggris Sir Bobby Charlton (tina 106 ''cap''). Dina anu kasebut laga Inggris pamungkasna, lawan Swedia di Piala Eropa 1992, dirina diganti ku palatih Inggris Graham Taylor ku striker Arsenal, Alan Smith, ngilangkeun kasempetan pikeun nyaruaan - atawa ngaleuwihan - rekor Charlton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.englandfootballonline.com/Seas1990-00/1991-92/M0688Swe1992.html|title=Sweden 2 England 1 Match Summary and Report|work=England Football Online|publisher=EnglandInteractive|accessdate=19 May 2010|date=17 June 1992}}</ref> Samemehna Lineker gagal nyitak pinalti nu bisa nyaruakeun rekorna, di pre-turnamen sosobatan lawan Brazil.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/gallery/2009/nov/12/england-brazil-previous-meetings?picture=355511205|title=Past encounters between England and Brazil|date=12 November 2009|work=The Guardian|accessdate=19 May 2010}}</ref> Lineker kaciri kuciwana kana kaputusan éta téh, teu ngareret-rerert acan ka Taylor basa asup ka tempat cadangan. Dina dua kali kajadian, Lineker nyitak opat gol pikeun Inggris sarta Lineker mangrupa hiji tina ngan sababaraha urang pamaen nu can kungsi nampa kartu koneng atawa beureum dina sagala tipe permaenan.<ref>Malam, pp. 140, 141.</ref> == Karir Media == Nuluykeun reureuhna tina maenbal profesional, Lineker ngembangkeun karir di media, asup ka BBC Radio 5 Live salaku narasumber maenbal memeh ngagantikeun Des Lynam salaku pamawa warta liputan maenbal di BBC, kaasup ogé program nu maké bandera menbal, ''Match of the Day''. Lineker ogé jadi kapten tim di pintonan olahraga ''They Think It's All Over'' ti taun 1995 nepi ka 2003. Saincahna Steve Rider ti BBC, Lineker, nu jago dina golf hiburan ku sa-''handicap'' tina opat, jadi presenter piken liputan golf BBC. ogé midangkeun ''Grandstand'' di studio London mangsa harita Desmond Lynam keur di Aintree basa Grand National keur ditutup alatan ancaman bom dina balapan taun 1997. Najan meunang kritikan ti sasamana,<ref name="Observer3"/> Lineker nuluykeun hanca liputan BBC di ''the Masters and the Open'', di mana dirina nunjukkeun kamampuan bahasana ku cara wawancara dadakan jeung pamaen Argentina Andres Romero dina bahasa Spanyol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.churchtimes.co.uk/content.asp?id=42724|title=A sporting chance for unity|work=Church Times|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227073407/http://www.churchtimes.co.uk/content.asp?id=42724|archivedate=27 December 2008|accessdate=3 August 2009|author=Simon Parke|deadurl=yes}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227073407/http://www.churchtimes.co.uk/content.asp?id=42724 |date=27 December 2008 }}</ref> Lineker ogé tampil dina acara taun 1991 ''Pasosore jeung Gary Lineker'' beunang Arthur Smith jeung Chris England, nu tuluy diadaptasi pikeun acara tivi taun 1994. Lineker midangkeun seri TV genep babak pikeun BBC di taun 1998 (didirekturan ku Lloyd Stanton) nu disebut ''Sapatu Emas'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0149464/|title=Golden Boots|publisher=IMDb|accessdate=14 October 2012}}</ref> bareng jeung selebritis maenbal sejenna. Mangrupankeun kapanjangan sajarah tina Piala Dunia, fokus kana 'Sapatu Emas' (''top scorers''). 2001, Lineker tampil dina acara TV ''Brass Eye'' (episode "Paedogeddon").<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1335764/Celebrities-fail-to-see-the-joke-on-Brass-Eye.html|title=Celebrities fail to see the joke on Brass Eye|last=O'Neill|first=Sean|date=30 July 2001|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> Taun 2002, Lineker ngilu tampil sacara ''cameo'' dina film ''Bend it Like Beckham''. Taun 2005, Lineker ditungtut karena dianggap mitnah ku pamaen Ustrali Harry Kewell gara-gara komentar Lineker dina The Sunday Telegraph ngeunaan pindahan Kewell ti Leeds United ka Liperpool. Tapi juri gagal nangtukeun putusan. Kapanggih dina kasus éta téh rehna artikelna meunang di tulis tonggong ku jurnalis Sunday Telegraph sanggeus wawancara telepon jeung Lineker.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://football.guardian.co.uk/News_Story/0,1563,1520864,00.html|title=Lineker and Kewell settle libel case out of court|last=Booth|first=Robert|date=4 July 2006|work=The Guardian|accessdate=13 November 2006}}</ref> Taun 2006, Lineker nyokot peran akting salaku pangeusi sora ''Underground Ernie'' di saluran BBC Barudak, ''CBeebies''.<ref name="UndergroundErnie">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4326588.stm|title=Tube trains get lines in series|date=10 October 2005|work=BBC News|publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=3 June 2015}}</ref> Desember 2008, Lineker minton di program télévisi ITV1 ''Who Wants to be a Millionaire?'' di mana dirina jeung pamaen rugby Inggris Austin Héaley menang £50.000 pikeun disumbangkeun ka Yayasan Cidera Tulang Belakang Nicholls. Taun 2009, Lineker jeung geureuhana, Danielle, nyepeung acara ''Northern Exposure'' BBC. Mei 2010, Lineker eureun jadi kolumnis ''the Mail on Sunday'', alatan protes kana ''sting operation'' ka Lord Triesman nu dilaporkeun ngabahayakeun kana tawaran Inggris pikeun jadi tuan rumah Piala Dunia 2018. Lineker tuluy gawe jadi pamawa warta liputan maenbal bahasa Inggris pikeun Al Jazeera Sport, nu disiakeun ka sajumlah loba wilayah Timur Tengah. Dirina ninggalkeun TV Qatar éta di taun 2012. Taun 2013, Lineker mimiti gawe pikeun NBCSN salaku bagian tina liputan Liga Premeir-na, sarta ngarojong kana ''Match of the Day'' versi Amerika.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2013/apr/16/nbc-premier-league-match-of-the-day|title=Lineker and Match of the Day feature in NBC's Premier League plans|last=Parker|first=Graham|date=16 April 2013|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> 9 Juni 2015, Lineker jadi persenter utama lipuntan Liga Champions BT Sport. 13 Agustus 2016, Lineker midangkeun ''Match of the Day'' kahiji musim 2016-17 ngan maké calana boksen. Dirina kungsi janji di twitter Desember 2015, yén mun Leicester City menang Liga Premier, dirina bakal "midangkeun ''Match of the Day'' make calana jero wungkul". Dina 18 Oktober 2016, Lineker nyorakeun dina tweeter hiji bantahan kana pernyataan nu dijieun ku PM David Davies nu mana Davies nyarankeun yén Inggris Raya kudu ngajalankeun tes gigi ka para pengungsi pikeun mariksa umurna.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/david-davies-child-refugees-savaged-by-just-about-everyone_uk_58070e8ee4b0dcd029900242|title=Even Dentists Are Tearing Apart Tory MP's Call For Child Refugee Tooth Age Checks|date=19 October 2016|newspaper=HuffPost|access-date=29 October 2016}}</ref> Lineker ngabéwarankeun "Tindakan ka para pangungsi ngora ieu téh rasis pisan jeung bener-bener teu boga hate. Kunaon negri urang téh?" <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://twitter.com/GaryLineker/status/788407048031600640|title=Gary Lineker on Twitter|work=Twitter|access-date=29 October 2016}}{{Primary source inline|date=May 2018}}</ref> Hal ieu ngalantarankeun ''The Sun'' manggil Lineker, mecat tina ''Match of the Day,'' nganggap Lineker geus ngalanggar panduan netral BBC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/feminism/2016/10/would-you-let-your-child-change-their-gender|title=Would you let your child change their gender?|website=New Statesman|access-date=29 October 2016}}</ref> Lineker ngagambarkeun kontroversi éta téh itung-itung "panggebug" tapi nuluykeun pangbelaanna pikeun para pangungsi.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://twitter.com/GaryLineker/status/789366146977980416|title=Gary Lineker on Twitter|work=Twitter|access-date=29 October 2016}}{{Primary source inline|date=May 2018}}</ref> July 2018, Lineker ngumumkeun dukunganna pikeun ''People's Vote'', hiji kampanye nu nungtut pamilihan umum pikeun putusan akhir Brexit antara Inggris Raya jeung Uni Eropa.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.sky.com/story/gary-lineker-joins-campaign-for-second-brexit-referendum-11448862|title=Gary Lineker joins campaign for second Brexit referendum|last=Heffer|first=Greg|date=26 July 2018|work=[[Sky News]]|access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref> === Iklan Walkers === Lineker geus sababaraha kali tampil dina iklan perusahaan opieun Walkers di Leicester, saprak 1994, asalna neken 200.000 kontrak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/why-walkers-lineker-marriage-made-last-plus-5-garys-funniest-ads/1385016|title=Why Walkers and Lineker have a marriage made to last, plus 5 of Gary's funniest ads|last1=Lafferty|first1=Catherine|last2=Charles|first2=Gemma|work=Campaign|accessdate=29 June 2018|date=25 February 2016}}</ref> Walkers sakapeung ngaranan kiripik kentang cuka asin-na maké Lineker, dingaranan 'Salt & Lineker', di akhir 90-an.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/appointment-view-linekers-highlights-walkers/1084911|title=Appointment to view: Lineker's highlights with Walkers|work=Campaign|accessdate=29 June 2018|author=Sarah Johnson|date=16 August 2011}}</ref> === Goalhanger Films === Mei 2014, Lineker ngawangun perusahaan produksi sorangan, Goalhanger Films Ltd. bareng jeung Manten ITV Controller Tony Pastor.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Gary Lineker launches sport doc indie Goal Hanger|url=http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/people/gary-lineker-launches-sport-doc-indie-goal-hanger/5076420.article|magazine=Broadcastnow|accessdate=26 May 2015|date=21 August 2014}}</ref> Salila Piala Dunia 2914, Lineker midangkeun sababara vidéo pondok nu diproduksi ku Goalhanger Films di You Tube nu dijudulan Blahzil. Mei 2015, perusahaanna ngaluarkeun film dokumenter 60 menit dipidangkeun ku Lineker, judulna ''Gary Lineker on the Road to FA Cup Glory'' pikeun BBC. == Kahirupan pribadi == Lineker nyanding ka Michelle Cockayne di taun 1986. Bulan Mei Michelle ngajukeun cerai ku alesan yén Lineker boga "kalakuan teu puguh". Lineker jeung Michell boga opat budak lalaki, Géorge, Harry, Tobias jeung Angus. Duanana silih nyatakeun yeun situasina geus teu bisa diislahkeun.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4960106.stm|title=Gary Lineker and wife to separate|date=30 April 2006|work=BBC News|accessdate=13 November 2006}}</ref> Lineker dijadikeun warga kahormatan Leicester City taun 1995 sarta kajojo salaku "putra kadeudeuh Leicester".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/competitions/championship/3036643/Lineker-keen-to-bale-out-Leicester-for-his-boys-sake.html|title=Lineker keen to bale out Leicester for his boys' sake|last=Ley|first=John|date=24 October 2002|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=3 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/leicester/content/articles/2005/02/22/gary_lineker_road_opens_feature.shtml|title=BBC – Leicester – Features – Lineker honoured|publisher=BBC|accessdate=3 June 2015|date=23 February 2005}}</ref> Oktober 2002, Lineker nandonan 5 juta pikeun nyalametkeun manten klubna Leicester City, nu tigebrus kana masalah administrasi hukum. Lineker ngagambarkeun yén ilibiungna téh leuwih mangrupa "amal" batan "kapentingan pribadi."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/competitions/championship/3036643/Lineker-keen-to-bale-out-Leicester-for-his-boys-sake.html|title=Lineker keen to bail out Leicester for his boys' sake|last=Ley|first=John|date=24 October 2002|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|location=London}}</ref> Dirina nyatakeun yén dirina bakal ngamodalan sajumlah duit sarta anggota konsorsium lainna bakal nyumbang jumlah nu sarua. Lineker nepungan grup bobotoh pikeun ngajak maranéhna pikeun ngumpulkeun duit keur nyalametkeun klub lilana. Tungtungna mah Leicester salamet tina likuidasi. Lineker ayeuna jadi Wakil présidén kahormatan di Leicester City F.C. Lineker kawin ka Daniell Bux tanggal 2 September 2009 di Ravello, Italia. Maranéhna menangkeun £30.000 hadiah pikeun amal di acara ITV's ''Mr and Mrs''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/Linekers-163-30-000-charity-win-Star-Mr-Mrs/story-12083486-detail/story.html|title=Linekers in £30,000 charity win on All Star Mr & Mrs|date=19 January 2010|work=Leicester Mercury|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208055612/https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/Linekers-163-30-000-charity-win-Star-Mr-Mrs/story-12083486-detail/story.html|archivedate=8 December 2015|deadurl=yes|accessdate=6 December 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208055612/https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/Linekers-163-30-000-charity-win-Star-Mr-Mrs/story-12083486-detail/story.html |date=8 December 2015 }}</ref> Tanggal 13 Januari 2016, Lineker jeung Bux ngumumkeun cerei, sanggeus genep taun rumah tangga.<ref name="kids">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/celebritynews/12096442/Gary-Lineker-and-his-wife-to-divorce-because-hes-too-old-to-start-another-family.html|title=Gary Lineker and his wife to divorce 'because he's too old to start another family'|work=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=13 January 2016|date=13 January 2016}}</ref> Alesanna cenah Lineker teu hayang boga budak deui.<ref name="kids" /> November 2017, Lineker katuliskeun dina Paradise Papers dina hubunganna jeung skema panolakan pajak lantaran mibanda properti di Barbados jeung hiji perusahaan di Kapulauan Virgin. == Statistik Karir == === Klub === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! rowspan="2" |Musim ! rowspan="2" |Klub ! colspan="3" |Liga ! colspan="2" |Piala ! colspan="2" |Piala Liga ! colspan="2" |Kontinéntal ! colspan="2" |Total |- !Divisi !Maen !Gul !Maen !Gul !Maen !Gul !Maen !Gul !Maen !Gul |- ! colspan="3" |Inggris ! colspan="2" |Liga ! colspan="2" |Piala FA ! colspan="2" |Liga ! colspan="2" |Eropa ! colspan="2" |Total |- |1978–79 | rowspan="7" |Leicester City | rowspan="2" |Divisi Dua |7 |1 | colspan="2" |— | colspan="2" |— | colspan="2" |— |7 |1 |- |1979–80 |19 |3 |1 |0 | colspan="2" |— | colspan="2" |— |20 |3 |- |1980–81 |Divisi Hiji |9 |2 |1 |1 | colspan="2" |— | colspan="2" |— |10 |3 |- |1981–82 | rowspan="2" |Divisi Dua |39 |17 |5 |2 |3 |0 | colspan="2" |— |47 |19 |- |1982–83 |40 |26 |1 |0 |2 |0 | colspan="2" |— |43 |26 |- |1983–84 | rowspan="2" |Divisi Hiji |39 |22 |1 |0 |1 |0 | colspan="2" |— |41 |22 |- |1984–85 |41 |24 |4 |3 |3 |2 | colspan="2" |— |48 |29 |- |1985–86 |Everton |Divis Hiji |41 |30 |6 |5 |5 |3 | colspan="2" |— |52 |38 |- ! colspan="3" |Spanyol ! colspan="2" |Liga ! colspan="2" |Copa del Rey ! colspan="2" |Copa de la Liga ! colspan="2" |Eropa ! colspan="2" |Total |- |1986–87 | rowspan="3" |[[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]] | rowspan="3" |La Liga |41 |20 |1 |1 | colspan="2" |— |8 |0 |50 |21 |- |1987–88 |36 |16 |5 |2 | colspan="2" |— |8 |2 |49 |20 |- |1988–89 |26 |6 |4 |1 | colspan="2" |— |8 |4 |38 |11 |- ! colspan="3" |Inggris ! colspan="2" |Liga ! colspan="2" |Piala FA ! colspan="2" |Piala Liga ! colspan="2" |Eropa ! colspan="2" |Total |- |1989–90 | rowspan="3" |Tottenham Hotspur | rowspan="3" |Divisi Hiji |38 |24 |1 |0 |6 |2 | colspan="2" |— |45 |26 |- |1990–91 |32 |15 |6 |3 |5 |1 | colspan="2" |— |43 |19 |- |1991–92 |35 |28 |2 |0 |5 |5 |8 |2 |50 |35 |- ! colspan="3" |Jepang ! colspan="2" |Liga ! colspan="2" |Piala Kaisar ! colspan="2" |Piala Liga ! colspan="2" |[[Konfédérasi Maénbal Asia|Asia]] ! colspan="2" |Total |- |1993 | rowspan="2" |Nagoya Grampus Eight | rowspan="2" |Liga J1 |7 |1 |0 |0 |5 |4 | colspan="2" |— |12 |5 |- |1994 |11 |3 |0 |0 |1 |0 | colspan="2" |— |12 |3 |- ! rowspan="3" |Nagara ! colspan="2" |Inggris !340 !192 !28 !14 !30 !13 !8 !2 !406 !221 |- ! colspan="2" |Spanyol !103 !42 !10 !4 ! colspan="2" |— !24 !6 !137 !52 |- ! colspan="2" |Jepang !18 !4 !0 !0 !6 !4 ! colspan="2" |— !24 !8 |- ! colspan="3" |Total !461 !238 !38 !18 !36 !17 !32 !8 !567 !281 |} === Internasional === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! colspan="3" |Tim Nasional Inggris |- !Taun !Maen !Gul |- |1984 |1 |0 |- |1985 |9 |6 |- |1986 |10 |8 |- |1987 |7 |9 |- |1988 |10 |3 |- |1989 |9 |3 |- |1990 |15 |8 |- |1991 |11 |9 |- |1992 |8 |2 |- !Total !80 !48 |} === Gol Intenasional === == Pangajén == === Klub === '''Leicester City''' * Liga Divisi Dua: 1980 ; Everton * Charity Shield FA: 1985 ; Barcelona * Copa del Rey: 1988 * Piala Winners Eropa: 1989 ; Tottenham Hotspur * Piala FA: 1991 === International === ; Inggris * Tempat kaopat Piala Dunia: 1990 '''<big>Individual</big>''' * English Second Division ''Top Scorer'' Divisi Dua: 1982–83<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tablese/engtops.html|title=English League Leading Goalscorers|publisher=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628202228/http://www.rsssf.com/tablese/engtops.html|archivedate=28 June 2011|dead-url=yes|accessdate=11 June 2011}}</ref> * Top Scorer Divisi Hiji: 1984–85, 1985–86, 1989–90 * Pamaen Taun Ieu PFA : 1985–86 * Pamaen Bal Taun Ieu FWA: 1985–86, 1991–92 * Sapatu Emas Piala Dunia FIFAt: 1986 * Tim Piala Dunia All Star: 1986 * <nowiki><i>Onze de Bronze</i></nowiki>: 1986 * <nowiki><i>Ballon d'Or</i></nowiki>: Runner-up 1986 * Pangajén FIFA Fair Play: 1990 * Pangajén FWA <nowiki><i>Tribute</i></nowiki> : 1997 * Pamaen Taun Ieu FIFAr: Pangajén Perunggu 1991<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/ballon-dor/archive/edition=1991/overview.html|title=Matthaus takes inaugural award|publisher=FIFA|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227091021/http://www.fifa.com/ballon-dor/archive/edition%3D1991/overview.html|archivedate=27 February 2015|dead-url=yes|accessdate=27 February 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227091021/http://www.fifa.com/ballon-dor/archive/edition%3D1991/overview.html |date=27 February 2015 }}</ref> * FIFA 100 * Tembok Kahormatan Menbal Inggris: 2003<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/explore-the-museum/hall-of-fame/about-the-hall-of-fame|title=About the Hall of Fame|publisher=National Football Museum|accessdate=5 January 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109105741/http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/explore-the-museum/hall-of-fame/about-the-hall-of-fame |date=9 November 2016 }}</ref> * Tim Abad Ieu PFA (1977–1996): 2007<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.givemefootball.com/pfa-legends/teams-of-the-century/team-of-the-century-1977-1996|title=Team of the Century: 1977–1996 – Souness, Robson & Hoddle...not a bad midfield trio!|date=30 August 2007|work=GiveMeFootball.com|publisher=Give Me Football|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022111004/http://www.givemefootball.com/pfa-legends/teams-of-the-century/team-of-the-century-1977-1996|archive-date=22 October 2008|dead-url=yes|access-date=22 September 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022111004/http://www.givemefootball.com/pfa-legends/teams-of-the-century/team-of-the-century-1977-1996 |date=22 October 2008 }}</ref> == Referensi == <references /> == Bacaeun kapayun == * {{Cite book|title=Gary Lineker: Strikingly Different|url=https://archive.org/details/garylinekerstrik0000mala_c5s6|first=Colin|last=Malam|publisher=Stanley Paul|location=London|year=1993|isbn=0-09-175424-0}} == Pranala == [[:en:Gary Lineker|Gary Lineker]] [[Kategori:Urang Inggris]] [[Kategori:Olahragawan]] [[Kategori:Biografi]] [[Kategori:Olahraga]] [[Kategori:Piala Dunia]] [[Kategori:Liga Inggris]] [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1960]] [[Kategori:Top Scorer]] [[Kategori:Liga Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Menbal]] [[Kategori:Pamaen Inggris]] [[Kategori:1960]] aziaeqd02zud69qhjs3o3wjb01smoau 0 98002 711573 710559 2026-08-06T23:24:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711573 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox football biography|name=Diego Maradona|image=[[File:Diego Maradona 2012 2.jpg|thumb|Diego Maradona 2012 2]]|image_size=|caption=|fullname=Diego Armando Maradona|birth_date={{Birth date|1960|10|30}}|birth_place=[[Lanús]], [[Buenos Aires province|Buenos Aires]], Argentina|death_date={{Death date and age|2020|11|25|1960|10|30}}|death_place=[[Tigre]], [[Buenos Aires province|Buenos Aires]], Argentina|height=1.65 m|position=[[Midfielder#Attacking midfielder|Attacking midfielder]]<br/>[[Forward (association football)#Second striker|Second striker]]<ref name="football-tricks.com">[http://www.football-tricks.com/maradona.html Maradona tricks and skills videos of the best soccer, football players ever] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615014521/http://www.football-tricks.com/maradona.html |date=2012-06-15 }}. Football-tricks.com. Diakses 31 Maret 2013.</ref><ref>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2010/soccer/world-cup-2010/writers/jonathan_wilson/05/27/argentina.1986/index.html Diego Maradona dominated 1986 World Cup after position switch – Jonathan Wilson – SI.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014162353/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2010/soccer/world-cup-2010/writers/jonathan_wilson/05/27/argentina.1986/index.html |date=2013-10-14 }}. Sportsillustrated.cnn.com (27 May 2010). Retrieved 31 Maret 2013.</ref><ref>[http://theviewspaper.net/diego-maradona-%E2%80%98the-soccer-guru%E2%80%99/ Diego Maradona: ‘The Soccer Guru’] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222239/http://theviewspaper.net/diego-maradona-%E2%80%98the-soccer-guru%E2%80%99/ |date=2013-12-02 }}. The Viewspaper (25 June 2010). Diakses 31 Maret 2013.</ref><ref>[http://worldsoccer.about.com/od/players/a/Maradonaprofile.htm Diego Maradona – Profile of Soccer Player Diego Maradona] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119054631/http://worldsoccer.about.com/od/players/a/Maradonaprofile.htm |date=2012-11-19 }}. Worldsoccer.about.com. Diakses 31 Maret 2013.</ref><!--Do not delete second striker, it's well referenced-->|currentclub=N/A|years1=1976–1981|clubs1=[[Argentinos Juniors]]|caps1=167|goals1=116|years2=1981–1982|clubs2=[[Boca Juniors]]|caps2=40|goals2=28|years3=1982–1984|clubs3=[[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]]|caps3=36|goals3=22|years4=1984–1991|clubs4=[[S.S.C. Napoli|Napoli]]|caps4=188|goals4=81|years5=1992–1993|clubs5=[[Sevilla FC|Sevilla]]|caps5=26|goals5=5|years6=1993–1994|clubs6=[[Newell's Old Boys]]|caps6=5|goals6=0|years7=1995–1997|clubs7=[[Boca Juniors]]|caps7=30|goals7=7|totalcaps=491|totalgoals=259|nationalyears1=1977–1979|nationalteam1=[[tim U-20 Argéntina|Argentina U20]]|nationalcaps1=24|nationalgoals1=13|nationalyears2=1977–1994|nationalteam2=[[tim nasional Argéntina|Argentina]]|nationalcaps2=91|nationalgoals2=34|manageryears1=1994|managerclubs1=[[Textil Mandiyú|Mandiyú de Corrientes]]|manageryears2=1995|managerclubs2=[[Racing Club de Avellaneda|Racing Club]]|manageryears3=2008–2010|managerclubs3=[[tim nasional Argéntina|Argentina]]|manageryears4=2011–2012|managerclubs4=[[Al Wasl FC|Al Wasl]]|manageryears5=2013–2017|managerclubs5=[[Deportivo Riestra]] (assistant)|manageryears6=2017–2018|managerclubs6=[[Al-Fujairah SC|Fujairah]]|manageryears7=2018|managerclubs7=[[FC Dynamo Brest|Dynamo Brest]] (chairman)|manageryears8=2018–2019|managerclubs8=[[Dorados de Sinaloa]]|medaltemplates={{Medal|Country|{{fb|ARG}}}}{{MedalSport| Men's [[Association football|Football]]}} {{MedalCompetition|[[FIFA World Cup]]}} {{medal|Winner|[[1986 FIFA World Cup|1986 Mexico]]|}} {{medal|RU|[[1990 FIFA World Cup|1990 Italy]]|}} {{MedalCompetition|[[FIFA Under-20 World Cup]]}} {{Medal|Winner|[[1979 FIFA World Youth Championship|1979 Japan]]|[[Argentina national under-20 football team|U-20]]}}}}'''Diégo Armando Maradona''', (lahir, 30 Oktober 1960 - 25 Nopémber 2020), pangsiunan pamaén bal profésional Argéntina. Dianggap minangka pamaén bola panghébatna sapanjang mangsa. Manéhna téh salah sahiji tina dua pinunjul réréongan panghargaan Pamaén FIFA Abad 20.<ref>[http://en03.touri.com/Berichte/FIFA-Spieler/MalePlayer.pdf FIFA Player of the Century] https://web.archive.org/web/20120426005029/http://en03.touri.com/Berichte/FIFA-Spieler/MalePlayer.pdf 26 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine.touri.com</ref><ref name="SI2">[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/news/2000/12/10/maradona_pele_ap/ "Maradona or Pele?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112101321/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/news/2000/12/10/maradona_pele_ap/ |date=2012-01-12 }}. CNN Sports Illustrated, 10 December 2000. Retrieved 13 Maret 2013</ref> Visi, operan, kontrol bal jeung kamampuan ''dribbling'' Maradona, dikombinasikan jeung awakna nu pendek (1,65 m at. 5 kaki 5 inc), nu matak énteng, ngaalatankeun manéhna usik leuwih hadé manan réa pamaén séjénna; manéhna mindeng nga-''dribble'' ngaliwatan sababaraha pamaén lawan bari lumpat. Kahadiranna jeung kapamingpinanna di lapangan méré épék anu gedé pikeun pintonan timna sacara umum. Ku bakatna nu calakan, Maradona dilandi "''El Pibe de Oro''" ("''The Golden Boy''"), hiji ngaran nu némpél ka dirina salila karirna.<ref name="Pibe">{{cite web|url=http://www.repubblica.it/2008/10/sezioni/sport/calcio/maradona-ct-argentina/maradona-ct-argentina/maradona-ct-argentina.html|title=La nuova vita del Pibe de Oro Maradona ct dell'Argentina|publisher=la Repubblica|accessdate=3 February 2015}}</ref> Saurang ''playmaker'' hareup nu maké nomer posisi klasik 10, Maradona mangrupa pamaén kahiji dina sajarah ménbal nu mecahkeun rékor bayaran transfer dua kali, mimiti basa pindah ka Barcelona pikeun rékor dunia £5 juta, nu kaduana, basa pindah ka Napoli ku rékor séjénna £6,9 juta.<ref name="Times">[http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/sport/football/europe/article3325254.ece "Snapshot: Maradona is toast of the town after signing for Napoli"]. The Times. Diakses 30 Maret 2013</ref> Salila karir klubna, Maradona maén pikeun [[Argentinos Juniors]], [[Boca Juniors]], [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]], [[Napoli]], [[Sevilla]] jeung [[Newell's Old Boys]], sarta sosohorna mah mangsa di Napoli jeung Barcelona basa meunangkeun sajumlah panghargaan. Dina karir internasionalna bareng Argéntina, manéhna geus ngahasilkeun 91 ''caps'' jeung nyitak 35 gul. Maradona maén di 4 Piala Dunia FIFA, kaasup Piala Dunia 1986 di Méksiko di mana manéhna ngapténan Argéntina jeung mingpin timna meunang ngalawan Jérman Barat di final, sarta meunangkeun Bal Emas minangka pamaén turnamén panghadéna. Di parapat final Piala Dunia 1986, manéhna nyitak dua-duana gul basa meunang 2-1 ngalawan Inggris nu asup kana sajarah ménbal ku dua alésan nu béda. Gul kahiji nyaéta ngalanggar maké leungeun nu lolos tina hukuman nu katelah si "Tangan Tuhan", sarta gul kadua ngagiring bal sapanjang 60 m (66 yd) ngaliwatan lima pamaén Inggris, kapilih minangka "Gul abad Ieu" ku pamilih FIFA.com di taun 2002.<ref name="vote">[https://www.fifa.com/newscentre/news/newsid=82406/index.html "Diego Maradona goal voted the FIFA World Cup™ Goal of the Century"]. FIFA (30 Mei 2002). Diakses 13 Maret 2013</ref> Maradona jadi palaith Argéntina di bulan Nopémber 2008. Ngajabat di Piala Dunia 2010 di Afrika Selatan méméh eureun di akhir turnamén. Manéhna ngalatih klub Al Wasl Dubai di Pro Liga UEA pikeun musim 2011-12. Taun 2017, Maradona jadi palatih Fujairah semet ka tungtung musim.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.skysports.com/football/news/11095/11349642/diego-maradona-leaves-job-in-uae-after-failing-to-secure-automatic-promotion|title="Diego Maradona leaves job in UAE after failing to secure automatic promotion"|last=|first=|website=Sky Sport|publisher=|accessdate=6 Mei 2019}}</ref> Méi 2018, Maradona jadi pupuhu anyar klub Belarusia, Dynamo Brest.<ref name="Brest2">[https://en.dynamo-brest.by/item/1082-da-diego-s-nami “Yes, Diego is with us!”]. Dynamo Brest. Retrieved 23 July 2018</ref> Manéhna datang ka Brest jeung mimiti ditugaskeun ku klubna di bulan Juli. Ti Séptémber 2018 nepi ka Juni 2019, Maradona jadi palatih klub Méksiko, Dorados.<ref name="Mexican team2">{{cite news|title=Diego Maradona's 'rebirth' at coaching job at Mexican side Dorados|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-45482066|accessdate=10 September 2018|agency=BBC}}</ref> == Kahirupan awal == [[File:Maradona_torneos_evita.jpg|pra=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maradona_torneos_evita.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Maradona maén di Torneos Evita taun1973 (hiji kagiatan olahraga nasional di Argéntina) bareng "''Cebollitas''"]] Maradona lahir tanggal 30 Oktober 1960 di Poliklinik Rumah Sakit Évita di Lanus, Provinsi [[Buenos Aires]], tapi digedékeun ku hiji kulawarga miskin pindahan ti Provinsi Corrientes, di Desa Fiorito, hiji kawasan kumuh di beulah wétan saluareun Buenos Aires, Argéntina.<ref>[http://football.guardian.co.uk/theknowledge/story/0,,1751019,00.html The greatest rags-to-riches stories ever] James Dart, Paul Doyle and Jon Hill, 12 April 2006. Retrieved 18 August 2006.</ref> Manéhna téh budak lalaki kahiji sangges tilu awéwé. Manéhna boga dua adi lalaki, Hugo (''él Turco'') jeung Raul (Lalo), duanana ogé pamaén bal profésional. Bapana Diégo Maradona "''Chitoro''" (maot taun 2015) jeung indungna Dalma Salvadora Franco 'Dona Tota' (1930-2011). Kolot Maradona duanana asal ti Esquina di timur laut Provinsi Corrientes. Imahna masing-masing ngan kapisah 200 m di sisi Bangawan Corriente. Tahun 1950 ninggalkeun Esquina jeung netep di Buenos Aires. Umur dalapan taun Maradona kapanggih ku pamandu bakat waktu keur maén di klub lingkunganna Estrella Roja. Manéhna jadi pamaén penting di Los Cebollitas (Bawang Leutik), tim yunior Argentinos Juniors, Buenos Aires. Salaku pamaén budak umur 12 taun, manéhna ngahibur penonton ku nembongkeun kamonesanna dina ngulinkeun bal dina hiburan tengah babak di partai divisi hiji.<ref>[http://www.fundus.org/referat.asp?ID=12053 The Hand of God]. Retrieved 18 August 2006.</ref> Manéhna nyebutkeun ''playmaker'' Brazil Rivelino jeung pamaén sayap [[Manchester United]] [[George Best]] di antara inspirasina pikeun déwasa.<ref>[http://www.rte.ie/sport/soccer/english/2005/1126/198627-bestg/ "Maradona hails 'inspirational' Best"]. RTE Sport. Retrieved 9 September 2013</ref><ref>"Football's Greatest – Rivelino". Pitch International LLP. 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2014</ref> == Karir klub == === Argéntinos Juniors jeung [[Boca Juniors]] === 20 Oktober 1976, Maradona nyieun debut profésionalna keur Argéntinos Juniors, 10 poé méméh ulang taunna nu ka-16,<ref name="vivadiego">[http://www.vivadiego.com/biogr.html A SUMMARY OF MARADONA's LIFE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211202737/http://www.vivadiego.com/biogr.html |date=2013-12-11 }}, vivadiego.com. Retrieved 18 August 2006.</ref> basa ngalawan Talleres de Cordoba. Manéhna asup ka lapang maké kaos nomer 16, jeung jadi pamaén pangorana dina sajarah Divisi Priméra Argéntina. Sababaraha menit sanggeus maén, Maradona nyépak bal nembus antara dua suku Juan Domingo Cabréra. Nyieun ''nutmeg'' (ngolongkeun bal) nu ngalégénda.<ref name="asi">[https://www.elgrafico.com.ar/articulo/1088/33691/maradona-asi-empezo-todo Maradona. Así empezó todo], ''El Gráfico'', 25 April 2019</ref> Sanggeus permaénan éta, Maradona cumarita, "Poé éta kuring ngarasa langit aya dina geunggeuman kuring,"<ref>[http://www.clarin.com/deportes/Diego-Argentinos_0_898110387.html "Diego, el de Argentinos"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042638/http://www.clarin.com/deportes/Diego-Argentinos_0_898110387.html |date=2016-03-04 }}, ''Clarín'', 11 April 2013</ref> Tilu puluh taun ti harita, Cabréra ingeuteun kénéh kana debut Maradonaː "Kuring keur di sisi katuhu lapang sarta muru pikeun neken manéhna, tapi manéhna teu méré kasempetan. manéhna nyieun ''nutmeg'' jeung waktu kuring ngalieuk, manéhna geus jauh ti kuring."<ref>[http://archivo.lavoz.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=111261 Murió Juan Domingo “el Chacho” Cabrera] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730001217/http://archivo.lavoz.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=111261 |date=2020-07-30 }} by Gustavo Farías on ''La Voz'', 4 September 2007</ref> Maradona nyitak gul kahijina di [[Divisi Priméra]] ngalawan tim San Lorénzo Marplatense dina tanggal 14 Nopémber 1976, dua minggu ti saprak maén.<ref>[http://laseleccion.com.ar/argentina/primeros-goles-argentinos-san-lorenzo-diego-maradona "Los primeros gritos de D10S"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008113712/http://laseleccion.com.ar/argentina/primeros-goles-argentinos-san-lorenzo-diego-maradona|date=8 October 2015}} on La Selección website</ref> [[File:Diego_Maradona_celebrando_la_obtención_del_Torneo_Metropolitano_de_1981.jpg|pra=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diego_Maradona_celebrando_la_obtenci%C3%B3n_del_Torneo_Metropolitano_de_1981.jpg|ka|jmpl|Maradona keur diarak ku bobotoh [[:en:Boca_Juniors|Boca Juniors]] sanggeus meunang kajuaran [[:en:1981_Argentine_Primera_División|Metropolitano]] taun 1981]] Maradona meakkeun lima taun di Argéntinos Juniors, ti 1976 nepi ka 1981, nyitak 115 gul tina 167 kali maén méméh pindah ka Boca Juniors ku AS$ 4 juta.<ref>[http://canchallena.lanacion.com.ar/1351900-aquella-jugada-que-llevo-a-maradona-a-boca "Aquella jugada que llevó a Maradona a Boca" by Daniel Arcucchi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930101801/http://canchallena.lanacion.com.ar/1351900-aquella-jugada-que-llevo-a-maradona-a-boca |date=2015-09-30 }}, Cancha Llena, 22 February 2011</ref> Maradona nampa tawaran ti klub-klub séjén, kaasup [[River Plate]] nu nawarkeun gajih panggedéna di klub.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=8 Mei 2014|title=Footbal Greatest-Rivalinho|url=https://www.fifa.com/world-match-centre/news/newsid/132/622/3/index.html|journal=Footbal Greatest-Rivalinho|doi=|pmid=|access-date=8 Mei 2014}}</ref> Najan kitu, Maradona nyatakeun kahayangna pikeun pindah ka Boca Juniors, tim nu salawasna dipikahayang pikeun maén. Maradona neken kontrak jeung Boca Junior tanggal 20 Pébruari 1981. Debut kahijina dua poé ti harita ngalawan Talleres de Cordoba, nyitak dua gul dina kaunggulan 4-1 pikeun klubna. Tanggal 10 April, munggaran maén di ''Superclasico'' ngalawan River Plate di stadion La Bombonera. Boca ngéléhkeun River 3-0 sarta Maradona nyitak sagul sanggeus ngagiring bal ngaliwatan Alberto Tarantini jeung Fillol.<ref>[http://www.clarin.com/diario/2006/02/22/deportes/d-04801.htm "25 años de romance"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100904062252/http://edant.clarin.com/diario/2006/02/22/deportes/d-04801.htm |date=2010-09-04 }}, ''Clarín'', 26 December 2009</ref> Sanajan hubungan nu teu pati akur antara Maradona jeung manajer Boca Juniors, Silvio Marzolini,<ref>[http://www.clarin.com/diario/2000/09/24/s-04615.ht "Maradona por Maradona"]{{dead link|date=May 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, 24 September 2000</ref> Boca mibanda hiji usum nu suksés, meunangkeun juara liga sanggeus ngamankeun poin ngalawan Racing Club.<ref>[http://www.rsssf.com/tablesa/arg81.html Argentina 1981 by Osvaldo José Gorgazzi] on RSSSF.com</ref> Eta téh minangka hiji-hijina gelar nu kapimilik ku Maradona dina liga doméstik.<ref name="Fifa profile">[https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/players/player=174732/ "The Albiceleste underdog who conquered the world"]. FIFA.com Retrieved 16 May 2014</ref> === Barcelona === Sabada Piala Dunia 1982, bulan Juni, Maradona pindah ka Barcelona di Spanyol pikeun £5 juta (̩$7,6 juta)<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/international/3278819/Life-and-crimes-of-Diego-Armando-Maradona-Football.html "Life and crimes of Diego Armando Maradona"]. The Telegraph. Retrieved 15 October 2015</ref> nu minangka bayaran rékor dunia di taun 1983. Dina cepengan palatih Cesar Luis Menotti, [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]] katut Maradona meunangkeun [[Copa del Rey]] (kompetisi piala nasional taunan Spanyol), ngéléhkeun [[Real Madrid C.F.|Réal Madrid]], ogé Piala Super Spanyol, ngéléhkeun [[Athlético Bilbao]]. Dina 26 Juni 1983, Barcelona ngéléhkeun Réal Madrid dina salah sahiji pertandingan paling gedé antar klub, ''El Clasico'', hiji permaénan di mana Maradona nyitak gul sarta jadi pamaén Barcelona nu mimiti meunang keprokan ti bobotoh Réal Madrid, musuh satruna. Maradona ngagiring bal ngaliwatan kiper Madrid Agustin, sarta pas geus deukeut kana gul nu kosong manéhna ngarandeg pas pisan pamaén tukang Juan Jose datang nyorodot dina usaha nu pinuh ku kaputusasaan pikeun nahan tembakan, terus kebat kadon neunggar tihang méméh Maradona ngajebloskeun bal kana jaring.<ref>[https://www.fcbarcelona.com/football/first-team/news/2012-2013/30-years-since-maradona-stunned-the-santiago-bernabeu "30 years since Maradona stunned the Santiago Bernabéu"]. FC Barcelona. Retrieved 2 October 2014</ref> Cara asupna gul ngaalatankeun panongton di jero stadion méré aplausan. Salaku pamaén Barcelona, ngan [[Rivaldinho]] (di Nopémber 2005) jeung [[Andrés Iniésta]] (di Nopémber 2015) nu kungsi nampa panghormatan kitu ti bobotoh Madrid di Santiago Bernabeu.<ref name="Clasico">[https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/european/real-madrid-0-barcelona-3-bernabeu-forced-to-pay-homage-as-ronaldinho-soars-above-the-galacticos-516202.html "Real Madrid 0 Barcelona 3: Bernabeu forced to pay homage as Ronaldinho soars above the galacticos"]. The Independent. Retrieved 29 November 2013</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nesn.com/2015/11/real-madrid-fans-applaud-barcelonas-andres-iniesta-in-el-clasico-video/|title=Real Madrid Fans Applaud Barcelona’s Andres Iniesta In ‘El Clasico’|publisher=NESN|accessdate=28 January 2016|date=21 November 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102160305/https://nesn.com/2015/11/real-madrid-fans-applaud-barcelonas-andres-iniesta-in-el-clasico-video/ |date=2 January 2021 }}</ref> Alatan gering jeung cidera katut ogé kajadian kontrovérsial di lapangan, Maradona ngalaman mangsa-mangsa hésé di Barcelona.<ref name="Guardian">[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,1677834,00.html "That's one hell of a diet, Diego"]. 8 January 2006. Guardian Newspapers Limited. Retrieved 13 August 2006.</ref> Mimiti hépatisis énténg, tuluy di pertandingan [[La Liga]] di Camp Nou bulan Séptémber pateuh pigeulang suku disababkeun ku tékel nu salah waktu ti Andoni Goikoetxea ti Athletico Bilbao. Kajadian éta matak ngancam kana karirna. Tapi ku diropéaan jeung terapi, sanggeus tilu bulan reureuh dirina bisa balik deui ka lapang.<ref name="vivadiego"/> . [[Gambar:Maradona_kempes_spain.jpg|kiri|jmpl|210x210px| Maradona jeung batur sanagarana, [[Mario Kémpés]] méméh patandingan di Barcelona ngalawan [[Valencia CF|Valencia]] ]] Panungtungan usum 1983-84 ditandaan ku paséa rongkah jeung burantakan dina final Copa del Rey 1984 ngalawan Athlético Bilbao di Santiago Bernabeu, Madrid, nu sacara langsung ngalibetkeun Maradona.<ref name="butcher">{{cite news|title=Diego Maradona gives hot, hot heat to The Butcher of Bilbao|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2008/dec/05/joy-of-six-scott-murray|newspaper=The Guardian|date=24 April 2015}}</ref> Sanggeus nampa tékel kasar deui ti Goikoetxea nu natuan sukuna, tur salila tanding dijejeléh ku bobotoh Bilbao ku igelan ''xenophobic'' (anti urang luar), poyokan rasis nu mamawa bapana nu turunan pribumi Amérika, sarta sanggeus dipapanas ku pamaén Bilbao Miguel Sola dina akhir babak alatan Barcelona éléh 1-0, Maradona ngadat.<ref name="butcher" /> Manéhna cengkat, nangtung sawatara inchi ti Sola sarta duanana paréa-réa omong. Hal ieu nyababkeun réaksi émosi nu nerekab ka kadua tim. Bari jeung sesentak, Sola nurutan poyokan panongton maké gerakan ''xenophobic''.<ref name="Calioli">Luca Caioli (2013). "Messi: The Inside Story of the Boy Who Became a Legend"</ref> Maradona tuluy ngadagor Sola ku sirahna, nyiku pamaén séjénna, sarta ngadagor pamaén séjénna deui ku tuur semet ka pingsan.<ref name="butcher" /> Méméh pamaén Barcelona nulungan, Maradona digulung ku pamaén-pamaén Bilbao, sarta Goikoetxea ngajejek dadana. Ti dinya, pamaén Barcelona jeung Bilbao garelut di lapangan bari Maradona di tengah-tengah kaributan bukbek neunggeul jeung najongan sing saha waé nu maké kaos Bilbao.<ref name="butcher" /> Tarung massal ieu lumangsung di hareupeun Raja Spanyol [[Juan Carlos]] jeung 100.000 panongton di stadium sarta leuwih ti satengah Spanyol nongton na tivi.<ref name="Bilbao">Jimmy Burns. (2011). "Maradona: The Hand of God". pp.121–122. A&C Black</ref> Sanggeus para bobotoh mimiti ngalung-ngalungkeun barang teuas di lapangan ka para pamaén, palatih jeung malahan mah tukang photo ogé, 60 jalma cidera. Ku insidén ieu, dina naon nu disebut tandang pamungkas Maradona maké kaos Barcelona, sacara éféktif geus mastikeun kapindahan Maradona ti klub .<ref name="Calioli">Luca Caioli (2013). "Messi: The Inside Story of the Boy Who Became a Legend"</ref> Salah sahiji pajabat Barcelona nyarita, "Waktu kuring ningali Maradona gelut tur disusul ku kakacauan, kuring sadar yén urang teu bisa tuluy jeung manéhna."<ref name="Bilbao" /> Maradona remen patelak jeung presidén klub Josep Lluis Nunéz, nu ngujung kana tuntutan pikeun kaluar ti Camp Nou di taun 1984. Dina dua usum nu pinuh ku cidera di Barcelona, Maradona nyitak 38 gul tina 58 kali maén.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/sports/columns/indepth/maradona_indepth.html "Backgrounder: Diego Maradona"]. CBC Sports. Retrieved 14 December 2012</ref> Maradona pindah ka [[FC Napoli|Napoli]] di [[Séri A Italia]] pikeun bayaran rékor dunia lianna, £6,9 juta ($10,48 juta).<ref name="Times"/> [[Gambar:Presentacion_maradona_napoli.jpg|ka|jmpl|292x292px| Maradona méré salam ka balaréa di Stadion San Paolo nalika préséntasina di Naples, 5 Juli 1984 ]] Maradona nepi ka Naples jeung dipréséntasikeun ka média minangka pamaén Napoli tanggal 5 Juli 1984, dibagéakeun ku 75.000 bobotoh di Stadion San Paolo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Cristiano Ronaldo welcomed by 80,000 fans at Real Madrid unveiling|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2009/jul/06/cristiano-ronaldo-real-madrid-bernabeu|work=The Guardian|location=London|date=6 July 2009|accessdate=6 July 2009}}</ref> Panulis olahraga ngoméntaran "Maranéhna (bobotoh) yakin yén panyalamet geus datang."<ref name="Naples">[http://www.espnfc.com/columns/story/_/id/1033038/rewind-to-1987:-maradona-brings-success-to-napoli?cc=5739 "Maradona brings success to Napoli"]. ESPN. Retrieved 16 May 2014</ref> Hiji koran lokal nyatakeun yén "kajeun teuing kakurangan pamingpin, imah, sakola, beus, pagawé jeung sanitasi, teu jadi masalah lantaran urang saréréa miboga Maradona."<ref name="Naples" /> Méméh kadatangan Maradona, sépakbola Italia didominasi ku tim-tim ti kalér jeung tengah negeri éta, saperti [[A.C. Milan|AC MIlan]], [[Juventus]], [[Inter Milan]] jeung [[A.S. Roma|Roma]], sarta euwueh tim ti Bobodjong Italia nu kungsi meunang gelar.<ref name="Naples" /><ref>Clemente A. Lisi (2011). "A History of the World Cup: 1930–2010". p. 193. Scarecrow Press</ref> Di Napoli, Maradona ngahontal puncak karir profésionalnaː teu kungsi lila manéhna geus diwaris bengker kaptén ti pamaén tukang véteran Giuseppe Bruscolotti<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.repubblica.it/rubriche/la-storia/2016/02/09/news/bruscolotti_verso_juventus_napoli-133032932/|title=Bruscolotti, una vita in azzurro: "Napoli, ricorda quella partita dell'86"|newspaper=La Repubblica|language=Italian|author1=Nicola Sellitti|date=9 February 2016|accessdate=7 April 2016}}</ref> sarta jadi béntang pujaan di antara bobotoh klub; dina mangsa dirina maén, Maradona geus hasil ngaronjatkeun tim kana posisi pangsuksésna dina sapanjang sajarah.<ref name="Naples"/> Maradona maén keur Napoli dina hiji mangsa nalika ténsi Kaler-Kidul di Italia keur panas-panasna alatan sababarah perkara, utamana perbédaan ékonomi di antara kaduana.<ref name="Naples" /> Dipingpin ku Maradona, Napoli meunang Juara Série A Italia pikeun munggaran pisan di taun 1986-87.Goldblatt nulis, "Hahajatanna kacida tohaga. Pésta jalanan dadakan jeung féstival tuluy-tuluyan lumangsung di sakuliah kota dina karnaval berang peuting nu lumangsung leuwih ti saminggu. Dunia geus pabalik. Neapolitans (bobotoh Napoli) nieun poyokan pamakaman pikeun Juventus jeung Milan, ngaduruk peti matina, dina catetan tilar dunyana dibéwarakeun "Mei 1987, Italia béh ditu geus diéléhkeun. Karajaan anyar geus lahir."<ref name="Naples" /> Mural Maradona dilukis di gedong-gedong kuno kota sarta barudak nu karak lahir dingaranan Maradona minangka panghormatan.<ref name="Naples" /> Usum hareupna, trio panyerang tim, nu diwangun ku Maradona, Bruno Giordano jeung Caréca, tuluy dilandi garis hareup "Ma-Gi-Ca" (ajaib).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.guardian.co.uk/sport/2007/04/03/serie_as_comeback_kid_eyes_ano.html|title=Serie A's comeback kid eyes another miracle|work=Guardian Unlimited|last=Richardson|first=James|date=3 April 2007|accessdate=23 Maret 2016|authorlink=James Richardson (television presenter)}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407151552/http://blogs.guardian.co.uk/sport/2007/04/03/serie_as_comeback_kid_eyes_ano.html |date=7 April 2007 }}</ref> Napoli meunang deui liga kadua kalina di 1989-90, jeung dua kali ''runner up'' di 1987-88 jeung 1988-89. Kahormatan séjénna dina mangsa Maradona di Napoli kaasup Piala Italia 1987, posisi kadua Piala Italia 1989, Piala UEFA 1989 sarta Piala Super Itali di 1990.<ref name="Naples"/> Najan utamana maén dina peran kréatif minangka galandang serang, Maradona jadi top sekor di Série A taun 1987-88 ku 15 gul, sarta jadi pamingpin panyitak gul Napoli sapanjang mangsa ku 115 gul, méméh peupeus ku Marek Hamsik di taun 2017.<ref name="Fifa profile"/><ref>[http://guardianlv.com/2014/02/diego-maradona-has-appealed-to-european-union/ "Diego Maradona Has Appealed to European Union"]. The Guardian. Retrieved 21 May 2014</ref><ref>[http://guardianlv.com/2014/02/diego-maradona-has-appealed-to-european-union/ "Diego Maradona Has Appealed to European Union"]. The Guardian. Retrieved 21 May 2014</ref> Nalika ditanya pamaén mana pangbeuratna nu pernah disinghareupan, pamaén batahan tengah AC Milan, Franco Baresi nimbal, "Maradona; nalika keur jagjag, taya jalan pikeun ngeureunkeun manéhna." Hiji pandangan nu sarua jeung batur satimna, Paolo Maldini, nu nyarita, "Panghadé-hadéna pamaén nu pernah dilawan ku kuring, nya Maradona."<ref>[http://www.fourfourtwo.com/features/franco-baresi-one-one#JPCgrGHigE3eRrU0.99 "Franco Baresi: One-on-One"]. Four Four Two. Retrieved 19 January 2015</ref><ref>[http://www.goal.com/en/news/8/main/2008/10/04/895828/maradona-and-ronaldo-best-ever-maldini "Maradona and Ronaldo Best Ever"]. Goal.com. Retrieved 7 February 2015</ref> Mangsa Maradona keur suksés di lapangan nalika maén di Italia, masalah pribadina nambahan. Pamakéan kokainna katutuluyan, sarta kudu mayar denda AS$70.000 alatan ngileus tina tanding jeung latihan, cenah mah karna seutrés.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE3D6153EF930A25752C0A967958260|work=The New York Times|title=SPORTS PEOPLE; Maradona Fined|date=13 January 1991|accessdate=1 April 2010}}</ref> Manéhna nyanghareupan skandal ngeunaan hiji budak haramna, sarta jadi obyék kacurigaan gara-gara disangka sosobatan jeung ''Camorra'' (salah sahiji kelompok mafia Italia).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/3639425.stm|work=BBC News|title=Maradona's fall from grace|date=19 April 2004|accessdate=1 April 2010|first=John|last=May}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/after-the-fall-the-world-cup-dream-is-over-for-diego-maradona-but-there-may-be-worse-to-come--a-little-matter-of-pounds-500000worth-of-smuggled-cocaine-and-the-naples-mafia-paul-greengrass-and-toby-follett-report-1411755.html|work=The Independent|location=London|title=After the fall: The World Cup dream is over for Diego Maradona, but there may be worse to come – a little matter of pounds 500,000-worth of smuggled cocaine, and the Naples mafia. Paul Greengrass and Toby Follett report|date=5 July 1994|accessdate=1 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/gennaio/02/Camorra_arrestato_boss_amico_Maradona_co_0_9901021353.shtml|title=Camorra, arrestato il boss amico di Maradona|work=Corriere della Sera|accessdate=12 June 2010|date=24 December 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/si_online/news/2002/01/14/prima_dona/|publisher=CNN|date=14 January 2002|author=Telander, Rick|title=At his best, Diego Maradona can be as graceful as Michael Jordan. At his worst, he can be as disgraceful as John McEnroe. The question is, which Maradona will show for the World Cup?}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103094208/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/si_online/news/2002/01/14/prima_dona/ |date=3 November 2012 }}</ref> Ku kituna, dina raraga ngaragangan ka Maradona jeung beubeunanganna nalika karir di Napoli, si nomer 10 ti Napoli sacara resmi dieureunkeun.<ref>Landolina, Salvatore. (14 January 2011) [http://www.goal.com/en/news/10/italy/2011/01/14/2305148/diego-maradona-backs-ezequiel-lavezzi-to-earn-napoli-numberl Diego Maradona Backs Ezequiel Lavezzi To Earn Napoli Number 10 Shirt]. Goal.com. Retrieved 31 Maret 2013.</ref> === Sevilla, Newell's Old Boys jeung Boca Juniors === Sabada teu meunang maén salila 15 bulan alatan gagal dina tés obat jeung kokain, taun 1992 Maradona ninggalkeun Napoli bari ngarasa hina. Najan aya minat ti Réal Madrid jeung Marséille, manéhna neken kontrak jeung Sevilla, di mana manéhna netep salila sataun.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/sport-in-short-football-1533258.html|title=Sport in Short: Football – Sport|work=The Independent|location=UK|date=15 July 1992|accessdate=6 May 2011}}</ref> Taun 1993, pindah ka Newell's Old Boys sarta taun 1995 balik deui ka Boca Juniors pikeun periode dua taun.<ref name="vivadiego"/> Maradona ogé tampil dina pertandingan panghormatan pikeun Osvaldo Ardiles ngalawan Inter Milan, méméh Piala Dunia 1986.<ref>[https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/blogs/early-doors/maradona-contender-replace-avb-tottenham-132124009.html "Maradona ‘a main contender to replace Villas-Boas at Tottenham’"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714180636/https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/blogs/early-doors/maradona-contender-replace-avb-tottenham-132124009.html|date=14 July 2014}}. Yahoo. Retrieved 24 June 2014</ref> Maradona sorangan meunang pertandingan panghormatan di bulan Nopémber 2001, maén di antara para béntang Dunia XI ngalawan tim nasional Argéntina.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2001/nov/10/sport.comment|title=Maradona finishes on a personal high|publisher=|work=The Guardian|date=10 November 2001|accessdate=29 July 2018|first=Dan|last=Rookwood}}</ref> == Karir Internasional == [[Gambar:Arg_vs_urss_1979.jpg|ka|jmpl|Maradona maén ngalawan Uni Soviet dina final Piala Dunia Junior FIFA 1979]] Wanci maén di tim nasional Argéntina, Maradona nyitak 34 gul tina 91 kali maén. Mimiti tanding internasional dina umur 16, ngalawan Hongaria tanggal 27 Pebruari 1977. Maradona teu dibawaan kana pasukan Argéntina dina Piala Dunia 1978 ku palatih Cesar Luis Menotti lantaran umur 17 taun dianggap ngora kénéh teuing.<ref name="Britannica">{{Britannica|686139}}</ref> Umur 18, Maradona maén di Piala Dunia Junior FIFA 1979 di Jepang sarta mucunghul jadi béntang turnamén, ngagurilap nalika Argéntina meunang 3-1 di final ngalawan Uni Soviet. Tanggal 2 Juni 1979, Maradona munggaran nyitak gol internasional seniorna nalika meunang 3-1 ngalawan Skotlandia di Hampden Park.<ref>MacPherson, Graeme (30 October 2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20081207131534/http://www.theherald.co.uk/sport/headlines/display.var.2464361.0.Maradona_to_receive_Hampden_welcome.php Maradona to receive Hampden welcome], ''[[The Herald (Glasgow)|The Herald]]''.</ref> Manéhna tuluy maén keur Argéntina dina dua partai Piala Amérika 1979, éléh 2-1 ku Brazil, sarta meunang lawan Bolivia 3-0 di mana Maradona nyitak gol katilu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/maradona-intl.html|title=Diego Armando Maradona – International Appearances|last1=Pierrend|first1=José Luis|website=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation|accessdate=25 June 2018}}</ref> Maradona jeung pahlawan sanagarana, Lionel Méssi, mangrupa ngan dua-duana pamaén nu meunangkeun Bal Emas boh dina Piala Dunia U-20 FIFA jeung Piala Dunia FIFA. Maradona meunang di taun 1979 jeung 1986, sedeng Méssi nurutan di 2005 jeung 2014.<ref>[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/fifa-awards.html#under20 "FIFA Under-20 World Championships Awards"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112042845/http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/fifa-awards.html|date=12 January 2016}}. RSSSF. Retrieved 20 Maret 2015</ref> === Piala Dunia 1986 === Maradona maén munggaran di Piala Dunia 1982 di tempat pangdumukan anyarna, Spanyol. Argéntina ngalawanan Bélgia dina tandang bubuka Piala Dunia 1982 di Camp Nou Barcelona. Para bobotoh Katalan sumanget pisan pikeun nempo laga Maradona, panyepeng rékor dunia kontrak maranéhna. Tapi Maradona tandang teu sapagodos jeung pangharepan alatan si juara batahan kasoran 1-0.<ref>[http://www.planetworldcup.com/CUPS/1982/wc82story.html 1982 – Story of Spain '82]. Planet World Cup. Retrieved 31 Maret 2013.</ref> Najan kitu Argéntina sacara ngayakinkeun ngéléhkeun Hongaria jeung Él Salvador di Alicante pikeun maju ka babak kadua. Aya kaharénghéng internal dina jero tim, di mana nu ngarora, pamaén nu kurang pangalaman aya dina sahandapeun pamaén nu leuwih pangalaman. Dina jero tim ogé ngarilu pamaén-pamaén saperti Mario Kémpés, Osvaldo Ardiles, Ramon Diaz, Daniel Bertoni, Albérto Tarantini, Ubaldo Fillol jeung Daniel Passarélla. Argéntina éléh ku Brazil dina babak kadua jeung ogé ku pijuaraeun Italia. Kacaturkeun dina tanding ngalawan Italia, Maradona ditempel rapet ku Claudio Gentile, nalika Italia ngéléhkeun Argéntina 2-1 di Sarria Stadium Barcelona.<ref>Brewin, John (9 June 2010) [http://soccernet.espn.go.com/world-cup/columns/story?id=792748&cc=5739&ver=global "Diego Maradona: God's gift"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108213751/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/world-cup/columns/story?id=792748&cc=5739&ver=global|date=8 November 2012}}. ESPN Soccernet.</ref> Maradona maén lima kali bari teu kungsi diganti. Dina tanding pamungkas ngalawan Brazil, Maradona dikaluarkeun pilimameniteun deui kana anggeusan lantaran palanggaran serius ka Batista.<ref>[http://www.goal.com/en-gb/news/2943/castrol-debates/2010/06/10/1968569/castrol-world-cup-legends-diego-maradona-1986 "Castrol World Cup Legends: Diego Maradona – 1986"]. Goal.com (10 June 2010). Retrieved 14 December 2012</ref> === Piala Dunia 1986 === [[Gambar:Maradona-Mundial_86_con_la_copa.JPG|jmpl|Diégo Maradona nyepeng tropi Piala Dunia 1986]] Maradona ngapténan tim nasional Argéntina basa meunangkeun Piala Dunia 1986 di Méksiko. Meunang di final ngalawan Jérman Barat di Kota Méksiko.<ref name="espn">[http://espnfc.com/feature/_/id/696773/world-cup-history?cc=5901 "World Cup 1986"]. ESPN. Retrieved 24 April 2014</ref> Salila turnamén Maradona nunjukkeun dominasina jeung minangka pamaén paling dinamis dina turnamén éta. Nyitak 5 gul jeung 5 ''assist'', tilu di antarana dina partai bubuka ngalawan Koréa Selatan di Stadion Olimpico Universitario di Kota Méksiko. Gol kahijina datang nalika ngalawan Italia dina tanding kadua grup di Puebla. Argéntina nyingkirkeun Uruguay dina babak panyisihan kahiji di Puebla, <ref>[https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/edition=68/results/matches/match=394/report.html "1986 FIFA World Cup Mexico: Italy – Argentina"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216144554/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/edition%3D68/results/matches/match%3D394/report.html|date=16 December 2012}}. FIFA. Retrieved 14 December 2012</ref>nempatkeun Argéntina jadi pilawaneun Inggris di Stadion Aztéca, ogé di Kota Méksiko. Sabada nyitak dua gul kontras nalika meunang 2-1 ngalawan Inggris di parapat final, kalégendarisanna jadi kapatri. Éndahna gul kadua sarta sohorna gul kahijina, ngaalatankeun koran Perancis ''L'Equipe'' ngagambarkeun Maradona minangka "satengah malaikat, satengah sétan".<ref name="Diego">[https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/worldcup/mexico1986/index.html "Maradona lights up the world – with a helping hand"]. FIFA.com. Retrieved 13 May 2014</ref> Maradona bari semu-semu ngahindar ngagamberkeun éta téh minangka "sawaréh tina leungeunna jeung sawaréh deui tina leungeun Gusti".<ref name="espn" /> Gul éta jadi sohor minangka "Tangan Tuhan". Antukna dina 22 Agustus 2005, Maradona ngaku dina hiji acara tv yén manéhna ngahaja ngagebug bal ku leungeunna jeung teu keuna saeutik ogé kana sirahna, sarta manéhna harita kénéh sadar yén gul éta téh teu sah. Ieu téh jadi hiji kakaliruan internasional nu fatal dina sajarah Piala Dunia. Gul ieu tetep tumetep, jadi kakeuheul pamaén-pamaén Inggris.<ref>McCarthy, David (18 November 2008). [http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/football/scotland/2008/11/18/terry-butcher-maradona-robbed-england-of-world-cup-glory-86908-20904447/ Terry Butcher: Maradona robbed England of World Cup glory] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527135636/http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/football/scotland/2008/11/18/terry-butcher-maradona-robbed-england-of-world-cup-glory-86908-20904447/|date=27 May 2010}}. [[Daily Record (Scotland)|Daily Record]].</ref> Gul kadua Maradona, ngan opat menit sabada ''hand''-gulna nu diprotés bébéakan, tuluy kapilih ku FIFA minangka gul pangalusna dina sajarah Piala Dunia. Manéhna nampa bal ti daérahna sorangan, puputeran sarta ku 11 toélan lumpat leuwih ti satengah lapang, ngagiring bal ngaliwatan lima pamaén Inggris (Peter Beardsley, Steve Hodge, Peter Reid, Terry Butcher jeung Terry Fenwick) méméh ninggalkeun kiper Peter Shilton di satukangeunna ku gerakan tipuan, sarta ngagebluskeun bal kana jaring.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/world-cup/6700645/Top-10-World-Cup-goals.html?mobile=basic "Top 10 World Cup goals"]. The Telegraph. Retrieved 19 August 2014</ref> Gul ieu kapilih jadi "Gul Abad Ieu" hasil pamilihan ''online'' taun 2002 nu diayakeun ku FIFA.<ref name="voted">[https://www.fifa.com/newscentre/news/newsid=82406/index.html "Diego Maradona goal voted the FIFA World Cup™ Goal of the Century"]. FIFA (30 May 2002). Retrieved 13 Maet 2013</ref> Pamilihan Channel 4 di Inggris Raya tahun 2002 nunjukkeun pidanganna dina rangking ka genep dina daptar 100 Kajadian Olahraga Pangéndahna.<ref name="“Channel4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/entertainment/tv/microsites/G/greatest_sporting/results.html|title=100 Greatest Sporting Moments – Results|year=2002|publisher=[[Channel 4]]|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020204090913/http://www.channel4.com/entertainment/tv/microsites/G/greatest_sporting/results.html|archive-date=4 February 2002|dead-url=yes|access-date=8 August 2019}}</ref> [[Gambar:Maradona_gol_a_inglaterra.jpg|jmpl|Maradona méméh nyitak "gul abad ieu" ngalawan Inggris di Méksiko 1986]] Maradiona nuluykeun ku dua gol di semifinal ngalawan Bélgia di Aztéca, kaasup pintonan dribbling éndah séjénna dina gul nu kadua. Dina tanding final, Jérman Barat nyoba nahan manéhna ku pangawalan ganda, tapi najan kitu Maradona tetep nimu lolongkrang ngaliwatan Lothar Matthaus pikeun méré operan ka Jorge Burruchaga keur nyitak gul kameunangan. Argéntina ngéléhkeun Jérman Barat 3-2 di hareupeun 115.000 bobotoh di Aztéca sarta minangka kaptén Maradona ngangkat pialana.<ref name="Diego"/><ref>Clive Gammon (7 July 1986). [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1064996/index.htm?eref=sisf "Tango Argentino!"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514062120/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1064996/index.htm?eref=sisf |date=2014-05-14 }}. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 13 May 2014</ref> Salila turnamén, Maradona nieun leuwih ti satengahna tina peluang Argéntina, 90 kali dribble jeung diganjal 53 kali nu ngabalukarkeun timna meunang tendangan bebas.<ref>[http://www.castrolfootball.com/legends/tournament/index.php?year=1986l Castrol Worldcup Statistics – Diego Maradona]. Castrolfootball.com. diakses 31 Maret 2013.</ref> Maradona nyitak atawa méré ''assist'' 10 tina 14 gul Argéntina, kaasup hiji ''assist'' panangtuan di final. Dina ahir turnamén, ku suara buleud, Maradona meunangkeun Bal Emas salaku pamaén panghadéna sarta dianggap saolah-olah meunangkeun Piala Dunia ku sorangan, hiji hal nu mana Maradona teu pati panuju.<ref name="autogenerated1">Darby, James. (10 June 2010) [http://www.goal.com/en/news/1863/world-cup-2010/2010/06/10/1968349/castrol-world-cup-legends-diego-maradona-1986l WorldCup Legends: Maradona]. Goal.com. Diakses 31 Maret 2013.</ref><ref>[https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/afdeveloping/technicaldevp/50/09/00/fwc_mexico_1986_en_part4_279.pdf “Argentina's Road to the World Title”] FIFA. page 43</ref><ref>[https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/afdeveloping/technicaldevp/50/09/00/fwc_mexico_1986_en_part4_279.pdf “Argentina's Road to the World Title”] FIFA. page 43</ref><ref name="number 10">[https://www.fifa.com/newscentre/news/newsid=76134.html Pelé and Maradona – two very different number tens]. FIFA.com (25 January 2001). Diakses 31 Maret 2013.</ref> Zinedine Zidane, nu nongton Piala Dunia wanci keur umur 14 taun, nyaritakeun yén Maradona téh "aya dina tingkatan lain".<ref>{{cite news|title=Maradona was on another level – Zidane|url=http://www.goal.com/en-gb/news/7138/goal-hall-of-fame/2014/11/12/6070971/maradona-was-on-another-level-zidane|accessdate=20 August 2018|work=Goal}}</ref> Pikeun ngahargaan manéhna pihak nu nyepeng Stadion Aztéca ngadegkeun patung manéhna keur nyitak "Gul Abad Ieu" di lawang asup stadion.<ref>[http://worldrec.info/2007/04/28/messis-goal-better-than-maradonas-goal-of-the-century Messi’s Goal Better Than Maradona's Goal of the Century?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609185309/http://worldrec.info/2007/04/28/messis-goal-better-than-maradonas-goal-of-the-century |date=2010-06-09 }} worldrec.info. Retrieved 29–01–09.</ref> === Piala Dunia 1990 === Maradona ngapténan deui Argéntina dina Piala Dunia 1990 di Italia nepi ka final ogé. Cidera pigeulang suku mangaruhan kasaluruhan pidanganna, sarta dirina kurang dominan di banding opat taun katukang. Sanggeus éléh dina tanding bubuka ku Kamerun di San Siro Milan, Argéntina ampir kasingkirkeun dina puteran kahiji. ngan nempatan poisisi katilu dina grupna. Dina tanding 16 besar ngalawan Brazil di Turin, Claudio Caniggia nyitak hiji-hijina gul sanggeus dipepernah ku Maradona.<ref name="Fifa90">[http://www.espnfc.com/feature/_/id/696774?cc=5739 "World Cup 1990"].ESPN. Retrieved 24 April 2014</ref> Dina parapat final, Argéntina nyanghareupan Yugoslavia di Florence; lekasan 0-0 sanggeus 120 menit, Argéntina laju ku ngadu pinalti najan Maradona gagal ngasupkeun alatan sepakanna laun ka katuhueun kiper. Dina semifinal ngalawan pribumi Italia di Naples, Stadion Sao Paolo ogé ngujung kana ngadu pinalti sabada imbang 1-1. Ayeuna mah Maradona hasil dina usahana nyitak pinalti. Dina final di Roma, Argéntina kasoran 0-1 ti Jérman Barat. Hiji-hjina gul liwat pinalti Andreas Brehme dina menit ka-85 sanggeus palanggaran kontrovérsial ka Rudi Voller.<ref name="Fifa90"/> === Piala Dunia 1994 === Dina Piala Dunia 1994 di Amérika Sérikat, Maradona ngan maén dua kali (duanana Stadion Foxboro deukeut Boston), nyitak sagul ngalawan Yunani, méméh tuluy dipulangkeun alatan gagal dina tés obat-obatan doping ''ephedrine''.<ref>{{cite news|title=After Second Test, Maradona Is Out of World Cup|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/01/sports/world-cup-94-after-second-test-maradona-is-out-of-world-cup.html|newspaper=The New York Times|accessdate=2 February 2017}}</ref> Sabada nyitak gul ngalawan Yunani, Maradona nyieun salah sahiji sélébrasi gul Piala Dunia pangsohorna ku lumpat ka salah sahiji kaméra sisi ngocéak bari beungeut dijebéwkeun jeung panon molotot.<ref name="celebration">{{Cite journal|author=Jon Carter|date=26 May 2010|title=First XI: World Cup celebrations|url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/world-cup/columns/story?id=790168&cc=5739&ver=global|deadurl=yes|journal=[[ESPN]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603233147/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/world-cup/columns/story?id=790168&cc=5739&ver=global|archivedate=3 June 2010|postscript=|df=dmy}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603233147/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/world-cup/columns/story?id=790168&cc=5739&ver=global |date=3 June 2010 }}</ref> Ieu téh minangka gul internasional panungtungan Maradona dina tanding pamungkas pikeun nagarana.<ref name="celebration" /> Dina otobiographina, Maradona nyangkal yén hasil tés téh alatan palatih pribadina mikeun inuman panambah tanaga ''Rip Fuel''. Ngakuna mah vérsi Amérika, nu teu jiga di Argéntina, ngandung bahan kimia obat téa. Alatan dosis Argéntinana beak, palatihna bari teu nelek-nelek miken racikan Amérika. FIFA ngusir dirina di AS 1994 sarta Argéntina tuluy kasingkirkeun dina puteran kadua ku Rumania di Los Angeles. Maradona ogé sacara kapisah ngaku yén manéhna geus nyieun kasupaketan jeung FIFA, najan dibantah ku FIFA, pikeun ngijinan manéhna ngagunakeun obat éta pikeun ngurangan beurat badanna méméh kompétisi sangkan bisa maén.<ref>Hylands, Alan. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090330155023/http://worldsoccer.about.com/od/soccerhistory/p/diegomaradona.htm Diego Maradona], about.com.</ref> Kagagalanna dina tés obat dina Piala Dunia 1994 nandaan ahir tina karir internasionalna nu geus lumangsung salila 17 taun sarta ngahasilkeun 31 gul tina 91 kali maén, ogé sakali meunang Piala Dunia jeung sakali ''runners up.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/1646832.stm "Argentina's tribute to Maradona"]. BBC. Retrieved 14 May 2014</ref>'' == Gaya Permaénan == "Diégo mampu ngalakukeun hal-hal nu jalma séjén teu bisa. Hal nu bisa ku kuring dipilampah maké bal, ku manéhna mah bisa dipilampah maké jeruk." - Michel Paltini, manten galandang Perancis ngeunaan kontrol bal Maradona. [[Gambar:Argentina_v_belgica_1986.jpg|ka|jmpl|230x230px|Maradona keur ngagiring bal ngalawan Bélgia di taun 1986.]] Maradona sohor ku kamampuan ''dribbling-''na, visi, kontrol bal, operan jeung kréatifitasna sarta dianggap salah saurang pamaén olahraga pangmasagina.<ref name="numero 10">[https://www.fifa.com/newscentre/news/newsid=76134.html Pelé and Maradona – two very different number tens]. FIFA.com (25 January 2001). Diakses 31 Maret2013.</ref><ref>David Patrick Houghton (2008). "Political Psychology: Situations, Individuals, and Cases". p. 43. Routledge, 2008</ref><ref>Susan Ratcliffe (2001). "People on People: The Oxford Dictionary of Biographical Quotations". p. 234. Oxford University Press, 2001</ref> Mibanda awak nu pepel, sarta ku alatan sukuna nu kuat jeung awakna nu pendék manéhna bisa nadah tekanan pisik lawan bari ngagiring bal.<ref>[http://m.espn.go.com/general/blogs/blogpost?blogname=relegationzone&id=1816 "From spectacular to scandalous: Maradona's World Cup legacy"]. ESPN. Retrieved 14 May 2014</ref> Manten pamaén Walanda Johan Cruyff nempo kasaruan antara Maradona jeun Méssi di mana ngalika ngagiring, bal katempona siga nu nempél waé kana suku.<ref>[http://www.mirrorfootball.co.uk/news/Lionel-Messi-hailed-as-world-treasure-by-Johan-Cruyff-fellow-Barcelona-legend-article881245.html "Messi's a world treasure says Johan Cruyff"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426041440/http://www.mirrorfootball.co.uk/news/Lionel-Messi-hailed-as-world-treasure-by-Johan-Cruyff-fellow-Barcelona-legend-article881245.html|date=26 April 2012}}. The Mirror. Retrieved 1 August 2014</ref> Dirina mangrupa pamaén strategis jeung pamaén tim, ogé mibanda téhnik nu luhung. Manéhna bisa ngatur awakna sacara éféktif dina ruang nu kawates, sarta bakal mancing pamaén tukang lawan ukur pikeun sacara kilat ngaleupaskeun seranganna (jiga gul kadua nalika lawan Inggris di taun 1986),<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/photo_galleries/3639075.stm Maradona's World Cup magic]. BBC Sport (19 April 2004). Retrieved 18 August 2006.</ref> atawa méré ''assist'' ka baturna nu dina kaayaan laluasa. Alatan kuat jeung pendék manéhna bisa nahan bal sakitu lilana bari ditutur-tutur ku pamaén tukang lawan pikeun nunggu baturna lalumpat ka hareup atawa pikeun manggihan lolongkrang pikeun tembakan kilat. Dirina nunjukkeun kualitas kapamingpinan di lapangan sarta jadi kaptén Argéntina di tilu Piala Dunia, 1986, 1990 jeung 1994.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2014/may/29/world-cup-top-100-pele-maradona "World Cup’s top 100 footballers: how to choose between Pelé and Maradona?"]. The Guardian. Retrieved 24 June 2014</ref><ref>John H Kerr (2004). "Motivation And Emotion In Sport". p. 2. Taylor & Francis,</ref> Maradona jadi pamingpin di lapang jeung di luar lapang. Kamampuan Maradona salaku pamaén jeung kapribadiaanna nu sok ngawasa méré dampak positif nu gedé pikeun timna. Batur maéna dina Piala Dunia 1986, Jorge Valdano nyarita: "Maradona téh hiji pamingpin téhnis: hiji jalma nu mecahkeun sagala karerepet nu bisa bijil di lapangan. Kahijina, manéhna téh bisa nyieun mukjijat, hiji hal nu méré kayakinan ka batur-bautrna. Kaduana, lingkung sélébritina geus mampu nyedot sagala tekenan pikeun batur-batur satimna. Maksud kuring téh, saurang pamaén bisa saré tibra dina peuting méméh maén lain wungkul karana apal yén manéhna maén jeung Diégo nu bisa milampah hal nu pamaén lain teu bisa, tapi ogé alatan sacara teu nyadar urang ngarasa yén lamun ninggang di éléh mangka Maradona bakal nanggung beban panglobana, bakal paling disalahkeun tibatan urang-urang. Muji kana kharisma Maradona, batur maén séjénna. Kitu tah pangaruh manéhna téh dina jero tim."<ref>{{cite news|title=Does Diego still have the touch of a leader?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2008/nov/18/diego-maradona-argentina|accessdate=28 July 2018|work=The Guardian}}</ref> Striker subur Gabriel Batistuta muji: "Diégo bisa maréntah ka sa-stadion, nyieun unggal jalma lalajo manéhna. Kuring kungsi maén jeung manéhna sarta kuring bisa ngabéjaan ka anjeun kumaha pentingna manéhna pikeun tim."<ref>{{cite news|title=Messi lacks Maradona's charisma, claims Batistuta|url=https://www.fourfourtwo.com/news/messi-lacks-maradonas-charisma-claims-batistuta#5TvMcZMsZqydgcwd.99|accessdate=15 August 2018|work=Four Four Two}}</ref>{{Quote box|width=32%|align=right|quote="Najan kuring maén jutaan taun, kuring moal bisa nandingan Maradona, taya niat ka dinya bari na gé. Manéhna pamaén pangpunjulna nu pernah aya."|source=—Lionel Méssi, pamaén nu pangpantesna dilandi ku sebutan "Maradona Anyar"<ref name="Maradona FIFA">[https://www.fifa.com/world-match-centre/news/newsid/132/622/3/index.html "Maradona, as others see him"]. FIFA.com. Retrieved 17 November 2013</ref>}}Salah sahiji ciri khas Maradona nyaéta ''dribbling'' ku kacepetan pinuh di sayap katuhu, tuluy nalika nepi kana garis gawang lawan ngaleupaskeun operan nu akurat pikeun baturna. Ciri khas séjénna nyaéta ''rabona'', hiji operan dina gerakan suku ngagunting satukangeun suku séjénna.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/news/y=2011/m=10/news=enraptured-rabonas-1527054.html|title=Enraptured by 'rabonas'|publisher=FIFA.com|accessdate=9 April 2016|date=24 October 2014}}</ref> Manuper ieu ngahasilkeun kana sababaraha ''assist'', contona eupan mumbul pikeun sundulan Ramon Diaz lawan Swiss di taun 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espnfc.us/story/1300129/first-xi-the-art-of-rabona|title=The art of rabona|publisher=ESPN FC|accessdate=9 April 2016|author1=Robin Hackett|date=17 January 2013}}</ref> Manéhna ogé tukang nyépak tendangan bébas jeung pinalti nu ngabahayakeun.<ref>[http://uk.reuters.com/article/2010/06/19/us-soccer-world-maradona-idUSTRE65I0RB20100619 "Free kick expert Maradona leads by example"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125210345/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2010/06/19/us-soccer-world-maradona-idUSTRE65I0RB20100619 |date=2015-11-25 }}. Reuters. Retrieved 19 May 2014</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/news/y=2009/m=7/news=tension-from-yards-1086121.html|title=Tension from 12 yards|publisher=FIFA.com|accessdate=9 April 2016|date=31 July 2009}}</ref> Téhnik tendangan bébasna, di mana mineung katempo manéhna ngangkat tuur dina hiji sudut nu luhur nalika némbakeun bal, balukarna bal melentung ngaliwatan témbok pertahanan. Kukituna manéhna bisa nyitak gul tendangan bébas sanajan jarakna deukeut, dina 22 nepi ka 17 kaki (20 ka 16 méter) tina gawang, atawa malahan pas di saluareun aréa pinalti.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/ottobre/24/Del_Piero_Tira_alla_Platini_co_0_951024456.shtml|title=Del Piero? Tira alla Platini|publisher=Il Corriere della Sera|language=Italian|date=24 October 1995|p=44|archive-url=https://archive.is/20151106152619/http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/ottobre/24/Del_Piero_Tira_alla_Platini_co_0_951024456.shtml|archive-date=6 November 2015}}</ref> Maradona kawentar ku kapribadiaanna nu licik.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/oct/30/argentina-maradona-football-manager-rehab "El maestro Maradona: football legend to be Argentina manager"]. The Guardian. Retrieved 19 May 2014</ref> Luyu jeung landianna "El Pibe de Oro" (Anak Emas) nu boga kesan jahat, ku "pibe" ngandung harti ogé tukang tipu anti kamapanan, budak jalanan nu cerdas sarta pinuh muslihat.<ref name="Pibe"/> Sawatara kritikan nempo gul "Tangan Tuhan" kontorvérsialna dina Piala Dunia 1986 minangka hiji manuper pinter. Salah saurang pamaén lawan, Glenn Hoddle, nyebutkeun yén Maradona geus nyamurkeun gul éta ku ngagitekkeun sirahna bareng jeung nepak bal.<ref>Geoff Tibballs (2003). "Great Sporting Scandals". p. 227. Robson, 2003</ref> Gol éta dipandang minangka pangwujudan watek ti kawasan kumuh Buénos Aires di mana Maradona digedékeun sarta konsepan kota éta, ''viveza criolla'' - "licik bawaan".<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/sport/football/maradona-scores-1800aseat-ticket-sales-proving-the-bad-boys-of-sport-are-hard-to-match-20120511-1yi1y.html#ixzz327PbCwNs "Maradona scores $1800-a-seat ticket sales, proving the bad boys of sport are hard to match"]. Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 19 May 2014</ref> Sawatara loba kritikan kana gul kahijina nu teu sah, panyerang Inggris, Gary Lineker ngaku, "Nalika Diégo nyitak gul kadua éta ngalawan urang, kuring ngarasa siga ngeprokan. Kuring can pernah ngarasa siga kitu saméméhna, tapi éta téh nyata... sarta lain alatan éta téh hiji pertandingan penting. Ampir teu mungkin pikeun nyitak gul nu sakitu éndahna. Manéhna téh pamaén pangpunjulna salilana. Hiji fénoména asli."<ref name="Quotes">[https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/players/player=174732/quotes.html "Diego Maradona – I was there"]. FIFA.com. Retrieved 23 June 2014</ref> Maradona ngagunakeun leungeunna deui dina Piala Dunia 1990, ogé teu meunang hukuman, ayeuna mah dina garis gawangna sorangan, nyegah Uni Soviet pikeun nyitak gul.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/jun/13/diego-maradona-other-hand-ball "13 June 1990: Diego Maradona's other World Cup handball"]. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 February 2015</ref> Sajumlah publikasi geus nyaruakeun Maradona minangka si Artful Dodger, copet bebenyit malarat dina buku Charles Dickens, ''Oliver Twist''.<ref>[http://www.esquire.co.uk/culture/sport/6353/world-cup-legends-2-diego-maradona/ "World Cup Legends #1: Diego Maradona"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203100233/http://www.esquire.co.uk/culture/sport/6353/world-cup-legends-2-diego-maradona/|date=3 February 2015}}. Esquire. Retrieved 3 February 2015</ref><ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/international/3459830/Diego-Maradona-writes-another-chapter-in-a-turbulent-life-Football.html "Argentina coach Diego Maradona writes another chapter in a turbulent life"]. The Telegraph. Retrieved 3 February 2015</ref><ref>Taylor, Chris (9 November 2005). [https://www.theguardian.com/football/2005/nov/06/sport.argentina "A Big Hand"]. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 February 2015</ref><ref>Jimmy Burns (2011). "Maradona: The Hand of God". p. 17. A&C Black</ref> Maradona téh saurang pamaén nu sacara dominan maké suku kénca, remen maké suku kéncana sanajan bal leuwih ngeunaheun pikeun suku katuhu.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2006/11/13/rabona-tocco-magico-di-diego.html|title=Rabona, ' o tocco magico di Diego|trans-title=Rabona, Diego's magic touch|newspaper=La Repubblica|language=Italian|author1=Marco Azzi|date=13 November 2006|accessdate=9 April 2016}}</ref> Contona dina gul dina Piala Dunia 1986 nalika ngalawan Bélgia di semifinal jeung ngalawan Inggris di parapat final téa. == Pangsiun jeung kahormatan == [[Gambar:Maradona_Barcelona_shirt.jpg|ka|jmpl|Kaos Maradona dina hiji pajangan di Museum FC Barcelona]] Taun 1990, Yayasan Konex ti Argéntina ngadeudeul Maradona ku Panghargaan Berlian Konex, salah sahiji panghargaan budaya nu pangpréstisiusna di Argéntina, minangka pribadi pangpentingna dina widang olahraga dina dekade terahir di jero negeri. Taun 2.000, Maradona ngapublikasikeun otobiographina Yo Soy Él Diégo (Kuring si Diégo), nu laris di Argéntina.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030512214724/http://www.wndu.com/sports/122000/sports_5111.php Maradona 'tells all' in autobiography]. Associated Press. 20 December 2000.</ref> Dua taun ti harita, Maradona nyumbangkeun royalti bukuna di Kuba ka "Masyarakat Kuba jeung Fidel".<ref>Garcia, Anne-Marie (21 February 2002) [https://web.archive.org/web/20061013215035/http://www.granma.cu/ingles/febrero02-3/8diego-i.html Maradona donates royalties from Cuban edition of his book]. granma.cu.</ref> [[Gambar:Maradona_Soccer_Aid_2.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Maradona dina patandingan amal ''Soccer Aid'' di Old Trafford Manchester bulan Mei 2006.]] Taun 2.000, Maradona meunang panghargaan pamaén FIFA Abad Ieu nu diputuskeun liwat pamilihan suara dina ''website'', majalah resmina jeung para juri. Maradona meunang dina pamiihan dumasar kana internét, ngumpulkeun 53,6% suara lawan Pélé 18.53%.<ref>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/news/2000/12/10/maradona_pele_ap/ "Maradona or Pele?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112101321/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/news/2000/12/10/maradona_pele_ap/ |date=2012-01-12 }}. CNN Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 26 June 2014</ref> Tapi sanajan kitu, saméméh upacara panyérénan, FIFA nambahkeun panghargaan kadua sarta nunjuk komisi "Kulawarga Sépakbola" nu dieusi ku jurnalis sépakbola nu ogé ngaanugrahan Pélé minangka pamaén panghadéna dina abad ieu. Maradona ogé nempatan posisi kalima dina pamilihan di IFFHS (''International Federation of Football History and Statistics'').<ref>[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/iffhs-century.html#worldpoc IFFHS' Century Elections]. Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation.com (30 January 2000). Diakses 31 Maret 2013.</ref> Taun 2001, ''Argentine Football Association'' (AFA) ngajukeun ka FIFA pikeun kawenangan matrikeun nomer kaos 10 ka Maradona. FIFA teu ngaijabah, tapi pajabat Argéntina nyebutkeun yén FIFA geus ngisyaratkeun bakal.<ref>[http://worldcup.espnsoccernet.com/story?id=211993&lang=us Argentina can't retire Maradona's shirt] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030325180425/http://worldcup.espnsoccernet.com/story?id=211993&lang=us|date=25 Maret 2003}} ESPNsoccernet.com, 26 May 2002. Retrieved 18 August 2006.</ref> Maradona geus ngunggulan dina sababaraha polling, kaasup polling FIFA taun 2002 nu nempatkeun gul kaduana ka Inggris kapilih jadi gul panghadé-hadéna salila Piala Dunia. Manéhna ge meunang sora pangréana dina polling pamilihan Tim Pamungkas Piala Dunia Sapanjang Waktu. Tanggal 22 Maret 2010, Maradona kapilih jadi nomer 1 dina 10 pamaén Piala Dunia Pangpunjulna nu diayakeun ku surat kabar London, ''the Times''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/international/article7070370.ece|work=The Times|location=London|title=The ten greatest World Cup playersbr No 1 Diego Maradona Argentina|date=22 Maret 2010|accessdate=1 April 2010|first=Fiona|last=Hamilton}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030215351/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |date=30 October 2023 }}</ref> Argéntinos Junior ngaganti ngaran stadionna jadi Maradona dina tanggal 26 Désémber 2003. Taun 2003, Maradona digawékeun ku pamaén bal Libya Al Saadi Gadafi, anak ka tilu Kolonél Muammar Gadafi, minangka konsultan téhnik.<ref>White, Duncan (29 October 2011). "Jay Bothroyd puts good times with playboy Saadi Gaddafi, son of dead Libya tyrant Colonel Gaddafi, behind him". ''National Post''. Retrieved 31 Maret 2012</ref> [[Gambar:Maradona_CRS.jpg|ka|jmpl|Maradona di Kolkata, [[India]], Désémber 2008 Maradona neundeun batu munggarah pkeun akademi sepakbola di pasisian wétan kota sarta dibagéakeun ku leuwih ti 100.000 urang di Salt Lake Stadium]] Tanggal 22 Juni 2005, dibéwarakeun yén Maradona bakal mulang deui ka manten klubna, Boca Juniors, minangka wakil présidén olahraga nu tanggung jawab kana ngatur rancangan Divisi Hiji (sanggeus usum 2004-05 nu nguciwakeun, nu bareng jeung saabadna Boca).<ref>[http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=349221 'El Diez emprende dos nuevos desafíos', ''ESPN Deportes''] (28 July 2005). Retrieved 17 August 2005.</ref> Kontrakna dimimitian tanggal 1 Agustus 2005, salah sahiji rekomendasina nu kabuktian éféktif: ngusulkeun klub pikeun nyéwa Alfio Basile salaku palatih anyar. Ku Maradona ngabina hubungan nu raket jeung pamaén, Boca meunang Apertura taun 2005, Clausura 2006, Piala Sudamericana 2005 jeung Recopa Sudamericana 2005. Tanggal 15 Agustus 2005, Maradona ngamimitian jadi pamawa acara talk show dina tv Argéntina, ''La Noche del 10'' (Peuting si No. 10). Tamu dina peuting kahijina nyaéta Pélé; duanana layeut ngobrol, nunjukkeun taya tanda-tanda pasalia katukang. Najan kitu, dina acara éta nampilkeun hiji kartun tokoh jahat nu sacara fisik rimbag jeung Pélé. Rating acara ngunggulan acara séjén-séjénna, ngan aya hiji nu heunteu téh. Lolobana tamuna dicokot tina dunia ménbal jeung bisnis pintonan, kaasup Ronaldo jeung Zidane. Tapi aya ogé wawancara jeung sobat sarta jalma-jalma penting lianna, contona pamingpin Kuba, Fidel Castro, sarta patinju Roberto Duran jeung Mike Tyson.<ref>[http://mensual.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2005/09/21/hoy/deportes/345641.html "Roberto Durán estuvo con Diego Maradona"]. Prensa.com. Retrieved 2 September 2014</ref> Maradona mahanan tamu-tamuna ku kaos Argéntina nu ku Tyson dipaké nalika datang ka Brazil, saingan Argéntina panggedéna.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/11/AR2005111101352.html "Tyson Must Return to Brazil for Trial"]. Washington Post. Retrieved 13 May 2014</ref> Bulan Méi 2006, Maradona satuju pikeun icikibung dina Bantuan Sepakbola Inggris Raya (hiji program pikeun ngumpulkeun sumbangan keur Unicef).<ref>"[http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/060528/1/6y4e.html ''Maradona scores but England win UNICEF match'']", Yahoo!-FIFA</ref> Dina Séptémber 2006, Maradona, ngapténan Argéntina dina turnamén tilu poé Piala Dunia ''Indoor'' di Spanyol. Tanggal 26 Agustus 2006, dibéwarakeun yén Maradona geus eureun dina posisina di Boca Juniors alatan pabéntar paham jeung AFA nu mililh Alfio Basile jadi palatih anyar tim nasional Argéntina.<ref>[https://www.fifa.com/en/WorldLeagues/index/0,4643,120577,00.html?articleid=120577 'El Diego quits his beloved Boca', ''FIFA News''] (26 August 2006). Retrieved 26 August 2006 . {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}</ref> Taun 2008, tukang filem Sérbia, Emir Kusturica nyieun filem dokuménter ngeunaan kahirupan Maradona, nu dijudulan Maradona.<ref name="Film">[https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/reviews/maradona-by-kusturica-831757.html "Maradona by Kusturica".]. The Independent. Retrieved 2 June 2014</ref> Tanggal 1 Séptémber, Maradona jeung réngréngan béntang manten pamaén bal, ilibiung dina "Tanding Pikeun Kadamaian", nu dipaénkeun di Stadio Olimpico Roma, di mana kauntunganna bakal disumbangkeun pikeun amal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.matchforpeace.org/?lang=en|title=Interreligious Match for Peace: 1/9/2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903092935/http://www.matchforpeace.org/?lang=en|archivedate=3 September 2014|accessdate=1 September 2014|deadurl=yes|df=}}</ref> Maradona memernah gul Roberto Baggio dina babak kahiji.<ref name="Gazetta">{{cite web|url=http://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/01-09-2014/calcio-partita-pace-baggio-dinho-eto-o-campo-il-papa-90323482706.shtml?rlabs=1|title=Il Papa a Maradona: "Ti aspettavo". Diego show con Baggio, poi si infuria: "Icardi non doveva giocare"|work=La Gazzetta dello Sport|accessdate=1 September 2014}}</ref> Teu cara biasana, boh Maradona boh Baggio maraké kaos nomer 10 najan maén dina satim.<ref name="Gazetta2">{{cite web|url=http://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/01-09-2014/calcio-partita-pace-baggio-dinho-eto-o-campo-il-papa-90323482706.shtml?rlabs=1|title=Il Papa a Maradona: "Ti aspettavo". Diego show con Baggio, poi si infuria: "Icardi non doveva giocare"|work=La Gazzetta dello Sport|accessdate=1 September 2014}}</ref> Tanggal 17 Agustus 2015 Maradona nepungan Ali bin Nasser, wasit urang Tunisia dina tanding parapat final Piala Dunia 1986, Argéntina - Inggris, nalika Maradona nyétak Tangan Tuhanna, sarta méré hadiah ka manéhna ku kaos Argéntina.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.marca.com/en/2015/08/17/en/football/international_football/1439845054.html|title=29 Years on from the Infamous Argentina-England Match, Maradona holds up his hands in apology|work=Marca.com|date=17 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/08/18/inenglish/1439899213_516413.html|title=Maradona visits Tunisian referee who awarded him 1986 “Hand of God” goal|work=El Pais|date=18 August 2015}}</ref> == Karir Manajerial == === Manajemén klub === Maradona ngamimitian karir manajerialna bareng jeung manten batur maénna di Argéntinos Junior, Carlos Frén. Pasangan éta mingpin Mandiyu ti Corrientes di 1994 sarta Racing Club di 1995, bari teu pati hasil. Mei 2011 Maradona jadi manajer klub Dubai Al Wasi FC di Uni Émirat Arab. Maradona dipecat dina tanggal 10 Juli 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Diego Maradona fired as Al Wasl coach|url=http://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/Diego-Maradona-fired-as-Al-Wasl-coach-3696833.php|work=San Francisco Chronicle|date=10 July 2012|accessdate=10 July 2012}}</ref>"India"<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/Maradona-wants-to-hold-talks-to-save-Al-Wasl-job/articleshow/14832834.cms|title=Maradona wants to hold talks to save Al Wasl job|date=12 July 2012|work=The Times Of India}}</ref> Agustus 2013, Maradona pindah jeung jadi palatih mentah di klub Argéntina Déportivo Riestra. Maradona ninggalkeun peran éta taun 2017 pikeun jadi kapala palatih di Fujairah, di divisi dua UÉA, méméh indit di ujung usum alatan gagal ngamankeun promosi klubna.<ref name="2017 coach2">{{cite news|title=Diego Maradona leaves job in UAE after failing to secure automatic promotion|url=http://www.skysports.com/football/news/11095/11349642/diego-maradona-leaves-job-in-uae-after-failing-to-secure-automatic-promotion|agency=Sky Sports|date=6 Mei 2018|last=|first=|work=|access-date=|via=}}</ref> Bulan Séptémber 2018 manéhna ditunjuk jadi manajer tim divisi dua Méksiko, Dorados.<ref name="Mexican team2"/> 13 Juni 2019, sanggeus Dorados gagal promosi ka kelas luhureunna, Pangacara Maradona ngumumkeun yén manéhna eureun jadi palatih alatan alesan kaséhatan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Maradona out as Dorados manager, cites health|url=https://www.espn.co.uk/football/dorados-de-sinaloa/story/3875493/maradona-out-as-dorados-managercites-health|work=ESPN|date=14 June 2019|accessdate=25 June 2019}}</ref> === Manajemén internasional === Sanggeus pangsiunna palatih Alfion Basile ti tim nasional dina taun 2008, Maradona haripeut ngasongkeun dirina pikeun ngeusi kakosongan. Numutkeun sawatara sumber préss, saingan utamana téh kaasup Diégo Simeoné, Carlos Bianchi, Miguél Angél Russo jeung Sérgio Batista. Tanggal 29 Oktober 2008, pimpinan AFA Julio Grondona mastikeun yén Maradona bakal jadi kapala palatih tim nasional. Tanggal 19 Nopémber 2008, Maradona mawa Argéntina kana kameunangan kahijina nalika ngalawan Skotlandia di Hampden Park Galsgow ku 1-0.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/7731484.stm|title=Scotland 0–1 Argentina|first=Andy|last=Campbell|date=19 November 2008|work=BBC Sport|accessdate=7 July 2010}}</ref> Sanggeus meunang tilu tanding awal, Maradona lalajo timna kasoran ti Bolivia 1-6, nyaruaan hasil kaéléhan pangbutut-bututna nu pernah kaalaman ku tim. Ku tinggal dua kali deui sésa maén dina turnamén kualifikasi pikeun Piala Dunia 2010, Argéntina aya dina posisi lima jeung ampir-ampiran kasingkir. Untung wé dua kali meunang dina laga panungtung ngaloloskeun Argéntina ka final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/report?id=230075&cc=5739&league=FIFA.WORLDQ.CONMEBOL|title=Last-gasp Palermo wins it in the rain|publisher=ESPN|accessdate=15 October 2009|date=10 October 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023144432/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/report?id=230075&cc=5739&league=FIFA.WORLDQ.CONMEBOL |date=23 October 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/SPORT/football/10/14/football.samerica/index.html|title=Late winner puts Argentina in World Cup finals|date=14 October 2009|publisher=CNN|accessdate=15 October 2009}}</ref> Sanggeus lolos, Maradona ngaluarkeun kekecapan garihal dina konfrénsi préss bada maén, nyarita ka anggota média ku kecap nu kurang leuwih hartina "kasebelan, tuluy wé pikasebeleun".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en/news/1863/world-cup-2010/2009/10/15/1562544/diego-maradona-tells-press-to-suck-it-after-argentina|title=Diego Maradona Tells Press To 'Suck It' After Argentina Triumph Over Uruguay|publisher=Goal.com|accessdate=12 June 2010|author=World Cup 2010|date=15 October 2009}}</ref> FIFA ngaréspon ku larangan dua bulan dina sagala aktifitas ménbal, semet ka tanggal 15 Januari 2010, ogé denda 25.000 CHF sarta tegoran keur kalakuanna pika hareupeun.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/8311013.stm|title=Maradona hit with two-month ban|work=BBC Sport|accessdate=15 November 2009|date=15 November 2009|location=London}}</ref> Dina final Piala Dunia 2010, Argéntina ngamimitian ku meunang 1-0 ngalawan Nigeria, tuluy meunang 4-1 ngalawan Koréa Selatan ku ''hattrick'' Gonzalo Higuain.<ref>{{cite news|first=Phil|last=Dawkes|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world_cup_2010/matches/match_04/default.stm|title=Argentina 1–0 Nigeria|date=12 June 2010|work=BBC Sport|accessdate=17 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Jonathan|last=Stevenson|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world_cup_2010/matches/match_18/default.stm|title=Argentina 4–1 South Korea|date=17 June 2010|work=BBC Sport|accessdate=17 June 2010}}</ref> di akhir laga grup Argéntina ngéléhkeun Yunani 2-0 sarta jadi juara grup laju tuluy panggih jeung Méksiko.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/report?id=264042&league=FIFA.WORLD&cc=5739&ver=global|title=Maradona's men in top spot|date=22 June 2010|work=[[ESPNsoccernet]]|publisher=[[ESPN]]|accessdate=23 June 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204102114/http://www.espn.com/soccer/report?cc=5739&ver=global&league=FIFA.WORLD&id=264042 |date=4 December 2018 }}</ref> Sanggeus ngéléhkeun Méksiko 3-1, antukna, Argéntina dilindes ku Jérman 4-0 dina parapat final, kasingkir tina kompétisi.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/04/sports/soccer/04germanygame.html?_r=1&scp=5&sq=Maradona&st=cse|title=Germany Shows Its Strength|date=3 June 2010|work=The New York Times|accessdate=4 June 2010|first=Jeré|last=Longman}}</ref> Argéntina meunang paringkat ka lima dina turnamén. Sanggeus éléh ku Jérman, Maradona ngaku yén manéhna nimbang-nimbang pika hareupenna minangka palatih, cumarita, "kuring meureun miang isukan."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world_cup_2010/8785997.stm|title=Sad Maradona considers quitting|date=4 July 2010|work=BBC Sport|accessdate=15 July 2010}}</ref> Tanggal 15 Juli 2010, AFA nyatakeun yén Maradona bakal ditawaran deui jadi palatih salila 4 taun ka hareup semet ka Piala Dunia 2014 di Brazil.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world_cup_2010/8823478.stm|title=Argentina to offer Diego Maradona new four-year deal|date=15 July 2010|work=BBC Sport|accessdate=15 July 2010}}</ref> Tapi, tanggal 27 Juli, AFA ngumumkeun yén anggota déwanna geus mupakat kalayan buleud moal manjangan kontrakna.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2010/jul/27/diego-maradona-departs-argentina-manager|title=Diego Maradona departs as manager of Argentina|date=27 July 2010|work=The Guardian|accessdate=27 July 2010|agency=[[Press Association]]|location=London}}</ref> Bada ti éta, tanggal 29 Juli, Maradona nyebutkeun yén présidén AFA, Julio Grondona jeung diréktur tim nasional (nu mangrupa ogé urut batur maénna di tim nasional sarta palatih Sevilla) Carlos Bilardo geus ngabohong, khianat kalayan sacara nyata mecat manéhna. Manéhna nyarita, "Maranéhna hayang kuring nuluykeun, tapi tujuh tina pagawé kuring kudu eureun, lamun kitu mah, sarua wé jeung nolak kuring tuluy mancén.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=810672&sec=global&cc=5739|title='Betrayed' Maradona lashes out at AFA|date=29 July 2010|work=[[ESPNsoccernet]]|publisher=[[ESPN]]|accessdate=29 July 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803224416/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=810672 |date=3 August 2010 }}</ref> == Kahirupan pribadi == === Kulawarga === [[Gambar:Maradonas's_jersey_donated_to_Pope_Francis.jpg|jmpl|Sanggeus balik deui kana kayakinan Katolikna, Maradona nyumbangkeun hiji kaos meunang nanda tangan ka Paus Francis, nu disimpeun di Muséum Vatikan.]] Lahir ti kulawarga Katolik Roma, bapana Diégo Maradona Senior sarta indungna Dalma Salvadora Franco. Maradona ngadahup ka tunangan heubeulna, Claudia Villafane dina tanggal 7 Nopémber 1984 di Buenos Aires, sarta boga dua anak, Dalma Nerea (2 April 1987) jeung Cianinna Dinorah (16 Mei 1989) nu ngajadikeun dirina hiji aki dina taun 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en/news/722/la-liga/2009/02/19/1117562/diego-maradona-becomes-a-grandfather-as-sergio-aguero-junior-is-b|title=Diego Maradona Becomes A Grandfather As Sergio Aguero Junior Is Born|publisher=Goal.com|accessdate=12 June 2010|author=La Liga|date=19 February 2009}}</ref> Maradona jeung Villafane pepegatan taun 2004. Budakna, Dalma ngajéntrékeun yén pepegatan éta téh solusi panghadéna pikeun saréréa. Kadua kolotna masih tetep nyobat. Maranéhna indit-inditan bareng ka Naples pikeun sarangkaian acara kahormatan dina Juni 2005 sarta katempo bareng dina kasempetan séjénna, kaasup laga-laga Argéntina dina Piala Dunia 2006.<ref>[http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=334497 ESPN Deportes – "Llega en son de paz"]. ESPN. Retrieved 19 May 2006</ref> Mangsa urusan cerai keur diprosés, Maradona ngaku yén manéhna téh bapa ti Diégo Sinagra (lahir di Naples tanggal 20 Séptémber 1986). Pangadilan Italia geus mutuskeun kitu taun 1993, sanggeus Maradona nolak tés DNA pikeun pangbuktian. Diégo Junior tepung jeung Maradona mimiti pisan dina bulan Mei 2003 sanggeus nyelendep ka lapangan golep di Italia di mana Maradona keur maén.<ref>[http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=334523 ESPN Deportes – "El amor al ídolo"]. ESPN. Retrieved 19 May 2006</ref> Maradona boga hubungan nu raket jeung kulawargana, taun 1990 wawancara jeung ''Sports Illustrated'' manéhna nembongkeun tagihan telepon meakkeun 15.000 dolar AS per bulan pikeun nelpon kolot jeung dulur-dulurna.<ref>{{cite news|title=Prima Dona|url=https://www.si.com/vault/1990/05/14/121977/prima-dona-at-his-best-diego-maradona-can-be-as-graceful-as-michael-jordan-at-his-worst-he-can-be-as-disgraceful-as-john-mcenroe-the-question-is-which-maradona-will-show-for-the-world-cup|accessdate=19 August 2018|work=Sports Illustrated}}</ref> Indung Maradona, Dalma, maot tanggal 19 Nopémber 2011. Harita manéhna keur di Dubai, sarta bari jeung peunggas harepan satekah polah balik muru waktu hayang nempo indungna, tapi telat teuing. Umur Indungna 81 taun. Bapana, "Don" Diégo, maot tanggal 25 Juni dina umur 87.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/jun/25/diego-maradona-father-dies “Diego Maradona’s father Don Diego dies aged 87”]. The Guardian. Retrieved 19 August 2018</ref> Incu ti gigir Maradona, Hernan, ogé saurang pamaén bola profésional.<ref name="La Nación2">{{cite news|title=La historia del sobrino de Maradona que juega en River: su polémica llegada al club y su particular parecido con el tío|url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/deportes/futbol/la-historia-del-sobrino-de-maradona-que-juega-en-river-su-polemica-llegada-al-club-y-su-particular-parecido-con-el-tio-nid2130488|accessdate=7 April 2019|work=La Nación|date=3 May 2018}}</ref> === Pamakéan obat jeung isu-isu kaséhatan === Ti tengah-tengah 1980-an nepi 2005, Maradona kacanduan ku kokain. Manéhna dituduh mimiti maké obat di Barcelona tahun 1983.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/3639425.stm Maradona's fall from grace] John May, 19 April 2004, BBC Sport. Retrieved 18 August 2006.</ref> Mangsa maén di Napoli, manéhna geus kateterusan kacanduan nu jadi matak kana kamampuan na dina maénbal.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE5DE1F30F93AA2575AC0A967958260|title=The New York Times: SOCCER; Maradona Sentenced|date=19 September 1991|work=AP via New York Times}}</ref> Maradona ngabogaan kacondongan kana ngagendutan sarta nandangan masalah obesitas nu tuluy nambah, kungsi ditimbang beuratna 130 kg. Manéhna ngagendutan ti mimiti eureun karir maénna nepi ka nandangan operasi bépas lambung di hiji klinik di Cartagena de Indias, Colombia tanggal 6 Maret 2005. Dokter bedahna nitah sangkan Maradona ngajalankeun diet cairan salila tilu bulan keur malikkeun beurat awakna.<ref name="bbc_stomach">{{Cite news|title=Maradona has surgery on stomach|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/4322835.stm|publisher=BBC|accessdate=28 June 2010|date=6 Maret 2005}}</ref> Nalika Maradona nembongan hareupeun umum, katempo pangawakanna lumayan rada begang.<ref name="espn_surgery">{{cite web|url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=344144&cc=5901|title=Maradona's gastric bypass inspires obese Colombians|last=Associated Press|publisher=ESPN|accessdate=28 June 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109202701/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=344144&cc=5901 |date=9 November 2012 }}</ref> Tanggal 29 Maret 2007, Maradona asup deui ka hiji rumah sakit di Buénos Aires. Manéhna dirawat alatan hépatisis jeung pangaruh loba teuing alkohol sarta kaluar tanggal 11 April. Tapi dua poé ti harita dirawat deui.<ref name="espn_surgery2">{{cite web|url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=344144&cc=5901|title=Maradona's gastric bypass inspires obese Colombians|last=Associated Press|publisher=ESPN|accessdate=28 June 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109202701/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=344144&cc=5901 |date=9 November 2012 }}</ref> Dina poé-poé satuluyna nyebar rumor ngeunaan kaséhatanna, kaasup kana tilu kalina dina sabulan kabéjakeun maot.<ref>Calegari, Rodrigo (26 April 2007). [http://www.ole.clarin.com/notas/2007/04/26/01407242.html "Malas lenguas"]. [[Diario Olé]] {{Es icon}}</ref> Sanggeus dipindahkeun ka klinik psychiatrik nu ngahususkeun kana masalah nu pakait jeung alkohol, Maradona kaluar tanggal 7 Méi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6633391.stm|work=BBC News|title=Maradona leaves alcoholism clinic|date=7 May 2007|accessdate=1 April 2010}}</ref> Tanggal 8 Méi 2007, Maradona nembongan na tivi sarta ngaku yén manéhna téh geus eureun kana nginum jeng geus teu maké obat-obatan salila dua satengah taun.<ref>[http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=428701&cc=5901 "Maradona says he no longer drinks"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023144512/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=428701&cc=5901 |date=2012-10-23 }}. ESPNsoccernet (8 May 2007).</ref> Januari 2019, Maradona dioperasi deui sanggeus hérniana ngabalukarkeun geutihan di jero dina beuteungna.<ref>{{cite news|title=Diego Maradona recovering in hospital after operation for internal bleeding|work=BBC Sport|date=13 January 2019|accessdate=13 January 2019|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/46855009}}</ref> === Pandangan pulitik === Sanggeus saméméhna vokal ngadukung Présidén Argéntina Carlos Menem nu neoliberal sarta palaku ekonomina nu lulusan Harvard, Domingo Cavallo, Maradona nunjukeun simpatina ka ideologi sayap kiri. Manéhna jadi sobat pamingpin Kuba Fidel Castro nalika keur dirawat di kapuloan Kuba, Castro nyarita, "Diégo téh hiji sobat nu hébat tur mulya. Ogé tong ditanyakeun deui lamun manéhna téh hiji atlit nu tanggoh sarta tetep miara sosobatanna jeung Kuba tanpa aya pamrih nanaon." Maradona boga tato potret Castro dina suku kéncana sarta jalma kadua Castro, sarua ti Argéntina, Ché Guévara, lebah leungeun katuhuna.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/argentina/story/0,,1635417,00.html|title=A big hand|work=The Observer|location=UK|accessdate=19 June 2006|date=6 November 2005|first=Chris|last=Taylor}}</ref> Dina otobiographina, manéhna ngadédikasikeun bukuna ka mangrupa-rupa jalma, kaasup Castro. Manéhna nulis, "Keur Fidel Castro, sarta ngaliwatan dirina, sakabéh rakyat Cuba."<ref>{{cite book|last=Maradona|first=Diego|author2=Daniel Arcucci|author3=Ernesto Cherquis Bialo|title=El Diego|url=https://archive.org/details/eldiego0000unse|year=2005|publisher=Yellow Jersey|location=London|isbn=0-224-07190-4}}</ref> [[Gambar:Exequias_de_Néstor_Kirchner_en_Casa_Rosada_7.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Maradona, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner jeung Evo Morales, di pamakaman manten presden Argéntina Néstor Kirchner, salaki manten Présidén Cristina Kirchner, 28 Oktober 2010]] Maradona ogé minangka saurang pangrojong pikeun manten Présidén Venezula, Hugp Chavéz. Taun 2005, manéhna indit ka Vénézuéla nepungan Chavéz nu nampa manéhna di Istana Miraflores. Réngsé patepung, Maradona ngaku yén tadina mah manéhna téh rek nepungan saurang "''great man''" (jalma gedé, "''un grande''" dina bahasa Spanyol), tapi malah panggih jeung saurang "''gigantic man''" (jalma raksasa, "''un gigante''" dina bahasa Spanyol, maksudna leuwih-leuwih ti jalma gedé). "Kuring mah percaya ka Chavéz, kuring simpatisan Chavéz (Chavista). Naon waé nu dipigawé ku Fidel, naon waé nu dipigawé ku Chavéz, pikeun kuring mah pangalusna."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Maradona and Chávez laugh over 'hand of god' goal on chat show|work=The Guardian|location=UK|accessdate=20 August 2007|url=https://www.theguardian.com/venezuela/story/0,,2152474,00.html|first=Rory|last=Carroll|date=20 August 2007}}</ref> Maradona jadi tamu kahormatan Chavéz dina tanding bubuka Piala Amérika 2007 di Vénézuéla.<ref>[https://metro.co.uk/2007/06/27/maradona-fancies-a-copa-3432278/ "Maradona fancies a Copa"]. Metro. Retrieved 21 May 1014</ref> Maradona geus nyatakeun panentanganna kana naon nu ku manéhna disebut minangka imperialisme, babakuna nalika Pasamoan Amérika di Mar dél Plata, Argéntina. Di dinya manéhna ngaprotés kahadiran George W Bush di Argéntina, mamaké kaos ditulisan "STOP BUSH" (bari hurup "s" dina "Bush" diganti ku swastika) sarta nyebutkeun Bush minangka "runtah manusa".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/timerman|title=Chávez and Maradona Lead Massive Rebuke of Bush|work=[[The Nation]]|accessdate=20 June 2006|date=5 November 2005}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616003623/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/timerman |date=16 June 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/images/1105-02.jpg|title=Image of Maradona wearing the STOP BU卐H shirt|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100623193530/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/images/1105-02.jpg|archivedate=23 June 2010|accessdate=12 June 2010|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Dina bulan Agustus 2007, Maradona beuki jauh deui, minton dina acara mingguan Chavéz, ''Alo Présidénte'' sarta nyarita, "Kuring ceuceub kana naon waé nu datang ti Amérika Serikat. Ceuceub kabina-bina."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ex-soccer star Maradona tells Chavez he hates U.S.|agency=Reuters|accessdate=20 August 2007|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKN1925170620070819|date=19 August 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429132055/http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKN1925170620070819 |date=29 April 2008 }}</ref> Dina Désember 2008, najan kitu, Maradona nyokot sikap nu leuwih pro-AS nalika manéhna nembongkeun kasukaanna ka pangganti Bush, présidén kapilih Barack Obama, sarta nyepeng harepan nu gedé ti manéhna.<ref >[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7770851.stm "Maradona sends Calcutta into frenzy"]. BBC. Retrieved 26 June 2014 </ref> Perwatek kawasan kumuh miskin dijadikeun ku Maradona minangka sosok kamasyarakatanna.<ref name="Vatican">[https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/blogs/pitchside-europe/football-awaits-audience-italy-argentina-131330730.html "Football awaits an audience with Italy and Argentina"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904092010/https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/blogs/pitchside-europe/football-awaits-audience-italy-argentina-131330730.html|date=4 September 2014}}. Eurosport. Retrieved 2 September 2014</ref> Nalika panggih jeung Paus John Paul KK di Vatikan taun 1987, maranéhna pasalia ngeunaan isu teu ratana kasajahtraan, ku caritaan Maradona, "Kuring debat jeung manéhna sabab kuring keur di Vatikan jeung kuring nempo éta kabéh lalangit emas sarta tuluy ngadénge Paus nyarita yén Garéja mikamelang kana kasajahtraan barudak miskin. Jual wé atuh lalangit éta téh, ''amigo'', usaha!"<ref name="Vatican2">[https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/blogs/pitchside-europe/football-awaits-audience-italy-argentina-131330730.html "Football awaits an audience with Italy and Argentina"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904092010/https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/blogs/pitchside-europe/football-awaits-audience-italy-argentina-131330730.html|date=4 September 2014}}. Eurosport. Retrieved 2 September 2014</ref> Dina bulan Séptémber 2014 Maradona panggih jeung Paus Francis di Roma, mumuji Francis alatan ngailhaman manéhna pikeun balik deui kana agama saeunggeus sakitu lilana; manéhna nyarita, "Urang kabéh kudu nurutan Paus Francis. Lamun tiap saurang di antara urang méré naon waé ka nu lian, moal aya di dunya ieu nu kalaparan."<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/diego-maradona-meets-pope-francis-in-rome-20140902-10b8tw.html#ixzz3C94HZkyr "Diego Maradona meets Pope Francis in Rome"]. Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2 September 2014</ref> Bulan Désémber 2007, Maradona nyérénkeun hiji kaos meunang néken bari maké pesen nu ngadukung masarakat Iran: dipajang di museum Kaméntrian Luar Nagri Iran.<ref name="sundayTimes3April2008">{{Cite news|last=Naughton|first=Philippe|title=Diego Maradona makes a fan of President Ahmadinejad of Iran|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article3673860.ece|accessdate=28 June 2010|newspaper=The Sunday Times|date=3 April 2008|location=London}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126133023/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |date=26 November 2020 }}</ref> Bulan April 2013, Maradona zarah ka makam Huqo Chavéz sarta ngajujurung urang Vénézuéla sangkan milih pangganti nu geus diancokeun ku jenatna, Nicolas Maduro, sangkan nuluykeun warisan kapamingpinan sosialis; "Tuluykeun pajoangan," Maradona nyarita dian tivi.<ref name="Chavez">[http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/206240-diego-maradona-visits-hugo-chavez-tomb "Diego Maradona visits] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825183755/http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/206240-diego-maradona-visits-hugo-chavez-tomb|date=25 August 2016}}. NDTV. Diakses 29 November 2013</ref> Maradona ngahadiran kampanye akhir Maduro nu lumangsung di Karakas, nanda tangan bal jeung tuluy disepak ka balaréa, sarta mikeun hiji kaos Argéntina ka Maduro.<ref name="Chavez" /> Sanggeus zarah ti makam Chavéz, bareng jeung Maradona, Maduro nyarita, "Ngobrol jeung Maradona matak pikasediheun lantaran ''comandante'' Chavéz mikaresep pisan ka jinisna." <ref name="Chavez" /> Maradona icikibung jeung jojogédan nalika kampanye nu lumangsung dina pamilihan présidén Vénézuéla taun 2018. Mangsa krisis kaprésidénan Vénézuéla taun 2019.<ref>{{cite news|title=Así bailó Maradona durante el cierre de campaña de Maduro|url=http://www.el-nacional.com/noticias/politica/asi-bailo-maradona-durante-cierre-campana-maduro_235670|date=17 May 2018|accessdate=18 May 2018|work=El Nacional}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Maradona acompañó a Maduro en su cierre de campaña electoral|url=http://www.panorama.com.ve/politicayeconomia/Maradona-acompano-a-Maduro-en-su-cierre-de-campana-electoral-20180517-0051.html|date=17 May 2018|accessdate=18 May 2018|work=Panorama}}</ref> Federasi Sépakbola Méksiko ngadenda manéhna alatan ngalanggar kode etik jeung mikeun tropi kameunangan ka Nicolas Maduro.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://lta.reuters.com/articulo/futbol-mexico-maradona-idLTAKCN1RL083|work=Reuters|language=es|date=8 April 2019|accessdate=10 April 2019|title=Federación México multa a Maradona por dedicar triunfo a Maduro}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409035637/https://lta.reuters.com/articulo/futbol-mexico-maradona-idLTAKCN1RL083 |date=9 April 2019 }}</ref> Bulan Oktober 2015, Maradona nganuhunkeun Ratu Elizabeth II jeung Parlemén Inggris di London alatan méré kasempetan ka manéhna pikeun nyadiaan "kaadilan sajati" salaku pupuhu dina hiji organisasi nu dijieun pikeun nulungan barudak leutik.<ref name="Unity">{{cite news|title=Diego Maradona sends a 'big hug to the Houses of Parliament' and thanks the Queen|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/sport/football/diego-maradona-sends-a-big-hug-to-the-houses-of-parliament-and-thanks-the-queen-a3089616.html|agency=London Evening Standard|date=21 October 2015}}</ref> Dina hiji video nu dikaluarkeun dina laman Facebook resmina, Maradona mastikeun yén manéhna bakal nampa panyalonan dirina keur jadi diréktur Amérika Latin pikeun organisasi non-pamarentah ''Football for Unity''.<ref name="Unity" /> === Masalah finansial === Bulan Maret 2009, pajabat Italia ngabéwarakeun yén Maradona masih boga hutang ka pamarentah Italia 37 juta euro dina urusan pajak lokal; 23,5 juta euro mangrupa tambahan bunga tina hutang aslina, Maradona ngan mayar 42.000 euro pikeun arloji méwah jeung anting sasetél.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8264160.stm Police seize Maradona's earrings] BBC News, 19 September 2009</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8264160.stm Police seize Maradona's earrings] BBC News, 19 September 2009</ref> == Tilar dunya == Tanggal 25 Nopémber 2020, dina umur 60 taun, Maradona tilar dunya di imahna di Buénos Aires alatan serangan jantung.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bolatimes.com/boladunia/2020/11/26/073355/diego-maradona-meninggal-dunia-ini-penyebabnya|title=Diego Maradona meninggal dunia, ini penyebabnya|last=|first=|website=bolatimes.com|publisher=|month=26 Nopémber 2020|accessdate=27 Nopémber 2020}}</ref> Saméméhna, di awal Nopémber Maradona kebat nandangan operasi di otakna gara-gara aya geutih ngaguruntul (''hematoma subdural''). Présidén Argéntina, Alberto Fenandez, ngabéwarakeun tilu poé sungkawa nasional di Argéntina, dina raraga ngahormat ka Maradona.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sport.detik.com/sepakbola/bola-dunia/d-5270224/kronologi-meninggalnya-diego-maradona|title=Kronologi Meninggalnya Diego Maradona|last=|first=|website=Sepakbola|publisher=detik.com|accessdate=27 Nopémber 2020}}</ref> Maradona dikurebkeun di Pamakaman Bella Vista di pasisian Buéno Aires, Argéntina, dina tanggal 27 Nopémber 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/bola/read/4419218/tangis-anak-dan-istri-iringi-pemakaman-diego-maradona|title=Tangis Anak dan Istri Iringi Pemakaman Diego Maradona|last=|first=|website=liputan6.com|publisher=|accessdate=27 Nopémber 2020}}</ref> == Dina budaya populer == Koran Amérika ''The Houston Chronicle'' nulis ngeunaan Maradona: Sanggkan ngarti kana rohakana bayangan Maradona di lemah caina nu kaédanan menbal, jalma kudu nyambat pangabisa Michael Jordan, kakuatan Babe Ruth jeung kaléléwodéhan Mike Tyson. Galokeun kabéh dina hiji jalma nu simar dada bewos jémros, tah éta El Diégo téh, pujaan jutaan jalma nu nyebut dirina ku D10S, campuran tina nomer maénna jeung kecap Spanyol pikeun nyebut déwa. {{quote|text=Sanggkan ngarti kana rohakana bayangan Maradona di lemah caina nu kaédanan menbal, jalma kudu nyambat pangabisa Michael Jordan, kakuatan Babe Ruth jeung kaléléwodéhan Mike Tyson. Galokeun kabéh dina hiji jalma nu simar dada béwos jémros, tah éta El Diégo téh, pujaan jutaan jalma nu nyebut dirina ku D10S, campuran tina nomer maénna jeung kecap Spanyol pikeun nyebut déwa.<ref name="Trib">Bensinger, Ken (8 June 2010) [http://www.standard.net/topics/sports/2010/06/08/maradona-puts-his-legacy-line-world-cup Maradona puts his Legacy on the Line at the World Cup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305070831/http://www.standard.net/topics/sports/2010/06/08/maradona-puts-his-legacy-line-world-cup |date=5 Maret 2016 }}, ''[[The Houston Chronicle]]''.</ref>}} Di Argéntina, Maradona dianggap minangka pahlawan nasional. Ngeunaan pamujaan nu nyampak di Argéntina, manten batur maénna, Jorge Valdano nyarita, "Wanci Maradona mundur tina aktifitas sépakbola, ninggalkeun trauma pikeun Argéntina. Maradona leuwih ti ngan saukur pamaén bal nu hadé. Manéhna téh faktor pangbeubeurah khusus pikeun hiji nagara nu geus mangtaun-taun aya dina kadiktatoran militer jeung sagala macem frustasi sosial."<ref name="Deportes">[http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/news/story?id=455305 "¿Es el sucesor natural?"]. ESPN Deportes. (Ed, 29 June 2014). Retrieved 3 July 2014</ref> Valdano nambahkeun yén "Maradona nawarkeun ka rakyat Argéntina hiji jalan kaluar tina frustasi massal maranéhna, éta nu matak nyieun rakyat mikacinta dirina. Aya tangtungan panutan."<ref name="Deportes" /> Maradona diasupkan kaba rupa-rupa ''cameo'' dina buku komik Argéntina, Él Cazador de Aventuras. Sanggeus ditutup, pangarangna ngajieun hiji buku komik pondok anyar dijudulan "Él Die", maké Maradona salaku karakter utamana. Maradona ogé aya dina sababaraha kaulinan kilat ''online'' nu kabéhna didédikasikeun pikeun dirina.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130925035615/http://www.soccergamespot.com/world-cup-games/maradona "Maradona Soccer Game"]. Retrieved 13 April 2013.</ref> Di Rosario, Argéntina, urang dinya nyieun parodi agama "Garéja Maradona". Kumpulan éta ngarumuskeun rupa-rupa unsur dina tradisi Karésten saperti Natal atawa do'a-do'a, jadi ngeunteungkeun detil Maradona. Kumpulan éta dijieun ku 200 anggota sarta tuluy nambahan puluhuan rébu leuwih anggotana liwat ''website'' resmina.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/3666357.stm "Maradona in intensive care"]. BBC Sport (28 April 2004). Retrieved 18 August 2006.</ref> "Unggal jalma boga opini ngeunaan Maradona, hal éta geus kajadian ti poé-poé mimiti manéhna maén. Pintonanna nu sakitu éndah sarta gul luar biasana di Méksiko 86 bakal salawasna nyayang dina ingetan jalma-jalma nu mikaresep ménbal, ka asup kuring. Ingetan kuring nu paling nyata nyaéta hiji budak nu boga bakat luar biasa di Piala Dunai FIFA U20 di Jepang. Manéhna nieun unggal jalma calangap tiap-tiap meunang bal." - Présidén FIFA Sepp Blatter<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/world-match-centre/news/newsid/132/622/3/index.html|title=Dieogo Maradona, as other sees him|last=|first=|website=FIFA.com|publisher=|accessdate=17 Nopémber 2013}}</ref> Réa artis Argéntina mintonkeun lagu dina raraga ngahormat Diégo, contona "Marado" ku El Potro Rodrigo, "Maradona" ku Andres Calamaro, "Para siempre Diégo" (Diégo salilana) ku Los Ratones Paranoicos,"Francotirador" (''Sniper'') ku Attaque 77, "Maradona Blues" ku Charly Garcia, "Santa Maradona" ku Mano Negra, "La Vida Tombola"ku Mano Chao, jeung nu lianna. Ogé aya filem siga: Maradona, La Mano dé Dios (Maradona, si Tangan Tuhan), Él Camino dé San Diégo (Jalan Saint Diégo), Amando a Maradona (Micinta Maradona), "Maradona" ku Kusturica.<ref name="Film2">[https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/reviews/maradona-by-kusturica-831757.html "Maradona by Kusturica".]. The Independent. Retrieved 2 June 2014</ref> Taun 1982, Maradona jadi salah sahiji bentang olahraga panggedéna jeung geus néken kontrak jeung rupa-rupa pausahaan, kaasup Puma jeung Coca-Cola, nambahan panghasilanna ku 1.5 juta dolar per taun ngaleuwihan gajih klubna.<ref name="commercial">Jimmy Burns (2011) "Maradona: The Hand of God". pp. 71, 84. A&C Black</ref> Taun 1982, manéhna mintonkeun iklan Piala Dunia pikeun Coca-Cola jeung iklan di Jepang pikeun Puma.<ref name="commercial2">Jimmy Burns (2011) "Maradona: The Hand of God". pp. 71, 84. A&C Black</ref> Taun 2010 manéhna kaluar dina hiji iklan pikeun imah fésyen Perancis Louis Vuitton, maén sépakbola méja bareng jeung batur-baturna nu sarua meunang Piala Dunia, Pélé jeung Zinedine Zidane.<ref>[http://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/style/articles/2010-04/26/gq-style-news-maradona-pele-and-zidane-for-louis-vuitton "Maradona, Pelé and Zidane for Vuitton"]. GQ Magazine. Retrieved 14 May 2014</ref> Maradona makalangan ogé dina video musik keur lagu Piala Dunia 2010 "Waka-Waka" ku Shakira, dina filemna nempokeun manéhna ngarayakeun kameunangan Argéntina dina Piala Dunia 1986.<ref name="World Cup video">{{cite news|date=8 June 2010|title=Shakira launches clip 'Waka Waka' Cup official music|url=http://esportes.terra.com.br/futebol/copa/2010/noticias/0,,OI4480146-EI14416,00-Shakira+lanca+clipe+de+Waka+Waka+musica+oficial+da+Copa.html|publisher=Reforma|language=Portuguese|accessdate=9 June 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331070734/http://esportes.terra.com.br/futebol/copa/2010/noticias/0,,OI4480146-EI14416,00-Shakira+lanca+clipe+de+Waka+Waka+musica+oficial+da+Copa.html |date=31 March 2012 }}</ref> Hiji iklan tivi taun 2006 pikeun minuman ringan Brazil Guarana Antarctica ngagambarkeun Maradona minangka anggota tim nasional Brazil, maké baju konéng jeung nyanyi lagu nasional Brasil bareng jeung pamaén Brazil Ronaldo jeung Kaka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archivo10.com/videos/maradona_videos07.html|title=ARCHIVO 10, Diego Maradona – Videos de publicidades|publisher=Archivo10.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707155707/http://www.archivo10.com/videos/maradona_videos07.html|archive-date=7 July 2011|dead-url=yes|accessdate=6 May 2011|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707155707/http://www.archivo10.com/videos/maradona_videos07.html |date=7 July 2011 }}</ref> Tuluy dina iklan éta téh manéhna hudang sarta nyadar manéhna tas ngimpi sanggeus mabok gara-gara loba teuing nginum. Sanggeus ditontonkeun, hal ieu nimbulkeun kontroversi di kalangan média Argéntina (najan sabenerna mah iklan éta téh lain pikeun tontoneun urang Argéntina, bobotoh bisa nempo ''online''). Maradona ngajawab yén manéhna teu boga masalah maké kaos Brazil, najan Argéntina jeung Brazil téh minangka musuh satru dina ménbal, tapi Maradona nyatakeun yén manéhna bakal nolak mun kudu maké kaos River Plate, musuh bubuyutan Boca Juniors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adnews.com.br/publicidade.php?id=28306|title=Maradona diz não se arrepender de usar camisa do Brasil na TV|work=AdNews.com.br|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706151608/http://www.adnews.com.br/publicidade.php?id=28306|archivedate=6 July 2011|date=30 April 2006|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Kacatetkeun ogé fénomena urang-urang Brazil nu maké ngaran Maradona<ref>{{cite news|title=World Cup 2014: Brazilians named after Maradona and Lineker|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/27971359|accessdate=1 February 2015|work=BBC Sport|date=23 June 2014}}</ref> minangka panghormatan, contona pamaén bola Diégo Costa.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Burt|first1=Jason|title=Diego Costa: I take things to limit but I did nothing wrong|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/chelsea/11381605/Diego-Costa-I-take-things-to-limit-but-I-did-nothing-wrong.html|accessdate=31 January 2015|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=31 January 2015}}</ref> Taun 2017, Maradona dipintonkeun minangka hiji pamaén légendaris dina ''video game'' FIFA 18 jeung Pro Evolution Soccer 2018.<ref>[https://www.standard.co.uk/sport/football/ea-sports-add-diego-maradona-to-fifa-18-with-95rated-card-a3599761.html "FIFA 18 to include 95-rated icon Diego Maradona as EA Sports adds footballing legend to Ultimate Team"]. Evening Standard. Retrieved 8 September 2017</ref> Taun 2019, hiji filem dokuménter dikaluarkeun ku nu meunangkeun Academy Award jeung BAFTA Award tukang nieun filem Asif Kapadia, diréktur Filem Amy (ngeunaan panyanyi Amy Winehouse) jeung Filem Sénna (ngeunaan pabalap Ayrton Senna). Kapaida nyarita. "Maradona téh bagéan katilu tina trilogi ngeunaan budak jenius jeung sohor."<ref>{{cite news|title=Film-maker Asif Kapadia: ‘Maradona is the third part of a trilogy about child geniuses and fame’|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/jun/25/asif-kapadia-diego-maradona-senna-amy-interview|newspaper=The Guardian|date=1 October 2017}}</ref> Manéhna nambahkeun, "Kuring kapincut ku lalampahanna, ka mana waé manéhna indit aya waé kajadian-kajadian cerdas nu luar biasa jeung drama. Manéhna téh pamingpin, mawa timna ka puncak, tapi ogé sering kasoran dina karirna. Manéhna salawasna ibarat jalma leutik nu ngalawan sistem... sarta daék ngalakukeun naon waé, ngagunakeun kalicikan jeung intelejensina pikeun meunang.<ref>{{cite news|title=Amy director Asif Kapadia set to make Maradona documentary|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/amy-director-asif-kapadia-set-to-make-maradona-documentary-a6841391.html|newspaper=The Independent|date=1 October 2017}}</ref> == Statistik karir == <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120121091646/http://expertfootball.com/players/maradona/stats.php Club Statistics]. expertfootball.com (archived)</ref> === Klub === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! rowspan="2" width="75" |Season ! rowspan="2" width="125" |Klub ! rowspan="2" width="125" |Liga ! colspan="2" |Liga ! colspan="2" |Piala ! colspan="2" |Benua ! colspan="2" |Lianna ! colspan="2" |Total |- ! width="40" |Maen ! width="40" |Gul ! width="40" |Maen ! width="40" |Gul ! width="40" |Maen ! width="40" |Gul ! width="40" |Maen ! width="40" |Gul ! width="40" |Maen ! width="40" |Gul |- |1976 | rowspan="5" |Argentinos Juniors | rowspan="6" |Primera División |11 |2 |0 |0 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |13 |2 |- |1977 |49 |19 |0 |0 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |49 |19 |- |1978 |35 |26 |0 |0 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |35 |26 |- |1979 |26 |26 |0 |0 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |26 |26 |- |1980 |45 |43 |0 |0 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |45 |43 |- |1981 |Boca Juniors |40 |28 |0 |0 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |40 |28 |- |1982–83 | rowspan="2" |[[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]] | rowspan="2" |La Liga |20 |11 |5 |3 |4 |5 |6 |4 |35 |23 |- |1983–84 |16 |11 |4 |1 |3 |3 | colspan="2" |– |23 |15 |- |1984–85 | rowspan="7" |[[Napoli]] | rowspan="7" |Série A |30 |14 |6 |3 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |36 |17 |- |1985–86 |29 |11 |2 |2 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |31 |13 |- |1986–87 |29 |10 |10 |7 |2 |0 | colspan="2" |– |41 |17 |- |1987–88 |28 |15 |9 |6 |2 |0 | colspan="2" |– |39 |21 |- |1988–89 |26 |9 |12 |7 |12 |3 | colspan="2" |– |50 |19 |- |1989–90 |28 |16 |3 |2 |5 |0 | colspan="2" |– |36 |18 |- |1990–91 |18 |6 |3 |2 |4 |2 |1 |0 |26 |10 |- |1992–93 |[[Sevilla]] |La Liga |26 |5 |3 |1 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |29 |6 |- |1993–94 |Newell's Old Boys | rowspan="4" |Primera División |5 |0 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |5 |0 |- |1995–96 | rowspan="3" |Boca Juniors |24 |5 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |24 |5 |- |1996–97 |1 |0 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |1 |0 |2 |0 |- |1997–98 |5 |2 | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– | colspan="2" |– |5 |2 |- ! rowspan="6" |Total ! colspan="2" |Argentinos Juniors !166 !116 ! colspan="2" |– ! colspan="2" |– ! colspan="2" |– !166 !116 |- ! colspan="2" |Boca Juniors !70 !35 ! colspan="2" |– ! colspan="2" |– !1 !0 !71 !35 |- ! colspan="2" |[[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]] !36 !22 !9 !4 !7 !8 !6 !4 !58 !38 |- ! colspan="2" |Napoli !188 !81 !45 !29 !25 !5 !1 !0 !259 !115 |- ! colspan="2" |Sevilla !26 !5 !3 !1 ! colspan="2" |– ! colspan="2" |– !29 !6 |- ! colspan="2" |Newell's Old Boys !5 !0 ! colspan="2" |– ! colspan="2" |– ! colspan="2" |– !5 !0 |- ! colspan="3" |Total Karir !492 !259 !57 !34 !32 !13 !8 !4 !590 !310 |} * Lianna - Piala Liga Spanyol jeung Piala Super Italia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/maradona-intl.html|title=Diego Armando Maradona – International Appearances|publisher=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation|accessdate=6 May 2011}}</ref> * Total rata-rata gulna per tanding dina kompétisi klub doméstik nyaéta 0,526.<ref>[http://www.goal.com/en/news/1717/editorial/2010/04/07/1867738/goalcom-special-debate-lionel-messi-vs-diego-maradona-so-who "Special Debate: Lionel Messi vs Diego Maradona – So Who Is Better?"]. Goal.com. Retrieved 19 November 2013</ref> === Internasional === * Jadi pamaén utama dina 21 tanding keur Argéntina di Piala Dunia (1982, 1986, 1990,1994) * Midang 16 kali salaku kaptén tim nasional, hiji rékor Piala Dunia. * Nyitak 8 gul sarta 8 assist di 21 kali maén di Piala Dunia, kaasup 5 gul jeung 5 assist di taun 1986. * Nyepeng panyitak gul kadua panglobana di Argéntina dina puteran final Piala Dunia (nyaruaan Guillermo Stabile di taun 1994; kasusul ku Gabriel Batistuta taun 1998). * Dilanggar 23 kali dina tanding Argéntina vs Italia dina Piala Dunia 1982, rékor Piala Dunia palanggaran dina sapertandingan. * Dilanggar 50 kali nalika Piala Dunia 1990, rékor Piala Dunia palanggaran dina saturnamén. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! colspan="3" |Tim Nasional Argéntina |- !Taun ! width="40" |Maen ! width="40" |Gul |- |1977 |3 |0 |- |1978 |1 |0 |- |1979 |8 |3 |- |1980 |10 |7 |- |1981 |2 |1 |- |1982 |10 |2 |- |1983 |– |– |- |1984 |– |– |- |1985 |10 |6 |- |1986 |10 |7 |- |1987 |6 |4 |- |1988 |3 |1 |- |1989 |7 |0 |- |1990 |10 |1 |- |1991 |– |– |- |1992 |– |– |- |1993 |4 |0 |- |1994 |7 |2 |- !Total !91 !34 |} == Statistik Manajerial == ''Mimiti 03 Désémber 2018.'' {| class="wikitable" |'''Tim''' |'''Nagara''' |'''Mimiti''' |'''Réngsé''' |- |Mandiyú de Corrientes |Argéntina |Januari1994 |Juni 1994 |- |Racing Club |Argéntina |Méi 1995 |Nopémber 1995 |- |Argéntina |Argéntina |Nopémber 2008 |Juli 2010 |- |Al Wasl |UÉA |Méi 2011 |Juli 2012 |- |Fujairah |UÉA |April 2017 |April 2018 |- |Dorados |Méksiko |Séptémber 2018 |Masih kénéh |} == Panghargaan == === Klub === Boca Juniors * Argéntina Priméra Division: 1981 Metropolitano<ref name="Player Profile" /> Barcelona * Copa del Rey: 1983<ref name="Player Profile" /> * Copa de la Liga: 1983 Napoli * Série A (2): 1986–87, 1989–90<ref name="Player Profile">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/fifa-tournaments/players-coaches/people=174732/profile.html|title=The Albiceleste underdog who conquered the world|publisher=FIFA|accessdate=27 February 2015}}</ref> * Coppa Italia: 1986–87 * UEFA Cup: 1988–89 * Supercoppa Italiana: 1990 === Internasional === Argéntina Muda * Piala Dunia Junior FIFA: 1979<ref name="Japan 79">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/u20worldcup/japan1979/awards/index.html|title=FIFA World Youth Championship Japan 1979&nbsp;– Award|website=FIFA.com|publisher=Fédération Internationale de Football Association|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref> Argéntina * Piala Dunia FIFA: 1986<ref name="Player Profile"/> * Tropi Artemio Franchi: 1993<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tablesa/artfranchi93.html|title=Artemio Franchi Trophy 1993|last=Josef Bobrowsky|publisher=RSSSF|accessdate=16 September 2018}}</ref> [[Gambar:The Champions Promenade, Diego Maradona - panoramio.jpg|ka|jmpl|Maradona's Golden Foot award in “Trotoar Juara" di basisir Karajaan [[Monako|Monaco]]]] * Top sekor Divisi Primera Argéntina (5): 1978 Metropolitano (liga), 1979 Metropolitano, 1979 Nacional (piala liga), 1980 Metropolitano, 1980 Nacional<ref name="Player Profile" /> * Piala Dunia Junior FIFA, Bal Emas: 1979<ref name="Player Profile" /> * Piala Dunia Junior FIFA, Sapatu Perak: 1979<ref name="Japan 79" /> * Pamaén Taun Ieu Argentine Football Writers (4): 1979, 1980, 1981, 1986<ref>[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/arg-poy.html “Argentina – Player of the Year”]. Rsssf.com. Retrieved 28 July 2018</ref> * Pamaén Taun Ieu Amérika Selatan (2): (panghargaan resmi) 1979, 1980<ref name="Player Profile" /> * ''Olimpia de Oro'' (2): 1979, 1986<ref>{{cite news|title=Todos los ganadores del oro, desde 1954|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/972375-todos-los-ganadores-del-oro-desde-1954|newspaper=La Nación|location=Buenos Aires|date=18 December 2007|accessdate=24 December 2012|language=Spanish|trans-title=All gold winners since 1954|quote=1986 Diego Maradona (Fútbol)}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105043233/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/972375-todos-los-ganadores-del-oro-desde-1954 |date=5 January 2016 }}</ref> * ''Guerin d'Oro'' (Pamaén SériA Taun Ieu): 1985<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/italpoy.html|title=Guerin d'Oro|publisher=[[Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation|RSSSF]]|accessdate=10 September 2015}}</ref> * Bal Emas Piala Dunia FIFA: 1986<ref name="Player Profile" /> * Sapatu Perak Piala Dunia FIFA: 1986 * ''Assist'' Pangréana Piala Dunia FIFA: 1986<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planetworldcup.com/CUPS/1986/wc86statistics.html|title=World Cup 1986 – Statistics|publisher=Planetworldcup|accessdate=28 February 2015}}</ref> * Tim Piala Dunia Kabéh Bintang: 1986, 1990 * Onze d'Or (2): 1986, 1987<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/onze-awards.html|title="Onze Mondial" Awards|last=Pierrend|first=José Luis|publisher=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation|accessdate=26 December 2015|date=6 Maret 2012}}</ref> * ''L'Équipe Champion of Champions'' (ti surat kabar Perancis): 1986 * Atlet Taun Ieu Himpunan Wartawan Internasional: 1986 * Pamaén Taun Ieu Majalah World Soccer: 1986 * ''Capocannoniere'' (top sekor Séri A): 1987–88 * Top sekor ''Coppa Italia'': 1987–88 * Bal Parunggu Piala Dunia FIFA: 1990<ref name="Player Profile" /> * Tim Piala Dunia Sapanjang Waktu: 1994<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/wrldallt.html|title=World All-Time Teams|publisher=RSSSF|accessdate=30 June 2017}}</ref> * Tim Taun Ieu Amérika Selatan: 1995<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/sam-toy.html|title=South American Team of the Year|date=16 January 2009|accessdate=10 Maret 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121064015/http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/sam-toy.html|archivedate=21 January 2015}}</ref> * ''Ballon d'Or'' pikeun pangabdian kana sépakbola(ti Perancis): 1996<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/7750904.stm|title=Maradona receives honorary award|publisher=BBC|accessdate=28 February 2015}}</ref> * Tim Dunia Abad 20: 1998 * Pamaén Pangpunjulna Abad 20 Majalah ''World Soccer'': (#2) 1999 * Olahragawan Abad Ieu ''Argentine Sports Writers'' 1999 * Marca ''Leyenda'' (ti surat kabar Spanyol Marca): 1999<ref>[http://www.marca.com/marca-leyenda.html “Marca Leyenda: Diego Maradona”]. Marca. Retrieved 28 July 2018</ref> * Pamilik nomer 10 klub Napoli minangka kaingetan kana sumbanganna pikeun klub: 2000<ref>[http://caracol.com.co/radio/2000/08/24/deportes/0967096800_058566.html Nápoli retira camiseta número 10 en homenaje a Maradona], Caracol, 24 August 2000</ref> * Pamaén Abad Ieu FIFA: 2000<ref name="Player Profile" /> * Gol Abad Ieu FIFA (pikeun gul kaduana nalika ngalawan Inggris di saparapat final Piala Dunia 1986): 2002<ref name="Player Profile" /> * Tim Impian Piala Dunia FIFA: 2002<ref>[http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=11759 “FIFA Dream Team: Maradona voted top player”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213232622/http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=11759 |date=2009-02-13 }}. Reuters. 19 June 2002.</ref> * Suku Emas: 2003, minangka legenda sépakbola.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goldenfoot.com/en/legends/item/284-diego-armando-maradona.html|title=Golden Foot – Diego Armando Maradona|publisher=Goldenfoot.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209063133/http://goldenfoot.com/en/legends/item/284-diego-armando-maradona.html|archivedate=9 February 2015|accessdate=1 Maret 2015|deadurl=yes|df=}}</ref> * 100 Pamaén Pangpunjulna Nu Hirup Keneh FIFA: 2004<ref name="Player Profile" /> * Senat Argéntina "''Domingo Faustino Sarmiento''" kaingetan pikeun beubeunangan samangsa hirup: 2005 * Pamaén Bal Pangpunjulna dina Sajarah Piala Dunia: #1, ti The Times, 2010<ref>[http://archivo.elcomercio.pe/sociedad/lima/diario-ingles-eligio-maradona-como-mejor-jugador-historia-mundiales-noticia-450486 “Un diario inglés eligió a Maradona como el mejor jugador de la historia de los mundiales”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230114600/http://archivo.elcomercio.pe/sociedad/lima/diario-ingles-eligio-maradona-como-mejor-jugador-historia-mundiales-noticia-450486#|date=30 December 2017}}. El Comercio. Retrieved 28 July 2018</ref> * Atlit Pangpunjulna dina Sajarah: #1, ku ''Corriere dello Sport'' – Stadio, 2012<ref>[https://www.tifonapoli.it/cds-maradona-meglio-di-tutti-batte-anche-valentino-rossi/ “CdS, Maradona meglio di tutti, batte anche Valentino Rossi“] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712090744/https://www.tifonapoli.it/cds-maradona-meglio-di-tutti-batte-anche-valentino-rossi/ |date=2018-07-12 }}. Corriere dello Sport. Retrieved 28 July 2018</ref> * Panghargaan ''Globe Soccer'' Panghargaan Karir Pamaén: 2012<ref name="GSA">{{cite web|url=http://www.globesoccer.com/awards/walloffame/|title=Wall of Fame|publisher=Globe Soccer.com|accessdate=28 December 2015}}</ref> * Pangpunjulna XI sapanjang waktu majalah ''World Soccer'': 2013<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldsoccer.com/features/the-greatest-xi-how-the-panel-voted|title=The Greatest XI: how the panel voted|publisher=World Soccer|author=Jamie Rainbow|date=2 July 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101233404/http://www.worldsoccer.com/features/the-greatest-xi-how-the-panel-voted |date=1 January 2015 }}</ref> * Pamaén Bal Pangpunjulna Sapanjang Waktu: #1 ku majalah ''FourFourTwo'', 2017 * Pamaén Bal Pangpunjulna dina Sajarah Piala Dunia: #1, ku majalah ''FourFourTwo'', 2018<ref>[https://www.fourfourtwo.com/features/ranked-25-best-world-cup-players-ever?page=0%2C2 “Ranked! The 25 best World Cup players EVER”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618234056/https://www.fourfourtwo.com/features/ranked-25-best-world-cup-players-ever?page=0%2C2 |date=2018-06-18 }}. Four Four Two. Retrieved 28 July 2018</ref> * Top Sekor Napoli Sapanjang Waktu (1991–2017)<ref name="Fifa profile" /> * Dinding Panghargaan Maenbal Italia: 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vivoazzurro.it/en/news/italian-football-hall-of-fame-to-induct-ten-new-stars/|title=Italian football Hall of Fame to induct ten new stars|accessdate=25 October 2016|date=25 October 2016}}</ref> * Tim Sapanjang Waktu AFA: 2015<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afa.com.ar/3023/la-seleccion-de-todos-los-tiempos|title=La Selección de Todos los Tiempos|publisher=Argentine Football Association|language=Spanish|trans-title=The Team of All Time|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814210638/http://www.afa.com.ar/3023/la-seleccion-de-todos-los-tiempos|archive-date=14 August 2018|dead-url=yes|accessdate=29 January 2018|date=4 January 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814210638/http://www.afa.com.ar/3023/la-seleccion-de-todos-los-tiempos |date=14 August 2018 }}</ref> * ''L'Équipe's top 50'' pamaén bal Amérika Latin dina sajarah: #2<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.lequipe.fr/Top/Football/top50-joueurs-sud-americains/3/|title=Top 50 des joueurs sud-américains de l'histoire|trans-title=Top 50 South-American footballers in history|newspaper=L'Équipe|language=French|date=4 July 2015|accessdate=6 July 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704215531/http://www.lequipe.fr/Top/Football/top50-joueurs-sud-americains/3 |date=4 July 2015 }}</ref> * Legenda ''International Federation of Football History & Statistics'' (IFFHS)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iffhs.de/iffhs-has-announced-the-48-football-legend-players/|title=IFFHS announce the 48 football legend players|publisher=IFFHS|accessdate=14 September 2016|date=25 January 2016}}</ref> == Tutumbu Luar == * [https://www.diegomaradonagroup.com/ Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125194552/https://www.diegomaradonagroup.com/ |date=2020-11-25 }} * {{Britannica|686139}} * Works by or about Diégo Maradona in libraries (WorldCat catalog) == Referensi == [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1960]] [[Kategori:Biografi]] [[Kategori:Sepakbola]] phzpmx8o2t2otn1gtmklf1tbfxzrse0 0 98094 711750 675683 2026-08-07T03:21:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Naha}} {{Infobox settlement <!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions --> | name = Naha | official_name = Kota Naha (那覇市) | native_name = 那覇<br /><small>Nāfa</small> | native_name_lang = ja | settlement_type = [[Kota (Jepang)|Kota]] <!-- images, nickname, motto ---> | image_skyline = Asahi-machi Naha Okinawa01s3s4410.jpg | imagesize = | image_alt = | image_caption = Puseur kota Naha | image_flag = Flag of Naha, Okinawa.svg | flag_alt = | image_seal = | seal_alt = | image_shield = | shield_alt = | image_blank_emblem = Symbol_of_Naha%2C_Okinawa.svg | nickname = | motto = <!-- maps and coordinates ------> | image_map = Naha in Okinawa Prefecture Ja.svg | map_alt = | map_caption = <small>Lokasi Naha di [[Préféktur Okinawa]]</small> | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_base_alt = | dot_map_alt = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = |dot_y = | pushpin_map = Japan Okinawa | pushpin_label_position = <!-- position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = &nbsp; | latd = 26 | latm = 12 | lats = 44 | latNS = N | longd = 127 | longm = 40 | longs = 45 | longEW = E | coor_pinpoint = <!-- to specify exact location of coordinates (was coor_type) --> | coordinates_display = inline,title | coordinates_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> <!-- location ------------------> | subdivision_type = [[Daptar nagara di dunya|Negara]] | subdivision_name = [[Jepang]] | subdivision_type1 = [[Daptar wewengkon di Jepang|Wilayah]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Kyushu]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Daptar préféktur di Jepang|Prefektur]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Préféktur Okinawa|Okinawa]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = <!-- established ---------------> | established_title = <!-- Settled --> | established_date = | founder = | named_for = <!-- seat, smaller parts -------> | seat_type = <!-- defaults to: Seat --> | seat = <!-- government type, leaders --> | government_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | leader_party = | leader_title = Wali kota | leader_name = {{nihongo|Takeshi Onaga|翁長雄志}} | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = <!-- etc., up to leader_title4 / leader_name4 --> <!-- display settings ---------> | total_type = <!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --> | unit_pref = <!-- enter: Imperial, to display imperial before metric --> <!-- area ----------------------> | area_magnitude = <!-- use only to set a special wikilink --> | area_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | area_total_km2 = 38.99 | area_total_sq_mi = <!-- see table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details --> | area_land_km2 = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_km2 = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_note = <!-- elevation -----------------> | elevation_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | elevation_m = | elevation_ft = <!-- population ----------------> | population_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | population_total = 31.7906 | population_as_of = 31 Désémber 2009 | population_density_km2 = 8153.53 | population_density_sq_mi= | population_est = | pop_est_as_of = | population_demonym = <!-- demonym, ie. Liverpudlian for someone from Liverpool --> | population_note = <!-- time zone(s) --------------> | timezone1 = [[Waktu Standar Jepang]] | utc_offset1 = +9 | timezone1_DST = | utc_offset1_DST = <!-- postal codes, area code ---> | postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> | postal_code = | area_code_type = <!-- defaults to: Area code(s) --> | area_code = <!-- blank fields (section 1) --> | blank_name_sec1 = Simbol kota | blank1_name_sec1 = - Pohon | blank1_info_sec1 = ''[[Garcinia subelliptica]]'' (''fukugi'') | blank2_name_sec1 = - Bunga | blank2_info_sec1 = [[Kembang kertas]] | blank2_name_sec1 = - Bunga pohon | blank2_info_sec1 = [[Flamboyan]] <!-- blank fields (section 2) --> | blank_name_sec2 = Nomor&nbsp;telepon | blank_info_sec2 = (098) 867-0111 | blank1_name_sec2 = Alamat | blank1_info_sec2 = Naha-shi, Izumizaki 1-1-1<br />900-8585 <!-- website, footnotes --------> | website = [http://www.city.naha.okinawa.jp/ Situs resmi Kota Naha] <small>(bahasa Jepang)</small> | footnotes = }} {{Nihongo|'''Naha'''|那覇市|Naha-shi|extra=[[basa Okinawa]]: ''Nāfa''}} nyaéta puseur dayeuh [[Préféktur Okinawa]], [[Jepang]]. Di jaman modérn, kota ieu sacara resmi dibentuk tanggal 20 Méi 1921. Saacanna, Kota Naha salila mangabad-abad geus jadi kota anu penting sarta anu pangeusina panglobana di [[Kapuloan Ryukyu]]. Kota Naha perenahna di basisir kulon bagian kidul [[Pulo Okinawa]] anu nyanghareup ka [[Laut Cina Wétan]]. Sanajan kitu, Naha ngan boga hiji basisir buatan ([[Basisir Naminoue]]) ku lantaran basisir digunakeun pikeun [[Bandar Udara Naha (Jepang)|Bandar Udara Naha]] jeung [[Palabuan Naha]]. Naha mangrupa puseur kagiatan ékonomi, atikan, jeung pamaréntahan [[Kapuloan Okinawa]]. Salila abad patengahan jeung awal jaman modérn,<ref>Hususna salila jaman patengahan dina sajarah Okinawa (basa Jepang: ''ko-ryūkyū'' (古琉球, harti harfiah: Ryukyu Heubeul) anu lumangsung kira-kira ti abad ka-12 nepi ka [[Invasi Ryukyu|dikawasaan ku Jepang]] di taun 1609. Période awal jaman modérn lumangsung ti 1609 nepi ka kira-kira 1879, taun pas Karajaan Ryukyu dibubarkeun sarta dirobah jadi Préféktur Okinawa.</ref>, Naha mangrupa kota padagangan [[Karajaan Ryukyu]]. Naha mangrupa tujuan wisata anu kasohor di Jepang. Di pasir kuloneun kota, aya [[Istana Shuri]], nyaéta salah sahiji ''[[gusuku]]'' (sebutan pikeun istana-istana di Kapuloan Ryukyu). Di kaléreun kota anu diwangun deui jadi puseur kota Naha anu anyar, aya [[toko bébas béa]] [[DFS Galleria Okinawa]] anu lega. == Puseur kota == [[File:Kokusai-dori01ss4272.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Kokusai-dōri]] Puseur kota Naha aya di jalan utama anu ngaranna {{nihongo|Kokusai-dōri|国際通り}}. Di sapanjang jalan ieu aya puseur balanja Palette Kumoji, [[Kantor Préféktur Okinawa]], Balé Kota Naha, jeung réa wangunan bank jeung pausahaan anu gedé. Kokusai-dōri ogé loba ku toko-toko, réstoran, jeung bar. Di tungtung jalan ieu, aya terminal beus utama di Okinawa. Terminal beus ieu bisa diaksés ti stasion-stasion monorél anu dilayanan ku [[Okinawa Monorail]]. Salian ti monorél di Naha, Préféktur Okinawa nyaéta hiji-hijina préféktur di Jepang anu teu boga jalur karéta api. Di deukeut Kokusai-dōri aya Pusat Balanja Heiwa-dōri Shōtengai jeung Pasar Makishi anu dipikawanoh minangka pasar sayur, buah, daging, jeung lauk. Di dinya ogé bisa manggih ''rumah makan'', toko oléh-oléh, jeung toko ''minuman keras''. Teu jauh ti kawasan pasar, aya puseur keramik Tsuboya anu baheulana kungsi jadi puseur produksi keramik [[Tsuboya-yaki]]. Di beulah wétan-kalér Kokusai-dōri aya distrik padagangan anyar anu ngaranna {{nihongo|Shintoshin|新都心}}. Distrik ieu baheulana mangrupa urut padumukan [[militér Amerika Serikat]] anu dibalikkeun deui ka Préféktur Okinawa di taun 1987, ngan pangwangunanana kakara dimimitian pas patengahan taun 1990-an. [[Stasion Omoromachi]] matali langsung jeung hiji puseur balanja anu méwah. Mal Naha Main Place anu padeukeut dieusian ku toko-toko jeung butik raksukan anu kasohor ti Kulon jeung réstoran. Di Shintoshin ogé aya toko éléktronik Best Denki, [[Toys R Us]], réstoran, jeung bioskop anu antukna kawasan ieu sok dijadikeun tempat ngariung pikeun rumaja. [[Museum Préféktur Okinawa]] anu aya di hareupeun [[Taman Shintoshin]] dibuka di bulan Nopémber 2007. muséum ieu madukeun sajarah alam jeung seni Kapuloan Ryukyu. == Sajarah == [[File:琉球那霸港.jpg|jmpl|Pelabuhan Naha pada masa Kerajaan Ryukyu]] Numutkeun legénda ''Irosetsuden'', ngaran ''Naha'' asalna tina kecap ''Naba'', sebutan pikeun batu gedé anu bentukna siga [[suung]] anu aya di kota ieu. Batu éta lila-lila ngaleutikan sarta kapendem di jero taneuh sairing jeung parobahan cara ngucapkeun ''Naba'' jadi ''Naha'', jeung ngaganti cara nulisna maké aksara [[kanji]].<ref>Oshiro, 1964</ref> Salian ti kapanggihna artéfak ti [[Jaman Batu]], di Naha ogé kapanggih tumpukan kulit kerang (''[[kaizuka]]'') ti [[jaman Jomon]], sarta duit logam Cina. Tembikar nu kapanggih ku ahli arkéologi nuduhkeun yén wewengkon anu kiwari disebut Kota Naha téh geus mangrupa pusat padagangan anu ramé di kapuloan Jepang jeung Semenanjung Koréa sahenteuna ti abad ka-11 Maséhi. Sanajan taun diadegkeunna ieu kota minangka kota palabuan teu dipikanyaho pastina, ngan kota Naha kira-kira geus jadi kota pelabuan nu ramé ti saprak ngahijna Karajaan Ryukyu di awal abad ka-15.<ref>Uezato, Takashi. "The Formation of the Port City of Naha in Ryukyu and the World of Maritime Asia: From the Perspective of a Japanese Network." ''Acta Asiatica'' vol 95 (2008). Tokyo: Tōhō Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). pp 57-58.</ref>. Baheulana, Naha mangrupa kota leutik anu awalna ti kota palabuan di muhara Walungan Kokuba jeung Palabuan Tomari di muhara Walungan Asato. Puseur dayeuh kerajaan baheulana aya di [[Shuri, Okinawa|Shuri]]. Naha ti baréto geus jadi puseur padagangan anu ramé kalawan [[Asia Wétan]] jeung [[Asia Tenggara]]. Ayeuna, ieu kota beuki ngalegaan sanggeus digabung jeung kota sarta désa anu aya di sakurilingna, kaasup urut puseur dayeuh Shuri, jeung kota puseur studi Cina [[Kumemura]]. Di abad patengahan, wewengkon kota Naha ngan ngawengku pulo leutik anu ngaranna Ukishima anu aya di muhara Walungan Kokuba jeung Walungan Asato. Pangwangunan Ukishima dimimitian ku raja nu kahiji Karajaan Ryukyu anu ngaranna [[Shō Hashi]] (Shang Bazhi). Anakna, Raja [[Shō Kinpuku]] ngawangun tanggul nu panjangna 1&nbsp;km pikeun dijadikeun jalan ti Ukishima ka puseur dayeuh Shuri di daratan Pulo Okinawa. Jalan éta diaranan {{nihongo|Chōkōtei|長虹堤}}. Pangwangunanna dimaksudkeun pikeun nyambut kadatangan utusan ti [[Dinasti Ming]]. Sanggeus lalu lintas antara Ukishima jeung Shuri jadi lancar, palabuan beuki mekar tuluy jadi hiji kota. Salaku wewengkon palabuan utama pikeun padagangan antarbangsa, Naha dibagi jadi distrik wétan jeung distrik kulon anu duanana aya di beulah kidul-kulon Ukishima. Pasar langit terbuka anu ramé baheulana aya di haureupeun Puseur Padagangan Oyamise anu dipiboga ku pamaréntah Karajaan Ryukyu. Babaraha kuil Shinto jeung kuil Buddha ogé diwangun bareng jeung pangwangunan imah pajabat jeung kadutaan. Wangunan Tenshikan mangrupa tempat pikeun para pejabat Cina anu keur namu di Okinawa. Dua bénténg (Mie Gusuku jeung Yarazamori Gusuku) diwangun pikeun mertahankeun palabuan ti serangan [[wokou]] (wakō). Hiji pulo leutik anu aya di basisir palabuan dijadikeun Omono Gusuku anu dipaké jadi gudang piekun barang-barang dagangeun.<ref name=Uezato62/>. Di Pulo Okinawa, aya palabuan Tomari anu jadi palabuan utama padagangan antarpulau di Kapuloan Ryukyu. Pajabat administrasi di Tomari ogé tanggung jawab ngumpulkeun sarta ngurus kapal-kapal ti [[Kapuloan Amami]] anu mawa [[upeti]] pikeun dibayarkeun ka Karajaan Ryukyu.<ref name=Uezato62/>. {{nihongo|Kume-Ōdōri|久米大通り}} nyaéta jalan raya yang meulah Ukishima ti tenggara nepi kulon-kalér, tuluy ngabentuk kota témbok anu ngaranna [[Kumemura]]. Kota ieu mangrupa puseur studi sastra Cina klasik di Ryukyu salila mangabad-abad.<ref name=Uezato62>Uezato. p 62.</ref> Kumemura sacara turun tumurun dipercaya minangka kota yang diadengkeun ku 36 kulawarga [[bangsa Min]] anu dikirim ka Ryukyu ku Istana Kakaisaran Ming. Katurunan maranéhna jadi wawakil [[vasal]], panarjamah, jeung anu nyieun kapal. Numutkeun sajarawan Uezato Takashi, Kumemura sacara eksklusif ngan dicicingan ku katurunan kulawarga bangsa Min. Nagn ti saprak Naha mekar jadi palabuan laut anu penting dina padagangan internasional, urang Cina séjénna anu utamana ti [[Fujian]] jeung wewengkon padagangan sapanjang basisir Cina kidul ogé ngilu cicing di Kumemura.<ref>Uezato. p59.</ref>. Di antara paninggalan utama budaya Cina di Kumemura nyaéta kuil [[Taoisme|Tao]] Tensonbyō di deukeut tungtung kalér Kume-Ōdōri. Dua kuil anu disebut Tenpigū Luhur jeung Tenpigū Handap muja déwa laut Tao anu ngaranna Tenpi, ngaran séjén: [[Mazu (dewa)|Matsu]]<ref name=Uezato62/>. Kuil Konfusianisme anu mangrupa hadiah ti [[Kaisar Kangxi]] diwangun di Kumemura di taun 1670-an. Salian ti éta di kota ieu aya sakola ajaran Konfusius [[Meirindō]] anu diadegkeun di taun 1718<ref>Kerr, George H. Okinawa: The History of an Island People. revised ed. Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2000. pp194,204, 221.</ref>. Sanggeus ancur akibat [[Perang Dunia II]], Meirindō, kuil Konghucu, jeung kuil Tenpigū diwangun deui dina urut lokasi Tensonbyō di Kume kalér, anu ayeuna disebut kuil Konfusius [[Shiseibyō]]. Di beulah kulon-kalér Ukishima aya padumukan {{nihongo|Wakasamachi|若狭町}} anu cenah baheulana diwangun ku nu parindah ti Jepang. Blok padumukan urang Jepang ieu aya di deukeut jalan raya Wakasamachi-Ōdōri anu motong jalan Kume-Ōdōri, sarta ngahubungkeun Wakasamachi jeung Palabuan Tomari di daratan Okinawa. Di Wakasamachi aya sawatara kuil Buddha jeung Shinto, kaasup di antarana [[Kuil Naminoue]], jeung kuil [[Zen]] Kōganji, sarta kuil-kuil anu muja [[Ebisu]] jeung [[Jizō]]. Di Wakasamachi ogé aya pamondokan anu baheulana husus dipaké ku padagang jeung wisatawan ti [[Kapuloan Tokara]]<ref name=Uezato62/>. Di Pulo Okinawa, pasna di peuntaseun Walungan Kumoji anu misahkeun Okinawa jeung Ukishima aya wewengkon anu ngaranna Izumizaki. Wewengkon ieu teu boga fasilitas anu ngarojong kagiatan di palabuan, tapi ngan tempat panyicingan anu mimiti dicicingan ti saprak nambahna jumlah pangeusi anu nyababkeun ngaronjatna kabutuhan tanah.<ref name=Uezato62/> Di tungtung pamaréntah Karajaan Ryukyu, dataran leutak jeung Walungan Kumoji anu misahkeun Ukishima (Naha) ti Pulo Okinawa diréklamasi. Naha anu baheulana misah jeung daratan tungtungna ngahiji jeung Pulo Okinawa. Kume, Wakasa, jeung Tomari kiwari geus jadi bagian ti Kota Naha. [[File:Naha Okinawa 1856.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Pemandangan ke arah pantai Naha ("Naha from Bamboo Village". Lukisan karya [[Wilhelm Heine]] (litografi, 1856).]] Armada ekspedisi Komodor [[Matthew C. Perry]] nganjang di Naha pas keur ngalampah ka [[Tokyo]] di taun [[1853]], Naha kungsi babaraha kali dianjangan ku kapal-kapal armada Amerika Serikat lainnya. Lukisan anu dijieun ku seniman resmi anu milu jeung ékspédisi tuluy sumebar kalawan téhnik [[litografi]]. Lukisan éta engkéna mangrupa gambaran anu boga ajén nu luhur ngeunaan kaayaan géografi jeung pangeusi Kapuloan Ryukyu di abad ka-19. Sanggeus Karajaan Ryukyu digantikan ku pamaréntah [[Domain Ryukyu]] di taun 1872, Naha dijadikeun puser dayeuh Ryukyu. Tuluy, sanggeus dihapusna Domain Ryukyu di taun [[1879]], Karajaan Ryukyu runtuh, sarta Okinawa sacara resmi jadi bagian ti Jepang minangka [[Préféktur Okinawa]]. Kantor Préféktur Okinawa diadegkeun di Naha di taun 1879 ogé, sarta Naha geus resmi jadi pusat pamaréntahan. Dina kamekaranana, Naha dilegakeun sarta dihijikeun jeung wewengkon urut puseur dayeuh Shuri, Tomari, Kumemura, jeung kota-kota di sakurilingna. Nalika [[Perang Dunya II]], Naha jadi ruksak parah lantaran [[Serangan Udara 10 Oktober]] 1944 jeung [[Patempuran Okinawa]]. [[Istana Shuri]] ampir ancur kabéh ku kakuatan Marinir, Angkatan Darat, jeung Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat di taun 1945. Sanggeus Perang Dunya II, Préféktur Okinawa aya dina kawasa Amérika Sarikat sarta kakara [[Dibalikkeunna Okinawa|dibalikkeun deui ka Jepang]] di tanggal [[15 Méi]] [[1972]]. == Géografi == [[File:The main streets of Naha city.JPG|jmpl|240px|Pusat kota Naha]] Puseur kota mangrupa dataran anu dikurilingan ku [[Walungan Kokuba]], [[Situ Manko]], jeung [[Walungan Asato]]. Walungan Kokuba jeung Asato ngocor ti wétan ka kulon sarta muharana ka Laut Cina Wétan. Kota Naha leutik pisan mun dibandingkeun puseur dayeuh préféktur nu lian. Legana ngan hanya 38,98&nbsp;km², tapi mangrupa kota anu pangeusina gegek dibandingkeun kota-kota séjén di Kyushu. Bandar Udara Naha (kaasup pikeun Angkatan Udara Béla Diri Jepang) geus nempatan 8% ti sakabéh legana Naha. Legana kota ieu masih kénéh dikurangan ku tanah nu dipaké ku [[Angkatan Bersenjata Amerika Serikat di Jepang|Angkatan Bersenjata Amérika Sarikat di Jepang]] jeung Palabuan Naha. Bandar Udara Naha anu perenahna di puseur kota nyababkeun pangwangunan gedong-gedong anu jangkung diwates. == Iklim == Naha miboga iklim subtropis kalawan suhu unggal poé rata-rata 23&nbsp;°C. Curah hujan per tahun leuwih tii 2.000&nbsp;mm. {{Weather box |location = Naha, Jepang (1971-2000) |metric first = yes |single line = yes |Jan record high C = 26.8 |Feb record high C = 26.6 |Mar record high C = 28.2 |Apr record high C = 29.7 |May record high C = 31.6 |Jun record high C = 34.1 |Jul record high C = 35.0 |Aug record high C = 35.6 |Sep record high C = 34.6 |Oct record high C = 32.8 |Nov record high C = 30.8 |Dec record high C = 27.8 |Jan high C = 19.1 |Feb high C = 19.2 |Mar high C = 21.3 |Apr high C = 24.0 |May high C = 26.4 |Jun high C = 29.2 |Jul high C = 31.3 |Aug high C = 30.9 |Sep high C = 29.9 |Oct high C = 27.5 |Nov high C = 24.2 |Dec high C = 20.9 |year high C = 25.3 |Jan mean C = 16.6 |Feb mean C = 16.6 |Mar mean C = 18.6 |Apr mean C = 21.3 |May mean C = 23.8 |Jun mean C = 26.6 |Jul mean C = 28.5 |Aug mean C = 28.2 |Sep mean C = 27.2 |Oct mean C = 24.9 |Nov mean C = 21.7 |Dec mean C = 18.4 |year mean C = 22.7 |Jan low C = 14.3 |Feb low C = 14.3 |Mar low C = 16.2 |Apr low C = 18.9 |May low C = 21.5 |Jun low C = 24.6 |Jul low C = 26.4 |Aug low C = 26.1 |Sep low C = 25.1 |Oct low C = 22.7 |Nov low C = 19.5 |Dec low C = 16.1 |year low C = 20.5 |Jan record low C = 6.6 |Feb record low C = 6.6 |Mar record low C = 7.2 |Apr record low C = 9.8 |May record low C = 13.6 |Jun record low C = 15.4 |Jul record low C = 21.0 |Aug record low C = 20.7 |Sep record low C = 18.5 |Oct record low C = 14.8 |Nov record low C = 12.2 |Dec record low C = 7.2 |Jan precipitation mm = 114.5 |Feb precipitation mm = 125.2 |Mar precipitation mm = 159.6 |Apr precipitation mm = 180.7 |May precipitation mm = 233.8 |Jun precipitation mm = 211.6 |Jul precipitation mm = 176.1 |Aug precipitation mm = 247.2 |Sep precipitation mm = 200.3 |Oct precipitation mm = 162.9 |Nov precipitation mm = 124.1 |Dec precipitation mm = 100.7 |year precipitation mm = 2036.9 |Jan humidity = 69 |Feb humidity = 71 |Mar humidity = 74 |Apr humidity = 78 |May humidity = 80 |Jun humidity = 84 |Jul humidity = 79 |Aug humidity = 80 |Sep humidity = 77 |Oct humidity = 73 |Nov humidity = 71 |Dec humidity = 68 |year humidity = 75 |Jan precipitation days = 12.9 |Feb precipitation days = 12.1 |Mar precipitation days = 13.7 |Apr precipitation days = 12.0 |May precipitation days = 13.0 |Jun precipitation days = 11.7 |Jul precipitation days = 10.4 |Aug precipitation days = 13.6 |Sep precipitation days = 12.5 |Oct precipitation days = 9.5 |Nov precipitation days = 9.8 |Dec precipitation days = 9.6 |Jan sun = 95.3 |Feb sun = 84.6 |Mar sun = 108.9 |Apr sun = 134.1 |May sun = 149.5 |Jun sun = 182.2 |Jul sun = 243.6 |Aug sun = 223.6 |Sep sun = 196.6 |Oct sun = 168.1 |Nov sun = 120.9 |Dec sun = 113.6 |year sun = 1820.9 |source 1 = <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/nml_sfc_ym.php?prec_no=91&prec_ch=%89%AB%93%EA%8C%A7&block_no=47936&block_ch=%93%DF%94e&year=&month=&day=&elm=normal&view= | title = 気象庁 / 平年値（年・月ごとの値） | publisher = [[Japan Meteorological Agency]]}}</ref> |date=August 2010 }} == Ékonomi == Panghasilan utama Naha nyaéta tina industri pariwisata, bisnis écéran, rumah makan, jeung pamondokan. [[Japan Transocean Air]] jeung [[Ryukyu Air Commuter]] nyaéta anak pausahaan [[Japan Airlines]] anu boga kantor pusat di Naha.<ref>"[http://www.churashima.net/jta/company/info.html Company Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109211230/http://www.churashima.net/jta/company/info.html|date=2018-01-09}}" (bahasa Jepang). ''[[Japan Transocean Air]]''. Diakses pada May 19, 2009.</ref><ref>"[http://rac.churashima.net/company.html 会社概要] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417231200/http://rac.churashima.net/company.html|date=2009-04-17}}." ''[[Ryukyu Air Commuter]]''. Diakses pada 19 Mei 2009.</ref> == Atikan == Di Naha aya opat universitas, dua di antarana dikokolakeun ku pamaréntah Préféktur Okinawa, sarta nu lianna nyaéta universitas swasta. [[Universitas Ryukyu]] nyaéta hiji-hijina universitas negeri di Préféktur Okinawa. Universitas Ryukyu diadegkeun dina urut lokasi Istana Shuri di tanggal 22 Méi 1950. Saacan réstorasi Istana Shuri lumangsung, Universitas Ryukyu dipindahkeun ka kota [[Nishihara, Okinawa|Nishihara]] anu perenahna di wétaneun laut Naha. Sakola dasar jeung manengah pertama Naha dikokolakeun [[Déwan Atikan Kota Naha]] [http://www.edu.city.naha.okinawa.jp/gakkyou/00-file/school.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007092949/http://www.edu.city.naha.okinawa.jp/gakkyou/00-file/school.htm |date=2006-10-07 }}. Sedengkeun sakola menengah atas negeri di Naha diurus ku [[Déwan Atikan Préféktur Okinawa]]. == Seni béla diri == Sajarawan seni béla diri ngira-ngira, sahenteuna di [[abad ka-17]] geus aya hiji wangun bela diri leungeun kosong di Okinawa. Seni béla diri ieu disebut ''ti'' atawa ''te'' (harti harfiah: ''leungeun'') anu mekar jadi tilu aliran lokal [[karate]]. Séwang-séwangna némbongkeun ciri has anu unik sarta dibéré ngaran dumasar tempat asalna: ''[[Naha-te]]'' (leungeun Naha) ti Naha, Shuri-te ti Shuri, sarta Tomari-te ti Palabuan Tomari.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts|last=Borkowski|first=Cezar|authorlink=|coauthors=Marion Manzo|year=1998|publisher=|location=|isbn=|page=178|pages=2010-06-11}}</ref> Tiluanana mangrupa dasar pikeun ''Okinawa-te'' anu mangrupa séké-sélér karaté modérn.<ref>{{cite book|title=Karate-Do: My Way of Life|url=https://archive.org/details/karatedomywayofl00funa|last= Funakoshi|first= Gichin|year=1981|origyear=1975|publisher=Kodansha International|location=Tokyo|isbn=978-0870114632|page= [https://archive.org/details/karatedomywayofl00funa/page/39 37]}}</ref> == Pariwisata == * [[Istana Shuri]] urut istana Karajaan Ryukyu :Sanggeus bérés diréstorasi jeung diwangun deui, istana ieu mangrupa salah sahiji conto ''[[gusuku]]'' panghadéna di Okinawa, sakaligus salah sahiji situs sajarah pangpentingna di Naha. Istana Gusuku jeung rangkéan torowongan anu aya di handapna dipaké pikeun markas komando utama ku militér Kakaisaran Jepang salila Perang Dunya II. Sanggeus perang, urut situs Istana Shuri dijadikeun kampus Universitas Ryukyu. Di taun 2000, UNESCO netepkeun Istana Shuri, gerbang utama [[Shureimon]], sarta babaraha ''gusuku'' jeung situs-situs suci anu boga ajén sajarah di Okinawa minangka [[Situs Warisan Dunia]]. :* [[Danau Man]] :Situ ieu perenahna di pasisian kota Naha anu boga wates jeung [[Tomigusuku, Okinawa|Tomigusuku]]. Situ anu boga leuweung [[bakau]] anu lega ieu kaasup daptar [[lahan baseuh]] [[Konvénsi Ramsar]]. * [[Taman Shikina]] * [[Tamaudun]] * [[Sonohyan-utaki]] == Féstival tradisional == * [[Naha Hari]] (féstival Perahu Naga) * [[Naha Matsuri]] == Transportasi == [[File:Okinawa Monorail 1212+1112 at Akamine Station 20030814.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Okinawa Monorail]] [[Bandar Udara Naha (Jepang)|Bandar Udara Naha]] jeung Palabuan Naha mangrupa lawang asup Préféktur Okinawa. Bandar Udara Naha ogé sakaligus mangrupa hub pikeun bandara lianna di Kapuloan Ryukyu. [[Okinawa Monorail]] anu kasohor minangka Yui Rail nagngkut panumpang ti Stasion Bandara Naha ka puseur kota Naha, Kokusai-dōri, Shintoshin, nepi ka terminal di [[Stasiun Shuri|Stasion Shuri]] anu deuekut jeung Istana Shuri. == Kota kembar == [[Gambar:Naha Shuri Castle32bs5s4592.jpg|jmpl|ka|Shureimon di Naha]] {{See also|Daftar kota kembar di Jepang}} Kota-kota ieu boga hubungan [[kota kembar]] jeung Naha:<ref name="Naha">[http://www.city.naha.okinawa.jp/special/benri/jiti2_1.htm Naha Sister Cities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509020028/http://www.city.naha.okinawa.jp/special/benri/jiti2_1.htm |date=2007-05-09 }}</ref> {| cellpadding="10" |- valign="top" | * {{Flagicon|China}} [[Fuzhou]], [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok]] ti 20 Méi 1981 * {{Flagicon|United States}} [[Honolulu]], [[Amérika Sarikat]] ti 10 Januari 1961 * {{Flagicon|Japan}} [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]], [[Préféktur Kanagawa]] ti 20 Méi 1996 (di jero nagri) || * {{Flagicon|Japan}} [[Nichinan, Miyazaki|Nichinan]], [[Préféktur Miyazaki]] ti 24 April 1969 (di jero nagri) * {{Flagicon|Brazil}} [[São Vicente, São Paulo|São Vicente]], [[Brasil]] * {{Flagicon|Brazil}} [[São Paulo]], [[Brasil]].<ref name="São Paulo">[http://www2.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/secretarias/relacoes_internacionais/ingles/descentralized_cooperation/sister_cities/0001 Prefeitura.Sp - Descentralized Cooperation]</ref><ref name="São Paulo2">[http://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/relacoes_internacionais/cidadesirmas/index.php?p=1066 International Relations - São Paulo City Hall - Official Sister Cities]</ref> |} == Rujukan == {{Portal|Jepang}} * Ooshiro, Sally. ''Irosetsuden'', thesis translation of ancient Ryūkyū record compilation. University of Hawaii, 1964. {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons cat|Naha, Okinawa}} * {{ja}} {{resmi|www.city.naha.okinawa.jp}}} [[Kategori:Kota di Préféktur Okinawa]] [[Kategori:Jepang]] 09g2r99hh0s9nubvpttdvsio7btqbti 0 98129 711505 672047 2026-08-06T18:47:02Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 9 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 711505 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox|color=orange|name=Puyuh / Turnicidae|image=Barred_Buttonquail_Turnix_suscitator_male_by_Dr._Raju_Kasambe_DSCN8040_(8).jpg|image_width=250px|image_caption=Puyuh Tegal|image2=|image2_width=250px|image2_caption=|regnum=[[Sato|Animalia]]|phylum=[[Chordata]]|classis=[[manuk|Aves]]|ordo=[[Charadriiformes]]|familia='''Turnicidae''' (GR Gray,1840)|subdivision_ranks=Genera|subdivision=''Turnix'' (Bonnaterre, 1791) <br />''Ortyxelos'' (Vieillot, 1825)| range_map = Turnicidae rangmap.PNG | range_map_caption = Panyebaran manuk puyuh}} Manuk '''Puyuh''' téh nyaéta sarupaning manuk leutik ti kulawarga '''Turnicidae''', cirina nu paling kaciri, tina bulu tonggongna nu ngabogaan pola siga batik, warna utamana ti mimiti warna célé, coklat péang, coklat, konéng, oranye tur semu beureum ditambahan ku polét atawa totol-totol bodas, beureum, hideung, nyampur dina pola nu jadi ciri spésiésna masing-masing. Ciri séjénna sukuna pondok, beuheung méh teu kaciri, ramona ngan tilu kabéh nyanghareup, warna suku konéng, hideung atawa konéng-hideung atawa hawuk, kitu ogé jeung warna pamatukna. Buntutna parondok. Puyuh kaasup [[manuk]] leutik, ukuran puyuh ''plover'', hiji-hijina spésiés ti génera ''[[Ortyxelos]]'', ngan 10&nbsp;cm jeung beuratna 20 gram. Sedeng ti génera '''''Turnix''''' panjangna rupa-rupa antara 12&nbsp;cm semet ka 23&nbsp;cm, beuratna 20g semet ka 130g. Katempona sarimbag pisan jeung naon nu disebut puyuh ti génera ''Coturnix'', kajaba ku teu boga telih jeung ramo tukang. Ogé puyuh bikangna ti Turnicidae mibanda organ vokal nu khas nu asalna tina trachéa nu ngagedéan sarta ruang hawa dina ésophagusna, nu bisa ngaluarkeun sora handaruan.<ref name=":3" /> Salian ciri di luhur, numutkeun Erich Tenius, puyuh ogé mibanda sipat-sipat hayam-hayam ternak, nyaéta: * Liang irung katutup ku bulu laleutik. * Téréh ngaréaan, wanci subur tiap 4-5 bulan. * Pola bulu nu siga kaén ngagantung sarimbag jeung hahayaman. * Bulu jangjang leutik téréh pisan megar wanci ciak kéneh. * Buluna malegar wanci rumaja. * Resep kokoréh. Tapi puyuh ogé mibanda sifat-sifat bango atawa manuk-manuk ranca, nyaéta: * Teu boga telih. * Garis jero dina dua sisi satukangeun ''sternum'' (tulang sahandapeun beuteung). * Endogna totol-totol. * Cara ngahuapan anak-anakna. Sajaba ti dua sifat-sifat di luhur, puyuh ogé boga sifat nu mandiri: * Wanci baranahan nu téréh pisan, 12-13 poé. * Fakta yén jaluna nu nyileungleum jeung ngasuh anak-anakna.<ref>Thenius, Erich (1969) dina [http://battlequail.org/BattleQuail/taxonomy.html/ Taxonomy of Buttonquail] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030222411/http://battlequail.org/BattleQuail/taxonomy.html |date=2020-10-30 }}, ''VECHTKWARTEL'', diakses tanggal 07/10/2019.</ref> == Terminologi jeung Taksonomi == [[Gambar:Japanese Quail.jpg|jmpl|220x220px|Puyuh Jepang]] Dina basa Inggris puyuh pituin Indonésia jeung sabangsana disebut ''buttonquail'' (puyuh kancing). Kecap puyuh sorangan dipaké ngahartikeun kecap ''quail''<ref>ilikan di Google Translate</ref> tina basa Inggris nu ngacu kana sajenis sasatoan ti kulawarga [[Phasianidae]]<ref name=":0">[https://www.britannica.com/animal/quail "Quail"] ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', diakses tanggal 7/10/2019.</ref> (hahayaman). ''Buttonquail'' gé mun nulisna dipisahkeun jadi ''button quail'' hartina bisa jadi béda, jadi ngacu kana hiji spésiés nu disebut  puyuh batu ti kulawarga Phasianidae tadi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cyberquail.com/homepage.html|title=Welcome to Button Quail Home Page|last=|first=|website=Cyberquail|publisher=|accessdate=07/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724081512/http://www.cyberquail.com/homepage.html |date=2019-07-24 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Barred Buttonquail Rajkot.jpg|jmpl|Manuk puyuh]] Di [[Indonésia]] ku alatan ''homoplasy'', aya sababaraha jenis manuk nu disebut maké kecap puyuh, nyaéta ti kulawarga Turnicidae contona puyuh tegal, sarta ti kulawarga Phasianidae, contona [[puyuh jepang]] ti génera ''[[Coturnix]]'' jeung [[puyuh gonggong]] ti génera ''[[Arborophila]]''. Ku lantaran puyuh jepang loba diternakkeun di Indonésia,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Adimika|first=N., et al.|date=2019|title=Keragaman genetik puyuh Jepang (Coturnix japonica) berdasarkan analisis sekuen DNA mitokondria gen Cytochrome-b|url=|department=Universitas Sebelas Maret|journal=Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Peternakan|publisher=Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonésia|volume=29(2)|page=144|doi=10.21776/ub.jiip.2019.029.02.05.|issn=2443-0765|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> mangka puyuh jepang jadi leuwih populér batan puyuh pituin Indonésia. ku kituna loba author jeung blogger-blogger ngora nu nganggap nu dimaksud ku puyuh téh nyaéta puyuh jepang. Buktina lamun urang nyaliksik dina Google maké kecap ‘puyuh’ mangka nu kaluar pangluhurna téh situs-situs ngeunaan puyuh Jepang. Malahan mah bisa semet ka sababaraha laman karak kaluar nu ngaranna puyuh ti kulawarga Turnicidae.<ref>Hasil nyaliksik ti Google maké kecap konci “puyuh”, tanggal 29 Séptémber 2019.</ref> Puyuh Jepang karak asup ka Indonésia dina taun 1979,<ref name=":1" /> sedeng kecap puyuh geus aya ti baheula mula. Asa pamohalan lamun karuhun urang [[Sunda]] / Indonésia ngamaksudkeun kecap puyuh (tanpa dikantetkeun jeung kecap séjénna) kana puyuh jepang. Ku kituna, sangkan teu kena ku paribasa jati ka silih ku junti, dina artikel ieu nu dimaksud ku puyuh téh nyaéta puyuh pituin Indonésia (Turnicidae atawa ''buttonquail'' ceuk urang barat). Pikeun urang barat, puyuh (''buttonquail'') ogé dikenal ku sebutan ''[[hemipode]]'' (''hemipod''), tina basa [[Yunani]] nu hartina satengah suku. Kecap éta asalna tina ramo suku puyuh nu ngan tilu siki nu kabéh nyanghareup téa, mangkana disebut satengah suku.<ref name=":0" /> Sacara taksonomi, puyuh mangrupa sato ti kelas [[Aves]], asalna kaasup kana ordo [[Gruiformes]] méméh jadi ordo mandiri [[Turniciformes]] numutkeun taksonomi  Sibley-Ahlquist.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.birding.in/orders/turniciformes.htm|title=Turniciformes - Buttonquails|last=|first=|website=Turniciformes - Buttonquails|publisher=Birds and birding in India.|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Kiwari puyuh diasupkeun kana ordo [[Charadriiformes]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fain|first=Mathew G.|last2=Houde|first2=Peter|date=08 Maret 2007|title=Multilocus perspectives on the monophyly and phylogeny of the order Charadriiformes (Aves)|url=https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-7-35|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|series=35|publisher=BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of Springer Nature.|volume=7|doi=|pmid=|access-date=07/10/2019}}</ref> Dina Turnicidae aya dua génera, 18 spésiés jeung 59 taxa.<ref name=":2">Clements Checklist v2019(2012) [https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/ Universitas CornellCornell Lab of Ornithology] New York. <br /></ref> == Cara Hirup == Puyuh mangrupa sato poliandri, kajaba [[Puyuh plover|puyuh ''plover'']] ti génera ''Ortyxelos''. Bikang biasana leuwih sugih ku warna sarta nu tiheula ngajak kawin. Jalu bikang babarengan nyieun sayang dina luhuren taneuh, tapi biasana nu jaluna nu nyileungleuman endog sarta tuluy ngasuh anak-anakna. Sanggeus endogan nu bikang  tuluy miang nyiar deui jalu séjén. Endogna megar sanggeus disileungleuman kana 12-13 poéna. Umur dua minggu anakna geus bisa haliber.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fatbirder.com/ornithology/turnicidae-buttonquails/|title=Turnicidae – Buttonquails|last=|first=|website=Fat Birder|publisher=Fat Birder|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Anak puyuh kaasup jenis ''precocial'', hartina geus aya dina fase nu leuwih déwasa (bisa dahar sorangan, teu kudu dihuapan), geus buluan sarta bisa leumpang, nunutur bapana nu mere parab ku [[rinyuh]] jeung sisikian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animals.jrank.org/pages/597/Buttonquails-Turnicidae-BEHAVIOR-REPRODUCTION.html|title=Buttonquails: Turnicidae Behavior And Reproduction|last=|first=|website=animals.jrank.org|publisher=NET INDUSTRIES AND ITS LICENSORS|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Puyuh hirup dina daratan 2.500m saluhureun beungeut cai.<ref name=":3">Debus, S. & Bonan, A. (2019). Buttonquails (''Turnicidae''). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.). ''Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive''. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from https://www.hbw.com/node/52225 on 29 September 2019).</ref> Habitat hirup puyuh nyaéta di tegal jukut, rungkun saliara sarta aya ogé nu di [[leuweung]]. Najan bisa ngapung, puyuh tara ngapung. Sapopoé méakkeun hirupna di darat. Karesepna cicing na [[jukut]], [[eurih]] atawa di [[huma]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animals.jrank.org/pages/601/Buttonquails-Turnicidae.html|title=Buttonquails: Turnicidae|last=|first=|website=animals.jrank.org|publisher=NET INDUSTRIES AND ITS LICENSORS|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Puyuh utamana mah tukang ngahakanan sisikian. Najan kitu, kadang-kadang puyuh ngahakanan material tutuwuhan, [[geugeumetan]] jeung [[kéong]]. Pikeun ngalancarkeun peujitna, puyuh ogé sok neureuyan keusik saeutik. Puyuh nyiar hakaneun dina taneuh, dina tumpukan kalakay sarta dina tatangkalan pendék. Loba spésiés puyuh nu boga cara khusus dina nyiar hakaneun, kokoréh ku suku nu hiji, bari nangtung dina suku nu hijina nu tuluy nieun gerakan muter saeutik-saeutik.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animals.jrank.org/pages/596/Buttonquails-Turnicidae-DIET.html|title=Buttonquails: Turnicidae Diet|last=|first=|website=animals.jrank.org|publisher=NET INDUSTRIES AND ITS LICENSORS|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> == Ambahan == Puyuh kaasup asalna sato ti dunya heubeul, ngan, katambahan aya ogé di [[Australia|Australi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birdquest-tours.com/world-bird-families-with-birdquest-birding-tours/|title=Bird Families Guide|last=|first=|website=The Ultimate In Birding Tours|publisher=Bird Quest|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Ti beulah kulon baheulana mah puyuh bisa kapanggih di Spanyol, nyaéta ''andalusian hemipode''. Taun ‘81 ''hemipode'' kabejakeun geus ludes di [[Spanyol]], tapi harirup di [[Maroko]], [[Afrika Kalér]], peuntanseunana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.magornitho.org/2018/11/andalusian-buttonquail-declared-extinct-spain/|title=Andalusian Buttonquail in Spain declared extinct|last=MaghrebOrnitho|first=|website=Birding and Ornithology in Morocco and the Maghreb|publisher=MaghrebOrnitho|page=|publication-date=09/11/2018|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> Puyuh ogé aya di daérah séjén di [[Afrika]] nyaéta di [[Sénégal|Sinégal]], [[Uganda]], [[Kamérun]] jeung [[Madagaskar|Kapuloan Madagaskar]]. Di Asia puyuh liar aya di [[Yaman]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Sri Langka|Srilanka]], [[Cina]], [[Taiwan]] tuluy mapay ka nagara-nagara [[Asia Tenggara]] semet ka [[Papua Kulon]]. Kadituna puyuh aya di [[Kapuloan Solomon]] jeung di [[Buana Ustrali]].<ref name=":2" /> == Rupa-Rupa Puyuh == === Numutkeun Taxonomi === Numutkeun taxonomy puyuh aya 18 spésiés tina dua génera.  Nyaéta génera ''Turnix''  (Bonnaterre, 1791) jeung ''Ortyxelos'' (Vieillot, 1825).<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=176151#null|title=Turnicidae|last=|first=|website=ITIS Report|publisher=Integrated Taxonomic Information System|accessdate=07/10/2019}}</ref> ==== Ti Génera ''Turnix'' ==== ===== ''[[Turnix Sylvaticus]]'' (Desfontaines, 1787) / puyuh biasa / ''common buttonquail'' / ''small buttonquail''  / ''andalusian hemipode'' ===== Kaasup kana salah sahiji puyuh leutik, panjangna 11&nbsp;cm semet ka 17&nbsp;cm. Beuratna rata-rata 60 gram, béda-béda antara subspésiés. Nu bikang leuwih gedé batan nu jalu. Bikang miboga warna burik hideung jeung abu-abu sarta beureum kacoklatan di bagéan luhur. Sirahna totol-totol hideung, beutengna warna bodas. Nu jalu méh sarua warnana jeung nu bikang, tapi leuwih burem. Hirupna dina taneuh garing nu keusikan, rungkun jeung jujukutan nu parendék atawa di kebon. Dapuran awi karesepna, cadu hirup di leuweung  gonggong,  keusik atawa ranca.<ref>Johnsgard, P. 1991. ''Bustards, Hemipodes, and Sandgrouse: Birds of Dry Places''. Oxford: Oxford University Press (dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Turnix_sylvaticus/ Turnix sylvaticuscommon buttonquail], ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 07/10/2019)</ref> Ambahanna nerekab ti Afrika, [[Asia Kidul]], [[Indocina]], Asia Tenggara semet ka [[Pulo Lombok]] di Indonésia<ref name=":4">BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix sylvaticus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''2016: e.T22680500A90008182. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680500A90008182.en. Diakses tanggak 08/10/2019.</ref> Aya salapan subspésiés,<ref name=":2" /> nyaéta: [[Gambar:Small Buttonquail Turnix sylvaticus Amravati (3). Maharashtra, India.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix sylvaticus'']] ''Turnix sylvaticus sylvaticus'': [[Bobojong Ibéria]] Kidul, Maroko Kalér, Aljazair jeung [[Tunisia]] ''Turnix sylvaticus lepurana'': [[Gurun Sahara]] Afrika Kidul jeung [[Arabian Peninsula|Bobojong Arab]] ''Turnix sylvaticus dussumier'': béh wétan [[Iran]] semet ka India jeung [[Myanmar]] ''Turnix sylvaticus davidi'': Bobojong Thailand semet ka  kidul Cina, Indocina jeung Taiwan ''Turnix sylvaticus bartelsorum'': [[Jawa]] jeung [[Bali]] ''Turnix sylvaticus whiteheadi'': [[Pulo Luzon]] ([[Pilipina|Philipina]]) ''Turnix sylvaticus nigrorum'': Pulo Negros (Philipina) ''Turnix sylvaticus céléstinoi'': Philipina kidul (Bohol jeung [[Mindano]]) ''Turnix sylvaticus suluensis'': [[Kapuloan Sulu]]. Status konsérvasina LC<ref name=":4" /> (teu pati hariwang). ===== ''[[Turnix maculosus]]'' (Temminck, 1815) / ''Red-backed buttonquail'' / puyuh tonggong beureum / puyuh jaya wijaya ===== Puyuh leutik nu resep nyumput. Biasana nyicingan habitat tegal jukut nu semu baseuh. Spésiés ieu éraan pisan sarta remen katempo ngaburisat tina panyumputanna jeung tuluy ngapung gagancangan – ngébréhkeun pola jangjang nu pias kontras jeung tonggong jeung tungtung jangjang nu leuwih poék. Mibanda warna beuheung nu coklat semu beureum, pamatuk konéng,  sarta aya warna totol hideung nu manjang tina handapeun panon semet ka jangjang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/rebbut2/|title=Red-backed Buttonquail Turnix maculosus|last=|first=|website=eBird|publisher=eBird|accessdate=08/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008192500/https://ebird.org/species/rebbut2/ |date=2019-10-08 }}</ref> Tonggongna warna beureum paselang jeung hideung. Sumebar di [[Sulawesi]], [[Kapuloan Sunda Leutik]], [[Papua Nugini]], Kapuloan Solomon jeung Buana Australi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/red-backed-buttonquail-turnix-maculosus|title=Red-backed Buttonquail Turnix maculosus|last=|first=|website=Data Zone|publisher=BirdLife International (2019)|accessdate=08/10/2019}}</ref> Subspésiésna nyaéta: ''Turnix maculosus maculosus'': Sunda Leutik ([[Roté]], [[Semau]], [[Timor]], [[Wetar]], [[Moa]] jeung  [[Kisar]]) ''Turnix maculosus beccarii'': Sulawesi, Muna jeung  PuloTomia (Pulo Tukang Besi ) ''Turnix maculosus kinneari'': [[Pulo Peleng]] ([[Pulo Banggai]] wétaneun Sulawesi) ''Turnix maculosus obiensis'': Pulo Obi, Pulo Kai Kecil jeung Pulo Babar. ''Turnix maculosus sumbanus'': [[Pulo Sumba]] (Sunda Leutik) ''Turnix maculosus floresianus:'' Sunda Leutik ([[Sumbawa]], [[Pulo komodo|Komodo]], Padar, [[Flores]] jeung [[Alor]]) ''Turnix maculosus savuensis'': Pulo Sawu (Sunda Leutik) [[Gambar:Red-backed Button-quail.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix maculosus'']] ''Turnix maculosus saturatus'': Archipelago Bismarck (Britania Anyar jeung Duke of York) ''Turnix maculosus furvus'': Bobojong Huon (kalér wétan Nugini) ''Turnix maculosus giluwensis'': wétan tengah Nugini ''Turnix maculosus horsbrughi'': kidul Nugini ''Turnix maculosus mayri'': Archipelago Louisiade ''Turnix maculosus salomonis'': Pulo Guadalcanal (Kapuloan Solomon) ''Turnix maculosus melanotus'': kalér jeung wétan Australi.<ref name=":2" /> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix maculosus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680512A92864941. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680512A92864941.en. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix tanki]]'' (Blyth, 1843) / ''yellow-legged buttonquail'' / puyuh suku konéng ===== Cirina nu mandiri nyaéta surup kana ngaranna, sukuna warna konéng, kitu ogé pamatukna, tapi béh luhur aya polét beureuman. Ukuranna ngan leuwih gedé saeutik ti manuk goléjra. Kocéak bikangna nu dengér bisa jadi hiji cara nu panggampangna pikeun manggihan manuk nu resep hirup dina tegalan jukut ieu. Nu bikang boga warna nu leuwih nyata batan nu jalu, katempo dina punduk jeung beuteung nu warnana oranyeu caang. Nu jalu méh sarua corak warnana ngan leuwih bureum. Hirup di daérah Asia Kidul, Cina Kidul, sabudeureun Myanmar jeung  Indocina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/yelbut1/|title=Yellow-legged Buttonquail Turnix tanki|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=08/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008184655/https://ebird.org/species/yelbut1/ |date=2019-10-08 }}</ref> Aya dua taxa,<ref name=":2" /> nyaéta: ''Turnix ocellatus ocellatus'': kidul jeung tengan Pulo Luzon (Philipina) ''Turnix ocellatus benguetensis'': Pagunungan kaléreun Pulo Luzon (Philipina). Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix ocellatus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''2016: e.T22680542A92865445. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680542A92865445.en. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix hottentottus]]'' (Temminck, 1815) jeung ''[[Turnix nanus]]'' (Sundevall, 1851)  / ''Black rumped buttonquail''  ===== Harirup di buana Afrika wungkul, di Afirka Tengah semet ka Kidul.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/hotbut3/|title=Black-rumped Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=08/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809232200/https://ebird.org/species/hotbut3 |date=2019-08-09 }}</ref> Karesepna hirup dina sabana, tegal jukut jeung rurungkunan, bisa ogé di ranca atawa ka kebon-kebon. Cirina nyaéta pupuhu buntutna warna hideung sarta loba totol coklat kahideungan dina dada jeung sisi awakna. Panjang nu bikang 15 centi sedeng nu jalu 14 centi. Beuratna 40 – 60 gr. Nu bikang huluna hideung totol-totol oranyeu. Nu bikang leuwih gedé batan nu jalu.<ref>Johnsgard, P. 1991. ''Bustards, Hemipodes, and Sandgrouse: Birds of Dry Places''. Oxford: Oxford University Press (dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Turnix_hottentottus/ Turnix hottentottus black-rumped buttonquail], Animal Diversity Web (ADW), University of Micihigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019)</ref> Masing-masing teu boga subspésiés. ''Turnix nanus'': Ghana nepi ka Kénya, Uganda jeung kidul wétan Tanjung Harapan ''Turnix hottentottus'': tengah-tengah semet ka kiduleun Afika Kidul (kidul kulon Tanjung Harapan semet ka Port Elizabeth).<ref name=":2" /> Status konsérvasina ''Turnix hottentottus'' dina bahaya / EN.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix hottentottus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22725519A94894783. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22725519A94894783.en. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019.</ref> ''Turnix nanus'' LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix nanus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22725531A94895080. <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22725531A94895080.en</nowiki>. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix ocellatus]]'' (Scopoli, 1786) / ''Spotted buttonquail''  / puyuh tutul ===== [[Gambar:TurnixOcellataSmit.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix ocellatus'']] Hirup éndemik di Philipina wungkul. Karesepna sarua jeung nu séjén hirup di tegal jukut jeung rungkun saliara, tapi kadang sok ngulampreng mipir-mipir sisi jurang. ogé aya digugunungan jeung leuweung. Panjangna bisa nepi 17,8  centi-an. Beuratna bisa 110 gr. Nu bikang leuwih gedé jeung leuwih sugih ku warna. Béh luhurna coklat abu-abu bari jeung tutul-tutul coklat  atawa hideung, dadana oranyeu kolot, suku tur pamatukna konéng.<ref>Madge, S., P. McGowan. 2002. ''Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse: A Guide to the Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Grouse, Guineafowl, Buttonquails and Sandgrouse of the World''. London: Christopher Helm. (Dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Turnix_ocellatus/ Turnix ocellatus spotted buttonquail], ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019).</ref> Aya dua taxa, nyaéta: ''Turnix ocellatus ocellatus'': kidul jeung tengan Pulo Luzon (Philipina) ''Turnix ocellatus benguetensis'': Pagunungan kaléreun Pulo Luzon (Philipina).<ref name=":2" /> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix ocellatus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680542A92865445. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680542A92865445.en. Download 8/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix suscitator]]'' (Gmelin, JF, 1789) / b''arred buttonquail''  / puyuh tegal loréng  / gemak (Jawa) ===== Béh luhur warna coklat ditambah ku bulu-bulu nu ngajalur semu siga sisit. Bikangna, lebah beuheung nepi ka dada aya garis hideung léstréng, beuteng oranyeu, pamatuk jeung sukuna bisa warna hawuk atawa warna célé atawa campuran duanana. Rada hésé disiar, resep seselendepan di antara rungkun saliara di tegal, tungtung leuweung jeung di huma. Lagu hiber ngaluarkeun sora nyiriwik. Bikang nu begér ngaluarkeun sora handaruan ti jero rungkun nu gomplok. Hirup di Asia Selatan, Indocina, Asia Tenggara, kaasup Jawa, Sulawesi jeung Kapuloan Sunda Leutik.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/barbut1/|title=Barred Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=08/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009155834/https://ebird.org/species/barbut1/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Aya 17 taxa,<ref name=":2" /> nyaéta: ''Turnix suscitator taigoor'': India ''Turnix suscitator leggei'':  Sri Lanka ''Turnix suscitator plumbipes'': Nepal, Sikkim jeung Bangladesh semet ka Myanmar. [[Gambar:Barred Buttonquail Turnix suscitator Pair Amravati.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix suscitator'']] ''Turnix suscitator bengalensis'': kalér wétan India (sahandapeun kulon Bengal) ''Turnix suscitator okinavensis'': kiduleun P. Kyushu jeung Makenoshima kidulen P. Ryukyu ''Turnix suscitator rostratus'': Taiwan ''Turnix suscitator blakistoni'': Myanmar nepi ka Cina kidul, kalér Indocina jeung P. Hainan ''Turnix suscitator pallescens'': kidul-tengah Myanmar ''Turnix suscitator thai'': Thailand tengah ''Turnix suscitator atrogularis'': Bobojong Thailand – Malaysia ''Turnix suscitator suscitator'': [[Sumatra]], [[Kapuloan Bangka Belitung|P. Belitung jeung P. Bangka,]] Jawa jeung Bali ''Turnix suscitator baweanus'': P. Bawéan di Jawa ''Turnix suscitator fasciatus'': Philipna kalér (Luzon semet Mindoro, Sibuyan jeung  Masbate) ''Turnix suscitator haynaldi'': kidul wétan Philipina (Palawan jeung Kapuloan Calamian) [[Gambar:Madagascar Buttonquail SMTC.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix nigricollis'']] ''Turnix suscitator nigrescens'': Philipina (Negros, Cebu jeung Panay) ''Turnix suscitator rufilatus'': Sulawesi ''Turnix suscitator powelli'': Kapuloan Sunda Leutik. Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix suscitator''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680549A92865610. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680549A92865610.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix nigricollis]]'' (Gmelin, JF, 1789) / puyuh madagaskar ===== Hirup éndemik di Madagaskar wungkul. Tempat hirup sarua jeung rata-rata puyuh séjén, tegal jukut, rungkun jeug sajabana. Pola bulu méh sarua jeung Turnix suscitator, kajaba warna beuteungna teu oranyeu. Warna oranyeu justru aya di sahareupen jangjang. Beurat antara 67 sampe 84 gr.<ref>Johnsgard, P. 1991. ''Bustards, Hemipodes, and Sandgrouse: Birds of Dry Places''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Turnix_nigricollis/ Turnix nigricollis Madagascan buttonquail(Also: Madagascar buttonquail)], ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 08/10/2019).</ref> Teu boga sub spésiés. Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix nigricollis''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680552A92865904. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680552A92865904.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> [[Gambar:Turnix varius - Castlereigh nature reserve.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix varius'']] ===== ''[[Turnix varius]]'' (Latham, 1801) (monotipik) / ''painted buttonquail'', jeung ''[[Turnix varius novaecaledoniae]]'' (Ogilvie-Grant, 1889) (politipik) / puyuh kaledonia baru (calon dipisahkeun)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=EN&avibaseid=ABB5B3B0245CEF92|title=Painted Buttonquail (New Caledonian) Turnix varius novaecaledoniae Ogilvie-Grant, 1889|last=|first=|website=Avibase - The World Bird Database|publisher=Denis Lepage|accessdate=09/10/2019}}</ref> ===== Puyuh ieu ngabogaan iris panon beureum, buluna lebah dada , beuteung jeung sisi katempo pias. Sukuna konéng tapi pamatukna hawuk.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/paibut/|title=Painted Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}}{{Dead link|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Hirup di Australia kapuloan béh wétan kulon Australi jeung aya ogé di [[Kaledonia Anyar]]. Aya tilu subspésiés:<ref name=":2" /> ''Turnix varius novaecaledoniae'': Kalédonia Anyar ''Turnix varius scintillans'': Kapuloan Houtman Abrolhos (kidul kuloneun Australi) ''Turnix varius varius'': kidul kulon, wétan jeung kidul wétan Australi jeung Tasmania. Status konservasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix varius''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T62288672A95193778. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T62288672A95193778.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> Kajaba ''T.v. novaecaledoniae,'' kritis / CR.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix novaecaledoniae''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22734789A95096865. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22734789A95096865.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> [[Gambar:Black-breasted Button-quail male inskip (cropped).JPG|jmpl|''Turnix melanogaster'']] ===== ''[[Turnix melanogaster]]'' / ''black-breasted buttonquail'' / puyuh harigu hideung ===== Hirup éndemik di Australi wétan, dina leuweung gerot nu dadasarna pinuh ku lapisan daun paéh. Bikang mibanda sirah jeung bulu bagéan handap nu warnana hideung, panonna bodas. Jalu bulu beungeutna pias jeung teu loba tanda hideung dina bagéan handapna. Nalika nyiar dahareun puyuh ieu nyieun logak nu bunder jeung jero dina lapisan dangdaunan paéh dina taneuh; nu bisa jadi tanda pikeun kahadiranna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/blbbut2/|title=Black-breasted Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173751/https://ebird.org/species/blbbut2/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina rada kaancam / NT.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix melanogaster''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680556A92866106. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680556A92866106.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix castanotus]]'' (Gould, 1840)  / ''chestnut backed buttonquail'' / puyuh tonggong coklat ===== Warna pamatukna abu-abu pias, ari suku konéng. Tonggong coklat dihias ku garis-garis bodas jeung hideung. Mun kaganggu leuwih condong lumpat batan nyerang. Hirup di Australi bagéan kalér.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/chbbut2/|title=Chestnut-backed Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173748/https://ebird.org/species/chbbut2/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix castanotus''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680560A92866466. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680560A92866466.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix olivii]]'' (Robinson, 1900) / ''buff-breasted buttonquail'' / puyuh harigu oranyeu ===== Puyuh nu resep pisan ngiles jeung nyumput. Boga pamatuk nu leutik tapi kuat. Hirupna kawengku di leuweung ékaliptus di kalér wétan Queensland Ustrali. Ukuran awakna nu leuwih gedé jadi pangbéda ti puyuh tonggong beureum jeung puyuh dada beureum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/bubbut1/|title=Buff-breasted Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009160012/https://ebird.org/species/bubbut1/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Ku sawatara author dianggap minangka subspésiés ti turnix varius.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=0D9258BFE1F265BE|title=Buff-breasted Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=Avibase - The World Bird Database|publisher=Denis Lepage|accessdate=09/10/2019}}</ref> Status konsérvasina EN.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix olivii''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680572A92866714. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680572A92866714.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ===== ''[[Turnix worcesteri]]'' (McGregor, 1904) / puyuh luzon / ''luzon buttonquail'' / ''pugo'' (bahasa Philipina) ===== Hirup éndemik di kapuloan Luzon Philipina. Kaceluk ku resep nyicingan sawah, atawa rurungkunan deukeut huma ku alatan réa nyadiaan sisikian jeung geugeumetan. Manuk ieu ditandaan ku sirahna nu hideung tutul-tutul bodas, awakna coklat atawa coklat semu oranyeu, sarta nu jalu sukuna konéng, sedeng nu bikang sukuna coklat tutul-tutul bodas atawa hideung. Manuk ieu téh resep pisan nyumput, ukur milih hiji jalan nu maneuh ka sérang atawa kebon nu hanyakalna téh matak mawa bala ka manéhna sorangan alatan ku barudak sok diboro di jajalaneunna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewebsiteofeverything.com/animals/birds/Gruiformes/Turnicidae/Turnix-worcesteri|title=Luzon Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=Birds|publisher=The Website of Everything|accessdate=09/10/2019}}</ref> Status konsérvasina kurang data / DD.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix worcesteri''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680588A92866987. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680588A92866987.en<nowiki/>.Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> [[Gambar:Sumba Buttonquail.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix everetti'']] ===== ''[[Turnix everetti]]'' (Hartert, E, 1898) / puyuh sumba ===== Manuk ieu éndemik Pulo Sumba. Hirup siga nu séjén dina tegal jukut, ngan tara ka huma. Osok ogé mapay kana pasir batu kapur. Cirina nu ngabédakeun tina puyuh séjén nyaéta tina morfologi pamatukna nu leuwih gedé, hasil adaptasi tina barang daharna nu sok ngahakanan sisikian garedé. Najan kaasup manuk nu tara iincahan, sakapeung sok pipindahan tempat pikeun nyiar hakaneun.<ref name=":5">BirdLife International 2017. ''Turnix everetti'' (amended version of 2016 assessment). ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2017: e.T22680592A110139877. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T22680592A110139877.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref><br />Status konsérvasina rawan / VU.<ref name=":5" /> Di Indonésia kaasup sato nu aya dina panyalindungan.<ref>Permen NOMOR P.106/MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/12/2018.</ref> [[Gambar:Turnix pyrrhothorax.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix pyrrhothorax'']] ===== ''[[Turnix pyrrhothorax]]'' (Gould, 1841) / ''red-chested buttonquail'' / puyuh harigu beureum ===== Najan disebut harigu beureum, tapi warna harigu nu sabenerna mah oranyeu. Hirup éndemik di Ustrali Wétan ti béh kalér semet ka kidul. Bikangna nu dewasa ngabogaan warna gado jeung harigu oranyeu karahaan, sedeng jaluna mah warna hariguna leuwih pias sarta gadona bodas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/recbut1/|title=Red-chested Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173749/https://ebird.org/species/recbut1/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix pyrrhothorax''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680595A92867439. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680595A92867439.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> [[Gambar:Turnix velox - 1820-1863 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - UBA01 IZ17100171 Cropped.jpg|jmpl|''Turnix velox'']] ===== ''[[Turnix velox]]'' (Gould, 1841) / ''Little buttonquail'' / puyuh lemét ===== Manuk leutik, mangrupa puyuh nu pias, panonna pias, pamatukna kandel. Hirup di daratan Australi. Nu jalu buluna ngabogaan pola burik poék dina dada jeung kénca katuhuna, nu bikang boga warna bubuluan nu leuwih béngras.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ebird.org/species/litbut1/|title=Little Buttonquail|last=|first=|website=eBirds|publisher=eBirds|accessdate=09/10/2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009173746/https://ebird.org/species/litbut1/ |date=2019-10-09 }}</ref> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Turnix velox''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680599A92867607. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680599A92867607.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ==== Hiji-hijina ti génera ''Ortyxelos'' ==== [[Gambar:Quail Plover, Poli, Cameroon (5891141663).jpg|jmpl|''Ortyxelos meiffrenii'']] ===== ''[[Ortyxelos meiffrenii]]'' (Vieillot, 1819) / ''quail-plover'' / ''lark quail'' ===== Hirup di Buana Afrika, nyebar ti mimiti wétan Sinegal, tengah-tengah [[Sudan]] semet ka kaléreun [[Kénya]]. Kadang kapanggih di daérah [[basisir]]. Hirupna di tegal jukut, sabana jeung gurun ogé gunung keusik. Sirah, punduk jeung tonggongna warna coklat kabeureuman bari tungtung bulu-buluna warna hideung tuluy warna krim. Beungeutna warna krim jeung bercak kaemasan. Awak handapna didominasi ku warna krim. Pamatukna kakonéngan semet ka héjo pias. Suku jeung ramona bodas seger semet ka warna krim kakonéngan. Bikang leuwih gedé awakna. Bulu dadana sarua jeung jalu tapi leuwih poék sarta tungtung buntutna warna coklat jeung warna bodas dina tungtung bulu-buluna leuwih rubak. Panjang nu jalu 30 centian sedeng nu bikang 34 centian. Beuratna antara 15,7 semet ka 19,5 gr.<ref>Johnsgard, P. 1991. ''Bustards, Hemipodes and Sandgrouse: Birds of Dry Places''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Ortyxelos_meiffrenii/ Ortyxelos meiffrenii lark buttonquail(Also: quail-plover]), ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019).</ref> Status konsérvasina LC.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Ortyxelos meiffrenii''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22680603A92867780. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22680603A92867780.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> === NUMUTKEUN BAHASA === ==== [[Puyuh Jepang]] / ''[[Coturnix japonica]]'' ==== Luyu jeung ngaranna, asalna ti nagri Jepang. Manuk ieu kaasup manuk nu sok migrasi, najan sawatara populasi netep tumetep di Jepang.<ref name=":6">BirdLife International 2016. ''Coturnix japonica''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22678949A95209097. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22678949A95209097.en. Diakses tanggal 9/10/2019.</ref> Puyuh jepang kiwari loba diternakkeun di Indonésia, diarah endog jeung dagingna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Damayanti, F., Nur, H., jeung Anggraeni|first=|date=2018|title=Pemberian Tepung Bawang Putih dan Tepung Jintan pada Pakan Komersial terhadap Performa Puyuh (Coturnix Japonica) Periode Awal Produksi|url=|journal=Jurnal Peternakan Nusantara|volume=4(1)|pages=1-12|doi=|issn=2442-2541|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Puyuh jepang asup kana génus ''Coturnix'' ti kulawarga Phasianidae. Tekstur buluna sarimbag jeung puyuh biasa, ngan sukuna boga opat ramo. Puyuh jepang leuwih subur batan puyuh biasa, endogan sapoé hiji, nalika mangsa endogan bisa 7-14 endog.<ref>Hoffmann, E. 1988. ''Coturnix Quail''. Taipei: Yi Hisien Publishing Co.. (Dina [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Coturnix_japonica/ Coturnix japonica Japanese quail], ''Animal Diversity Web (ADW)'', Universitiy of Michigan Museum Zoology. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019).</ref> Najan loba diternak di sakuliah dunia, status konsérvasi di habitat aslina rada kaancam / NT.<ref name=":6" /> [[Gambar:Arborophila javanica 0zz.jpg|jmpl|Puyuh gonggong]] ==== [[Puyuh Gonggong]] / ''Patridge'' / ''[[Arborophila]]'' ==== Kasasup kana kulawarga Phasianidae ti ordo Galliformes.<ref name=":2" /> Tagogan puyuh gonggong méh sarua jeung puyuh biasa, ngan warnana nu béda. Warna bulu tonggongna biru jeung hawuk atawa hawuk semu nila. Corakna sarua burik ku polét-polét hideung. Puyuh gonggong leuwih gedé batan puyuh biasa. Di Indonésa aya genep spésiés manuk nu disebut puyuh gongong nyaéta:<ref name=":2" /> Puyuh gonggong kalimantan : ''[[Arborophila hyperythra]]'' Puyuh gonggong sumatra : ''[[Arborophila charltonii]]'', ''[[Arborophila rolli]]'' jeung ''[[Arborophila sumatrana]]''. Puyuh gonggong jawa: ''Arborophila orientalis'' jeung ''[[Arborophila javanica]]''. [[Gambar:CRESTED WOOD-PARTRIDGE (7181284331).jpg|jmpl|Puyuh makuta jalu bikang]] ==== [[Puyuh Makuta]] / ''Crested Partridge'' / ''[[Rollullus roulroul]]'' ==== Puyuh Makuta atawa ''Rollullus roulroul'' kasup ogé kana Phasianidae ti ordo Galliformes. Dibanding puyuh séjénna warna buluna paling éndah. Nu jaluna aya jambulan nu siga makuta dina sirahna. ku kituna manuk ieu remen dipaké minangka manuk hias. Di Indonésa habitat aslina di [[Kalimantan]] jeung di [[Sumatra]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://burung-puyuh.blogspot.com/2012/12/puyuh-mahkota-rollulus-roulroul.html|title=Puyuh Mahkota|last=|first=|website=Puyuh Blitar Blitar Sentral Peternakan Puyuh Petelur di Indonesia|publisher=Puyuh Blitar|accessdate=09/10/2019}}</ref> Cirina nu jalu ngabogaan makuta dina sirahna warnana beureum sarta puhuna bodas. Panonna beureum dikurilingan ku warna beureum caang. Dina puhu pamatukna –dina sawatara spésiés – aya bulu nu siga kumis nu jagreg ka luhur. Pamatukna pondok jeung kuat, warnana beureum jeung lebah congona hideung. Warna bulu awakna héjo sarta warna semu biru dina tonggong, buntut, dada jeung beuteungna. Beuheungna warna biru kolot, jangjangna warna coklat campur jeung coklat kahideungan. Sukuna warna beureum kolot. Puyuh makuta nu bikang teu bogaeun jambul.<ref name=":7" /> Status konsérvasi manuk ieu NT.<ref>BirdLife International 2016. ''Rollulus rouloul''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22679106A92802856. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22679106A92802856.en. Diakses tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> ==== [[Puyuh Batu]] / ''Asian Blue Quai''l / ''[[Synoicus chinensis]]'' ==== [[Gambar:Asian Blue or Chinese Painted Quail (Coturnix chinensis) captive - Flickr - S. Rae.jpg|jmpl|Puyuh batu sajodo]] Puyuh batu, ''Synoicus chinensis'' baheulana ''[[Coturnix chinensis]]'' kaasup kana kulawarga Phasianidae ti ordo Galliformes.<ref name=":8">BirdLife International 2016. ''Synoicus chinensis''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2016: e.T22678979A92797212. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22678979A92797212.en. Diaksese tanggal 09/10/2019.</ref> Warna nu bikangna siga manuk puyuh pituin, tapi warna nu jaluna jajauheun pisan. Warna nu jalu bagéan tonggong tengah beureum dihapit ku hawuk semu nila, lebah tonggong aya ogé pola warna siga manuk puyuh umumna, bagéan tengah jeung jangjang luhur biru, sedeng bagéan handap jeung tungtung jangjang beureum. Gado jeung  beuheung warna bodas hideung. Lemét-lemetna mah sarua jeung umumna puyuh. Sukuna oranyeu kolot. Ramona sukuna aya opat. Pamatukna hideung. Status konsérvasi manuk ieu LC.<ref name=":8" /> == Catetan Suku == <references /> [[Kategori:Aves]] ajr29gk20jctr0xj5uem2wk9imv3q1v 0 98374 711719 703299 2026-08-07T02:30:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711719 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Jalma |name=Ibnu Batutah |image=Handmade_oil_painting_reproduction_of_Ibn_Battuta_in_Egypt,_a_painting_by_Hippolyte_Leon_Benett..jpg |caption=Ilustrasi buku karya [[Léon Benett]] anu medal taun 1878 ngagambarkeun Ibnu Batutah (katuhu) jeung baturna di Mesir|birth_date=[[25 Pébruari]] [[1304]] |birth_place=[[Tangier]], [[Dinasti Marinid|Marinid Maroko]] |death_date=1369 (umur 64–65) |death_place=Marinid Morocco |occupation=[[Geographer]], [[Exploration|explorer]]}} '''Ibnu Batutah''' ( {{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɪ|b|ən|b|æ|t|ˈ|t|uː|t|ɑː}} ; {{Lang-ar|محمد ابن بطوطة}} ; lengkep: {{Lang|ar|شمس الدين أبو عبد الله محمد بن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة}} ; 25 Pebruari 1304 {{Snd}} 1368 atawa 1369) nyaéta sarjana Muslim ti Berber [[Maroko]], anu kakoncara ku lalakonna ngalalana ngambah dunya abad panengah.{{Sfn|Dunn|2005}} <ref>{{Cite book|last=Nehru|first=Jawaharlal|author-link=Jawaharlal Nehru|title=Glimpses of World History|url=https://archive.org/details/glimpsesofworldh0000nehr_e2c1|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1989|page=[https://archive.org/details/glimpsesofworldh0000nehr_e2c1/page/752 752]|isbn=978-0-19-561323-0}}</ref> Salila tilu puluh taun, Ibnu Batutah nganjang ka ampir sakabéd unya Islam jeung tatar non-Muslim lianna, kaasup [[Asia Tengah]], [[Asia Kidul Wétan|Asia Tenggara]], [[India]], jeung [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]]. Dina ahir hirupna, anjeunna nuliskeun lalakon hirupna dijudulan ''Tuḥfatun Nuẓẓār fī Gharāʾibil Amṣār wa ʿAjāʾibil Asfār'' atawa anu katelah ''Arrihlah''. == Riwayat == [[Gambar:Yahyâ_ibn_Mahmûd_al-Wâsitî_005.jpg|jmpl| Ilustrasi buku [[abad ka-13]] ti [[Bagdad]] karya Al-Wasiti anu ngagambarkeun rombongan jamaah ''[[Haji|haji.]]'' ]] Iber ngeunaan Ibnu Batutah datangna ti otobiografina hungkul, anu nétélakeun yén anjeunna téh turunan Berber,{{Sfn|Dunn|2005}} ti kulawarga [[Ulama|sarjana hukum]] [[Islam]] di Tangier, Maroko, dina [[25 Péebruar|25 Pébruar]]<nowiki/>i [[1304]], jaman dinasti Marinid. Kulawargana kaasup suku Berber anu katelah Lawata. Jaman keur ngora, anjeunna diajar madhab Sunni Maliki (madhab fiqih Islam) anu lolobana dianut di Afrika Kalér jaman harita. === Ngumbara 1325-1332 === <div style="overflow: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> {{Location map many| Africa | width=600| float=none | caption=Lalampahan Ibnu Batutah [[1325]]–[[1332]] (Aprika Kalér, Iraq, Persia, Semenanjung Arab, Somalia, Basisir Swahili) | overlay_image=Battuta-path-1325-1326.png | label1=[[Tangiers]] | lat1=35.766667 | long1=-5.8 | label1_size=75 | mark1size=6| position1=left | label2=[[Tlemcen]] | lat2=34.866944 | long2=-1.466944 | label2_size=75 | mark2size=6| position2=bottom | label3=[[Béjaïa]] | lat3=36.75 | long3=5.066667 | label3_size=75 | mark3size=6 | position3=top | label4=[[Tunis]] | lat4=36.8 | long4=10.183333 | label4_size=75 | mark4size=6 | label5=[[Fes]] | lat5=34.033333 | long5=-5 | label5_size=75 | mark5size=6| position5=left | label6=[[Miliana]] | lat6=36.31 | long6=2.162222 | label6_size=75 | mark6size=6| position6=bottom | label7=[[Algiers]] | lat7=36.7763 | long7=3.0585 | label7_size=75 | mark7size=6| position7=left | label8=[[Annaba]] | lat8=36.9 | long8=7.7666667 | label8_size=75 | mark8size=6| position8=bottom | label9=[[Sousse]] | lat9=35.833333 | long9=10.633333 | label9_size=75 | mark9size=6 | label10=[[Gabés]] | lat10=33.883333 | long10=10.116667 | label10_size=75 | mark10size=6| position10=bottom | label11=[[Tripoli]] | lat11=32.902222 | long11=13.185833 | label11_size=75 | mark11size=6| position11=bottom | label12=[[Sfax]] | lat12=34.7333333 | long12=10.766667 | label12_size=75 | mark12size=6 | label13=[[Alexandria]] | lat13=31.198 | long13=29.9192 | label13_size=75 | mark13size=6| position13=left | label14=[[Cairo]] | lat14=30.058056 | long14=31.228889 | label14_size=75 | mark14size=6| position14=left | label15=[[Damascus]] | lat15=33.513 | long15=36.292 | label15_size=75 | mark15size=6 | label16=[[Jerusalem]] | lat16=31.783333 | long16=35.216667 | label16_size=75 | mark16size=6 | label17=[[Bethlehem]] | lat17=31.703056 | long17=35.195556 | label17_size=75 | mark17size=6| position17=bottom | label18=[[Medina]] | lat18=24.466667 | long18=39.6 | label18_size=75 | mark18size=6 | label19=[[Najaf]] | lat19=32 | long19=44.33 | label19_size=75 | mark19size=6 | label20=[[Baghdad]] | lat20=33.325 | long20=44.422 | label20_size=75 | mark20size=6 | label21=[[Tigris]] | lat21=38.433333 | long21=39.772778 | label21_size=75 | mark21size=6 | label22=[[Basra]] | lat22=30.5 | long22=47.816667 | label22_size=75 | mark22size=6| position22=bottom | label23=[[Zagros Mountains]] | lat23=33.6666667 | long23=47 | label23_size=75 | mark23size=6| position23=right | label24=[[Shiraz]]| lat24=29.616667 | long24=52.533333 | label24_size=75 | mark24size=6| position24=bottom | label25=[[Tabriz]] | lat25=38.066667 | long25=46.3 | label25_size=75 | mark25size=6| position25=right | label26=[[Mosul]] | lat26=36.366667 | long26=43.116667 | label26_size=75 | mark26size=6| position26=bottom | label27=[[Cizre]] | lat27=37.325 | long27=42.195833 | label27_size=75 | mark27size=6| position27=right | label28=[[Mardin]] | lat28=37.316667 | long28=40.737778 | label28_size=75 | mark28size=6 | label29=[[Jeddah]] | lat29=21.5 | long29=39.183333 | label29_size=75 | mark29size=6| position29=bottom | label30=[[Yemen]] | lat30=15.354722 | long30=44.206667 | label30_size=75 | mark30size=6 | label31=[[Rabigh]] | lat31=22.8 | long31=39.033333 | label31_size=75 | mark31size=6| position31=right | label32=[[Zabīd]] | lat32=14.2 | long32=43.316667 | label32_size=75 | mark32size=6| position32=right | label33=[[Ta'izz]] | lat33=13.566667 | long33=44.033333 | label33_size=75 | mark33size=6| position33=left | label34=[[Sana'a]] | lat34=15.4047 | long34=44.2067 | label34_size=75 | mark34size=6| position34=right | label35=[[Aden]] | lat35=12.8 | long35=45.0333333 | label35_size=75 | mark35size=6| position35=right | label36=[[Zeila]] | lat36=11.2 | long36=43.283333 | label36_size=75 | mark36size=6 | label37=[[Mogadishu]] | lat37=2.0333333 | long37=45.35 | label37_size=75 | mark37size=6 | label38=[[Mombasa]] | lat38=-4.05 | long38=39.666667 | label38_size=75 | mark38size=6 | label39=[[Zanzibar]] | lat39=-6.133333 | long39=39.316667 | label39_size=75 | mark39size=6 | label40=[[Dhofar]] | lat40=18 | long40=54 | label40_size=75 | mark40size=6 | label41=[[Al-Hasa]] | lat41=25.429444 | long41=49.621944 | label41_size=75 | mark41size=6 | label42=[[Qatif]] | lat42=26.567648 | long42=50.00701 | label42_size=75 | mark42size=6 | label43=[[Muscat]] | lat43=23.6 | long43=58.55 | label43_size=75 | mark43size=6 | label44=[[Latakia]] | lat44=35.516667 | long44=35.78333 | label44_size=75 | mark44size=6 | label45=[[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]] | lat45=-8.957778 | long45=39.522778 | label45_size=75 | mark45size=6 }} </div> ==== Munggaran haji ==== Juni [[1325]] (umur dua puluh hiji), Ibnu Batutah munggah [[haji]] ka [[Mekah]]. Jaman harita, munggah haji bakal méakkeun waktu genep belas bulan. Tapi horéng anjeunna karék balik deui sanggeus dua puluh opat taun.{{Sfn|Dunn|2005|pp=30–31}} Ibnu Batutah angkat mapay daratan, nuturkeun Basisir Kalé nAprika ngaliwatan Kasultanan Abdulwadid jeung Hafsid. Anu kaliwatan di antarana Tlemcen, Béjaïa, jeung Tunis, nepi ka anjeunna kungsi netep salila dua bulan. Ngarah aman, anjeunna biasana milu ka kafilah pikeun nyingkahan garong. Di kota Sfax, anjeunna kawin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~dmdhist/ibnbattuta.htm|title=Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354|website=Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis|publisher=Indiana University Bloomington|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820121438/http://www.indiana.edu/~dmdhist/ibnbattuta.htm|archivedate=20 August 2017|accessdate=2017-12-06}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820121438/http://www.indiana.edu/~dmdhist/ibnbattuta.htm |date=2017-08-20 }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.62617|Perjalanan Di Asia Sareng Afrika 1325-13134]] - tarjamahan Gibb taun 1929 tina Arsip Internét * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110408102631/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200602/a.tangerine.in.delhi.htm/ Hiji Tangerine di Cirebon] - tulisan ''Saudi Aramco World'' ku Tim Mackintosh-Smith (Maret / April 2006). * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130920072113/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200004/default.htm Ibadah Haji pangpanjangna: Lalampahanna Ibn Battuta] - tulisan ''Saudi Aramco World'' ku Douglas Bullis (Juli / Agustus 2000). * [https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC Buku Google] - numbu ka undian 2004 tarjamahan Gibb taun 1929. * Naskah Perancis tina Defrémery sareng Sanguinetti (1853-1858) kalayan perkenalan sareng suku suku ku Stéphane Yérasimos diterbitkeun dina 1982: [http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_I/ibn_battuta_t1.pdf Jilid 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616104657/http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_I/ibn_battuta_t1.pdf |date=2011-06-16 }}, [http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_II/ibn_battuta_t2.pdf Jilid 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616105558/http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_II/ibn_battuta_t2.pdf |date=2011-06-16 }}, [http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_III/ibn_battuta_t3.pdf Jilid 3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529124104/http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ibn_battuta/voyages_tome_III/ibn_battuta_t3.pdf |date=2016-05-29 }} . * Works by Ibn Battuta [[Kategori:Sarjana Muslim]] m0krnv06cbyh8ry3ey3jt0f0k5srhwn 0 98513 711777 663097 2026-08-07T04:05:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711777 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Jalma|name=Ip Man|image=Yip_Man.jpg|image_size=200|caption=Ip Man, ogé nelah ku Yip Man|birth_name= Yip Ka-man (葉繼問) 01 Oktober 1893|birth_place=[[Fushan]], Kuangtung, Tionghoa Dinasti Qing|height=|occupation=Suhu Paguron Wing Chun|spouse=Cheung Wang Shing<br>{{marriage|Shanghai Po|1955|1968|reason=}}|children=5|parents=Yip Oi Dor<br>Ng Shui|salary=|Lahir={{birth date and age|1893|10|01|df=y}}|Pupus={{{death_date|2 Désémber 1972}}} }} '''Ip Man''', ogé nelah ku '''Yip Man''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kwokwingchun.com/about-wing-chun/ip-mans-wing-chun/ip-man-or-yip-man/|title=Ip Man or Yip Man|last=Knight|first=Dan|website=|publisher=kwokwingchun.com|accessdate=|date=20 Juli 2012}}</ref> ({{zh|t=葉問}}; 1 Oktober 1893 – 2 Désember 1972) nyaéta saurang seniman béladiri Cina turunan Kanton, sarta saurang guru ahli Kung Fu [[Wing Chun.]] Manéhna boga sababaraha murid nu jagana jaradi guru ahli séwang-séwangan. Muridna nu paling sohor nyaéta [[Bruce Lee]]. == Kahirupan awal == Ip Man lahir ti pasangan Yip Oi-dor jeung Ng Shui, minangka katilu tina opat anak. Manéhna gedé di lingkungan kulawarga beunghar di [[Fushan]], [[Guangdong]], sarta narima atikan tradisional [[Cina]] bareng jeung lanceuk lalakina Yip Kai-gak, lanceuk awéwé Yip Wan-mei sarta adi awéwe Yip Wan-hum.<ref name="ip-ching-book2">Title: Yip Man – Portrait of a Kung Fu Master, kaca:3, Author(s): Ip Ching and Ron Heimberger, Paperback: 116 pages, Publisher: Cedar Fort (23 Januari 2001), </ref> Ip mimiti diajar [[Wing Chun]] ti Chan Wah-shun wanci umur 9<ref>''"116 Wing Tsun Dummy Techniques as demonstrated by Grandmaster Yip Man"'', kaca: 100, Author(s): Yip Chun, Leung’s Publications (Pébruari 1981)</ref> atawa 13<ref>Wing Tsun Kuen - Edisi ka-19, kaca: 47, Leung Ting, Leung's Publications (Séptémber 2003)</ref><ref>Knight, Dan (11 Juli 2012). "''Sam kwok Wing Chun – Yip Man Family Tree''". Kwokwingchun.com. Diaksés 28 OKtober 2019.</ref> taun. Chan harita keur umur 57 taun, Ip jadi murid ka-16 Chan ogé nu pamungkas.<ref name="english-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.kwokwingchun.com/about-wing-chun/history-&-family-tree/|title=Sam kwok Wing Chun – Yip Man Family Tree|last=Knight|first=Dan|website=|publisher=Kwokwingchun.com|accessdate=29 Nopémber 2011|date=11 Juli 2012}}</ref><ref>''Mastering Wing Chun'', By Samuel Kwok</ref> Alatan umur, Chan ngan bisa ngalatih Ip salila tilu taun méméh dirina katarajang struk énténg di taun 1909 sarta mulang ka lemburna. Wanci umur 16 taun, dibantu ku dulurna, Leung Fut Ting, Ip pindah ka [[Hong Kong]] sarta asup sakola di Kampus St. Stephen, sakola alternatif pikeun kulawarga nu baleunghar jeung urang luar nu caricing di Hong Kong.<ref name="ip-ching-book2">Title: Yip Man – Portrait of a Kung Fu Master, Page:3, Author(s): Ip Ching and Ron Heimberger, Paperback: 116 pages, Publisher: Cedar Fort (23 January 2001), {{ISBN|978-1-55517-516-0}}</ref> Genep bulan sabada pindah ka Hong Kong, batur sakelasna, ngaranna Lai, ngabéjaan yén sobat bapana, hiji jago [[Kungfu|Kung Fu]], cicing jeung kulawargana sarta nawaran Ip pikeun latih tanding. Wanci harita, Ip euweuh nu ngéléhkeun, jadi manéhna haget narima tantangan éta. Minggu pasosore, Ip datang ka imah Lai sarta sanggeus silih bagéakeun manéhna nantang si jago kung fu téa pikeun bitotama. Jalma éta ngaranna Leung Bik, sarta Leung Bik kalayan gampang nguntupan Ip Man. Kasima ku katanginasan lawanna nu karak karandapan ku Ip, Ip nantang deui pikeun tarung kadua kalina, sarta kasoran deui, ngan sajéréhém. Kuciwa alatan éléh, Ip indit bari teu kecap-kecap acan sarta tuluy jadi bangbaluh semet ka teu wani ngaku yén dirina bisa kung fu. Saminggu ti harita, Lai ngabéjaan Ip yén Leung Bik nananyakeun. Ip ngawaler yén manéhna ngarasa éra nepungan deui. Danget harita, Lai nyarita yén Leung Bik muji kana téhnik kung fu Ip ogé yén Leung Bik téh anakna Leung Jan, nu ngawurukan guruna Ip, Chan Wah Shun. Ip tuluy guguru ka Leung Bik,<ref>[http://www.kwokwingchun.com/about-wing-chun/ip-mans-wing-chun/interview--with-grandmaster-yip-man/ "An Interview with Grandmaster Yip Man"]. ''www.kwokwingchun.com''. 22 Januari 2014. Diaksés 25 Januari 2019.</ref> nepi ka Leung maot dina taun 1911.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ip Man: Portrait of a Kung Fu Master|url=https://archive.org/details/ipmanportraitofk0000chin|last=Ron Heimberger|first=Ip Ching|publisher=Cedar Fort|year=2001|isbn=9781555175160|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ipmanportraitofk0000chin/page/15 15]}}</ref> Ip mulang ka Fushan di taun 1917 wanci umur 24 taun sarta di ditu tuluy jadi pulisi.<ref name="ip-ching-book2">Title: Yip Man – Portrait of a Kung Fu Master, Page:3, Author(s): Ip Ching and Ron Heimberger, Paperback: 116 pages, Publisher: Cedar Fort (23 January 2001), {{ISBN|978-1-55517-516-0}}</ref> Manéhna ngajarkeun Wing Chun ka sababaraha urang bawahanna, babaturanna jeung dulur-dulurna, tapi teu kungsi muka paguron seni béladiri. Ip tuluy rarabi ka Cheung Wing Sing sarta ngabogaan sababaraha budak. Budak lalaki Ip Chun jeung Ip Ching, sarta budak awéwé Ip Nga Wun.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wingchun.si/yipman.htm|title=Wing Chun Kuen|website=www.wingchun.si|access-date=2019-01-09}}</ref> Sababaraha murid teu resmina anu kasohor nyaéta Chow Kwong Yue, Kwok Fu, Lun Kah, Chan Chi Sun, Xu He Wei jeung Lui Ying. Di antara maranéhna, Chow Kwong Yue minangka nu paling punjul tapi cenah tuluy asup kana usaha dagang sarta eureun latihan. Kwok fu jeung Lun Kah baroga murid séwang-séwangan sarta ngajarkeun seni béladiri Wing Chun di Fushan jeung wéwéngkon Guangdong. Chan Chi Sun jeung Lui Ying tuluy mariang ka Hong Kong tapi duanana gé teu nampa murid. Ip miang jeung netep di Kwok Fu nalika [[Perang Cina Jepang Kadua]] sarta mulang-mulang ka Fushan sanggeus perang réngsé di mana manéhna nuluykeun karirna minangka pulisi. Ip boga waktu pikeun ngalatih budak kaduana Ip Ching salila taun 1949. Dina tungtung taun 1949 sanggeus Partéy Komunis China meunang dina Perang Sipil Cina, salaku pagawé pikeun Kuomintang, Ip, bojo jeung budak awéwéna ninggalkeun Fushan, miang ka Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kwokwingchun.com/about-wing-chun/ip-mans-wing-chun/ip-mans-biography/|title=Ip Man's Biography|last=Knight|first=Dan|publisher=Kwokwingchun.com|date=20 July 2012|access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> == Hirup di Hong Kong == Ip, pamajikanna Cheung jeung anakna nepi ka Hong Kong ngaliwatan [[Makau]] di taun 1950. Pamajikan jeung anakna éngkéna marulang ka Fushan pikeun nyokot ktp. Najan kitu, alatan ditutupna wates antara China jeung Hong Kong di taun 1951, Ip jeung Cheung jadi kapisah salilana, sarta Cheung tetep tumetep di Fushan. Awalna, usaha ngajar Ip Man teu menyat di Hong Kong lantaran murid-muridna biasana ngan cicing pikeun sabulan dua bulan. Ip mindahkeun paguronna dua kali: mimiti ka Jalan Puncak Istana di Sham Shui Po sarta tuluy ka Jalan Lee Tat di Yau Ma Tei. Harita, sababaraha muridna geus meunangkeun kaunggulan Wing Chun sarta mampu ngamimitian paguron-paguronna sorangan. Maranéhna maju terus sarta ngadu kaparigeulan ngalawan paguron béladiri lianna pikeun ngabandingkeun kamampuan. Ku minengna maranéhna mareunang jadi nambah kana kamasyuran Ip. Taun 1955, Ip meunang batur hirup ti [[Shanghai]], nu ku murid-muridna nelah ngaranna minangka ''Shanghai Po''. Ip jeung batur hirupna ogé boga budak teu sah ngaranna Ip Siu Wah. Sedengkeun di Fushan, pamajikan Ip maot alatan kanker di taun 1960. Ip teu kungsi sacara daria ngawanohkeun batur hirupna ka budak-budakna nu lian, nu panungtunganna mah daratang ka Hong Kong pikeun cicing bareng jeung manéhna di taun 1962.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Creation of Wing Chun|last=|first=|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2015|isbn=9781438456959|location=United States|pages=247}}</ref> [[Gambar:The_age_of_18_Bruce_Lee_and_Ye_Wen.jpg|jmpl|Ip Man jeung Bruce Lee.]] Taun 1967, Ip jeung sababaraha muridna ngadegkeun Asosiasi Atlétik Ving Tsun.<ref>''Ip Man Wing Chun 50th Anniversary Journal'' (Hong Kong: Wing Chun Athletic Association Limited, 2005)</ref><ref>''Ip Man Wing Chun 50th Anniversary Journal'' (Hong Kong: Wing Chun Athletic Association Limited, 2005)</ref> Tujuan utamana nyaéta pikeun mantuan Ip nangkes kasusahan finansial di Hong Kong,<ref>''Ip Man Wing Chun 50th Anniversary Journal'' (Hong Kong: Wing Chun Athletic Association Limited, 2005)</ref> nu cenah geus ngalantarankeun dirina jadi rutin maké [[opium]].<ref>Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit: A Biography, Bruce Thomas, p. 208 "Both Bruce's father and even his wing chun master Yip Man were no strangers to the opium pipe."</ref> Salah sahiji manten muridna, Duncan Leung, ngakukeun yén Ip maké duit ladang ngajarna pikeun ngabiayaan kacanduan opiumna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KE16Ad02.html|title=Asia Times Online :: China News, China Business News, Taiwan.|first=Ken|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402144637/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KE16Ad02.html|archive-date=April 2, 2017|author=Ing|date=16 May 2009|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402144637/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KE16Ad02.html |date=2 April 2017 }}</ref> Selir Ip maot alatan kanker di taun 1968 sarta budak maranéhna tuluy jadi palatih Wing Chun, siga dulur-dulur sabapana. == Tilar dunya jeung titinggal == [[Gambar:Yip_Man_gravestone.jpg|jmpl|Batu nisan Ip Man di Wo Hop Shek, Hong Kong.]] Ip maot tanggal 2 Désémber 1972 di padumukanna di Jalan Tung Choi 149 Hong Kong, alatan kanker tikoro, ngan salapan bulan saméméh maotna Bruce Lee.<ref>''Complete Wing Chun: The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun's History and Traditions'', Robert Chu, Rene Ritchie, Y. Wu, page 9, Tuttle Publishing; 1st edition (20 Juni 1998). </ref> Manéhna dikurebkeun di Wo Hop Shek, Hong Kong. Warisan Ip nyaéta prakték Wing Chun sacara global. Ip Chun, budak sulung Ip Man, sumanget jeung taya reureuhna pikeun ngalastarikeun kung fu Wing Chun warisan bapana. Taun 2014, Ip Chun kapilih pikeun ngawakilan Wing Chun salaku panarima waris jurus kung fu Wing Chun.<ref name="Ip inheritance">Boehler, Patrick. [http://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1581106/chinese-kung-fu-masters-battle-over-inheritance-wing-chun-legacy ''"Chinese kung fu masters battle over inheritance of Yip Man's Wing Chun legacy''"]. South China Morning Post (South China Morning Post Publishers Ltd.) (Online). Diaksés 10 Séptémber 2016</ref> Murid-murid Ip nu kaitung sohor kaasup: Leung Sheung, Lok Yiu, Chu Shong Tin, Wong Shun Leung, Bruce Lee, Moy Yat, Ho Kam Ming, Chow Tze Chuen, Victor Kan, alona, Lo Man, barudakna, Ip Ching jeung Ip Chun sarta murid pribadina Leung Ting (saperti disebutkeun dina wawancara jeung ''Grand Master'' Ip Man ku Majalah ''New Martial Hero'', taun 1972).<ref name="kwokwingchun.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kwokwingchun.com/about-wing-chun/ip-mans-wing-chun/interview--with-grandmaster-yip-man/|title=An Interview with Grandmaster Yip Man|website=www.kwokwingchun.com|language=en|date=January 22, 2014|access-date=2018-07-02}}</ref> Ip nulis sajarah Wing Chun.<ref name="chinese-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.vingtsun.com.hk/Origin.htm|title=external copy of the History of Wing Chun Written by Yip Man|last=|first=|website=|publisher=Vingtsun.com.hk|accessdate=29 Nopémber 2011}}</ref> Réa artifak ti kahirupanna dipajangkeun di muséum "Yip Man Tong" di ruang handap Kuil Kuno Fushan. Ip Man ogé loba difilemkeun dumasar kana kahirupanna.<ref name="chinese-history2">{{cite web|url=http://www.vingtsun.com.hk/Origin.htm|title=external copy of the History of Wing Chun Written by Yip Man|publisher=Vingtsun.com.hk|accessdate=29 November 2011}}</ref> == Silsilah seni béladiri == Silsilah Wing Chun numutkeun Ip Man.<ref name="chinese-history"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.southfieldswingchun.co.uk/the-origin-of-wing-chun|title=The Origin Of Wing Chun|website=Martial Arts & Self Defence London|publisher=Southfields Wing Chun London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724062910/http://www.southfieldswingchun.co.uk/the-origin-of-wing-chun|archive-date=24 July 2013|accessdate=29 November 2011|author=Ip Man|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724062910/http://www.southfieldswingchun.co.uk/the-origin-of-wing-chun |date=24 July 2013 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" border="" cellpadding="5" |Ng Mui (salah sahiji ti Lima Katua ti Biara [[Shaolin]] ) |- |Yim Wing-chun (diajar Wing Chun ti Ng pikeun béla diri) |- |Leung Bok-chau (Yim's husband) |- |Leung Lan-kwai |- |Wong Wah-bo (diajar tongkat ti Leung Yee Tai patuker-tuker jeung jurus tangan kosong) |- |Leung Yee-tai (ngasupkeun jurus tongkatna kana jurus tangan kosong) |- |Leung Jan |- |Chan Wah-shun |- |'''Yip Man''' (ogé diajar ti Ng Chung-sok, Leung Bik) |- |Murid-murid nu kawentar: Ilikan cabang-cabang Wing Chun |} == Potrét média == Di taun 1976, filem ''Bruce Lee: The Man, The Myth'', peran leutik ngeunaan dirina minangka Suhu Wing Chun [[Bruce Lee]] diperankeun ku budak sulungna, Ip Chun. Ip Man diperankeun ku Wang Luoyong dina ''Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story'' dina filem drama biographi Amérika taun 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/character/ch0143340/|title=Ip Man (Character)|website=IMDb|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225202908/https://www.imdb.com/character/ch0143340/|archive-date=25 December 2016|accessdate=4 February 2011|quote=TV episode, Played by Cheng-Hui Yu (as Ye Wen)|url-status=dead}}</ref> dumasar kana riwayat Bruce Lee nu mangrupa murid Ip. Di taun 1999, dina filem ''What You Gonna Do, Sai Fung?'' (alias ''1959 某日某''), manéhna diperankeun ku budakna, Ip Chun, sakali deui minangka pintonan husus. Yu Chenghui merankeun Ip Man dina filem séri tivi China 2008, ''The Legend of Bruce Lee'', ogé dumasar kana riwayat Bruce Lee. ''Ip Man'', hiji filem Hong Kong dumasar kana kahirupan Ip Man, diperankeun ku [[Donnie Yen]] minangka si ahli béladiri, dipedalkeun dina sinema di taun 2008. Filem éta mawakeun sajumlah kabébasan dina kahirupan Ip, lolobana pikeun épék dramatis. Budak sulung Ip, Ip Chun ngilu aub dina filem éta jeung gawé minangka konsultan produksi, nu fokus kana kahirupan Ip Man wanci taun 1930-an nepi ka 1940-an nalika Perang China Jepang Kadua. Filem ieu mangrupa filem munggaran nu dumasar kana kahirupan Ip Man. Sékuél ''Ip Man 2'' fokus nalika Ip ngamimitian hirup di Hong Kong jeung murid-muridna, kaasup Bruce Lee. Ip Man geus ngawurukan réa jalma. Di tengah-tengah galura produksi proyék-proyék filem nu patali jeung Ip Man, Donnie Yen nyarita ka média China dina bulan Maret 2010 yén sabada ''Ip Man 2'', manéhna moal deui merankeun si master Wing Chun. Ceuk manéhna, "Kuring moal deui-deui ngarérét kana filem nu patali jeung Ip Man. Ieu téh mangrupa filem pamungkas kuring ngeunaan Ip Man. Nanaon waé nu jadi suksés, kabéh jalma bakal narurutan, hal ieu téh matak pikakeueungeun. Ari anjeun apal sabaraha loba filem Ip Man nu keur diproduksi? Dina kondisi kieu, urang moal maju-maju, ieu téh bakal nungtun kana saturasi anu kaleuleuwihi kana matéri subjékna."<ref name="donnie is done">{{cite web|url=http://www.wu-jing.org/happenings/archives/795-Donnie-Yen-Has-Had-Enough-of-Ip-Man.html|title=Donnie Yen Has Had Enough of Ip Man - Wu-Jing.org|last=|first=|work=Guangzhou Daily|publisher=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311034958/http://www.wu-jing.org/happenings/archives/795-Donnie-Yen-Has-Had-Enough-of-Ip-Man.html|archivedate=11 Maret 2010|accessdate=4 Pébruari 2011|date=8 Maret 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311034958/http://www.wu-jing.org/happenings/archives/795-Donnie-Yen-Has-Had-Enough-of-Ip-Man.html |date=2010-03-11 }}</ref> Filem Hong Kong lianna nu dumasar kana kahirupan Ip Man, judulna ''The Legend Is Born - Ip Man'', dipedalkeun dina Juni 2010. Herman Yau jadi sutradarana, sarta dibéntangan ku Dennis To minangka Ip Man jeung anggota band Seventeen, wen Junhui minangka Ip Man ngora. Ip Chun nyieun pamintonan husus minangka Leung Bik. Taun 2010, dina filem ''Bruce Lee, My Brother'', Ip Man diperankeun ku Wong Chi Wai. Filem Wong Kar Wai, ''The Grandmaster'', nyaéta hiji filem di taun 2013 dibéntangan ku [[Tony Leung]] minangka Ip Man. Filem ieu leuwih konséntrasi kana sajarah réngséna mangsa seni béladiri China ku pecahna Perang China Jepang Kadua. Dijieun ampir kabéh dina gaya biographikal, nekenkeun kana bagéan-bagéan sajarah. Béda jeung filem-filem Ip Man lianna, leuwih fokus kana kaéndahan jeung philosophi antara seni béladiri jeung kahirupan, ogé lalampahan Ip Man dina wanci awal taun 1930-an nepi ka awal taun 1950-an. Filem séri télévisi China taun 2013, judulna ''Ip Man'', dumasar kana kahirupan Ip Man, mimiti dijomantarakeun dina jaringan tivi Shandong TV dina akhir Pébruari nepi ka patengahan Maret 2013. Disutradaraan ku Fan xiaotian jeung dibéntangan ku Kevin Cheng minangka karakter utamana sarta Zhou Jianan minangka karakter Ip Man keur ngora. Filem Hong Kong taun 2013 ''Ip Man: The Final Fight'', disutradaraan ku Herman Yau sarta dibéntangan ku Anthony Wong minangka Ip Man, fokus kana kahirupan Ip Man di Hong Kong. Kevin Cheng ti filem séri tivi ''Ip Man'' taun 2013 nyieun pintonan husus salaku Ip Man ngora. Ip Chun nyieun pintonan kaméo dina filem éta. Filem ieu ogé mokuskeun kana kasatiaan murid-murid Ip Man ka dirina. Sanajan dina bulan Maret 2010 Donny Yuen ngakukeun yén dirina teu hayang deui aub kana filem nu pakait jeung Ip Man, hiji filem anyar nu sarua nyéri, ''Ip Man 3'', dipedalkeun dina tanggal 24 Désémber 2015 mintonkeun deui Yen ngulang peranna salaku Ip Man.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vcinemashow.com/ip-man-3-hong-kong-2015/|title=Ip Man 3 (Hong Kong, 2015)|website=VCinema|date=9 January 2016|access-date=2018-03-14}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314175544/http://www.vcinemashow.com/ip-man-3-hong-kong-2015/ |date=2018-03-14 }}</ref> Dina filem éksyén-komédi taun 2018, ''Kung Fu League'', Dennis To minton deui merankeun Ip Man, dipindahkeun nembus mangsa pikeun ngajarkeun seni béladiri ka tukang nyieun buku komik kiwari sarta kajiret kana cinta segitilu. Satuluyna dina filem éta, manéhna ngébréhkeun yén saenyana dirina téh akon-akon wungkul, sabenerna mah ngaranna Ip Bit Man. Donnie Yen ngulang deui peranna salaku Ip Man dina ''Ip Man 4'' nu mimiti diproduksi dina bulan April sarta anggeus dina bulan Juli taun éta kénéh. Filem ieu fokus kana kadatangan Ip Man ka [[Seattle]] pikeun nulungan muridna, Bruce Lee, ngawangun paguron Wing Chun sorangan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://screenrant.com/ip-man-4-scott-adkins-cast/|title=Ip Man 4 Casts Scott Adkins|last=Raymond|first=Nicholas|website=ScreenRant|publisher=|language=en-US|accessdate=|date=07/05/2018|access-date=05/03/2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://screenrant.com/ip-man-4-scott-adkins-cast/|title=Ip Man 4 Casts Scott Adkins|last=Raymond|first=Nicholas|website=ScreenRant|publisher=|language=en-US|accessdate=|date=07/05/2018|access-date=05/03/2019}}</ref> Filem ieu katanggohkeun, sarta bejana medal bulan Desember 2019. Dina filem taun 2019, ''Ip Man and Four King'', Ip Man (diperankeun ku Michael Tong) kudu nyanghareupan si Opat Raja méméh bisa ngalawanan ring jual beuli manusa jeung males pati kana maotna salah sahiji muridna. == Réferénsi == [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1972]] s96fbyxa5n21wlr0tllwujbp000fw5l 0 98669 711811 708880 2026-08-07T04:54:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711811 wikitext text/x-wiki {{lain|Béntang}} {{multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=1e7m comparison Uranus Neptune Sirius B Earth Venus.png|image2=1e6m comparison Mars Mercury Moon Pluto Haumea - no transparency.png|width=300|caption2=Skala objék saukuran planét: <br> Baris luhur: [[Uranus]] jeung [[Néptunus]]; <br> baris kadua: [[Bumi]], béntang [[katé bodas]] [[Sirius B]], [[Vénus]]; <br> baris handap (digedékeun) – luhur: [[Mars]] jeung [[Mérkurius]]; <br> handap: [[Bulan]], [[planit katé]] [[Pluto]], jeung [[Haumea (planit katé)|Haumea]]}} '''Planét''' atawa '''planit''' (Basa Sunda buhun: '''béntang ider''' atawa '''béntang jarah''') nyaéta [[objék astronomi]] anu [[orbit|ngulilingan]] hiji [[béntang]] atawa [[Sésa béntang|sésa béntang]]. Sangkan hiji objék bisa disebut planét, aya tilu kritéria utama numutkeun [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional]] (IAU): # Miboga [[massa]] anu cukup gedé pikeun nyiptakeun [[gravitasi]] sorangan sangkan wangunna buleud (kasatimbangan hidrostatis). # Teu badag teuing nepi ka bisa ngabalukarkeun [[fusi termonuklir]] (henteu jadi béntang). # Geus "meresihan" daérah di sabudeureun orbitna tina [[planétésimal]] (benda-benda langit leutik séjénna).<ref group="lower-alpha" name="footnoteA">Ieu [[Wangenan planét|wangenan]] dumasar kana dua déklarasi IAU (2001 jeung 2006).</ref><ref name="IAU">{{cite web |title=IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes |url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/detail/iau0603/ |publisher=IAU |year=2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091230134246/http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/detail/iau0603/ |date=2009-12-30 }}</ref> Istilah "planét" asalna tina basa [[Yunani]] ''planētēs'' anu hartina "pangumbara" (tukang ngumbara). Dina basa Sunda, istilah "béntang" mindeng dipaké sacara umum pikeun sakabéh barang langit anu moncorong di peuting, padahal planét mah henteu ngaluarkeun cahaya sorangan (ngan saukur nyinarkeun pantulan cahaya ti béntang).<ref name="WSGESP">{{cite web |year=2001 |title=Working Group on Extrasolar Planets (WGESP) |work=IAU |url=http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/boss/definition.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060916161707/http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/boss/definition.html |date=2006-09-16 }}</ref> == Sajarah jeung kapercayaan == Kecap ''planit'' geus lila dipikawanoh sarta miboga hubungan anu raket jeung [[sajarah]], [[sains]], [[mitologi]], sarta [[agama]]. Ku rupa-rupa [[peradaban]] kuna, planét téh dianggap salaku hal anu sakral atawa wawakil ti para [[déwa]]. Sanajan kitu, kalayan majuna élmu kanyaho, sawangan manusa kana planét ogé milu robah, tina dianggap barang gaib jadi objék astronomi anu bisa ditalungtik. == Bédana "Bintang" jeung "Béntang" == Dina [[Basa Sunda]], aya bédana harti anu kacida jéntréna antara kecap '''bintang''' jeung '''béntang''', dumasar kana asal-usul cahaya sarta sipatna: * '''Bintang''' (planét): Nyaéta barang langit anu teu bisa ngahasilkeun cahyana sorangan, tapi ngan saukur mantulkeun cahaya ti béntang séjénna. Dina istilah astronomi modérn, ieu disebutna [[planét]]. * '''Béntang''' (''star''): Nyaéta barang langit anu bisa ngahasilkeun cahaya sorangan tina prosés fusi nuklir dina jerona.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=Cit. 1|title=Kamus Basa Sunda|publisher=Panitia Penerbitan Kamus Basa Sunda & PT Kiblat Buku Utama|date=2006|location=Bandung|isbn=9793631910|last=Danadibrata, R. A.}}</ref> Dina kabudayaan Sunda, planét ogé mindeng disebut '''béntang ider''' atawa '''béntang jarah'''. Istilah ieu dipaké pikeun ngabédakeunana jeung béntang sajati anu katémpona cicing (''fixed stars''), sabab planét mah katémpona "ngumbara" atawa nyimpang tina jalur béntang-béntang séjénna. Dina taun 2006, [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional]] (IAU) ngesahkeun hiji résolusi resmi anu nangtukeun [[wangenan planét IAU|wangenan (definisi) planét]] di [[Tata Surya]]. Wangenan ieu dipuji nanging ogé dikritik sarta masih diperdebatkeun ku sawatara élmuwan, lantaran dianggap teu ngawengku banda-banda [[planemo|bermassa planét]] séjénna anu ngan ditangtukeun dumasar kana orbitna. Sanajan dalapan banda planét anu dipanggihan méméh taun 1950 masih dianggap "planét" dumasar kana wangenan modéren, sawatara banda angkasa saperti [[Ceres (planét kerdil)|Cérés]], [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], [[3 Juno|Juno]], sarta [[4 Vesta|Vésta]] (masing-masing mangrupa objék di sabuk astéroid Panonpoé), kitu ogé [[Pluto]] (objék trans-Néptunus anu munggaran dipanggihan) anu baheulana dianggap planét, ayeuna mah geus henteu dianggap planét deui sarta turun statusna jadi [[planét kerdil]]. [[Ptolomeus]] nganggap yén planét ngurilingan Bumi kalawan gerakan [[deferen jeung épisiklus]]. Sanajan ideu [[Hélioséntrisme|planét ngurilingan Panonpoé]] geus lila diutarakeun, kakara dina abad ka-17 ideu ieu kabukti sacara ilmiah ngaliwatan pangamatan [[téléscop]] ku [[Galileo Galilei]]. Kalawan analisis data obsérvasi anu kacida taliti, [[Johannes Kepler]] manggihan yén orbit planét téh wangunna lain bunderan (lingkaran) sampurna, nanging mangrupa [[orbit elips|élips]]. [Image of Kepler's laws of planetary motion illustrating elliptical orbits] Sajalan jeung kamekaran pakakas obsérvasi, para [[astronom]] niténan yén planét téh rotasi dina sumbu anu miring, sarta sababaraha di antarana miboga [[beting és]] (ice caps) jeung parobahan [[usum]] lir ibarat di Bumi. Ti saprak asup ka [[Jaman Angkasa]], pangamatan jarak deukeut ku [[wahana antariksa]] ngabuktikeun yén Bumi jeung planét-planét séjénna miboga ciri-ciri géologis anu sarupa, saperti [[gunung seuneu|vulkanisme]], [[angin ribut]], [[téktonik]], malah nepi ka gejala [[hidrologi]]. Sacara umum, planit kabagi ngajadi dua jinis utama: [[raksasa gas]] gedé anu kapadetanana handap jeung [[planét kabumian|raksasa darat]] leutik batuan. Sasuay définisi IAU, aya dalapan planit di Tata Surya. Nurutkeun anggangna ti [[Panonpoé]] (deukeut ka jauh), aya opat planit kabumian, [[Mérkurius]], [[Vénus]], [[Bumi]], jeung [[Mars]], tuluy opat raksasa gas, [[Jupiter]], [[Saturnus]], [[Uranus]], jeung [[Néptunus]]. Genep planit di antarana dikurilingan ku hiji [[satelit alam]] atawa leuwih. Salian ti éta, IAU ngakuan lima [[planit katé]]<ref>[[Ceres (planét katé)|Ceres]], [[Pluto]] (saméméhns mangrupa planit ka-9 di Tata Surya), [[Makemake (planit katé)|Makemake]], [[Haumea (planét katé)|Haumea]], jeung [[Eris (planét katé)|Eris]]</ref> jeung baratus-ratus rébu [[banda leutik Tata Surya]]. Maranéhna masih nimbang-nimbang banda-banda séjén pikeun digolongkeun jadi planit.<ref>http://www.iau.org/public/pluto/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614202942/http://www.iau.org/public/pluto/ |date=2011-06-14 }}</ref> Ti semet 1992, mangratus-ratus planit anu ngurilingan béntang-béntang séjén ("[[planit luar surya]]" atawa "éksoplanét") di [[Bima Sakti]] enggeus dipanggihkeun. Per {{Extrasolar planet counts|asof}}, {{Extrasolar planet counts|planet_count}} planet luar surya anu dipikanyaho (di {{Extrasolar planet counts|system_count}} [[sistem planet]] jeung {{Extrasolar planet counts|multiplanetsystem_count}} [[Daftar sistim multiplanet|sistim multiplanet]]) kadaftar di [[Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia]]. Ukuranana rupa-rupa, ti mimiti planét daratan siga Bumi nepi raksasa gas nu leuwih gedé tibatan Jupiter.<ref name="Encyclopaedia">{{cite web |title=Interactive Extra-solar Planets Catalog |work=[[The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia]] |url=http://exoplanet.eu/catalog.php |last=Schneider |first=Jean |date=16 January 2013 |accessdate=2013-01-15 }}</ref> Dina tanggal 20 Désémber 2011, tim [[Kepler (wahana antariksa)|Teleskop Luar Angkasa Kepler]] manggihkeun dua planit luar surya saukuran Bumi, [[Kepler-20e]]<ref name="Kepler20e-20111220">{{cite web |author=[[NASA|NASA Staff]] |title=Kepler: A Search For Habitable Planets – Kepler-20e |url=http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler20e/ |date=20 December 2011 |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=2011-12-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222162400/http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler20e/ |date=2013-02-22 }}</ref> dan [[Kepler-20f]],<ref name="Kepler20f-20111220">{{cite web |author=[[NASA|NASA Staff]] |title=Kepler: A Search For Habitable Planets – Kepler-20f |url=http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler20f/ |date=20 December 2011 |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=2011-12-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614161345/http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler20f/ |date=2012-06-14 }}</ref> anu ngorbit [[analog Panonpoé|béntang diga Panonpoé]], [[Kepler-20]].<ref name="NASA-20111220">{{cite web|last=Johnson|first=Michele|title=NASA Discovers First Earth-size Planets Beyond Our Solar System|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/news/kepler-20-system.html|publisher=[[NASA]]|date=20 December 2011|accessdate=2011-12-20}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504012546/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/news/kepler-20-system.html |date=2019-05-04 }}</ref><ref name="Nature-20111220">{{cite journal |last=Hand |first=Eric |title=Kepler discovers first Earth-sized exoplanets |doi=10.1038/nature.2011.9688 |date=20 December 2011 |journal=[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]]}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20111220">{{cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|title=Two Earth-Size Planets Are Discovered|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/21/science/space/nasas-kepler-spacecraft-discovers-2-earth-size-planets.html|date=20 December 2011|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=2011-12-21 }}</ref> Studi taun 2012 nu nganalisis data [[mikrolensa gravitasi]] ngira-ngira satiap béntang di Catang Bobo [[rata-rata aritmetik|rata-rata]] dikurilingan ku saeutikna 1,6 planét.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cassan|first=Arnaud|author2=D. Kubas, J.-P. Beaulieu, M. Dominik, K. Horne, J. Greenhill, J. Wambsganss, J. Menzies, A. Williams, U. G. Jørgensen, A. Udalski, D. P. Bennett, M. D. Albrow, V. Batista, S. Brillant, J. A. R. Caldwell, A. Cole, Ch. Coutures, K. H. Cook, S. Dieters, D. Dominis Prester, J. Donatowicz, P. Fouqué, K. Hill, N. Kains et al.|title=One or more bound planets per Milky Way star from microlensing observations|journal=Nature|date=12 January 2012|volume=481|pages=167–169|doi=10.1038/nature10684|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v481/n7380/full/nature10684.html|accessdate=11 January 2012|issue=7380|bibcode = 2012Natur.481..167C|pmid=22237108|arxiv = 1202.0903 }}</ref> Sawatara astronom di [[Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics]] (CfA) ngalaporkeun dina Januari 2013 yén saeutikna 17 miliar éksoplanét saukuran Bumi (tepatna 0,8–1,25 [[massa Bumi]]) anu periode orbitna 85 poé atawana kurang ayana di galaksi Catang Bobo.<ref name="Space-20130107">{{cite web |title=17 Billion Earth-Size Alien Planets Inhabit Milky Way |url=http://www.space.com/19157-billions-earth-size-alien-planets-aas221.html |date=January 7, 2013 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=January 8, 2013 |author=Staff }}</ref> == Sajarah == {{see|Sejarah astronomi|Definisi planet}} {{see also|Garis waktu astronomi Tata Surya}} [[File:Ptolemaicsystem-small.png|jmpl|ka|250px|Cetakan model kosmologi geosentris dari ''Cosmographia'', Antwerp, 1539]] Sawangan ngeunaan planét téh parantos loba robahna sapanjang lalakon sajarah, kawitna mah mung dianggap salaku [[béntang ngumbara]] anu langgeng dina jaman bihari, dugi ka kiwari dianggap salaku objék anu mibanda sipat nu sarupa sareng bumi. Ieu konsép téh beuki ngajembaran, henteu mung kawatesan di lingkungan Tata Surya wungkul, nanging parantos ngambah ka mangratus-ratus sistem luar surya sanésna. Ayana kahengkeran (ambiguitas) dina nangtukeun wangenan (définisi) planét téh parantos janten pasalia paham (kontrovérsi) di kalangan para élmuwan. Lima [[planit klasik]] anu tiasa katingal ku panon sacara langsung parantos dipikawanoh ti jaman bihari, sarta mibanda pangaruh anu kacida ageungna dina widang [[mitologi]], [[kosmologi agama]], sarta [[palintangan]] kuna. Dina mangsa harita, para astronom parantos nitenan kumaha cahaya-cahaya tinangtu téh léngkahna béda sarta ngalangkungan langit upami dibandingkeun sareng béntang-béntang sanésna. Éta cahaya ku bangsa Yunani disebut {{lang|grc|πλάνητες ἀστέRES}} ({{Transl|grc|''planetes asteres''}}, "béntang ngumbara") atanapi "{{lang|grc|πλανήτοι}}" baé ({{Transl|grc|''planētoi''}}, "pangalalana"),<ref>H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', ninth edition, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940).</ref> anu janten dadasar kawangunna kecap "planét".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/planet |title=Definition of planet |publisher=Merriam-Webster OnLine |accessdate=2007-07-23}}</ref><ref name="oed" /> Di [[Yunani]], [[Cina]], [[Babilonia]] kuna, sarta sakumna peradaban pra-modéren,<ref>{{cite journal |first=Otto E. |last=Neugebauer |year=1945 |title=The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1086/370729}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Colin|last=Ronan|title=Astronomy in China, Korea and Japan|edition=Walker|chapter=Astronomy Before the Telescope|pages=264–265}}</ref> diyakinkeun yén Bumi téh mangrupa [[géosentris|puseur Alam Semesta]] sarta sakumna "planét" téh ngurilingan Bumi. Alesan anu ngadasaran ieu sawangan nyaéta béntang sarta planét katingal muter ngalingkung Bumi unggal dinten,<ref>{{cite book|first=Thomas S.|last=Kuhn|title=The Copernican Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/copernicanrevolu0000kuhn_p2a0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/copernicanrevolu0000kuhn_p2a0/page/5 5]–20|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1957|isbn=0-674-17103-9}}</ref> sarta ayana anggepan sacara [[akal séhat]] yén Bumi téh sipatna padet tur manceg, henteu oyag sarta cicing. === Babilonia === {{main|Astronomi Babilonia}} Peradaban munggaran anu dipikawanoh mibanda tiori ''fungsional'' ngeunaan planét téh nyaéta bangsa [[Babilonia]], padumuk [[Mesopotamia]] dina milénium kahiji sarta kadua SM. Téks astronomi planét pangmimitina anu masih aya dugi ka ayeuna nyaéta [[Tablét Vénus ti Ammisaduqa]], mangrupa salinan daptar paniténan gerak planét Vénus ti abad ka-7 SM anu disangka parantos disusun ti milénium kadua SM.<ref name="practice" /> [[MUL.APIN]] mangrupa sapasang tablét [[kuneiform]] ti abad ka-7 SM anu nyatet gerakan Panonpoé, Bulan, sarta planét-planét sapanjang taun.<ref>{{cite book|author= Francesca Rochberg|chapter=Astronomy and Calendars in Ancient Mesopotamia|title= Civilizations of the Ancient Near East|volume= III|editor=Jack Sasson|year=2000|page=1930}}</ref> Sawatara [[Astrologi Babilonia|astrolog Babilonia]] ogé nunda dadasar pikeun [[astrologi Kulon]].<ref name="book">{{cite book|last=Holden|first=James Herschel|title=A History of Horoscopic Astrology|year=1996|publisher=AFA|isbn=978-0-86690-463-6|page=1}}</ref> ''[[Enuma anu enlil]]'', anu ditulis dina mangsa periode [[Neo-Assyria]] abad ka-7 SM,<ref>{{cite book|volume=8|series=State Archives of Assyria|title=Astrological reports to Assyrian kings|editor=Hermann Hunger|year=1992|publisher=Helsinki University Press|isbn=951-570-130-9}}</ref> eusina ngawengku daptar [[omen]] (tanda alam) sarta hubunganana sareng rupa-rupa fénoména langit, kalebet gerakan planét-planét.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Babylonian Planetary Omens. Part One. Enuma Anu Enlil, Tablet 63: The Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa |first=W. G. |last=Lambert |year=1987 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |doi=10.2307/602955 |volume=107 |issue=1 |author2=Reiner |first2=Erica |jstor=602955 |pages=93–96}}</ref><ref name="ancientmes">{{cite journal |url=http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/vol16/planets.pdf |format=PDF |author=Kasak, Enn; Veede, Raul |title=Understanding Planets in Ancient Mesopotamia (PDF) |journal=Electronic Journal of Folklore |accessdate=2008-02-06 |volume=16 |year=2001 |pages=7–35 |publisher=Estonian Literary Museum |editor=Mare Kõiva and Andres Kuperjanov }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204141254/http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol16/planets.pdf |date=2019-02-04 }}</ref> [[Vénus]], [[Mérkurius]], sarta planét-planét périfér (pangluarna) sapertos [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], sarta [[Saturnus]] parantos diidéntifikasi ku para [[astronomi Babilonia|astronom Babilonia]]. Sadayana mangrupa planét anu dipikawanoh ku manusa dugi ka diciptakeunana [[téléskop]] dina awal jaman modéren.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Babylonian Observational Astronomy |author=A. Sachs |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=May 2, 1974 |pages=43–50 [45 & 48–9] |publisher=[[Royal Society of London]] |jstor=74273 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0008 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...43S}}</ref> === Astronomi Yunani-Romawi === {{Tempo ogé|Astronomi Yunani}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; float:right; margin:16px" |+ 7 Planét Ptolomeus |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Bulan <br> [[File:Moon decrescent symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☾}}]] || 2 <br> Mérkurius <br> [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 3 <br> Vénus <br> [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 4 <br> Panonpoé <br> [[File:Sun symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☉}}]] || 5 <br> Mars <br> [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 6 <br> Jupiter <br> [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 7 <br> Saturnus <br> [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] |} Bangsa Yunani Kuna kawitna mah henteu pati mibanda karesep sapertos bangsa Babilonia dina nalungtik perkara planét. [[Pangiring Pythagoras]] dina abad ka-6 sarta ka-5 SM rupina parantos ngamekarkeun tiori kaplanétan sorangan, anu di jerona ngajelaskeun yén Bumi, Panonpoé, Bulan, sarta planét-planét téh ngurilingan "Seuneu Tengah" anu janten puseur Alam Semesta. [[Pythagoras]] atanapi [[Parmenides]] kawartoskeun mangrupa jalma munggaran anu mampuh ngaidéntifikasi yén béntang burit sarta béntang isuk ([[Vénus]]) téh saenyana mangrupa hiji banda langit anu sarua.<ref name="burnet">{{cite book|first=John|last=Burnet|title= Greek philosophy: Thales to Plato|year=1950|publisher=Macmillan and Co.|pages=7–11|url=http://books.google.com/?id=7yUAmmqHHEgC&pg=PR4|accessdate=2008-02-07|isbn=978-1-4067-6601-1}}</ref> Dina abad ka-3 SM, [[Aristarkhus ti Samos]] ngusulkeun sistem [[heliosentrisme|hélioséntris]], anu mibanda harti yén Bumi sarta planét téh ngalingkung Panonpoé. Nanging, sistem géoséntris tetep janten anggepan utama (didominasi) dina peradaban dunya dugi ka lumangsungna [[Révolusi Ilmiah]]. Dina [[periode Hélénistik]] abad ka-1 SM, bangsa Yunani mimiti ngamekarkeun skéma matématika pikeun maham sarta ngira-ngira posisi planét-planét. Ieu skéma anu dumasar kana géométri, bénten sareng aritmetika Babilonia, nu satuluyna ngajantenkeun tiori kaplanétan langkung kompléks sarta pepek. Kalolobaan gerakan astronomis anu dititénan ti Bumi ku panon sacara langsung téh diukur ngagunakeun ieu skéma. Tiori Yunani ieu nembé tiasa dijelaskeun sacara mundel dina kitab ''[[Almagest]]'' karya [[Ptolomeus]] dina abad ka-2 M. Modél Ptolomeus téh kacida lengkepna sarta dominan, dugi ka sadaya tiori astronomi sateuacanna dianggap parantos katingaleun jaman (basi), sarta ''Almagest'' janten téks astronomi resmi di dunya Kulon salami 13 abad.<ref name="practice" /><ref name="almagest" /> Bangsa Yunani sarta Romawi mikawanoh tujuh planét, anu masing-masing dianggap [[modél géoséntris|ngurilingan Bumi]] luyu sareng hukum kompléks Ptolomeus. Éta planét-planét téh nyaéta (luyu sareng urutan Ptolomeus ti Bumi): Bulan, Mérkurius, Vénus, Panonpoé, Mars, Jupiter, sarta Saturnus.<ref name="oed">{{cite web | url= http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50180718?query_type=word&queryword=planet |publisher = Oxford English Dictionary | title = planet, n | accessdate=2008-02-07|year=2007}} ''Note: select the Etymology tab ''</ref><ref name="almagest">{{cite journal |first=Bernard R. |last=Goldstein |title=Saving the phenomena: the background to Ptolemy's planetary theory | journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=28 |issue=1 |year=1997 |pages=1–12 |location=Cambridge (UK) |bibcode=1997JHA....28....1G}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Ptolemy's Almagest|author= Ptolemy|authorlink=Ptolemy|author2=[[G. J. Toomer|Toomer, G. J.]]|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-691-00260-6}}</ref> === India === {{main|Astronomi India|Kosmologi Hindu}} Dina taun 499 CE, astronom India [[Aryabhata]] nyusun modél planét anu ngalebetkeun unsur [[rotasi Bumi]] dina sumbuna. Anjeunna ngajelaskeun yén éta hal téh mangrupa sabab musabab béntang-béntang katingal obah ka arah kulon. Aryabhata ogé mibanda kayakinan yén orbit planét téh wangunna [[élips]].<ref>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson, [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Aryabhata_I.html Aryabhata the Elder], [[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''<nowiki/>''</ref> Pangiring Aryabhata kacida seueurna di [[India Kidul]], hiji wewengkon di mana prinsip-prinsip ngeunaan rotasi diurnal Bumi diaku, sarta sababaraha karya susulan anu dumasar kana éta tiori parantos dihasilkeun.<ref>[[K. V. Sarma|Sarma, K. V.]] (1997) "Astronomy in India" in [[Helaine Selin|Selin, Helaine]] (editor) ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'', Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0-7923-4066-3, p. 116</ref> Dina taun 1500, [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] ti [[madhab astronomi sarta matématika Kerala]] parantos ngaropéa (ngarévisi) modél Aryabhata dina karyana anu judulna ''[[Tantrasangraha]]''.<ref name="MOPM">{{cite journal |title=Model of planetary motion in the works of Kerala astronomers |last==Ramasubramanian |first=K. |journal=Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India |volume=26 |pages=11–31 [23–4] |year=1998 |bibcode=1998BASI...26...11R}}</ref> Dina ''Aryabhatiyabhasya'', anu mangrupa ulasan (koméntar) kana kitab ''Aryabhatiya'' karya Aryabhata, anjeunna ngamekarkeun modél planét di mana Mérkurius, Vénus, Mars, Jupiter, sarta Saturnus téh ngalingkung Panonpoé, sedengkeun Panonpoé ngurilingan Bumi. Ieu modél téh sawanda sareng [[sistim Tychonik]] anu diusulkeun ku [[Tycho Brahe]] dina ahir abad ka-16. Kalolobaan astronom ti madhab Kerala anu janten pangiringna nampi éta modél planét hasil usulanana.<ref name="MOPM" /><ref>Ramasubramanian etc. (1994)</ref> === Astronomi Islam abad pertengahan === {{main|Astronomi Islam abad pertengahan|Kosmologi Islam}} Dina abad ka-11, kajadian [[transit Vénus]] parantos dititénan ku [[Ibnu Sina]], anu satuluyna netepkeun yén [[Vénus]] téh aya kalana nuju aya di handapeun Panonpoé.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al‐Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā |author=Sally P. Ragep |editor=Thomas Hockey |encyclopedia=The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |year=2007 |pages=570–572 |doi=10.1888/0333750888/3736 |bibcode=2000eaa..bookE3736. |isbn=0-333-75088-8}}</ref> Dina abad ka-12, [[Ibnu Bajjah]] nitenan ayana "dua planét anu mangrupa titik hideung dina beungeut Panonpoé", anu dina mangsa nu bakal datang dipikawanoh salaku [[transit Mérkurius]] sarta Vénus ku astronom ti [[Observatorium Maragheh|Maragha]], [[Qotb al-Din Shirazi]], dina abad ka-13.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997|author=S. M. Razaullah Ansari|publisher=Springer|year=2002|isbn=1-4020-0657-8|page=137}}</ref> Nanging hanjakalna, Ibnu Bajjah dianggap pamohalan upami parantos nitenan transit Vénus, jalaran éta fénoména téh saenyana henteu kantos lumangsung saumur hirup anjeunna.<ref name="transit catalog">{{cite web|url=http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/transit/catalog/VenusCatalog.html|author=Fred Espenak|publisher= NASA/GSFC|title=Six millennium catalog of Venus transits: 2000 BCE to 4000 CE|accessdate=11 February 2012}}</ref> === Renaisans Éropa === {{Tempo ogé|Hélioséntrisme}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; float:right; margin:16px" |- style="background:#ccf; font-size:smaller;" |+ Planét Renaisans, s.k. 1543 dugi ka 1781 |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Mérkurius <br> [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 2 <br> Vénus <br> [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 3 <br> Bumi <br> [[File:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] || 4 <br> Mars <br> [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 5 <br> Jupiter <br> [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 6 <br> Saturnus <br> [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] |} Ku dimimitianana [[Révolusi Ilmiah]], wangenan (définisi) kecap "planét" téh robah sacara sasar (mendasar); anu kawitna dianggap salaku objék anu bagerak di langit (rélatif kana [[béntang maneuh|latar béntang]]), janten banda anu ngurilingan Bumi (géoséntris), sarta ahirna janten banda anu sacara langsung ngalilingan Panonpoé (hélioséntris). Ieu parobahan téh lumangsung sabada [[modél hélioséntris]] karya [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], sarta [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]] mimiti ditarima ku masarakat élmuwan dina abad ka-16. [Image of Heliocentric model of the solar system] Ku kituna, Bumi sorangan mimiti dilebetkeun kana daptar planét,<ref name="galileo_project" /> samentara Panonpoé sarta Bulan mah dikaluarkeun tina éta daptar. Nalika satelit-satelit munggaran Jupiter sarta Saturnus kapanggih dina abad ka-17, istilah "planét" sarta "satelit" téh mimitina mah mindeng dipaké silih ganti. Nanging, istilah "satelit" janten beuki umum sarta baku dipaké dina abad salajengna.<ref>Tempo sitasi utama di [[:en:Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons#References|Garis waktu papanggihan planét-planét Tata Surya jeung bulanna]]</ref> Dugi ka pertengahan abad ka-19, jumlah "planét" téh nambihan kacida gancangna, jalaran unggal banda anyar anu kapanggih ngurilingan Panonpoé téh langsung digolongkeun salaku planét ku komunitas élmuwan. === Abad ka-19 === {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; float:right; margin:16px" |+ Planét anyar, 1807–1845 |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Merkurius <br> [[file:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 2 <br> Vénus <br> [[file:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 3 <br> Bumi <br> [[file:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] || 4 <br> Mars <br> [[file:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 5 <br> Vésta <br> [[file:Vesta symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|⚶}}]] || 6 <br> Juno <br> [[file:Juno symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|⚵}}]] || 7 <br> Cérés <br> [[file:Ceres symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|⚳}}]] || 8 <br> Pallas <br> [[file:Pallas symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|⚴}}]] || 9 <br> Yupiter <br> [[file:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 10 <br> Saturnus <br> [[file:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] || 11 <br> Uranus <br> [[file:Uranus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♅}}]] |} Dina abad ka-19, para astronom mimiti sadar yén banda-banda anyar anu saméméhna digolongkeun salaku planét salila ampir satengah abad (saperti [[Ceres (planét kerdil)|Cérés]], [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], sarta [[4 Vesta|Vésta]]) miboga sipat anu jauh béda ti planét tradisional. Banda-banda ieu aya dina kawasan anu sarua antara Mars jeung Yupiter ([[sabuk astéroid]]) sarta miboga massa anu jauh leuwih leutik. Ku lantaran kitu, objék-objék kasebut mimiti digolongkeun salaku "[[astéroid]]". [Image of the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter] Alatan can aya wangenan (definisi) resmi, kecap "planét" dina mangsa éta dipikaharti salaku banda "badag" naon baé anu ngulilingan Panonpoé. Sanggeus kanyahoan aya bédana ukuran anu kacida badag antara astéroid jeung planét, sarta dituturkeun ku kapanggihna [[Néptunus]] dina taun 1846, kabutuhan pikeun miboga wangenan resmi jadi beuki kuat.<ref>{{cite web |last =Hilton |first =James L. |date =2001-09-17 |url =http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |title =When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets? |publisher =U.S. Naval Observatory |accessdate =2007-04-08 |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20070921162818/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |archivedate =2007-09-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612180437/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |date=2016-06-12 }}</ref> === Abad ka-20 === {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; clear:right; float:right; margin:16px" |- style="background:#ccf; font-size:smaller;" |+ Planét 1854–1930, 2006–ayeuna |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Mérkurius <br> [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 2 <br> Venus <br> [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 3 <br> Bumi <br> [[File:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] || 4 <br> Mars <br> [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 5 <br> Jupiter <br> [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 6 <br> Saturnus <br> [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] || 7 <br> Uranus <br> [[File:Uranus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♅}}]] || 8 <br> Neptunus <br> [[File:Neptune symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♆}}]] |} Dina abad ka-20, [[Pluto]] dipanggihkeun. Sanggeus saruntuyan pangamatan awal nyimpulkeun banda ieu leuwih gedé tibatan Bumi,<ref>{{cite book|title = Planet Quest: The Epic Discovery of Alien Solar Systems|url = https://archive.org/details/planetquestepicd0000cros|first = K.|last=Croswell|publisher = The Free Press|year = 1997|page = [https://archive.org/details/planetquestepicd0000cros/page/57 57]|isbn = 978-0-684-83252-4}}</ref> objék ieu langsung ditarima sabagé planét kasalapan. Pangamatan saterusna justru ngabuktikeun yén banda ieu ukuranana leuwih leutik: tahun 1936, [[Raymond Lyttleton]] boga pamadegan yén Pluto bisa jadi satelit [[Néptunus]] anu kaluar jalur,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lyttleton |first=Raymond A. |year=1936 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=97 |page=108 |title= On the possible results of an encounter of Pluto with the Neptunian system |bibcode=1936MNRAS..97..108L}}</ref> jeung dina taun 1964 [[Fred Lawrence Whipple|Fred Whipple]] boga pamadegan yén Pluto meureun baé mangrupa komét.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=52 |pages=565–594 |last=Whipple |first=Fred |year=1964 |bibcode=1964PNAS...52..565W |title= The History of the Solar System |doi= 10.1073/pnas.52.2.565 | pmid=16591209 | issue=2 | pmc=300311}}</ref> Ngan lantaran ukuranana leuwih gedé tibatan kabéh astéroid anu dipikanyaho sarta sigana henteu éksis di jero populasi anu leuwih gedé,<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Scientific American |year=1996 |pages=46–52 |last=Luu |first=Jane X. |author2=Jewitt, David C. |title=The Kuiper Belt |volume=274 |issue=5 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0596-46}}</ref> status Pluto tetep planet nepi ka taun 2006. {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; clear:right; float:right; margin:16px" |- style="background:#ccf; font-size:smaller;" |+ Planet 1930–2006 |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Merkurius <br> [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 2 <br> Venus <br> [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 3 <br> Bumi <br> [[File:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] || 4 <br> Mars <br> [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 5 <br> Jupiter <br> [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 6 <br> Saturnus <br> [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] || 7 <br> Uranus <br> [[File:Uranus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♅}}]] || 8 <br> Neptunus <br> [[File:Neptune symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♆}}]] || 9 <br> Pluto <br> [[File:Pluto symbol (large orb).svg|16px|{{unicode|♇}}]] |} Dina taun 1992, astronom [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] jeung [[Dale Frail]] manggihan sajumlah planét anu ngurilingan hiji [[pulsar]], [[PSR B1257+12]].<ref name="Wolszczan" /> Papanggihan ieu umumna dianggap minangka detéksi pasti kana sistim planit anu ngabuder béntang lian. Tuluy dina 6 Oktober 1995, [[Michel Mayor]] jeung [[Didier Queloz]] ti [[Universitas Jenewa]] ngalaksanakeun detéksi pasti kahiji ka éksoplanét anu ngurilingan hiji béntang [[deret utama]] biasa ([[51 Pegasi]]).<ref name="Mayor">{{cite journal | last=Mayor |first=Michel |author2=Queloz, Didier | title=A Jupiter-mass companion to a solar-type star | journal=Nature | year=1995 | volume=378 | issue=6356 | pages=355–359 | doi= 10.1038/378355a0 | bibcode=1995Natur.378..355M}}</ref> Papanggihan planét luar surya nungtung kana ambiguitas séjén ngeunaan définisi planet, dina titik waktu planit ngajadi béntang. Réa planit luar surya anu enggeus dipikanyaho massana leuwih gedé tibatan Jupiter, ngadeukeutan banda-banda béntang anu dikenal sabagé "[[katé coklat]]".<ref>{{cite web | year=2006 |title=IAU General Assembly: Definition of Planet debate | url=http://astro2006.meta.mediastream.cz/Astro2006-060822-01.asx |format=.wmv |publisher=MediaStream.cz |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Katé coklat umumna dianggap béntang sabab mampuh ngalakukeun fusi [[deuterium]], isotop [[hidrogén]] anu leuwih beurat. Lamun béntang anu ukuranana 75 kalieun Jupiter mampuh ngafusikeun hidrogén, ngan béntang anu ukuranana 13 kalieun Jupiter anu bisa ngafusikeun deuterium. Tatapi, deuterium rada langka jeung sabagian gedé katé coklat enggeus tiheula anggeus ngafusikeun deuterium saméméh dipanggihkeun, nu matak hésé dibédakeun ti planit-planit supermasif.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Basri |first=Gibor |title= Observations of Brown Dwarfs |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2000 |volume=38 | issue=1 |page=485 |doi=10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.485 |bibcode=2000ARA&A..38..485B}}</ref> === Abad ka-21 === Ku dipanggihanana réa objék di Tata Surya jeung objék anu leuwih gedé di sistim lian dina paruh akhir abad ka-20, timbul pamasalahan ngeunaan hal-hal anu ngawangun hiji planit. Aya sawala ngeunaan naha hiji objék bisa dianggap planit lamun ayana di jero populasi jauh saperti [[sabuk astéroid|sabuk]] atawa cukup gedé pikeun nyiptakeun énergi sorangan ngaliwatan [[fusi termonuklir]] [[deuterium]]. Réa astronom anu boga pamadegan supaya Pluto dikaluarkan ti kolompok planit, sabab réa banda sajinis anu ukuranana siga dipanggihkeun di wilayah Tata Surya anu sarua ([[sabuk Kuiper]]) dina tauun 1990-an jeung awal 2000-an. Pluto kabuktian nya ngan hiji banda leutik di antarana barébu-rébu banda sarupa lianna. Sajumlah banda saperti [[50000 Quaoar|Quaoar]], [[90377 Sedna|Sedna]], jeung [[Eris (planit katé)|Eris]] disebutkeun minangka [[planet kasapuluh]] ku pers, tatapi henteu diakuan sacara jembar ku komunitas ilmuwan. Papanggihan Eris taun 2005, banda anu 27% leuwih gedé tibatab Pluto, nyiptakeun rasa panasaran publik ngeunaan définisi planét sacara resmi. Nénjo masalah ieu, IAU ngarancang [[définisi planét]] sarta netepkeunana dina Agustus 2006. Jumlah planét ngurangan ngajadi dalapan banda gedé anu enggeus "[[ngaberesihkeun lingkungan|ngaberesihkeun]]" orbitna (Mérkurius, Vénus, Bumi, Mars, Jupiter, Saturnus, Uranus, jeung Neptunus). IAU ogé nyieun kolompok [[planét katé]] anu awalna ditempatan tilu banda ([[Ceres (planet katé)|Ceres]], [[Pluto]], jeung [[Eris (planet katé)|Eris]]).<ref>{{cite journal | last=Green |first=D. W. E. |version=Circular No. 8747 |publisher=Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, International Astronomical Union |date=2006-09-13 |title=(134340) Pluto, (136199) Eris, and (136199) Eris I (Dysnomia) |url=http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/08700/08747.html |accessdate=2011-07-05 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080624225029/http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/special/08747.pdf |archivedate = June 24, 2008 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> ==== Définisi planét luar surya ==== Pada tahun 2003, [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) Working Group on Extrasolar Planets nyieun pertélaan ngeunaan définisi planit anu ngawengku définisi pamuka kieu, réréana fokus kana watesan antara planit jeung katé coklat:<ref name="WSGESP" /> {{TNO imagemap|250px}} # Objék anu [[massa sajati]]na di bawah wates massa pikeun fusi térmonuklir deuterium (ayeuna ieu kaitung 13 kalieun massa Jupiter pikeun objék kalawan [[kalimpahan alami|kalimpahan isotop]] anu satimbang jeung Panonpoé<ref>{{cite journal | last=Saumon |first=D. |author2=Hubbard, W. B.; Burrows, A.; Guillot, T.; Lunine, J. I.; Chabrier, G. |title=A Theory of Extrasolar Giant Planets |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=1996 |volume=460 |pages=993–1018 |bibcode=1996ApJ...460..993S |doi=10.1086/177027|arxiv = astro-ph/9510046 }}</ref>) anu gorbit béntang atawa sésa béntang téh "planit" (henteu penting kumaha kawangunna). Massa jeung ukuran minimal anu disaratkeun pikeun objék luar surya supaya bisa dianggap planit kudu sarua saperti sarat planet Tata Surya. # Objek subbintang anu massa sajatina di luhur wates massa pikeun fusi termonuklir deuterium téh "[[katé coklat]]", henteu penting kumaha kawangunna atawa di mana lokasina. # Objék ngalalana bébas di [[gugus béntang]] ngora anu massana di bawah wates massa pikeun fusi térmonuklir deuterium nya lain "planit", tatapi "katé sub-coklat" (atawa ngaran naon baé anu pantes). Définisi ieu mimiti dipaké sacara jembar ku astronom waktu nerbitkeun papanggihan éksoplanét di [[jurnal akademik]].<ref>See for example the list of references for: {{cite web |author=Butler, R. P. ''et al.'' |year=2006 |url=http://exoplanets.org/ |title=Catalog of Nearby Exoplanets |publisher=University of California and the Carnegie Institution |accessdate=2008-08-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119143348/http://exoplanets.org/esp/hd117618/hd117618.shtml |date=2008-11-19 }}</ref> Najan samentara, definisi ieu mimiti éféktif nepi ka définisi permanén sacara resmi diadopsi. Hanjakalna, definisi ieu henteu nanganan masalah wates rendah massa,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/outerplanets-04b.html|title=Gravity Rules: The Nature and Meaning of Planethood|last=Stern|first=S. Alan|date=2004-03-22|publisher=SpaceDaily|accessdate=2008-08-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104012331/http://www.spacedaily.com/news/outerplanets-04b.html |date=2012-11-04 }}</ref> nu matak ngajauhan kontrovérsi sabuder objék di jero Tata Surya. Définisi ieu ogé henteu nanganan status planét katé coklat anu boga orbit, saperti [[2M1207b]]. Salah sahiji définisi [[katé sub-coklat]] téh banda bamassa planet anu kawangun ngaliwatan kolaps méga, lain [[akresi (astrofisika)|akresi]]. Pangbéda pambentukan antara katé sub-coklat jeung planit ieu tacan diakuan sacara universal. Para astronom masih kabagi jadi dua kubu dina nimbangkeun prosés pambentukan planit minangka bagéan tina pangolompokanana.<ref name="Cha110913">{{cite web |date=2005-11-29 |title=A Planet With Planets? Spitzer Finds Cosmic Oddball |publisher=NASA |author=Whitney Clavin |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzerf-20051129.html |accessdate=2006-03-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011011111/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzerf-20051129.html |date=2012-10-11 }}</ref> Hiji alesan kakuciwaan ieu téh kadang pamohalan nangtukeun prosés pambentukan planit. Upamana, planit pangorbit béntang anu kawangun ku akresi bisa kaalungkeun ti sistim tur jadi pangalalana bébas. Sabalikna, katé sub-coklat anu kawangun ku kolaps méga kawangun sorangan di hiji gugus béntang anu bisa kataheun dina orbit hiji béntang. {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; float:right; margin:16px" |- style="background:#ccf; font-size:smaller;" |+ Planét katai 2007–ayeuna |- style="font-size: smaller;" align=center | Ceres <br /> [[File:Ceres symbol.svg|16px|⚳]] || Orcus <br /> [[File:Orcus symbol.svg|16px]] || Pluto <br /> [[File:Pluto symbol (large orb).svg|16px|⯓]] || Haumea <br /> [[File:Haumea symbol.svg|16px]] || Quaoar <br /> [[File:Quaoar symbol.svg|16px]] || Makemake <br /> [[File:Makemake symbol.svg|16px]] || Gonggong <br /> [[File:Gonggong symbol.svg|16px]] || Eris <br /> [[File:Eris symbol.svg|16px|⯰]] || Sedna <br /> [[File:Sedna symbol.svg|16px|⯲]] |} Sarat 13 kali massa Jupiter téh kira-kira, lain hal anu sipatna pasti. Hiji pananya gé muncul: Naon ari [[pangbakaran deuterium]] téh? Pananya ieu muncul karana objék-objék gedé bakal ngaduruk sabagian gedé deuteriumna jeung objék leutik ngan meuleum saeutik, jeung 13 massa Jupiter ayana di antara duanana. Jumlah deuterium anu dibeuleum henteu ngan gumantung kana massa, tatapi ogé komposisi planétna, tepatna dina jumlah [[hélium]] jeung [[deuterium]] nu aya.<ref>{{cite arxiv |eprint=1008.5150 |author1=Spiegel |author2=Adam Burrows |author3=Milsom |title=The Deuterium-Burning Mass Limit for Brown Dwarfs and Giant Planets |class=astro-ph.EP |year=2010}}</ref> Kriteria séjén anu misahkeun planit jeung katé coklat salian ti pangbakaran deuterium, prosés pambentukan, atawa lokasi téh naha [[tekenan]] intina didominasi ku [[tekenan lateral bumi#Teori Coulomb|tekenan coulomb]] atawa [[tekenan degenerasi éléktron]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Basri, Gibor; Brown, Michael E.|doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125058 |journal=Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. |volume=34 |title=Planetesimals To Brown Dwarfs: What is a Planet? |pages=193–216 |year=2006 |arxiv=astro-ph/0608417 |bibcode=2006AREPS..34..193B}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Boss, Alan P. |author2=Basri, Gibor |author3=Kumar, Shiv S. |author4=Liebert, James |author5=Martín, Eduardo L. |author6=Reipurth, Bo |author7=Zinnecker, Hans |title=Nomenclature: Brown Dwarfs, Gas Giant Planets, and ? |journal=Brown Dwarfs |volume=211 |page=529 |year=2003 |bibcode=2003IAUS..211..529B |author2=Basri |author3=Kumar |author4=Liebert |author5=Martín |author6=Reipurth |author7=Zinnecker}}</ref> ==== Definisi 2006 ====<!-- maybe: Rigorous definition --> {{main|Definisi planet IAU}} Masalah watesan rendah ditepikeun dina rapat [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional#Majelis Umum ke-XXVI dan definisi planet|Majelis Umum IAU]] taun 2006. Sanggeus debat panjang jeung hiji proposal gagal, majelis mungut soara pikeun ngesahkan résolusi anu ngadéfinisikeun planét di Tata Surya sabagé:<ref name="IAU2">{{cite web |author =Staff |year =2006 |url =http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0603/ |title =IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU resolution votes |publisher =IAU |accessdate =2007-05-11 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913172129/http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0603/ |date=2008-09-13 }}</ref> {{quotation|Objék langit anu (a) ayana di orbit ngabuder Panonpoé, (b) miboga massa anu cukup supaya gravitasina ngaleuwihan gaya banda tegar sahingga miboga [[kasatimbangan hidrostatik]] (méh buleud), jeung (c) enggeus [[meresihkeun lingkungan]] di sabudereun orbitna.}} Sasuay définisi téa, Tata Surya dianggap miboga dalapan planit. Banda-banda anu minuhan dua sarat kahiji tapi henteu nu katilu (saperti Pluto, Makemake, jeung Eris) dikolompokkeun sabagé [[planit katé]] kalawan sarat maranéhna ogé lain mangrupa [[satelit alami]] planit séjén. Awalna komite IAU gusulkan définisi anu ngawengku réa planit karana poin (c) tacan dijieun.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4795755.stm|title=Planets plan boosts tally 12|publisher=BBC|date=2006-08-16|accessdate=2008-08-23|first=Paul|last=Rincon}}</ref> Sanggeus diskusi panjang, pamungutan soara satuluyna mutuskeun banda-banda téa digolongkeun planit katé.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/5282440.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Pluto loses status as a planet|date=2006-08-24|accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Definisi ieu didasarkeun kana tiori-tiori pambentukan planit, nyaéta waktu embrio planit enggeus meresihkeun orbitna tina objek-objek leutik. Saperti anu diécéskeun astronom [[Steven Soter]]:<ref>{{cite journal | last = Soter |first = Steven |title = What is a Planet |journal = Astronomical Journal |volume = 132 |issue = 6 |pages = 2513–19 |year = 2006 |doi=10.1086/508861 |arxiv=astro-ph/0608359 |bibcode=2006AJ....132.2513S}}</ref> {{quotation|Hasil ahir tina akresi cakram kadua téh saeutikna banda anu relatif gedé (planit) boh di orbit bèbas atawa resonan anu nyegah tabrakan antarbanda. Planit jeung komét leutik, kaabus KBO [objék beubeur Kuiper] aya bédana ti planit sabab bisa patabrakan jeung planit atawa pada batur.}} Pasca pamungutan soara IAU taun 2006, muncul kontroversi jeung sawala sabuder definisi ieu.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5283956.stm|title=Pluto vote 'hijacked' in revolt|first=Paul|last=Rincon|date=2006-08-25|accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | date=2006-08-24 |first=Robert Roy |last=Britt |title=Pluto Demoted: No Longer a Planet in Highly Controversial Definition |work= Space.com |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060824_planet_definition.html |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Réa astronom anu mutuskeun henteu ngagunakeunana.<ref>{{cite web | date=2006-08-31 |first=Robert Roy |last=Britt |title=Pluto: Down But Maybe Not Out |work= Space.com |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060831_planet_definition.html |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Sabagian sawala téa museurk kana kayakinan yén poin (c) (meresihkeun orbit) sakuduna henteu disartakeun jeung objék-objék anu ayeuna dikatégorikeun planit katé kuduna ngajadi bagéan tina définisi planit anu leuwih jembar. Di luar komunitas ilmuwan, Pluto miboga dampak budaya anu kuat di masarakat sabab status planitna ti semet dipanggihkeun taun 1930. Papanggihan Eris diwartakeun gedé-gedéan ku [[média massa|media]] minangka [[planit kasapuluh]], sahingga klasifikasi ulang katilu objék téa minangka planit katé loba narik ati média jeung publik.<ref>{{cite news|first=Clara|last=Moskowitz|title=Scientist who found '10th planet' discusses downgrading of Pluto|publisher=Stanford news|date=2006-10-18|url=http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2006/october18/mbrown-101806.html|accessdate=2008-08-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513221522/http://news.stanford.edu/news/2006/october18/mbrown-101806.html |date=2013-05-13 }}</ref> === Klasifikasi sateuacana === Tabél di handap ieu dieusi daftar banda-banda [[Tata Surya]] anu saméméhna diklasifikasikeun minangka planit: {| class="wikitable" |- ! |Banda ! |Klasifikasi mutahir ! |Catetan |- | [[Bulan]] || Satelit | style="font-size:90%;"| Digolongkeun minangka planit dina [[sajarah kuna|zaman antik]] saluyu [[modél géoséntris]] anu ayeuna kolot. |- | [[Io (satelit)|Io]], [[Europa (satelit)|Europa]], [[Ganimédé (satelit)|Ganimédé]], jeung [[Callisto (satelit)|Callisto]] || Satelit | style="font-size:90%;"| Opat satelit panggedéna [[Jupiter]], katelah ogé [[satelit-satelit Galileo]]. [[Galileo Galilei]] nyebutna "Planit-Planit Medici" anu dialap tina ngaran [[Patronase|patronnya]], [[Medici|kulawarga Medici]]. |- | [[Titan (satelit)|Titan]],<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteB>Referred to by Huygens as a ''Planetes novus'' ("new planet") in his [http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/HST/Huygens/huygens-text.htm ''Systema Saturnium'']</ref> [[Iapetus (satelit)|Iapetus]],{{refn|Both labelled ''nouvelles planétes'' (new planets) by Cassini in his ''Découverte de deux nouvelles planetes autour de Saturne''<ref>Giovanni Cassini (1673). Decouverte de deux Nouvelles Planetes autour de Saturne. Sabastien Mabre-Craniusy. pp. 6–14.</ref>|name=footnoteC|group=lower-alpha}} [[Rhea (satelit)|Rhea]],<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteC /> [[Tethys (satelit)|Tethys]],<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteD>Both once referred to as "planets" by Cassini in his [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0260-7085%281686%2F1692%2916%3C79%3AAEOTJD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J ''An Extract of the Journal Des Scavans...'']. The term "satellite", however, had already begun to be used to distinguish such bodies from those around which they orbited ("primary planets").</ref> dan [[Dione (satelit)|Dione]]<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteD /> || Satelit | style="font-size:90%;"| Lima [[satelit Saturnus|satelit panggedéna Saturnus]], ditimukeun ku [[Christiaan Huygens]] jeung [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]]. |- | [[Ceres (planit katé)|Ceres]]<ref group="lower-alpha">Classified as a [[dwarf planet]] in 2006.</ref>|| Planit katé | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="font-size:90%;"| [[Astéroid]] kahiji anu dipikanyaho ti semet ditimukeun antara 1801 jeung 1807 tepi ka digolongkeun deui jadi astéroid taun 1850-an.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hilton, James L. |title=When did the asteroids become minor planets? |work=U.S. Naval Observatory |url=http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |accessdate=2008-05-08 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080324182332/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |archivedate=2008-03-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612180437/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |date=2016-06-12 }}</ref> Ceres enggeus digolongkeun jadi [[planit katé]] taun 2006. |- | [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], [[3 Juno|Juno]], dan [[4 Vesta|Vesta]] || Asteroid |- | [[5 Astraea|Astrea]], [[6 Hebe|Hebe]], [[7 Iris|Iris]], [[8 Flora|Flora]], [[9 Metis|Metis]], [[10 Hygiea|Hygeia]], [[11 Parthenope|Parthenope]], [[12 Victoria|Victoria]], [[13 Egeria|Egeria]], [[14 Irene|Irene]], [[15 Eunomia|Eunomia]] || Astéroid | style="font-size:90%;"| Réa astéroid ditimukeun antara 1845 jeung 1851. Kamekaran daftar planit anu téréh ngajurung pangolompokan ulang banda-banda ieu sabagé astéroid ku para astronom. Klaim ieu kakara diakua dina taun 1854.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Planet Hygea |year=1849 |work=spaceweather.com |url=http://spaceweather.com/swpod2006/13sep06/Pollock1.jpg |accessdate=2008-04-18}}</ref> |- | [[Pluto]]<ref group="lower-alpha">Regarded as a planet from its discovery in 1930 until redesignated as a [[Trans-Neptunian object|trans-Neptunian]] dwarf planet in August 2006.</ref>|| Planit katé | style="font-size:90%;"| [[Banda trans-Néptunus]] kahiji anu dipikanyaho (nyaéta planet minor kalawan [[sumbu semi-mayor]] di luar [[Néptunus]]). Dina taun 2006, Pluto digolongkeun jadi planit katé. |- | [[Eris (planit katé)|Eris]] || Planit katé | style="font-size:90%;"| Ditimukeun taun 2003, banda trans-Neputunus ieu diakuan dina taun 2005 saméméh tungtungna digolongkeun jadi planit katé saperti [[Pluto]] dina taun 2006. |} == Mitologi jeung paméré ngaran == {{see also|Nama hari|Planet mata telanjang}} [[File:Olympians.jpg|jmpl|kiri|lurus|250px|Dewa-dewa [[Gunung Olympus|Olympus]] yang menjadi sumber nama planet di Tata Surya]] Ngaran-ngaran planit di dunya Barat asalna ti praktik paméré ngaran Romawi, anu justru asalna ti kabiasaan bangsa Yunani jeung Babilonia. Di [[Yunani kuna]], dua objék moncorong raksasa, Panonpoé jeung Bulan, disebut ''[[Helios]]'' jeung ''[[Selene]]''; planit pangjauhna (Saturnus) disebut ''Phainon'', sang panerang; diikuti oleh ''Phaethon'' (Jupiter), "cerah"; planit beureum (Mars) katelah ku sesebutan ''Pyroeis'', "ngagedur"; planit pangcaangna (Venus) disebut ''Phosphoros'', pamawa cahaya;jeung planit panungtung (Merkurius) disebut ''Stilbon'', marahmay. Bangsa Yunani ogé nyieun satiap planit suci keur ka salah sahiji déwana, [[Dua Welas Déwa Olimpus]]: Helios jeung Selene téh ngaran planit jeung déwa; Phainon disanggakeun ka [[Cronus]], [[Titan (mitologi)|Titan]] anu mangrupa bapana para déwa Olimpus; Phaethon disanggakeun ka [[Zeus]], putra Cronus anu ngagulingkeunana ti tahta raja; Pyroeis disanggakeun ka [[Ares]], putra Zeus jeung déwa perang; Phosphoros dipingpin ku [[Afrodit]], déwi asih; jeung [[Hermes]], perantara para déwa jeung déwa élmu jeung akal, mingpin Stilbon.<ref name="practice">{{cite book|title=The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy|first=James|last=Evans|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|pages=296–7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17 |accessdate=2008-02-04|isbn=978-0-19-509539-5}}</ref> Adat kabiasaan bangsa Yunani dina maparin nami-nami planét dumasar kana nami déwana téh ampir sagemblengna mangrupa pangaruh ti kabiasaan bangsa [[Babilonia]]. Bangsa Babilonia nyandak nami [[Hesperus#Variasi nama|Phosphoros]] tina nami déwi asihna, nyaéta ''[[Ishtar]]''; Pyroeis tina nami déwa perang, ''[[Nergal]]''; Stilbon tina nami déwa kawijaksanaan, [[Nabu]]; sarta Phaethon tina nami déwa pamingpin, nyaéta ''[[Marduk]]''.<ref name="nergal">{{cite web |first=Kelley L. |last=Ross |year=2005 |title=The Days of the Week |url=http://www.friesian.com/week.htm |publisher=The Friesian School |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Aya seueur kasaruaan dina aturan paparin nami antara bangsa Yunani sarta Babilonia, sanajan kaduana mibanda bentang jaman anu bénten.<ref name="practice" /> Nanging, tarjamahanana henteu salawasna sampurna. Contona, Nergal ti Babilonia téh mangrupa déwa perang, ku kituna bangsa Yunani nyaruakeun anjeunna sareng Ares. Nanging bénten sareng Ares, Nergal mah saenyana ogé dianggap salaku déwa panyakit sarta alam ahérat.<ref>{{cite book|title=Martian Metamorphoses: The Planet Mars in Ancient Myth and Tradition|first=Ev|last=Cochrane|year=1997|publisher=Aeon Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=jz3eqRGuM0wC&pg=PP9&dq=ares+nergal+planet+pestilence|accessdate=2008-02-07|isbn=0-9656229-0-8}}</ref> Kiwari, réa jelema di dunya Barat mikawanoh planit kalawan ngaran-ngaran anu dialap tina déwa-déwa Olympus. Lamun bangsa Yunani modéren masih maké ngaran kuna pikeun nyebut planit, sawatara basa Éropa justru maké ngaran Romawi (Latén) karana pangaruh [[Kekaisaran Romawi|Kakaisaran Romawi]] jeung [[Gereja Katolik|Garéja Katolik]]. Bangsa Romawi, saperti Yunani, nyaéta [[mitologi Indo-Eropa|urang Indo-Eropa]] anu silih babagi [[mitologi Romawi|mitologi]] jeung ngaran-ngaran anu béda, ngan hanteu boga tradisi narasi saperti anu disanggakeun budaya sastra Yunani pikeun [[mitologi Yunani|déwa-déwana]]. Dina mangsa ahir [[Republik Romawi|Républik Romawi]], para panulis nginjeum réa pisan narasi Yunani tur ngalarapkeunana ka mitologi maranéhna nepi ka duanana hanteu bisa dibédakeun.<ref>{{cite book|title=Greek Mythography in the Roman World|url=https://archive.org/details/greekmythography0000came|first=Alan|last=Cameron|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-517121-7}}</ref> Mangsa bangsa Romawi ngulik astronomi Yunani, maranéhna méré ngaran planit luyu jeung ngaran déwa-déwana sorangan: ''[[Merkurius (mitologi)|Mercurius]]'' (keur ka Hermes), ''[[Venus (mitologi)|Venus]]'' (Afrodit), ''[[Mars (mitologi)|Mars]]'' (Ares), ''[[Jupiter (mitologi)|Iuppiter]]'' (Zeus), jeung ''[[Saturnus (mitologi)|Saturnus]]'' (Cronus). Waktu planit-planit saterusna ditimukeun dina abad ka-18 jeung 19, praktik paméréan ngaranna tumuluy pikeun ''[[Neptunus (mitologi)|Neptūnus]]'' ([[Poseidon]]). Uranus unik lantaran dialap tina ngaran [[Uranus (mitologi)|déwa Yunani]] gaganti [[Caelus|vérsi Romawina]]. Sawatara urang [[Romawi Kuno|Romawi]], saluyu kapercayaan anu meureun asalna ti [[Mesopotamia|Mésopotamia]] tatapi mekar di [[Mesir Yunani]],<!--<ref>{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Arnett |year=2006 |title=Appendix 5: Planetary Linguistics |url=http://www.nineplanets.org/days.html |publisher=www.nineplanets.org |accessdate=2008-02-02}}{{Verify credibility|date=February 2008}}</ref>--> parcaya yén tujuh déwa anu ngajadi sumber ngaran planit téa ngajaga Bumi sacara bagilir. Urutan giliran téa ti jauh ka deukeut nyaéta Saturnus, Jupiter, Mars, Matahari, Venus, Mérkurius, Bulan.<ref name="zerubavel">{{cite book|first=Eviatar|last=Zerubavel|year=1989|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=0-226-98165-7|title= The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week|page=14|url=http://books.google.com/?id=aGahKeojIUoC&pg=PA14|accessdate=2008-02-07}}</ref> Hasilna, poé kahiji dimimitian ku Saturnus (jam ka-1), poé kadua ku Panonpoé (jam ka-25), dituturkeun Bulan (jam ka-49), Mars, Mérkurius, Jupiter, jeung Vénus. Karana satiap poé dibéré ngaran saluyu déwa anu ngawalana, kitu deui jeung urutan [[nama hari|ngaran poé]] dina [[kalender Romawi|kalénder Romawi]] anu masih dipaké di sawatara basa modéren sanggeus [[Kalender Romawi#Siklus Nundinal|siklus Nundinal]] ditolak.<ref name="weekdays">{{cite journal | first=Michael |last=Falk |title=Astronomical Names for the Days of the Week |journal=Journal of the [[Royal Astronomical Society of Canada]] |year=1999 |volume=93 |pages=122–133 |bibcode=1999JRASC..93..122F |doi=10.1016/j.newast.2003.07.002 | last2=Koresko | first2=Christopher}}</ref> Dina basa Inggris, ''Saturday, Sunday,'' jeung ''Monday'' téh tarjamahan langsung tina ngaran-ngaran Romawi ieu. Ngaran poé anu séjén asalna tina ''[[Týr|Tiw]]'', (Tuesday) ''[[Woden|Wóden]]'' (Wednesday), ''[[Thor|Thunor]]'' (Thursday), jeung ''[[Frige|Fríge]]'' (Friday), [[dewa Anglo-Saxon]] anu sarua saperti Mars, Mérkurius, Jupiter, jeung Vénus. Bumi (''Earth'') nyaéta hiji-hijina planit anu ngaranna dina basa Inggris hanteu dialap tina mitologi Yunani-Romawi. Karana Bumi sorangan kakara diakuan minangka planit dina abad ka-17,<ref name="galileo_project">{{cite web | last=Van Helden |first=Al |year=1995 |url=http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/copernican_system.html |title=Copernican System |publisher=The Galileo Project |accessdate=2008-01-28}}</ref> henteu aya tradisi méréna ngaran saluyu ngaran déwa. Kecap ''Earth'' asalna tina basa [[bahasa Inggris Lama|Anglo-Saxon]] ''erda'' anu hartina daratan atau tanah tur munggaran dipaké pikeun nyebut Bumi kira-kira taun 1300.<ref>{{cite web | publisher= Oxford English Dictionary |url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50071589?query_type=word&queryword=earth&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&result_place=1&search_id=7aas-q054tm-4631&hilite=50071589 | title = earth, n |accessdate = 2008-02-06 |year = 1989}}</ref><ref name="etymearth">{{cite web | last = Harper | first = Douglas |date = 2001-09 |url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=earth |title = Earth |work= Online Etymology Dictionary |accessdate = 2008-08-23}}</ref> Sakumaha [[rumpun bahasa Jermanik|basa Jermanik]] lianna, kecap ieu asalna tina basa [[Proto-Jerman]] ''ertho'', "daratan",<ref name="etymearth"/> tur katénjo kasaruaanana dina kecap ''earth'' dina basa Inggris, ''Erde'' dina basa Jerman, ''aarde'' dina basa Walanda, jeung ''jord'' dina basa Skandinavia. Réa [[rumpun bahasa Roman|basa Roman]] anu maké kecap Roman heubeul ''[[Terra (mitologi)|terra]]'' (atawa variasina). Kecap téa dipaké ku ma'na "daratan garing", lain "laut".<ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |date=2001-09 |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=terrain |title=Etymology of "terrain" |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |accessdate=2008-01-30}}</ref> Basa-basa non-Roman maké kecapna sorangan. Bangsa Yunani angger maké ngaran asli maranéhna, ''[[Gaia (mitologi)|Γή]]'' ''(Ge)''. Budaya non-Éropa maké sistim panamaan planit anu béda. [[India]] maké sistim dumasar kana [[Navagraha]], anu ngawemgku tujuh planit tradisional ([[Surya]] keur ka Panonpoé, [[Chandra]] keur ka Bulan, jeung [[Budha]], [[Shukra]], [[Mangala]], [[Bṛhaspati|{{IAST|Bṛhaspati}}]], jeung [[Shani]] keur ka Mérkurius, Vénus, Mars, Jupiter, jeung Saturnus) jeung [[nodus bulan]] unggah jeung turun [[Rahu]] jeung [[Ketu (mitologi)|Ketu]]. [[Cina]] katut jeung nagara-nagara Asia Wétan enggeus lila kakeunaan [[Sinosfer|psngaruh budaya Cina]] (saperti [[Jepang]], [[Korea|Koréa]], jeung [[Vietnam|Viétnam]]) kalawan sistim panamaan anu didasaran dina [[Wu Xing|lima unsur Cina]]: cai (Mérkurius), [[Logam (elemen klasik)|logam]] (Vénus), [[Api (elemen klasik)|seuneun]] (Mars), [[Kayu (elemen klasik)|kai]] (Jupiter), jeung [[Tanah (elemen klasik)|taneuh]] (Saturnus).<ref name="weekdays" /> == Ngawujudna == {{main|Hipotesis nebula}} [[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|kiri|jmpl|250px|Ilustrasi cakram protoplanet]] Tacan dipikanyaho sacara pasti kumaha planit kawangun. Tiori anu kiwari ngadominasi téh planit kawangun mangsa hiji [[nebula|nébula]] barobah ngajadi cakram gas jeung lebu ipis. Hiji [[protobintang]] kawangun di intina tur dikurilingan ku [[cakram protoplanet]] anu muter. Ngaliwatan [[akresi (astrofisika)|akrési]] (prosés tabrakan tempel), partikel-partikel kekebul di cakram lalaunan ngumpulkeun massa pikeun ngawangun banda anu jauh leuwih gedé. Konsentrasi massa di hiji tempat disebut sabagé wangun [[planetesimal]] jeung konséntrasi téa ngagancangkeun prosés akresi ku jalan narik material tambahan ngagunakeun daya tarik gravitasina. Konséntrasi téa samingkin padet nepi ka tungtungna kolaps ka jero seug ngawangun [[protoplanet]].<ref>{{cite journal | first=G. W. |last=Wetherill |title=Formation of the Terrestrial Planets |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1980 |volume=18 | issue=1 |pages=77–113 |bibcode=1980ARA&A..18...77W |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.18.090180.000453}}</ref> Sanggeus mibanda diaméter leuwih gedé ti batan Bulan Bumi, planét téa ngawangun atmosfer tambahan, sahingga ningkatkeun daya tarik planetesimal kalawan [[gaya hambat|gaya hambat atmosfer]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Inaba, S.; Ikoma, M. |title=Enhanced Collisional Growth of a Protoplanet that has an Atmosphere |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2003 |volume=410 | issue=2 |pages=711–723 |bibcode=2003A&A...410..711I |doi = 10.1051/0004-6361:20031248}}</ref> [[File:PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg|jmpl|ka|300px|Tabrakan asteroid - membentuk planet (konsep artis).]] Waktu protobintang tumuwuh sakitu gedéna nepi ka bisa "ngahurungkeun diri" ngajadi [[bintang]], cakram anu nyésa dimusnakeun ti jero ka luar ku [[fotoevaporasi]], [[angin matahari|angin panonpoé]], [[efek Poynting–Robertson|gaya hambat Poynting–Robertson]], jeung pangaruh lian.<ref>{{cite journal |last =Dutkevitch |first =Diane |year =1995 |url =http://www.astro.umass.edu/theses/dianne/thesis.html |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20071125124958/http://www.astro.umass.edu/theses/dianne/thesis.html |archivedate =2007-11-25 |title =The Evolution of Dust in the Terrestrial Planet Region of Circumstellar Disks Around Young Stars |publisher =PhD thesis, University of Massachusetts Amherst |accessdate =2008-08-23 |bibcode =1995PhDT..........D }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071125124958/http://www.astro.umass.edu/theses/dianne/thesis.html |date=2007-11-25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Matsuyama, I.; Johnstone, D.; Murray, N. |title=Halting Planet Migration by Photoevaporation from the Central Source |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year = 2005 |volume=585 |issue=2 |pages=L143–L146 |bibcode=2003astro.ph..2042M |doi = 10.1086/374406|arxiv = astro-ph/0302042 }}</ref> Masih réa protoplanet anu ngurilingan béntang atawa pada batur, ngain lawas ti lawas sabagian gedé di antarana bakal patabrak ngawangun hiji planit anu leuwih gedé atawa ngaleupaskeun material supaya diserep protoplanet atawa planét anu leuwih gedé.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kenyon |first=Scott J. |author2=Bromley, Benjamin C. |journal=Astronomical Journal |volume=131 | issue=3 |page=1837 | year=2006 |doi=10.1086/499807 |title= Terrestrial Planet Formation. I. The Transition from Oligarchic Growth to Chaotic Growth |laysummary = http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~kenyon/pf/terra/index.html |laysource = Kenyon, Scott J. Personal web page | bibcode=2006AJ....131.1837K|arxiv = astro-ph/0503568 }}</ref> Objék-objék anu meujeuhna gedé téa bakal nangkep sabagian materi di lingkungan orbitna tur ngajadi planit. Samentara éta, protoplanét anu hasil nyingkahan tabrakan baris ngajadi [[satelit alami]] planit ngaliwatan prosés tangkapan gravitasi atawa tetep aya di sabuk objék lian tur ngajadi planit katé atawa [[benda kecil Tata Surya|banda leutik]]. Balukar énergi planetesimal leutik (sarta [[peluruhan radioaktif|paluruhan radioaktif]]) baris ngahaneutkeun planit anu eukeur tumuwuh, jadi éta planit sahanteuna satengah lééh. Interior planét mimiti béda-béda massana tur nyiptakeun inti anu leuwih padet.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Icarus |year=1987 |volume=69 | issue=2 |page=239 |last=Ida |first=Shigeru |author2=Nakagawa, Yoshitsugu; Nakazawa, Kiyoshi |title= The Earth's core formation due to the Rayleigh-Taylor instability |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(87)90103-5 |bibcode=1987Icar...69..239I}}</ref> Planit-planit kabumian anu leuwih leutik kaleungitan sabagian gedé atmosférna ku sabab akrési ieu, tatapi gas anu leungit bisa kagantikeun ku gas anu kaluar tina mantel jeung tubrukan [[komet]] (planit leutik bakal kaleungitan atmosfér anu dibeunangkeun ngaliwatan rupa-rupa jinis [[pelepasan atmosfer|mekanisme palepasan]]).<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kasting |first=James F. |title=Earth's early atmosphere |journal=Science |year=1993 |volume=259 |bibcode=1993Sci...259..920K |doi=10.1126/science.11536547 |pmid=11536547 |issue=5097 | pages=920–6}}</ref> Ngaliwatan rupa-rupa papanggihan sarta paniténan ngeunaan [[sistem keplanetan|sistim kaplanétan]] di sakuriling béntang-béntang sanés salian ti Tata Surya, para élmuwan parantos mampuh ngoréhan, ngoméan (ngarévisi), atanapi malah ngaganti tiori-tiori anu parantos aya. Tingkat [[metalisitas]], nyaéta hiji istilah astronomi anu ngajelaskeun ngeunaan kalimpahan [[elemen kimia|unsur kimia]] kalawan [[nomor atom|nomer atom]] anu langkung ageung batan 2 ([[helium|hélium]]), kiwari diyakinan janten faktor panangtu tina kamungkinan hiji béntang dikulilingan ku planét.<ref>{{cite press release |first1=David |last1=Aguilar |first2=Christine |last2=Pulliam |date=2004-01-06 |url=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/archive/pr0404.html |title=Lifeless Suns Dominated The Early Universe |publisher=Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> Ku kituna, sababaraha panalungtik boga sawangan yén [[bintang populasi I|béntang populasi I]] anu beunghar ku logam téh mibanda kamungkinan anu langkung ageung pikeun mibanda sistim planét anu langkung jéntré, upami dibandingkeun sareng [[bintang populasi II|béntang populasi II]] anu kandungan logamna kawatesan (kurang). == Tata Surya == [[File:Solar System size to scale.svg|ka|400px|jmpl|Planét sarta [[planét katé]] di Tata Surya ''(ukuran tiasa dibandingkeun, nanging anggangna henteu)'']] [[File:4 Terrestrial Planets Size Comp True Color.png|jmpl|400px|Planét bagian jero. Ti kénca ka katuhu: [[Mérkurius]], [[Vénus]], [[Bumi]], sarta [[Mars]] kalawan warna aslina. ''(ukuran tiasa dibandingkeun, nanging anggangna henteu)'']] [[File:Gas giants and the Sun (1 px = 1000 km).jpg|jmpl|400px|Opat raksasa gas; Jupiter, Saturnus, Uranus, sarta Néptunus ''(ukuran tiasa dibandingkeun, nanging anggangna henteu)'']] {{Utama|Tata Surya}} {{Tempo ogé|Daftar banda buleud mibanda gravitasi di Tata Surya}} Dumasar kana katetepan [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional|IAU]], aya dalapan planét sarta lima planét katé anu diaku di [[Tata Surya]]. Nurutkeun anggangna ti [[Panonpoé]] (ti mimiti anu pangcaketna dugi ka anu pangtebihna), éta planét-planét téh nyaéta: # [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] '''[[Merkurius|Mérkurius]]''' # [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] '''[[Venus|Vénus]]''' # [[File:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] '''[[Bumi]]''' # [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] '''[[Mars]]''' # [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] '''[[Jupiter]]''' # [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] '''[[Saturnus]]''' # [[File:Uranus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♅}}]] '''[[Uranus]]''' # [[File:Neptune symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♆}}]] '''[[Neptunus|Néptunus]]''' Jupiter téh planit panggedéna kalawan massa 318 kalieun Bumi, sedeng Mérkurius mah planit pangleutikna kalawan massa 0,055 kalieun Bumi. Planit di Tata Surya beunang dibagi ngajadi sababaraha katégori dumasar komposisina: * '''[[Planet kebumian|Daratan]]''': Planit-planit mirib Bumi anu beungeutna katutup [[batuan]]: Mérkurius, Vénus, Bumi, jeung Mars. Kalawan massa 0,055 kalieun Bumi, Mérkurius téh planit daratan pangleutikna (sakaligus planit pangleutikna) di Tata Surya, sedeng Bumi mah planit daratan panggedéna. * '''[[Raksasa gas]] (Jovian)''': Planit-planit anu kawangun tina material [[gas]] tur leuwih gedé ti manan planit kabumian: Jupiter, Saturnus, Uranus, Néputunus. Jupiter, kalawan massa 318 tikeleun Bumi, nya éta planit panggedéna di Tata Surya, demi Saturnus ngan sepertiluna jeung ukuran 95 tikeleun massa Bumi. ** '''[[Raksasa es|Raksasa és]]''', diwangun ku tina Uranus jeung Néptunus, nya éta subkelas raksasa és yang béda ti raksasa gas karana massana jauh leuwih leutik (ngan 14 jeung 17 tikeleun massa Bumi) tur saeutikna hidrogén jeung hêlium di atmosfér sakaligus proporsi batu jeung és anu justru leuwih luhur. * '''[[Planet katai|Planet katé]]''': Saméméh [[definisi planet IAU|kaputusan Agustus 2006]], sawatara objék diusulkeun minangka planit ku para astronom. Tatapi dina taun 2006, sababarah objék digolongkeun ulang ngajadi planit katé, béda jeung planit. Kiwari aya lima planit katé di Tata Surya anu diakuan hal ayana ku IAU: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, jeung Eris. Sababaraha objék lian di [[sabuk asteroid]] jeung [[sabuk Kuiper]] eukeur dipertimbangkeun; 50 di antarana kamungkinan gedéna diakuan. Aya 200 objék anu beunang ditimukeun sanggeus sakabéh sabuk Kuiper anggeus dijalajahan. Planit katé miboga ciri-ciri anu sarua jeung planit, tapi ogé aya sababaraha bédana, salah sahijina téh planit katé hanteu [[membersihkan lingkungan|dominan di orbitna]]. Saluyu dipinisina, kabéh planit katé téh anggota tina [[populasi]] anu leuwih gedé. Ceres téh banda panggedéna di sabuk astéroid, sedeng Pluto, Haumea, jeung makemake mah anggota sbauk Kuiper sarta Eris mah anggota [[cakram tersebar|cakram panggedéna]]. Sababaraha panaliti saperti [[Michael E. Brown|Mike Brown]] parcaya yén mungkin aya leuwih ti saratus [[objek trans-Neptunus|objék trans-Néptunus]] anu beunang digolongkeun sabagé planit katé per dipinisi IAU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/%7Embrown/dps.html |title=Astronomer Mike Brown |publisher=Gps.caltech.edu |accessdate=2011-11-04}}</ref><!---<ref>{{cite web | first=Brad |last=Amburn |title=Behind the Pluto Mission: An Interview with Project Leader Alan Stern |work=Space.com |date=2006-02-28 |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060228_stern_interview.html |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref>---> === Ciri-ciri planit === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; text-align:center" |- !|Jinis !|Ngaran !|Diameter <br> katulistiwa<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteA /> !|Massa<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteA /> !|Radius <br> orbit ([[Satuan astronomi|AU]]) !|[[Periode orbit]] <br> (taun)<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteA /> !|[[Inklinasi|Inklinasi <br> kana katulistiwa Matapoé]] (°) !|[[Eksentrisitas orbit|Ékséntrisitas <br> orbit]]<!--hyphen for small monitors--> !|[[Periode rotasi]] <br> (poé) !|[[Satelit alami|Bulan]] <br> anu diakuan<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteC /> !|[[Kemiringan sumbu]] (°) !|Cincin !|[[Atmosfer]] |- ! rowspan="4" style="background:#def;"|[[Planet kebumian|Planit daratan]] | style="text-align:left"|[[Merkurius|Mérkurius]] | 0,382 | 0,06 | 0,31–0,47 | 0,24 | 3,38 | 0,206 | 58,64 | 0 | 0,04 | tidak | minimal |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Venus|Vénus]] | 0,949 | 0,82 | 0,72 | 0,62 | 3,86 | 0,007 | −243,02 | 0 | 177,36 | tidak | [[Karbon dioksida|CO<sub>2</sub>]], [[Nitrogén|N<sub>2</sub>]] |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Bumi]]<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteB /> | 1,00 | 1,00 | 1,00 | 1,00 | 7,25 | 0,017 | 1,00 | [[Bulan|1]]<!--Moon (Luna)--> | 23,44 | tidak | N<sub>2</sub>, [[Oksigén|O<sub>2</sub>]], [[Argon|Ar]] |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Mars]] | 0,532 | 0,11 | 1,52 | 1,88 | 5,65 | 0,093 | 1,03 | [[Satelit Mars|2]]<!--Phobos and Deimos--> | 25,19 | tidak | CO<sub>2</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>, Ar |- ! rowspan="4" style="background:#def;"|[[Raksasa gas]] | style="text-align:left"|[[Jupiter]] | 11,209 | 317,8 | 5,20 | 11,86 | 6,09 | 0,048 | 0,41 | [[Satelit Jupiter|67]]<!--50 named, 67 verified, 67 known--> | 3,13 | [[Cincin Jupiter|ya]] | [[Hidrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]], [[Hélium|He]] |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Saturnus]] | 9,449 | 95,2 | 9,54 | 29,46 | 5,51 | 0,054 | 0,43 | [[Satelit Saturnus|62]]<!--53 named, 62 verified, ~200 known--> | 26,73 | [[Cincin Saturnus|ya]] | H<sub>2</sub>, He |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Uranus]] | 4,007 | 14,6 | 19,22 | 84,01 | 6,48 | 0,047 | −0,72 | [[Satelit Uranus|27]]<!--all known moons are named--> | 97,77 | [[Cincin Uranus|ya]] | H<sub>2</sub>, He, [[Metana|CH<sub>4</sub>]] |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Neptunus]] | 3,883 | 17,2 | 30,06 | 164,8 | 6,43 | 0,009 | 0,67 | [[Satelit Neptunus|13]]<!--all known moons are named--> | 28,32 | [[Cincin Neptunus|ya]] | H<sub>2</sub>, He, CH<sub>4</sub> |- ! rowspan="5" style="background:#def;"|[[Planet katai|Planit katé]] | style="text-align:left"|[[Ceres (planet katai)|Ceres]] | 0,08 | 0,000&nbsp;2 | 2,5–3,0 | 4,60 | 10,59 | 0,080 | 0,38 | 0 | ? | tidak | tidak ada |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Pluto]] | 0,18 | 0,002&nbsp;2 | 29,7–49,3 | 248,09 | 17,14 | 0,249 | −6,39 | [[Satelit Pluto|5]]<!--Charon, Nix, S/2011 P 1, Hydra--> | ? | ? | sementara |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Haumea (planet katai)|Haumea]] | 0,15×0,12×0,08 | 0,000&nbsp;7 | 35,2–51,5 | 282,76 | 28,19 | 0,189 | 0,16 | [[Satelit Haumea|2]]<!--Hi'iaka, Namaka--> | ? | ya | ? |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Makemake (planet katai)|Makemake]] | ~0,12 | 0,000&nbsp;7 | 38,5–53,1 | 309,88 | 28,96 | 0,159 | ? | 0 | ? | ? | ? <ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteD /> |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Eris (planet katai)|Eris]] | 0,19 | 0,002&nbsp;5 | 37,8–97,6 | ~557 | 44,19 | 0,442 | ~0,3 | [[Dysnomia (satelit)|1]]<!--Dysnomia--> | ? | ? | ? <ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteD /> |} <div class="references-small" style="margin-bottom:0;"> :{{note label|a|a|a}} Diukur relatif kana Bumi. :{{note label|b|b|b}} Ilikan artikel [[Bumi]] pikeun angka anu leuwih absolut. :{{note label|c|c|c}} Jupiter miboga satelit panglobana (67) di Tata Surya.<ref name="Sheppard">{{cite web |title=The Jupiter Satellite Page (Now Also The Giant Planet Satellite and Moon Page) |publisher=Carnegie Institution for Science |author=Scott S. Sheppard |url=http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/users/sheppard/satellites/ |accessdate=2013-04-12 |date=2013-01-04 |authorlink=Scott S. Sheppard }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090607094153/http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/users/sheppard/satellites/ |date=2009-06-07 }}</ref> :{{note label|d|d|d}} Saperti Pluto, waktu aya di [[Apsis|perihelion]], atmosfer saheulaanan kawangun. </div> == Periode rotasi == {{utama|Periode rotasi}} Périodeu rotasi hiji [[benda astronomi|banda]] [[astronomi]]s nya étw waktu anu dibutuhkeun pikeun nganggeuskeun sahiji révolusi muteran [[sumbu rotasi|sumbu rotasina]] relatif ka béntang di tukangna. Periodeu ieu béda jeung [[hari sinodis|poé matapoé]] planit, anu ngawengku rotasi tambahan pikeun minuhan bagian [[periode orbit]] planit salila sapoé. === Périodeu rotasi sababaraha banda angkasa === <center> {|class="wikitable" !Planit || colspan="2" | Périodeu rotasi |- |[[Matahari|Matapoé]]|| 25,379995 poé (katulistiwa)<ref>[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/WGCCRE/constants/iau2000_table1.html Rotation and pole position for the Sun and planets] Rotation period in days is 360° divided by the coefficient of ''d''.</ref><ref>{{pdflink|[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/ISPRS/PREPRINTS/IAU2000/IAU2000_preprint.pdf Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites: 2000]|215KB}} pp7–8</ref> <br> 35 poé (lintang luhur) || 25{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 7{{smallsup|m}} 11.6{{smallsup|s}} <br> 35{{smallsup|d}} |- |[[Merkurius|Mérkurius]]|| 58,6462 poé<ref name=Allen296>{{cite book|title=''Allen's Astrophysical Quantities''|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA296|author=Clabon Walter Allen and Arthur N. Cox|publisher=Springer|year=2000|isbn=0387987460|pages=296}}</ref> || 58{{smallsup|d}} 15{{smallsup|h}} 30{{smallsup|m}} 30{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Venus|Vénus]]|| –243,0187 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref name="negative">This rotation is negative because the pole which points north of the [[ecliptic]] rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets.</ref>|| –243{{smallsup|d}} 0{{smallsup|h}} 26{{smallsup|m}} |- |[[Bumi]]|| 0,99726968 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref>Reference adds about 1 ms to Earth's stellar day given in mean solar time to account for the length of Earth's mean solar day in excess of 86400 SI seconds.</ref> || 0{{smallsup|d}} 23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.100{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Bulan]]|| 27,321661 poé<ref name=Allen>{{cite book|title=''Allen's Astrophysical Quantities''|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA308|author=Clabon Walter Allen and Arthur N. Cox|publisher=Springer|year=2000|isbn=0387987460|pages=308}}</ref> <br> ([[Rotasi sinkronis|sinkronis]] kana Bumi) || 27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43{{smallsup|m}} 11.5{{smallsup|s}} <br> &nbsp; |- |[[Mars]]|| 1,02595675 poé<ref name=Allen296/> || 1{{smallsup|d}} 0{{smallsup|h}} 37{{smallsup|m}} 22.663{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[1 Ceres|Ceres]]|| 0,37809 poé<ref name="Chamberlain2007">{{cite journal |last=Chamberlain |first=Matthew A. |coauthors=Sykes, Mark V.; Esquerdo, Gilbert A. |title=Ceres lightcurve analysis – Period determination |journal=Icarus|volume=188 |issue=2|pages=451–456|year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.11.025 |bibcode=2007Icar..188..451C }}</ref> || 0{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 4{{smallsup|m}} 27.0{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Jupiter]]|| 0,4135344 poé (interior dalam)<ref name=mag>Rotation period of the deep interior is that of the planet's magnetic field.</ref> <br> 0,41007 poé (katulistiwa) <br> 0,41369942 poé (lintang luhur) || 0{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 55{{smallsup|m}} 29.37{{smallsup|s}}<ref name=Allen296/> <br> 0{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 50{{smallsup|m}} 30{{smallsup|s}}<ref name=Allen296/> <br> 0{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 55{{smallsup|m}} 43.63{{smallsup|s}}<ref name=Allen296/> |- |[[Saturnus]]|| 0,44403 poé (interior jero)<ref name=mag/> <br> 0,426 poé (katulistiwa) <br> 0,443 poé (lintang luhur) || 0{{smallsup|d}} 10{{smallsup|h}} 39{{smallsup|m}} 24{{smallsup|s}}<ref name=Allen296/> <br> 0{{smallsup|d}} 10{{smallsup|h}} 14{{smallsup|m}}<ref name=Allen296/> <br> 0{{smallsup|d}} 10{{smallsup|h}} 38{{smallsup|m}}<ref name=Allen296/> |- |[[Uranus]]|| –0,71833 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref name=negative/><ref name=mag/> || –0{{smallsup|d}} 17{{smallsup|h}} 14{{smallsup|m}} 24{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Neptunus|Néptunus]]|| 0,67125 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref name=mag/> || 0{{smallsup|d}} 16{{smallsup|h}} 6{{smallsup|m}} 36{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Pluto]]||–6,38718 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref name=negative/> <br> (sinkronis jeung [[Charon (satelit)|Charon]]) || –6{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 17{{smallsup|m}} 32{{smallsup|s}} <br> &nbsp; |- |[[Haumea (planet kerdil)|Haumea]]||0,163145 poé<ref name="hour"> {{cite journal |title=High-Precision Photometry of Extreme KBO 2003 EL61 |author=Pedro Lacerda, David Jewitt and Nuno Peixinho |date=2008-04-02 |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume= 135 |issue=5 |pages=1749–1756 |url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/1538-3881/135/5/1749 |accessdate=2008-09-22 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/135/5/1749 |bibcode=2008AJ....135.1749L}}</ref> || 0{{smallsup|d}} 3{{smallsup|h}} 54{{smallsup|m}} 56{{smallsup|s}} |} </center> == Planét luar surya == {{Utama|Planét luar surya}} [[File:Exoplanet Discovery Methods Bar.png|jmpl|320px|Éksoplanét dumasar kana taun papanggihanana (data dugi ka 1 Januari 2013)]] [[File:Kepler 20 - planet lineup.jpg|jmpl|ka|300px|Babandingan antara [[Kepler-20e]]<ref name="Kepler20e-20111220" /> sarta [[Kepler-20f]]<ref name="Kepler20f-20111220" /> upami dibandingkeun sareng [[Vénus]] sarta [[Bumi]].]] Planét luareun surya (''extrasolar planet'' atanapi ''exoplanet'') nyaéta planét anu perenahna aya di luareun Tata Surya. Dugi ka kiwari, parantos kapanggih rébu-rébu sistem planét sanésna di jagat raya. {{Extrasolar planet counts|full}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/ExoTables/nph-exotbls?dataset=planets|title=Exoplanet Archive Planet Counts|publisher=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121212212538/http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/ExoTables/nph-exotbls?dataset=planets |date=2012-12-12 }}</ref><ref name="kepler1700">{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Michele |last2=Harrington |first2=J.D. |title=NASA's Kepler Mission Announces a Planet Bonanza, 715 New Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/ames/kepler/nasas-kepler-mission-announces-a-planet-bonanza/ |date=February 26, 2014 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=February 26, 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226202703/http://www.nasa.gov/ames/kepler/nasas-kepler-mission-announces-a-planet-bonanza/ |date=February 26, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://phl.upr.edu/projects/habitable-exoplanets-catalog|title=The Habitable Exoplanets Catalog - Planetary Habitability Laboratory @ UPR Arecibo|publisher=}}</ref> Dina awal taun 1992, astronom radio [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] sarta [[Dale Frail]] mendakan dua planét anu ngurilingan [[pulsar]] [[PSR 1257+12]].<ref name="Wolszczan">{{cite doi|10.1038/355145a0}}</ref> Ieu papanggihan téh parantos dibuktikeun leres sarta diaku salaku detéksi pasti munggaran ngeunaan éksoplanét di dunya. Éta planét-planét pulsar téh diyakinan kawangun tina sésa-sésa [[supernova]] anu ngahasilkeun pulsar dina hambalan (tahap) kadua ngawujudna planét, atanapi mangrupa sésa inti batuan [[raksasa gas]] anu salamet tina bituna supernova sarta satuluyna pindah ka orbitna anu ayeuna. Papanggihan planét luar surya munggaran anu ngorbit béntang dérét utama lumangsung dina kaping 6 Oktober 1995, nalika [[Michel Mayor]] sarta [[Didier Queloz]] ti [[Universitas Jenéwa]] mendakan hiji éksoplanét di sakuriling béntang [[51 Pegasi]]. Ti {{Extrasolar planet counts|planet_count}} planét luar surya anu parantos kapanggih dugi ka {{Extrasolar planet counts|asof}},<ref name="Encyclopaedia" /> sabagian ageung di antarana mibanda massa anu tiasa dibandingkeun sareng Jupiter, atanapi malah langkung ageung deui. Aya ogé planét anu massana langkung alit batan Mérkurius, sarta aya ogé anu langkung ageung batan Jupiter.<ref name="Encyclopaedia" /> Planét luar surya pangalitna anu kantos kapanggih téh nyaéta anu ngorbit sésa-sésa béntang anu disebut [[pulsar]], contona [[PSR B1257+12]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Barbara|last=Kennedy|title=Scientists reveal smallest extra-solar planet yet found|publisher=SpaceFlight Now|date=2005-02-11|url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0502/11exoplanet/}}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Enggeus aya sakitar salusin planit luareun surya anu ditimukeun anu 10 tepi ka 20 kalieun massana Bumi,<ref name="Encyclopaedia" /> kayaning planit-planit anu ngorbit béntang [[Mu Arae]], [[55 Cancri]], jeung [[Gliese 436|GJ 436]].<ref>{{cite press release |first1=Nuno |last1=Santos |first2=François |last2=Bouchy |first3=Sylvie |last3=Vauclair |first4=Didier |last4=Queloz |first5=Michel |last5=Mayor |title=Fourteen Times the Earth |publisher=European Southern Observatory |date=2004-08-25 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso0427/ |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> Katégori anu nembé muncul nyaéta "[[super-Bumi]]", anu disangka mangrupa [[planet kebumian|planét kabumian]] kalawan ukuran anu langkung ageung batan Bumi nanging langkung alit batan Néptunus atanapi Uranus. Dugi ka danget ieu, sakitar 20 super-Bumi (gumantung kana wates massana) parantos kapanggih, kalebet [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] sarta [[MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb]], nyaéta dua planét és anu kapanggih ngaliwatan [[mikrolensa gravitasi]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Small Planet Discovered Orbiting Small Star |work=ScienceDaily |year=2008 |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080602131105.htm |accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first=J.-P. |last=Beaulieu |title=Discovery of a Cool Planet of 5.5 Earth Masses Through Gravitational Microlensing |journal=Nature |date=2006-01-26 |volume=439 |pages=437–440 |doi = 10.1038/nature04441 |author2=D. P. Bennett; P. Fouqué; A. Williams; ''et al.'' |pmid=16437108 |issue=7075 |bibcode=2006Natur.439..437B|arxiv = astro-ph/0601563 }}</ref> sarta [[Kepler 10b]], hiji planét anu diaméterna 1,4 kali lipat Bumi (ngajantenkeunana super-Bumi pangalitna anu kantos diukur).<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA'S Kepler Mission Discovers Its First Rocky Planet |publisher=NASA |year=2011 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/rocky_planet.html |accessdate=2011-06-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627200219/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/rocky_planet.html |date=2015-06-27 }}</ref> Salian ti éta, aya lima tina genep planét anu ngalingkung béntang [[katai merah]] [[Gliese 581]]. [[Gliese 581 d]] sacara gurat badag mibanda massa 7,7 kali lipat Bumi,<ref>{{cite web |title=Gliese 581 d |work=The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia |url=http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?st=Gl+581 |accessdate=2008-09-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510094317/http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?st=Gl+581 |date=2012-05-10 }}</ref> sedengkeun massa [[Gliese 581 c]] nyaéta lima kali lipat Bumi sarta kawitna dianggap salaku planét kabumian munggaran anu kapanggih dina [[zona terhunikan]] (zona anu tiasa dicicingan) hiji béntang.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6589157.stm|title=New 'super-Earth' found in space|accessdate = 2008-08-23|date=25 April 2007|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Panalungtikan anu langkung jero nétélakeun yén ieu planét téh teuing caket kana béntangna; nanging planét anu pangtebihna dina ieu sistem, nyaéta Gliese 581 d, sanajan langkung tiis batan Bumi, tetep mibanda kamungkinan tiasa dicicingan upami atmosfirna ngandung gas imah kaca dina jumlah anu nyukupan.<ref name="blo07">{{cite journal |bibcode=2007A&A...476.1365V |author=von Bloh et al. |year=2007 |title=The Habitability of Super-Earths in Gliese 581 |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=476 |issue=3 |pages=1365–1371 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20077939|arxiv = 0705.3758 |last2=Bounama |first2=C. |last3=Cuntz |first3=M. |last4=Franck |first4=S. }}</ref> Super-Bumi sanésna, [[Kepler-22b]], kapanggih ngorbit dina zona anu tiasa dicicingan (zona terhunikan) tina béntangna.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Borucki|first=William J|url=http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1112/1112.1640.pdf|title=Kepler-22b: A 2.4 Earth-radius Planet in the Habitable Zone of a Sun-like Star|bibcode=2012ApJ...745..120B|last2=Koch|last3=Batalha|last4=Bryson|last5=Rowe|last6=Fressin|last7=Torres|last8=Caldwell|last9=Christensen-Dalsgaard|volume=745|year=2012|pages=120|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/745/2/120|issue=2}}</ref> Dina kaping 20 Désémber 2011, tim [[Kepler (wahana antariksa)|Téléskop Antariksa Kepler]] mendakan [[planet luar surya]] [[planet kebumian|saukur Bumi]] munggaran, nyaéta [[Kepler-20e]]<ref name="Kepler20e-20111220" /> sarta [[Kepler-20f]],<ref name="Kepler20f-20111220" /> anu kapanggih nuju ngalingkung béntang anu sarupa sareng Panonpoé ([[analog Matahari]]), nyaéta [[Kepler-20]].<ref name="NASA-20111220" /><ref name="Nature-20111220" /><ref name="NYT-20111220" /> [Image of Kepler-22b in the habitable zone of its star] [[File:Exoplanet Comparison HR 8799 c.png|jmpl|kénca|250px|Babandingan ukuran [[HR 8799 c]] (abu-abu) sareng [[Jupiter]]. Kalolobaan éksoplanét anu kapanggih mibanda ukuran anu langkung ageung batan Jupiter.]] Dugi ka danget ieu, masih tacan jéntré naha planét-planét raksasa anu nembé kapanggih téh sarupa sareng raksasa gas di Tata Surya urang atanapi saenyana mah bénten jinisna, contona sapertos raksasa amonia atanapi [[planet karbon]]. Sababaraha planét anu nembé kapanggih sarta katelah ku sebutan [[Jupiter panas]] mibanda orbit anu kacida caketna sareng béntang indukna, sarta wangun orbitna ampir buleud sampurna. Éta planét-planét téh nampi [[radiasi matahari|radiasi béntang]] anu langkung seueur batan raksasa gas di Tata Surya, sahingga janten patarosan naha éta planét téh kalebet jinis anu sarua atanapi sanés. Salian ti éta, aya sakelompok banda langit jinis Jupiter panas anu disebut [[planet Chthonia]], anu disangka éksis di sababaraha tempat. Planét Chthonia ieu mibanda orbit anu sakitu caketna kana béntangna, dugi ka atmosfirna sorangan kabawa palid (kumbah) ku radiasi béntangna. Seueur banda langit jinis Jupiter panas anu kapanggih nuju ngalaman prosés palidna atmosfir, nanging dugi ka taun 2008, tacan aya sahiji-hiji acan planét Chthonia anu kapanggih sacara pasti.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lecavelier des Etangs |first=A. |author2=Vidal-Madjar, A.; McConnell, J. C.; Hébrard, G. |title=Atmospheric escape from hot Jupiters |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=418 | issue=1 |pages=L1–L4 |bibcode=2004A&A...418L...1L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20040106|arxiv = astro-ph/0403369 }}</ref> Paniténan planét luar surya anu langkung taliti téh peryogi generasi pakakas anu énggal, sapertos [[téléstop luar angkasa]]. Dina danget ieu, wahana antariksa [[COROT]] sarta [[Misi Kepler|Kepler]] nuju milarian variasi luminositas béntang jalaran ayana [[transit astronomi|transit planét]]. Sababaraha proyék pangwangunan jaringan t सकारात्मकéléskop luar angkasa ogé parantos diajukeun. Éta proyék-proyék téh mibanda tujuan pikeun milarian planét luar surya anu massana satara sareng Bumi. Sababaraha di antarana nyaéta [[Terrestrial Planet Finder]] sarta [[Space Interferometry Mission]] ti NASA, ogé [[PEGASE]] ti CNES.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.spacetoday.org/DeepSpace/Stars/Planets/PlanetFindingMissions.html |title =Future American and European Planet Finding Missions |publisher = Space Today Online |editor = Anthony R. Curtis |accessdate = 2008-02-06}}</ref> [[New Worlds Mission]] mangrupa pakakas palengkep anu beroperasi sareng [[Téléskop Antariksa James Webb]]. Nanging hanjakalna, anggaran pikeun ieu proyék-proyék téh masih kénéh tacan jéntré. Spektrum planét luar surya munggaran kapanggih dina bulan Pébruari 2007 ([[HD 209458 b]] sarta [[HD 189733 b]]).<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/news/251-ssc2007-04-NASA-s-Spitzer-First-To-Crack-Open-Light-of-Faraway-Worlds |title=NASA's Spitzer First To Crack Open Light of Faraway Worlds |date=2007-02-21 |first1=Tabatha |last1=Thompson |first2=Whitney |last2=Clavin |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology |accessdate=2011-11-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071015221757/http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/releases/ssc2007-04/release.shtml |archivedate=2007-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Richardson |first=L. Jeremy |author2=Deming, Drake; Horning, Karen; Seager, Sara; Harrington, Joseph |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=445 title=A spectrum of an extrasolar planet |doi=10.1038/nature05636 |pmid=17314975 |issue=7130 |bibcode=2007Natur.445..892R | pages=892–5|arxiv = astro-ph/0702507 }}</ref> Frékuénsi mucunghulna planét-planét kabumian sapertos kitu téh mangrupa salah sahiji variabel dina [[persamaan Drake]] anu digunakeun pikeun ngira-ngira jumlah [[kehidupan luar Bumi|peradaban cerdas]] di galaksi Bima Sakti.<ref>{{cite news|last=Drake|first=Frank|title=The Drake Equation Revisited|publisher=Astrobiology Magazine|date=2003-09-29|url=http://www.astrobio.net/index.php?option=com_retrospection&task=detail&id=610|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110628180502/http://www.astrobio.net/index.php?option=com_retrospection&task=detail&id=610|archivedate=2011-06-28|accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> == Banda mibanda massa planét == '''Banda mibanda massa planét''' (''Objek bermassa planet''), '''PMO''', atanapi '''planémo''' nyaéta banda langit anu massana aya dina watesan définisi planét: cekap ageung pikeun mibanda kasatimbangan hidrostatik (buleud alatan gravitasina sorangan), nanging henteu cekap ageung pikeun mibanda fusi inti sapertos béntang.<ref>G. Basri & E.M. Brown, 2006. ''Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences'', '''34''': 193–216</ref> Luyu sareng définisina, sadaya planét téh mangrupa ''banda mibanda massa planét'', nanging tujuan tina ieu istilah téh nyaéta pikeun ngajelaskeun banda-banda anu henteu minuhan sarat salaku planét sacara umum. Objék-objék kasebut di antarana nyaéta [[planét katé]], [[satelit alami|satelit]] anu ukuranna langkung ageung, planét pangumbara anu henteu ngorbit kana béntang (sapertos planét liar anu kakaluarkeun tina sistemna), sarta objék anu kawangun tina prosés runtuhna méga gas (''cloud collapse'') tinimbang akrési (kadangkala disebut ogé [[katai sub-coklat]]). === Planét liar === {{Utama|Planét liar}} Sababaraha [[simulasi komputer]] ngeunaan ngawujudna sistim béntang sarta planét némbongkeun yén sajumlahing banda mibanda massa planét bakal kalungtik (kabalang) ka [[luar angkasa|luar angkasa]] antarbéntang.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lissauer | first= J. J. | title= Timescales for Planetary Accretion and the Structure of the Protoplanetary disk | journal= Icarus | volume= 69 | issue=2 | pages=249–265 | year=1987 | doi=10.1016/0019-1035(87)90104-7 | bibcode=1987Icar...69..249L}}</ref> Sababaraha élmuwan mibanda pamadegan yén banda sapertos kitu anu kapanggih ngumbara di jomantara téh kedah digolongkeun salaku "planét", nanging sabagian deui boga sawangan yén éta objék téh bisa jadi mangrupa béntang anu mibanda massa handap.<ref name="Luhman">{{cite journal | journal=Astrophysical Journal |last=Luhman |first=K. L. |author2=Adame, Lucía; D'Alessio, Paola; Calvet, Nuria |title= Discovery of a Planetary-Mass Brown Dwarf with a Circumstellar Disk |volume=635 | issue=1 |pages=L93 |doi=10.1086/498868 |year= 2005 |laysummary=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzerf-20051129.html |laysource=NASA Press Release |laydate=2005-11-29 |bibcode=2005ApJ...635L..93L|arxiv = astro-ph/0511807 }}</ref><ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |url=http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/happenings/20051129/ |title=A Planet with Planets? Spitzer Finds Cosmic Oddball |last=Clavin |first=Whitney |date=November 9, 2005 |work=Spitzer Space Telescope Newsroom |accessdate=2009-11-18 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070711171654/http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/happenings/20051129/ | archivedate = July 11, 2007}}</ref> === Katai sub-coklat === {{Utama|Katai sub-coklat}} Béntang kawangun ngaliwatan prosés runtuhna gravitasi méga gas (''cloud collapse''), nanging banda-banda anu langkung alit ogé tiasa kawangun ngaliwatan prosés runtuhna méga anu sarupa. Banda mibanda massa planét anu kawangun ku cara kitu téh kadangkala disebut ogé [[katai sub-coklat]]. Katai sub-coklat tiasa ngumbara sacara bébas (contona [[Cha 110913-773444]]) atanapi ngorbit kana banda langit anu langkung ageung (contona [[2MASS J04414489+2301513]]). Dina taun 2006, komunitas astronom kantos yakin yén maranéhna parantos mendakan sistim binér katai sub-coklat, nyaéta [[Oph 162225-240515]], anu ku nu manggihanana disebut salaku "planémo" atanapi "banda mibanda massa planét". Nanging, dumasar kana analisis panganyarna, ditetepkeun yén massa masing-masing objék kasebut téh tétéla langkung ageung batan 13 kali massa Jupiter, sahingga duanana digolongkeun salaku [[katai coklat]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Wide Brown Dwarf Binary Oph 1622–2405 and Discovery of A Wide, Low Mass Binary in Ophiuchus (Oph 1623–2402): A New Class of Young Evaporating Wide Binaries? |journal= Astrophysical Journal |author=Close, Laird M. ''et al.'' |volume=660 | issue=2 |page=1492 |doi=10.1086/513417 |year=2007 |arxiv=astro-ph/0608574 |bibcode=2007ApJ...660.1492C | last2=Zuckerman | first2=B. | last3=Song | first3=Inseok | last4=Barman | first4=Travis | last5=Marois | first5=Christian | last6=Rice | first6=Emily L. | last7=Siegler | first7=Nick | last8=MacIntosh | first8=Bruce | last9=Becklin | first9=E. E.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Luhman |first=K. L. |year=2007 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |title=Ophiuchus 1622–2405: Not a Planetary-Mass Binary |volume=659 |issue=2 |pages=1629–36 |doi=10.1086/512539 |last2=Allers |first2=K. N. |last3=Jaffe |first3=D. T. |last4=Cushing |first4=M. C. |last5=Williams |first5=K. A. |last6=Slesnick |first6=C. L. |last7=Vacca |first7=W. D. |bibcode=2007ApJ...659.1629L|arxiv = astro-ph/0701242 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/planet_photo_040910.html |title=Likely First Photo of Planet Beyond the Solar System |first=Robert Roy |last=Britt | work=Space.com |date=2004-09-10 |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> === Tilas béntang === Dina sistim [[bintang biner|béntang binér]] anu caket, salah sahiji béntang tiasa kaleungitan massana jalaran diseuseup ku béntang sanésna anu langkung beurat (tempo [[pulsar bertenaga akresi]]). Béntang anu nyusut kasebut satuluyna robah janten banda mibanda massa planét. Contona nyaéta hiji objék mibanda massa Jupiter anu ngorbit [[pulsar]] [[PSR J1719-1438]].<ref>{{cite journal |arxiv=1108.5201 |bibcode=2011Sci...333.1717B |doi=10.1126/science.1208890 |title=Transformation of a Star into a Planet in a Millisecond Pulsar Binary |year=2011 |last1=Bailes |first1=M. |last2=Bates |first2=S. D. |last3=Bhalerao |first3=V. |last4=Bhat |first4=N. D. R. |last5=Burgay |first5=M. |last6=Burke-Spolaor |first6=S. |last7=d'Amico |first7=N. |last8=Johnston |first8=S. |last9=Keith |first9=M. J. |journal=Science |volume=333 |issue=6050 |pages=1717–20 |pmid=21868629}}</ref> === Planét satelit sarta planét sabuk === Sababaraha satelit mibanda ukuran anu sarua atanapi langkung ageung batan [[Mérkurius]], contona [[satelit Galileo]] sarta [[Titan (satelit)|Titan]] nu Jupiter. [[Alan Stern]] mibanda pamadegan yén lokasi (orbit) téh sanés mangrupa pasualan utama, sarta mung ciri-ciri géofisikna hungkul anu kedah diperhatoskeun dina nangtukeun wangenan (définisi) planét. Anjeunna ngusulkeun istilah ''planét satelit'' pikeun nyebut satelit anu mibanda ukuran saukur planét. Pon kitu deui, planét-planét katé di [[sabuk asteroid]] sarta [[sabuk Kuiper]] téh kedah dianggap salaku planét nurutkeun Stern.<ref name="satelliteplanet">{{cite web |url=http://news.discovery.com/space/should-large-moons-be-called-satellite-planets.html#post-a-comment |title=Should Large Moons Be Called 'Satellite Planets'? |publisher=News.discovery.com |date=2010-05-14 |accessdate=2011-11-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505221146/http://news.discovery.com/space/should-large-moons-be-called-satellite-planets.html#post-a-comment |date=2012-05-05 }}</ref> == Ciri-ciri == Sanaos masing-masing planét mibanda ciri fisik anu mandiri (khas), aya sababaraha sasaruaan di antawisna. Ciri-ciri sapertos cingcin atanapi satelit alami, dugi ka danget ieu nembé tiasa ditalungtik dina planét-planét di Tata Surya, sedengkeun dina planét luar surya mah aya deui ciri-ciri sanésna. === Ciri-ciri dinamis === {{Tempo ogé|Hukum gerakan planét Kepler}} ==== Orbit ==== [[File:TheKuiperBelt Orbits Pluto Ecliptic.svg|jmpl|ka|300px|Orbit planét Néptunus upami dibandingkeun sareng [[Pluto]]. Tingal perpanjangan orbit Pluto dibandingkeun Néptunus ([[ékstréntisitas orbit|ékstréntisitas]]), sarta juru ékliptikna anu ageung ([[inklinasi]]).]] == Orbit jeung Révolusi == Dumasar kana wangenan (definisi) panganyarna, sakabéh planét kudu ngurilingan (révolusi) hiji béntang, sahingga potensi ayana "[[planét liar]]" dianggap euweuh. Dina Tatasurya, sakabéh planét ngorbit ka [[Panonpoé]] kalayan arah anu sarua jeung rotasi Panonpoé (lawan arah jarum jam upami ditingal tina kutub kalérna). Nanging, sahenteuna aya hiji planét luar surya, nyaéta [[WASP-17b]], anu kapendak ngorbit kalayan arah anu papalingpang (''retrograde'') jeung rotasi béntangna.<ref>{{cite arxiv | author = D. R. Anderson ''et al.'' | title = WASP-17b: an ultra-low density planet in a probable retrograde orbit | eprint = 0908.1553 | class = astro-ph.EP | year = 2009 }}</ref> Lilana waktu pikeun planét ngalakukeun sakali révolusi disebut [[Période sidéréal]] atawa hiji '''[[taun]]'''.<ref name="young">{{cite book|first=Charles Augustus|last=Young|year=1902|title=Manual of Astronomy: A Text Book|publisher=Ginn & company|pages=324–7}}</ref> Lilana taun hiji planét gumantung kana jarakna ti béntang; beuki jauh jarak planét tina béntangna, beuki jauh ogé lintasan anu kudu ditempuh sarta beuki laun kacepetanana, sabab pangaruh [[gravitasi]] béntangna henteu pati kuat. Kusabab euweuh orbit planét anu bentukna buleud sampurna (''lingkaran sempurna''), jarak unggal planét téh robah-robah sapanjang taun. * Titik pangdeukeutna planét jeung béntangna disebut [[periastron]] (di Tatasurya disebut [[perihelion]]). * Titik pangjauhna disebut [[apastron]] ([[aphelion]]). Nalika hiji planét ngadeukeutan periastron (titik pangcaketna), kacepetanana bakal nambahan jalaran énergi poténsial gravitasi robah janten énergi kinétik; sabalikna, nalika éta planét ngadeukeutan apastron (titik pangtebihna), kacepetanana bakal ngirangan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dvorak, R.; Kurths, J.; Freistetter, F.|year=2005|title=Chaos And Stability in Planetary Systems|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=3-540-28208-4}}</ref> Saban orbit planét diwangun ku sajumlahing [[elemen orbit|elemén]]: * ''[[Ékséntrisitas orbit|Ékséntrisitas]]'' hiji orbit nuduhkeun sabaraha lonjong orbit hiji planét. Planét anu ékséntrisitasna handap mibanda orbit anu ampir buleud (melingkar), sedengkeun planét kalawan ékséntrisitas luhur mibanda orbit anu langkung élips. Planét-planét di Tata Surya mibanda ékséntrisitas anu kacida handapna, sahingga orbitna méh nyaruaan bunderan.<ref name="young"/> Komét sarta banda-banda sabuk Kuiper (kaasup sababaraha planét luar surya) mibanda ékséntrisitas anu kacida luhurna, sahingga orbitna tiasa janten kacida élipsna.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Eccentricity evolution of giant planet orbits due to circumstellar disk torques |author=Moorhead, Althea V.; Adams, Fred C. |journal=Icarus |year=2008 |volume=193 |issue=2 |page=475 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.07.009 |arxiv=0708.0335 |bibcode=2008Icar..193..475M}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Planets – Kuiper Belt Objects |work=The Astrophysics Spectator |date=2004-12-15 | url=http://www.astrophysicsspectator.com/topics/planets/KuiperBelt.html |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> * [[File:Semimajoraxis.svg|jmpl|250px|Ilustrasi sumbu semi-mayor]] ''[[Sumbu semi-mayor]]'' nyaéta anggang (jarak) ti hiji planét ka titik satengah jalan dina sapanjang diaméter orbit élips pangpanjangna (tingal gambar). Ieu anggang téh teu sarua sareng apastronna, jalaran teu aya hiji ogé orbit planét anu titik tengahna pas pisan perenahna aya dina béntang.<ref name="young" /> * ''Inklinasi'' planét nuduhkeun sabaraha tebih luhur atanapi handapna posisi planét tina widang référénsina. Di Tata Surya, widang référénsina nyaéta widang orbit Bumi anu disebut [[ékliptika]]. Kanggo planét luar surya, widang anu disebut ''widang langit'' ieu mangrupa widang garis paneuteup tina panénjo di Bumi.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://astrowww.phys.uvic.ca/~tatum/celmechs.html|title=Celestial Mechanics|year=2007|chapter=17. Visual binary stars|first=J. B.|last=Tatum|accessdate=2008-02-02|publisher=Personal web page}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706031613/http://astrowww.phys.uvic.ca/~tatum/celmechs.html |date=2007-07-06 }}</ref> Kadalapan planét Tata Surya perenahna kacida caketna kana ékliptika; sedengkeun komét sarta banda [[sabuk Kuiper]] sapertos Pluto mibanda juru (sudut) anu langkung ékstrim kana ékliptika.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Correlation between Inclination and Color in the Classical Kuiper Belt | last=Trujillo |first=Chadwick A. |author2= Brown, Michael E. |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=2002 |bibcode=2002ApJ...566L.125T | volume=566 |issue=2 | pages=L125 |doi=10.1086/339437|arxiv = astro-ph/0201040 }}</ref> Titik nalika planét meuntas di luhur sarta di handap widang référénsina disebut [[nodus naik]] sarta [[nodus turun]].<ref name="young" /> [[Bujur nodus naik]] nyaéta juru antara bujur 0 widang référénsi sarta nodus naik planét. [[Argumén periapsis]] (atanapi perihelion di Tata Surya) nyaéta juru antara nodus naik planét sarta titik pangcaketna kana béntangna.<ref name="young" /> ==== Kamiringan sumbu ==== [[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|jmpl|ka|250px|Kamiringan sumbu Bumi kira-kira 23°.]] Planét ogé mibanda [[kamiringan sumbu]] anu rupa-rupa darajatna. Kamiringan sumbu perenahna dina juru (sudut) kana [[bidang Referensi|widang]] [[inklinasi|khatulistiwa béntangna]]. Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun jumlah cahaya anu ditarima ku saban belahan planét téh teu angger sapanjang taun; nalika belahan kalér ngajauhan béntang, belahan kidul justru ngadeukeutan béntang, pon kitu deui sabalikna. Jalaran kitu, saban planét mibanda [[musim|usum]]; nyaéta parobahan iklim sapanjang taun. Masa nalika saban belahan aya dina titik pangtebihna atanapi pangcaketna tina béntangna disebut [[titik balik matahari]] (solstis). Saban planét mibanda dua titik balik dina orbitna; nalika hiji belahan nepi kana titik balik usum panas (beurang panglilana), belahan sanésna nepi kana titik balik usum tiris (beurang pangpondokna). Jumlah cahaya sarta panas anu teu angger ieu nyiptakeun parobahan pola cuaca taunan pikeun saban belahan planét. Kamiringan sumbu Jupiter kacida alitna sahingga variasi usumna ogé sakedik pisan. Di sisi sanésna, Uranus mibanda kamiringan sumbu anu kacida ageungna dugi ka tiasa ngalaman beurang abadi atanapi peuting abadi nalika nepi kana titik balikna.<ref name="Weather">{{cite web |last=Harvey |first=Samantha |date=2006-05-01 |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=725 |title=Weather, Weather, Everywhere? |publisher=NASA |accessdate=2008-08-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414055517/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=725 |date=2009-04-14 }}</ref> Di kalangan planét luar surya, kamiringan sumbu téh tacan kanyahoan sacara pasti, sanaos seueur banda Jupiter panas anu dipercaya mibanda saeutik kamiringan sumbu atanapi taya pisan jalaran perenahna anu kacida caketna sareng béntangna.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Obliquity Tides on Hot Jupiters |author=Winn, Joshua N.; Holman, Matthew J. |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year=2005 | doi=10.1086/432834 | volume=628 |issue=2 |pages=L159 |bibcode=2005ApJ...628L.159W|arxiv = astro-ph/0506468 }}</ref> ==== Rotasi ==== Planét muter (berotasi) dina sumbu sawangan (kasat mata) anu nembus titik pusatna. [[Periode rotasi]] hiji planét disebut ogé [[hari|poé béntang]]. Lolobana planét di Tata Surya berotasi kalayan arah anu sarua sareng orbitna, nyaéta berlawanan arah jarum jam upami ditingal tina [[Kutub benda astronomi#Kutub geografis|kutub kalér]] Panonpoé, iwal [[Vénus]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=Rotation of Venus: Period Estimated from Radar Measurements |author=Goldstein, R. M.; Carpenter, R. L. |year=1963 |journal =Science |volume=139 |doi=10.1126/science.139.3558.910 |pmid=17743054 |issue=3558 |bibcode=1963Sci...139..910G |pages=910–1}}</ref> sarta [[Uranus]]<ref>{{cite journal |contribution=Rotational properties of Uranus and Neptune |first=M. J. S. |last=Belton |author2=Terrile R. J. |title=Uranus and Neptune |year=1984 |journal=In its Uranus and Neptune pp. 327–347 (SEE N85-11927 02-91) |bibcode=1984urnp.nasa..327B |volume=2330 |page=327 |editor=Bergstralh, J. T.}}</ref> anu muterna saluyu sareng arah jarum jam. [Image of planetary rotation directions in the solar system] Nanging, kamiringan sumbu Uranus anu kacida ageungna téh ngabalukarkeun ayana bédana konvénsi ngeunaan kutub mana anu disebut "kalér" sarta naha éta planét téh muter saluyu sareng arah jarum jam atanapi sanés.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Outer Worlds; Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and Beyond|pages=195–206|year=2006|first=Michael P.|last=Borgia|publisher=Springer New York}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, sakumaha baé konvénsina, Uranus mibanda [[rotasi mundur]] (rétrograd) upami dibandingkeun sareng orbitna. Rotasi hiji planét tiasa kawangun ku sababaraha faktor nalika prosés ngawujudna. [[Momentum sudut]] bersihna tiasa kacipta ku momentum sudut anu asalna tina objék-objék akrési. Akrési gas ku raksasa gas ogé mangaruhan kana momentum sudut. Dina tahapan ahir ngawujudna planét, [[proses stokastik]] mangrupa akrési protoplanét tiasa ngarobah sumbu puter planét sacara acak.<ref name="araa31">{{cite journal | title=Planet formation |last=Lissauer | series=31 |first=Jack J. |journal=Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics |volume=(A94-12726 02–90) | issue=1 |pages=129–174 |year=1993 |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001021 |bibcode=1993ARA&A..31..129L}}</ref> Aya bédana lilana poé anu kacida jauhna antarplanét. Vénus peryogi 243 poé Bumi pikeun sakali rotasi, sedengkeun raksasa gas mah mung peryogi sababaraha jam hungkul.<ref>{{cite web |title=Planet tables |url=http://www.astronomynotes.com/tables/tablesb.htm |first=Nick |last=Strobel |publisher=astronomynotes.com |accessdate=2008-02-01}}</ref> Période rotasi planét luar surya mah tacan kanyahoan sacara pasti. Nanging, perenahna anu caket kana béntangna téh ngandung harti yén banda-banda [[Jupiter panas]] mibanda sifat [[penguncian gelombang|kakonci sacara tidal]] (orbitna sinkron sareng rotasina). Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun éta planét ngan némbongkeun hiji sisi ka béntangna, sahingga hiji sisi salawasna beurang, sedengkeun sisi sanésna salawasna peuting.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Magnetically-Driven Planetary Radio Emissions and Application to Extrasolar Planets | last=Zarka |first=Philippe |author2=Treumann, Rudolf A.; Ryabov, Boris P.; Ryabov, Vladimir B. |year=2001 |journal=Astrophysics & Space Science |volume=277 |issue=1/2 |page=293 |doi = 10.1023/A:1012221527425|bibcode = 2001Ap&SS.277..293Z }}</ref> ==== Meresihan orbit ==== Ciri dinamis utama anu nangtukeun hiji planét nyaéta éta banda langit téh parantos [[membersihkan lingkungan|meresihan lingkungan]] orbitna. Planét anu parantos meresihan lingkunganana mibanda massa anu cekap pikeun nyapu sadaya [[planetesimal]] dina jalur orbitna. Hasilna, éta planét téh ngorbit kana béntangna sacara tetep, sarta henteu babagi orbit sareng sababaraha objék sanés anu ukuranna mirupa. Ciri ieu kacantum dina [[definisi planet 2006|définisi resmi planét]] [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] bulan Agustus 2006. Kritéria kasebut henteu ngawengku banda-banda ka-planét-an sapertos [[Pluto]], [[Eris (planet katai)|Eris]], sarta [[Ceres (planet katai)|Ceres]], sahingga maranéhna digolongkeun salaku [[planét katé]].<ref name="IAU" /> Sanaos dugi ka ayeuna ieu kritéria téh nembé lumaku di Tata Surya hungkul, sajumlahing sistim luar surya anom (muda) kapanggih mibanda bukti ayana prosés meresihan orbit dina cakram sirkumbéntangna.<ref>{{cite arxiv |title=The Total Number of Giant Planets in Debris Disks with Central Clearings |date=2007-07-12 |author=Faber, Peter; Quillen, Alice C. |eprint=0706.1684 |class=astro-ph}}</ref> === Ciri-ciri fisik === ==== Massa ==== Ciri fisik utama anu nangtukeun hiji planét nyaéta naha éta banda langit téh cukup ageung pikeun maksa gravitasi sorangan ngawasa (ngadominasi) [[gaya elektromagnetik]] anu mungkus struktur fisikna, sahingga nyiptakeun [[kesetimbangan hidrostatik]]. Ieu ngandung harti yén sadaya planét téh mibanda wangun sfer (bola) atanapi sferoidal. Nepi ka titik massa tinangtu, wangun hiji objék téh bisa waé teu tangtu (acak), nanging upami parantos ngaliwatan éta titik (anu variasina gumantung kana susunan kimiawi bahanna), gravitasi bakal mimiti narik éta objék ka puseur massana dugi ka éta objék téh ngawujud jadi bola.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Dwarf Planets |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/dwarfplanets/ |authorlink=Michael E. Brown |last=Brown |first=Michael E. |work=California Institute of Technology |year=2006 |accessdate=2008-02-01}}</ref> Massa ogé mangrupa ciri utama anu ngabédakeun planét sareng [[béntang]]. Wates massa luhur pikeun hiji planét nyaéta 13 kali massa Jupiter (13 MJ) pikeun objék-objék kalawan [[kelimpahan isotop]] panonpoé. Upami langkung ti éta, hiji objék bakal mibanda kaayaan anu pas pikeun ngayakeun [[fusi nuklir]]. Sajabi ti Panonpoé, teu aya deui objék mibanda massa sapertos kitu di Tata Surya; nanging aya éksoplanét anu ukuranana saukur Panonpoé. Wates 13 MJ ieu tacan diaku sacara universal, sarta [[Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia]] masih ngasupkeun objék-objék mibanda massa 20 kali Jupiter,<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=exoplanet-catalogue How One Astronomer Became the Unofficial Exoplanet Record-Keeper], www.scientificamerican.com</ref> sedengkeun [[Exoplanet Data Explorer]] ngasupkeun objék dugi ka 24 kali massa Jupiter.<ref>{{cite arxiv |eprint=1012.5676 |author1=Jason T Wright |author2=Onsi Fakhouri |author3=Marcy |author4=Eunkyu Han |author5=Ying Feng |author6=John Asher Johnson |author7=Howard |author8=Fischer |author9=Valenti |title=The Exoplanet Orbit Database |class=astro-ph.SR |year=2010}}</ref> Planét pangleutikna anu kungsi kanyahoan, henteu kaasup planét katé sarta satelit, nyaéta [[PSR B1257+12A]]. Ieu mangrupa salah sahiji planét luar surya munggaran anu kapanggih dina taun 1992 sarta ngulilingan hiji [[pulsar]]. Massana kira-kira satengah tina massa planét Mérkurius.<ref name="Encyclopaedia" /> Planét pangleutikna anu ngorbit béntang dérét utama sajabi ti Panonpoé nyaéta [[Kepler-37b]]. Massa sarta radiusna sakedik langkung ageung batan [[Bulan]]. ==== Diferénsiasi internal ==== [[File:Jupiter interior.png|lurus|jmpl|250px|Ilustrasi interior Jupiter kalawan inti tina batu anu dilingkung ku lapisan hidrogén métalik anu kandel]] Saban planét ngamimitian ayana (éksisténsina) dina wangun éncér (cair); nalika prosés ngawujudna, matéri anu langkung padet sarta beurat tilelep ka bagian tengah, sedengkeun matéri anu hampang tetep aya dina bagian luhur (beungeut). Masing-masing mibanda bagian jero (interior) [[diferensiasi planet|anu béda-béda]], anu diwangun ku [[inti planet|inti planét]] padet sarta dilingkung ku [[mantel (geologi)|mantel]] éncér atanapi padet. Planét-planét kabumian (térestrial) kalingkung ku [[kerak (geologi)|kerak]] padet,<ref name="terrestrial">{{cite web |title=Planetary Interiors |work=Department of Physics, University of Oregon |url=http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec16.html |accessdate=2008-08-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808155809/http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec16.html |date=2012-08-08 }}</ref> nanging dina raksasa gas mah, mantelna téh lényéh sarta ngahiji jadi lapisan méga pangluhurna. Planét kabumian mibanda inti tina élemén magnétik sapertos [[beusi]] sarta [[nikél]], sarta mantel [[silikat]]. [[Jupiter]] sarta [[Saturnus]] dipercaya mibanda inti tina batu sarta logam anu dilingkung ku mantel [[hidrogén métalik]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Linda T.|last=Elkins-Tanton|year=2006|title=Jupiter and Saturn|url=https://archive.org/details/jupitersaturn0000elki_t3r5|publisher=Chelsea House|location=New York|isbn=0-8160-5196-8}}</ref> [[Uranus]] sarta [[Néptunus]], anu ukuranana langkung alit, mibanda inti batu anu dilingkung ku mantel [[cai]], [[amonia]], [[métana]], sarta [[bahan volatil|és]].<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/0032-0633(95)00061-5}}</ref> Gerakan cairan di jero inti planét-planét kasebut ngahasilkeun [[geodinamo]] anu nyiptakeun [[médan magnét]].<ref name="terrestrial" /> ==== Atmosfir ==== {{Tempo ogé|Atmosfir ékstratéréstrial}} [[File:Top of Atmosphere.jpg|jmpl|kénca|250px|Atmosfir Bumi]] Sadaya planét di Tata Surya sajabi ti [[Mérkurius]]<ref>Hunten D. M., Shemansky D. E., Morgan T. H. (1988), ''The Mercury atmosphere'', In: Mercury (A89-43751 19–91). University of Arizona Press, pp. 562–612</ref> mibanda [[atmosfir]] dasar jalaran gravitasi massana anu kacida ageungna cekap kiat pikeun nahan gas supados tetep caket kana beungeut planét. Planét raksasa gas mibanda ukuran anu cukup badag pikeun nahan sajumlahing gas hampang sapertos [[hidrogén]] sarta [[hélium]], sedengkeun dina planét-planét leutik mah éta gas téh lolos ka [[luar angkasa]].<ref>{{cite doi | 10.1086/426329 }}</ref> Komposisi atmosfir Bumi bénten sareng planét sanésna jalaran ayana rupa-rupa prosés [[kahirupan]] anu lumangsung di ieu planét, anu parantos ngahasilkeun molekul [[oksigén]] bébas.<ref name="zeilik">{{cite book|last=Zeilik|first=Michael A.|author2=Gregory, Stephan A.|title=Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics|url=https://archive.org/details/introductoryastr0000zeil|edition=4th|year=1998|publisher=Saunders College Publishing|isbn=0-03-006228-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductoryastr0000zeil/page/67 67]}}</ref> Atmosfir planét dipangaruhan ku rupa-rupa [[insolasi]] (radiasi panonpoé) atanapi énergi internal, sahingga ngabalukarkeun kawangunna [[sistem cuaca|sistim cuaca]] dinamis sapertos [[badai]] (di Bumi), [[badai debu|badai lebu]] sa-planét (di Mars), [[badai antisiklon|antisiklon]] saukuran Bumi (di Jupiter; disebut [[Bintik Beureum Gedé]]), sarta [[Titik Gelap Besar|liang dina atmosfir]] (di Néptunus).<ref name="Weather" /> Sahenteuna aya hiji planét luar surya, [[HD 189733 b]], anu diklaim mibanda sistim cuaca sapertos kitu, sarupa sareng Bintik Beureum Gedé nanging ukuranana dua kali lipet langkung ageung.<ref name="knutson">{{cite journal | last=Knutson |first=Heather A. |author2=Charbonneau, David; Allen, Lori E.; Fortney, Jonathan J. |title=A map of the day-night contrast of the extrasolar planet HD 189733 b |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=447 |doi=10.1038/nature05782 |laysummary=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/2007/pr200713.html |laysource=Center for Astrophysics press release |laydate=2007-05-09 |pmid=17495920 |issue=7141 |bibcode=2007Natur.447..183K | pages=183–6|arxiv = 0705.0993 }}</ref> Jalaran perenahna anu kacida caketna sareng béntang indungna, banda-banda Jupiter panas kaleungitan atmosfirna akibat radiasi béntang, mirupa buntut komét.<ref>{{cite press release |first1=Donna |last1=Weaver |first2=Ray |last2=Villard |url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2007/07/full/ |title=Hubble Probes Layer-cake Structure of Alien World's Atmosphere |publisher=Space Telescope Science Institute |date=2007-01-31 |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal=Nature |last=Ballester |first=Gilda E. |author2=Sing, David K.; Herbert, Floyd |title=The signature of hot hydrogen in the atmosphere of the extrasolar planet HD 209458b |volume=445 |year=2007 |doi=10.1038/nature05525 |pmid=17268463 |issue=7127 |bibcode=2007Natur.445..511B | pages=511–4}}</ref> Ieu planét-planét téh mibanda béda suhu beurang sareng peuting anu kacida jauhna, dugi ka tiasa ngahasilkeun angin supersonik.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Harrington |first=Jason |author2=Hansen, Brad M.; Luszcz, Statia H.; Seager, Sara |title=The phase-dependent infrared brightness of the extrasolar planet Andromeda b |journal=Science |volume=314 |year=2006 |doi=10.1126/science.1133904 |laysummary=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzer-20061012.html |laysource=NASA press release |laydate=2006-10-12 |pmid=17038587 |issue=5799 |bibcode=2006Sci...314..623H | pages=623–6|arxiv = astro-ph/0610491 }}</ref> Nanging, sisi beurang sareng peuting dina [[HD 189733 b]] mah katingal mibanda suhu anu sarua, anu nuduhkeun yén atmosfir ieu planét téh éféktif pisan dina ngadistribusikeun deui énergi béntang ka sakuliah bagian planétna.<ref name="knutson" /> ==== Magnétosfir ==== [[File:Structure of the magnetosphere-en.svg|jmpl|ka|300px|Skéma [[medan magnet Bumi|magnétosfir Bumi]]]] Salah sahiji ciri penting tina hiji planét nyaéta [[momen magnet|momen magnét]] intrinsikna anu janten bibit buit (cikal bakal) tina [[magnetosfer|magnétosfirna]]. Ayana médan magnét nuduhkeun yén éta planét téh sacara géologi masih kénéh "hirup". Kalayan kecap sanés, planét anu mibanda sipat magnét mibanda aliran bahan [[konduktivitas listrik|konduktor listrik]] dina bagian jerona (interior) anu nyiptakeun médan magnét. Ieu médan téh kacida mangaruhanana kana interaksi planét sareng angin surya. Planét anu mibanda sipat magnét bakal nyiptakeun panyalindung anu disebut magnétosfir, anu teu tiasa ditembus ku angin surya. Ukuran magnétosfir tiasa langkung ageung batan planétna sorangan. Sabalikna, planét anu teu mibanda sipat magnét mah mibanda magnétosfir anu alit, anu kawangun ku interaksi [[ionosfer|ionosfir]] sareng angin surya, nanging teu tiasa nangtayungan éta planét sacara éféktif.<ref name="Kivelson2007" /> Tina dalapan planét di Tata Surya, ngan Vénus sarta Mars anu teu mibanda médan magnét.<ref name="Kivelson2007" /> Sajaba ti éta, satelit Jupiter [[Ganymede (satelit)|Ganyméde]] ogé mibanda médan magnét. Tina sadaya planét anu mibanda sipat magnét, médan Mérkurius mangrupa anu panghéngkérna (lemah) sahingga teu mampuh nahan [[angin surya|angin surya]]. Médan magnét Ganyméde sababaraha kali lipet langkung ageung, sedengkeun médan Jupiter mangrupa anu pangkiatna di Tata Surya (kacida kiatna sahingga ieu planét téh mibanda ancaman kaséhatan anu sérius pikeun misi berawak ka satelit-satelitna dina mangsa ka hareup). Médan magnét planét-planét raksasa sanésna mibanda kakuatan anu ampir sarua sareng Bumi, nanging momen magnétna langkung ageung. Médan magnét Uranus sarta Néptunus kacida miringna upami dibandingkeun sareng [[sumbu rotasi]] sarta perenahna misah tina puseur (pusat) planétna.<ref name="Kivelson2007">{{cite book|last=Kivelson|first=Margaret Galland|author2=Bagenal, Fran|chapter=Planetary Magnetospheres|title=Encyclopedia of the Solar System|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W8-BGD-739|year=2007|publisher=Academic Press|editor= Lucyann Mcfadden, Paul Weissman, Torrence Johnson|isbn=978-0-12-088589-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_W8-BGD-739/page/519 519]}}</ref> Dina taun 2004, tim astronom di Hawaii nalungtik hiji planét luar surya anu ngulilingan béntang [[HD 179949]]. Ieu planét katingal nyiptakeun titik panonpoé (sunspot) dina beungeut béntang indungna. Éta tim mibanda hipotésis yén magnétosfir éta planét téh keur mentransfer énergi ka beungeut béntang sarta ngalantarankeun suhuna naék tina 7.760 °C janten 8.160 °C.<ref>{{cite web | title=Magnetic planet |first=Amanda | last=Gefter | work=Astronomy |date=2004-01-17 |url=http://www.astronomy.com/asy/default.aspx?c=a&id=2090 |accessdate=2008-01-29}}</ref> === Ciri-ciri sekundér === Sababaraha planét atanapi planét katé di Tata Surya (sapertos [[Néptunus]] atanapi [[Pluto]]) mibanda période orbit anu [[resonansi orbit|saluyu]] (résonansi) hiji sareng nu sanésna atanapi sareng banda-banda langit anu langkung alit (hal ieu lumrah lumangsung dina sistim satelit). Sadaya planét iwal [[Mérkurius]] sareng [[Vénus]] mibanda [[satelit alami]] anu biasana disebut "bulan". Bumi mibanda hiji satelit, Mars dua, sarta [[raksasa gas]] mibanda sababaraha satelit kalayan sistim ka-planét-an anu kompléks. Loba satelit raksasa gas mibanda ciri-ciri anu sarua sareng planét kabumian sarta planét katé. Sababaraha di antarana malah dianggap mibanda lingkungan anu merenah pikeun kahirupan (utamana [[Europa (satelit)|Europa]]).<ref name="Grasset2000">{{cite journal | last= Grasset |first=O. |author2=Sotin C.; Deschamps F. |title = On the internal structure and dynamic of Titan |year = 2000 |journal = Planetary and Space Science |volume = 48 | issue= 7–8 | pages = 617–636 |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00039-8 | bibcode=2000P&SS...48..617G}}</ref><ref name="Fortes2000">{{cite journal | journal = Icarus |volume= 146 |issue = 2 |pages = 444–452 |year= 2000 |doi = 10.1006/icar.2000.6400 |title = Exobiological implications of a possible ammonia-water ocean inside Titan |author = Fortes, A. D. |bibcode=2000Icar..146..444F}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Nicola|last=Jones|date=2001-12-11|work=New Scientist Print Edition|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn1647|title=Bacterial explanation for Europa's rosy glow|accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> [[File:Voyager 2 - Saturn Rings - 3085 7800 2.png|jmpl|kénca|lurus|250px|[[Cincin Saturnus|Cingcin Saturnus]]]] Opat raksasa gas ogé dikulilingan ku [[cincin planet|cingcin planét]] kalayan ukuran sarta karumitan anu rupa-rupa. Ieu cingcin téh diwangun ku lebu atanapi partikel, nanging tiasa ogé janten tempat cicingna '[[Cincin Saturnus#Anak bulan|anak bulan]]' anu mungil, anu gravitasi na nangtukeun sarta miara struktur éta cingcin. Sanaos asal-usul kawangunna tacan kanyahoan sacara pasti, cingcin planét dipercaya salaku hasil tina satelit alami anu asup kana [[batas Roche]] planét indungna, lajeng hancur akibat [[gaya gelombang pasang|gaya pasang surut]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Molnar, L. A.; Dunn, D. E. |title=On the Formation of Planetary Rings |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |year=1996 |volume=28 |pages=77–115 |bibcode=1996DPS....28.1815M | last2=Dunn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Encrenaz|last=Thérése|year=2004|title=The Solar System|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9783540002413|edition=Third|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9783540002413/page/388 388]–390|publisher=Springer|isbn=3-540-00241-3}}</ref> Taya ciri sekundér anu katingal dina planét-planét luar surya. Nanging, [[katai sub-coklat]] [[Cha 110913-773444]], anu dianggap salaku [[planet liar]], dipercaya dilingkung ku hiji [[cakram protoplanet]] anu mungil.<ref name="Luhman" /> {{Clear}} == Istilah patali == <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Komet|Komét]] * [[Mnemonik planet|Mnémonik planét]] * [[Planet ganda|Planét ganda]] * [[Planet katai|Planét katé]] * [[Planet liar|Planét liar]] * [[Planet luar surya|Planét luar surya]] (atanapi Éksoplanét) – banda langit di luar Tata Surya * [[Mesoplanet|Mésoplanét]] * [[Planet minor|Planét minor]] – banda langit anu langkung alit batan planét * [[Planetar (astronomi)|Planétar]] * [[Planetesimal|Planétésimal]] * [[Protoplanet|Protoplanét]] </div> == Lihat pula == {{portal|Astronomi}} <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Langit ekstraterestrial]] * [[Daftar benda hipotesis di Tata Surya]] * [[Pendaratan di planet lain]] * [[Penjelajahan luar angkasa]] * [[Keterhunian planet]] * [[Ilmu keplanetan]] * [[Eksoplanetologi]] * [[Planetologi teoretis]] * [[Planet di astrologi]] * [[Planet di fiksi ilmiah]] </div> == Catatan kaki == {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} == Referensi == {{Reflist|30em}} == Pranala luar == {{Commons category|Planets}} {{Wiktionary|planet}} * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union website] * [http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ Photojournal NASA] * [http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/ NASA Planet Quest – Exoplanet Exploration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225110149/http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/ |date=2011-02-25 }} * [http://www.co-intelligence.org/newsletter/comparisons.html Illustration comparing the sizes of the planets with each other, the Sun, and other stars] * {{cite web |url=http://www.iau.org/STATUS_OF_PLUTO.238.0.html |title=IAU Press Releases since 1999 "The status of Pluto: A Clarification" |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071214043704/http://www.iau.org/STATUS_OF_PLUTO.238.0.html |archivedate=2007-12-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214043704/http://www.iau.org/STATUS_OF_PLUTO.238.0.html |date=2007-12-14 }} * [http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~hal/planet_def.html "Regarding the criteria for planethood and proposed planetary classification schemes."] article by Stern and Levinson * [http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/ ''Planetary Science Research Discoveries''] (educational site with illustrated articles) {{artikel pilihan}} {{Tata surya}} [[Kategori:Planét]] [[Kategori:Astronomi pengamatan]] [[Kategori:Ilmu keplanetan]] 8f9zqj3r0y9p0ixe2xqmincszwcizux 0 98714 711613 651241 2026-08-07T00:18:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 8 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711613 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | official_name = Los Angeles, California |type=Kota | image_skyline = {{Photomontage | photo1a = 20190616154621!Echo Park Lake with Downtown Los Angeles Skyline.jpg{{!}}Puseur dayeuh Los Angeles | photo2a = Wiki training 0226.jpg{{!}}Markah Hollywood | photo2b = Griffith Observatory - Dusk.jpg{{!}}Obsérvatorium Griffith | photo3a = Los Angeles City Hall 2013.jpg{{!}}Balé Kota Los Angeles | photo3b = LAX Theme Building by Mark Baertschi 3-12-11.jpg{{!}}Theme Building di Bandar Udara Internasional Los Angeles | photo4a = Vincent Thomas Bridge 2.jpg{{!}}Sasak Vincent Thomas | photo4b = Venice Beach, Los Angeles, CA 01.JPG{{!}}Basisir Venice | spacing = 1 | color_border = white | color = white | size = 280 | foot_montage = Saarah jarum jam ti luhur: [[Puseur dayeuh Los Angeles|Puseur dayeuh]], [[Obsérvatorium Griffith]], [[Theme Building]] di [[Bandar Udara Internasional Los Angeles]], [[Basisir Venice]], [[Sasak Vincent Thomas]], [[Balé Kota Los Angeles City|Balé Kota]], jeung [[Markah Hollywood]] }} | image_flag = Flag of Los Angeles, California.svg | image_seal = Seal of Los Angeles, California.svg | nickname = L.A., City of Angels,<ref name=VOAnick /> [[Puseur Dayeuh Hiburan Dunya]], The Big Orange,<ref name=VOAnick>{{cite web|url=http://learningenglish.voanews.com/content/nicknames-for-los-angeles/1644584.html|title=Nicknames for Los Angeles|work=[[Voice of America]]|first1=Shelley|last1=Gollust|date=18 April 2013|accessdate=26 Juni 2014}}</ref> La-la-land, Tinseltown<ref name=VOAnick /> | image_map = LA County Incorporated Areas Los Angeles highlighted.svg | map_caption = Lokasi di Los Angeles County | pushpin_map = California#USA#North America | pushpin_map_caption = Lokasi di California##Lokasi di Amérika Sarikat##Lokasi di Amérika Kalér | pushpin_label = Los Angeles | pushpin_mapsize = 280 | pushpin_relief = 1 <!-- Location -------------> | pushpin_label_position = right | coordinates = {{coord|34|03|N|118|15|W|region:US-CA|display=inline,title}} | subdivision_type = [[Daptar nagara|Nagara]] | subdivision_name = {{nowrap|{{flagu|Amérika Sarikat}}}} | subdivision_type1 = [[Nagara bagéan Amérika Sarikat|Nagara bagéan]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Daptar county di California|County]] | subdivision_type3 = [[Wewengkon statistik gabungan|CSA]] | subdivision_type4 = [[Wewengkon statistik métropolitan|MSA]] | subdivision_name1 = {{flag|California}} | subdivision_name2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Los Angeles County, California.svg}} [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]] | subdivision_name3 = [[Los Angeles Raya|Los Angeles-Long Beach]] | subdivision_name4 = [[Wewengkon métropolitan Los Angeles|Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim]] <!-- History --------------> | established_title = [[Pueblo de Los Ángeles|Pueblo]] | established_date = 4 Séptémber 1781<ref name="CaliforniaCounty1899">{{cite book|last=Barrows|first=H.D.|title=Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMg1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA151|accessdate=28 Séptémber 2011|year=1899|page=151ff|chapter=Felepe de Neve|volume=4}}</ref> | established_title1 = [[Status kota]] | established_date1 = 23 Méi 1835<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/this-1835-decree-made-the-pueblo-of-los-angeles-a-ciudad-and-californias-capital| title = This 1835 Decree Made the Pueblo of Los Angeles a Ciudad – And California's Capital| publisher=[[KCET]]| accessdate = 27 Januari 2018| date = April 2016}}</ref> | established_title2 = [[Korporasi munisipal|Kakorporasi]] | established_date2 = 4 April 1850<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.calafco.org/docs/Cities_by_incorp_date.doc|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130221091414/http://www.calafco.org/docs/Cities_by_incorp_date.doc|url-status = dead|archive-date = February 21, 2013|title = California Cities by Incorporation Date|format = DOC|publisher = California Association of [[Komisi Pangadegan Dinas Lokal Amérika Sarikat]]|accessdate = 25 Agustus 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103002921/http://www.calafco.org/docs/Cities_by_incorp_date.doc |date=November 3, 2014 }}</ref> | named_for = [[Ratu Sorga|Our Lady, Queen of the Angels]] <!-- Government -----------> | government_type = [[Pamaréntahan walikota-déwan|Komisi Walikota-Déwan]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lacity.org/city-government/about-city-government |title=About the City Government |publisher=Kota Los Angeles |accessdate=8 Pébruari 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208103544/http://www.lacity.org/city-government/about-city-government |archive-date=February 8, 2015 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208103544/http://www.lacity.org/city-government/about-city-government |date=February 8, 2015 }}</ref> | governing_body = [[Dewan Kota Los Angeles]] | leader_title = [[Walikota Los Angeles, California|Walikota]] | leader_name = [[Eric Garcetti]] ([[Partéy Démokrat (Amériika Sarikat)|D]])<ref name=dir>{{cite web |url=http://www.lacity.org/CityDirectory/index.htm |title=City Directory |accessdate=28 Séptémber 2014 |publisher=Kota Los Angeles |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113102218/http://www.lacity.org/CityDirectory/index.htm |archivedate=November 13, 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113102218/http://www.lacity.org/CityDirectory/index.htm |date=November 13, 2014 }}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[Jaksa Kota Los Angeles|Jaksa Kota]] | leader_name1 = [[Mike Feuer]] (D)<ref name=dir /> <!-- display settings ---------> | total_type = Total | unit_pref = Imperial <!-- area ----------------------> | area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2016">{{cite web|title=2016 U.S. Gazetteer Files|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2016_Gazetteer/2016_gaz_place_06.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=28 Juni 2017}}</ref> | area_total_km2 = | area_total_sq_mi = | area_land_km2 = | area_land_sq_mi = 468.67 | area_metro_km2 = 12562 | area_urban_sq_mi = 1736.02 | area_water_km2 = | area_water_sq_mi = 34.02 | area_water_percent = <!-- elevation ------------> | elevation_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite GNIS|1682200|Los Angeles City Hall|accessdate=16 Oktober 2014}}</ref> | elevation_m = 93 | elevation_ft = 305 | elevation_min_ft = 0 <!-- population -----------> | elevation_max_footnotes = <ref name=elvadist>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb//pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html|title=Elevations and Distances|publisher=US Geological Survey|date=29 April 2005|accessdate=28 Pébruari 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109183109/http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb//pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |date=9 November 2013 }}</ref> | elevation_min_footnotes = <ref name=elvadist /> | population_total = 3792621 | population_as_of = [[Sénsus Amérika Sarikat 2010|2010]] | population_footnotes = <ref name="CADeptFinancePop17">{{cite web |url=http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Demographics/Estimates/e-1/documents/E-1_2017PressRelease.pdf |title=CA Dept. of Finance – New State Population Report |accessdate=2 Juli 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525055232/http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Demographics/Estimates/e-1/documents/E-1_2017PressRelease.pdf |date=2017-05-25 }}</ref> | population_density_km2 = | population_density_sq_mi = 8,092 | population_est = 3990456 | pop_est_as_of = 2018 | pop_est_footnotes = <ref name=PopEstCities>{{cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2018/PEPANNRSIP.US12A|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places of 50,000 or More, Ranked by July 1, 2018 Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2018|publisher=[[Biro Sénsus Amérika Sarikat]], Population Division|accessdate=23 Méi 2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20200213005358/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2018/PEPANNRSIP.US12A |date=February 13, 2020 }}</ref> | population_urban = 12,150,996 | population_urban_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Urban Areas|url=http://www2.census.gov/geo/ua/ua_list_all.txt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516110036/http://www2.census.gov/geo/ua/ua_list_all.txt|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 16, 2012|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=29 Agustus 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516110036/http://www2.census.gov/geo/ua/ua_list_all.txt |date=May 16, 2012 }}https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/ua/urban-rural-2010.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403024045/https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/ua/urban-rural-2010.html |date=3 April 2019 }}</ref> | population_metro = 13,131,431 (U.S.: [[Daptar Wewengkon Statistik Métropolitan|ka-2]]) | population_metro_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013 – United States – Metropolitan Statistical Area; and for Puerto Rico|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=29 Agustus 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815134909/http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk |archivedate=August 15, 2014}}</ref> | population_rank = [[Daptar kota di California panggedéna dumasar ka pangeusi|ka-1]], California<br />[[Daptar kota di Amérika Sarikat dumasar ka pangeusi|ka-2, AS]]<!--Do ''not'' change this to the 4.0&nbsp;million that the CA Dept of Finance has. For more info, see the talk page archives--> | population_blank1_title = [[Wewengkon statistik gabungan|CSA]] | population_blank1 = 18,679,763 (U.S.: [[Daptar Wewengkon Statistik Gabungan|ka-2]]) | population_demonym = Angeleno <!-- time zones -----------> | postal_code_type = [[Kode ZIP]] | postal_code = {{collapsible list |framestyle = text-align:left;border:0;padding:0;line-height:16px; |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |title = |hlist = true |90001–90084, 90086–90089, 90091, 90093–90097, 90099, 90101–90103, 90174, 90185, 90189, 90291–90293, 91040–91043, 91303–91308, 91311, 91316, 91324–91328, 91330, 91331, 91335, 91340, 91342–91349, 91352–91353, 91356–91357, 91364–91367, 91401–91499, 91504–91505, 91601–91609<ref>[https://media.metro.net/about_us/pla/images/lazipcodes.pdf Zip Codes Within the City of Los Angeles] – LAHD</ref> }} | area_code = [[Kode wewengkon 213 jeung 323|213/323]], [[Kode wewengkon 310 jeung 424|310/424]], [[Kode wewengkon 747 jeung 818|747/818]] | area_code_type = [[Kode Wewengkon Amérika Kalér|Kode wewengkon]] | blank_name_sec1 = Kode [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS]] | blank_info_sec1 = {{FIPS|06|44000}} | blank1_name_sec1 = ID [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] | blank1_info_sec1 = {{GNIS 4|1662328}}, {{GNIS 4|2410877}} | website = {{official website}} | short_description = Kota California | leader_title2 = [[Pangawas Kota Los Angeles|v]] | leader_name2 = [[Ron Galperin]] (D)<ref name=dir /> <!-- Area -----------------> | elevation_max_ft = 5074 | population_blank1_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013 – United States – Combined Statistical Area; and for Puerto Rico |url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml|website=Census Bureau |publisher=Biro Sénsus |accessdate=29 Agustus 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815134909/http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk |archivedate=August 15, 2014}}</ref> | timezone = [[Zona Wanci Pasifik|Pasifik]] | utc_offset = −08:00 | timezone_DST = [[Zona Wanci Usum Panas Pasifik|PDT]] | utc_offset_DST = −07:00 <!-- Codes ----------------> }} '''Los Angeles''' ({{IPAc-en|l|ɔː|s|_|ˈ|æ|n|dʒ|ə|l|ə|s|audio=En-us-los-angeles.ogg}};{{efn|{{IPAc-en|uk|audio=En-uk-Los Angeles.ogg|l|ɒ|s|_|ˈ|æ|n|dʒ|ɪ|l|iː|z|,_|-|l|ɪ|z|,_|-|l|ɪ|s}}<ref name="EPD" />}} {{lang-es|Los Ángeles}}; {{langnf||Spanyol|"Malaikat"}}),<ref name="EPD">{{Cite EPD|18}}</ref> sacara resmi disebut '''Kota Los Angeles''' jeung biasana kawéntar ku singkatan '''L.A.''', nyaéta kota nu boga pangeusi [[Daptar kota di California dumasar ka pangeusi|panglobana]] di [[California]]; kota nu boga pangeusi [[Daptar kota di Amérika Sarikat dumasar ka pangeusi|kadua panglobana]] di [[Amérika Sarikat]], saanggeus [[Kota New York]]; jeung kota nu boga pangeusi [[Daptar kota di Amérika Kalér dumasar ka pangeusi|katilu panglobana]] di [[Amérika Kalér]], saanggeus [[Kota Méksiko]] jeung Kota New York. Los Angeles mangrupa puseur budaya, finansial, jeung komérsial [[California Kidul]] nu miboga pangeusi kurang leuwih hampir opat juta jelema.<ref name=PopEstCities>{{cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2018/PEPANNRSIP.US12A|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places of 50,000 or More, Ranked by July 1, 2018 Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2018|publisher=[[Biro Sénsus Amérika Sarikat]], Population Division|accessdate=23 Méi 2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20200213005358/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2018/PEPANNRSIP.US12A |date=February 13, 2020 }}</ref> Ieu kota kawéntar ku [[iklim Méditérania]], karagaman étnis, [[Hollywood]], industri hiburan, jeung kota metropolis nu nyebar. == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Bacaan lanjutan == {{See also|Bibliografi Los Angeles}} '''Umum''' * {{cite book|title=Southern California: An Island on the Land|author=Carey McWilliams|publisher=Peregrine Smith|year=2009|isbn=978-0-87905-007-8|edition=9th|author-link=Carey McWilliams (journalist)|url=https://archive.org/details/southerncaliforn00mcwi}} * {{cite book|title=It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West|title-link=It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own|author=Richard White|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-8061-2567-1|author-link=Richard White (historian)}} * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles: Capital of the Third World|url=https://archive.org/details/losangelescapita0000rief|author=David Rieff|publisher=Touchstone|year=1992|isbn=978-0-671-79210-7|author-link=David Rieff}} * {{cite book|title=Translating LA: A Tour of the Rainbow City|author=Peter Theroux|publisher=Norton|year=1994|isbn=978-0-393-31394-9|author-link=Peter Theroux|url=https://archive.org/details/translatingla00pete}} * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles: A History of the Future|author=Paul Glover|publisher=Greenplanners|year=1995|isbn=978-0-9622911-0-4|author-link=Paul Glover (activist)}} * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County|author=Leonard Pitt & Dale Pitt|publisher=University of California Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-520-20530-7|place=Berkeley}} * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles: Portrait of a City|author=[[Kevin Starr]] and David Ulin|publisher=[[Taschen]] America|year=2009|isbn=978-3-8365-0291-7|editor=Jim Heimann|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/losangelesportra0000unse}} '''Arsitéktur jeung téori urban''' * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles: The Architecture of Four Ecologies|url=https://archive.org/details/losangelesarchit0000banh|author=Reyner Banham|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0-520-26015-3|edition=2nd|place=Berkeley|author-link=Reyner Banham}} * {{cite book|title=City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles|title-link=City of Quartz|author=Mike Davis|publisher=Verso|year=2006|isbn=978-1-84467-568-5|author-link=Mike Davis (scholar)}} * {{cite book|title=The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles 1850–1930|url=https://archive.org/details/fragmentedmetrop0000foge_l1o1|author=Robert M. Fogelson|publisher=University of California Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-520-08230-4|place=Berkeley}} * {{cite book|title=The History of Forgetting: Los Angeles and the Erasure of Memory|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofforgett0000klei|author=Norman M. Klein|publisher=Verso|year=1997|isbn=978-1-84467-242-4}} * {{cite book|title=L.A. Lost & Found: An Architectural History of Los Angeles|author=Sam Hall Kaplan|publisher=Hennessey and Ingalls|year=2000|isbn=978-0-940512-23-8}} * {{cite book|title=Overdrive: L.A. Constructs the Future, 1940–1990|url=https://archive.org/details/overdrivelaconst0000unse|author=Wim de Wit and Christopher James Alexander|publisher=Getty Publications|year=2013|isbn=978-1-60606-128-2}} '''Kaitan jeung ras''' * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0lQXqQPNOUcC|title=Anything but Mexican: Chicanos in contemporary Los Angeles|last=Acuña|first=Rodolfo|publisher=Verso|year=1996|isbn=978-1-85984-031-3|authorlink=Rodolfo Acuña|accessdate=September 30, 2011}} * {{cite book|title=No Crystal Stair: African Americans in the City of Angels|url=https://archive.org/details/nocrystalstairaf0000geor|last=George|first=Lynell|publisher=Verso|year=1992|isbn=978-0-86091-389-4}} * {{cite book|title=L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present|last=Sides|first=Josh|publisher=University of California Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-520-24830-4|place=Berkeley}} * {{cite book|title=Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon: Zoot Suits, Race, and Riot in Wartime L.A.|url=https://archive.org/details/murderatsleepyla0000paga|author=Eduardo Obregón Pagán|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8078-5494-5}} * {{cite book|title=The Great Black Way: L.A. in the 1940s and the Last African American Renaissance|url=https://archive.org/details/greatblackwaylai0000smit|author=R. J. Smith|publisher=PublicAffairs|year=2007|isbn=978-1-58648-521-4}} '''Lingkungan''' * {{cite book|title=Cadillac Desert: The American West and its Disappearing Water|title-link=Cadillac Desert|author=Marc Reisner|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|year=1986|isbn=978-0-14-017824-1|author-link=Marc Reisner}} * {{cite book|title=Smogtown: The Lung-Burning History of Pollution in Los Angeles|author=Chip Jacobs and William Kelly|publisher=Outlook Hardcover|year=2008|isbn=978-1-58567-860-0|url=https://archive.org/details/smogtownlungburn00jaco}} '''Seni jeung literatur''' * {{cite book|title=Writing Los Angeles: A Literary Anthology|publisher=[[Library of America]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-931082-27-3|editor=David L. Ulin|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/writinglosangele0000unse}} * {{cite book|title=Pop L.A.: Art and the City in the 1960s|last=Whiting|first=Cécile|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-520-25634-7|place=Berkeley}} == Tutumbu luar == * [[Sistem koordinat géografi|Koordinat géografi]]: {{Coord|34|3|N|118|15|W|display=inline}} * {{official website}} {{authority control}} [[Kategori:Kota di Amérika Sarikat]] mf59f3nl4f6eso5ugeesoup0qqhjapr 0 98719 711503 681024 2026-08-06T16:46:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 711503 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Operasi Varsity''' nyaéta salah sahiji stratégi nu dipaké dina [[Perang Dunia II]], tanggal 23 Maret 1945. Ieu operasi dirancang ku pasukan Sekutu ngaliwatan gempuran jalur udara, pikeun ngamankeun jeung ngawasa wewengkon Jerman Kulon.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/world-war-ii/10-important-facts-about-operation-varsity.html|title=10 Important Facts About Operation Varsity - Crossing of the Rhine|last=Fishel|first=Heather|website=WAR HISTORY ONLINE|language=en|accessdate=2019-12-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933334394|title=Figure 1.1. Investment had already been weakening before it was hit by the crisis|website=dx.doi.org|accessdate=2019-12-31}}</ref> == Kasang Tukang == [[Gambar:Operation Varsity map.JPG|jmpl|Péta rarancang operasi]] Dina bulan Maret 1945, pasukan Sekutu geus maju ka Jérman jeung geus hasil nepi ka walungan Rhine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://europeremembers.com/destination/the-crossing-of-the-rhine-operation-plunder-and-operation-varsity/|title=The crossing of the Rhine: Operation Plunder and Operation Varsity|website=Europe Remembers|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> Rhine téh mangsula walungan nu jadi rintangan alami kalawan matak susah pikeun kamajuan Sekutu.<ref name=":1" /> Tapi lamun éta walungan bisa dipeuntasan, bakal ngamungkinkeun Sekutu pikeun ngaksés Dataran Jérman Kalér jeung ahirna tuluy maju ka Bérlin jeung kota-kota gedé lianna di Jérman Kalér.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://europeremembers.com/destination/the-crossing-of-the-rhine-operation-plunder-and-operation-varsity/|title=The crossing of the Rhine: Operation Plunder and Operation Varsity|website=Europe Remembers|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> Sanggeus ngalakukeun "Pendekatan Front Lega" anu ditetepkeun ku Jenderal Dwight David Einsenhowe, Panglima Pangluhurna Sekutu tina Pasukan Ekspedisi Sekutu, diputuskeun pikeun nyobaan nembus walungan Rhine di sababara titik.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://europeremembers.com/destination/the-crossing-of-the-rhine-operation-plunder-and-operation-varsity/|title=The crossing of the Rhine: Operation Plunder and Operation Varsity|website=Europe Remembers|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> Kadua divisi ngan reueuh tina pangperangan salila dua bulan, sanggeus réa nu jadi korban di Ardennes, Belgia.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/hitlers-nighmare-operation-varsity-was-allies%E2%80%99-biggest%E2%80%94and-last%E2%80%94airborne-operation-world|title=Hitler's Nighmare: Operation Varsity was the Allies’ Biggest—and Last—Airborne Operation of World War II|last=Network|first=Warfare History|website=The National Interest|language=en|accessdate=2019-12-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020060955/https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/hitlers-nighmare-operation-varsity-was-allies%E2%80%99-biggest%E2%80%94and-last%E2%80%94airborne-operation-world |date=2020-10-20 }}</ref> Pikeun mastikeun ieu operasi sangkan suksés, Montgomery maksa sangkan komponén nu aya di udara diasupkeun kana rencana operasi, pikeun ngadukung serangan amfibi nu rék dilakukeun, tuluy ieu rencana dingaranan Operasi Varsity. Aya tilu divisi udara anu mimitina dipilih pikeun ilubiung dina ieu operasi, nyapta Divisi Airborne ka-6 Britania Raya, Divisi Udara ka-13 Amérika, jeung Divisi Udara ka-17 A.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://armyhistory.org/operation-varsity-the-last-airborne-deployment-of-world-war-ii/|title=Operation VARSITY: The Last Airborne Deployment of World War II – The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army|last=Admin|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/20/a2213920.shtml|title=BBC - WW2 People's War - Operation Varsity|website=www.bbc.co.uk|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> == Operasi Udara Panggedéna dina Perang Dunia II == [[Gambar:GLIDER TROOPS AFTER LANDING NEAR WESEL (Operation Varsity).jpg|jmpl|Tentara nu anyar nepi ka darat di deukeut Wesel]] Pasukan Sekutu anu geus ngumpul di sapanjang walungan Rhine ngalancarkeun invasina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2018/12/26/operation-varsity-last-allied-airborne-operation-of-wwii/|title=Operation Varsity: Last Allied Airborne Operation of WWII|website=Warfare History Network|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319035100/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2018/12/26/operation-varsity-last-allied-airborne-operation-of-wwii/ |date=2020-03-19 }}</ref> Sababaraha jam satuluyna, éta serangan téh jadi leuwih badag dua tikelan waktu pasukan darat diabantuan ku operasi udara kalawan aksi anu katémbong hébat pisan. Aya kapal-kapal udara, pasukan terjun payung, jeung tentara anu leuwih réa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2019/01/21/the-birdmen-of-varsity/|title=The Birdmen of Varsity|website=Warfare History Network|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319034458/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2019/01/21/the-birdmen-of-varsity/ |date=2020-03-19 }}</ref> Kalawan leuwih ti 16.000 juru terjun payung jeung mangrébu kapal udara.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paradata.org.uk/event/rhine-crossing-operation-varsity|title=Rhine Crossing (Operation Varsity) {{!}} ParaData|website=www.paradata.org.uk|accessdate=2020-03-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319034035/https://www.paradata.org.uk/event/rhine-crossing-operation-varsity |date=2020-03-19 }}</ref> Ngan dina waktu sapoé, ieu serangan udara téh hasil mantuan pasukan Sekutu pikeun ngamankeun kaunggulanana di darta, jeung bisa ngawasa kota, désa jeung bénténg penting di Jérman.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2018/12/26/operation-varsity-last-allied-airborne-operation-of-wwii/|title=Operation Varsity: Last Allied Airborne Operation of WWII|website=Warfare History Network|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319035100/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2018/12/26/operation-varsity-last-allied-airborne-operation-of-wwii/ |date=2020-03-19 }}</ref> Operasi Varsiti dianggap leuwih ti suksés, kalawan mangrupa kajadian sajarah, anu pinuh ku taktik jeung momen anu matak nineung. Pasukan Amérika geus meuntas walungan Rhine di dua lokasi nalika Marshal Inggris, Bernard Law Montgomery ngalakukeun serangan ti kalér.<ref name=":0" />[[File:OperationVarsity1945.svg|thumb|The [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] disposition in [[western Europe]] by March 1945.]] Operasi Varsity nurut kana paréntah anu béda tina rencana mimiti, nyaéta Operasi Plunder, sanajan duanana mangrupa upaya gabungan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.fold3.com/operation-varsity-the-last-airborne-deployment-of-wwii/|title=Operation Varsity: The Last Airborne Deployment of WWII|website=Fold3 Blog|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> Rencanana mah pikeun ngaganggu rupa-rupa pertahanan Jérman pikeun ngamankeun wilayah kalawan gancang. Ieu operasi maksudna pikeun ngadukung jeung mantuan pasukan darat Sekutu sangkan nepi kana tujuanana.<ref name=":0" /> Upaya gabungan dua operasi éta jadi tanda dua pasukan nyerang walungan Rhine salila leuwih ti saabad.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.fold3.com/operation-varsity-the-last-airborne-deployment-of-wwii/|title=Operation Varsity: The Last Airborne Deployment of WWII|website=Fold3 Blog|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> Upaya sarupa kitu téh kungsi dipingpin ku Napoléon Bonaparté dina taun 1805, sarta hasil.<ref name=":0" /> Divisi tempur Amerika pikeun éta serangan udara ka-17 téh diparéntah ku MG William M. (Bud) Miley, saurang perwira udara véteran anu kungsi ngajabat minangka asisten komandan divisi Airborne ka-82 waktu dipingpin ku Ridgway.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201185145/http://www.armyhistory.org/ahf2.aspx?pgID=877&id=139&exCompID=56|title=Virtual Library|website=web.archive.org|accessdate=2019-12-31}}</ref> Sababaraha pihak naksir yén tahapan éta serangan udara téh sabenerna mah hasilna teu diperlukeun pieun operasi dina sagemblengna. Montgomery dituduh ngagunakeun pasukan udara pikeun "némbongkeun aksi nu panghadéna" sarta pikeun ngaronjatkeun réputasina sorangan. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.historynet.com/operation-varsity-allied-airborne-assault-over-the-rhine-river.htm|title=Operation Varsity: Allied Airborne Assault Over the Rhine River|last=By|website=HistoryNet|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-12-31}}</ref> Hitler teu balangah-balangah teuing aya paguntrengan dina barisan tentara Sekutu. Tapi manéhna salah, lantaran geus mikir éta paguntrengan téh bakal jadi matak kacowna hubungan di antara pasukan Sekutu. Manéhna ngadodoho waktu anu pas pikeun ngaluncurkeun sanjata superna, saperi bom V-1 jeung misil gedé V-2, tapi teu kungsi kajadian.<ref name=":1" /> <br /> == Taktik Terjun Payung == [[Gambar:C-47 transport planes release hundreds of paratroops.jpg|jmpl|Ratusan kapal udara ngangkut tentara]] Dina operasi ieu téh mimiti kajadian pasukan terjun payung bakal turun di zona nu teu dijamin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/world-war-ii/10-important-facts-about-operation-varsity.html|title=10 Important Facts About Operation Varsity - Crossing of the Rhine|last=Fishel|first=Heather|website=WAR HISTORY ONLINE|language=en|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> Alatan kitu, para juru terjun payun kudu ngalakukeun pendaratan taktis sangkan ngabingungkeun musuh kana arah ti mana serangan utama bakal datang sarta pikeun ngamungkinkeun pasukan turun dina tempat anu deukeut pisan kana tujuanana.<ref name=":2" /> Ieu taktik anyar téh geus dipangaruhan ku eusi tina dokumen Jérman anu kungsi katéwak saméméhna, dina bulan Désémber 1944. Dina dokumén éta kapanggih kasalahan jeung kagagalan Sekutu pikeun neundeun kakuatan maksimum nu aya dina tanggal 17 Séptémber, lilana ngawangun pasukan, nuturkeun gaya perang saméméhna, jeung ruteu anu sarua.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/world-war-ii/10-important-facts-about-operation-varsity.html|title=10 Important Facts About Operation Varsity - Crossing of the Rhine|last=Fishel|first=Heather|website=WAR HISTORY ONLINE|language=en|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> Ku kagagalan éta, ngamungkinkeun Jérman pieun museurkeun pasukan jeung ngatur serangan balik kalawan gancang.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.armyflying.com/|title=75th Anniversary of Operation Varsity {{!}} Army Flying Museum|website=www.armyflying.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.fold3.com/operation-varsity-the-last-airborne-deployment-of-wwii/|title=Operation Varsity: The Last Airborne Deployment of WWII|website=Fold3 Blog|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-19}}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Kajadian]] [[Kategori:Perang Dunya II]] bii5sqj2elvwynsa33l27e98uwbwaop 0 98776 711701 626233 2026-08-07T01:59:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711701 wikitext text/x-wiki {{keur dikeureuyeuh}} [[Gambar:Surface diffusion hopping.gif|thumb|250px|right|Modél [[adatom]] (pérak) nu difusi dina hiji permukaan (biru). Dina ieu modél, ditunjukkeun luncatan ka sabelah pangdeukeutna jeung luncatan lain sabelah pangdeukeutna.]] '''Difusi permukaan''' nyaéta gerakan [[adpartikel]], saperti [[atom]] jeung [[molekul]], di luhureun permukaan substrat nu padet. Ningali kana partikel nu difusi, difusi permukaan kabagi jadi 2 jenis, nyaéta difusi sorangan jeung hétérodifusi. Dina difusi sorangan, partikel nu difusi sarua jeung substrat permukaanna. Sabalikna, dina hétérodifusi, partikel nu difusi béda jeung substrat permukaanna.<ref name="Oura_325">{{harvnb|Oura ''et. al.''|p=325}}</ref> == Rujukan == === Catetan suku === {{reflist|2}} === Bibliografi === * {{Cite book |first1=Kenjiro |last1=Oura |first2=Victor G. |last2=Lifshits |first3=Alexander A. |last3=Saranin |first4=Andrey V. |last4=Zotov |first5=Mitsuhiro |last5=Katayama |year=2003 |title=Surface Science: An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/surfacesciencein0000unse_n1m1 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=3-540-00545-5}} [[Kategori:Élmu material]] [[Kategori:Élmu permukaan]] 9w1kbz2omssvr357spqr3izz409atr6 0 98871 711582 705730 2026-08-06T23:32:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711582 wikitext text/x-wiki Météorologi '''Meteorologi''' téh élmu [[Interdisciplinary|interdisipliner]] ulikan [[Atmosfir|tina atmosfir]]. Studi dina widang ieu geus dipigawé salila rébuan taun najan kamajuan anu signifikan lumangsung dina abad ka-18. Dina abad ka-19, gebrakan sanggeus observasi ngagabung dipigawé lintas nagara. Sanggeus pamekaran tina komputer dina pertengahan abad ka-20, ramalan cuaca bisa dipigawé. Météorologi fenomena nyaéta cuaca aktivitas anu bisa ditalungtik jeung dipedar ku élmu meteorologi. Kagiatan nu kabeungkeut ku variabel anu aya di atmosfir bumi, saperti [[suhu]], tekenan hawa, [[Saab|uap cai]], jeung gradien unggal variabel kitu ogé kumaha maranéhanana ngarobah kana waktu. Bédana dina diulik pikeun nangtukeun kumaha cuaca sistem nu kabentuk lokal, regionally, jeung global sarta dampakna. Meteorologi, [[Klimatologi|klimatology]], atmosfir fisika, jeung atmosfir kimia ieu subdisiplin élmu atmosfir. Météorologi jeung [[hidrologi]] ngabentuk interdisipliner widang hidrometeorologi. meteorologi geus loba aplikasi dina sagala rupa widang, saperti militer, énergi produksi, [[Angkutan|transportasi]], [[Agrikultur|tatanén]], jeung pangwangunan. Kecap "[https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/meteorology meteorologi]" téh asalna tina khazanah basa Yunani kuno, ''metéōros'' "megah; luhur (dina langit)" (ti {{Lang|grc|μετα-}} ''[https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/meta- meta-]'' "luhur" jeung {{Lang|grc|ἐωρ}} ''eōr'' "angkat") jeung {{Lang|grc|-λογία}} ''[https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia -logia]'' "[https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logy -(o)logy]"" élmu". == Aplikasi == === Ramalan Cuaca === Ramalan cuaca mangrupa aplikasi tina élmu jeung téknologi pikeun ngaduga kaayaan [[atmosfir]] di mangsa nu bakal datang di hiji lokasi. Manusa kudu usaha pikeun ngaduga cuaca pikeun rébuan taun, jeung sacara resmi saprak abad ka-19.<ref>Eric D. Craft. [http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/craft.weather.forcasting.history An Economic History of Weather Forecasting.] Retrieved on 2007-04-15.</ref> Ramalan cuaca dilakukeun ku cara ngumpulkeun [[data]] kuantitatif ngeunaan kaayaan kiwari atmosfir ngagunakeun pamahaman ilmuah atmosfir pikeun proyék kumaha atmosfer robah.<ref>[[NASA]]. [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/WxForecasting/wx2.html Weather Forecasting Through the Ages.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050910210732/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/WxForecasting/wx2.html |date=2005-09-10 }} Retrieved on 2008-05-25.</ref> baheula ramalan cuaca anu kacida gumantung parobahan dina tekenan hawa, ayeuna kaayaan cuaca, sarta kaayaan langit,<ref>Weather Doctor. [http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/eyes/barometer3.htm Applying The Barometer To Weather Watching.] Retrieved on 2008-05-25.</ref><ref>Mark Moore. [http://www.nwac.us/education_resources/Field_forecasting.pdf Field Forecasting - A Short Summary.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325034756/http://www.nwac.us/education_resources/Field_forecasting.pdf |date=2009-03-25 }} Retrieved on 2008-05-25.</ref> modeling cuaca anu ayeuna dipaké pikeun nangtukeun kaayaan dina mangsa nu bakal datang. Aya hiji nu ngabedakeun pamakéan ramalan cuaca. Peringata Cuaca jadi penting sabab hal ieu dipaké pikeun nangtayungan hirup jeung harta milik masarakat.<ref>[[National Weather Service]]. [http://www.weather.gov/mission.shtml National Weather Service Mission Statement.] Retrieved on 2008-05-25.</ref> Ramalan dumasar kana [[suhu]] jeung présipitasi anu penting pikeun [[Agrikultur|tatanén]],<ref>Blair Fannin. [http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/061406-Texas-weather/ Dry weather conditions continue for Texas.] Retrieved on 2008-05-26.</ref><ref>Dr. Terry Mader. [http://beef.unl.edu/stories/200004030.shtml Drought Corn Silage.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005203246/http://beef.unl.edu/stories/200004030.shtml |date=2011-10-05 }} Retrieved on 2008-05-26.</ref><ref>Kathryn C. Taylor. [http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/C877.htm Peach Orchard Establishment and Young Tree Care.] Retrieved on 2008-05-26.</ref><ref>[[Associated Press]]. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE5DB1E30F937A25752C0A967958260 After Freeze, Counting Losses to Orange Crop.] Retrieved on 2008-05-26.</ref> sarta ogé pikeun komoditi padagang di ''pasar stock''. Ramalan suhu dipaké pausahaan utiliti (misalna suppliers gas, listrik) pikeun nangtukeun jumlah paménta konsumén nu bakal datang.<ref>[[The New York Times]]. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE7D9123AF935A15751C0A965958260 FUTURES/OPTIONS; Cold Weather Brings Surge In Prices of Heating Fuels.] Retrieved on 2008-05-25.</ref><ref>[[BBC]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5212724.stm Heatwave causes electricity surge.] Retrieved on 2008-05-25.</ref><ref>Toronto Catholic Schools. [http://www.tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill/EDSP_KeyMessages_FINAL.pdf The Seven Key Messages of the Energy Drill Program.] Retrieved on 2008-05-25.</ref> Dina kahirupan sapopoe, Ramalan cuaca nangtukeun naon urang bakal pake (payung, jaket, ban ranté, jeung saterusna). === Météorologi penerbangan === Météorologi penerbangan patali jeung dampak cuaca dina hawa patalimarga. Météorologi penerbangan nu penting pikeun awak ngapung ka ngarti implikasi tina cuaca pikeun ngapung rencana kapal maranéhanana.<ref>An international version called the [[Aeronautical Information Publication]] contains parallel information, as well as specific information on the international airports for use by the international community.</ref><ref>''"7-1-22. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing"'', [February 16, 2006], [[Aeronautical Information Manual]], [http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/ATpubs/AIM/ FAA AIM Online]</ref> === Pertanian meteorologi === Para ahli dina meteorologi, élmu taneuh, [[hidrologi]], jeung [[agronomi]] mindeng gawé babarengan nalungtik pangaruh cuaca jeung iklim dina tutuwuhan tumuwuh, tatanén, efisiensi pamakéan cai, fenologi pengembangan tutuwuhan jeung sato, jeung kasaimbangan énergi ékosistem. Maranéhanana ogé kabetot ngarti kumaha végetasi jeung mahluk hirup mangaruhan cuaca jeung iklim.<ref>[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/503295/description?navopenmenu=-2 Agricultural and Forest Meteorology], Elsevier, ISSN: 0168-1923.</ref> == Atikan meteorologi di Indonesia == Atikan meteorologi diayakeun di sagala rupa sakola luhur di Indonesia, diantarana: * sekolah tinggi, Climatology, Météorologi, sarta Geofisika * Akademi Meteorologi sarta Geofisika * [[Institut Pertanian Bogor|institut pertanian bogor]], Fakultas Matematika sarta Élmu Alam<ref>http://geomet.ipb.ac.id/program-studi/s1-meteorologi-terapan {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528055042/http://geomet.ipb.ac.id/program-studi/s1-meteorologi-terapan |date=2023-05-28 }}</ref> * [[Institut Teknologi Bandung]], Fakultas Élmu jeung Téhnologi Terestrial == Tempo ogé == * Aerografi * Aerologi * Nu agrometeorological * Atmosfir sirkulasi * Lapisan atmosfer * Model atmospheres * Térmodinamik atmosfir * Covariance Eddy * El Nino * Daptar cuaca instrumen * Daptar lembaga of meteorologi * Osilasi Madden-Julian * Cuaca luar angkasa * Walker Sirkulasi * Cuaca jeung iklim == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} == Patali jeung bahan bacaan == * Byers, Horace. Umum Sunda. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994. * {{Cite book|last=Garret|first=J.R.|title=The atmospheric boundary layer|url=https://archive.org/details/atmosphericbound0000garr|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-38052-9|year=1992|orig-year=1992}} * {{Cite book|author-link=http://www.ametsoc.org/|others=American Meteorological Society|title=Glossary of Meteorology|url=http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary|edition=2nd|publisher=Allen Press|year=2000}} * {{Cite book|last=Bluestein|first=H|title=Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1|url=https://archive.org/details/synopticdynamicm0000blue|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0-19-506267-1|year=1992|orig-year=1992}} * {{Cite book|last=Bluestein|first=H|title=Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Volume II: Observations and Theory of Weather Systems|url=https://archive.org/details/synopticdynamicm0000blue|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-506268-X|year=1993|orig-year=1993}} * {{Cite book|last=Reynolds|first=R|title=Guide to Weather|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781554071104|publisher=Firefly Books Inc|location=Buffalo, New York|isbn=1-55407-110-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781554071104/page/208 208]|year=2005|orig-year=2005}} * {{Cite book|last=Holton|first=J.R.|title=An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology|url=http://elsevier.com.uk|edition=4th|publisher=Elsevier Inc.|location=Burlington, Md|isbn=0-12-354015-1|year=2004|orig-year=2004}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719153537/http://elsevier.com.uk/ |date=2013-07-19 }} == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.shodor.org/metweb/ Kualitas udara Sunda] - kursus Online nu nawarkeun konsep dasar sunda jeung kualitas udara perlu ngarti météorologi komputer model. Ditulis di hiji jajaka gelar level. * [http://www.globe.gov/home DUNYA Program] - (Global Learning jeung Observasi ka Benefit Lingkungan) Hiji lingkungan internasional élmu jeung program atikan anu tutumbu siswa, guru, jeung panalungtikan ilmiah masarakat dina upaya pikeun diajar ngeunaan lingkungan ngaliwatan mahasiswa koleksi data jeung observasi. * [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary Kekecapan Sunda] - Ti American Météorologi Masarakat, hiji rujukan alus teuing tina asal-usul kecap, persamaan, jeung konsep pikeun leuwih maju nu maca. * [http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/ JetStream - Hiji Sakola Online pikeun Cuaca] - Nasional Cuaca Service * [http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/ Diajar Tentang Sunda] - Australian Bureau of Meteorologi * [http://weather.about.com Cuaca Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224000722/http://weather.about.com/ |date=2017-02-24 }} - Cuaca Tutorials jeung Warta di About.com * [http://meted.ucar.edu/ Meteorologi Atikan sarta Latihan (MetEd)] - KOMET Program * [http://www.lib.noaa.gov/ NOAA Central Library] - Ecosystem National & Atmosfir Administrasi * [http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu Dunya Cuaca 2010 Proyék] Universitas Illionis di Urbana-Champaign * [http://www.ogimet.com/index.phtml.en Ogimet - data online ti météorologi stasion dunya, diala ngaliwatan NOAA ladenan bébas] * [https://www.archives.ucar.edu/ National Center for Atmosfir Panalungtikan Arsip, dokumén sajarah sunda] * [http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/science Forecasting cuaca jeung Iklim élmu] - Britania Raya Météorologi Kantor 1zx3h7mb4s9n62k4g6i06o0d6ceh52g 0 98901 711786 705741 2026-08-07T04:21:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox historic site|name=Patung Liberty|designation2_free1name=Ditetapkan oleh|designation1_type=Budaya|designation1_criteria=i, vi|designation1_number=[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/307 307]|designation1_free1name=Wilayah|designation1_free1value=Amerika Serikat|designation1_free2name=Kawasan|designation1_free2value=[[Daftar Situs Warisan Dunia di Amerika|Amerika]]|designation2=NMON|designation2_date=15 Oktober 1924|designation2_free1value=Presiden [[Calvin Coolidge]]<ref name="NPS monuments">{{cite web | publisher = National Park Service | title = National Monument Proclamations under the Antiquities Act | date = 16 Januari 2003 | url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/monuments.htm | archiveurl = http://wayback.archive.org/web/20111025111325/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/monuments.htm | archivedate = 2011-10-25 | accessdate = 12 Oktober 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701143707/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/monuments.htm |date=2014-07-01 }}</ref>|designation1=WHS|designation3=NRHP|designation3_offname=[[Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island]]|designation3_date=15 Oktober 1966<ref name="NPS 2994 p502"> {{cite book | author = National Park Service | title = National Register of Historic Places, 1966–1994: Cumulative List Through January&nbsp;1, 1994 | url = https://archive.org/details/nationalregister00amer | publisher = National Park Service | location = Washington DC | year = 1994 | page = [https://archive.org/details/nationalregister00amer/page/502 502] | isbn = 978-0-89133-254-1 }} </ref>|designation3_number=66000058|designation4=NJRHP|designation4_date=27 Mei 1971|designation4_number=1535<ref name=NJRHP>{{cite web | title=New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places – Hudson County | url= http://www.nj.gov/dep/hpo/1identify/nrsr_lists.htm | publisher=[[New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection]] – Historic Preservation Office | page= | date= | accessdate= 2 Agustus 2014}}</ref>|designation5=NYC Landmark|designation5_date=14 September 1976<ref name="neighborhoodpreservationcenter">{{cite web | title = Statue of Liberty National Monument | date = 14 September 1976 | publisher = New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission | url = http://www.neighborhoodpreservationcenter.org/db/bb_files/STATUE-OF-LIBERTY.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 12 Oktober 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311192502/http://www.neighborhoodpreservationcenter.org/db/bb_files/STATUE-OF-LIBERTY.pdf |date=11 March 2014 }}</ref>|designation1_date=1984 <small>(sesi ke-8)</small>|governing_body=[[National Park Service]]|image=Statue of Liberty 7.jpg|long_direction=W|caption=|location=[[Pulau Liberty]]<br />[[Manhattan]], [[Kota New York]],<br />[[New York]],<ref name="NPS StLi"> {{cite web | publisher = [[National Park Service]] | title = Statue of Liberty National Monument | date = 31 Desember 2007 | url = http://www.nps.gov/stli/index.htm | accessdate = 12 Oktober 2011 }} </ref> [[Amerika Serikat]]|lat_degrees=40|lat_minutes=41|lat_seconds=21|lat_direction=N|long_degrees=74|long_minutes=2|long_seconds=40|coord_parameters=region:US-NY_type:landmark_scale:5000|visitation_ref=<ref name="Schneiderman 2010-06-28"> {{cite news | last = Schneiderman | first = R.M. | date = 28 Juni 2010 | title = For tourists, Statue of Liberty is nice, but no Forever 21 | newspaper = The Wall Street Journal | url = http://blogs.wsj.com/metropolis/2010/06/28/for-tourists-statue-of-liberty-is-no-forever-21/ | accessdate = 12 Oktober 2011 }} </ref>|locmapin=New York City|map_caption=Lokasi dari Patung Liberty di [[New York Harbor]], [[Kota New York]]|elevation={{plainlist | * Dari dasar patung hingga puncak: {{convert|151|ft|1|in|0|abbr=off|sp=us}} * Dari tanah hingga puncak: {{convert|305|ft|1|in|0|abbr=off|sp=us}} }}|beginning_label=Diresmikan|beginning_date=28 Oktober 1886|restored=1938, 1984–1986, 2011–2012|sculptor=[[Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi]]|visitation_num=3,2 juta|visitation_year=2009|designation5_type=Individual}} '''Patung Liberty''' (judul sejen dina {{Lang-en|Liberty Enlightening the World}}, {{Lang-fr|La Liberté éclairant le monde}}) patung buta nu aya dina pulo liberty di muara Hudson di New York harbor, [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Patung ieu dileler [[Perancis]] ka Amérika Sarikat dina ahir [[Abad ka-11|abad ka-19]] jeung simbol ngabagéakeun nu datang, imigran jeung Amerika balik. Patung perunggu diresmikeun dina [[28 Oktober|28 oktober,]] [[1886]] ieu nyaéta kado saratus taun kamerdikaan Amérika Sarikat jeung hiji ekspresi silaturahim antara dua nagara.{{Sfn|Khan|2010|p=176}} nu mahat patung ieu Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, jeung Gustave Eiffel (desainer [[Munara Eiffel|tina Tower Eiffel]]) dirancang struktur pangrojong jero. Patung Liberty nyaéta salah sahiji simbul tina AS nu paling kawentar dina sakabeh dunya, sarta melambangkan kamerdikaan jeung kabebasan ti tekenan. Dina taun 1984, Patung Liberty dina daptar [[Loka Warisan Dunya|Loka Warisan Dunya UNESCO]].<ref name="unesco">{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/307|title=Statue of Liberty|website=World Heritage|publisher=UNESCO|accessdate=20 Oktober 2011}}</ref> == Rujukan == === catatan kaki === {{Reflist}} === Daftar pustaka === * {{Cite book|last=Khan|first=Yasmin Sabina|year=2010|title=Enlightening the World: The Creation of the Statue of Liberty|url=https://archive.org/details/enlighteningworl00khan|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, New York|isbn=978-0-8014-4851-5|ref=harv}} == Tumbu luar == * {{En icon}} [http://www.nps.gov/stli/ Statue of Liberty National Monument - National Park Service] * {{En icon}} [http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/11/index.htm The official Historical Site handbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609182435/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/11/index.htm |date=2007-06-09 }} * {{En icon}} [http://manhattan.about.com/od/historyandlandmarks/a/statueofliberty.htm/ History of the Statue of Liberty - About.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617081148/http://manhattan.about.com/od/historyandlandmarks/a/statueofliberty.htm |date=2006-06-17 }} * {{En icon}} [http://www.libertycam.com/ Statue Of Liberty Webcam Live] gs5ngbbz6u15ythamfnexjn03okqi4u 0 99093 711591 697945 2026-08-06T23:46:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711591 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |image = Attalea_brasiliensis.jpg |image_caption = ''[[Attalea brasiliensis]]'' |image_alt=Tall, single-stemmed palm standing alone in a field of grass with scattered shrubs and palms. The low hills in the background are forested. The leaves are all angled above horizontal, and are shorter than the stem. A single brownish-yellow infructescence is visible just below the leaves. The lower half of the stem is bare, but the upper half has old leaf-based still attached. Ferns and a strangler fig grow on the upper part of the stem just below the leaves, rooted in the old leaf bases. |display_parents = 2 |regnum = [[Plantaé]] |divisio |taxon = Attalea |authority = [[Carl Sigismund Kunth|Kunth]] |type_species = ''[[Attalea amygdalina]]'' |type_species_authority = Kunth |diversity = Antara 29 jeung 67 spésiés |diversity_link = Daptar spésiés Attaléa |synonyms_ref= <ref name="Kew">{{cite web |url=https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=17758 |title=''Attalea'' Kunth in F.W.H.von Humboldt, A.J.A.Bonpland & C.S.Kunth, Nov. Gen. Sp. 1: 309 (1816) |accessdate=2020-03-03 |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805185412/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=17758 |date=2020-08-05 }}</ref> |synonyms = {{species list |Maximiliana|[[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius|Mart.]] |Orbignya|Mart. ex [[Stephan Endlicher|Endl.]] |Lithocarpos|[[Ottaviano Targioni Tozzetti|O.Targ.Tozz.]] ex [[Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel|Steud.]] |Scheelea|[[Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten|H.Karst.]] |Englerophoenix|[[Otto Kuntze|Kuntze]] |Pindarea|[[João Barbosa Rodrigues|Barb.Rodr.]] |Bornoa|[[Orator F. Cook|O.F.Cook]] |Heptantra|O.F.Cook |Temenia|O.F.Cook |Ethnora|O.F.Cook |Parascheelea|[[Armando Dugand|Dugand]] |Sarinia|O.F.Cook |Ynesa|O.F.Cook |Markleya|[[Gregório Bondar|Bondar]] |× Attabignya|[[Michael J. Balick|Balick]], [[Anthony B. Anderson|A.B.Anderson]] & [[Judas Tadeu de Medeiros-Costa|Med.-Costa]] |× Maximbignya|[[Sidney F. Glassman|Glassman]] }} }} '''Attaléa''' ''(Attalea)'' nyaéta hiji [[génus]] palem-paleman pituin wewengkon tropis buana Amérika, saperti [[Méksiko]], [[Karibia]], [[Amérika Tengah]], sarta [[Amérika Kidul]]. Tutuwuhan anu asup kana génus ieu boga cicirén mirip jeung [[kalapa]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/attalea|title=Attalea - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> == Sajarah == Génus ''Attaléa'' mimiti diungkabkeun ku [[Carl Sigismund Kunth]] di taun [[1816]] dumasar spésimén anu dikumpulkeun ku [[Alexander von Humboldt]] jeung [[Aimé Bonpland]],<ref name = "Kew" /> Asal ngaran ieu génus nyaéta ti [[Attalus III|Attalus III Philometor]], raja [[Pergamon]] (hiji kota di [[Yunani Kuna]], kiwari aya di [[Turki]]), anu dipikawanoh ku minatna kana [[tutuwuhan ubar]].<ref name="Henderson">{{cite book |last=Henderson |first=Andrew |authorlink= Andrew Henderson (botanist)|author2=Gloria Galeano|title=Field Guide to the Palms of the Americas |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetopalm0000hend |year=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey| isbn= 0-691-08537-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetopalm0000hend/page/153 153]–164 |authorlink2=Gloria Galeano}}</ref> Jumlah daun dina tutuwuhan rupa-rupa, ti mimiti 3 nepi ka 35, beuki gedé tutuwuhanna, mangka beuki loba jumlah daunna.<ref name="Henderson"/> Salah sahiji [[spésiés]]na nyaéta ''[[Attalea amygdalina|amygdalina]]'', mangrupa tutuwuhan éndemik [[Kolombia]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do? accept_id = 17763 & repSynonym_id = -9998 & name_id = 17763 & status = true | title = '' Attalea amygdalina '' | accessdate = 2020-03-03 | work = Daftar Periksa Dunia dari Keluarga Tumbuhan Terpilih }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130705190542/http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do |date=2013-07-05 }}</ref> Sedengkeun genera ''Maximiliana'' jeung ''Orbignya'' dijéntrékeun ku [[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius]] di taun [[1826]] <ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?accepted_id=17758&repSynonym_id=-9998&name_id=123129&status=false | title = '' Maximiliana '' | accessdate = 2020-03-03 | work = Daftar Periksa Dunia dari Pabrik Terpilih Keluarga}}</ref> jeung [[1837]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do? Accept_id = 17758 & repSynonym_id = -9998 & name_id = 141983 & status = false | title = '' Orbignya '' | accessdate = 2020-03-03 | work = Daftar Periksa Dunia Keluarga Tumbuhan Terpilih }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130705190542/http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do |date=2013-07-05 }}</ref>. Genera ''Scheelea'' kapanggih sarta dijelaskeun ku [[Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten | Hermann Karsten]] di taun [[1857]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?Accept_id=17758&repSynonym_id=-9998&name_id=186905&status=false | title = '' Scheelea '' | accessdate = 2020-03-03 | work = Daftar Periksa Dunia Keluarga Tumbuhan yang Dipilih }}{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> sedengkeun Genera ''Ynesa'' kapaggih sarta dijelaskeun ku [[Orator F. Cook]] di taun [[1942]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?Accept_id=17758&repSynonym_id=-9998&name_id=215466&status=false | title = '' Ynesa '' | accessdate = 2020-03-03 | work = Daftar Periksa Dunia Keluarga Tumbuhan Pilihan }}{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Taksonomi== {{cladogram |caption=Filogéni anggota subtribe [[Attaleinae]] anu disederhanakeun, dumasar tujuh lokus gén WRKY.<ref name="Meerow">{{cite journal|last=Meerow|first=Alan W.|author-link=Alan W. Meerow |author2=Larry Noblick |author3=James W. Borrone |author4=Thomas L. P. Couvreur |author5=Margarita Mauro-Herrera |author6=William J. Hahn |author7=David N. Kuhn |author8=Kyoko Nakamura |author9=Nora H. Oleas |author10=Raymond J. Schnell |year=2009|title=Phylogenetic Analysis of Seven WRKY Genes across the Palm Subtribe Attaleinae (Arecaceae) Identifies Syagrus as Sister Group of the Coconut|journal=PLOS ONE|pmid=19806212|volume=4|issue=10|pmc=2752195|pages=e7353|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007353|editor1-last=Joly|editor1-first=Simon|bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.7353M}}</ref> |clades= {{clade|style=font-size:80%;line-height:75% |1={{clade |1=''[[Beccariophoenix]]'' |2={{clade |1=''[[Voanioala]]'' |2=''[[Jubaeopsis]]'' }} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''[[Cocos nucifera]]'' |2={{clade |1=''[[Syagrus (plant)|Syagrus]]'' |2=''[[Lytocaryum]]'' (nested within ''Syagrus'') }} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''[[Allagoptera]]'' |2=''[[Polyandrococos]]'' }} |2=''[[Parajubaea]]'' }} |2={{clade |1=''[[Butia]]'' |2=''[[Jubaea]]'' }} }} |2='''''Attalea''''' }} }} }} }} ''Attaléa'' ditempatkeun dina [[familia (biologi) |subfamili]] [[Arecoideae]], [[suku (biologi)|suku]] [[Cocoseae]] sarta sub tribus [[Attaleinae]], jeung genera ''[[Allagoptera]]'', ''[[Beccariophoenix]]'', ''[[Butia]]'', ''[[Cocos (genus)|Cocos]]'', ''[[Jubaea]]'', ''[[Jubaeopsis]]'', ''[[Parajubaea]]'', ''[[Syagrus (tutuwuhan)|Syagrus]]'', sarta ''[[Voanioala]]''.<ref name = Dransfield2005>{{cite journal | last = Dransfield | first = John | author2 = Natalie W. Uhl | author3 = Conny B. Asmussen | author4 = William J. Baker | author5 = Madeline M. Harley | author6 = Carl E. Lewis | tahun = 2005 | title = Klasifikasi Filogenetik Baru Keluarga Palem, Arecaceae | jurnal = Buletin Kew | volume = 60 | masalah = 4 | page = 559–69 | jstor = 25070242}}</ref><ref name = "Freitas"> {{Cite journal | last = Freitas | first = Cintia | last2 = Meerow | first2 = Alan W. | last3 = Pintaud | first3 = Jean-Christophe | last4 = Henderson | first4 = Andrew | last5 = Noblick | first5 = Larry | last6 = Costa | first6 = Flavia RC | last7 = Barbosa | first7 = Carlos E. | last8 = Barrington | first8 = David | date = 2016 | title = Phylogenetic analisis Attalea (Arecaceae): wawasan ke dalam biogeografi historis kelompok tanaman Neotropis yang baru-baru ini didiversifikasi | jurnal = Jurnal Botani Masyarakat Linnean | bahasa = en | volume = 182 | masalah = 2 | page = 287-302 | doi = 10.1111 /boj.12466}}</ref> Dina subtribe ieu, ''Attalea'' asup kulawarga [[monofiletik]], sarta duduluran jeung ''Allagoptera'', ''[[Polyandrococos]]'', ''Parajubaea'', ''Butia'', sarta ''Jubaea.''<ref name="Meerow"/> Aya perkara anu teu sapuk ngeunaan ''Attaléa'', antara dianggap jadi hiji génus tunggal, atawa sakelompok génus anu patali. Dina buku ''Pituduh Lapangan Pikeun ka Talapak Amérika'' taun [[1996]], [[Andrew Henderson(ahli botani)|Andrew Henderson]], [[Gloria Galeano]], jeung [[Rodrigo Bernal]] ngagabungkeun sakabéh spésiés kana subtribe Attaleinae jadi hiji génus, ''Attaléa''. Dina bukuna ''Perlakuan Taksonomi Palm Subtribe Attaleinae'', ahli botani Amérika [[Sidney F. Glassman]] ngabagi kelompok menjadi lima genera, nyaéta ''Attalea'', ''Orbignya'', ''Maximiliana'', ''Scheelea'' sarta ''Ynesa'',<ref name="Pintaud2008">{{cite journal |last=Pintaud |first=Jean-Christophe |year=2008 |title=An overview of the taxonomy of Attalea (Arecaceae) |journal=Revista Peruana de Biología |volume=15 |issue=supl. 1 |pages=055–063 |url=http://sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe/bvrevistas/biologia/v15sup1/pdf/a06v15sup1.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515164033/https://sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe/bvrevistas/biologia/v15sup1/pdf/a06v15sup1.pdf |date=2021-05-15 }}</ref> sanajan manéhna mikir kamungkinan yén ''Ynesa colenda'', hiji-hijina anggota éta génus, sabenerna mangrupa hibrida.<ref name="Glassman">{{cite journal| last = Glassman | first = Sidney F. | year = 1999 | title = Perlakuan taksonomi terhadap Subtribe Kelapa '' Attaleinae '' (Suku '' Cocoeae '') | url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/105317#page/5/mode/1up | journal = Illinois Biological Monographs | volume = 59 | page = 1-414}}</ref> [[Rafaél Govaerts|Rafael Govaerts]] jeung [[John Dransfield]] ngajéntrékeun yén ''Attaléa'' mangrupa hiji génus, dina buku maranéhna anu judulna ''World Checklist of Palms'',<ref name = WCSP> {{cite web | url = http://apps.kew.org/wcsp / | title = WCSP | work = Daftar Periksa Dunia Keluarga Tumbuhan Terpilih | accessdate = 2020-03-04 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080517080200/http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/ | archivedate = 17 Mei 2008 | url-status = live}}</ref> sarta Jean-Christophe Pintaud nuluykeun pamakéan ieu dina pembahasanana di génus 2008.<ref name="Pintaud2008" /> == Kagunaan == Spésiés-spésiés Attaléa miboga sajarah panjang jeung jelema. ''Carbonised [[Attalea maripa]]'' kungsi kapanggih di situs arkéologi di Kolombia anu asalna ti taun 9000 [[Saacan maséhi]].<Ref name = Morcote>{{cite journal | last = Morcote-Ríos | first = Gaspar | author2 = Rodrigo Bernal | year = 2001 | title = Sisa telapak tangan (Palmae) di situs arkeologi di Dunia Baru: Ulasan | jurnal = Tinjauan Botani | volume = 67 | masalah = 3 | page = 309–50 | doi = 10.1007 / BF02858098 | authorlink2 = Rodrigo Bernal}}</ref> Babaraha spésiés jadi sumber penting [[minyak nabati]], [[jarami]], siki anu bisa didahar, jeung serat. Daun [[Attalea butyracea|''Attalea butyracea'']] jeung ''maripa'' dipaké pikeun jarami. Babaraha spésiés nyaéta [[kalapa sawit]], jeung ''speciosa'' di antara anu pangpentingna sacara ékonomi.<ref name="Henderson" /> Produk anu diékstraksi ti ''speciosa'' ngarojong leuwih ti 300.000 rumah tangga di [[Maranhão]], nagara bagian [[Brasil]] di taun 2005,<ref name = "Porro">{{cite journal | last = Porro | first = Roberto | year = 2005 | title = Palms, Pastures, dan Swidden Bidang: Ekologi Politik Beralas dari "Petani Agro-Ekstraktif / Pergeseran-penggarap" di Maranhão, Brasil | jurnal = Ekologi Manusia | volume = 33 | masalah = 1 | page = 17–56 | doi = 10.1007 / s10745-005-1654 -2}}</ref> sarta di taun 1985 ngarojong leuwih ti 450.000 rumah tangga di sakabéh wewengkon di Brasil.<Ref name = "May1985"> {{cite journal | last = May | first = Peter H. | author2 = Anthony B Anderson | author3 = Michael J. Balick | author4 = José Mário F. Frazão | year = 1985 | title = Manfaat subsisten dari Kelapa Sawit (Orbignya martiana) | journal = Botani Ekonomi | volume = 39 | masalah = 2 | page = 113–129 | jstor = 4254727 | doi = 10.1007 / BF02907831 | url = http://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/81355/1/7295.pdf}} </ref> Serat piassava, anu diékstrak tina daun ''funifera'', sacara komérsial penting,<ref name = "Henderson" /> sarta ngahasilkeun kira-kira [[Dolar Amérika Sarikat|US $]] 20 juta pendapatan taunan pikeun patani Brasil di taun [[1996]].<ref name = "Voeks2002"> {{cite journal | last = Voeks | first = Robert A. | year = 2002 | title = Ekologi reproduksi pohon piassava ('' Attalea funifera '') di Bahia, Brasil | journal = Jurnal Ekologi Tropis | volume = 18 | page = 121–136 | doi = 10.1017 / s0266467402002079}} </ref> == Galéri == <gallery> File:Attalea amygdalina 1.jpg|''Attalea amygdalina'' File:Attalea brasiliensis (20445265406) (2).jpg|''Attalea brasiliensis'' File:Attalea maripa.jpg|''Attalea maripa'' </gallery> == Tingali ogé == [[Tutuwuhan]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Amérika]] [[Kategori:Arecaceae]] hxk0ax2umlg52rfr7hyghiyappususe 0 99310 711594 709828 2026-08-06T23:48:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711594 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Grand Turk(36).jpg|jmpl|200px|{{center|Bedil lontak atawa ''musket''}}]] '''Bedil'''atawa '''Sanapang'''atawa '''Sinapang'''; ''rifle''; ''Senapan'' nyaéta pakarang mékanik nu mibanda laras panjang.<ref name=“Antanan ”>{{Cite book | title =A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| first =Jonathan | last =Rigg| publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen| location =Universitas Harvard| year =1862| pages =28|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA213&dq=KEHKEL&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7qpOVitnTAhWBO48KHXrzCD8Q6AEIQDAD#v=onepage&q=d&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi) 11 April 2020}}</ref> Bedil ogé nunjul kana [[pakarang]] témbak nu dijieuna mangsa baheula. <ref name=“kbbi”>{{Cite web | url = https://kbbi.web.id/bedil| title = Desa Cipacing, Produsen Senapan Angin yang Mendunia| date = 14. Februari 2019| accessdate = (disungsi 12. April 2020)| work =Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia| year =2020}}</ref> Bedil bisa dipaké mun dieusian pélor nu sok disebut ogé amunisi, gedé jeung leutikna proyéktil gumantung kana ukuran bedilna atawa kaliber.<ref name=“Bedil”>{{Cite web | url = https://kbbi.web.id/senapan| title = Senapan| date = 11. April 2020| accessdate = 11. April 2020| work =Kamus Bahasa Indonesia| year =2020}}</ref> Pelor bedil aya nu dijieun tina karét, timah, jeung pelor beusi nu seukeut.<ref name=“Yusra”>{{Cite book | title =Analisis Problema dan Solusi Penegakan Hukum| first =Yusra| last =Yusra| publisher =Deepublish| location =Jakarta| year =2017| pages =246|ISBN=9786024534592|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=oBlADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA246&dq=jenis+senapan+angin&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjPgOjdw-HoAhWOXisKHYUiA18Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=jenis%20senapan%20angin&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi - 12 April 2020)}}</ref> Istilah bedil asalna tina kecap ''wedil'' atau ''wediyal'' tina bahasa [[Tamil]], urang [[Tamil]] ngagunakeun ieu kecap nuduhkeun kana sagala rupa pakarang nu ngagunakeun bubuk ''mesiu''.<ref name="hiji" /> Dina kanyataan sapopoé, ieu kecap bedil dimaksudkeun kana mesiu atawa ngabeledugna sora mesiu.<ref name="hiji">{{Cite journal|last=Kern|first=H.|date=January 1902|title=Oorsprong van het Maleisch Woord Bedil|url=|journal=Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia|volume=54|pages=311–312}}</ref> Tapi ieu kecap disebutna jadi bedil ku [[Basa Malayu|basa Melayu]], kitu deui di sababara daérah di kapuloan [[Nusantara]].<ref name="hiji" /> Di basa [[Batak]] disebutna ''bodil'', di bahasa [[Makassar]], ''badili'', di bahasa Bugis, ''balili'', di bahasa [[Dayak]], ''badil'', di bahasa [[Tagalog]], ''baril'', sarta urang [[Melayu]] nyebutna ''badel'' atawa ''bedil''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jantungmelayu.com/2018/08/kitab-ilmu-bedil-melayu/|title=Kitab Ilmu Bedil Melayu|last=Syahri|first=Aswandi|date=6 August 2018|website=Jantung Melayu|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 February 2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215051727/https://jantungmelayu.com/2018/08/kitab-ilmu-bedil-melayu/ |date=15 February 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rahmawati|first=Siska|date=2016|title=Peristilahan Persenjataan Tradisional Masyarakat Melayu di Kabupatén Sambas|url=http://jurnal.untan.ac.id/index.php/jpdpb/article/view/15615|journal=Jurnal Atikan dan Pembelajaran Khatulistiwa|volume=5|pages=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417071952/https://jurnal.untan.ac.id/index.php/jpdpb/article/view/15615 |date=2023-04-17 }}</ref> ==Sajarah== Bedil mangrupa hiji pamanggih tina kamekaran [[téknologi|téknologi]] nu kacida penting utamana mangsa peperangan, taya lian mangsa ''renaissance'' harita kakuatan tantara gumantung kana sabaraha loba bedil nu dipibanda.<ref name=“Petrik”>{{Cite book | title =Kapitan Jonker: Sang Legenda Serdadu van Maluku| first =Petrik| last =Matanasi| publisher =Sibuku| location =Yogyakarta| year =2014| pages =16|ISBN=9789795538424|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ar9iDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16&dq=bedil+adalah&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwirvN3BquLoAhWaf30KHTFrDYIQ6AEISDAE#v=onepage&q=bedil&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi - 12 April 2020)}}</ref> [[Abad]] ka 15 nepi ka abad 19 bedil geus mimiti dipaké, taya lian bedil ''lantak'' atawa ''lontak'' ogé disebut ''musket'' mangrupa bedil nu kasohor mangsa harita.<ref name=“Lontak”>{{Cite web| url = https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/bpnbkepri/6146-2/| title = Mengenal senapan Lantak| date = 24. Desember 2020| accessdate = 11. April 2020| work = Kamus Bahasa Indonesia| year = 2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412115818/https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/bpnbkepri/6146-2/ |date=2020-04-12 }}</ref> Pélor atawa amunisi ngan bisa dieusi sakali, jadi ngan bisa dipaké némbak keun [[timah]] panas ngan sakali.<ref name=“Lontak”/> Lamun hanyang nembakeun deui, pélorna jeung bubuk ''mesiu'' kudu di asupkeun deui ka jero solobong bedilna.<ref name=“Lontak”/> Baheula gorombolan [[kapal]]-kapal VOC salawasna mekel bedil dina kapalna, gunana pikeun jaga-jaga bisi aya rampog di perjalanan ogé pikeun merangan bangsa pribumi mun teu daék diajak gawé bareng ku maranéhna.<ref name=“Petrik”/> Bangsa urang ogé kiwari geus bisa nyieun bedil sorangan, timiti bedil angin nepi ka bedil pikeun kabutuhan tentara.<ref name=“ Bedil”/> Tayalian PT Pindad nu mangrupa hiji usaha nu dikokolakeun ku [[nagara]], tujuanna ngahaja pikeun nyieun rupa-rupa pakarang sarta pakarang tempur kaasup bedil ogé dijieun.<ref name=“ Bedil”>{{Cite book | title =PT Pindad, Produsen Senjata Indonésia yang Disegani| first =Pusat Data| last =Dan Analisa Tempo| publisher =Tempo Publishing| location =Jakarta| year =2020| pages =25|ISBN=9786232627215|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=mHzZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24&dq=jenis+senapan&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjYuMLEmeDoAhUEXn0KHZKaBy8Q6AEIQDAD#v=onepage&q=jenis%20senapan&f=false|accessdate=12 April 2020}}</ref> ==Bedil Angin== Bedil angin nu dijieun di Cipacing, Jatinangor, [[Sumedang]] geus kasohor ti taun [[1960]].<ref name=“Cipacing”/> Rupa-rupa ukuran jeung wanda bedil angin dijieun di dieu, timimiti pikeun kabutuhan [[olah raga]], [[paninggaran]], malahan ngan ukur pangaresep dieu dijieun tur dijual ka balaréa malahan nepi ka luar [[pulo]] sagala.<ref name=“Cipacing”>{{Cite web | url = https://nasional.republika.co.id/berita/nasional/daérah/19/02/14/pmvn5z384-desa-cipacing-produsen-senapan-angin-yang-mendunia| title = Desa Cipacing, Produsen Senapan Angin yang Mendunia| date = 14. Februari 2019| accessdate = (disungsi 12. April 2020)| work =Republika| year =2020}}</ref> Bedil angin rupa-rupa ukuran jeung kamampuhanna aya nu ukuran 3,5 mm nepi ka 15 mm, aya ogé bedil kaliber nu sasaran tembakna mimiti 50 m nepi ka 300 m.<ref name=“Angin”>{{Cite book | title =Data Arsitek Jl. 2 Ed. 33| first =Dr. Ing| last =Sunarto Tjahyadi, Dr Feryyanto Chaidir| publisher =Erlangga| location =Jakarta| year =2017| pages =177|ISBN=9789794115527|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=_wtaJXW_Fd0C&pg=PA177&dq=senapan+angin&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwihoIG9x-HoAhVTbSsKHYIXDkIQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=senapan%20angin&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi - 12 April 2020)}}</ref><ref name=“Bali”/><ref name=“Talis”>{{Cite book | title =Nyonya Talis| first =Budi| last =Dharma| publisher =Gramedia Widiasarana Indonesia| location =University of California| year =1996| pages =27|ISBN=9789795538424|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Z1poAAAAMAAJ&q=senapan+angin&dq=senapan+angin&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQmr71zeHoAhVCbSsKHf2bDaY4HhDoAQg-MAM|accessdate=(disungsi - 12 April 2020)}}</ref> Pélor bedil angin téh dijieun tina logam [[timah]] hideung (pb) 99,8% sésana 0,2 % dijieun tina logam ''arsen'' nu matak ngabahayakeun kana kaséhatan mun urang henteu tarapti dina ngagunakeunna.<ref name=“Pelor”>{{Cite book | title =Geotoksikologi: Usaha Menjaga Keracunan Akibat Bencana Geologi| first =Sukandarrumidi| last =Fivry Wellda Maulana, Arie Noor Rakhman| publisher =UGM Press| location =Yogyakarta| year =2018| pages =367|ISBN=9786023862252|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Q_9UDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA367&dq=senapan+angin&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwihoIG9x-HoAhVTbSsKHYIXDkIQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=senapan%20angin&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi - 12 April 2020)}}</ref><ref name=“Bali”>{{Cite book | title =Adat istiadat daérah Bali| first =Proyek| last =Pengembangan Media Kebudayaan (Indonesia)| publisher =Proyek Pengembangan Media Kebudayaan, Departemen Atikan dan Kebudayaan| location =University of California| year =1977| pages =367|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=EkgbAAAAIAAJ&q=senapan+angin&dq=senapan+angin&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiwv7TlzOHoAhW46XMBHfjeB3I4FBDoAQhnMAk|accessdate=(disungsi - 12 April 2020)}}</ref> <gallery caption="Sababara rupa pakarang nu digolongkeun bedil"> File:Madrid canons indiens.png|Cetbang (mariem laras dua baheula disebut bedil)<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hino|first=|url=https://www.suratkabar.id/13394/news/wow-senjata-ini-jadi-bukti-kekuatan-kerajaan-majapahit-memang-disegani-dunia-baca-dan-sebarkan/2|title=Senjata Ini Jadi Bukti Kekuatan Kerajaan Majapahit Memang Disegani Dunia|date=21 May 2016|work=Suratkabar.id|access-date=16 February 2020|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216135015/https://www.suratkabar.id/13394/news/wow-senjata-ini-jadi-bukti-kekuatan-kerajaan-majapahit-memang-disegani-dunia-baca-dan-sebarkan/2 |date=16 February 2020 }}</ref> File:Two cannons in Muzium Istana Jahar.png|Buntut lutung File:Rentaka Melayu.jpg|Lela atawa lila<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=The Might of the Miniature Cannon A treasure of Borneo and the Malay Archipelago|last=Teoh|first=Alex Eng Kean|publisher=Asean Heritage|year=2005|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> File:Istinggar Melayu.jpg|Istinggar File:Indonesian matchlock 19th century.jpg| Arquebus Jawa<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tarling|first=Nicholas|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0000unse_b7s6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|isbn=9780521663700|location=|pages=}}</ref> File:Dragon_pistol.jpg|Terakul File:English flintlock blunderbuss.jpeg|Pemuras [[flintlock]] Britania <ref name=eb1911>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopædia Britannica|date=1911}}, entry for Blunderbuss</ref> </gallery> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} {{Commonscat|Wheellock}} [[Kategori:Pakarang]] hzqo5vkovmbc1ig1o7iu9salz46xorf 0 99470 711559 650877 2026-08-06T23:07:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711559 wikitext text/x-wiki [[file:Typicalbusyoffice20050109.jpg|jmpl|Kantor anu teu rapih]] '''Kantor''' (tina [[basa Walanda]] ''kantoor'', manéhna tina [[basa Prancis]] ''comptoir'') nyaéta sesebutan pikeun tempat anu dippaké pikeun niaga ataw [[pausahaan]] anu dijalankeun sacara rutin. Kantor bisa ngan mangrupa sa[[kamar]] atawa sa[[rohangan]] leutik atawa [[wangunan]] tingkat anu jangkung.<ref name=Long>{{cite book|last=Long|first=Kim|pages=[https://archive.org/details/usereffectivebui0000unse/page/14 14]–16|title=User Effective Buildings|url=https://archive.org/details/usereffectivebui0000unse|location=Denver|publisher=Aardex Corporation|year=2004|isbn=0975552406}}</ref> Kantor sok dibagi jadi dua jinis; kantor anu panggedéna jeung pangpentingna biasana dijadikeun '''kantor pusat''', sedengkeun kantor-kantor lianna dingaranan '''kantor cabang'''. ==Gedong kantor== [[File:Salinas Office.jpg|jmpl|Hiji gedung kantor leutik di [[Salinas, California]], [[Amérika Sarikat]]]] [[File:Sears Tower ss.jpg|jmpl|[[Willis Tower]] di [[Chicago]] nyaéta gedong kantor pencakar langit, pangjagkungna ti sagala jinisna di Amérika Sarikat.]] Kantor bisa diwangun ampir di mana baé sarta dina wangunan naon baé, tapi babaraha sarat modéren diperelukeun. Sarat-sarat ieu bisa miboga dasar hukum (misalna, ''tingkat penerangan kudu layak'') atawa téhnis (misalna, ''syarat pikeun jaringan komputer''). Salian ti éta, sarat lianna saperti kaamanan jeung fléksibilitas tataruang (''layout''), ngakibatkeun wangunan-wangunan dijieun husus pikeun pakantoran. Hiji "gedong perkantoran" (''office building'', ogé disebut ''office block'' atawa "business center" mangrupa hiji wangunan komérsial kalawan rohangan-rohangan anu husus didésain pikeun pakantoran. Loba gedong kantor anu boga fasilitas dapur jeung kamar staf, anu mana para pagawé bisa dahar atawa reureuh sakeudeung. Loba rohangan kantor kiwari anu manrupa rohangan ''[[:en:serviced office|serviced office]]'' anu hartina pageusina bisa babagi rohangan jeung fasilitas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.searchofficespace.com/service/office-solutions/serviced-offices/ |title=Serviced Offices, Office Space for Rent |publisher=Search Office Space |date= |accessdate=2011-12-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219012234/http://www.searchofficespace.com/service/office-solutions/serviced-offices/ |date=2013-02-19 }}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Kantor pos]] * [[Gudang]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Wangunan]] e8mjnawgbr88e77jeh97znl9j874j9f 0 99505 711863 600516 2026-08-07T06:00:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711863 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Writing system |name=Aksara Tionghoa Basajan |type=[[Logografik]] |languages=[[basa Cina|Cina]] (di [[RRT]], [[Singapura]], jeung [[Malaysia]] |time= 1950 nepi ka kiwari |fam1= |sample =Hanzi.svg |imagesize =220px |caption=Hanzi basajan anu di beulah katuhu, sedengkeun anu kénca nyaéta Hanzi tradisional |unicode |iso15924=Hani }} '''Aksara Tionghoa basajan''' ([[basa Tionghoa|Tionghoa]] Basajan: 简体字; Tionghoa Tradisional: 簡體字; [[pinyin]]: jiǎntǐzì; atawa '''Hanzi sederhana''', ogé disebut 简化字/簡化字, jiǎnhuà zì) nyaéta salah sahiji tina dua rupa aksara Tionghoa jaman kiwari. Rupa anu lianna nyaéta [[Aksara Tionghoa tradisional]] atawa Hanzi tradisional. Hanzi basajan nyaéta [[aksara Tionghoa]] anu disederhanakeun sacra resmi ku pamaréntah [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok]] dina tarékah ningkatkeun kamampuh dina widang maca jeung nulis. Tapi dina kamekaranana justru nyababkeun karancuan jeung aksara tradisional sarta ngaleungitkeun kaéndahan hurupna. Aksara Tionghoa basajan dipaké sacara resmi di [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok]], [[Malaysia]], sarta [[Singapura]]. Pamakéan ieu aksara dilarang di [[Républik Tiongkok]] (Taiwan) ku sabab mangrupa produk ti pamaréntahan komunis.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cheung |first=Yat-Shing |chapter=Language variation, culture, and society |editor1-last=Bolton |editor1-first=Kingsley |editor2-last=Kwok |editor2-first=Helen |title=Sociolinguistics Today: International Perspectives |page=211 |year=1992 |publisher =Routledge |isbn=9780415064101 |language=bahasa Inggris}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Price |first=Fiona Swee-Lin |title=Success with Asian Names: A Practical Guide for Business and Everyday Life |url=https://archive.org/details/successwithasian0000pric |year=2007 |publisher=Nicholas Brealey Pub. |language=bahasa Inggris |isbn=9781857883787}}</ref> Penyederhanaan karakter dilakukeun ku babaraha cara, di antarana ngurangan babaraha guratan, ngarobah bentuk radikal, ngagabungkeun dua aksara anu boga harti anu béda jadi hiji, sarta nyokot aksara Kuna anu guratanna leuwih saeutik. == Tingali ogé == * [[Aksara Tionghoa]] * [[Aksara Tionghoa tradisional]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tutumbu luar == * [http://ltool.net/chinese_simplified_characters_to_traditional_converter_in_english.php Simplified Chinese Characters to Traditional Converter] * [http://ltool.net/chinese_traditional_characters_to_simplified_converter_in_english.php Traditional Chinese Characters to Simplified Converter] {{pondok}} [[kategori:Basa Tionghoa]] [[Kategori:Aksara Tionghoa]] [[Kategori:Aksara]] [[Kategori:Tiongkok]] gu2j8wet34iq43675jxyhuyvxygfkcs 0 99543 711848 681259 2026-08-07T05:47:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711848 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | name = Berang-berang raksasa | fossil_range = [[Pliocene]] ahir - [[Pleistocene]] ahir, {{fossil range|3|0.011}} | image = Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg | image_caption = ''Castoroides ohioensis'' spésimén di [[Field Museum of Natural History|Field Museum]] | display_parents = 2 | taxon = Castoroides | authority = [[John Wells Foster|Foster]], 1838 | type_species = †''Castoroides ohioensis'' | subdivision_ranks = [[Species]] | subdivision = †''Castoroides leiseyorum''<br />†''Castoroides ohioensis''<br />†''Castoroides dilophidus'' | synonyms = *†''Castoroides nebrascensis'' <small>[[Erwin Hinckly Barbour|Barbour]], 1931<ref name="K&A">{{cite book | author = [[Björn Kurtén|Kurtén, B.]] and E. Anderson | title = Pleistocene Mammals of North America | url = https://archive.org/details/pleistocenemamma0000kurt | publisher = [[Columbia University Press]] | year = 1980 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/pleistocenemamma0000kurt/page/236 236]–237 | isbn = 978-0-231-03733-4}}</ref></small> *†''Burosor efforsorius'' <small>Starrett, 1956<ref name="K&A"/></small> }} '''Berang-berang raksasa''' nyaéta sato kulawarga [[séro]] pangbadagna di [[Amérika Kalér]] nu hirup dina Jaman És panungtungan, kiwari mah geus punah.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://nature.ca/notebooks/english/giantbev.htm|title=Giant Beaver: Natural History Notebooks|website=nature.ca|accessdate=2020-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://earthsky.org/earth/why-giant-beavers-went-extinct|title=Why super-sized beavers went extinct {{!}} EarthSky.org|website=earthsky.org|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://iceage.museum.state.il.us/mammals/giant-beaver-0|title=Giant Beaver {{!}} Explore the Ice Age Midwest|website=iceage.museum.state.il.us|accessdate=2020-05-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801195247/https://iceage.museum.state.il.us/mammals/giant-beaver-0 |date=2023-08-01 }}</ref> Aya dua spésiés berang-berang raksasa anu kapanggih tina genus ''Castoroides'', nyaéta ''Castoroides ohioensis'' jeung ''Castoroides leiseyorum''.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ontariobeneathourfeet.com/giant-beaver|title=Ice Age Mammals - Giant Beaver|website=Canada (Ontario) Beneath Our Feet|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> == Fosil == [[Gambar:Giant Pleistocene Beaver, Castoroides ohioensis.jpg|al=Fosil di Minnesota Science Museum|kiri|jmpl|Fosil di Minnesota Science Museum]] [[Fosil]] munggaran anu kungsi kacatet kapanggih nyaéta di urut rawa deukeut Nashport, Ohio kungsi didadarkeun, sanajan teu dingaranan ku S.R. Hildreth taun 1837.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /> Sataun ti harita saurang ahli géologi J.W. Foster nyebutkeun ieu spésimén téh minangka ''Castoroides ohioensis'' dina publikasina.<ref name=":1" /> Fosil berang-berang raksasa nu pangkolotna nyaéta tina spésiés ''Castoroides leiseyorum'' ti Florida, [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serikat]] umurna 1,4 juta taun. Di Kanada, fosil ''Castoroides ohioensis'', mungkin kira-kira ti jaman és pertengahan (130.000 taun ka tukang), kapanggih di Toronto, Ontario, jeung di Cekungan Old Crow di Yukon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://earthsky.org/earth/why-giant-beavers-went-extinct|title=Why super-sized beavers went extinct {{!}} EarthSky.org|website=earthsky.org|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> Fosilna réa pisan kapanggih di kiduleun Great Lakes, nu kiwari asup kana wewengkon Indiana jeung Ilinois, Amérika Serikat.<ref name=":0" /> Upama dibandingkeun jeung mammoth, [[biruang]] guha, jeung [[bison]] purba anu gambarna kapanggih dina jero guha dina jaman batu di [[Éropa|Eropa]], berang-berang raksasa mah teu kapanggih gambarna.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914223710/http://www.beringia.com/02/02maina6.html|title=Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre - Giant Beaver|website=web.archive.org|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> ==Dedegan Awak== [[Gambar:Castoroides Knight 1.jpg|al=Rekonstruksi beunang Charles R. Knigh|kiri|jmpl|Rekonstruksi beunang Charles R. Knigh]] Panjang awakna 1,5 m jeung beuratna kira-kira 60-100 kg, sagedé [[Biruang|biruang hideung]].<ref name=":0" /> Sakumaha ngaranna, berang-berang raksasa katémbongna mah méh sarupa jeung berang-berang modéren, tapi leuwih gedé. Mun dibandingkeun mah suku tukangna leuwih gedé.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.beringia.com/exhibit/ice-age-animals/giant-beaver|title=Giant Beaver {{!}} Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre|website=www.beringia.com|accessdate=2020-05-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627145443/https://www.beringia.com/exhibit/ice-age-animals/giant-beaver |date=2020-06-27 }}</ref> Wangun buntutna mah can tangtu, naha sarua saperti berang-berang modéren atawa henteu, sabab buntutna dijieun tina lapisan ipis, anu leungit dina fosilna lantaran buruk. Lantaran alasan ieu, urang ngan bisa ngira-ngira yén sukuna boga selaput (lambaran kulit di antara ramo siga dina éntog).<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/giant-beaver-castoroides-1093211|title=Giant Beaver Facts|last=B. S.|first=Cornell University|website=ThoughtCo|language=en|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> Panjang buntutna kira-kira 65cm, rubakna 12 cm lebah handap, jeung 14 cm rubak lebah puhuna. Sakumaha biasana wangun buntut berang-berang, ngan leuwih ramping.<ref name=":2" /> Sanajan hadé pisan adaptasina pikeun ngojay, suku tukangna mah kawilang pondok. Lamun nilik tina beurat awakna, mangka kamampuhna pikeun narabas wewengkon sabudeureunna kamungkinan teu pati lega.<ref name=":1" /> Huntuna ogé béda deuih. Huntu paranti ngeureut dina berang-berang raksara panjangna bisa nepi ka 15 cm. Huntuna rada nonjol dina sisi luar, jeung tungtungna buleud, medu, teu saperti huntu berang-berang modérn anu wangunna saperti [[pahat]].<ref name=":2" /> Huntu pipina méh sarua jeung huntu capybara nu kapanggih mangsa kiwari, nyaéta mibanda pola énamél wangun S dina bagian luar huntu panggayemna. Ieu wangun téh bukti adaptasi anu hadé pikeun ngagiling tutuwuhan anu ngawangun pola hakaneun ieu sato.<ref name=":0" /> Sanajan réa sasaruaanana jeung berang-berang modéren, berang-berang raksasa mah lain kualwarga deukeut tina berang-berang modéren. == Habitat == Berang-berang raksasa mungkin leuwih milih hirup di [[dano]] atawa kubangan anu diwatesasan ku [[rawa]] saperti dina habitat asalna, sabab fosilna mindeng kapanggih di urut rawa-rawa jaman kuno. lantaran habitatna kitu, ieu sato kaasup kana sato sémi aquatik.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.westernu.ca/2019/05/a-giant-beaver-tale-of-extinction/|title=Western News - A giant beaver tale of extinction|last=University|first=Department of Communications and Public Affairs, Western|website=Western News|language=en-CA|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> Mungkin beuki ngurananna lega wewengkon rawa nu kitu téh beuki gancang ngurangan dina jamanna alatan parobahan iklim, patali jeung nguranganna kamampuh pikeun nyieun bendungan jeung kurang bisa adaptasi kana parobahan lingkunganana.<ref name=":1" /> Hasil panalungtikan [[isotop]] tina fosil tulang berang-berang raksasa nuduhkeun rupa-rupa hakaneun anu patali jeung tutuwuhan kai, sarta tutuwuhan nu hirup dina cai.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Plint|first=Tessa|last2=Longstaffe|first2=Fred J.|last3=Zazula|first3=Grant|date=2019-05-09|title=Giant beaver palaeoecology inferred from stable isotopes|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-43710-9|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-43710-9|issn=2045-2322}}</ref> Iwal ti éta kapanggih pituduh yén ieu sato teu nuaran tangkal pikeun nyieun bendungan dina jaman és harita.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://earthsky.org/earth/why-giant-beavers-went-extinct|title=Why super-sized beavers went extinct {{!}} EarthSky.org|website=earthsky.org|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> Hartina, ku teu mampuhna ieu sato pikeun nyieun bendungan téh bisa jadi salah sahiji balukar kana kapunahanana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://allthatsinteresting.com/castoroides-giant-beaver|title=Scientists Find Giant Prehistoric Beaver That Died Out Because It Didn't Chuck Wood|website=All That's Interesting|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> == Kapunahan == Bukti tina fosil nu kapanggih némbongkeun yén berang-berang raksasa kira-kira ahir Jaman És, kurang leuwih 10.000 taun ka tukang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://prehistoric-fauna.com/Castoroides-ohioensis|title=Giant Beaver (Castoroides ohioensis)|website=prehistoric-fauna.com|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/we-may-finally-know-why-giant-beavers-didnt-survive-the-ice-age/|title=We May Finally Know Why Giant Beavers Didn't Survive The Ice Age|website=IFLScience|language=en|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/giant-beavers-07259.html|title=Why Giant Beavers Went Extinct 10,000 Years Ago {{!}} Paleontology {{!}} Sci-News.com|website=Breaking Science News {{!}} Sci-News.com|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> Lantaran kungsi hirup babarengan jeung manusa munggaran di Amérika Kalér, sanajan euweuh bukti yén ieu sato jadi bahan boroan.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/giant-beavers-extinct-yukon-research-1.5131590|title=CBC News|last=|first=|website=Why did giant beavers go extinct? It was their diet, researchers say|publisher=|accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/why-giant-human-sized-beavers-died-out-10000-years-ago|title=Why giant human-sized beavers died out 10,000 years ago|website=PBS NewsHour|language=en-us|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref>  Lantaran iklim beuki panas, wewengkon rawa jeung hakaneunna ngurangan.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/why-giant-human-sized-beavers-died-out-10000-years-ago|title=Why giant human-sized beavers died out 10,000 years ago|website=PBS NewsHour|language=en-us|accessdate=2020-05-28}}</ref> Berang-berang raksasa mungkin punah ku sabab kalaparan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/c/castoroides.html|title=Castoroides (Giant Beaver)|website=www.prehistoric-wildlife.com|accessdate=2020-05-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508092408/http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/c/castoroides.html |date=2023-05-08 }}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Sato Amérika]] [[Kategori:Sato Geus Punah]] e8v1e0671xauqody3dt5sje76zphwyp 0 99827 711703 710202 2026-08-07T02:03:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711703 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | official_name = Kota Palopo | settlement_type = [[Daptar kabupatén jeung kota di Indonésia|Kota]] | motto = "Palopo Kota IDAMAN" (Indah, Damai, Nyaman) | image_seal = Lambang Kota Palopo.png | pushpin_map = Indonesia Sulawesi | pushpin_map_caption = Lokasi di [[Sulawesi]] jeung [[Indonésia]] | subdivision_type = Nagara | subdivision_name = {{flag|Indonésia}} | subdivision_type1 = [[Propinsi di Indonésia|Propinsi]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Sulawesi Kidul]] | leader_title = Walikota | leader_name = Asrul Sani (Pj.) | established_title = Diadegkeun | established_date = c. 1620 | established_title2 = Status Kota | established_date2 = 14 Juli 2002 | area_total_km2 = 247.52 | area_footnotes = <ref name="luas">{{cite web|url=https://palopokota.go.id/|title=Profil Kota Palopo|publisher=Pemerintah Kota Palopo|accessdate=26 Januari 2026}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711230539/https://palopokota.go.id/ |date=2023-07-11 }}</ref> | population_as_of = 2023 | population_total = 190867 | population_density_km2 = auto | population_footnotes = <ref name="BPS">{{cite web|title=Kota Palopo Dalam Angka 2024|url=https://palopokota.bps.go.id/|publisher=BPS Kota Palopo|accessdate=26 Januari 2026}}</ref> | timezone = [[Waktu Indonésia Tengah|WITA]] | utc_offset = +8 | area_code_type = [[Daptar kode telepon di Indonésia|Kode aréa]] | area_code = +62 471 | website = [https://palopokota.go.id/ palopokota.go.id] }} '''[[Kota Palopo]]''' mangrupikeun salah sahiji [[kota]] di [[propinsi]] [[Sulawesi Kidul]], [[Indonésia]]. Kota Palopo sateuacanna ngagaduhan status [[kota administratif]] ti saprak taun [[1986]] anu janten bagian tina [[Kabupatén Luwu]], saterasna dirobih janten kota otonom dina taun [[2002]] luyu sareng UU Nomer 11 Taun 2002 tanggal [[10 April]] [[2002]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Undang-Undang Nomor 11 Taun 2002 ngeunaan Pembentukan Kota Palopo |url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/44449/uu-no-11-taun-2002 |website=BPK RI |accessdate=26 Januari 2026}}</ref> == Sajarah == Kapungkur, Palopo mangrupikeun puseur pamaréntahan sarta budaya [[Kasultanan Luwu]]. Salah sahiji titinggal sajarah anu kawéntar nyaéta [[Masjid Jami Tua Palopo]] anu diwangun dina taun 1604.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pelras |first=Christian |title=The Bugis |url=https://archive.org/details/bugis0000pelr |year=1996 |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |isbn=978-0631172314 |language=en}}</ref> == Pamaréntahan == Kota Palopo dibagi kana 9 kacamatan, di antarana: * [[Bara, Palopo|Bara]], [[Mumu, Palopo|Mumu]], [[Sendana, Palopo|Sendana]], [[Tellu Wanua, Palopo|Tellu Wanua]], [[Wara, Palopo|Wara]], [[Wara Barat, Palopo|Wara Barat]], [[Wara Selatan, Palopo|Wara Selatan]], [[Wara Timur, Palopo|Wara Timur]], sarta [[Wara Utara, Palopo|Wara Utara]]. == Atikan sarta Kuliner == Kota ieu kawéntar salaku puseur atikan di wilayah Luwu Raya kalayan ayana paguron luhur sapertos IAIN Palopo sarta Universitas Andi Djemma. Dina widang kuliner, Palopo kawéntar ku '''[[Kapurung]]''', nyaéta kadaharan has anu dijieun tina sagu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kuliner Khas Palopo Kapurung |url=https://www.indonesia.travel/ |website=Indonesia Travel |accessdate=26 Januari 2026}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == * {{id}} [https://palopokota.go.id/ Ramat loka resmi Kota Palopo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711230539/https://palopokota.go.id/ |date=2023-07-11 }} {{Sulawesi Kidul}} {{Indonésia-pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Palopo}} [[Kategori:Kota Palopo| ]] [[Kategori:Kota di Indonésia|Palopo, Kota]] [[Kategori:Kota di Sulawesi Kidul|Palopo, Kota]] [[Kategori:Kota di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Palopo]] [[Kategori:Pamekaran wilayah taun 2002]] [[Kategori:Kota di Sulawesi Kidul]] == Réferénsi == {{reflist}} kg5xfv5mhbm7vuhdsz64s7wxxq2p6v0 0 99836 711569 704984 2026-08-06T23:19:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711569 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | official_name = Kabupatén Toraja Kalér | native_name = ''Kabupaten Toraja Utara'' | native_name_lang = id | type = [[Daptar kabupatén jeung kota di Indonésia|Kabupatén]] | image_seal = Coat of Arms of Toraja Utara Regency.png | image_map = Locator North Toraja Regency.svg | map_caption = Perenahna Kabupatén Toraja Kalér di Sulawesi Kidul | subdivision_type = Nagara | subdivision_name = [[Indonésia]] | subdivision_type1 = Propinsi | subdivision_name1 = [[Sulawesi Kidul]] | seat_type = [[Ibu kota]] | seat = [[Rantepao]] | leader_title = Bupati | leader_name = Yohanis Bassang | area_total_km2 = 1151.47 | area_footnotes = <ref name="BPS">{{cite web |title=Kabupaten Toraja Utara Dalam Angka 2023 |url=https://torajautarakab.bps.go.id/ |publisher=BPS Toraja Utara |accessdate=26 Januari 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | population_as_of = 2022 | population_total = 252326 | population_density_km2 = auto | population_footnotes = <ref name="BPS" /> | timezone1 = [[Waktu Indonésia Tengah|WITA]] | utc_offset1 = +8 | website = [https://torajautarakab.go.id/ torajautarakab.go.id] }} '''Kabupaten Toraja Kalér''' mangrupikeun salah sahiji [[Daérah Tingkat II]] di [[propinsi]] [[Sulawesi Kidul]], [[Indonesia]]. [[Ibukota]] [[Kabupatén]] perenahna di [[Rantepao, Toraja Kalér|Rantepao]]. Kabupaten ieu kabentuk dumasar kana UU No. 28/2008 anu mangrupikeun bagian tina [[Kabupatén Tana Toraja]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Pembentukan Kabupaten Toraja Utara di Provinsi Sulawesi Selatan |url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/39733/uu-no-28-tahun-2008 |website=Database Peraturan BPK |accessdate=26 Januari 2026}}</ref> == Sajarah == Toraja Kalér resmi janten kabupatén mandiri saatos misah ti kabupatén indukna, nyaéta Tana Toraja. Wilayah ieu kawéntar pisan ku kabeungharan budayana, utamina adat istiadat [[Suku Toraja]] anu masih kénéh dicekel pageuh ku masarakatna, sapertos upacara adat [[Rambu Solo']].<ref>{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Kathleen M. |title=Art as Politics: Re-crafting Identities, Tourism, and Power in Tana Toraja, Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/artaspoliticsrec0000adam |year=2006 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0824830724 |page=45}}</ref> == Pariwisata == Kabupatén ieu mangrupikeun puseur pariwisata di Sulawesi Kidul. Sababaraha tempat wisata anu kawéntar di antarana nyaéta: * '''[[Kété Késu']]''': Désa adat anu ngagaduhan jajaran [[Tongkonan]] (bumi adat Toraja) sareng kuburan tebing. * '''[[Londa]]''': Tempat pamakaman guha alam. * '''[[To' Tombi]]''': Anu sering disebut "nagri di luhur méga" di Lolai. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tutumbu Kaluar == * {{id}} [https://torajautarakab.go.id/ Ramat loka resmi Kabupatén Toraja Kalér] * {{id}} [https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabupaten_Toraja_Utara Artikel Kabupatén Toraja Kalér dina Wikipedia basa Indonésia] * {{en}} [https://www.indonesia.travel/gb/en/destinations/sulawesi/tana-toraja Inpormasi Pariwisata Toraja dina Indonesia.travel] {{Sulawesi Kidul}} {{Indonesia-pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Toraja Kalér}} [[Kategori:Kabupatén Toraja Kalér]] [[Kategori:Kabupatén di Sulawesi Kidul|Toraja Kalér]] [[Kategori:Kabupatén di Sulawesi Kidul]] [[Kategori:Toraja Kalér]] [[Kategori:Kabupatén di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Pamekaran wilayah taun 2008]] ogwxv39600q8m83onwzdkezw6vrrn9n 0 100040 711577 674198 2026-08-06T23:27:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711577 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox film | name = Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs | image = | image_size = | caption = | director = [[David Hand (animator)|David Hand]] (supervisor)<br>William Cottrell<br>[[Wilfred Jackson]]<br>[[Larry Morey]]<br>[[Perce Pearce]]<br>[[Ben Sharpsteen]] | producer = [[Walt Disney]] | screenplay = [[Ted Sears]]<br>Richard Creedon<br>Otto Englander<br>Dick Rickard<br>[[Earl Hurd]]<br>[[Merrill De Maris]]<br>Dorothy Ann Blank<br>Webb Smith | based on = {{based on|''[[Snow White]]''|[[Brothers Grimm]]}} | starring = Adriana Caselotti<br>Lucille La Verne<br>Pinto Colvig<br>Roy Atwell | music = [[Frank Churchill]]<br>[[Paul Smith (komposer)|Paul Smith]]<br>[[Leigh Harline]] | cinematography = Max Morgan | studio = [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Productions]] | distributor = [[RKO Radio Pictures]] | released = {{Film date|1937|12|21|premiere|1938|2|4|Amérika Sarikat}} | runtime = 83 menit | country = [[Amérika Sarikat]] | language = [[Basa Inggris|Inggris]] | budget = $1,488,000 | gross = $418,200,000<ref name="IMDb">{{cite web|title=Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) |url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0029583/business?ref_=tt_dt_bus |website=IMDb |accessdate=18 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="gross">''Box-office'' *{{cite book |last1=Wilhelm |first1=Henry Gilmer |last2=Brower |first2=Carol |title=The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs: Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides, and Motion Pictures |url=https://archive.org/details/permanencecareof00henr |publisher=Preservation Pub |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-911515-00-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/permanencecareof00henr/page/361 359] |quote=In only 2 months after the 1987 re-release, the film grossed another $45 million—giving it a total gross to date of about $375 million! ([https://books.google.com/books?ei=vdbJT52eBsbX8QPt_lg&id=0OtTAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22snow+white%22+million+worldwide+grosses Online copy] at [[Google Books]])}} *{{cite web |title=Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs |work=The Numbers |publisher=Nash Information Services |url=http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/1937/0SWSD.php |accessdate=July 5, 2011 |quote=1993 release: $41,316,184 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626144919/http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/1937/0SWSD.php |date=June 26, 2014 }}</ref> }} '''''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs''''' nyaéta salah sahiji [[pilem]] [[animasi]] anu diproduksi ku [[Walt Disney]] jeung didistribusikeun ka [[bioskop]] ku [[RKO Radio Pictures]] pada tanggal [[21 Désémber]] [[1937]] di Bioskop Carthay Circle di [[Amérika Sarikat]]. == Referensi == {{reflist}} {{stub}} [[Kategori:Animasi]] [[Kategori:Pilem]] o6p3wrx86crgjn2nrctbrf8ba0fsbbv 0 100129 711828 673706 2026-08-07T05:27:01Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711828 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox musical artist | |Name = Liam Payne |Img = Liam Payne in October 2018.jpg |Img_capt = Payne ti Glasgow |Img_size = 200px |Landscape = |color = |Background = |Birth_name = Liam James Payne |Alias = |birth_date = {{Birth date |1993|8|29}} |death_date = {{Death date and age |2024|10|16|1993|8|29}} |Origin = {{ENG}} [[Wolverhampton]], [[West Midlands]], [[Inggris]] |death_place = {{ARG}} [[Buenos Aires]] |Instrument = Vokal |Genre = [[Musik pop|Pop]] {{br}} [[R&B kontemporer|R&B]] {{br}} [[Musik elektronika|elektronik]] |Occupation = Penyanyi, panulis lagu |Years_active = 2010-ayeuna |Label = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]], [[Capitol Records|Capitol]], [[Republic Records|Republic]] |Associated_acts = [[One Direction]] |URL = {{URL|liampayneofficial.com}} |Current_members = |Past_members = |Notable_instruments = }} '''Liam James Payne'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://search.ancestry.co.uk/cgi-bin/sse.dll?gl=ROOT_CATEGORY&rank=1&new=1&so=3&MSAV=0&msT=1&gss=ms_r_f-2_s&gsfn=Liam+James&gsln=Payne&mswpn__ftp=Wolverhampton%2C+Staffordshire%2C+England&mswpn=87362&mswpn_PInfo=8-%7C0%7C0%7C3257%7C3251%7C0%7C0%7C0%7C5284%7C87362%7C0%7C&msbdy=1994&msmng0=Karen&msfng0=Geoff&msfns0=Payne&sbo=0&uidh=000&msbng0=Nicola&msbns0=Payne&msbng1=Ruth&msbns1=Payne |title=Liam James Payne – Ancestry.co.uk |publisher=Search.ancestry.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-11}}</ref> ({{lahirmati||29|8|1993||16|10|2024}}) nyaéta [[penyanyi|panyanyi]] sareng [[nulis|panulis lagu]] asal [[Inggris]]. Payne ngadamel debutna nalika janten penyanyi nalika paméran séri televisi Inggris ''[[The X Factor]]'' taun 2008. Saatos ngaleungitkeun janten pamilon solo, anjeunna audisi deui taun 2010 sareng nempatkeun kana grup sareng opat kontestan. lain pikeun ngabentuk ''One Direction''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Oliver|first1=Sarah|title=Zayn Malik and Liam Payne – The Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/zaynmalikbiograp0000oliv|date=2014|publisher=John Blake Publishing|location=New York|isbn=1782199497}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Nash|first1=Victoria|title=Liam Payne now sprinting to X Factor success|url=https://www.expressandstar.com/entertainment/2010/09/11/liam-payne-now-sprinting-to-x-factor-success/|website=Express and Star|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mtv.co.uk/one-direction/news/listen-to-1ds-liam-payno-payne-remix-of-cheryls-i-dont-care | title=Listen to 1D's Liam Payne's Remix of Cheryl's new single 'I Don't Care'. | work=MTV UK | date=14 October 2014 | accessdate=10 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="republic">{{cite web |last1=Kaufman |first1=Gil |title=Liam Payne Joins Ariana Grande & the Weeknd on Republic Records Roster |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/7542073/liam-payne-signs-to-republic-records-joins-ariana-grande-the-weeknd- |website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |accessdate=16 August 2018 |date=17 October 2016}}</ref> ==Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == {{Commons category|One Direction}} * {{Official website|http://www.onedirectionmusic.com/}} * {{allmusic|class=artist|id=one-direction-mn0002766592}} * {{Facebook|onedirectionmusic}} * {{IMDb name|4108424}} * {{guardiantopic|music/one-direction}} * {{Twitter|onedirection}} {{Biografi-pondok}} [[Kategori:Panyanyi Inggris]] h23zind93jk2bzcsboyp27t5e6nijip 0 100307 711770 684779 2026-08-07T03:48:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person |name = Dave Franco |image = Dave Franco 2016 Comic Con.jpg |image_size = 200px |caption = Dave Franco taun 2016 |birth_name = David John Franco<ref>{{cite web|url=https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:VLT5-C8Z|title=Person Details for David John Franco, "California Birth Index, 1905-1995" — FamilySearch.org|publisher=|accessdate=3 April 2015}}</ref> |birth_date = {{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1985|6|12}}<ref>{{cite news|title= Today in history|publisher= [[ABC News]]|date= June 12, 2014|url= http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/today-history-24100059?singlePage=true|agency= [[Associated Press]]}}</ref> |birth_place = [[Palo Alto, California]], Amerika Serikat |education = [[Universitas California Selatan]] |occupation = Aktor, komedian |years_active = 2006–ayeuna |relatives = [[James Franco]] (sodara)<br>Tom Franco (sodara) |spouse = {{marriage|[[Alison Brie]]|2017}} }} '''David John "Dave" Franco''' ({{lahirmati|[[Palo Alto]], [[California]]|12|6|1985}}) nyaéta [[aktor]] [[pilem]] sareng telepisi kabébasan [[Amérika Serikat]]. Namina dikenal ngaliwatan sababaraha film anu dibéntangan, diantarana ''[[21 Jump Street (film)|21 Jump Street]]'', ''[[Charlie St. Cloud (film)|Charlie St. Cloud]]'', ''[[Fright Night (pilem 2011)|Fright Night]]'', ''[[Now You See Me (pilem)|Now You See Me]]'', [[Now You See Me 2|''Now You See Me 2'']], ''[[Warm Bodies (pilem)|Warm Bodies]]'', ''[[Neighbors (pilem 2014)|Neighbors]]'', sareng salapan musim ti séri ''[[Scrubs (Seri TV) | Scrubs]]''. Dave Franco nyaéta adi bungsu ngora ti aktor [[James Franco]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Paradigm Signs James Franco’s Brother Dave Franco from WME (Exclusive)|date=February 11, 2011|author=THR staff|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/paradigm-signs-james-franco-s-98346|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.eonline.com/news/james_francos_father_dies_63/267576 |title =James Franco's Father Dies at 63 |publisher=E! Online |date=2011-10-04 |accessdate=2012-01-10}}</ref><ref name="Yahoo">{{cite web|url=http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800352352/bio|title=James Franco Biography|accessdate=August 8, 2008|publisher=[[Yahoo!]]}}</ref><ref name="anderson20100725">Anderson, Sam. "[http://instapaperstories.tumblr.com/post/972880219/the-james-franco-project-new-york-magazine The James Franco Project]" ''New York'', July 25, 2010.</ref><ref name="review">{{cite web |title=LatinoReview.com |work=Franco Talks Annapolis! |url=http://www.latinoreview.com/news.php?id=217 |accessdate=May 9, 2006 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060614050041/http://www.latinoreview.com/news.php?id=217 |archivedate=June 14, 2006 |deadurl=yes }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614050041/http://www.latinoreview.com/news.php?id=217 |date=June 14, 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shalomlife.com/culture/23273/dave-franco-and-conan-obrien-discuss-shalom-lifes-jilf-list-video/?PageSpeed=noscript |title=Dave Franco and Conan O’Brien Discuss Shalom Life’s JILF List [VIDEO |publisher=Shalom Life |date= |accessdate=2014-08-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716082620/http://www.shalomlife.com/culture/23273/dave-franco-and-conan-obrien-discuss-shalom-lifes-jilf-list-video/?PageSpeed=noscript |date=2015-07-16 }}</ref><ref name="bostonref1">{{cite news|last=Rhone|first=Paysha|title=Spidey foe meets his match in Harvard's Hasty Pudding crew|pages=|publisher=Boston Globe|date=2009-02-14|url=http://www.boston.com/ae/celebrity/articles/2009/02/14/spidey_foe_meets_his_match_in_harvard_hasty_pudding_crew/|accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref name=ohwohw>{{Cite book|last=Marquis Who's Who, Inc|title=Who's who of emerging leaders in America|publisher=Marquis Who's Who|year=1991|url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoofemergin0000unse|isbn=0-8379-7202-7}}</ref><ref name=hcrela>{{Cite book|last=Commire|first=Anne|authorlink=Anne Commire|title=Something about the Author, Volume 38|publisher=Gale Research|year=1985|page=[https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutau38anne/page/77 77]|url=https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutau38anne|isbn=0-8103-0071-0}}</ref><ref name=wehida>{{Cite news|last=Spevack|first=Violet|title=Cavalcade|publisher=Cleveland Jewish News|date=January 31, 2002|url=http://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/articles/2002/01/31//export10620.txt|accessdate=December 28, 2010}}</ref><ref name=wehidareb>{{Cite news|last=Spevack|first=Violet|title=Cavalcade 10/23|publisher=Cleveland Jewish News|date=October 23, 2009|url=http://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/articles/2009/11/13/features/cavalcade/doc4ae081106974b082383090.txt|accessdate=December 28, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://admission.case.edu/admissions/news/news_story.asp?iNewsID=249&strBack=/admissions/news/news_archive.asp|title=Case Western Reserve University|accessdate=August 8, 2008|publisher=Admission Case |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071024200830/http://admission.case.edu/admissions/news/news_story.asp?iNewsID=249&strBack=/admissions/news/news_archive.asp |archivedate = October 24, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.interviewmagazine.com/film/james-franco/|title=Jamesfranco|last=Van Sant|first=Gus|work=[[Interview (magazine)|Interview]]|page=1|accessdate=March 2, 2009}}</ref> ==Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == {{Biografi-pondok}} {{Commons category}} * {{IMDb name|id=2002649|name=Dave Franco}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Franco, Dave}} [[Kategori:Aktor Amérika Sarikat]] 54rvwxze402zaw60oafwzqeq4mzs6ju 0 100701 711759 684562 2026-08-07T03:32:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711759 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect2|NYC|New York, New York|4=New York City (disambiguasi)|5=jeung|6=NYC (disambiguasi)|7=jeung|8=New York, New York (disambiguasi)}} {{Infobox settlement | name = New York<!-- DO NOT change without discussion --> | subdivision_type = [[Daptar nagara|Nagara]] | settlement_type = [[Kota (New York)|Kota]] | named_for = [[James II ti Inggris|James, Dipati York]] | image_skyline = {{multiple image | border = infobox | total_width = 280 | image_style = border:1; | perrow = 1/3/2/2 | image1 = Lower Manhattan skyline - June 2017.jpg | alt1 = Langit Lower Manhattan | image2 = Lower Central Park Shot 5 (cropped).JPG | alt2 = Pamandangan Central Park | image3 = Unisphere Flushing Meadows Queens.jpg | alt3 = Unisphere, patung globe logam nu gedé | image4 = Brooklyn Bridge, west tower (7433306334).jpg | alt4 = Sasak Brooklyn | image5 = New york times square-terabass.jpg | alt5 = Times Square | image6 = Lady Liberty under a blue sky (cropped) (cropped).jpg | alt6 = Patung Liberty | image7 = The United Nations Secretariat Building.jpg | alt7 = Gedong Markas Gedé Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa, di hareupna aya loba bandéra | image8 = Coney Island beach and amusement parks (June 2016).jpg | alt8 = Basisir Pulo Coney nu ramé ku jalma, di tukangna aya kapal féri jeung karéta luncur }} | image_caption = Ti luhur, kénca ka katuhu: [[Lower Manhattan]], [[Central Park]], [[Unisphere]], [[Sasak Brooklyn]], [[Times Square]], [[Patung Liberty]], [[Markas Gedé Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], jeung [[Boardwalk Pulo Coney|Boardwalk]] di [[Pulo Coney]] | image_flag = Flag of New York City.svg | image_seal = Seal of New York City (B&W).svg | image_blank_emblem = NYC Logo Wolff Olins.svg | blank_emblem_type = [[Logo hurup]] | nickname = ''Tempo [[Ngaran jujuluk Kota New York]]'' <!-- maps and coordinates --> | image_map = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=290|frame-height=270|frame-align=center|stroke-width=3|zoom=9|frame-lat=40.7|frame-long=-73.944|type=shape-inverse|stroke-color=#808080|id=Q60|title=New York City}} | subdivision_name = Amérika Sarikat | map_caption = Peta interaktif nu ngagambarkan Kota New York | pushpin_map = New York#USA#North America | pushpin_relief = 1 | pushpin_mapsize = 290px | pushpin_map_caption = Perenahna di jero nagara bagéan New York##Perenahna di jero Amérika Sarikat##Perenahna di jero Amérika Kalér | pushpin_label = New York | pushpin_label_position = left | coordinates = {{coord|40.712740|N|74.005974|W|region:US-NY|display=inline, title}} | coor_pinpoint = <!-- to specify exact location of coordinates (was coor_type) --> | coordinates_footnotes = <ref name="GR1">{{Cite web |date=12 Pébruari 2011 |title=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990 |url=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html |access-date=23 April 2011 |publisher=[[Biro Sénsus Amérika Sarikat]]}}</ref> | area_total_sq_mi = 468.19 | official_name = <!-- DO NOT add to this parameter without consensus --> | subdivision_type2 = [[Nagara bagéan Amérika Sarikat|Nagara bagéan]] | subdivision_name2 = [[New York (nagara bagéan)|New York]] | subdivision_type3 = [[Daptar wewengkon di Amérika Sarikat|Wewengkon]] | subdivision_name3 = [[Atlantik Tengah (Amérika Sarikat)|Atlantik Tengah]] | subdivision_type4 = [[County (Amérika Sarikat)|County konstituén]] ([[Borough Kota New York|borough]]) | subdivision_name4 = [[Bronx|Bronx (Bronx)]]<br />[[Brooklyn|Kings (Brooklyn)]]<br />[[Manhattan|New York (Manhattan)]]<br />[[Queens|Queens (Queens)]]<br />[[Pulo Staten|Richmond (Pulo Staten)]] ---- | subdivision_type5 = [[Koloni|Koloni historis]] | subdivision_name5 = [[New Netherland]]<br />[[Provinsi New York]] | established_title = Ditetapkeun | established_date = 1624 | established_title1 = [[Kota New York Raya|Konsolidasi]] | established_date1 = 1898 | established_title2 = | government_footnotes = | government_type = [[Pamarentahan walikota-déwan|Walikota–Déwan]] | governing_body = [[Déwan Kota New York]] | leader_title = [[Walikota New York|Walikota]] | leader_name = [[Bill de Blasio]] ([[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|D]]) | total_type = Total | unit_pref = Imperial | area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2019">{{Cite web |title=2019 U.S. Gazetteer Files |url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2019_Gazetteer/2019_gaz_place_36.txt |access-date=27 Juli 2020 |publisher=Biro Sénsus Amérika Sarikat}}</ref> | mapsize = | area_land_sq_mi = 300.37 | pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="USCensusEst2019">{{Cite web |title=Population and Housing Unit Estimates |url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/data/tables.2019.html |access-date=21 Méi 2020}}</ref> | utc_offset1 = −05:00 | elevation_footnotes = <ref name="GR3">{{Cite web |date=23 Juni 2018 |title=US Board on Geographic Names |url=http://geonames.usgs.gov |access-date=31 Januari 2018 |publisher=[[Survéy Géologi Amérika Sarikat]]}} Search for feature ID 975772.</ref> | elevation_m = 10 | elevation_ft = 33 | population_rank = [[Daptar kota Amérika Sarikat dumasar ka pangeusi|ka-1 di A.S.]] | population_density_sq_mi = 27755.25 | population_as_of = [[Sénsus Amérika Sarikat2010|2010]] | population_total = 8175133 | population_footnotes = <ref name="Census2010">[https://www.census.gov Community Facts for New York City], [[Biro Sénsus Amérika Sarikat]]. Diakses tanggal 26 Méi 2017.</ref> | population_est = 8336817 | pop_est_as_of = 2019 | timezone1_DST = [[Zona Wanci Wétan|EDT]] | population_blank1_title = [[Wewengkon statistik métropolitan di Amérika Sarikat|MSA (2018)]] | population_blank1 = 19,979,477<ref name="MetroEst">{{Cite web |title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2017—Metropolitan Statistical Area; and for Puerto Rico—2017 Population Estimates |url=https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2017/GCTPEPANNR.US24PR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200213005215/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2017/GCTPEPANNR.US24PR |archive-date=February 13, 2020 |access-date=24 Maret 2018 |publisher=Biro Sénsus Amérika Sarikat }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20200213005215/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2017/GCTPEPANNR.US24PR |date=February 13, 2020 }}</ref> ([[Daptar wewengkon statistik métropolitan|ka-1]]) | population_blank2_title = [[Wewengkon métropolitan New York|CSA (2018)]] | population_blank2 = 22,679,948<ref name="CombinedEst">{{Cite web |title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2018—Combined Statistical Area; and for Puerto Rico—2017 Population Estimates |url=https://www.census.gov |access-date=27 April 2018 |publisher=Biro Sénsus Amérika Sarikat}}</ref> ([[Daptar wewengkon statistik gabungan di Amérika Sarikat|ka-1]]) | population_demonym = New Yorker | blank6_name = [[GDP]] (Kota, 2019) | blank6_info = $884&nbsp;miliar<ref name="bea.gov">[https://www.bea.gov/sites/default/files/2020-12/lagdp1220_2.pdf ''Gross Domestic Product by County, 2019''], [[Biro Analisis Ékonomi]], released December 9, 2020. Accessed December 9, 2020.</ref> (ka-1) | blank7_name = [[Produk métropolitan bruto|GMP]] (Métro, 2020) | blank7_info = $1.67&nbsp;triliun<ref name="NYCMetroGMP">{{Cite web |title=U.S. metro areas—ranked by Gross Metropolitan Product (GMP) 2020 {{!}} Statistic |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/183808/gmp-of-the-20-biggest-metro-areas/ |access-date=31 Méi 2019 |website=Statista}}</ref> (ka-1) | timezone1 = [[Zona Wanci Wétan|EST]] | area_water_sq_mi = 167.82 | area_metro_sq_mi = 13318 | utc_offset1_DST = −04:00 | postal_code_type = [[Kode ZIP]] | postal_code = 100xx–104xx, 11004–05, 111xx–114xx, 116xx | area_code = [[Kode wewengkon 212, 646, jeung 332|212/646/332]], [[Kode wewengkon 718, 347, jeung 929|718/347/929]], [[Kode wewengkon 917|917]] | blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standards|Kode FIPS]] | blank_info = 36-51000 | blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] ID | blank1_info = 975772 | blank2_name = Bandar udara utama | blank2_info = [[Bandar Udara Internasional John F. Kennedy|Bandara JFK]]<br>[[Bandar Udara Internasional Newark Liberty|Bandara Newark Liberty]]<br>[[Bandar Udara LaGuardia|Bandara LaGuardia]]<br>[[Bandar Udara Islip|Bandara Islip]]<br>[[Bandar Udara White Plains|Bandara White Plains]]<br>[[Bandar Udara Internasional Stewart|Bandara Stewart]] | blank4_name = [[Karéta api komuter]] | blank4_info = [[LIRR]], [[Metro-North]], [[New Jersey Transit Rail Operations|NJ Transit]] | blank5_name = [[Angkutan gancang]] | blank5_info = [[File:MTA New York City Subway logo.svg|150px|link=Karéta Api Handap Taneuh New York City]] [[File:NYCS-bull-trans-SIR-Std.svg|35px|link=Staten Island Railway]] [[File:PATH.svg|40px|link=PATH (sistem karéta api)]] | blank_name_sec2 = [[Borough (Kota New York)|Borough]] panglegana | blank_info_sec2 = [[Queens]] ({{convert|109|sqmi|km2}}) | blank1_name_sec2 = Borough nu boga pangeusi panglobana | blank1_info_sec2 = [[Brooklyn]] (pakiraan 2019: 2.559.903)<ref name="BrooklynQuickFacts">{{Cite web |title=State & County QuickFacts—Kings County (Brooklyn Borough), New York |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/36/36047.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217175357/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/36/36047.html |archive-date=February 17, 2016 |access-date=16 Méi 2020 |publisher=United States Census Bureau }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217175357/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/36/36047.html |date=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> | blank2_name_sec2 = Borough nu boga [[GDP]] panggedéna (2019) | blank2_info_sec2 = [[Manhattan]] ($635,3 miliar)<ref name="bea.gov" /> | website = [https://www.nyc.gov/ NYC.gov] | population_density_km2 = 10716.36 |area_total_km2 = 1212.60 |area_land_km2 = 777.95 |area_water_km2 = 434.65 }} '''Kota New York''' ('''New York City''' atawa '''NYC'''), biasa disebut '''New York''' hungkul, nyaéta kota nu boga pangeusi [[Daptar kota di Amérika Sarikat dumasar ka pangeusi|panglobana]] di [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Boga pangeusi nu dikira-kira sajumlah 8.336.817 dina taun 2019 jeung kasebar dina lega wewengkon {{convert|302.6|sqmi|km2}}, Kota New York ogé jadi kota géde [[Daptar kota di Amérika Sarikat dumasar ka kapadetan pangeusi|pangpadetna]] di Amérika Sarikat.<ref name="2019estimate">{{Cite web |title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: New York City |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/newyorkcitynewyork/PST045219 |access-date=16 Méi 2020 |website=[[Sénsus Amérika Sarikat]]}}</ref> Perenahna di ujung kidul [[New York (nagara bagéan)|Nagara bagéan New York]], ieu kota jadi puseur [[wewengkon métropolitan New York]], [[wewengkon métropolitan]] panggedéna di dunya dumasar ka [[Wewengkon pakotaan|lega kota]].<ref>{{Cite web |year=2018 |title=World Urban Areas |url=http://demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf |access-date=27 Maret 2018 |publisher=Demographia}}.</ref> Miboga pangeusi hampir 20&nbsp;juta jelema dina [[Daptar wewengkon statistik métropolitan di Amérika Sarikat|wewengkon statistik métropolitan]] jeung kira-kira miboga pangeusi 23&nbsp;juta jelema dina [[Dapar Wewengkon Statistik Gabungan Amérika Sarikat|wewengkon statistik gabungan]], ieu kota jadi salah sahiji [[mégakota]] nu boga pangeusi panglobana di dunya. Kota New York disebut-sebut salaku puseur dayeuh [[Budaya Kota New York|kabudayaan]], finansial, jeung média, mangaruhan pisan dina hal komérsial,<ref name="WorldEconomicAndFinancialSuperCenter">{{Cite web |date=31 Juli 2011 |title=Top 8 Cities by GDP: China vs. The U.S. |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/top-8-cities-by-gdp-china-vs-the-us-2011-8 |access-date=1 Juli 2018 |publisher=Business Insider, Inc |quote=For instance, Shanghai, the largest Chinese city with the highest economic production, and a fast-growing global financial hub, is far from matching or surpassing New York, the largest city in the U.S. and the economic and financial super center of the world.}}{{cite web|date=8 Oktober 2015|title=New York City: The Financial Capital of the World|url=https://www.thejobnetwork.com/new-york-city-the-financial-capital-of-the-world/|access-date=1 Juli 2018|publisher=Pando Logic}}</ref> hiburan, panalungtikan, téknologi, pendidikan, politik, wisata, seni, mode, jeung olahraga. Jadi tempat [[Markas Gedé Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=United Nations Visitation Services |url=http://visit.un.org/content/plan-your-visit |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314234417/http://visit.un.org/content/plan-your-visit |archive-date=March 14, 2017 |access-date=9 Februari 2017 |website=United Nations Visitor Centre |quote=The Headquarters of the United Nations is located in New York City, along the East River. When you pass through the gates of the United Nations visitors' entrance, you enter an international territory. This 18-acre site does not belong to just one country, but to all countries that have joined the Organization; currently, the United Nations has 193 Member States.}}</ref> New York mangrupa puseur penting pikeun [[Diplomasi|diplomasi internasional]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=NYC Mayor's Office for International Affairs |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/ia/html/home/home.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616080757/http://www.nyc.gov/html/ia/html/home/home.shtml |archive-date=June 16, 2015 |access-date=June 24, 2015 |publisher=The City of New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital Diplomacy Coalition |url=http://www.digidiplomats.org/newyork/ |access-date=11 Agustus 2018 |publisher=Digital Diplomacy Coalition, New York |quote=Established in 2014, DDC New York has partnered with the United Nations, major tech and social media companies, multiple governments, and NGOs to bring unique programs to the area community. }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727142713/http://www.digidiplomats.org/newyork/ |date=2018-07-27 }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Bacaan lanjuteun == * {{cite book |last=Belden |first=E. Porter |year=1849 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Jv-nXd8W8b0C |title=New York, Past, Present, and Future: Comprising a History of the City of New York, a Description of its Present Condition, and an Estimate of its Future Increase |location=New York |publisher=G.P. Putnam}} From [[Google Books]]. * {{cite book |author-link=Anthony Burgess |last=Burgess |first=Anthony |year=1976 |title=New York |location=New York |publisher=Little, Brown & Co. |isbn=978-90-6182-266-0|title-link=New York (Anthony Burgess book) }} * {{cite gotham}} * {{cite book |author=Federal Writers' Project |author-link=Federal Writers' Project |year=1939 |title=The WPA Guide to New York City |url=https://archive.org/details/wpaguidetonewyor0000unse_j1g5 |location=New York |publisher=The New Press |edition=1995 reissue |isbn=978-1-56584-321-9}} * {{cite enc-nyc}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Jackson |editor1-first=Kenneth T. |editor2-last=Dunbar |editor2-first=David S. |year=2005 |title=Empire City: New York Through the Centuries |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-10909-3}} * {{cite book |title=American Metropolis: A History of New York City |url=https://archive.org/details/americanmetropol00lank |url-access=registration |last=Lankevich |first=George L. |publisher=NYU Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8147-5186-2}} * {{cite book |author-link=E. B. White |last=White |first=E.B. |year=1949 |title=Here is New York |publisher=Little Bookroom |edition=2000 reissue}} * {{cite AIA4}} * {{cite book |author-link=Colson Whitehead |last=Whitehead |first=Colson |year=2003 |title=The Colossus of New York: A City in 13 Parts |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-50794-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/colossusofnewyor00whit }} == Tutumbu luar == {{osmrelation-inline|175905}} * {{Official website|http://www.nyc.gov/}} * [http://www.nycgo.com/ NYC Go], ramatloka wisata resmi Kota New York * {{curlie|Regional/North_America/United_States/New_York/Localities/N/New_York_City|New York City}} * [http://collections.mcny.org/ Collections], 145.000 fotografi NYC di [[Musium Kota New York]] * {{cite web |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/new-york-city-skyline-tallest-midtown-manhattan |title=Pamandangan langit Kota New York |work=[[National Geographic (majalah)|National Geographic]] |date=November 2015 |postscript=. (Interaktif)}} {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Trenton, New Jersey]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Puseur dayeuh<br>Amérika Sarikat|years=1785–1791}} {{s-aft|after=[[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania}} {{s-end}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Kota New York| ]] [[Kategori:Kota di Amérika Sarikat]] dh2bkalymtscpod09864z5o8i6dbdbv 0 101951 711675 711080 2026-08-07T01:21:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711675 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Indochina}} {{Infobox settlement|name=Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan<br/>ᮓᮛᮒᮔ᮪ ᮃᮞᮤᮃ ᮊᮤᮓᮥᮜ᮪ ᮦᮝᮒᮔ᮪|population_density_sq_mi=|area_total_km2=2151688|area_total_sq_mi=|area_land_sq_mi=|area_water_sq_mi=<!-- elevation -->|elevation_footnotes=|elevation_m=|elevation_ft=<!-- population -->|population_as_of=|population_footnotes=|population_total=269.700.000 jelema|population_density_km2=auto|population_demonym=|established_date=<!-- area -->|timezone1=[[UTC]] +7 (Indochina Time disingget ICT)|utc_offset1=|timezone1_DST=|utc_offset1_DST=<!-- postal codes, area code -->|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|area_code_type=|area_code=|geocode=|iso_code=<!-- website, footnotes -->|website=|area_footnotes=|established_title=|native_name=ឧបទ្វីបឥណ្ឌូចិន <small>(Basa Khmer)<big><br/>ອິນດູຈີນ <small>(Basa Laos)<big><br/>အရှေ့တောင်အာရှ ကျွန်းဆွယ်ဒေသ <small>(Basa Burma)<big><br/>อินโดจีน <small>(Basa Thai)<big><br/>Đông Nam Á đất liền <small>(Basa Viétnam)<big>|subdivision_type1=|other_name=Sumananjung Indochina <br /> Indochina|settlement_type=[[Semenanjung|Sumananjung Badag]] di [[Asia]] <!-- images, nickname, motto -->|image_skyline=|image_caption=|image_flag=|image_shield=|motto=|nickname=|etymology=<!-- location -->|subdivision_type=Nagara nu kaasup|subdivision_name={{flagicon|Kamboja}} [[Kamboja]]<br/>{{flagicon|Laos}} [[Laos]]<br/>{{flagicon|Myanmar}} [[Myanmar|Myanmar (Burma)]]<br/>{{flagicon|Thailand}} [[Thailand]]<br/>{{flagicon|Vietnam}} [[Viétnam]]|subdivision_name1=|coordinates_footnotes=<!-- established -->|subdivision_type2=|subdivision_name2=|subdivision_type3=|subdivision_name3=|subdivision_type4=|subdivision_name4=<!-- maps and coordinates -->|image_map={{Switcher|[[File:Topographic30deg N0E90.png|frameless]]<br/>|Tembongkeun peta sacara umuml|<br/>[[File:Indochina_map.PNG|<br/>upright=1|frameless]]|Tembongkeun peta sacara spésipik|default=1}}|map_caption=Luhur :<br/><small>Peta Topografis Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan<br/><big>Handap : {{legend|#22b14c|Indochina sacara spésipik ([[Indochina Prancis]])}} {{legend|#a8e61d|Sakabéh Indochina}}|pushpin_map=|pushpin_relief=|pushpin_map_caption=|coordinates={{Coord|14|N|102|E|scale:10000000|display=inline,title}}|footnotes=}} [[Gambar:Indochina.PNG|jmpl|Peta Indochina anu nandaan nagara [[Malaysia]] ku warna beureum ku sabab malaysia mah tara diasupkeun kana sumananjung ieu]] '''Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan''' (atawa '''Sumananjung Indochina''') mangrupa salah sahiji bagéan tina buana [[Asia Kidul Wétan]]. Perenahna aya di wétaneun buana India jeung kiduleun [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]] sarta wawatesan jeung [[Samudra Hindia|Samudera Hindia]] di beulah kulon jeung [[Samudra Pasifik|Samudera Pasipik]] di beulah wétan. Nagara-Nagara anu kaasup kana Sumananjung ieu diantarana nyaéta [[Kamboja]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar|Myanmar (Burma)]], Sumananjung Malaysia, [[Thailand]] jeung [[Viétnam|Vietnam]]. Istilah '''Indochina''' (asalna '''Indo-Cina''') diciptakeun di mimiti abad ka-19. Anu hartina yén daérah ieu loba narima pangaruh budaya ti paadaban India jeung paadaban Cina. Istilah ieu tuluy dipaké pikeun ngaranan wewengkon jajahan [[Indochina Prancis|Prancis Indochina]] (Kiwari dipikawanoh minangka [[Kamboja]], [[Viétnam|Vietnam]], jeung [[Laos]]). Cindekna, aya 2 jéntréan ngeunaan Indochina, anu heuruet jeung anu lega: * Anu heureut; ngan saukur ngawengku nagara-nagara urut [[Indochina Prancis]], nyaéta: ** [[Kamboja]] ** [[Laos]] ** [[Viétnam]] * Anu lega; ngawengku ogé: ** [[Myanmar]] ** [[Thailand]] Sumananjung [[Malaysia]] kadang diasupkeun ka wewengkon ieu, tapi wewengkon Sumananjung Malaysia mah leuwih mindeng diasupkeun ka Asia Kidul Wétan Maritim. == Istilah == [[Gambar:Map of Indochina Burma Siam China Railway 1886 Weller.png|jmpl|Peta Indochina taun 1886, dina Majalah G<abbr>é</abbr>ografi Skotlandia]] Asal-usul ngaran Indo-Cina biasana patumbu jeung sebutan anu dibére ku ahli géograpis [[Dénmark]]-[[Prancis]] nyaéta Conrad Malte-Brun, anu nyebut wewengkon ieu salaku {{Lang|fr|indo-chinois}} dina taun 1804, jeung ogé aya ahli basa Skotlandia ngarana téh John Leyden, anu maké istilah ''Indo-Cina'' pikeun ngajéntrékeun kaayaan wewengkon jeung basa nu dicaturkeun ku masarakat nu aya di dinya dina taun 1808.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Vimalin Rujivacharakul|title=Architecturalized Asia : mapping a continent through history|date=2013|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=9789888208050|page=89}}</ref> Pamadegan ilmiah dina mangsa harita ngeunaan pangaruh sajarah [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] jeung [[India]] di daérah éta sipatna kontropérsial, jeung istilahna ogé kontropérsial — antukna Malte-Brun eureun maké istilah éta dina ''Géografi Universal'' nu manéhna dina édisi anu satuluyna, alesanna téh yén istilah éta leuwih ngutamakeun pangaruh Cina, nu matak tungtungna manéhna nyarankeun istilah ''Chin-India''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Malte-Brun|first=Conrad|title=Universal Geography, Or, A Description of All the Parts of the World, on a New Plan, According to the Great Natural Divisions of the Globe: Improved by the Addition of the Most Recent Information, Derived from Various Sources : Accompanied with Analytical, Synoptical, and Elementary Tables, Volume 2|url=https://archive.org/details/universalgeogra20maltgoog|year=1827|publisher=A. Finley|pages=[https://archive.org/details/universalgeogra20maltgoog/page/n294 262]–3}}</ref> Ngan hanjakalna, istilah ''Indo-Cina'' geus kapalang mibanda daya taji sarta mindeng dipaké pikeun ngaganti istilah alternatip anu séjénna kayaning ''India Satuluyna'' jeung ''Sumananjung di saluareun Gangga''. Ngan satuluyna, nalika Perancis ngadegkeun wewengkon jajahanna nyaéta Indochina Perancis, pamakéan istilah ieu ngaheureutan jadi ngan sawaréhna, nyaéta wewengkon anu kaasup kana koloni Prancis wungkul,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wesseling|first=H. L.|title=The European Colonial Empires: 1815–1919|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317895060}}</ref> Kiwari mah daérah ieu biasana disebut Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Keyes|first=Charles F.|title=The golden peninsula : culture and adaptation in mainland Southeast Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900824816963|date=1995|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=9780824816964|edition=Pbk. reprint|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900824816963/page/1 1]}}</ref> == Lokasi == [[Gambar:Southeast Asia.svg|jmpl|Héjo: Nagara Indochina sacara umum<br/>Biru kolot: Anggota resmi [[ASEAN]]<br/>Biru ngora: Anggota panoong [[ASEAN]]]] Sumananjung ieu mibanda lega kira kira 2 juta km<sup>2</sup>. Indochina diwatesan ti beulah kulon ku Teluk Benggala jeung Sagara Andaman di [[Samudra Hindia|jaladri Hindia]], selat Malaka di beulah kidul, jeung di wétanna ku [[Laut Tiongkok Kidul|Sagara Tiongkok Kidul]], teluk Thailand jeung teluk Tonkin (Bakbo) anu kaasup kana [[Samudra Pasifik|jaladri Pasipik]]. Wates di beulah kalérna biasana dimimitian ti délta walungan Gangga jeung Brahmaputra nepi ka délta walungan Hongha. Tungtung kidul Indochina di kiduleun Kra Isthmus ngabentuk Sumananjung Malaka anu manjang ka kidul. == Iklim == Iklimna nyaéta monsun subéquatorial, ékuator di Sumananjung Malaka. Di bagéan daratan, suhu rata-ratana biasana henteu kurang ti 20&nbsp;°C, di musim semi, lamun di musim panas mah suhuna bisa nepi ka 28-30&nbsp;°C. Ari di bagéan gunungna mah, suhuna turun nepi ka kurang ti 15&nbsp;°C. Di tutugan gunung anu ngangin kulon, curah hujan turun 2,5-5 rébu mm per taun. Di wewengkon pedalaman sumananjung, di sababaraha tempat curah hujanna kurang ti 1.000&nbsp;mm unggal taun. Di basisir wétan Indocina, usum tiris mangrupa usum kalawan curah hujan panglobana, nyaéta bisa nepi ka 2.000&nbsp;mm per taun. == Sajarah == === Jaman Prasajarah === Indochina geus dicicingan ti saprak jaman [[prasajarah]], sakumaha dibuktikeun ku dipanggihna Sai Yok ([[Thailand]]), Bac Son jeung Hoa Binh ([[Viétnam]]) anu ngungkap paadaban anu geus wanoh kana budaya tuar duruk jeung ngangon bagong ti milénium ka-4 <abbr>SM nepi ka milénium</abbr> ka 2 SM anu ilahar ku budaya tani jeung dumuk dina tempat anu tetep salaku bagéan tina paadaban Longshan, dibuktiken ku sababaraha situs kaasup situs Phung Nguyen di Viétnam; kabéh situs ieu perenahna di dataran, utamana di délta walungan atawa di papasiran héndép. Masarakat anu nyaturkeun basa Austro-Asiatic (hususna urang [[Kamboja|Khmer]] jeung Mon) geus dumuk di sumananjung ieu ti abad ka 9 M anu tuluy ngamekarkeun kabudayaan Dong Son, maranéhna geus bisa ngolah béas anu dibuktikeun ku kapanggihna dreum badag anu dijieunna tina parunggu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary Of Geography|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=1997|isbn=0-395-86448-8|url=https://archive.org/details/houghtonmifflind00houg|editor-last=Severynse|editor-first=Marion|last=|first=|location=|pages=}}</ref> === Awal abad ka-10 === Nalika mimiti awal abad ka-10, urang Tibet-Burma ti beulah kalér geus dumuk di bojong walungan Irrawaddy, sedengkeun wewengkon anu ayeuna kaasup kana nagara bagéan Fou-nan, gedé kamungkinan diadegkeun ku urang Khmer, tuluy karajaan Champā diadegkeun ku salah saurang panyorang ti Austronésia, karajaan ieu bijil di beulah kidul jeung wétaneun sumananjung. Dina mangsa harita, pangaruh paadaban India loba anu asup bareng jeung asupna ageman Hindu. Dina abad ka 6, karajaan pangheula Khmer nyaéta Funan dijajah ku Chenla, sedengkeun urang Mon ngadegkeun karajaan Dvaravati. Tuluy di abad ka-9 Chenla digantikeun ku kakaisaran Khmer anu ibukotana di Angkor, dina waktu harita ogé bijil karajaan di wewengkon Burma di beulah kalér, anu perenahna di Pyu di lembah Irrawaddy nyaéta Karajaan Pagan. Sacara babarengan, ageman Buddha nyebar di sumananjung anu dénominasi utamana nyaéta ageman Buddha Theravada atawa Hīnayāna anu lalaunan ngagantikeun [[Hindu]]ismeu. === Abad ka-13 nepi abad ka-15 === Taun 1257, saurang "khagan" (sajinis raja) nyaéta Möngke ti [[Mongolia]], nalika masih kénéh aya dina périodeu Kakaisaran Mongol, nginvasi daérah Tonkin. Ngan, nurutkeun pamadegan ti Jean-Paul Roux, pangjajahan ieu sipatna rada teu pasti jeung teu ngaruh kana kaayaan wewengkon éta kusabab teu pati loba dominasi anu dibalukarkeun ku ayana invasi éta.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Genghis Khan jeung Kakaisaran Mongol|editor=Gallimard|year=2002|passage=47|last=Paul Roux|first=Jean|isbn=2-07-076556-3}}</ref> Abad ka-13, urang Thai ti beulah kidul ngulon China, ngadegkeun karajaan Sukhothai jeung Lanna. Di beulah wétan, sabada réngséna samilénium "Dominasi Tiongkok Di Tatar Viétnam", antukna Viétnam merdika sakalian ngalegaan wewengkonna ka beulah kidul ku cara ngajajah karajan Champa jeung kakaisaran Khmer di délta Mekong beulah handap. Abad ka-15 mulai daratang para padagang ti [[Arab]], [[Éropa]] jeung [[Cina]] anu mekar di sapanjang basisir: Komunitas Tionghoa (utamana anu asalna ti béh kiduleun Cina) dararumuk di palabuan, masarakat ti Nagara-nagara Islam ngarumpul di Arakan/Rakhine ([[Myanmar|Burma]]) tur [[Malaysia]], ageman [[Kristen]] mimiti ngakar di pos-pos padagangan [[Éropa]] (Malaka, Johor jeung [[Singapura]], dipiheulaan ku [[Katolik]] anu dibawa ku [[Portugal|Portugis]], tuluy disusul Protéstan anu dibawa ku [[Walanda]]). === Abad ka-17 nepi abad ka-19 === Abad ka-17 mangrupa mangsa di mana karajaan [[Thailand]] keur ngalaman kajayaan kalawan wewengkonna anu beuki lega, sedengkeun kerajaan [[Myanmar|Burma]] (Ava, Pegu), [[Kamboja|Khmer]] jeung [[Viétnam]] (Tonkin, Annam) keur ngalaman mangsa karuntagan. Satuluyna, abad ka-19 mangrupa mangsa kolonisasi [[Inggris]] (Arakan, Tenasserim, [[Malaysia]], Pegu, Ava) jeung [[Prancis]] ([[Indochina Prancis]]) anu ngabalukarkeun kondisi anyar di mana ékonomi lokal leuwih mentingkeun kakawasaan kolonial, ngarobah struktur masarakat tradisional. Salian éta pangjajahan ngabalukarkeun ageman-ageman heubeul hirup babarengan jeung ageman anu dibawa ku urang [[Éropa]] (anu geus kaasupan unsur singkrétismeu). === Périodeu Modéren === Dina abad ka-20 geus mulai bijil sumanget nasionalismeu lokal anti-kolonial jeung konsérvatip, tuluy sacara lalaunan digantikeun ku idéologi totalitér: kahiji, anu aya hubunganna jeung ékspansi Jepang kalawan proyékna nyaéta Asia Wétan Raya, tuluy nu kadua nyaéta komunismeu anu sanggeus Perang Dunya Kadua ngamonopoli tuntutan kamerdikaan anu dibantuan ku Uni Soviét dina kontéks Perang Tiis. Di Indochina ogé aya gerakan pikeun nangtang Prancis, Thailand, jeung pamaréntahan konsérvatip anu aya dina pasukan komunis (anu ménéjemenna mindeng dilatih di Paris). Antagonismeu ideologis ieu ngabalukarkeun perang wewengkon anu ngagetih jeung serangan téroris. ==== Perang Dékolonisasi ==== {{Tempo oge|Indochina Prancis}} [[Gambar:Hanoï - Palais du Gouverneur Général.jpg|jmpl|Tempat cicingna gupernur [[Prancis]] di Hanoi, kira-kira taun 1920]] [[Gambar:1945 Indochina Roads (30252751134).jpg|jmpl|Peta Indochina Prancis taun 1945]] [[Gambar:Indochina 1954.jpg|jmpl|Peta Indochina taun 1954]] Dina mangsa ieu, Uni Soviet, Amérika Sarikat, jeung Republik Rahayat Tiongkok pipilueun dina prosés dékolonisasi anu dituturkeun ku rupa-rupa konflik: Perang Indochina Prancis, tuluy Perang Viétnam-Amerika, Perang Sadulur Laos jeung Perang Sadulur Kamboja. Indochina Prancis nggeus jadi koloni Prancis ti saprak taun 1887. Dina taun ieu geus kaciri ayana Pahijian Indochina, anu ngawengku Kamboja (koloni Prancis ti 1884 ), Annam (protéktorat ti 1884), Tonkin (ogé protektorat ti 1884), jeung Concinchina (koloni ti 1867). Laos anu ogé mangrupa protéktorat Prancis, ngagabung jeung Pahijian Indochina taun 1893. Diadegkeunna pahijian ieu dikasangtukangan ku dasar féderal, kantor pusatna aya di Hanoi anu dipingpin ku saurang gupernur. Sistim atikan ala Prancis diwawuhkeun jeung universitas Prancis dibuka di Hanoi. Titik fokus pikeun ngalawan pangjajahan nyaéta Annam jeung Tonkin, di mana pasukan gerakan nasionalis gumelar taun 1920-an. Ngan dina mangsa anu sarua, Pamahulaan Nghe Tinh (1930-31) di Viétnam keur lumangsung sacara indepénden anu mangrupa pamahulaan para patani anu nyababkeun tiwasna kira-kira 10.000 jelema jeung ngabalukarkeun dideportasikeunna 50.000 jelema. Dina bulan Séptémber 1940, Jepang narima konsési militér jeung ékonomi ti pamaréntah Vichy, kaasup pamakéan bandara jeung palabuan sacara gratis. Hasilna, militér Jepang jadi sasaran utama gerakan nasionalis anu dipingpin ku Viétnam ti taun 1943, sangkilamg Jepang can pernah sacara resmi nempatan daérah éta. Dina tanggal 9 Maret, Duta Badag Jepang Matsumoto méré ultimatum ka Gupernur Jean Decoux (wd), anu tungtungna mah teu diwaro ku anjeunna. Isukna, 750 tentara Prancis dipenjara, 400 di antarana maot. Antukna, Kamboja, Laos jeung Viétnam ngaproklamasikeun kamerdikaanna sorangan-sorangan. Tanggal 19 Agustus, pasukan Ho Chi Minh ngabaris ke Hanoi jeung maksa kaisar Viétnam Bảo Đại pikeun ngundurkeun diri. 6 Maret 1946, Prancis mikaaku otonomi Viétnam, Kamboja jeung Laos, anu bisa dirasakeun dina Féderasi Indochina, anu mangrupa anggota tina Uni Perancis. Sabada perang Indochina kahiji, Prancis antukna narima kemerdikaan Kamboja jeung Laos jeung ogé mulangkeun kabéh pasukanna ti Vietnam. Rezim komunis ngawasa di Viétnam Kalér sarta rezim tradisional ngawasa di Viétnam Kidul, anu jadi pamicu lumangsungna perang sadulur anu kaasup kana Perang Indochina Kadua. Salian tii éta, aya ogé konflik anu ngalibatkeun antara Kamboja jeung Vienam anu mana pamaréntah Kamboja anu pro-Viétnam ngalawan Khmer Beureum. Tungtungna mah tina sakabéh konflik anu geus aya di luhur ngabalukarkeun salila ampir satengah abad, wewengkon-wewengkon éta ngalaman kadiktatoran, répresi, kaheurasan, pangrusakan jeung génosida. ==== Balukar tina Konflik ==== Balukar tina konflik dina périodeu ieu kaitungna beurat pisan, contona dina mimiti abad ka-21, nalika diadegkeunna padaméian ti saprak taun 2000, pamakéan sanjata kimia nyésakeun yutaan ranjo darat jeung pélor bedil anu ngabahayakeun lingkungan jeung kaséhatan pangeusi, anu matak ngabalukarkeun kacacatan puluhan rébu jelema jeung maéhan sababaraha ratus jelema unggal taun; euweuh nagara Indochina anu mibanda sistim démokrasi anu gumuna, malah sanajan enya ogé aya rezim parleméntér anu mikawasa, mangka geus bisa dipastikeun rézim éta bakal katelah gagal jeung ngalaman pangwangunan sosial anu laun pisan, tur padagangan narkoba jeung jelema masih loba kénéh sarta pangbajakan jeung éksploitasi sumber daya darat tur sagara. == Biogéografi == [[Gambar:Ecozone-Biocountries-Indomalaya.svg|jmpl|Peta Biorégion Indo-Malayalam]] [[Gambar:Ecozone-Biocountry-Indomalaya-legend.svg|jmpl|Pitulung peta Biorégion Indo-Malayalam|113x113px]] Dina biogéografi, biorégion Indocina mangrupa wewengkon utama dina Alam Indomalayam, sarta ogé mangrupa Pitogéograpi wewengkon floristic dina Oriental Paléotropikal Badag. Anu eusina ngasupkeun kabéh flora jeung fauna asli ti nagara-nagara di luhur. Wewengkon Malésia anu padeukeut ngawengku nagara-nagara maritim Asia Wétan Kidul, jeung ngaliwatan wewengkon Indomalayan jeung Australasian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/biogeographic-region|title=Biogeographic region - Fauna|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> == Dunya sasatoan == [[Gambar:Слонёнок азиатского слона. Таиланд.jpg|jmpl|Gajah India di [[Thailand]]]] Sumananjung Indochina kaasup kana kawasan zoogeografi Indo-Malaya anu mibanda kaanékaragaman hayati anu beunghar. Lolobana jenis sato leuweung, diantarana nu paling umum nyaéta [[monyét]] (owa jeung kera), lemur, [[Gajah|gajah India]], [[Maung|maung Indo-Cina]], jeung sajabana. [[Sato]] [[Manuk|mamanukan]] diantarana: manuk [[Cendrawasih|céndrawasih]], manuk béo, manuk merak, manuk pegar jeung hayam leuweung, ari di bagéan délta walungan mah kacaturkeun aya [[bango]], flamingo jeung [[buhaya]]. == Végétasi == [[Gambar:Dừa nước.jpg|jmpl|Végetasi di Délta Walungan Mékong, [[Viétnam]]]] Végétasi alami Sumananjung Indochina dicirian ku leuweung tropis anu lembab tur mibanda komposisi anu kompléks. Mangrove ngadominasi di sapanjang basisir rawa-rawa. Di dataranna, tutuwuhan anu ilahar diantarana nyaéta [[paré]] jeung [[karét]] == Géologi == Tambang [[timah]] jeung tungsten pangbadagna aya di Sumananjung Malaka. == Géografi == [[Gambar:Mekong_River_in_Laos_(1490866472).jpg|ka|jmpl|300x300px| Walungan Mékong]] Sumananjung Indocina ngaruntuy ka kidul ti buana Asia. Sarta ngandung sababaraha rentang gunung nepi ka Dataran Luhur Tibét di beulah kalér, diheuleut ku dataran handap anu lolobana ngagaringan kusabab tilu sistem walungan utama anu ngalir ka arah kalér nepi ka kidul: Walungan Irrawaddy ([[Myanmar]]), Walungan Chao Phraya ([[Thailand]] ), jeung Mékong (aliranana ngaliwatan wewengkon beulah wétan-kaléreun Thailand, [[Laos]], [[Kamboja]] jeung [[Viétnam|Vietnam]]). Di tungtung beulah kidul ngabentuk Sumananjung Malaya, nyaéta di Thailand Kidul jeung Sumananjung Malaysia; anu kiwari sacara variatif dianggap bagéan tina Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan atawa misah jadi bagién tina Asia Wétan Kidul Maritim. Sacara leuwih spésipik, di beulah kalér ilaharna mah didomnasi ku tonggoh sedengkeun di kidul mah didominasi ku lebak. Taneuh di kalér mangrupa Tonggoh Shan kuna, anu jangkungna 1.500 nepi ka 2.000 méter di luhur pamukaan sagara. Loba pagunungan anu manjang ti kidul ka kalér bentukna kaciri kawas kipas anu ngabentuk struktur topografi tonggoh Shan jeung sebaran pagunungan kalawan lebak walungan. Pagunungan utama anu ngaruntuy ti kulon ka wétan nyaéta pagunungan Naga, pagunungan Arakan; Pagunungan Daen Lao, pagunungan Tenasserim, pagunungan Bilauktaung jeung Pagunungan Truong Son. Sumananjung Indochina mibanda tilu ciri anu cukup écés. Kahiji, lolobana dataranna jangkung di kalér jeung héndép di kidul, sabagéan badagna dieusian ku pasir jeung tonggoh, pagunungan jeung walungan ilaharna mah arahna ti kalér ka kidul, malahan mah pagunungan jeung walungan téh silih patali. Kadua, médan anu geus kakikis pikeun mangsa anu lila, anu matak nyampakna bentuk semi-polos nyaéta topografi karst anu mekar. Aya ogé fénoména di jero gerakan gunung pangwangun di wewengkon Indo-Malaysia nalika périodeu térsiér. Katilu, délta sabagéan badag kasebar di wewengkon basisir kidul ngétan, utamana di dataran aluvial jeung pasagitilu kontinéntal. Di bagéan hilir walungan nyampak aréa anu cukup lega. Lingker pagunungan jeung tonggoh di sumananjung Indochina lolobana mibanda lingker gunung Naga, lingker gunung Arakan di kulon, anu mangrupa lingker pagunungan anu ngabentuk busur anu ngajorok ka béh kulon, sabagéan badag jangkungna aya kana 1.800 méter di luhur pamukaan sagara. Ka luhur, panjangna kira-kira aya kana 1.100 kilométer, kaasup loba pagunungan paralél anu mangrupa papanjangan tutuluyan ti tonggongan Himalaya kidul, tur tuluy manjangan ka kidul. Taneuh di wétan mibanda lingker pagunungan Truong Son sacara ngurut sapanjang leuwih ti 1.000 kilométer, ngarah ka kulon kalér, wawates antara Viétnam, Laos jeung Kamboja, geger kulon lingker pagunungan lumayan landai, tur tuluy ngereuyeuh pindah ka tonggoh di gigir Laos jeung Kamboja, misalna, Tonggoh  Xieng Khouang, Tonggoh Hua Phan, Tonggoh Kham Muon jeung Tonggoh Bolaven; Geger béh wétan gunung rada curam lungkawing, ampir vértikal, deukeut jeung basisir, ngabentuk loba gawir anu ngajulang jangkung jeung ujung anu ngajulang ka sagara. Di tengah mangrupa lanjutan tina bagéan kidul rangkéyan pagunungan Hoanh Doan, jeung gunung Daen Lao, pagunungan Tenasserim jeung gunung Bilauktaung di pawatesan Myanmar jeung Thailand, manjang ka kidul nepi ka sumananjung Malaya, massip di jero nagri Myanmar anu lega tur jangkung Tonggoh geus jadi wewengkon panglegana di Asia Kidul Wétan-Tonggoh Shan, di béh wétaneun Thailand aya Tonggoh Khorat. Taneuh papasiran tur tonggoh di sumananjung Indocina geus lila kasilih, sabagian badag puncak sampak ngalingker, pamukaan tonggoh anu nyilih mekar biak. Sumananjung Malaya jeung Sumananjung Indochina ilaharna maké Isthmus Kra salaku pawatesan. Diténjo tina segi topografi téhtonik, Sumananjung Malaya mangrupa bagian tina Massif Indo-Malayu, daratanna manggunung-gunung di tengah, nurun ka arah wétan jeung kulon, sumananjung Indocina ngawengku 8 pagunungan di beulah kulon. Kabéhna sajajar antara hiji jeung nu lainna, ngawentang di sapanjang arah kalér-kidul, kusabab erosi jangka panjang, kajangkunganna teu badag, nyampakkeun babatuan nu sabagéan badag mangrupa granit, talawengkar, jeung batugamping, puncak pangjangkungna Gunung Tahan ngan 2.187 méter. Kajangkungan di luhur pamukaan sagara ti dataran jangkung Shan nyaéta ti 1.000 nepi 1.300 méter, utamana kusabab lapisan batu kapur di Paleozoikum jeung Mesozoikum , jeung kamungkinan granit nu ngaganggu. Di dataran jangkung éta, nyampak loba ngarai jeung puncak nu jero nu ngaleuwihan 800 nepi 900 méter di luhur pamukaan taneuh. Pagunungan jeung walungan pasalingsingan, taneuh kasilih parah, taneuh kulon mibanda pitesan badag sapanjang 600 nepi 700 kilométer di arah kalér-kidul. Dataran jangkung Khorat di bagian wétan Thailand. Sabagian badag mibanda kajangkungan 150 nepi 300 méter di luhur pamukaan sagara, kusabab komposisi batu keusik beureum, médanna déngdék ka arah kulon ka wétan, sanepi pamukaan taneuh teu rata. Di dataran jangkung Shan bareng jeung dengan tanah kalér Vietnam jeung Laos , kasebar di médan karst, mangrupa kawasan lanskap anu kawentar. Pagunungan Naga jeung Pagunungan Rakhine anu jangkungna kira-kira 3.000 méter di luhur pamukaan sagara jeung panjangna 1.100 kilométer, mangrupa témbok nu misahkeun Myanmar, India jeung Bangladesh, di antara pagunungan éta nyampak sababaraha gunung, nu baheulana dipaké jalan utama pikeun masarakat buhun. Gunung Daen Lao, Pagunungan Tenasserim jeung Pagunungan Bilauktaung nu ngawentang di sapanjang pawatesan Myanmar jeung Thailand , terdapat beberapa gunung kawentar di tengah gunung nu mangrupa gerbang berbahaya operasi militer antara Myanmar jeung Thailand dalam hal sejarah. Gunung Luangprabang , Gunung Dong Phaya Yenjeung Gunung Sankamphaeng ngawentang di sapanjang tengah sumananjung, ngabagi lanskap nu béda di bagian wétan jeung kulon sumananjung. Pagunungan Truong Son di wétan mibanda kejangkungan normal kurang ti 1.500 méter di luhur pamukaan sagara, ngaanjang terus menerus selama lebih ti 1.000 kilométer, mangrupa sirkuit pagunungan nu ngaisahkan tiga negara Vietnam - Laos - Oranye, sela di gunung Hoanh, wewengkon bagian ieu nyaéta jalan pintas lemes antara pantéy wétan jeung Mekong di Cina. Di antara pagunungan tersebut, nyampak loba dataran jangkung, nu paling kawentar nyaéta Dataran jangkung Shan , Dataran jangkung Xieng Khouang, Dataran jangkung Hua Phan , Dataran jangkung Kham Muon , Dataran jangkung Bolaven jeung Dataran jangkung Bolaven.Dataran jangkung Dak Lak nu kesemuanya mibanda arti khusus dalam hal geomorfologi , iklim , sejarah , suku , transportasi jeung produksi pertanian , serta pemeliharaan ternak. === Karakteristik iklim === Sebagian badag sumananjung Indochina berada antara 10 ° - 20 ° Lintang kalér, termasuk dalam iklim muson tropis nu khas. ti Maret nepi Mei setiap taun nyaéta musim panas , musim dingin jeung musim panas menurun, iklim panas, suhu rata-rata bulanan mencapai 25 - 30 ℃; satu taun dibagi menjadi dua musim: musim kemarau jeung musim hujan, ti Juni nepi Oktober nyaéta musim hujan, monsun kulon daya nu berlaku , curah hujan melimpah; ti November nepi Mei taun depan nyaéta musim kemarau, cuacanya kering dengan sedikit hujan. Karakteristik iklim: suhu jangkung sapanjang taun, curah hujan didistribusikan utamana di musim panas. Iklim monsun tropis kasebar di tempat-tempat kayaning Asia kidul jeung sumananjung Indochina, karakteristiknya suhu jangkung sapanjang taun, suhu rata-rata bulan terdingin juga 18℃ atau lebih, curah hujan saling berhubungan. arah angin , musim dingin wétan sagara monsun nu berlaku berasal ti daratan. curah hujan lebih sedikit, musim panas terjadi pada musim kulon daya ti Samudera Hindia , curah hujan melimpah, jumlah curah hujan setiap taun nyaéta 1.500 nepi 2.000 miliméter di sebagian badag wewengkon, tetapi ada beberapa daerah bahkan lebih jeung lebih panjang ti angka tersebut. Curah hujan taunan kusabab geomorfologipangaruh, kedéngdékan angin mencapai 5.000 miliméter, tetapi di lereng kiri kurang ti 2.000 miliméter. Beberapa lereng angin individu jeung kawasan Sumananjung Malaya ngabentuk lanskap hutan hujan tropis , beberapa delta jeung lembah walungan di bagian dalam ngabentuk sabana tropis. === Hidrologi === walungan utamana Irrawaddy, Salween, walungan Chao Phraya, walungan Mekong jeung walungan beureum , ngalir ti kalér ke kidul naik tajam, sangat jauh ke hulu, airnya sangat panjang. Hulu walungan sebagian badag ngaalir melalui Dataran jangkung Shan , lembah walungan ngabelah dataran jangkung menjadi beberapa blok, misalnya, Dataran jangkung Burma wétan antara walungan Irrawaddy jeung walungan Salween , Dataran jangkung Chiang Mai antara walungan Salween jeung walungan Mekong Kong , Dataran jangkung Laos antara walungan Mekong jeung walungan beureum, nyaéta campuran khas pagunungan jeung walungan, didistribusikan secara vertikal. Dataran basin dalam contoh tengah jeung bawah ti beberapa walungan jeung delta muara ti walungan nyaéta pertanian jeung demografi area fokus utama. Di antara perbukitan jeung dataran jangkung, walungan jeung bahkan di Asia menyapu di bawah mejeung ti kalér ke kidul ngaalir ke sagara, ti wétan ke kulon dengan walungan beureum , Mekong , walungan Chao Phraya , Salween jeung Irrawaddy. Di antara walungan-walungan badag tersebut, walungan nu paling loba ngaalir di negara - negara tersebut nyaéta walungan Mekong , nu akhirnya bermuara ke sagara - samudra di Vietnam. Ada loba segitiga di sumananjung Indochina, kawentar dengan Segitiga walungan Mekong , Segitiga walungan Irrawaddy , jeung Segitiga walungan beureum.jeung Segitiga walungan Chao Phraya. Segitiga ieu dibentuk oleh walungan aluvial, area nu luas, mejeung datar, jaringan walungan nu padat di segitiga, loba kolam jeung laguna , ekspansi cepat ke arah sagara. == Kabudayaan == [[Gambar:Ethnolinguistic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia.png|jmpl|Kaayan linguistik di Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan]] Budaya nu aya di Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan béda kacida jeung Budaya di Asia Kidul Wétan Maritim, biasana mah dumasar kana pangalompokan gaya hirup masarakat daratan di Indochina jeung gaya hirup masarakat kapuloan di wewengkon [[Melayu|Malayu]] jeung [[Pilipina]], ogé gurat pamisah antara rungkun-rungkun basa, kawas Austroasiatik, Tai–Kadai, jeung Sino-Tibét (anu loba dicaturkeun di Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan) jeung basa [[Austronésia]] (anu loba dicaturkeun di Asia Kidul Wétan Maritim). Basa-basa di daratan ngawangun daérah linguistik Asia Kidul Wétan: sanajan kabagé jadi sababaraha rungkun basa mandiri, basa-basa ieu dina sajarahna geus ngariung mangtaun-taun, nu matak silih patuker sababaraha tipologis-tipologis maririp. Nagara-nagara daratan Asia Kidul Wétan narima pangaruh budaya ti India jeung Cina dina darajat anu bararéda.<ref name="HMDOG">{{Cite book|title=The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary Of Geography|year=1997|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|isbn=0-395-86448-8|editor-last=Marion Severynse|url=https://archive.org/details/houghtonmifflind00houg}}</ref> Sababaraha budaya, contona jiga budaya Kamboja, Laos, Thailand jeung Malaysia leuwih kapangaruhan ku India tibatan kapangaruhan ku Cina. Sabalikna, budaya anu aya di nagara séjénna, jiga Vietnam, leuwih kapangaruhan ku budaya Tiongkok tibatan kapangaruhan ku India, komo deui sabot ékspansi Vietnam ti kalér anu ngajajah Champa di beulah kiduleun Viétnam. Kiwari, lolobana nagara-nagara ieu nunjukkeun ogé pangaruh budaya ti Kulon anu cukup kaciri, dimimitian ku impérialismeu Éropa di Asia jeung kolonialismeu di Asia Kidul Wétan. == Agama == [[Gambar:Phra Samut Chedi Buddhism in Thailand.jpg|jmpl|Phra Samut Chedi, Buddhismeu di [[Thailand]]]] Wewengkon hilir Ciirawati (walungan Irrawady) di sumananjung Indocina, dicicingan ku urang Mon ti saméméh jeung sanggeus Maséhi. Harita, urang India majarkeun ieu daérah ku ngaran "Suvarnabhumi", anu hartina "taneuh omas". Loba jelema anu ngomong amun urang India anu asup ka Myanmar ngan ukur ka daérah basisir jeung dataran tengah [[Myanmar]] hungkul, ukur dumasar kana "Kahanu Nasional Hoa Duong" dina abad ka-4, urang India ogé nyicingan daérah pagunungan di kota éta. Ledo, nagara bagéan Assam, anu meuntasan pagunungan jeung leuweung pikeun ngasupan jalan-jalan di béh kalér Myanmar, jauh ka Myanmar di kalér-wates antara Myanmar jeung Cina, pangaruh anu jero pisan. Sakumaha ceuk para sarjana ti kulon, nu ngabalukarkeun loba jelma silih tanya, nyaéta ngeunaan Myanmar anu geus patula-patali dina babalantikan ogé diplomatik anu pageuh jeung Cina saprak satengah abad kahiji Maséhi, kajaba tina pergerakannya atau teu, teu terpangaruh oleh China dalam hal budaya. ieu sabenerna mangrupa hasil ti praktik budaya Cina jeung India nu geus ngahasilkeun pangaruh nu sangat berbeda di Myanmar. Di Cina ngan aya dua jinis agama hungkul anu beunang di disebut agama primitip, nu kahiji nyaéta Konghucu - miwaris langsung musik budaya Konghucu jeung sistim pamunjungan, siswa mawa harta Khonghucu éta. Agama ngan satuju pikeun méré hiji wewengkon nu teu berbeda dengan budaya Tionghoa atau pernah menjadi bagian ti China , dengan tegas teu menyebarkannya secara sembarangan. Salah satu jenisnya nyaéta Taoisme - tradisi pemujaan di kalangan masarakat Taoisme, ulama sebelumnya ngaatakan struktur organisasi Taoisme (secara religius ngan mangrupa struktur keagamaan nu lengkap jeung sistematis). Pada masa Wang Chongnu , sekarang disimpulkan bahwa itu nyaéta pada periode Dinasti Keenam menurut buku-buku literatur nu digaliDunhuang , provinsi Gansu , tetapi pada saat itu agama-agama India pada dasarnya telah menyebar ke suku atau negara di wewengkon kayaning Asia kidul , Asia Tengah , Asia wétan , jeung Asia Kidul Wétan. Menurutnya penularan sangat sulit, hal ieu kusabab metode infiltrasi bertahap agama untuk melakukan indoktrinasi budaya. Selama dinasti kuno di sumananjung Indochina, hubungan antara daratan tengah (dinasti tengah) jeung perbluhuran terpencil (provinsi pinggiran atau milik negara) nyaéta semacam hubungan " peta manusia" . -La "terpisah. Jenis struktur politik ieu nyaéta struktur diskrit dengan kekuatan kondensasi populasi nu sangat rendah. Setelah melakukan survei jeung penelitian tentang konteks budaya jeung pola sejarah perkembangan politik Asia Kidul Wétan awal , sarjana Inggris Oliver William Wolters telah ngaemukakan semacam teori "What" Circles of Kings "(Circles of Kings), atau disebut" Theory of Mandala ". "Keberadaan struktur politik 'kerajaan' nyaéta fenomena umum di awal sejarah Asia Kidul Wétan ," kata Wolters.Peta politik awal Asia Kidul Wétan nyaéta ti perkembangan organisasi tipe jaringan kelompok pemukim pada zaman prasejarah, apalagi dalam catatan sejarah menunjukkan situasi bagian mandala nu tumpang tindih atau tambal sulam nu "melingkari raja". Di dalam setiap mandala, ada seorang raja nu mibanda semua kekuatan para dewa jeung alam semesta. Dia ngaklaim otoritasnya luhur sekutu-sekutunya jeung para panguasa agung lainnya nu secara nominal telah menaklukkannya di dalam kerajaan. " Dalam konotasi "teori mandala" ada dua poin penting nu mendasar: pertama, ti sudut panjeungg agama, panguasa berbagi otoritas ketuhanan, nu melalui ritual keagamaan ngabuat tuhan sendiri ngauduskan, menarik pangikut; kedua, secara politis, "pangepungan kerajaan" mewakili situasi politik tertentu nu teu stabil dalam wewengkon geografis tanpa bluhur tetap, loba pusat kekuasaan. Kekuasaan di dalam "kerajaan" bergantung pada hubungan kepercayaan pribadi nu ngabentuk "jaringan kesetiaan politik. ". Dalam situasi ieu, peran panguasa terjangkung sabenerna bukanlah sebagai diktator ( tiran ), tetapi sebagai mediator nu dapat ngapangaruhi jeung menjaga perdamaian.kota-negara bagian ). Dengan demikian, kendali admieustratif panguasa luhur "kerajaan" biasanya terbluhur pada wewengkon di bawah pangaruh langsungnya. Hal ieu ngabuat pangaruh politik ti monarki pusat di "kerajaan" sangat teu mungkin berlanjut untuk jangka waktu nu lama, atau ngaalami perubahan nu terkait dengan peralihan kekuasaan, keilahian jeung kekuasaan politik, senepi ngaarah pada reorganisasi ruang politik nu berkelanjutan. ". Cindekna, aacara umum masarakat di Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan loba anu ngageman [[Agama Buddha|agama Budha]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Malaysia|encyclopedia=The World Factbook|date=2016-09-28|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malaysia/}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118144030/http://www.statistics.gov.my/eng/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50:population&catid=38:kaystats&Itemid=11 |date=2008-11-18 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Thailand|encyclopedia=The World Factbook|date=2016-09-28|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610164345/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/ |date=2021-06-10 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Myanmar|encyclopedia=The World Factbook|date=2016-09-28|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210200835/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ |date=2021-02-10 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Cambodia|encyclopedia=The World Factbook|date=2016-09-28|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cambodia/}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610095311/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cambodia/ |date=2021-06-10 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Vietnam|encyclopedia=The World Factbook|date=2016-09-28|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/vietnam/}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610173010/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/vietnam/ |date=2021-06-10 }}</ref> == Kaayaan latar liwat == Ujung kidul di sumananjung Indochina ngontrol tempat pasimpangan di sagara wétan, Selat Singapura jeung Selat Malaka, mangrupa jalur latar liwat penting pikeun industri transportasi sagara internasional jeung mibanda kapentingan strategis jeung latar liwat. Loba kota-kota badag di basisir anu kahubungkeun ku palabuan-palabuan utamana ku palabuan Hai Phong, Da Nang, Nha Trang, palabuan Saigon, palabuan Sihanoukville, palabuan Sattahip, palabuan Bangkok, palabuan Singapura, palabuan Klang, palabuan Penang, palabuan Mawlamyine, palabuan Myeik jeung palabuan nuon. Unggal nagara di sumananjung geus bisa dipastikeun mibanda hubungan sajarah jeung budaya anu patali pageuh jeung China atawa India. == Tempo ogé == {{portal|Asia|Géografi}} * Asia Kidul Wétan Maritim *[[Indochina Prancis]] === Konsép régional anu patali === * Daérah linguistik Asia Kidul Wétan Daratan * Massif Asia Kidul Wétan * Zomia === Subregions === * Chersonese Emas * Mekong Badag Subregion * Sumananjung Malaya == Référénsi  == {{reflist}} == Bacaan satuluyna == * {{Cite book|last=Bernard Philippe Groslier|title=The art of Indochina: including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia|url=https://archive.org/details/artofindochinain00gros|year=1962|publisher=Crown Publishers}} * [http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADG750.pdf Sejarah jalma gunung di Indochina kidul dugi ka taun 1945 (Bernard Bourotte, nyaéta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703101331/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnadg750.pdf |date=2012-07-03 }} [http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADG750.pdf Jacques Méry, Bajeung AS pikeun Pangembangan Internasional, 195?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703101331/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnadg750.pdf |date=2012-07-03 }} == Tumbu kaluar == * {{Commons category-inline|Mainland Southeast Asia}} {{Clear}}{{Wewengkon di dunya}} [[Kategori:Asia Kidul Wétan]] [[Kategori:Asia]] [[Kategori:Geografi]] [[Kategori:Ngaran tempat]] [[Kategori:Sumananjung di Asia]] 850w7iekujw28zaa9veuyjft115t588 0 101956 711529 676066 2026-08-06T22:21:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Peta Neuron|Déndrit}} '''Déndrit''' (tina [[basa Yunani]] δένδρον ''déndron'', "[[tangkal]]"), atawa '''déndron''', mangrupa salah sahiji cabang tina Neuron panyambungan protoplasmik tina sél saraf anu nyebarkeun stimulasi [[éléktrokimia]] anu ditampa ti sél saraf anu séjenna ka jero awak sél, atawa disebut ogé salaku soma, ti neuron (tempat pikeun ngaproyéksikeun déndrit). Stimulasi listrik dikirimkeun kana déndrit ku hulu neuron (biasana ngaliwatan akson) ngaliwatan sinapsis anu perenahna di sababaraha titik sapanjang tangkal dendritik. Déndrit nyekelan peran anu kritis dina ngahijikeun input sinaptik jeung dina nangtukeun nepi ka mana poténsi tindakan nu dihasilkeun ku neuron. '''Arborisasi''' dendritik atawa '''pancabangan déndritik''', mangrupa prosés biologis multi-léngkah ku cara neuron ngawangun tangkal jeung cabang dendritik anyar pikeun nyiptakeun sinapsis anu anyar. Morfologi déndrit jiga kapadetan cabang jeung pola pangelompokan aya hubunganana pisan jeung fungsi neuron. Malformasi déndrit ogé patali jeung gangguan fungsi sistem saraf. Sababaraha gangguan anu aya hubunganana jeung malformasi déndrit nyaéta autismeu, déprési, skizofrénia, sindrom Down jeung kahariwangan. Sababaraha kelas déndrit ngandung proyéksi leutik anu disebut cucuk dendritik anu ningkatkeun sipat réséptif déndrit pikeun ngisolasikeun spésifisitas sinyal. Ngaronjatna kagiatan saraf jeung pangwangunan potensiasi jangka panjang dina tulang tonggong déndritik ngarobah ukuran, bentuk, jeung konduksi. Kamampuan pikeun tumuwuhna déndritik dianggap mibanda peran dina narima pangatikan jeung ngabentuk mémori. Aya saloba 15.000 cucuk per sél, anu masing-masing fungsina salaku prosés postinaptik pikeun akson presinaptik individual.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=C.|last2=Zador, A.|date=February 1993|title=The Function of Dendritic Spines: Devices Subserving Biochemical Rather Than Electrical Compartmentalization|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=2|pages=413–422|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.13-02-00413.1993|pmc=6576662|pmid=8426220}}</ref> Pacabangan dendritik bisa leuwih lega deui, contona dina sababaraha kasus, bisa mahi saloba 100.000 input ka hiji neuron.<ref name="Alberts 2009">{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}</ref> Déndrit mangrupa salah sahiji tina dua jenis tonjolan protoplasmik anu kaluar tina awak sél neuron, anu séjénna mangrupa akson. Akson bisa dibédakeun tina déndrit ku sababaraha fitur kaasup bentuk, panjang, sareng fungsina. Dendrites sering kali langsing dina bentuk sareng langkung pondok, sedengkeun akson condong ngajaga radius konstan sareng relatif panjang. Ilaharna, akson ngirimkeun sinyal éléktrokimia sareng dendrites nampi sinyal éléktrokimia, sanaos sababaraha jinis neuron dina spésiés tangtu kakurangan akon sareng ngan saukur ngirimkeun sinyal ngalangkungan dendritesna. Dendrites nyayogikeun luas permukaan anu diperbesar pikeun nampi sinyal tina tombol terminal tina akson anu sanésna, sareng aksonna ogé biasana dibagi-bagi di ujung na kana seueur cabang ( telodendria ) anu masing-masing tungtungna terminal saraf, ngamungkinkeun sinyal kimia ngalirkeun sakaligus pikeun seueur sél targét.<ref name="Alberts 2009">{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFAlberts2009">Alberts, Bruce (2009). </cite></ref> Ilaharna, nalika sinyal éléktrokimia ngarangsang neuron, éta lumangsung dina dendrite sareng nyababkeun parobahan poténsial listrik dina mémbran mémbran neuron. Parobihan dina poténsi mémbran sacara pasip bakal sumebar ka dendrite tapi janten lemah sareng jarak tanpa poténsi tindakan. Poténsi tindakan nyebarkeun kagiatan listrik sapanjang mémbran dendrites neuron kana awak sél teras afferently turun panjang akon kana terminal akson, di mana éta micu sékrési neurotransmitter kana beulahan synaptic. Nanging, sinapsis anu ngalibatkeun dendrites ogé tiasa janten axodendritic, ngalibetkeun sinyal akson pikeun dendrite, atanapi dendrodendritic, ngalibetkeun sinyal antara dendrites.<ref name="Carlson 2013">{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil R.|title=Physiology of Behavior|date=2013|publisher=Pearson|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-23939-9|edition=11th}}</ref> Autaps mangrupikeun sinaps di mana akon hiji neuron ngirimkeun sinyal ka dérditna sorangan. Aya tilu jinis utama neuron; multipolar, bipolar, sareng unipolar. Neuron multipolar, sapertos anu dipidangkeun dina gambar, diwangun ku hiji akson sareng seueur tangkal dendritik. Sél piramida mangrupikeun neuron kortikal multipolar sareng awak sél bentukna piramida sareng dendrites ageung disebat dendrit apical anu dugi ka permukaan korteks. Neuron bipolar ngagaduhan hiji akson sareng hiji tangkal dendritik dina tungtung tungtung awak sél. Neuron unipolar gaduh gagang anu ngalegaan tina awak sél anu kapisah janten dua dahan anu hiji ngandung dendrites sareng anu sanésna nganggo tombol terminal. Dendrites unipolar dipaké pikeun ngadeteksi rangsangan indrawi sapertos touch atanapi suhu.<ref name="Carlson 2013">{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil R.|title=Physiology of Behavior|date=2013|publisher=Pearson|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-23939-9|edition=11th}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFCarlson2013">Carlson, Neil R. (2013). </cite></ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pinel|first=John P.J.|title=Biopsychology|url=https://archive.org/details/biopsychology0000pine_s7c3|date=2011|publisher=Allyn & Bacon|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-83256-9|edition=8th}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jan|first=Y. N.|last2=Jan|first2=L. Y.|year=2010|title=Branching out: Mechanisms of dendritic arborization|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=11|issue=5|pages=316–328|doi=10.1038/nrn2836|pmc=3079328|pmid=20404840}}</ref> == Sajarah == Istilah ''déndrit'' mimiti dipaké dina taun 1889 ku Wilhelm His pikeun ngajelaskeun jumlah "prosés protoplasmik" anu langkung alit anu napel kana sél saraf .<ref>{{Cite book|title=Origins of neuroscience : a history of explorations into brain function|url=https://archive.org/details/originsofneurosc0000fing|last=Finger|first=Stanley|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1994|isbn=9780195146943|pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofneurosc0000fing/page/44 44]|oclc=27151391|quote=The nerve cell with its uninterrupted processes was described by Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters (1834-1863) in a work that was completed by Max Schultze (1825-1874) in 1865, two years after Deiters died of typhoid fever. This work portrayed the cell body with a single chief "axis cylinder" and a number of smaller "protoplasmic processes" (see figure 3.19). The latter would become known as "dendrites", a term coined by Wilhelm His (1831-1904) in 1889.}}</ref> Ahli anatomis Jérman Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters umumna dikredit ku pamanggihan akson ku ngabédakeun éta sareng dendrites. Sababaraha rékaman intrasélular munggaran dina sistim saraf dilakukeun dina akhir taun 1930an ku Kenneth S. Cole sareng Howard J. Curtis. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker sareng Jérman Robert Remak mangrupikeun anu pangpayunna ngaidentipikasi sareng ngabentuk segmen awal akson. Alan Hodgkin sareng Andrew Huxley ogé padamelan akson raksasa cumi (1939) sareng ku 1952 aranjeunna parantos kéngingkeun gambaran kuantitatif lengkep dasar ionik tina poténsi aksi, ngarah nyusun modél Hodgkin – Huxley. Hodgkin sareng Huxley dilélér babarengan Hadiah Nobel pikeun karya ieu di 1963. Formula anu merinci kalakuan axonal diperpanjang ka vertebrata dina persamaan Frankenhaeuser – Huxley. Louis-Antoine Ranvier mangrupikeun anu pangpayunna ngajelaskeun sela atanapi titik anu dipendakan dina akson sareng pikeun sumbangan ieu fitur-fitur aksonon ieu ayeuna biasa disebut salaku Node of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, saurang anatomis Spanyol, ngusulkeun yén akson mangrupikeun komponén kaluaran neuron.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Debanne|first=D|last2=Campanac, E|last3=Bialowas, A|last4=Carlier, E|last5=Alcaraz, G|date=Apr 2011|title=Axon physiology.|url=https://hal-amu.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01766861/file/Debanne-Physiol-Rev-2011.pdf|journal=Physiological Reviews|volume=91|issue=2|pages=555–602|doi=10.1152/physrev.00048.2009|pmid=21527732}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé ngajukeun yén neuron mangrupikeun sél diskrit anu saling komunikasi ngalangkungan sambungan khusus, atanapi spasi, antara sél, anu ayeuna dikenal salaku sinapsis. Ramón y Cajal ningkatkeun prosés noda pérak anu katelah metode Golgi, anu parantos dikembangkeun ku sainganna, Camillo Golgi .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=López-Muñoz|first=F|date=October 2006|title=Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to Santiago Ramón y Cajal|journal=Brain Research Bulletin|volume=70|issue=4–6|pages=391–405|doi=10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.07.010|pmid=17027775}}</ref> == Pangembangan déndrit == [[Gambar:Complete_neuron_cell_diagram_en.svg|ka|jmpl|277x277px]] Nalika ngembangkeun déndrit, sababaraha faktor bisa ngaruh kana diférénsiasi. Diantarana nyaéta modulasi input indera, polutan lingkungan, suhu awak, jeung pamakéan narkoba.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McEwen|first=Bruce S.|year=2010|title=Stress, sex, and neural adaptation to a changing environment: mechanisms of neuronal remodeling|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1204|pages=38–59|bibcode=2010NYASA1204...38M|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05568.x|pmc=2946089|pmid=20840167}}</ref> Salaku conto, beurit anu diangkat ti lingkungan anu poék dipendakan mibanda jumlah tulang tonggong dina sél piramida anu aya dina korteks visual primér sareng parobihan anu nyata dina distribusi dendrite branching dina lapisan 4 sél stellat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borges|first=S.|last2=Berry, M.|date=15 July 1978|title=The effects of dark rearing on the development of the visual cortex of the rat|journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology|volume=180|issue=2|pages=277–300|doi=10.1002/cne.901800207|pmid=659662}}</ref> Ékspérimén anu dilakukeun dina vitro sareng vivo parantos nunjukkeun yén ayana afferents sareng aktivitas input per se tiasa modulate pola di mana dendrites ngabedakeun. Saeutik dipikaterang ngeunaan prosés anu dendrites orientasi nyalira dina vivo sareng dipaksa nyiptakeun pola cabang anu rumit anu unik pikeun tiap kelas neuron khusus. Hiji téori ngeunaan mékanisme pamekaran dendritik arbor nyaéta Hipotésis Synaptotropic. Hipotesis synaptotropic ngajukeun yén input tina presynaptic kana sél postsynaptic (sareng kematangan input sinaptik anu ngagumbirakeun) antukna tiasa ngarobih jalan pembentukan sinaps dina dendritic sareng axonal arbor.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cline|first=H|last2=Haas, K|date=Mar 15, 2008|title=The regulation of dendritic arbor development and plasticity by glutamatergic synaptic input: a review of the synaptotrophic hypothesis.|journal=The Journal of Physiology|volume=586|issue=6|pages=1509–17|doi=10.1113/jphysiol.2007.150029|pmc=2375708|pmid=18202093}}</ref> Pembentukan sinaps ieu diperyogikeun pikeun ngembangkeun struktur neuron dina otak anu fungsina. Kasaimbangan antara biaya metabolisme tina elaborasi dendritik sareng kabutuhan pikeun nutupan médan reseptip panginten tiasa ngukur ukuran sareng bentuk dendrites. Asép Sunandar Sunarya kompléks isyarat ékstrélélular sareng intrasélular modél pangembangan dendrite kalebet faktor transkripsi, interaksi reséptor-ligand, sababaraha jalur sinyal, mesin tarjamahan lokal, unsur siktoskeletal, pospasi Golgi sareng endosom. Ieu nyumbang kana panataan dendrites dina awak sél masing-masing sareng panempatan dendrites ieu dina sirkuit neuron. Salaku conto, éta nunjukkeun yén β-actin zipcode beungkeutan protéin 1 (ZBP1) nyumbang kana cabang dendritik anu pas. Faktor transkripsi penting anu kalebet dina morfologi dendrites kalebet CUT, Abrupt, Collier, Spineless, ACJ6 / drifter, CREST, NEUROD1, CREB, NEUROG2 jst. Protéin anu disékrésikeun sareng reséptor permukaan sél kalebet neurotrofin sareng reséptor tirosin kinase, BMP7, Wnt / disheveled, EPHB 1-3, Semaphorin / plexin-neuropilin, slit-robo, netrin-frazzled, reelin. Rac, CDC42 sareng RhoA janten régulator cytoskeletal sareng protéin motor kalebet KIF5, dynein, LIS1. Jalan sekretaris sareng endositik anu penting ngendalikeun kamekaran dendritik kalebet DAR3 / SAR1, DAR2 / Sec23, DAR6 / Rab1 jsb. Sadaya molekul ieu saling saling hubungan dina ngadalikeun morphogenesis dendritic kalebet akuisisi jinis arborisasi dendritik khusus, régulasi ukuran dendrite sareng organisasi dendrites anu asalna tina neuron anu béda. == Sipat listrik == Struktur sareng cabang tina dendrites neuron, ogé kasadiaan sareng variasi konduktansi ion gated voltase, kuat mangaruhan kumaha neuron ngahijikeun input ti neuron sanés. Integrasi ieu duanana temporal, ngalibetkeun kasimpulan rangsangan anu dugi ka gancang, ogé spasial, anu nyababkeun agregasi input ngagumbirakeun sareng ngahambat tina cabang anu misah.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kandel|first=Eric R.|title=Principles of neural science.|date=2003|publisher=McGrawHill|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-8385-7701-6|edition=4th|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011}}</ref> Dendrites sakalina panginten ngan saukur nganterkeun stimulasi listrik sacara pasip. Transmisi pasip ieu hartosna yén [[Voltase|parobihan voltase anu]] diukur dina awak sél mangrupikeun akibat tina aktivasi sinaps distal nyebarkeun sinyal listrik kana awak sél tanpa bantosan saluran ion gated voltase. Téori kabel pasip ngajelaskeun kumaha parobihan voltase di lokasi anu tangtu dina dendrite ngirimkeun sinyal listrik ieu ngalangkungan sistem konéksi dendrite anu bénten-diaméterna, panjangna, sareng sipat listrik. Dumasar kana téori kabel pasip, urang tiasa ngalacak kumaha parobihan morfologi dendritik neuron mangaruhan tegangan mémbran dina awak sél, sahingga kumaha variasi dina arsitéktur dendrite mangaruhan ciri kaluaran neuron sacara umum.<ref name="Koch 1999">{{Cite book|last=Koch|first=Christof|title=Biophysics of computation : information processing in single neurons|url=https://archive.org/details/biophysicsofcomp0000koch|date=1999|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=New York [u.a.]|isbn=0-19-510491-9}}</ref><ref name="Häusser 2008">{{Cite book|last=Häusser|first=Michael|title=Dendrites|url=https://archive.org/details/dendrites0002unse|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-856656-4|edition=2nd}}</ref> Sinyal éléktrokimia disebarkeun ku poténsial aksi anu ngamangpaatkeun saluran ion tegangan-gated antarmembran pikeun ngangkut ion natrium, ion kalsium, sareng ion kalium. Unggal spésiés ion gaduh saluran protéinina masing-masing aya dina lipid bilayer mémbran sél. Membran sél neuron nutupan akson, awak sél, dendrites, jst. Saluran protéin tiasa bénten antara spésiés kimia dina jumlah voltase aktivasina anu diperyogikeun sareng durasi aktivasina.<ref name="Alberts 2009">{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFAlberts2009">Alberts, Bruce (2009). </cite></ref> Poténsi aksi dina sél sato dihasilkeun ku saluran ion natrium-gated atanapi kalsium-gerbang dina mémbran plasma. Saluran ieu ditutup nalika poténsi mémbran caket, atanapi dina, poténsi sél sél. Saluranna bakal mimiti kabuka upami poténsi mémbran naék, ngamungkinkeun natrium atanapi ion kalsium ngalir kana sél. Nalika langkung seueur ion lebet kana sél, poténsi mémbran terus ningkat. Prosésna teras dugi ka sadaya saluran ion kabuka, nyababkeun paningkatan gancang dina poténsi mémbran anu teras micu turunna poténsi mémbran. Dépolarisasi disababkeun ku nutup saluran ion anu nyegah ion natrium tina lebet kana neuron, sareng aranjeunna teras diangkut sacara aktif kaluar tina sél. Saluran kalium teras diaktipkeun, sareng aya aliran luar ion kalium, balikkeun gradién éléktrokimia kana poténsi istirahat. Saatos poténsi tindakan parantos kajantenan, aya pergeseran négatip samentawis, anu disebat afterhyperpolarization atanapi jaman réfraktori, kusabab arus kalium tambahan. Ieu mékanisme anu nyegah poténsial tindakan tina ngumbara deui sapertos anu nembé sumping.<ref name="Alberts 2009">{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFAlberts2009">Alberts, Bruce (2009). </cite></ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barnett|first=MW|last2=Larkman, PM|date=Jun 2007|title=The action potential.|journal=Practical Neurology|volume=7|issue=3|pages=192–7|pmid=17515599}}</ref> Fitur penting séjén dendrites, dikaruniai konduktivitas gated voltase aktifna, nyaéta kamampuanna pikeun ngirim poténsial aksi balik ka arbor dendritik. Dipikawanoh salaku poténsi tindakan anu nyebarkeun deui, sinyal ieu ngaleungitkeun arbor dendritik sareng nyayogikeun komponén penting pikeun modulasi sinaps sareng potentiation jangka panjang. Saterasna, karéta poténsial tindakan balik-nyebarkeun sacara artifisial dihasilkeun dina soma tiasa nyababkeun poténsi aksi kalsium ( paku dendritik ) di zona inisiasi dendritik dina sababaraha jinis neuron.  == Plastisitas == Dendrites sorangan sigana sanggup ngarobih palastik nalika hirup sawawa sato, kaasup invertebrata. Dendrites neuron ngagaduhan sababaraha kompartemen anu dikenal salaku unit fungsional anu tiasa ngitung rangsangan anu datang. Unit fungsional ieu kalibet dina ngolah input sareng diwangun ku subdomain dendrites sapertos duri, dahan, atanapi pengelompokan dahan. Ku alatan éta, plastisitas anu nyababkeun parobahan struktur dendrite bakal mangaruhan komunikasi sareng pamrosésan dina sél. Salila ngembangkeun, morfologi dendrite dibentuk ku program intrinsik dina génom sél sareng faktor ékstrinsik sapertos sinyal tina sél anu sanés. Tapi dina kahirupan déwasa, sinyal ékstrinsik janten langkung pangaruh sareng nyababkeun parobahan anu langkung signifikan dina struktur dendrite dibandingkeun sareng sinyal intrinsik nalika dikembangkeun. Dina bikang, struktur dendritic tiasa robih akibat tina kaayaan fisiologis anu diakibatkeun ku hormon salami periode sapertos kakandungan, laktat, sareng nuturkeun siklus estrous. Ieu katingali khusus dina sél piramida daérah CA1 tina hippocampus, di mana kapadetan dendrites tiasa bénten-bénten dugi ka 30%. == Cutatan ==  {{Reflist|refs=<ref name=perycz>{{Cite journal | last1 = Perycz | first1 = M. | last2 = Urbanska | first2 = A. S. | last3 = Krawczyk | first3 = P. S. | last4 = Parobczak | first4 = K. | last5 = Jaworski | first5 = J. | title = Zipcode Binding Protein 1 Regulates the Development of Dendritic Arbors in Hippocampal Neurons | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2387-10.2011 | journal = Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 31 | issue = 14 | pages = 5271–5285 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21471362 | pmc = 6622686 | url = http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/31/14/5271.full.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922035952/http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/31/14/5271.full.pdf | archive-date = 2017-09-22 }}</ref> <ref name=urbanska>{{Cite journal | last1 = Urbanska | first1 = M. | last2 = Blazejczyk | first2 = M. | last3 = Jaworski | first3 = J. | title = Molecular basis of dendritic arborization | journal = Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 264–288 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18511961}}</ref> <ref name=Tavosanis>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tavosanis | first1 = G. | title = Dendritic structural plasticity | doi = 10.1002/dneu.20951 | journal = Developmental Neurobiology | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–86 | year = 2012 | pmid = 21761575 }}</ref> <ref name=Yau>{{Cite journal | pmid = 1018277| year = 1976| last1 = Yau| first1 = K. W.| title = Receptive fields, geometry and conduction block of sensory neurones in the central nervous system of the leech| journal = The Journal of Physiology| volume = 263| issue = 3| pages = 513–38| pmc = 1307715 | doi=10.1113/jphysiol.1976.sp011643}}</ref>}} == Référénsi == * {{Cite journal|last=Lorenzo|first=L. E.|last2=Russier|first2=M|last3=Barbe|first3=A|last4=Fritschy|first4=J. M.|last5=Bras|first5=H|year=2007|title=Differential organization of gamma-aminobutyric acid type a and glycine receptors in the somatic and dendritic compartments of rat abducens motoneurons|journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology|volume=504|issue=2|pages=112–26|doi=10.1002/cne.21442|pmid=17626281}} == Tumbu luar == * Histology image: 3_09 - "Geser 3 [[Tulang tonggong]] " * [http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=dendritic%20tree&Submit=Go&event=display&start=1 Tangkal Dendritic - Cell Centered Database] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120402103223/http://www.detraditie.nl/sdt_sdtreferenceseries/sdt_rsi_2011_dendrites.pdf Gambar stereo tangkal dendritik dina organ éléktroréktor ''Kryptopterus''] [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] mx9b31iec5nx2g54f6evkomjgmgm30p 0 101987 711855 707751 2026-08-07T05:54:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711855 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship image |Ship image= File:IJN DD Kuroshio 1938 launching.jpg |Ship caption= ''Kuroshio'' diluncurkeun dina Oktober 1938. }} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Kuroshio'' |Ship namesake= [[Arus Kuroshio]] |Ship ordered= |Ship builder= [[Galangan Kapal Fujinagata]] |Ship laid down= 31 Agustus 1937 |Ship launched= 28 Oktober 1938 |Ship completed= 1 Januari 1940 |Ship commissioned= |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 23 Juni 1943 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 8 Méi 1943 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Kuroshio'''''|黒潮|Angin pasang hideung}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] katilu tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Kuroshio'' diwangun [[Galangan Kapal Fujinagata]] di Osaka dina 31 Agustus 1937 jeung diluncurkeun dina 25 Oktober 1938. Kapal ieu ditugaskeun dina 27 Januari 1940<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> sareng diparéntah ku Létnan Kolonél Jiro Okamoto.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/image_C13072077600?IS_KEY_S1=C13072077600&IS_KIND=detail&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD&|title=１月|website=www.jacar.archives.go.jp|access-date=2019-05-24}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Kuroshio'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/kurosh_t.htm | title= IJN ''Kuroshio'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Merangan Pearl Harbour]] * [[Kampanye Hindia Walanda]] * [[Perang Midway]] * [[Merangan Samudra Hindia]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Santa Cruz]] * [[Perang Tassafaronga]] Dina wengi 7–8 Méi 1943, ''Kuroshio'' kakeunaan [[ranjau sagara]] nalika ngantunkeun [[Vila, Pulo Solomon|Vila]] ({{coord|08|08|S|156|55|E| display=inline,title}}) jeung tilelep sareng korban 83 urang. Kapal éta dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 20 Juni 1943.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kuroshio}} [[kategori:kapal taun 1938]] 6gx2ycht0tub2rq6yqzzmbri5kz6p4w 0 102022 711560 707750 2026-08-06T23:07:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711560 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Kagerō'' |Ship namesake= |Ship ordered= |Ship builder= [[Arsenal Angkatan Sagara Maizuru]] |Ship laid down= 3 Séptémber 1937 |Ship launched= 27 Séptémber 1938 |Ship completed= 6 Nopémber 1939 |Ship commissioned= 6 Nopémber 1939 |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 20 Juni 1943 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 8 Méi 1943 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Kagerō'''''|陽炎|Halimun}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] kahiji tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Kagerō'' diwangun [[Arsenal Angkatan Sagara Maizuru]] dina 3 Séptémber 1937 jeung diluncurkeun dina 27 Séptémber 1938. Kapal ieu ditugaskeun dina 6 Nopémber 1939<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> sareng diparéntah ku Létnan Kolonél Iwata Yamamoto<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/image_C13072076200?IS_KEY_S1=C13072076200&IS_KIND=detail&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD&|title=８月|website=www.jacar.archives.go.jp|access-date=2019-05-24}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Kagerō'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_t.htm | title= IJN ''Kagerō'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Merangan Pearl Harbour]] * [[Perang Midway]] * [[Tokyo Éksprés]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Solomon Wétan]] * [[Perang Sagara Guadalkanal]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Santa Cruz]] * [[Perang Tassafaronga]] Dina 7 Méi 1943, ''Kagerō'' kakeunaan [[ranjau sagara]] nalika ngantunkeun Vila, satuluyna diserang [[kapal udara]] Sekutu di [[Rendova]] ({{coord|08|08|S|156|55|E |type:event_region:SB-WE_dim:300km |display=inline,title}}) jeung tilelep sareng korban 54 urang (18 pupus & 36 cilaka). Kapal éta dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 20 Juni 1943.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kagerō}} [[Kategori:Kapal taun 1938]] lok65rb7vs8mcfvnv3mnz6wp63lfheo 0 102023 711718 613218 2026-08-07T02:29:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711718 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship image |Ship image= File:Shiranuhi.jpg |Ship caption=''Shiranui'' dina 20 Désémber 1939 }} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Shiranui'' |Ship namesake= |Ship ordered= |Ship builder= [[Perusahaan Dok Uraga]] |Ship laid down= 30 Agustus 1937 |Ship launched= 28 Juni 1938 |Ship completed=20 Désémber 1939 |Ship commissioned= 20 Désémber 1939 |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 10 Désémber 1944 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 27 Oktober 1943 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Shiranui'''''|不知火|Cahaya Fosforis}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] kadua tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Shiranui'' diwangun [[Perusahaan Dok Uraga]] dina 30 Agustus 1937, diluncurkeun dina 28 Juni 1938, satuluyna ditugaskeun dina 20 Désémber 1939.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Shiranui'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/shiran_t.htm | title= IJN ''Shiranui'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Ngebom Darwin]] * [[Perang Midway]] * [[Merangan Samudra Hindia]] * [[Perang Teluk Leyte]] * [[Perang Selat Surigao]] Dina 27 Oktober 1943, ''Shiranui'' kakeunaan merangan [[kapal udara]] ti {{USS|Enterprise|CV-6|6}}<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/Hayashimo-TU-Notes.htm | title= Editorial Notes - HAYASHIMO |author= Anthony Tully |year= 2014|publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> {{convert|80|mi|km}} kalér [[Iloilo]], [[Pulo Panay|Panay]] ({{coord|12|0|N|122|30|E|display=inline,title }}) jeung tilelep sareng sakabeh kru kapal éta. ''Shiranui'' dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 10 Désémber 1944.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Shiranui}} [[kategori:kapal taun 1938]] 6105on5gubra8b95fygz4z3jkvffb3i 0 102031 711621 613219 2026-08-07T00:26:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711621 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship image |Ship image= File:IJN DD Oyashio in 1943.jpg |Ship caption= ''Oyashio'' taun 1943 }} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Oyashio'' |Ship namesake= [[Arus Oyashio]] |Ship ordered= |Ship builder= [[Arsenal Angkatan Sagara Maizuru]] |Ship laid down= 29 Maret 1938 |Ship launched= 29 Nopémber 1938 |Ship completed=20 Agustus 1940 |Ship commissioned= |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 20 Juni 1943 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 8 Méi 1943 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Oyashio'''''|親潮|Arus Indungna}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] kaopat tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Oyashio'' diwangun [[Arsenal Angkatan Sagara Maizuru]] dina 29 Maret 1938, diluncurkeun dina 29 Nopémber 1938, satuluyna ditugaskeun dina 20 Agustus 1940.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Oyashio'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/oyashi_t.htm | title= IJN ''Oyashio'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Merangan Pearl Harbor]] * [[Kampanye Filipina (1941-1942)]] * [[Kampanye Hindia Walanda]] * [[Perang Midway]] * [[Merangan Samudra Hindia]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Solomon Wétan]] * [[Tokyo Éksprés]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Santa Cruz]] * [[Perang Sagara Guadalkanal]] * [[Perang Selat Surigao]] Dina wengi 7–8 Méi 1943, ''Oyashio'' kakeunaan [[ranjau sagara]] nalika ngantunkeun [[Vila, Pulo Solomon|Vila]] ({{coord|08|08|S|156|55|E| display=inline,title }}) jeung tilelep sebab merangan kapal udara sareng korban 91 urang. ''Oyashio'' dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 20 Juni 1943.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Oyashio}} [[kategori:kapal taun 1938]] g4mz6adsk292n9xkvfplwpczugdt84d 0 102040 711606 681186 2026-08-07T00:08:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711606 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Piit Peking | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref =<ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN|id=22719821 |title=''Lonchura punctulata'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=10 Juni 2014}}</ref> | image = Lonchura punctulata (Nagarhole, 2004).jpg | image_caption = Piit déwasa subspésiés ''punctulata'' di Taman Nasional Nagarhole, [[India]] | image2 = Scaly breasted Munia (Immature)- Kolkata- I IMG 3535.jpg | image2_caption = Piit rumaja subspésiés ''punctulata'' di [[Kolkata]], [[India]] | image_width = 240px | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Burung|Aves]] | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Estrildidae]] | genus = ''[[Lonchura]]'' | species = '''''L. punctulata''''' | binomial = ''Lonchura punctulata'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]], 1753) }} '''Piit peking'''; bondol peking; (''Lonchura punctulata'') nyaéta manuk leutik anu asalna tina kulawarga ''[[Estrildidae]]''.<ref name=behaviour/>Manuk ieu kahakananna sisikian, kayaning siki: [[paré]], [[kunyit]], [[sorgum]], jujukutan, jeung sajabana. <ref name=behaviour>{{Cite journal|title= Hostile, Sexual, and Other Social Behaviour Patterns of the Spice Finch (''Lonchura punctulata'') in Captivity| author=Moynihan, M & M F Hall| journal=Behaviour| volume=7| issue=1| year=1954| pages=33–76 }}</ref> ==Ngaran séjén== Urang [[basa Jawa|Jawa]] nyebutna ''emprit peking'', ''prit peking''; urang [[basa Sunda|Sunda]] nyebutna ''piit peking'' atawa ''manuk peking'', dumasar ogé kana sorana.<ref>{{cite journal| pages= 1526–1531| title= The effect of group size on vigilance and feeding rate in spice finches (''Lonchura punctulata'')|author= Beauchamp, G and Barbara Livoreil|year=1997|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=75| url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/z97-776| doi=10.1139/z97-776}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L.A.|coauthors=G. Beauchamp|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=1|year=1999|month=March|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102-106|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0,|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> Di [[Malaysia]] ieu manuk disebutna ''pipit pinang'', dina [[basa Inggris]] dipiwanohna ''Scaly-breasted Munia'' pedah aya kelir borontok dina bulu palebah hariguna anu katempo kawas sisit.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pulliam|first=R. H.|title=On the advantages of flocking|journal=J. Theor. Bio.|year=1973|volume=38|pages=419-422|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> == Ciri mandiri == [[File : Lonch punctu 071126-1777 tdp.jpg|jmpl|kiri|160px|Manuk piit peking déwasa, Bogor.]] Pangawakanna leutik, panjang tina pamatuk nepika tungtung buntut kurang leuwih 11 cm. Bulu dina beuheung, punduk jeung tonggong kelirna coklat, aya guguritan ngora katempo samar-samar sarta bulu puhuna bodas. Tikorona coklat semu beureum, palebah handapna bodas, ''katempo guguratan kawas sisik kelirna coklat palebah harigu nepi ka sisi awakna''.<ref name=mackinnon/> Palebah beuteung handap nepika bujurna bodas.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Role of humidity in the seasonal reproduction of male spotted munia, ''Lonchura punctulata''| author=Sikdar M; A Kar and P Prakash |year= 1992| doi= 10.1002/jez.1402640112 |journal= Journal of Experimental Zoology| volume=264| issue=1| pages= 82–84}}</ref> Manuk anu ngora kénéh harigu jeung beuteungna mibanda bulu coklat kotor, teu aya sisitan kawas anu déwasa. <ref name=john/> Jalu jeung bikang henteu beda dina wanda bulu jeung pangawakanna.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=Frédérique|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Reduced resource defence in an uncertain world: an experimental test using captive nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2004|month=July|volume=68|issue=1|pages=21–25|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.06.025|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Hihideung panonna coklat poék; pamatuk kawas manuk piit biasana kelirna kulawu semu biru; cékérna hideung semu kulawu.<ref name=mackinnon>{{aut|MacKinnon, J., K. Phillips, B. van Balen}}. 2000. ''Burung-burung di Sumatra, Jawa, Bali dan Kalimantan'': 425. Seri Panduan Lapangan LIPI. Bogor:LIPI dan BirdLife IP.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Nicholas|title=An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe0000davi_j0v9|year=2012|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Competing for Resources|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe0000davi_j0v9/page/130 130]-131}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Barnard|first=C.J.|coauthors=R.M. Sibly|title=Producers and scroungers: A general model and its application to captive flocks of house sparrows|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=1981|month=May|volume=29|issue=2|pages=543-550|doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80117-0}}</ref> == Tempat hirup jeung kabiasaan == [[File: Lonch punctu J 071129-1999 tdp.jpg|jmpl|kiri|160px|Manuk anakna kénéh, Bogor.]] Piit peking remen kapanggih hirup di padésaan nepika sisi kota, utamana anu deukeut jeung [[sawah|persawahan]] atawa [[tegalan]]. Kahakananna sabangsaning sisikian, jujukutan utamana kana [[pare]]<ref name=john/>. Ku kituna piit peking remen katempo di[[sawah]], [[rungkun]] -rungkun [[jukut]], tegalan jeung [[kebon]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stephens|first=DW|title=A comprehensive guide to optimal foraging theory|year=2007|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Foraging}}</ref> Tempona nyiar hakaneun hiber ngabring babarengan jeung pasanganna atawa ngabring jeung manuk baturna nu séjén, piit peking remen katempo saabringan areunteup dina rungkun jujukutan ngadon ngakan sikina, sakapeung katempo turun kana [[taneuh]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rieucau|first=G.|coauthors=Giraldeau, L.-A.|title=Group size effect caused by food competition in nutmeg mannikins (Lonchura punctulata)|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=12 February 2009|year=2008|month=October|volume=20|issue=2|pages=421–425|doi=10.1093/beheco/arn144|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Piit peking ieu gerakanna rancingeus, kalayan henteu eureun disarada jeung padabaturna.<ref name=john>{{aut|MacKinnon, J.}} 1993. ''Panduan Lapangan Pengenalan Burung-burung di Jawa dan Bali'': 379. Yogyakarta:Gadjah Mada University Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gauvin|first=Shawn|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata ) reduce their feeding rates in response to simulated competition|journal=Oecologia|year=2004|volume=139|issue=1|pages=150–156|doi=10.1007/s00442-003-1482-2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Ieu manuk remen ogé katempo nyiar hakaneun pacampur jeung manuk jinis piit séjén, saperti piit, bondol (''L. leucogastroides''), jeung sajabana. <ref name=mackinnon/> Mimitina ieu manuk katempo ngan sababaraha hiji wungkul, nincak usum panena ieu manuk téh bisa ngumpul dina jumlah anu loba malahan nepika aya ratusan. Katempo pisan mangsa usum meuting, ieu manuk hiber abrul-abrulan.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Gokula V |year= 2001| title= Nesting ecology of the Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (South India)|journal= Acta Ornithologica| volume= 36|issue=1|pages= 1–5}}</ref> Nempo jumlahna anu loba kawas kieu tangtu ngadatangkeun karuagian anu henteu saeutik pikeun para patani.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Mehta, P |year=1997| title=Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' feeding on scat? |journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] | volume= 37| issue=1|page=16|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/NLBW37_1#page/n17/mode/1up}}</ref> Piit peking ogé remen katempo eunteup di kebon-kebon, buruan [[imah]], ogé sisi jalan. Saperti ngarana, di [[Malaysia]], ieu manuk remen areunteup dina tangkal [[jambé]] atawa [[palma]] séjéna, tangkal-tangkal anu ngarungkun jangkung, paragi ieu manuk nyarieun [[sayang]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sharma RC; Bhatt D; Sharma RK|year=2004|title=Breeding success of the tropical Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata in urbanized and forest habitats|journal=Ornithological Science|volume=3|issue=2|pages=113–117|url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/osj/3/2/3_113/_article|doi=10.2326/osj.3.113}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sayangna bulenek kawas ''ball'', dijieun tina jujukutan, diperenahkeun dinu buni kahalangan ku dangdauna jeung régang.<ref name=john/> [[Endog]]na bodas, aya 4-6(-10) siki, ukuranna 15 x 11 [[miliméter|mm]] ngendogna teuaya usumna/endogan sapanjang taun, disileungleuman salila 16 poé kakara megar anakna.<ref>{{aut|Hoogerwerf, A.}} 1949. ''De Avifauna van de Plantentuin te Buitenzorg (Java)'': 112-3. Buitenzorg:Uitgave van de Kon. Plantentuin van Indonesië.</ref><ref name=hbk/><ref>{{cite journal|author= Lamba, BS |year= 1974| title= Nest construction technique of the Spotted Munia, ''Lonchura punctulata''| journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 71| issue=3| pages= 613–616}}</ref> Manuk piit peking loba kapanggih hirup ti mimiti sisi basisir nepika palebah tonggoheun 1.800 m dpl.<ref name=mackinnon/>, malahan nepi ka 2.200 m di [[Lombok]] jeung 2.300 m di [[Timor]]<ref name=coates>{{aut|Coates, B.J. & K.D. Bishop}}. 2000. ''Panduan Lapangan Burung-burung di Kawasan Wallacea'': 185. Bogor:BirdLife IP - Dove Publ.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Incompatibility between antipredatory vigilance and scrounger tactic in nutmeg mannikins, Lonchura punctulata|journal=Animal Behaviour|date=1 October 2003|volume=66|issue=4|pages=657–664|doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2236|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> == Sub spésiés jeung habitatna== == Piit peking loba kapanggih di [[Asia kidul]] jeung [[Asia Tenggara]] kalawan mibanda 12 subspésiés, tayalian: # '''''L. p. punctulata''''' ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758), nyebar di nagara [[Nepal]] nepi la [[Sikkim]], [[India]] jeung [[Sri Lanka]] # '''''L. p. subundulata''''' (Godwin-Austen, 1874), Nyebar ti mimiti wetan [[India]] ([[Assam]]) nepi ka [[Bhutan]] jeung bagean kulon [[Myanmar]] # '''''L. p. yunnanensis''''' (Parkes, 1958), Nyebar di wetaneun [[Myanmar]] jeung kulon ngidul [[China]] # '''''L. p. topela''''' (Swinhoe, 1863), Nyebar di [[China]] kidul nepika kaler [[Thailand]], [[Indochina]], [[Hainan]], jeung [[Taiwan]] # '''''L. p. cabanisi''''' ([[Richard Bowdler Sharpe|Sharpe]], 1890), nyebar di [[Filipina]] ([[Luzon]], [[Mindoro]], [[Panay]], [[Cebu]], Calauit jeung [[Palawan]]) # '''''L. p. fretensis''''' (Kloss, 1931), nyebar di kiul [[Thailand]] jeung [[Semenanjung Malaysia]] nepi ka [[Sumatra]] jeung pulo-pulo sabudeureunna # '''''L. p. nisoria''''' ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1830), nyebar ti [[Jawa]], [[Bali]], [[Lombok]], jeung [[Sumbawa]] # '''''L. p. baweana''''' (Hoogerwerf, 1963), [[endemik]] di pulo [[Bawean]] ([[Laut Jawa]]) # '''''L. p. holmesi''''' (Restall, 1992), endemik di kidul ngulon [[Borneo]] ([[Kalimantan]]) # '''''L. p. sumbae''''' (Mayr, 1944), éndemik/pituin di Pulao [[Sumba]] # '''''L. p. blasii''''' (Stresemann, 1912), nyebar di [[Flores]], [[Timor]], [[Kapuloan Tanimbar]], jeung kalpuloan [[Nusa Tenggara]] # '''''L. p. particeps''''' (Riley, 1920), éndemik di Pulo [[Sulawesi]]. <ref name=clements>{{cite book|title= The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.8|author= Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, B.L. Sullivan, C. L. Wood, and D. Roberson|year= 2013|publisher= The Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Abbass, D., Rais, M., Ghalib, S.A. and Khan, M.Z. |year=2010| title= First Record of Spotted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) from Karachi| journal= Pakistan J. Zool. |volume=42|issue=4| pages=503–505}}</ref> Populasina nyebar dina ''distribusi'' anu lega dibedakeun ku ''variasi'' kelir bulu sareng pangawakanna, kurang leuwih aya 11 subspésiés anu dipikanyaho.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L-A.|coauthors=Beauchamp, G.|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|year=1999|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102–106|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Luc-Alain Giraldeau, Myriam Lavoie|title=Head position as an indication of producer and scrounger tactics in a ground-feeding bird|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2001|month=May |volume=61|issue=5|pages=895-903|doi=10.1006/anbe.2000.1678}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|title=Increasing foraging group size increases scrounger use and reduces searching efficiency in nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata )|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|year=2002|volume=52|issue=3|pages=232–238|doi=10.1007/s00265-002-0500-4|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Kaasup di jerona anu kapanggih hirup di i dataran [[Asia Kidul]], ogé [[Pakistan]],[[ India]] , [[Nepal]] , [[Bangladés]] sareng [[Sri Lanka]]. Ieu spésiés kawasna pituin ti Asia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Arnaiz-Villena|first=A|coauthors=Ruiz-del-Valle V, Gomez-Prieto P, Reguera R, Parga-Lozano C, Serrano-Vela I|title=Estrildinae Finches (Aves, Passeriformes) from Africa, South Asia and Australia: a Molecular Phylogeographic Study|journal=The Open Ornithology Journal|year=2009|volume=2|pages=29–36|url=http://chopo.pntic.mec.es/biolmol/publicaciones/Estrildinae_finches_2009.pdf|doi=10.2174/1874453200902010029}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321114702/http://chopo.pntic.mec.es/biolmol/publicaciones/Estrildinae_finches_2009.pdf |date=2012-03-21 }}</ref> Tapi jarang katempo hirup di [[Kashmir]] .<ref>{{cite journal|author= Akhtar,SA; Rao,Prakash; Tiwari,JK; Javed, Salim |year= 1992| title= Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' (Linn.) from Dachigam National Park, Jammu and Kashmir| journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 89| issue= 1| page=129}}</ref><ref name=hbk>{{cite book|author=Ali, S & S D Ripley| year=1999| title=Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 10|edition=2| publisher=Oxford University Press|place= New Delhi| pages=119–121}}</ref> Di luar daérah asli, ieu manuk anu hirup di daérah anu iklimna cocog. ''Populasi'' anu pindah ieu katitén an di Hindia Kulon (Puerto Rico ti saprak 1971) <ref>{{cite journal|journal= Caribbean Journal of Science| volume= 33| issue= 3–4|pages=233–238| year= 1997| title=Review of the Subspecific Status and Origin of Introduced Finches in Puerto Rico| author=Moreno, JA}}</ref>, [[Hawaii]] , [[Australia]], [[Japan]] <ref>{{cite journal| year=2004| journal=Global Environmental Research| pages=29–39| volume=8| issue=1| url=http://www.airies.or.jp/publication/ger/pdf/08-01-04.pdf| title=Invasive Birds in Japan| author=Eguchi K & H E Amano}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303101534/http://www.airies.or.jp/publication/ger/pdf/08-01-04.pdf |date=2012-03-03 }}</ref> sareng kidul Amérika Serikat utamina di [[Florida]] sareng [[California]].<ref>{{cite journal| journal= Florida Field Naturalist| volume= 37| issue= 3| pages= 96–97| year= 2009| title= The status of the nutmeg mannikin (''Lonchura punctulata'') in the extreme western panhandle of Florida| author= Duncan RA| url= http://www.fosbirds.org/sites/default/files/FFNs/FFN373p096.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241230215554/http://www.fosbirds.org/sites/default/files/FFNs/FFN373p096.pdf |date=2024-12-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/wb/v31n02/p0130-p0131.pdf| title=The juvenile nutmeg mannikin: identification of a little brown bird| author=Garrett, KL| year=2000| journal=Western Birds| volume=31| issue=2| pages=130–131}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907225746/http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/wb/v31n02/p0130-p0131.pdf |date=2012-09-07 }}</ref> di [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]] , pandeuri katompo hirup bareng sareng ''[[Lonchura malacca]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Moulton, M. P., L. J. S. Allen, D. K. Ferris. |year=1992| title=Competition, resource use and habitat selection in two introduced Hawaiian Mannikins| journal= Biotropica| volume=24| pages=77–85|doi= 10.2307/2388475|issue= 1}}</ref> == Galeri == <gallery> File:Lonchura punctulata MHNT 228 La Réunion.jpg | <center> Endogna File:Lonch punctu 071129 1989 tdp.jpg |''L. p. nisoria'' di [[Bogor]], [[Jawa Barat]] File:Lonchura punctulata particeps.JPG |''L. p. particeps'' di [[Manado]], [[Sulawesi kalér]] File:Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) - Flickr - Lip Kee (1).jpg | ''L. p. fretensis'' di Pulo Ubin, [[Singapura]] File:Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) feeding on Pennisetum pedicellatum W IMG 1337.jpg | Buluna mangsa rumaja kénéh ''L. p. punctulata'' di Hyderabad, [[India]] File: Lonch punctu 071126-1775 tdp.jpg|Ngabring nyiar hakaneun, Bogor. </gallery> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2 }} == Tutumbu ka luar == {{commons|Lonchura punctulata}} * {{en}} [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/53349/all ''Lonchura punctulata'' pada IUCN Red List Database], diakses pada 29/11/2007 * {{en}} [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=8709&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet] [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:Manuk Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Aves]] [[Kategori:Estrildidae]] rnje90al7ovxk4zmtore65g1okrariu 0 102048 711714 707858 2026-08-07T02:20:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711714 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship image |Ship image= file:Japanese destroyer Hayashio underway c1940 (painting).jpg |Ship caption= Gambaran kapal ''Hayashio'' }} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Hayashio'' |Ship namesake= |Ship ordered= |Ship builder= [[Perusahaan Dok Uraga]] |Ship laid down= 30 Juni 1938 |Ship launched= 19 April 1939 |Ship completed= 31 Agustus 1940 |Ship commissioned= |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 24 Désémber 1942 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 24 Nopémber 1942 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Hayashio'''''|早潮|Arus gancang}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] kalima tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Hayashio'' diwangun [[Perusahaan Dok Uraga]] dina 30 Juni 1938 jeung diluncurkeun dina 19 April 1939. Kapal ieu ditugaskeun dina 31 Agustus 1940<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> sareng diparéntah ku Létnan Kolonél Wakahito Yamakuma.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/image_C13072078800?IS_KEY_S1=C13072078800&IS_KIND=detail&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD&|title=９月（１）|website=www.jacar.archives.go.jp|access-date=2019-05-24}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Hayashio'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/hayaso_t.htm | title= IJN ''Hayashio'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Merangan Pearl Harbor]] * [[Kampanye Filipina (1941-1942)]] * [[Kampanye Hindia Walanda]] * [[Perang Midway]] * [[Merangan Samudra Hindia]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Solomon Wétan]] * [[Tokyo Éksprés]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Santa Cruz]] * [[Perang Sagara Guadalkanal]] Dina 24 Nopémber 1942, ''Hayashio'' kakeunaan merangan kapal udara milik [[Pasukan Udara Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]] jeung kabeuleum. Kapal éta ditorpédo ku {{ship|Kapal pangancur Jepang|Shiratsuyu||2}} di [[Tanjung Guna]], [[Teluk Huon]] ({{Coord|07|0|S|147|30|E}}) sabab rusak parah. ''Hayashio'' dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 24 Désémber 1942.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hayashio}} [[Kategori:Kapal taun 1939]] 0j150ib7fmqlwfl8q4tt7cgcwi8ztir 0 102049 711627 707752 2026-08-07T00:30:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711627 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Natsushio'' |Ship namesake= |Ship ordered= |Ship builder= [[Galangan Kapal Fujinagata]] |Ship laid down= 9 Désémber 1937 |Ship launched= 23 Fébruari 1939 |Ship completed= 31 Agustus 1940 |Ship commissioned= |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 28 Fébruari 1942 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 9 Fébruari 1942 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Natsushio'''''|夏潮|Pasang di usum panas}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] kagenep tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Natsushio'' diwangun [[Galangan Kapal Fujinagata]] dina 9 Désémber 1937 jeung diluncurkeun dina 23 Fébruari 1939. Kapal ieu ditugaskeun dina 31 Agustus 1940<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> sareng diparéntah ku Létnan Kolonél Kanetomo Nomaguchi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/image_C13072078800?IS_KEY_S1=C13072078800&IS_KIND=detail&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD&|title=９月（１）|website=www.jacar.archives.go.jp|access-date=2019-05-23}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Natsushio'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/natsus_t.htm | title= IJN ''Natsushio'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Merangan Pearl Harbor]] * [[Kampanye Filipina (1941-1942)]] * [[Kampanye Hindia Walanda]] Dina 24 Nopémber 1942, ''Natsushio'' kakeunaan merangan kapal silem milik [[Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat]] {{USS|S-37|SS-142|6}}. Kapal éta ditorpédo jeung tilelep sareng korban 10 urang di {{Convert|22|mi|km}} kidul Makassar ({{Coord|05|10|S|119|24|E}}). ''Natsushio'' dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 28 Fébruari 1942.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Natsushio}} [[Kategori:Kapal taun 1939]] gyfm2v9ur4zp8admc149vrnqq6dv0e2 0 102055 711709 707857 2026-08-07T02:10:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711709 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Hatsukaze'' |Ship namesake= |Ship ordered= |Ship builder= [[Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation]] |Ship laid down= 3 Désémber 1937 |Ship launched= 24 Januari 1939 |Ship completed= 15 Fébruari 1940 |Ship commissioned= |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 5 Januari 1944 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 2 Nopémber 1943 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Hatsukaze'''''|初風|Angin mimitina}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] katujuh tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Hatsukaze'' diwangun [[Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation]] dina 3 Désémber 1937 jeung diluncurkeun dina 24 Januari 1939. Kapal ieu ditugaskeun dina 15 Fébruari 1940<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> sareng diparéntah ku Létnan Kolonél Kameshiro Takahashi<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/image_C13072077700?IS_KIND=SimpleSummary&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD&IS_KEY_S1=C13072077700%20&|title=２月|website=www.jacar.archives.go.jp|access-date=2019-05-23}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Hatsukaze'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/hatsuk_t.htm | title= IJN ''Hatsukaze'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Merangan Pearl Harbor]] * [[Kampanye Filipina (1941-1942)]] * [[Kampanye Hindia Walanda]] * [[Perang Sagara Jawa]] * [[Perang Pulo Natal]] * [[Perang Midway]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Solomon Wétan]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Santa Cruz]] * [[Tokyo Éksprés]] * [[Perang Teluk Empress Augusta]] Dina 2 Nopémber 1943 waktu Perang Teluk Empress Augusta, ''Hatsukaze'' tabrakan sareng {{ship|Kapal pangajajah Jepang|Myōkō||2}}, jadina kapal éta teu tiasa mindahkeun. Kapal éta kakeunaan merangan meriam ti kapal-kapal Amérika Serikat jeung tilelep di caket [[Pulo Bougainville|Bougainville]] ({{coord|06|01|S|153|58|E |display=inline,title}}) sareng korban 164 urang. ''Hatsukaze'' dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 5 Januari 1944.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hatsukaze}} [[Kategori:Kapal taun 1939]] 5hhiu6e9rpv27wt0u6hca6tcaovzzkj 0 102062 711840 707856 2026-08-07T05:37:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711840 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Akigumo'' |Ship namesake= |Ship ordered= 4 Maret 1939 |Ship builder= [[Perusahaan Dok Uraga]] |Ship laid down= 2 Juli 1940 |Ship launched= 11 April 1941 |Ship completed= 27 Septémber 1941 |Ship commissioned= 27 Septémber 1941 |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 10 Juni 1944 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 11 April 1944 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Akigumo'''''|秋雲|Awan di usum gugur}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] panungtungan tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Akigumo'' diwangun [[Perusahaan Dok Uraga]] dina 2 Juli 1940 jeung diluncurkeun dina 11 April 1941. Kapal ieu ditugaskeun dina 27 Septémber 1941<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> sareng diparéntah ku Létnan Kolonél Terumichi Arimoto<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/image_C13072082300?IS_KIND=SimpleSummary&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD&IS_KEY_S1=C13072082300%20&|title=９月（５）|website=www.jacar.archives.go.jp|access-date=2019-05-23}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>. ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Akigumo'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/akigum_t.htm | title= IJN ''Akigumo'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Merangan Pearl Harbor]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Santa Cruz]] * [[Perang Sagara Guadalkanal]] * [[Perang Vella Lavella (sagara)]] * [[Operasi Panarikan Pulo Kiska]] Dina 11 April 1944, ''Akigumo'' kakeunaan merangan kapal silem milik [[Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat]] {{USS|Redfin|SS-272|6}} {{convert|30|mi|km}} tenggara [[Samenanjung Zamboanga]] ({{coord|06|43|N|122|23|E}}) jeung tilelep. ''Akigumo'' dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 10 Juni 1944.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Akigumo}} [[Kategori:Kapal taun 1941]] mvt66bhjtkdqvu5vandto1elk28db6y 0 102072 711531 697413 2026-08-06T22:28:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711531 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nukléoprotéin''' nyaéta protéin anu strukturna patali jeung [[asam nukléat]] kalawan ngandung [[DNA]] sareng [[RNA]] di jerona. Wanda nukléoprotéin nyaéta [[ribosom]], nukleosom, jeung protéin nukleokapsid anu asalna tina virus.<ref>{{MeshName|Nucleoproteins}}</ref> == Conto == === Déoksiribonukléoprotéin === [[Gambar:Nucleosome_ribbon_pd0001.jpg|jmpl|Skéma struktur pita nukleosom. Protéin histon di tengahna digambar ku pita coklat kalayan spiral alfa-hélik; unggal runtuyan DNA tina héliks ganda anu nutupan pedalaman diwarnaan (biru) tina tungtung 5' nepi ka tungtung (beureum) 3'.]] Deoksiribanuknukléoprotéin (DNP) mangrupa kompléks [[Protéin|DNA jeung protéin.]] Conto prototipikalna nyaéta nukléosom jeung kompléks DNA anu mulen dalapan protéin histon dina jero [[Eukariot|sél eukariotik]] keur ngabentuk kromatin. Protamine bisa ngaganti histon waktu prosés [[spérmatogenesis]] lumangsung.<ref>{{MeshName|Deoxyribonucleoproteins}}</ref> === Ribonukléoprotéin === Ribonukléoprotéins (RNP) mangrupa kompléks RNA jeung protéin. Énzim telomerase, RNase P, hnRNP, RNP nuklir (snRNPs) jeung [[ribosom]] kaasup kana papasingan ribonukléoprotéin. Ribosom dibentuk ku hiji molekul tina 50 protéin ribosom atawa leuwih kalayan dibarengan ku tilu wanda molekul RNA dina prokariota atawa opat wanda molekul dina [[eukariot]]a . Sababaraha wanda virus ukur miboga ribonukléoprotéin basajan, hiji molekul RNA, jeung sababaraha molekul protéin anu saru. Virus séjénna miboga ribonukléoprotéin atawa déoksibonukléoprotéin kalawan nyangkaruk protéin anu béda jeung euyeub ku molekul asam ribonukléar. == Fungsi == Dina [[Eukariot|sél eukariotik]], DNA diadumaniskeun jeung massa protéin histon anu sarua dina kompléks nukléoprotéin anu disebut kromatin .<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Molecular Cell Biology|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/molecularcellbio00harv|last=Lodish|first=Harvey|publisher=|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Déoksibonukléoprotéin dina ieu kompléks babarengan nyieun kompléks multiprotéin jeung DNA keur ngabentuk struktur anu melengkung. Déoksiribonukléoprotéin kalibet dina régulasi réplika DNA jeung transkripsi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Echols|first=Harrison|date=1990|title=Nucleoprotein structures initiating DNA replication, transcription, and site-specific recombination|url=|journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry|volume=265|pages=14697–700|doi=|pmid=2203758}}</ref>[[Gambar:178-EbolaVirusProteins_EbolaProteins.png|jmpl|227x227px| Gambar cross-sectional tina partikel virus Ebola, dilabélan ku struktur protéin utama.]]Ribonukléoprotéin bisa jadi panyalindungan. Dina sél, mRNA salaku molekul bébas moal kapanggih. RNA sok dipatalikeun jeung ribonukléoprotéin salaku kompléks ribonukléoprotéin.<ref name=":0"/> Kalayan cara anu sarua, génom RNA virus jeung runtuyan négatip moal kapanggih salaku molekul RNA bébas. Ribonukléoprotéin bakal ngajaga génom tina RNase. Nukléoprotéin mindeng jadi antigén utama keur virus sabab miboga détérminan antigén spésifik.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruigrok|first=Rob WH|last2=Crépin|first2=Thibaut|last3=Kolakofsky|first3=Dan|title=Nucleoproteins and nucleocapsids of negative-strand RNA viruses|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1369527411000956|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=14|issue=4|pages=504–510|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2011.07.011}}</ref> == Struktur == Ngaliwatan metodeu kristalografi, spésifikasi struktur ruang jeung fungsi biologis nukléoproteén bisa dipikaharti. Loba struktur nukléoprotéin virus anu geus kapanggih, kayaning struktur virus flu <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ng|first=Andy Ka-Leung|last2=Wang|first2=Jia-Huai|last3=Shaw|first3=Pang-Chui|date=2009-05-27|title=Structure and sequence analysis of influenza A virus nucleoprotein|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11427-009-0064-x|journal=Science in China Series C: Life Sciences|language=en|volume=52|issue=5|pages=439–449|doi=10.1007/s11427-009-0064-x|issn=1006-9305}}</ref> rabies,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Albertini|first=Aurélie A. V.|last2=Wernimont|first2=Amy K.|last3=Muziol|first3=Tadeusz|last4=Ravelli|first4=Raimond B. G.|last5=Clapier|first5=Cedric R.|last6=Schoehn|first6=Guy|last7=Weissenhorn|first7=Winfried|last8=Ruigrok|first8=Rob W. H.|date=2006-07-21|title=Crystal Structure of the Rabies Virus Nucleoprotein-RNA Complex|url=http://science.sciencemag.org/content/313/5785/360|journal=Science|language=en|volume=313|issue=5785|pages=360–363|doi=10.1126/science.1125280|issn=0036-8075|pmid=16778023}}</ref> Ebola, Bunyamwera,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Ariza|first=A.|last2=Tanner|first2=S. J.|last3=Walter|first3=C. T.|last4=Dent|first4=K. C.|last5=Shepherd|first5=D. A.|last6=Wu|first6=W.|last7=Matthews|first7=S. V.|last8=Hiscox|first8=J. A.|last9=Green|first9=T. J.|date=2013-06-01|title=Nucleocapsid protein structures from orthobunyaviruses reveal insight into ribonucleoprotein architecture and RNA polymerization|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkt268|journal=Nucleic Acids Research|volume=41|issue=11|pages=5912–5926|doi=10.1093/nar/gkt268|issn=0305-1048|pmc=3675483|pmid=23595147}}</ref> Schmallenberg, Hazara,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Surtees|first=Rebecca|last2=Ariza|first2=Antonio|last3=Punch|first3=Emma K.|last4=Trinh|first4=Chi H.|last5=Dowall|first5=Stuart D.|last6=Hewson|first6=Roger|last7=Hiscox|first7=Julian A.|last8=Barr|first8=John N.|last9=Edwards|first9=Thomas A.|date=2015-01-01|title=The crystal structure of the Hazara virus nucleocapsid protein|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12900-015-0051-3|journal=BMC Structural Biology|volume=15|pages=24|doi=10.1186/s12900-015-0051-3|issn=1472-6807|pmc=4696240|pmid=26715309}}</ref> muriang Kongo,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=Stephen D.|last2=Surtees|first2=Rebecca|last3=Walter|first3=Cheryl T.|last4=Ariza|first4=Antonio|last5=Bergeron|first5=Éric|last6=Nichol|first6=Stuart T.|last7=Hiscox|first7=Julian A.|last8=Edwards|first8=Thomas A.|last9=Barr|first9=John N.|date=2012-10-15|title=Structure, Function, and Evolution of the Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Nucleocapsid Protein|url=http://jvi.asm.org/content/86/20/10914|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=86|issue=20|pages=10914–10923|doi=10.1128/JVI.01555-12|issn=0022-538X|pmc=3457148|pmid=22875964}}</ref> jeunf Lassa. Téhnik anu penting keur nyarungsum struktur nukléoprotéin téh nyaéta difraksi sinar-x, résonansi magnét nuklir, jeung [[mikroskop]] cryo-éléktron.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Qi|first=Xiaoxuan|last2=Lan|first2=Shuiyun|last3=Wang|first3=Wenjian|last4=Schelde|first4=Lisa McLay|last5=Dong|first5=Haohao|last6=Wallat|first6=Gregor D.|last7=Ly|first7=Hinh|last8=Liang|first8=Yuying|last9=Dong|first9=Changjiang|title=Cap binding and immune evasion revealed by Lassa nucleoprotein structure|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09605|journal=Nature|volume=468|issue=7325|pages=779–783|doi=10.1038/nature09605|pmc=3057469|pmid=21085117}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Biologi]] hw93hdvs0x26abh3vau96cnx9lop5up 0 102098 711589 707753 2026-08-06T23:44:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711589 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin}} {{Infobox ship image |Ship image= File:Japanese_destroyer_Tanikaze_at_anchor_in_April_1941.jpg |Ship caption= Kapal ''Tanikaze'' taun 1941 }} {{Infobox ship career |Hide header= |Ship country= [[Kakaisaran Jepang]] |Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Japan|naval}} |Ship name= ''Tanikaze'' |Ship namesake= |Ship ordered= |Ship builder= [[Galangan Kapal Fujinagata]] |Ship laid down= 18 Oktober 1939 |Ship launched= 1 Novémber 1940 |Ship completed= 25 April 1941 |Ship commissioned= 25 April 1941 |Ship decommissioned= |Ship in service= |Ship out of service= |Ship struck= 10 Agustus 1944 |Ship reinstated= |Ship homeport= |Ship motto= |Ship nickname= |Ship honours= |Ship fate= Tilelep dina 24 Nopémber 1942 |Ship status= |Ship notes= }} {{Infobox ship characteristics |Hide header= |Header caption= |Ship class= {{sclass-|Kagerō|Kapal pangancur}} |Ship displacement= {{convert|2033|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} (standar) |Ship length= {{convert|118,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship beam= {{convert|10,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship draft= {{convert|3,8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} |Ship propulsion=*3 × Panggolak Kampon *2 × Turbin Kampon *2 × Aci |Ship power={{convert|52000|shp|MW|0|abbr=on}} |Ship speed= {{convert|35,5|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship range={{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|lk=in}} |Ship complement=239 kru |Ship sensors= |Ship EW= |Ship armament=*(1939) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *2 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero *2 × Paravan *(1943) *6 × Meriam tujuan ganda Tipe 3 kaliber 12,7 cm/50 *8 × Senapan anti-pesawat Tipe 96 kaliber 25 mm *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|610|mm|0|abbr=on}} *18 x Bom jero |Ship armor= |Ship notes= }} |} {{nihongo|'''''Tanikaze'''''|谷風|Angin lebak}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson| first = Andrew N. | year = 1967 | title = Japanese–English Character Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/modernreadersjap0000nels_z6z9| publisher = Tuttle | isbn = 0-8048-0408-7}}</ref> mangrupikeun [[kapal]] kasalapan tina 19 [[pangancur kelas Kagerō]] anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang di akhir taun 1930-an dina Program Maru San Keikaku. == Latar == Pangancur kelas Kagerō sacara lahiriah ampir identik sareng kelas Asashio samemehna, kalayan paningkatan anu dilakukeun ku arsiték angkatan sagara Jepang pikeun ningkatkeun stabilitas serta ngamangpaatkeun kalungguhan téknologi [[torpédo]] Jepang. Kapal-kapal kelas Kagerō dirarancang pikeun ngiringan kakuatan narajang utama Jepang dina siang jeung wengi ngalawan Angkatan Sagara Amérika Serikat nalika maju ngalangkungan [[Samudra Pasifik]], numutkeun proyéksi strategis angkatan sagara Jepang.<ref>{{cite book | last = Evans | first = David | year = 1979 | title = Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941 | publisher = US Naval Institute Press | isbn = 0-87021-192-7}}</ref> Sanaos mangrupikeun salah sahiji kelas kapal pangancur paling kuat di dunya nalika réngsé, ngan hiji anu salamet tina [[Perang Dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Globalsecurity.org| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/kagero-dd.htm| title = IJN Kagero class destroyers}}</ref> ''Tanikaze'' diwangun [[Galangan Kapal Fujinagata]] dina 18 Oktober 1939 jeung diluncurkeun dina 1 Novémber 1940. Kapal ieu ditugaskeun dina 25 April 1941<ref>{{cite web | url= http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | title= Kagero class 1st class destroyers | last= Nishidah | first= Hiroshi | year= 2002 | work= Materials of the Imperial Japanese Navy | access-date= 2011-06-14 | archive-url= https://archive.is/20120721073917/http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/stc0428.htm | archive-date= 2012-07-21 | url-status= dead }}</ref> sareng diparéntah ku Létnan Kolonél Kiichi Shintani<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/image_C13072080900?IS_KIND=detail&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD&IS_KEY_S1=C13072080900&|title=４月（４）|website=www.jacar.archives.go.jp|access-date=2019-05-23}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>. ==Karier== Salila Perang Dunya II, ''Tanikaze'' parantos kalibet dina perang/operasi ieu:<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/tanika_t.htm | title= IJN ''Tanikaze'': Tabular Record of Movement |author= Allyn D. Nevitt |year= 1998 |publisher= combinedfleet.com }}</ref> * [[Merangan Pearl Harbor]] * [[Perang Midway]] * [[Merangan Samudra Hindia]] * [[Perang Kapuloan Santa Cruz]] * [[Perang Sagara Guadalkanal]] Dina 24 Nopémber 1942, ''Tanikaze'' kakeunaan merangan torpédo ti {{USS|Harder|SS-257|6}}. Kapal éta tilelep di [[Terusan Sibutu]], caket [[Tawi-Tawi]] ({{coord|05|42|N|120|41|E}}) sareng korban pupus 114 orang, jeung 126 orang salamet. ''Tanikaze'' dikaluarkeun tina [[daptar angkatan sagara]] dina 10 Agustus 1944.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = David| year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two| publisher = Naval Institute Press| isbn = 1-55750-914-X}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daptar kapal Angkatan Sagara Kakaisaran Jepang]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == *{{en}} [http://www.combinedfleet.com/kagero_c.htm CombinedFleet.com: Kapal pangancur kelas ''Kagero''] {{kapal pangancur kelas Kagerō}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tanikaze}} [[Kategori:Kapal taun 1940]] mzzcf5iiqhr3o76v0q5obv3euq7or11 0 102103 711646 674597 2026-08-07T00:53:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711646 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Ingvar Kamprad (cropped).jpg|jmpl|Ingvar Kamprad nu ngadegkeun IKEA]] '''Feodor Ingvar Kamprad''' (<small>Swedia:</small> [ˈɪŋːvar ˈkamːprad] ; babar 30 Maret 1926 – pupus 27 Januari 2018 dina yuswa 91 taun) nyaéta pebisnis urang Swedia. Manéhna salaku nu ngadegkeun IKEA, parusahaan ritel furnitur multinasional. == Kahirupan mimiti == Kamprid dibabarkeun di Pjätteryd  (ayeuna bagéan tina [[Kotamadya Älmhult]]), [[län Kronobergs]], di [[Småland]], [[Swédia|Swedia]]. Bapana nyaéta Frans Feodor Kamprad, nu babar di Jerman jeung datang ka Swédia dina yuswa sataun. Sedengkeun indungna nyaéta Berta Linnéa Matilda Nilsson. Aki ti bapana, Erdman Achim Kamprad, kawit ti [[Thuringen]], sedengkeun indungna, Franzisca Glatz, babar di [[Bohemia]]. Marga Kamprad nyaéta varian “Kamerad” nu geus aya ti abad ka-15. Indung Achim Kamprad nyaéta dulurna ti [[Paul von Hindenburg]]. Achim meuli pertanian Elmtaryd (éjaan standar: ''Älmtaryd'') di deukeut désa leutik [[Agunnaryd]] (ayeuna bagéan tina [[Kotamadya Ljungby]]) di provinsi [[Smaland]]. Manéhna bunuh diri sababaraha taun sanggeus Frans Feodor babar tuluy ngawariskeun pertanianna ka Franzisca, tuluy Franz Feodor. Ingvar Kamprad cicing di ieu pertanian bareng jeung kolotna, lanceukna, jeung ninina, ti yuswa 6 taun.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ingvar Kamprad och hans IKEA: En svensk saga|last=Sjöberg|first=Thomas|publisher=Wahlström & Widstrand|year=2015|url=https://books.google.no/books?id=MKYCCgAAQBAJ}}</ref> == Karir == Kamprad mulai bisnis ti ngora kénéh. Manéhna mulai ngajual korek api ti umur 9 taun. Dina umur tujuh taun, manéhna mulai dagang ka tatangga-tatanggana make sapédah. Manéhna apal yén korek api bisa dibeuli sacara grosis jeung murah di [[Stockholm]], tuluy ngajual hiji-hijina make harga nu murah jeung masih bisa nyokot kauntungan. Ti dinya, manéhna mulai dagang lauk, dékorasi tangkal Natal, binih, pulpen, jeung patlot. Nalika Kamprad nincak umur 17 taun, bapana méré hadiah duit lantaran Kamprad geus ngabéréskeun sakolana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebalancesmb.com/ikea-founder-ingvar-kamprad-entrepreneur-profile-1200461|title=Entrepreneurs You Should Know: Ingvar Kamprad of IKEA|last=books|first=Full Bio Follow Linkedin Follow Twitter Scott Allen is a former writer for The Balance SMB He is the co-author of two online business|last2=Allen|first2=is considered a social innovation architect Read The Balance's editorial policies Scott|website=The Balance Small Business|language=en|accessdate=2021-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421044849/https://www.thebalancesmb.com/ikea-founder-ingvar-kamprad-entrepreneur-profile-1200461 |date=2021-04-21 }}</ref> IKEA diadegkeun taun 1943 jeung ngajual sababaraha replica méja dapur meunang emangna, Ernst.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/03/house-perfect|title=House Perfect|last=Collins|first=Lauren|website=The New Yorker|language=en-us|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref> Dina taun 1948, Kamprad ngalegaan portofoliona dina industri furnitur.<ref name=":0" /> Manéhna ngaproduksi barang saluyu jeung pesenan. Akronim IKEA diwangun ku inisial ngaranna ('''I'''ngvar '''K'''amprad), ngaran pertanian kulawarga tempat dibabarkeun ('''E'''lmtaryd), jeung désa sabudeureunna ('''A'''agunnaryd).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sweden.se/business/ingvar-kamprad-founder-of-ikea/|title=Founder of IKEA, Ingvar Kamprad - The Real Story|website=sweden.se|language=en-GB|accessdate=2021-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124120719/https://sweden.se/business/ingvar-kamprad-founder-of-ikea/ |date=2020-11-24 }}</ref> Dina sasih Juni 2013, Kamprad mundur ti déwan diréksi Inter IKEA Holding SA. Anak bungsuna, Mathias Kamprad, ngagantikeun Per Ludvigsson salaku pupuhu parusahaan induk. Sanggeus kaputusanna, Kamprad ngajéntrékeun, “Kuring ngarasa ieu waktu nu pas pikeun kaluar ti déwan direksi Inter IKEA Grup. Ieu ogé mangrupa léngkah salajengna dina raraga regenerasi nu geus lumangsung sababaraha taun katukang.” Mathias jeung dua lanceukna ogé jadi pupuhu pimpinan IKEA dina ngarancang visi jeung stratégi jangka panjang parusahaan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/91159/ikeas-new-chairman-likes-pax-wardrobes-and-thats-about-all-we-know/|title=IKEA’s new chairman likes PAX wardrobes, and that’s about all we know|last=Chon|first=Gina|website=Quartz|language=en|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref> == Kahirupan pribadi == Kamprad jeung istri kahijina, Kerstin Wadling, ngadopsi hiji budak awéwé, Annika.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sweden.se/business/ingvar-kamprad-founder-of-ikea/|title=Founder of IKEA, Ingvar Kamprad - The Real Story|website=sweden.se|language=en-GB|accessdate=2021-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124120719/https://sweden.se/business/ingvar-kamprad-founder-of-ikea/ |date=2020-11-24 }}</ref> Dina taun 1960-an, Kamprad nikah jeung istri kaduana, Margaretha Kamprad-Stennert (1940-2011), nu geus dipikawanoh ti Stennert umurna 20 taun.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thelocal.se/20111213/37904|website=www.thelocal.se|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref> Maranéhna boga tilu budak: Peter, Jonas, jeung Mathias.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aftonbladet.se/a/7lm5P4|title=Ingvar Kamprad i stor sorg|website=Aftonbladet|language=sv|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelocal.se/20111213/37904/|website=www.thelocal.se|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref> Manéhna cicing di [[Épalinges]], [[Suis|Swiss]], dina taun 1976 nepi ka 2014. Kamprad balik ka Småland, Swédia, dina Maret 2014 sanggeus 40 taun cicing di luar negri.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.expressen.se/nyheter/ingvar-kamprad-flyttar-hem-till-sverige-igen/|title=Ingvar Kamprad flyttar hem till Sverige igen|website=www.expressen.se|language=sv|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelocal.se/20140320/ikea-founder-moves-back-to-sweden-after-40-years/|website=www.thelocal.se|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref> Nalika gawé jeung produsén furniture di Polandia dina awal karirna, Kamprad mulai ngalaman alkoholisme. Dina taun 2004, manéhna ngaku yén konsumsi inuman kerasna geus teu parah siga baheula.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theage.com.au/world/it-started-in-a-shed-20040715-gdy9eb.html|title=It started in a shed|website=The Age|language=en|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref> Dina wawancara jeung TSR, saluran TV Swiss basa Prancis, Kamprad ''mengenderai'' Volvo 240 taun 1993, ngan ngapung di kelas ékonomi, jeung ménta karyawan IKEA ngagunakaeun kertas bulak-balik. Manéhna dikabarkeun make hiji kantong téh tuluy-tumuluy jeung sok mawa balik sasét uyah jeung lada ti réstoran.<ref name=":0" /> Kamprad sok ka IKEA sangkan bisa dahar murah. Manéhna sok meuli kertas kado jeung kado Natal dina usum dagang sanggeus Natal. Parusahaan nu diadegkeunna nepi ka ayeuna masih telik merhatikeun ''pengeluaran'', ''perincian'' operasional, jeung mekarkeun ''produk berkelanjutan'' nepi ka hargana bisa diteken kurang leuwih 2-3% ti taun 2000 nepi ka 2010 sabari muka cabang-cabang anyar. Kamprad ngajéntrékeun pamikiran sosialna dina buku ''Testament of a Furniture Dealer'': "Urang nyingkahan hotel-hotel mewah ngan saukur pedah alesan biaya. Urang teu butuh mobil  mewah, gelar nu luhur, saragam, atawa simbol status lianna. Urang gumantung kana kamampuh jeung tekad tekad!".<ref name=":0" /> Kamprad boga hij villa di Swiss, puri padésaan gedé di Swédia, jeung ladang anggur di Provence, Pérancis. Kamprad ogé pernah boga Porsche salila sababaraha taun. Kamprad nunjuk budakna salaku pewaris tunggal hij parusahaan nu ngaranna Ikano Group, nu nyekelan saham minoritas di IKEA nu jumlahnaUS$1,5 miliar. Anak adopsinaa, Annika, bakal narima kurang leuwih $300.000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nordstjernan.com/news/sweden/3720/|title=Sweden - Nordstjernan|website=www.nordstjernan.com|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref> == Karya == Sanajakan dipikawanoh salaku tokoh nu tertutup, Kamprad medalkeun sababaraha buku. Manéhna mimiti ngajelaskeun sipatna nu hemat jeung sederhana dina manifesto kalayan judul ''A Testament of a Furniture Dealer'' taun 1976.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,336379,00.html|title=The gospel according to Ikea {{!}} The Guardian {{!}} guardian.co.uk|website=www.theguardian.com|accessdate=2021-04-21}}</ref> Kamprad ogé gawé bareng jeung wartawan Swédia, Bertil Torekull, nulis buku ''Leading by Design: The IKEA Story''. Dina buku otobiografina, Kamprad ngajelaskeun pamikiranna jeung usahana nalika ngadegkeun IKEA.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Leading By Design: The IKEA Story Harper Collins|url=https://archive.org/details/leadingbydesigni0000tore|last=Kamprad, Ingvar|first=and Torekull, Bertil|year=Sept.1, 1999|isbn=978-0-06-662038-1}}</ref> == Daptar Rujukan == 4v1o7brp1g8dqnhnrdgqrd40eksspce 0 102121 711867 625530 2026-08-07T08:59:09Z Asyx021 37213 711867 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Acute-bronchitis.jpg|jmpl|Skéma bronkitis akut.]] [[Gambar:Human coronavirus 229E.png|jmpl|Virus bronkitis.]] '''Bronkitis''' nyaéta [[radang]] dina saluran [[hawa]] atawa saluran [[bronkus]]. Bronkus mangrupa saluran anu patali jeung [[bayah]] beulah kénca. Ieu bagian saluran [[napas]] anu bentukna jiga ngarancabang nepi ka disebut cabang [[tikoro]]. Waktu salurah hawa radang inféksi, hawa bisa asup jeung kaluar tina bayah jadi ngurangan. Waktu ngalaman radang bakal kabentuk lendir atawa [[reuhak]] kandel nepi ka [[batuk]] sabab terus narékahan terus ngaluarkeun tina [[baham]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://cerupon.web.id/apa-itu-bronkitis-adalah/|title=Bronkitis - Pengertian, Penyebab, Gejala, Pengobatan, dan Pencegahan|first=Sudrajat|website=Cerupon|publisher=07-08-2026|language=id-ID|accessdate=07-08-2026}}</ref> ==Wanda bronkitis== * [[Gambar:A doctor with a stethoscope rejecting the offer of a Wellcome L0042090.jpg|jmpl|Nyingreup haseup roko bisa jadi faktor keuna panyakit bronkitis.]]Bronkitis akut dipikawanoh ogé [[flu]] [[dada]] nyaéta radang atawa bareuh dina saluran [[nafas]] anu aya dina jero [[bayah]]. Ieu panyakit disebabkan [[virus]] anu sarua jeung influenza. Ieu kaayaan biasana cageur sorangan dina waktu saminggu atawa bisa jadi leuwih parna lamun teu diubaran. Gejalana batuk leungit sanggeus sababaraha minggu, ayana [[reuhak]] anu waranana [[bodas]], kulawu jeung [[konéng]] semu [[héjo]] jeung nafas pondok utamana waktu geus ngaluarkeun [[tanaga]].<ref name=":0" /> * Bronkitis kronis mangrupa panyakit anu gejalana batuk aya reuhakan. Ieu kondisi bisa kaalaman ampir unggal poé dina sabulan atawa tilu bulan dina sataun. Anu kakeunaan bronkitis kronis bisa ogé dibarengan ku panyakit [[emfisema]]. Lamun geus kakeunaan duanana mah panyakitna jadi [[paru obstruktif kronis]] (PPOK). Radang kronis mangrupa kaayaan jangka panjang sanajan bisa diubaran tapi can tangtu cageur deui cara bihari. Gejala bronkitis kronis nyaéta loba reuhak dina jero tikoro anu matak ngaganggu, warna reuhakna bisa hérang, bodas, konéng, kulawu atawa semu héjo, hésé nafas sabab saluran [[hawa]] katutup ku reuhak, pilek jeung batuk unggal poé anu ngabalukarkeun [[tatu]] dina bayah. Ieu bronkitis disababkeun ku nyingreup haseup [[roko]] lamun jadi nu ngaroko pasif jeung nyingreup haseup tina kagiatan [[industri]], [[polusi]] jeung prosés réaksi [[kimia]].<ref name=":0" /> ==Faktor== *Roko nyababkeun bronkitis ngaliwatan sistem nafas dina bayah. Sakali ngaroko aya opat rébu bahan [[kimia]] anu asup kana awak, misalna TAR, [[karbon monoksida]], [[nikotin]], [[arsenik]] jeung sajabana. Haseup roko anu asup ngaliwatan irung bakal nyababkeun bulu-bulu lemes teu bisa ngalangan [[zat]] anu bahaya asup kana awak. Salian éta, resiko kasingreupna [[haseup]] roko nyaéta rusakna [[silia]], lapisan [[pinding bronkus]] jeung ngabalukarkeun [[sinusitis]] kronis.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/hot/read/4437428/7-penyebab-bronkitis-gejala-pengobatan-dan-pencegahannya|title=7 Penyebab Bronkitis, Gejala, Pengobatan, dan Pencegahannya|last=Laudia|first=Tysara|website=Liputan 6.com|publisher=22-12-2020|language=id|accessdate=2021-04-24}}</ref> *Virus flu biasa bakal mangaruhan saluran pernapasan kaasup bronkus. Virus bronkitis anu sering keuna ka manusa nyaéta [[Rhinovirus]] jeung [[patogén]] anu nyababkeun flu. Bronkitis anu disababkeun ku virus bisa cageur kitu waé atawa dina waktu saminggu, utamana lamun anu kakeunanana miboga [[sistem]] [[imun]] anu kuat.<ref name=":1" /> *Baktéri, teu loba bronkitis anu disababkeun baktéri. Tapi sakalina beunang bakteri bisa keuna bronkitis akut. Obatna nyaéta [[antibiotik]] anu diinum luyu jeung aturan. Wanda bronkitis anu keuna ka barudak nyaéta [[mychoplasma pneumoniaé]]. Bronkitis alatan ku baktéri bisa kajadian tina kontak hawa jeung barang anu geus kakontaminasi.<ref name=":1" /> *Rhinitas alérgi, radang [[mémbran]] irung anu muncul alatan réaksi anu kaleuleuwihi tina sistem imun kana alergén (nu ngabalukarkeun alergi). Anu dimaksud alergén téh nyaéta [[kebul]], tetep, [[lukut]], jeung [[sél]] [[kulit] pangleutikntina awak [[sato]]. Prosés radang bayah anu kaalaman téh tangtu disababkeun ku loba teuing alergén anu asup kana awak ngaliwatan irung. Waktu karasa panyakit bronkitis, loba reuhak anu nyangkaruk dina saluran nafas.<ref name=":1" /> *Gangguan sistem imunitas, ieu kajadian bisa nyababkeun awak lemah utamana keur ngalawan inféksi anu asup kana awak. Lamun awak leuleus pasti bakal gampang gering boh sabab katépaan baktéri atawa virus.<ref name=":1" /> *GERD (asam lambung), bisa mangaruhan kana sistem pernapasan. [[Asam lambung]] anu asup kana bayah tuluy kana tikoro bisa nyababkeun [[iritasi]] anu nyababkeun reuhak pinuh ngahalangan dada.<ref name=":1" /> *Péptisida, zat anu bisa maéhan [[hama]] anu aya dina pepelakan di [[kebon]], [[huma]], [[sawah]] jeung tempat lianna. Péptisida téh eusina [[baruang]] anu kacida bahayana. Bentuk péptisida anu ngeprul lamun disemprotkeun téh bisa kasingreup ngaliwatan bayah. Balukar tina péptisida nyaéta [[pneumonitis]], baeuhna bayah jeung tilar dunya.<ref name=":1" /> = Rujukan = [[Kategori:Panyakit]] thxfaj8520oz7byf25do620okxki1kr 0 102158 711512 677749 2026-08-06T21:57:03Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711512 wikitext text/x-wiki {|{{Infobox ship begin }} {{Infobox ship image | Ship image = Indonesian submarine KRI Nanggala (402) underway in August 2015.JPG | Ship caption = KRI ''Nanggala'' di [[Sagara Jawa]], Agustus 2015. }} {{Infobox ship career | Hide header = | Ship name = KRI ''Nanggala'' | Ship namesake = Tumbak déwa [[Balarama|Prabhu Baladewa]] <!-- brief description in infobox --> | Ship flag = {{shipboxflag|Indonesia|navy}} | Ship country = [[Indonesia]] | Ship ordered = 2 April 1977<ref name=":8" /> | Ship builder = [[Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft]] | Ship original cost = | Ship yard number = | Ship way number = | Ship laid down = 14 Maret 1978 | Ship launched = 10 September 1980 | Ship completed = 6 Juli 1981 | Ship christened = | Ship acquired = | Ship commissioned = 21 Oktober 1981 | Ship maiden voyage = | Ship in service = | Ship out of service = 21 April 2021 | Ship stricken = 2021 | Ship identification = Nomer panji 402 | Ship fate = Tilelep iraha latihan, 21 April 2021. | Ship badge = [[File:KRI Nanggala badge.svg|150px]] <!-- credit to Seloloving for vectorization --> }} {{Infobox ship characteristics | Hide header = | Header caption = | Ship class = {{sclass-|Cakra|Kapal silem}} | Ship tonnage = | Ship displacement = *1.285 ton (apung) * 1.390 ton (silem) | Ship length = {{convert|59,5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} | Ship beam = {{convert|6,2|m|ftin|abbr=on}} | Ship height = | Ship draught = | Ship draft = {{convert|5,4|m|ftin|abbr=on}} | Ship depth = | Ship decks = | Ship deck clearance = | Ship ramps = | Ship ice class = | Ship sail plan = | Ship power = | Ship propulsion = *4 × Mesin diesel MTU 12V493 AZ80 GA31L batanaga {{convert|2400|hp|MW|abbr=on|lk=on|order=flip}}<ref name=jfs10p353/> * 4 × Alternator Siemens batanaga {{convert|1.7|MW|hp|abbr=on|lk=on|order=flip}} * 1 × Motor Siemens batanaga {{convert|4,600|hp|MW|abbr=on|lk=on|order=flip}} * 1 × aci baling-baling | Ship speed = * {{convert|11|kn}} (apung)<ref name="jfs10p353">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qsgqAQAAMAAJ&q=March+1978+Nanggala|title=Jane's Fighting Ships 2009–2010|publisher=Jane's Information Group|year=2009|isbn=9780710628886|editor-last1=Saunders|editor-first1=Stephen|pages=339|url-status=live}}</ref> * {{convert|25|kn}} (silem) | Ship range = {{convert|8200|nmi|abbr=on}} dina {{convert|8|kn|abbr=on}} | Ship endurance = 50 dinten<ref name=jfs10p353/> | Ship test depth = {{convert|240|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=jfs10p353/> | Ship capacity = | Ship complement = 50 unit, kaasup [[pasukan husus]]<ref name="jakartapost.refit">{{cite news |last1=Boediwardhana |first1=Wahyoe |title=RI submarines on par with neighbors after overhaul |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/02/06/ri-submarines-par-with-neighbors-after-overhaul.html |access-date=21 April 2021 |work=Jakarta Post |date=2 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511045258/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/02/06/ri-submarines-par-with-neighbors-after-overhaul.html |archive-date=11 May 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511045258/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/02/06/ri-submarines-par-with-neighbors-after-overhaul.html |date=11 May 2012 }}</ref> | Ship crew = 6 opsir, 28 anak buah<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/indonesian-navy-submarine-missing-in-bali-sea|date=21 April 2021|title=Indonesian Navy submarine missing in Bali Sea|author=Ridzwan Rahmat|work=Janes|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421104224/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/indonesian-navy-submarine-missing-in-bali-sea|url-status=live}}</ref> | Ship sensors = * Sistem kadali pakarang [[Thales Nederland|Signaal Sinbad]]<ref name=jfs10p353/> * Radar pilarian hareup Thomson-CSF Calypso, band I * Sonar pasif/aktif milarian jeung nyerang Atlas Elektronik CSU 3-2 * Sonar pasif PRS-3/4 | Ship EW = * ESM : Thomson-CSF DR2000U<ref name=jfs10p353/> * CMS : Kongsberg MSI-90U Mk 2<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.datareka.co.id/images/data/257141_998870_7067871.pdf|title=MSI-90U Mk 2 Combat Management System|publisher=Kongsberg|location=Norway|pages=6|access-date=23 April 2021|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501114051/http://datareka.co.id/images/data/257141_998870_7067871.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | Ship armament = *8 × Tuba torpédo {{convert|21|in|mm|abbr=on|0|order=flip}}<ref name=jfs10p353/> * 14 × [[SUT torpédo|Torpédo AEG SUT]] }} |} '''KRI ''Nanggala'' (402)''' (ogé katelah '''''Nanggala II''''') mangrupikeun salah sahiji [[kapal silem merang]] kelas Cakra anu diwangun pikeun Angkatan Sagara Indonésia.<ref name="kompasdata.new">{{cite news|date=5 February 1977|title=Dua kapal-selam baru untuk TNI-AL|language=id|work=Kompas|url=http://www.kompasdata.id/Search/NewsDetail/19242250|url-access=subscription|access-date=23 April 2021}} Excerpt of the newspaper could be seen in [https://www.kompas.id/baca/video/2021/04/22/empat-dekade-operasi-senyap-kri-nanggala here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423111018/https://www.kompas.id/baca/video/2021/04/22/empat-dekade-operasi-senyap-kri-nanggala |date=23 April 2021 }}at 00.47. (Video )</ref> Kapal éta dipesen dina 1977, diluncurkeun dina 1980, satuluyna ditugaskeun dina 1981.<ref name=":8">{{cite book|title=Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1947–1995|url=https://archive.org/details/conwaysallworlds0000unse_i1t7|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1995|isbn=1-55750-132-7|editor-last1=Gardiner|editor-first1=Robert|location=Annapolis, Maryland, US|pages=[https://archive.org/details/conwaysallworlds0000unse_i1t7/page/179 179]|editor-last2=Chumbley|editor-first2=Stephen|url-status=live}}</ref> Kapal silem ngalaksanakeun operasi ngumpulkeun intél di [[Samudra Hindia]] jeung sakitar [[Timor Lésté]]<ref name="navies">{{Cite book|last1=Till|first1=Geoffrey|url=http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/60512/1/216.pdf.pdf|title=Naval Modernisation in Southeast Asia: Submarine Issues for Small and Medium Navies|last2=Lean|first2=Collin Koh Swee|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-86396-2|series=2|pages=64, 138|access-date=23 April 2021|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423013338/http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/60512/1/216.pdf.pdf|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423013338/http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/60512/1/216.pdf.pdf |date=23 April 2021 }}</ref> jeung [[Kalimantan Kalér]]{{cn}}. ''Nanggala'' mangrupikeun pamilon ti [[Cooperation Afloat Readiness and Training]].<ref name="carat.2015">{{Cite web|date=8 August 2015|title=KRI NANGGALA, JAVA SEA|url=http://www.dvidshub.net/image/2117615/carat-indonesia|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-22|website=DVIDS|language=en|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423013338/https://www.dvidshub.net/image/2117615/carat-indonesia}}</ref> Kapal éta ngalaman ngaropea masif dina [[2012]] dilakukeun ku [[DSME|Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=대우조선해양|date=2012-01-20|title=대우조선해양, 인도네시아 잠수함 성능개량사업 완료|url=http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no=598586|access-date=2021-04-22|website=대우조선해양, 인도네시아 잠수함 성능개량사업 완료 – 뉴스와이어|language=ko|archive-date=22 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522133401/http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no=598586|url-status=live}}</ref> Dina bulan April 2021, ''Nanggala'' tilelep di [[Sagara Bali]]<ref name="reuters.search">{{Cite web|date=21 April 2021|title=Indonesian navy checking on submarine after failure to report back from exercise|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/indonesian-navy-checking-submarine-after-failure-report-back-exercise-2021-04-21/|url-status=live|access-date=21 April 2021|website=[[Reuters]]|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421093435/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/indonesian-navy-checking-submarine-after-failure-report-back-exercise-2021-04-21/}}<!-- note: source states spokesperson announces failure to report results but does not identify spokesperson --></ref> sareng 53 personil kapal tiwas<ref name="NanggalaFound">{{Cite web|title=Indonesian searchers recover debris from missing submarine|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/25/indonesia-authorities-say-53-submarine-crew-are-dead|access-date=2021-04-25|language=en|author=Al Jazeera}}</ref>. Samemehna, kapal éta diperkirakeun ngaleungit {{convert|300|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=in}} wétaneun [[Surabaya]].<ref name="kompas">{{Cite web|last1=Pattisina|first1=Edna C|last2=Puttranto|first2=Angger|date=21 April 2021|title=Kapal Selam KRI Nanggala-402 Hilang di Utara Bali|url=https://www.kompas.id/baca/polhuk/2021/04/21/kapal-selam-kri-nanggala-402-hilang/|url-status=live|access-date=21 April 2021|website=kompas.id|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421095225/https://www.kompas.id/baca/polhuk/2021/04/21/kapal-selam-kri-nanggala-402-hilang}}</ref> == Nami == Kapal silem dingaranan ''Nanggala'', [[tumbak]] pondok déwa anu kaboga ku [[Baladéwa|Prabhu Baladewa]], déwa Hindu anu dina ''[[Mahabarata]]'' teuing tokoh dina ''[[Wayang|téater wayang]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hops.id/ternyata-kri-nanggala-402-mengandung-petir-dari-kekuatan-ilahi-baladewa/|title=Ternyata KRI Nanggala-402 mengandung petir dari kekuatan ilahi Baladewa dan bisa belah gunung|last=Wisesa|first=Yosafat Diva Bayu|website=Hops|language=id|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20210422123232/https://www.hops.id/ternyata-kri-nanggala-402-mengandung-petir-dari-kekuatan-ilahi-baladewa/|archivedate=22 April 2021|accessdate=2021-04-22}}</ref><ref name="roots">{{Cite web|url=https://www.roots.gov.sg/Collection-Landing/listing/1071743|title=Shadow puppet, Prabu Baladewa|website=www.roots.gov.sg|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20210422033118/https://www.roots.gov.sg/Collection-Landing/listing/1071743|archivedate=22 April 2021|accessdate=2021-04-22}}</ref> Legenda nyatakeun yén tumbak éta sanggup ngébréhkeun gunung jeung meulah sagara.<ref name="abc 2021-04-26">{{Cite news|last=Handley|first=Erin|last2=Renaldi|first2=Erwin|title=What we know about the sunken Indonesian submarine KRI Nanggala|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-26/explainer-what-we-know-indonesian-submarine-kri-nanggala/100095806|access-date=27 April 2021|work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=26 April 2021}}</ref> Pakarangna kagambar dina lencana kapal selam ''Nanggala''. Kapal éta ogé katelah ''Nanggala II'' dina raraga ngabédakeunana RI ''Nanggala'' (S-02), kapal silem kelas Whiskey anu sami namina.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|date=12 July 1981|title="Nanggala II" diserahkan|page=2|work=Kompas|url=http://www.kompasdata.id/Search/NewsDetail/19307535|access-date=21 April 2021}} Excerpt of the newspaper could be seen in [https://www.facebook.com/ayokeperpusnas/photos/a.380549651985428/5698651253508548 here].</ref> ==Komandan== * Létnan Kolonél Armand Aksyah (6 Juli 1981{{en dash}}?)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gunawan|first=Deden|title=Kisah Dua Misi Nanggala Bikin Gentar Australia – Filipina|url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-5546307/kisah-dua-misi-nanggala-bikin-gentar-australia---filipina|access-date=2021-04-26|website=detiknews|language=id-ID}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426010519/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-5546307/kisah-dua-misi-nanggala-bikin-gentar-australia---filipina |date=2021-04-26 }}</ref> *Létnan Kolonél Antonius Soebiyarto<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123">Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft GmbH (Hrsg.): ''Silent Fleet'' 5. Edition, Howaltswerke Deutsche Werft AG Kiel und Yacht-Photo-Service YPS, Hamburg 2011, S. 123.</ref> *Létnan Kolonél Djoko Poernomo<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Létnan Kolonél Sardjun Nurkamal<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Létnan Kolonél Marisi Panggabean<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Létnan Kolonél Slamet Soebandi<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Létnan Kolonél Didi Setiadi<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Létnan Kolonél Sulaiman Banjarnahor<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Létnan Kolonél Rudwin Thalib<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Létnan Kolonél Dedy Yulianto *Mayor Tunggul Suropati<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Létnan Kolonél Muhammad (2004{{en dash}}2006<ref>{{Cite web|title=Laksma TNI Muhammad Ali, S.E., M.M., Gubernur AAL Yang Baru|url=https://tni.mil.id/view-139288-laksma-tni-muhammad-ali-se-mm-gubernur-aal-yang-baru.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-22|website=Tentara Nasional Indonesia|language=id|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422112456/https://tni.mil.id/view-139288-laksma-tni-muhammad-ali-se-mm-gubernur-aal-yang-baru.html}}</ref>) *Létnan Kolonél Jefry Sangel<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> *Mayor Purwanto<ref name="Silent Fleet, S. 123" /> * Mayor Wirawan Ady Prasetya (2013{{snd}}16 Méi 2014<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=19 Méi 2014|title=Jabatan Komandan KRI Nanggala-402 Diserahterimakan|url=https://tni.mil.id/view-61587-jabatan-komandan-kri-nanggala-402-diserahterimakan.html|website=Tentara Nasional Indonesia|language=id|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422112458/https://tni.mil.id/view-61587-jabatan-komandan-kri-nanggala-402-diserahterimakan.html|url-status=live}}</ref>) * Mayor [[Harry Setyawan]] (16 Méi 2014<ref name=":0" />{{snd}}8 Désémber 2015<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Dua Kapal Selam TNI AL Berganti Komandan|url=https://tni.mil.id/view-88354-dua-kapal-selam-tni-al-berganti-komandan.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421123442/https://tni.mil.id/view-88354-dua-kapal-selam-tni-al-berganti-komandan.html|archive-date=21 April 2021|access-date=21 April 2021|website=Tentara Nasional Indonesia|language=id}}</ref>) * Létnan Kolonél Widya Poerwandanu (8 Désémber 2015<ref name=":1" />{{snd}}29 Séptémber 2016<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=29 Séptémber 2016|title=Komandan Kapal Selam Jajaran Koarmatim Berganti Tugas|url=https://www.tni.mil.id/view-103129-komandan-kapal-selam-jajaran-koarmatim-berganti-tugas.html|website=Tentara Nasional Indonesia|language=id|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422112511/https://www.tni.mil.id/view-103129-komandan-kapal-selam-jajaran-koarmatim-berganti-tugas.html|url-status=live}}</ref>) * Létnan Kolonél Ahmad Noer Taufik (29 Séptémber 2016<ref name=":2" />{{snd}}2 Désémber 2016<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Jabatan Komandan KRI Nanggala-402 Diserahterimakan|url=https://tni.mil.id/view-61587-jabatan-komandan-kri-nanggala-402-diserahterimakan.html|website=Tentara Nasional Indonesia|language=en|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422112501/https://tni.mil.id/view-61587-jabatan-komandan-kri-nanggala-402-diserahterimakan.html|url-status=live}}</ref>) * Létnan Kolonél Yulius Azz Zaenal (2 Désémber 2016<ref name=":3" />{{snd}}20 Pébruari 2019<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Sertijab Komandan KRI Nanggala-402|url=https://jatim.antaranews.com/foto/278163/sertijab-komandan-kri-nanggala-402|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421123443/https://jatim.antaranews.com/foto/278163/sertijab-komandan-kri-nanggala-402|archive-date=21 April 2021|access-date=21 April 2021|website=Antara News}}</ref>) * Létnan Kolonél Ansori (20 Pébruari 2019<ref name=":4" />{{snd}}3 April 2020<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=3 April 2020|title=Tongkat Komando Komandan Sekolah Awak Kapal Selam Beralih|url=https://tni.mil.id/view-174708-tongkat-komando-komandan-sekolah-awak-kapal-selam-beralih.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-21|website=Tentara Nasional Indonesia|language=id|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422112501/https://tni.mil.id/view-174708-tongkat-komando-komandan-sekolah-awak-kapal-selam-beralih.html}}</ref>) * Létnan Kolonél Heri Oktavian (3 April 2020<ref name=":5" />{{snd}}24 April 2021)<ref name="nytimes.debris">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/24/world/asia/indonesia-submarine-missing.html#:~:text=The%20Nanggala%20was%20built%20to,certainly%20fracture%20from%20the%20pressure. |title=Debris From Indonesian Submarine Is Found, Ending Hopes of Rescue |first1=Hannah |last1=Beech |first2=Muktita |last2=Suhartono |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=24 April 2021 |access-date=24 April 2021 |archive-date=24 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424091915/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/24/world/asia/indonesia-submarine-missing.html#:~:text=The%20Nanggala%20was%20built%20to,certainly%20fracture%20from%20the%20pressure. |url-status=live }}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Musibah kapal silem Kursk]] * [[Kaleungitan kapal ARA San Juan]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} [[category:KRI]] [[category:Kapal taun 1980]] 5ttunnw7kuj9e4lt6votnc3c1jmae5g 0 102317 711838 706868 2026-08-07T05:35:02Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711838 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Genus of fungi}} {{Short description|Marga supa (fungi)}} {{Taxobox | name = Trametes | image = Trametes gibbosa JPG1.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Trametes gibbosa]]'' | regnum = [[Fungi]] | phylum = [[Basidiomycota]] | classis = [[Agaricomycetes]] | ordo = [[Polyporales]] | familia = [[Polyporaceae]] | genus = '''Trametes''' | authority = [[Elias Magnus Fries|Fr.]] (1836) | type_species = ''[[Trametes suaveolens]]'' | type_species_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) Fr. (1838) | synonyms = {{collapsible list|title=<small>Sinonim spésiés</small><ref name="Fungorum"> Index Fungorum. [http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=18664 Synonymy: Trametes].</ref> |''Cellularia'' <small>[[Bull.]] (1788)</small> |''Favolus'' <small>[[P.Beauv.]] (1805)</small> |''Pherima'' <small>[[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Raf.]] (1819)</small> |''Phorima'' <small>[[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Raf.]] (1830)</small> |''Polyporus'' trib. ''Scenidium'' <small>[[Klotzsch]] (1832)</small> |''Hexagonia'' <small>Fr. (1836)</small> |''Hansenia'' <small>[[P.Karst.]] (1879)</small> |''Coriolus'' <small>[[Lucien Quélet|Quél.]] (1886)</small> |''Sclerodepsis'' <small>[[Mordecai Cubitt Cooke|Cooke]] (1890)</small> |''Scenidium'' <small>Klotzsch ex [[Otto Kuntze|Kuntze]] (1898)</small> |''Pogonomyces'' <small>[[William Alphonso Murrill|Murrill]] (1904)</small> |''Cubamyces'' <small>Murrill (1905)</small> |''Artolenzites'' <small>[[Richard Falck|Falck]] (1909)</small> |''Pseudotrametes'' <small>Bondartsev & [[Rolf Singer|Singer]] (1941)</small> |''Pseudotrametes'' <small>Bondartsev & Singer (1944)</small> |''Tomentoporus'' <small>[[Leif Ryvarden|Ryvarden]] (1973)</small> }} }} '''''Supa odeng'''''; ''Trametes''; nyaéta hiji supa anu asalna tina kulawarga ''Polyporaceae'', supa tina [[genus]] ieu mibanda wujud anu béda pisan jeung supa anu séjén. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =15|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 1 Juni 2021}}</ref> Tangkalna/''[[pileus]]'' wujudna némprak kawas [[kipas]]. <ref>Ryvarden L. (1991). "Genera of polypores: Nomenclature and taxonomy." ''Syn. Fung.'' '''5''': 1–363.</ref> Supa ieu mibanda kurang leuwih lima puluh spésiés .<ref name=Kirk2008>{{cite book |vauthors=Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA |title=Dictionary of the Fungi |url=https://archive.org/details/ainsworthbisbysd0000unse_r4s9 |edition=10th |publisher=CAB International |location=Wallingford, UK |year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/ainsworthbisbysd0000unse_r4s9/page/695 695]|isbn=978-0-85199-826-8}}</ref> Anu diguar ku [[Elias Magnus Fries]] dina taun 1836. ''Supa odéng'' mangrupikeun kadaharan tina rupi-rupi hileud utamina [[Lepidoptera]], kana spésiés supa [[odéng]] ''[[Triaxomera parasitella]]''. ==Biotéhnologi== Sababaraha spésiés tina ''Trametes'' parantos ditalungtik pikeun aplikasi biotéhnologi na ''[[lignin]]-degrading enzymes (particularly [[laccase]]'' katut [[manganese peroxidase]]) pikeun mikanyaho kagunaan sarta pamangpaatan, dina widang industri atanapi lingkungan.<ref name="Nyanhongo 2007"/> ==spésiés anu geus ditalungtik == {{main|List of Trametes species}} *''[[Trametes gibbosa]]'' – ''Lumpy bracke''t *''[[Trametes hirsuta]]'' – ''Hairy bracket'' *''[[Trametes nivosa]]'' *''[[Trametes pubescens]]'' *''[[Trametes versicolor]]'' – ''Turkey tail'' ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="Fungorum Synonymy: Trametes">{{cite web |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=18663 |title=''Trametes'' Fr. |publisher=Species Fungorum |accessdate=2018-07-02}}</ref> <ref name="Nyanhongo 2007">{{cite journal |author1=Nyanhongo, Gibson F. |author2=Gübitz, Georg |author3=Sukyai, Prakit |author4=Leitner, Christian |author5=Haltrich, Dietmer |author6=Ludwig, Roland |year=2007 |title=Oxidoreductases from ''Trametes'' spp. in biotechnology: A wealth of catalytic activity |journal=Food Technology and Biotechnology |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=250–268 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27208092}}</ref> }} ==Baca ogé == *Zmitrovich I.V., Malysheva V.F. (2013). Towards a phylogeny of ''Trametes'' alliance (Basidiomycota, Polyporales). Mikologiya i fitopatologiya. Vol. 47, N 6. P. 358–380 (http://media.wix.com/ugd/b65817_d1162add57d74fe08e46f728018208ac.pdf). {{Commons category|Trametes}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q1860689}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori :Polyporaceae]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori :Supa]] r3ohyiurr4jt1kl8s681q9fatp3z0fn 0 102321 711535 705523 2026-08-06T22:34:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711535 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Species of fungus}} {{Taxobox | image = 2012-09-28 Lentinus sajor-caju (Fr.) Fr 266517.jpg | image_width =250px | image_caption = Supa liyat | regnum = [[Fungi]] | divisio = [[Basidiomycota]] | classis = [[Agaricomycetes]] | ordo = [[Polyporales]] | familia = [[Polyporaceae]] | genus = ''[[Lentinus]]'' | species = '''''L. sajor-caju''''' | binomial = ''Lentinus sajor-caju'' | binomial_authority = ([[Elias Magnus Fries|Fr.]]) Fr. (1838) }} '''''Supa liyat''''' ; ''Lentinus sajor-caju''; (disebut ogé ''Pleurotus sajor-caju'') nyaéta hiji supa anu asalna tina kulawarga ''[[Polyporaceae]] ''. Ieu supa salah sahiji spésiés supa [[saprophytic]] .<ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =9|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/9/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 25 Mei 2021}}</ref> ==Ngaran séjén == Supa liyat sok disebut ogé ''sayor kayu'', ''sayor puih'' (Basa Indonésia), dina sababaraha daérah disebut ogé: * ''Cindawan tui'' ([[Minangkabau]]) * ''Kulat kurang'' ([[Dayak]]) * ''Supa kawung, supa catang'' ([[Sunda]]) * ''Keho lolade'' (Ternaté) * ''Titi mangunu'' ([[Halmahéra]])<ref name="Ubar">{{Cite book|title =Jamur Berkhasiat Obat| last= | first= Jaelani| coauthors =Indriati Poetri| year= 2008|page=52|location=Banda Aceh| publisher=Pustaka Obor| isbn=9789794617007|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Buku_Saku_Jamur_Taman_Hutan_Raya_Pocut_M/SNQvEAAAQBAJ?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=Lentinus+sajor-caju&pg=PA196&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> [[Gambar:Het nang fah เห็ดนางฟ้า.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Lentinus sajor-caju]] ==Ciri mandiri== Tangkalna ngawujud [[corong]] buleudanna 3-7 cm, kelirna bodas/gumading nepika [[coklat]] pias. Palebah tungtuna melengkung ka luar, tékstur dagingna garing [[jarami]]na kasar. Asang/''Lamellae'' ''L. sajor-cau'' perenahna aya di handap katempo rapet ti mimiti tungtung tangkal nepika tungtung [[topi]]na/''pileus''. Supa liyat tangkalna katempo weweg, buleud tangkalna 3-5 cm henteu mibanda ''Volva'' (lamad/kulumud anu aya dina puhu tangkal palebah handap). Habitat ieu supa dina catang kai anu geus bobo, remen katempo hirupna gadapur (''berkelompok'').<ref name="liyat">{{Cite book|title =Buku Saku Jamur - Taman Hutan Raya Pocut Meurah Intan| last= Indra Kusuma| first= Hendrik| coauthors =Assy Harnelly, Zairin Thomy, M. Adriyan Fitra| year= 2021|page=196|location=Banda Aceh| publisher=Syah Kuala Unicersity press| isbn=9782831703282|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Buku_Saku_Jamur_Taman_Hutan_Raya_Pocut_M/SNQvEAAAQBAJ?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=Lentinus+sajor-caju&pg=PA196&printsec=frontcover}}</ref><ref name="stamets">{{cite book|last=Stamets|first=Paul|authorlink=Paul Stamets|title=Growing gourmet and medicinal mushrooms = [Shokuyo oyobi yakuyo kinoko no sabai]|url=https://archive.org/details/growinggourmetme0000stam|edition=3rd|year=2000|publisher=[[Ten Speed Press]]|location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley, California, USA]]|isbn=978-1-58008-175-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/growinggourmetme0000stam/page/316 316]– 320|chapter=Chapter 21: Growth Parameters for Gourmet and Medicinal Mushroom Species}}</ref> ==Kandungan kimia == Kandungan penting dina wujud protéin (19-35%) anu kadarna langkung luhur upami dibandingkeun sareng [[béas]] anu ngan mibanda protéin (7,38%), kitu deui jeung gandum anu mibanda (13,2). Dina supa liyat sahenteuna mibanda asam amino ésénsial tina 20 asam amino anu dipikawanoh. Aya ogé ''lemak tak jenuh''. Suung ieu ogé mibanda sababaraha jinis [[vitamin]], sapertos ''tiamin'' (I. riboflavin (miacin (B sareng biotinamur) ogé ngagaduhan sababaraha ''mikroélemen'', kalebet [[kalium]], [[fosfor]], [[kalsium]], [[natrium]], [[tambaga]].<ref name="Ubar1">{{Cite book|title =Biologi Interaktif| last= Setiowati| first= Tetti| coauthors =Deswati Furqonita| year= 2007|page=74|location=Perpustakaan nasional| publisher=Jakarta Azka Press| isbn=|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/BIOLOGI_Interaktif_Kls_X_IPA/YeYAR_CL8aYC?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=jamur+payung&pg=PA74&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> ==Hasiat jeung mangpaat== Naon anu nguntungkeun pisan pikeun dunya ubar nyaéta supa ieu ngandung bahan aktif anu disebut ''lantinan''. Bahan aktif ieu mangrupikeun polisakarida leyur dina cai, diwangun dina wujud B-1.3 glukan kalayan B-1.6 sareng 8-1.3 glukoprenosida. Dina hasil tés bahan aktif tina ieu supa, yén eusi lentinan ieu seuseueurna dipendakan dina caket tiungna.<ref name="Ubar1"/> Dina ieu supa mibanda gizi anu tiasa dijantenkeun sumber pangan anu séhat sareng ubar. Dr. Alfred Hayes, tilas konsultan di FAO kantos nyatakeun, supa baliwa shiitake ngandung protéin. Ieu supa ogé loba mibands kalsium, kalium, sareng fosfor. <ref name="Ubar1"/> Ngubaran Kanker Kolon Bahan aktif lentinan anu aya dina shiitake parantos kabuktosan épéktip dina nyegah kanker. K.W. Cochran ti Universitas Michigan, di 1974 sareng terbitan ngeunaan manpaat sareng khasiat hiitake salaku ubar pikeun tumor antikanker.<ref name="Ubar1"/> Khasiat supa shiitake salaku ubar pikeun kanker sareng tumor parantos dipikaterang ku National Center Institute, Tokyo. Amérika ogé Éropa. Dina hiji publikasi nyatakeun yén ekstrak supa shiitake ngagaduhan. <ref name="Ubar1"/> Kamampuan pikeun ngahambat tumuwuhna tumor antara 72% dugi ka 92%. Jepang sorangan mimiti ngahasilkeun produk ubar pikeun antikanker saprak 1985 ku bahan baku supa. Diantara ubar anu dihasilkeun nyaéta lentinan, anu ngagunakeun shiitake salaku bahan baku na. Lentinan efektif pisan pikeun nyegah tumuhna sél kanker, utamina pikeun kanker payudara. <ref name="Ubar1"/> Diabetes Mellitus Salaku panilitian anu dilakukeun di 1974, Dr. K.W. Cochran ti Universitas Michigan nyebarkeun ngeunaan khasiat sareng kagunaan shiitake dina nurunkeun kadar gula getih. Metabolisme vitamin B sareng asam folat penting pisan pikeun sintésis purin sareng pirimidin. anu dina hal ieu aya hubunganana sareng réaksi pikeun ngabentuk asam deoxyribonucleic (DNA). Kakurangan tina dua bahan ieu ngakibatkeun gangguan dina kematangan inti sareng cairan sél, utamina dina sél eritrosit. Asam amino anu aya dina supa shiitake seueur mangpaatna kanggo ngawangun organ sél anyar pikeun ngaganti sél anu ruksak. Sedengkeun kandungan [[fiber]]/serat dina ieu supa mangrupikeun bahan anu teu tiasa dicerna ku awak. Bahan ieu ngagaduhan peran anu penting pisan dina ngajaga kaséhatan awak. Utamina pikeun nyegah katerap [[kanker]] ''usus besar''. <ref name="Ubar1"/> ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|2}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q1611629}} [[Kategori:Supa]] [[Kategori:Polyporaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar]] [[Kategori:sayuran]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] {{Commons category|Lentinus sajor-caju}} 92ov1xri4rgv0mlahhtsyxgb92u0khv 0 102323 711758 708333 2026-08-07T03:32:05Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711758 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Paku cai | image = Ceratopteris thalictroides.JPG | image_width = 240px | image_caption = ''Ceratopteris thalictroides'', Dina taneuh garing | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Pteridophyta]] | classis = [[Pteridopsida]] | ordo = [[Polypodiales]] | familia = [[Pteridaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Ceratopteridoideae]] | genus = ''[[Ceratopteris]]'' | species = '''''C. thalictroides''''' | binomial=''Ceratopteris thalictroides'' | binomial_authority = ([[L.]]) [[Brongniart]] | synonym = Acrostichum siliquosum L. Belvisia siliquosa (L.) Mirb.) kkokkkkkmm= Ceratopteris deltoidea Benedict Ceratopteris siliquosa (L.) Copeland Pteris siliquosa (L.) P. Beauv. }} '''Paku cai'''; Paku rawa; (''Ceratopteris thalictroides'') nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan paku anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Pteridaceae]]. Ieu paku salah sahiji jinis anu bisa hirup di jero [[cai]] anapon di darat. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =15|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 1 Juni 2021}}</ref> Daun jeung tangkalna bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun ubar, paku ieu habitatna dina cai anu palidna ngeuyeumbeu tur hérang. Ieu paku sok disebut ogé paku roman jeung paku [[téspong]]. == Kagunaan == Paku ieu sagigireun bisa dituang, ogé mibanda hasiat pikeun [[ubar]]. Bisa ogé dimangpaatekun pikeun tutuwuhan hiasan di burusn atawa di jero akuarium. Spésiés ''Ceratopteris'', kalebet ''Ceratopteris thalictroides'', dipelak salaku hiasan di jero akuarium, anu kawentar disebut 'sprite cai'. ''Ceratopteris'' ''thalictroides'' sareng khususna ogé ''Ceratopteris richardii Brongn''. janten tutuwuhan modél dina biologi pamekaran sareng panalitian molekular. Éta gunana pikeun panilitian sabab ngagaduhan ''fase'' kahirupan bébas ''loid'' sareng ''diploid'', siklus hirup anu pondok, ''sistem genetik'' anu saderhana, sareng baranahan ku spora ''haploid'' sél ''gle''. Sipat [[Alkaloid]], ''arbutin'' sareng ''tannin'' parantos kapendak dina bagéan héjo ''Ceratop teris thalictroides''. Botani Akuatik atanapi semi - pakis [[cai]]. ==Ciri mandiri== Paku cai jangkung dugi ka 1 méter, ngambang atanapi akaran dina [[taneuh]], kalayan pondok, ajeg ''rhizome'' sareng ''rosette'' - sapertos buntelan daun. Daun ''dimorphous''; daun steril nganggo ''sukcu'' panjangna 5-50 cm, jarang ''scaly'' ku timbangan coklat lega, bulak, ngeusi saluran hawa, lamina tina daun steril 1-3 - pinnate, dugi ka 20 cm x 40 cm, mémbran, ''glabrous'', kalayan evi urat anastomosos dent, sering disayogikeun sareng kuncup adventitious dina axils pinnate, ngawujud tulang daun/''pinnae'' henteu rapih, ''lobus'' pamungkas ''linier''.<ref>{{ cite book | first1=Yoshitaka | last1=Tanaka | first2=Nguyen | last2=Van Ke | date=2007 | title=Edible Wild Plants of Vietnam: The Bountiful Garden | url=https://archive.org/details/ediblewildplants0000yosh | publisher=Thailand: Orchid Press | isbn=978-9745240896 | page=[https://archive.org/details/ediblewildplants0000yosh/page/108 108]}}</ref> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Tumbuhan air]] [[Kategori:Flora Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Pteridaceae]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan ubar]] [[Kategori:Pteridophyta]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Paku]] h1ol4um2ho045wkt9rq7x7sfy15vf24 0 102338 711809 706874 2026-08-07T04:49:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | image = Ziegenlippe Xerocomus subtomentosus.jpg | image_width = 234px | regnum = [[Fungi]] | divisio = [[Basidiomycota]] | classis = [[Agaricomycetes]] | ordo = [[Boletales]] | familia = [[Boletaceae]] | genus = ''[[Xerocomus]]'' | species = '''''X. subtomentosus''''' | binomial = ''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Quél.]] (1888) | synonyms = ''Boletus subtomentosus'' <small>L. (1753)</small><br> ''Boletus crassipes'' <small>Schaeff., 1774</small><br> ''Boletus cupreus'' <small>Schaeff.,1774</small><br> ''Leccinum subtomentosum'' <small>(L.) Gray, 1821</small><br> ''Boletus lanatus'' <small>Rostk., 1844</small><br> ''Boletus pannosus'' <small>Rostk., 1844</small><br> ''Boletus striipes'' <small>Fr., 1874</small><br> ''Boletus leguei'' <small>Boud., 1894</small> }} '''Supa haté'''; ''jamur ati''; ''Boletus subtomentosus'' nyaéta hiji supa anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Boletaceae]]. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =15|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 1 Juni 2021}}</ref> Dina basa [[Inggris]] dipiwanoh salaku ''suede bolete'', ''brown and yellow bolet'', ''boring brown bolete'' atawa ''yellow-cracked bolete'', tayalian spésiés tina [[bolete]]. Ieu supa mimiti diguar ku [[Carl Linnaeus]] taun 1753 ti harita dipiwanoh ngaranna salaku ''Boletus subtomentosus''. <ref name=guar/> Supa haté bisa dikonsumsi sabada diasakan heula saméméhna, sanajan kitu ieu supa henteu loba anu ngonsumsi kawas supa-supa anu séjén. <ref>{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Roger |title=Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsotherfu0000phil |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=Firefly Books |location=Buffalo, NY |isbn=978-1-55407-651-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsotherfu0000phil/page/254 254]}}</ref> Supa haté loba kapanggih hirup di sapanjang Eurasia, [[Amérika Kalér]] sareng [[Australia]] hirup dina [[catang]] kai sareng tatangkalan [[konifer]]. Éta ngabentuk ''[[simbiotik]]'' ''[[ectomycorrhiza]]'' pakait sareng tangkal hirup ku cara nutupan akar tangkal jero taneuh disimbutan ku jaringan ieu supa. Supa haté ngahasilkeun [[spora]] - tayalian tina [[tangkal|basidiocarp]]na. U kurang buleudan tutupna {{convert|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} diaméterna sareng gaduh kulit anu mandiri, katempo kawas ''velvety''/buludru. Sarua kawas ''boletes'' anu séjén, éta ngagaduhan tabung/tsngkal dugi ka handap tina handapeun tutup, mibanda ''[[lamella (mycology)|gills]]''/érang-érang; spora kabur nalika déwasa ngaliwatan pipah-pipah, atanapi ''pori-pori''. Permukaan liang na konéng sareng biru. [[Stipe (mycology) | stipe]], atanapi bobot, ukuran dugi ka 8&nbsp;cm (3&nbsp;in) kandelna {{convert|2|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}. [[Gambar:Boletus subtomentosus (?) (48647201067).jpg|kiri|jmpl|Supa hate]] ==Taxonomy== ''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' munggaran dijelaskeun dina 1753 ku bapak taksonomi [[Carl Linnaeus]] salaku ''Boletus subtomentosus''.<ref name=guar>{{cite book | author=Linnaeus C | title=Species Plantarum| publisher=Laurentii Salvii |location=Stockholm | year=1753|chapter= Tomus&nbsp;II | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/359193#page/620/mode/1up | page=1178|language=la}}</ref> Tanggal mimiti jamur [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] sakumaha parantos diatur January&nbsp;1, 1821, sareng tanggal karya ''bapak mikologi'', ''Naturalis'' [[Swédia]] [[Elias Magnus Fries]], anu hartosna nami éta kirang panuju ku Fries ''(indicated in the name by a colon)'' dianggap sah, salaku 'Linnaeus' didamel sateuacanna tanggal ieu. Sakitu diserat ''Boletus subtomentosus'' L.:Fr. Nanging, di robih deui dina taun 1987 tina ''[[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]]'' nyetél tanggal mimiti di May&nbsp;1, 1753, tanggal dikaluarkeun tina padamelan 'Linnaeus' , the ''[[Species Plantarum]]''.<ref name="Esser 1994"/> ku kituna éta henteu kedah ngarujuk/''meratifikasi'' deui otoritas Fries. Ahli mikologis [[Perancis]] [[Lucien Quélet]] parantos diklasifikasikeun sajumlah ''[[Boletus]]'' spésiés dina génus ''Xerocomus'', sareng ''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' didamel [[type species]]. Ngaran genus asalna tina [[Yunani kuno]] ''Xeros'' "garing" jeung ''kome'' "buuk", ngarujuk kana kulit luar anu lega tina topi/tutupna.<ref name="Nilper 1977"/> Klasifikasi ieu ''dibantah'', kalayan seueur ''otoritas'' henteu mikawanoh jinisna sareng terus dianggo ''Boletus subtomentosus''; kumaha ogé analisis ''genetik'' ikaluarkeun dina taun 2013 negeskeun béntenna spésiés ieu sareng baraya caketna ti ''kelompok'' inti jamur dina génus ''Boletus'' ([[Sensu#Common qualifiers|sensu stricto]]).<ref name="Nuhn 2013"/> ''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' sareng baraya, kaasup ''[[Phylloporus pelletieri]]'', ngabentuk hiji [[clade]] dipikanyaho ''informal'' salaku "/Xerocomus Clade" dina grup anu langkung ageung (''informally called hypoboletus'') dina suborder [[Boletineae]]. Klad anu sanés dina kelompok kalebet ''[[Aureoboletus]]'' jeung ''[[Hemileccinum]]'' ''clades'', ogé spésiés anu ayeuna ditunjuk ''Boletus'' (sanaos aranjeunna henteu caket hubunganana sareng ''[[Boletus edulis]]'') sareng tilu spésiés anu ayeuna ditunjuk ''[[Boletellus]]'' (sanaos aranjeunna henteu gampang janten baraya caket tina jinis spésiésna, ''[[Boletellus ananas]]''). Klad anu ngandung ''gugus hypoboletus'' sareng ''[[Royoungia]]'' clade téh sadérék kana kelompok ''anaxoboletus'' (ngandung genera ''[[Tylopilus]]'' [[Sensu#Common qualifiers|sensu stricto]], ''[[Strobilomyces]]'', ''[[Xanthoconium]]'', ''[[Porphyrellus]]'', ''[[Xerocomellus]]'', ''[[Boletus]]'' [[Sensu#Common qualifiers|sensu stricto]], sareng spésiés anu meryogikeun nami generik énggal (contona., ''[[Boletus badius]]'') sareng kelompok leccinoid (diwangun ku genera ''[[Leccinellum]]'', ''[[Leccinum]]'', ''[[Spongiforma]]'', sareng spésiésna ''[[Retiboletus griseus]]'').<ref name="Nuhn 2013"/> As ''X.&nbsp;subtomentosus'' mangrupikeun jinis spésiés tina genus, éta sareng baraya caket tetep ''Xerocomus'' sabab anggota sanés ditempatkeun dina genera anu béda. Tayalian nami ''spesifikna'' ''subtomentosus'' tina basa [[Latin]] "finely haired", nunjul kana tutupna/topi.<ref name="Nilper 1977"/> Panulis supa David Arora galandih supa éta '' bolete coklat membosankan '' kusabab kurangna raos sareng daya tarikna.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> ==Tempo ogé == {{Portal|Fungi}} *[[List of North American boletes]] ==Dicutat tina == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="Arora 1986">{{cite book |author=Arora D |author-link=David Arora |year=1986 |title=Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |edition=2nd |location=Berkeley, California |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=0-89815-169-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/517 517–18] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/517 }}</ref> <ref name="urlBoletales">{{cite web |url=http://boletales.com/genera/xerocomus/x-subtomentosus/ |title=''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' |author=Assyov B. |year=2013 |publisher=Boletales.com |access-date=21 October 2015}}</ref> <ref name=Elborne1990>{{cite book | title=The Greenland Mountain Birch Zone, Southwest Greenland | publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |isbn=9788763512046 |veditors=Fredskild B, Ødum S | year=1990 | chapter= Larger Fungi Associated with ''Betula pubescens'' in Greenland |vauthors=Elborne SA, Knudsen H | pages=77–80}}</ref> <ref name="Esser 1994">{{cite book |vauthors=Esser K, Lemke PA |title=The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research |url=https://archive.org/details/mossflorabritain00libg |url-access=limited |publisher=Springer |location=Heidelberg, Germany |year=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mossflorabritain00libg/page/n93 81] |isbn=3-540-66493-9}}</ref> <ref name="Jarzynska 2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jarzynska G, Chojnacka A, Dryzalowska A, Nnorom IC, Falandysz J |title=Concentrations and bioconcentration factors of minerals in yellow-cracking bolete (''Xerocomus subtomentosus'') mushroom collected in Notec Forest, Poland |journal=Journal of Food Science |year=2012 |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=H202–H206 |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02876.x|pmid=22897470 }}</ref> <ref name="Laursen 2010">{{cite book |vauthors=Laursen GA, Seppelt RD |title=Common Interior Alaska Cryptogams: Fungi, Lichenicolous Fungi, Lichenized Fungi, Slime Molds, Mosses, and Liverworts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRSJzyN_eB4C&pg=PA75 |year=2010|publisher=University of Alaska Press |isbn=978-1-60223-109-2 |page=75}}</ref> <ref name="Loizides 2019">{{cite journal |title=Present status and future of boletoid fungi (Boletaceae) on the island of Cyprus: cryptic and threatened diversity unraveled by 10-year study. |vauthors=Loizides M, Bellanger JM, Assyov B, Moreau PA, Richard F |journal=Fungal Ecology |volume=41 |issue=13 |pages=65–81 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.funeco.2019.03.008 }}</ref> <ref name="Maire 1937">{{cite journal |author=Maire R. |title=Fungi Maroccani |journal=Mémoires de la Société des sciences naturelles du Maroc |year=1937 |volume=45 |page=87 |url=http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=3447&Pagina=91 |language=fr }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304205542/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=3447&Pagina=91 |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> <ref name="Michell 2006">{{cite book |author=Michell K |title=Field Guide to Mushrooms and Other Fungi of Britain and Europe |publisher=New Holland Publishers |year=2006 |pages=34 |isbn=1-84537-474-6}}</ref> <ref name="Nilper 1977">{{cite book |vauthors=Nilson S, Persson O |year=1977 |title=Fungi of Northern Europe 1: Larger Fungi (Excluding Gill-Fungi) |url=https://archive.org/details/fungiofnortherne0000nils |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-14-063005-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fungiofnortherne0000nils/page/106 106]}}</ref> <ref name="Nuhn 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nuhn ME, Binder M, Taylor AF, Halling RE, Hibbett DS |title=Phylogenetic overview of the Boletineae |journal=Fungal Biology |year=2013 |volume=117 |issue=7–8 |pages=479–511 |doi=10.1016/j.funbio.2013.04.008 |pmid=23931115}}</ref> <ref name="Taylor 2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taylor AF, Hills AE, Simonini G, Muñoz JA, Eberhardt U |title=''Xerocomus silwoodensis'' sp. nov., a new species within the European ''X. subtomentosus'' complex |journal=Mycological Research |year=2007 |volume=111 |issue=4 |pages=403–08 |doi=10.1016/j.mycres.2007.01.014 |pmid=17512181}}</ref> }} ==Tutumbu ka luar == *{{MycoBank|121483}} {{Commons category|Xerocomus subtomentosus}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q198817}} [[Kategori :Supa ]] [[Kategori : Boletaceae]] [[Kategori : Tutuwuhan tropis ]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Suung]] [[Katehori:fungi]] bhk4njrtfblpmq1wfhibqxethdpykmr 0 102351 711553 652813 2026-08-06T22:59:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711553 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Genus of fungi}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}} {{Taxobox | image = 2016-04-07 Lentinus tigrinus (Bull.) Fr 611877.jpg | image_width = | image_caption = ''[[Lentinus tigrinus]]'', Italy | regnum = [[Fungi]] | divisio = [[Basidiomycota]] | classis = [[Agaricomycetes]] | ordo = [[Polyporales]] | familia = [[Polyporaceae]] | genus = '''''Lentinus''''' | genus_authority = [[Elias Magnus Fries|Fr.]] (1825)<ref name="Fries 1825"/> | type_species = ''Lentinus crinitus'' | type_species_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) Fr. (1825) | synonyms_ref = <ref name="Species Fungorum synonymy"/> | synonyms = *''Pocillaria'' <small>[[P.Browne]] (1756)</small> *''Digitellus'' <small>[[Jean-Jacques Paulet|Paulet]] (1791)</small> *''Lentodium'' <small>[[Andrew Price Morgan|Morgan]] (1895)</small> *''Lentodiellum'' <small>[[William Alphonso Murrill|Murrill]] (1915)</small> }} '''''Supa kincir'''''; ''Lentinus''; nyaéta hiji supa anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Polyporaceae]]. Supa ieu loba kapanggih hirup di daérah subtropical, kalawan mibanda spésiésanu loba. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =15|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 1 Juni 2021}}</ref><ref name="Kirk 2008"/> Ngaran genusna ''Lentinus'' dicokot tina basa [[Latin]] ''lent'', hartina "lumur", jeung ''inus'', hartina "nyarupaan". ==Spésiés== [[File:2016-06-29 Lentinus berteroi (Fr.) Fr 630853.jpg|thumb|right|''Lentinus berteroi'']] [[File:Het khon khao เห็ดขอนขาว Lentinus squarrosulus.jpg|thumb|right|''Lentinus squarrosulus'']] [[File:6.lentinus.swa - Flickr - Dick Culbert.jpg|thumb|right|''Lentinus swartzii'']] [[Index Fungorum]] Aya 120 spésiés tina ''Lentinus''.<ref name="CoL-Fungorum"/> Dina genus ieu di jerona aya: *''[[Lentinus anastomosans|L. anastomosans]]'' <small>Rick (1938)</small> *''[[Lentinus anthocephalus|L. anthocephalus]]'' <small>(Lév.) Pegler (1971)</small> *''[[Lentinus araucariae|L. araucariae]]'' <small>Har. & Pat. (1903)</small> *''[[Lentinus arcularius|L. arcularius]]'' <small>(Batsch) Zmitr. (2010)</small> *''[[Lentinus atrobrunneus|L. atrobrunneus]]'' <small>Pegler (1971)</small> *''[[Lentinus badius|L. badius]]'' <small>(Berk.) Berk. (1847)</small> *''[[Lentinus baguirmiensis|L. baguirmiensis]]'' <small>Pat. & Har. (1908)</small> *''[[Lentinus bambusinus|L. bambusinus]]'' <small>T.K.A.Kumar & Manim. (2005)</small> *''[[Lentinus berteroi|L. berteroi]]'' <small>(Fr.) Fr. (1825)</small> *''[[Lentinus brumalis|L. brumalis]]'' <small>(Pers.) Zmitr. (2010)</small> *''[[Lentinus brunneofloccosus|L. brunneofloccosus]]'' <small>Pegler (1971)</small> *''[[Lentinus caesariatus|L. caesariatus]]'' <small>Pat. (1924)</small> *''[[Lentinus calyx|L. calyx]]'' <small>(Speg.) Pegler (1983)</small> *''[[Lentinus campinensis|L. campinensis]]'' <small>Teixeira (1946)</small> *''[[Lentinus candidus|L. candidus]]'' <small>P.W.Graff (1913)</small> *''[[Lentinus chordalis|L. chordalis]]'' <small>Lloyd (1919)</small> *''[[Lentinus chudaei|L. chudaei]]'' <small>Har. & Pat. (1912)</small> *''[[Lentinus cochlearis|L. cochlearis]]'' <small>(Pers.) Bres. (1903)</small> *''[[Lentinus concavus|L. concavus]]'' <small>(Berk.) Corner (1981)</small> *''[[Lentinus concentricus|L. concentricus]]'' <small>Karun., K.D.Hyde & Zhu L.Yang (2011)</small> *''[[Lentinus concinnus|L. concinnus]]'' <small>Pat. (1892)</small> *''[[Lentinus connatus|L. connatus]]'' <small>Berk. (1842)</small> *''[[Lentinus copulatus|L. copulatus]]'' <small>(Ehrenb.) Henn. (1898)</small> *''[[Lentinus cordubensis|L. cordubensis]]'' <small>Speg. (1902)</small> *''[[Lentinus courtetianus|L. courtetianus]]'' <small>Har. & Pat. (1909)</small> *''[[Lentinus crinitus|L. crinitus]]'' <small>(L.) Fr. (1825)</small> *''[[Lentinus densifolius|L. densifolius]]'' <small>R.Heim & L.Rémy (1926)</small> *''[[Lentinus dicholamellatus|L. dicholamellatus]]'' <small>Manim. (2004)</small> *''[[Lentinus egregius|L. egregius]]'' <small>Massee (1910)</small> *''[[Lentinus elmeri|L. elmeri]]'' <small>Bres. (1912)</small> *''[[Lentinus elmerianus|L. elmerianus]]'' <small>Lloyd (1922)</small> *''[[Lentinus erosus|L. erosus]]'' <small>Lloyd (1925)</small> *''[[Lentinus erringtonii|L. erringtonii]]'' <small>Pat. & Har. (1900)</small> *''[[Lentinus fasciatus|L. fasciatus]]'' <small>Berk. (1840)</small> *''[[Lentinus favoloides|L. favoloides]]'' <small>R.Heim (1964)</small> *''[[Lentinus floridanus|L. floridanus]]'' <small>(Murrill) Murrill (1943)</small> *''[[Lentinus fluxus|L. fluxus]]'' <small>Herp. (1912)</small> *''[[Lentinus freemanii|L. freemanii]]'' <small>Murrill (1919)</small> *''[[Lentinus fuscoexactus|L. fuscoexactus]]'' <small>Lloyd (1922)</small> *''[[Lentinus fuscus|L. fuscus]]'' <small>Lloyd (1925)</small> *''[[Lentinus fusipes|L. fusipes]]'' <small>Cooke & Massee (1887)</small> *''[[Lentinus gibbsiae|L. gibbsiae]]'' <small>A.L.Sm. (1909)</small> *''[[Lentinus glabratus|L. glabratus]]'' <small>Mont. (1842)</small> *''[[Lentinus gogoensis|L. gogoensis]]'' <small>Har. & Pat. (1909)</small> *''[[Lentinus goossensiae|L. goossensiae]]'' <small>Beeli (1928)</small> *''[[Lentinus graminicola|L. graminicola]]'' <small>Murrill (1911)</small> *''[[Lentinus huensis|L. huensis]]'' <small>Lloyd (1922)</small> *''[[Lentinus integrus|L. integrus]]'' <small>Reichert (1921)</small> *''[[Lentinus inverseconicus|L. inverseconicus]]'' <small>Pat. (1923)</small> *''[[Lentinus isabellina|L. isabellina]]'' <small>Lloyd (1922)</small> *''[[Lentinus lagunensis|L. lagunensis]]'' <small>P.W.Graff (1913)</small> *''[[Lentinus lamelliporus|L. lamelliporus]]'' <small>Har. & Pat. (1902)</small> *''[[Lentinus lateripes|L. lateripes]]'' <small>Lloyd (1922)</small> *''[[Lentinus ledermannii|L. ledermannii]]'' <small>Pilát (1936)</small> *''[[Lentinus lepideus|L. lepideus]]'' <small>Fr.</small> (choice edible)<ref>{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Roger |title=Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsotherfu0000phil |year=2010 |publisher=Firefly Books |location=Buffalo, NY |isbn=978-1-55407-651-2 |p=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsotherfu0000phil/page/243 243]}}</ref> *''[[Lentinus levis|L. levis]]'' <small>(Berk. & M.A.Curtis) Murrill (1915)</small> (edible when young)<ref name="Miller 2006">{{cite book|last=Miller Jr.|first=Orson K.|title=North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi|url=https://archive.org/details/northamericanmus0000mill|last2=Miller|first2=Hope H.|publisher=[[FalconGuide]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7627-3109-1|location=Guilford, CN|pages=[https://archive.org/details/northamericanmus0000mill/page/155 155]|author-link=Orson K. Miller Jr.}}</ref> *''[[Lentinus lividus|L. lividus]]'' <small>Beeli (1928)</small> *''[[Lentinus luteoapplanatus|L. luteoapplanatus]]'' <small>Beeli (1928)</small> *''[[Lentinus macgregorii|L. macgregorii]]'' <small>P.W.Graff (1913)</small> *''[[Lentinus martianoffianus|L. martianoffianus]]'' <small>Kalchbr. (1877)</small> *''[[Lentinus megacystidiatus|L. megacystidiatus]]'' <small>Karun., K.D.Hyde & Zhu L.Yang (2011)</small> *''[[Lentinus melzeri|L. melzeri]]'' <small>Velen. (1920)</small> *''[[Lentinus metatensis|L. metatensis]]'' <small>Bacc. (1917)</small> *''[[Lentinus mitissimus|L. mitissimus]]'' <small>Bigeard & H.Guill. (1913)</small> *''[[Lentinus mollipes|L. mollipes]]'' <small>Pat. (1917)</small> *''[[Lentinus nigro-osseus|L. nigro-osseus]]'' <small>Pilát (1936)</small> *''[[Lentinus nigroglaber|L. nigroglaber]]'' <small>Lloyd (1923)</small> *''[[Lentinus nigroglabrus|L. nigroglabrus]]'' <small>Lloyd (1923)</small> *''[[Lentinus ochraceus|L. ochraceus]]'' <small>Lloyd (1920)</small> *''[[Lentinus ochroleucus|L. ochroleucus]]'' <small>Beeli (1928)</small> *''[[Lentinus omphalopsis|L. omphalopsis]]'' <small>Reichert (1921)</small> *''[[Lentinus orizabensis|L. orizabensis]]'' <small>Murrill (1915)</small> *''[[Lentinus palauensis|L. palauensis]]'' <small>Imazeki (1941)</small> *''[[Lentinus palmeri|L. palmeri]]'' <small>(Earle) Sacc. & Traverso (1911)</small> *''[[Lentinus panziensis|L. panziensis]]'' <small>Singer (1973)</small> *''[[Lentinus papillatus|L. papillatus]]'' <small>(Henn.) Henn. (1905)</small> *''[[Lentinus pertenuis|L. pertenuis]]'' <small>Lloyd (1922)</small> *''[[Lentinus phillipsii|L. phillipsii]]'' <small>[[Paul Andries van der Bijl|Van der Byl]] (1926)</small> *''[[Lentinus pholiotaeformis|L. pholiotaeformis]]'' <small>Velen. (1939)</small> *''[[Lentinus pilososquamulosus|L. pilososquamulosus]]'' <small>Lj.N.Vassiljeva (1973)</small> *''[[Lentinus piperatus|L. piperatus]]'' <small>Beeli (1928)</small> *''[[Lentinus polychrous|L. polychrous]]'' <small>Lév. (1844)</small> *''[[Lentinus prancei|L. prancei]]'' <small>Singer (1981)</small> *''[[Lentinus prolifer|L. prolifer]]'' <small>(Pat. & Har.) D.A.Reid (1977)</small> *''[[Lentinus pulcherrimus|L. pulcherrimus]]'' <small>Sumst. (1907)</small> *''[[Lentinus ramosii|L. ramosii]]'' <small>Lloyd (1923)</small> *''[[Lentinus ramosipes|L. ramosipes]]'' <small>Har. & Pat. (1909)</small> *''[[Lentinus retinervis|L. retinervis]]'' <small>Pegler (1983)</small> *''[[Lentinus roseus|L. roseus]]'' <small>Karun., K.D.Hyde & Zhu L.Yang (2011)</small> *''[[Lentinus rubescens|L. rubescens]]'' <small>Velen. (1939)</small> *''[[Lentinus sajor-caju|L. sajor-caju]]'' <small>(Fr.) Fr. (1838)</small> *''[[Lentinus samarensis|L. samarensis]]'' <small>Pilát (1941)</small> *''[[Lentinus sayanus|L. sayanus]]'' <small>Singer (1952)</small> *''[[Lentinus sclerogenus|L. sclerogenus]]'' <small>Sacc. (1916)</small> *''[[Lentinus scleropus|L. scleropus]]'' <small>(Pers.) Fr. (1836)</small> *''[[Lentinus sibiricus|L. sibiricus]]'' <small>Pilát (1936)</small> *''[[Lentinus similans|L. similans]]'' <small>(Earle) Sacc. & Traverso (1911)</small> *''[[Lentinus squamosus|L. squamosus]]'' <small>Quél. (1888)</small> *''[[Lentinus squarrosulus|L. squarrosulus]]'' <small>Mont. (1842)</small> *''[[Lentinus striatulus|L. striatulus]]'' <small>Lév. (1846)</small> *''[[Lentinus stuppeus|L. stuppeus]]'' <small>Klotzsch (1833)</small> *''[[Lentinus subdulcis|L. subdulcis]]'' <small>Berk. (1851)</small> *''[[Lentinus subscyphoides|L. subscyphoides]]'' <small>Murrill (1911)</small> *''[[Lentinus swartzii|L. swartzii]]'' <small>Berk. (1843)</small> *''[[Lentinus terrestris|L. terrestris]]'' <small>Lloyd (1925)</small> *''[[Lentinus thomensis|L. thomensis]]'' <small>Cout. (1925)</small> *''[[Lentinus tigrinoides|L. tigrinoides]]'' <small>Corner (1981)</small> *''[[Lentinus tigrinus|L. tigrinus]]'' <small>(Bull.) Fr. (1825)</small> *''[[Lentinus tuber-regium|L. tuber-regium]]'' <small>(Fr.) Fr. (1836)</small> *''[[Lentinus tuber-regium|L. umbrinus]]'' <small>Reichardt (1866)</small> *''[[Lentinus velutinus|L. velutinus]]'' <small>Fr. (1830)</small> *''[[Lentinus vestidus|L. vestidus]]'' <small>(Earle) Sacc. & Traverso (1912)</small> *''[[Lentinus villosus|L. villosus]]'' <small>Klotzsch (1833)</small> *''[[Lentinus zelandicus|L. zelandicus]]'' <small>Sacc. & Cub. (1887)</small> *''[[Lentinus zenkerianus|L. zenkerianus]]'' <small>Henn. (1905)</small> *''[[Lentinus zeyheri|L. zeyheri]]'' <small>Berk. (1843)</small> Panalungtikan [[molecular phylogenetics|molecular]] yén sababaraha ''[[Polyporus]]'' spésiés di handap ieu kagolongkeun ''Lentinus''-''radiation''.<ref name="Zmitrovich & Kovalenko2016">{{cite journal |last1=Zmitrovich |first1=Ivan V. |last2=Kovalenko |first2=Alexander E. |title=Lentinoid and polyporoid fungi, two generic conglomerates containing important medicinal mushrooms in molecular perspective |journal=International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms |year=2016 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |doi=10.1615/IntJMedMushrooms.v18.i1.40 |url=http://media.wix.com/ugd/b65817_9aa21547bf374564b90c29cb7b7e18fb.pdf |pmid=27279442}}</ref> ==Dicutat tina == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="CoL-Fungorum">{{cite web |author=Kirk, P.M. |title=Species Fungorum (version 30th June 2017). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life |url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/browse/tree/id/deb5ef88c2090750e09790618cb44884 |accessdate=2017-07-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312233548/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/browse/tree/id/deb5ef88c2090750e09790618cb44884 |date=12 March 2017 }}</ref> <ref name="Fries 1825">{{cite book |title=Systema Orbis Vegetabilis |url=https://archive.org/details/systemaorbisveg00friegoog |author=Fries, E.M. |year=1825 |page=[https://archive.org/details/systemaorbisveg00friegoog/page/n89 77] |language=Latin}}</ref> <ref name="Kirk 2008">{{cite book |author1=Kirk, P.M. |author2=Cannon, P.F. |author3=Minter, D.W. |author4=Stalpers, J.A. |title=Dictionary of the Fungi |url=https://archive.org/details/ainsworthbisbysd0000unse_r4s9 |edition=10th |publisher=CAB International |location=Wallingford, UK |year=2008 |page=368 |isbn=978-0-85199-826-8}}</ref> <ref name="Species Fungorum synonymy">{{cite web |title=Synonymy: ''Lentinus'' Fr. |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=17925 |publisher=Species Fungorum. Kew Mycology |accessdate=2017-07-23}}</ref> }} {{pondok}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q2033960}} [[Kategori :Supa]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan subtropis ]] [[Kategori :Polyporaceae]] gpne8vcp6uj3mt7km6qa8f7pwg9jljq 0 102353 711636 708337 2026-08-07T00:40:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711636 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox| color = lightgreen| name = Microsorum scolopendria| image =Wart Fern - Flickr - treegrow.jpg | image_size = 250px| image_caption = Paku cacing| regnum = Plantae| divisio = Polypodiophyta| classis = Polypodiopsida| ordo = Polypodiales| familia = Polypodiaceae| genus = Microsorum| species = M. scolopendria| binomial =Microsorum scolopendria| binomial_authority = (Burm.f.) Copel| synonyms = Chrysopteris longipes}} '''''Paku cacing '''''; ''Microsorum scolopendria; Pleopeltis Phymatodes'' nyaéta hiji [[tutuwuhan]] paku anu asalna ti kulawarga ''[[Polypodiaceae]]''. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =21|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/21/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 1 Juni 2021}}</ref> Dina basa [[Inggris]] tutuwuhan paku ieu disebut ogé ''monarch fern'', ''musk fern'', ''maile-scented fern'', ''breadfruit fern'', or ''wart fern'' taya lian tina sabangsaning paku/pakis. <ref>{{cite web |title=Maile-Scented Fern |website=Na mea kanu o Kamehameha |url=http://kms.kapalama.ksbe.edu/projects/2003/plants/lauaefern/ |access-date=19 September 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200342/http://kms.kapalama.ksbe.edu/projects/2003/plants/lauaefern/ |date=24 June 2021 }}</ref><ref name=CFLW/> Tutuwuhan paku ieu hirup di alam liar di pasisian [[Pasifik|Pasipik]] Kulon ti [[Australia]] ka Kalédonia Anyar ka [[Fiji]] sareng sapanjang Pasipik Kidul dugi ka Polinésia [[Prancis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Microsorum scolopendria |website=National Tropical Botanical Garden |url=http://ntbg.org/plants/plant_details.php?plantid=8853 |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> Ieu tutuwuhan diwanohkeun di [[Hawaii]] dina akhir taun 1910-an tuluy hirup alamiah kalayan gancang di sadaya pulo utama.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Daniel D. |title=Hawaiʻi's ferns and fern allies |date=2003 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |location=Honolulu |isbn=9780824833473 |url=http://ntbg.org/plants/plant_details.php?plantid=8853}}</ref> Ngaran ilmiah '' M. scolopendria '' sok salah dilarapkeun pikeun ''[[Microsorum grossum]]'' (sareng sinonimna''Phymatosorus'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Phymatosorus grossus – Musk Fern |website=Hawaiian Plants and Tropical Flowers |url=http://wildlifeofhawaii.com/flowers/861/phymatosorus-grossus-musk-fern/ |access-date=19 September 2015 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Kagunaan == Mangsa dirieus atawa dipecéh, ngaluarkeun seungit kawas kembang "maile : Alyxia stellata" .{{sfn|Abbott|1992|pp=127, 145}} sakapeung sok diuntun jeung daun pandan pikeun seuseungitan.<ref name=hawaiian-dict>{{cite book |last=Pukui |first=Mary Kawena |author-link=Mary Kawena Pukui |last2=Elbert |first2= Samuel H. |author-link2= Samuel Hoyt Elbert |chapter= lauaʻe, lauwaʻe |title=Hawaiian Dictionary |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1986 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHdRhjL9Y9EC&pg=PA194 |page=194 }}<br/>{{Hawaiian Dictionaries |Lauaʻe |id=D10468}}</ref>{{sfn|Abbott|1992|pp=127, 145}} Ieu tutuwuhan ogé sok dipaké keur nyeungitan kaén [[kapa]].{{sfn|Abbott|1992|p=58}}<ref name=ethnobotany-database>{{cite web |publisher=Bishop Museum |title=laua‘e |url=http://data.bishopmuseum.org/ethnobotanydb/ethnobotany.php?b=d&ID=lauae |work=Hawaiian Ethnobotany Online Database }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512044115/http://data.bishopmuseum.org/ethnobotanydb/ethnobotany.php?b=d&ID=lauae |date=2015-05-12 }}</ref> ==Dicutat tina == {{Reflist|30em|refs= <ref name=CFLW>{{Citation |mode=cs1 |last1=Hassler |first1=Michael |last2=Schmitt |first2=Bernd |date=January 2020 |contribution=''Phymatosorus scolopendria'' |title=Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World |at=Version 8.20 |url=https://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ferns/ |access-date=2020-02-11 |name-list-style=amp }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902225743/http://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ferns/ |date=2017-09-02 }}</ref> }} ;Bibliography {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Pukui |first=Mary Kawena |author-link=Mary Kawena Pukui |title=He Mau Ka{{okina}}ao Hawaii: Folktales of Hawai{{okina}}i |location=Honolulu |publisher=Bishop Museum Press |year=1983 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8LC0AAAAIAAJ }} * {{cite book|last=Abbott |first=Isabella Aiona |author-link=<!--Isabella Aiona Abbott--> |title=Lā'au Hawai'i : traditional Hawaiian uses of plants |url=https://archive.org/details/laauhawaiitradit0000abbo |publisher=Bishop Museum Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-93089-762-5}} {{Refend}} {{pondok}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== * Gustafson, Robert, 1939- '''Hawaiian plant life : vegetation and flora''' Honolulu : University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2014. {{ISBN|9780824837105}} * Valier, Kathy, 1953- '''Ferns of Hawai`i''' Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press, 1995 {{ISBN|0824816404}} * http://digicoll.manoa.hawaii.edu/hawaiiflowers/Pages/viewtext.php?s=browse&tid=252 Plants for Hawaiian lei: Laua'e {{Taxonbar|from1=Q15248487|from2=Q3027867|from3=Q38239691}} [[Kategori : Polypodiaceae]] [[Kategori : Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Paku]] a22hfk1op3wjg17zulbth1jm9e5paxe 0 102572 711844 616653 2026-08-07T05:42:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711844 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Sajarah Jepang}} {{Nihongo|'''Sogun'''|将軍|syōgun|extra={{IPA-ja|ɕoːɡɯɴ|lang|Ja-将軍.oga}}; {{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|ʃ|oʊ|g|ʌ|n}}<ref name=longman>{{cite book|last=Wells|first=John|author-link=John C. Wells|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse|publisher=Pearson Longman|edition=3rd|date=3 April 2008|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref>}} téh gelar [[kadiktatoran militér|diktator militér]] di [[Jepang]] bihari, ti taun [[1185]] nepi ka [[1868]]. Diangkat ku [[Kaisar Jepang|Kaisar]], sogun jadi pangawasa ''de facto'' ieu nagara,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/541431/shogunate|title=Shogun|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=19 November 2014}}</ref>. Kakawasaan sogun prahna mah turun-tumurun, najan kungsi sababaraha kali dikawasa ku klan anu béda. Sogun téh pondokna tina {{Nihongo||征夷大将軍|Séi-i Taisyōgun|"Panglima Pasukan Ékspédisi Ngalawan Musuh"}},<ref name="modern-reader"/> gelar militér luhur ti [[periodeu Heian]] abad ka-8 jeung ka-9; mangsa [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] meunang kakuatan pulitik Jepang taun [[1185]]. Pamaréntahan sogun katelahna {{Nihongo||幕府|bakufu|extra="pamaréntah ténda"}}; ngalaksanakeun tugas pamaréntahan.<ref name="b321">Beasley, William G. (1955). ''Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868'', p. 321.</ref> Ténda ngalambangkeun peran sogun salaku komandan militér di lapangan, tapi ogé nuduhkeun yén 'ngantorna' téh ukur samentara. Najan kasebut samentara, kasogunan ieu bisa ngadeg ampir 700 taun, dipungkas ku [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu]] nu nyérénkeun kakawasaan ka [[Kaisar Méiji]] taun [[1867]] dina [[Réstorasi Méiji]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845 |first=Conrad |last=Totman |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=26 |year=1966 |pages=102–124 |doi=10.2307/2718461 |jstor=2718461}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{pondok}} 8m2qvapoio72ve3r8ky1eb30w28cmno 0 102578 711697 681066 2026-08-07T01:56:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 21 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer | name = Karen Armstrong | image = Karen_Armstrong.jpg | imagesize = | caption = | birth_name = Karen Andersen Armstrong | birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1944|11|14}} | birth_place = Wildmoor, Worcestershire, Inggris | death_date = | death_place = | resting_place = | occupation = Panulis | education = St Anne's College, Oxford | alma_mater = | spouse = | children = | relatives = | period = | genre = | movement = | signature = }} '''Karen Armstrong''' ({{lahirmati|Wildmoor, Worcestershire, Inggris|14|11|1944}}) nyaéta saurang panulis [[Inggris]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karen-Armstrong|title=Karen Armstrong|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2021-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://charterforcompassion.org/about1/karen-armstrong|title=Karen Armstrong|website=Charter for Compassion|access-date=2019-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322004419/https://charterforcompassion.org/about1/karen-armstrong |date=2019-03-22 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newenglishreview.org/custpage.cfm?sec_id=7158|title=Karen Armstrong: The Coherence of Her Incoherence|website=New English Review Press|access-date=2019-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901112322/https://www.newenglishreview.org/custpage.cfm?sec_id=7158 |date=2021-09-01 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.republika.co.id/berita/qg3vin483/karen-amstrong-islam-is-the-most-rational-teaching|title=Karen Amstrong: Islam Is The Most Rational Teaching|website=Republika|access-date=2019-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamindonesia.id/berita/karen-armstrong-dan-buku-bukunya-2.htm|title=Karen Armstrong dan Buku-Bukunya|website=Islam Indonesia|access-date=2019-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919123149/https://islamindonesia.id/berita/karen-armstrong-dan-buku-bukunya-2.htm |date=2020-09-19 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.qureta.com/post/sebuah-review-tentang-buku-sejarah-tuhan-karya-karen-amstrong|title=Sebuah Review tentang Buku “Sejarah Tuhan” Karya Karen Amstrong|website=Qureta|access-date=2019-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901135710/https://www.qureta.com/post/sebuah-review-tentang-buku-sejarah-tuhan-karya-karen-amstrong |date=2021-09-01 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nu.or.id/post/read/57145/karen-armstrong-islam-tak-punya-kaitan-dengan-kekerasan|title=Karen Armstrong: Islam Tak Punya Kaitan dengan Kekerasan|website=NU Online|access-date=2019-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901111921/https://www.nu.or.id/post/read/57145/karen-armstrong-islam-tak-punya-kaitan-dengan-kekerasan |date=2021-09-01 }}</ref> == Publikasi == === Buku === {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 88%;" !Asli !Indonésia |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1981|title=Through the Narrow Gate: A Memoir of Spiritual Discovery|url=https://archive.org/details/throughnarrowgat0000arms_s9d5|location=London|publisher=Pan Books|isbn=978-033-3311-36-3|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2013|title=Menerobos Kegelapan: Sebuah Autobiografi Spiritual|location=Bandung|publisher=Mizan|isbn=978-979-4337-88-2|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1983|title=The First Christian: Saint Paul's Impact on Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/firstchristiansa0000kare|location=London|publisher=Pan Books|isbn=978-033-0281-61-4|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1983|title=Beginning the World|url=https://archive.org/details/beginningworld0000arms|location=London|publisher=Pan Books|isbn=978-033-3350-17-1|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1985|title=Tongues of Fire: An Anthology of Religious and Poetic Experience|url=https://archive.org/details/tonguesoffireant0000unse_i7f5|location=New York|publisher=Viking Press|isbn=978-067-0808-78-6|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1986|title=The Gospel According to Woman: Christianity's Creation of the Sex War in the West|url=https://archive.org/details/gospelaccordingt0000arms_v9x4|location=London|publisher=Pan Books|isbn=978-033-0297-44-8|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1988|title=Holy War: The Crusades and their Impact on Today's World|location=New York|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-038-5241-93-9|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2006|title=Perang Suci: Dari Perang Salib Hingga Perang Teluk|location=Jakarta|publisher=Serambi|isbn=978-979-3335-32-2|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1991|title=Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadbiograph0000arms|location=London|publisher=Phoenix Press|isbn=978-184-2126-08-0|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2001|title=Muhammad Sang Nabi: Sebuah Biografi Kritis|location=Surabaya|publisher=Risalah Gusti|isbn=978-006-2500-14-4|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1991|title=The English Mystics of the Fourteenth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/englishmysticsof0000unse|location=London|publisher=Kyle Cathie|isbn=978-185-6260-23-7|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1993|title=The End of Silence: Women and the Priesthood|url=https://archive.org/details/endofsilencewome0000arms|location=London|publisher=Fourth Estate|isbn=978-185-7021-45-5|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1993|title=A History of God: The 4.000 Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgod40000000arms_s0r2|location=New York|publisher=Gramercy Books|isbn=978-051-7223-12-3|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2019|title=Sejarah Tuhan: Kisah 4.000 Tahun Pencarian Tuhan dalam Agama-Agama Manusia|location=Bandung|publisher=Mizan|isbn=978-602-4410-48-3|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1994|title=Visions of God: Four Medieval Mystics and Their Writings|url=https://archive.org/details/visionsofgodfour0000arms|location=New York|publisher=Bantam Books|isbn=978-055-3351-99-6|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=1996|title=In the Beginning: A New Interpretation of Genesis|url=https://archive.org/details/inbeginning00kare|location=New York|publisher=Ballantine Books|isbn=978-034-5406-04-0|url-status=live}} | |- |{{Cite book|date=1996|title=Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/jerusalemonecity0000arms_o4i0|location=New York|publisher=Ballantine Books|isbn=978-034-5391-68-1|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2018|title=Yerusalem: Satu Kota, Tiga Agama|location=Bandung|publisher=Mizan|isbn=978-602-4410-57-5|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2000|title=Islam: A Short History|location=New York|publisher=Modern Library Chronicles|isbn=978-081-2966-18-3|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2000|title=The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam|location=New York|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-000-2555-23-4|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2002|title=Faith After 11 September|location=Maastricht|publisher=Studium Generale Maastricht|isbn=978-908-0719-11-8|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2004|title=Buddha|url=https://archive.org/details/buddha00arms|location=New York|publisher=Penguin Random House|isbn=978-014-3034-36-0|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2004|title=The Spiral Staircase: My Climb Out Of Darkness|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385721271|location=New York|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-038-5721-27-1|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2005|title=A Short History of Myth|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofmy00arms|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Canongate|isbn=978-184-1958-00-2|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2006|title=Muhammad: A Prophet For Our Time|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophetf0000arms|location=New York|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-006-1155-77-2|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2006|title=The Great Transformation: The World in the Time of Buddha, Socrates, Confucius, and Jeremiah|location=New York|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing|isbn=978-030-7264-70-1|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2008|title=The Bible: A Biography (Books That Changed the World)|location=New York|publisher=Grove Atlantic|isbn=978-155-5849-24-5|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2014|title=Sejarah Alkitab: Telaah Historis Atas Kitab yang Paling Banyak Dibaca di Seluruh Dunia|location=Bandung|publisher=Mizan|isbn=978-979-4335-11-6|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2009|title=The Case for God|location=New York|publisher=Vintage|isbn=978-030-7269-18-8|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2011|title=Masa Depan Tuhan: Sanggahan terhadap Fundamentalisme dan Ateisme|location=Bandung|publisher=Mizan|isbn=978-979-4335-89-5|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2010|title=Twelve Steps to a Compassionate Life|url=https://archive.org/details/twelvestepstocom00knop|location=Abingdon-on-Thames|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-030-7595-59-1|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2011|title=A Letter to Pakistan|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-019-906330-7|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2014|title=Fields of Blood: Religion and the History of Violence|url=https://archive.org/details/fieldsofbloodrel0000arms|location=London|publisher=Bodley Head|isbn=978-184-7921-86-4|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2016|title=Fields of Blood: Mengurai Sejarah Hubungan Agama dan Kekerasan|location=Bandung|publisher=Mizan|isbn=978-979-4339-69-5|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2015|title=St. Paul: The Apostle We Love to Hate|url=https://archive.org/details/stpaulapostlewel0000arms|location=Seattle|publisher=New Harvest|isbn=978-054-4617-39-1|url-status=live}} |{{Cite book|date=2021|title=Santo Paulus: Rasul yang Dicela dan Dicinta|location=Jakarta|publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama|isbn=978-602-0653-01-3|url-status=live}} |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2019|title=The Lost Art of Scripture|url=https://archive.org/details/lostartofscriptu0000arms_j2d0|location=London|publisher=Bodley Head|isbn=978-184-7924-32-2|url-status=live}} | |- | align="left" |{{Cite book|date=2019|title=Religion: Vintage Minis|url=https://archive.org/details/religion0000kare_b9s9_o7w7|location=New York|publisher=Vintage|isbn=978-178-4875-69-5|url-status=live}} | |} == Tingali ogé == * [[Agatha Christie]] * [[Harper Lee]] * [[Joanne Kathleen Rowling]] * [[Oprah Winfrey]] * [[Simone de Beauvoir]] * [[Xu Xi]] == Rujukan == <references /> == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.pbs.org/now/transcript/transcript_armstrong.html Bill Moyers interviews Karen Armstrong] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109010324/http://www.pbs.org/now/transcript/transcript_armstrong.html |date=2020-11-09 }} * [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1751746 Religion Scholar Karen Armstrong] * [http://jmm.aaa.net.au/articles/2236.htm Review of ''The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070504072358/http://jmm.aaa.net.au/articles/2236.htm |date=2007-05-04 }} *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1874653,00.html ''We Cannot Afford to Maintain these Ancient Prejudices Against Islam''] reh6gl3tyc3rik4lscpsxl5vdm15mpy 0 102865 711834 674997 2026-08-07T05:31:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711834 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer | name = Arthur Rimbaud | image = Carjat Arthur Rimbaud 1872 n2.jpg | imagesize = | caption = | birth_name = Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud | birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1854|10|20}} | birth_place = Charleville-Méziéres,Prancis | death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1891|11|10|1854|10|20}} | death_place = Marseille, Prancis | resting_place = Charleville-Méziéres Cimetiére, Charleville-Méziéres, Prancis | occupation = Sastrawan | education = * Pension Rossat (1862) * College de Charleville (1865) | alma_mater = | spouse = Paul Verlaine | children = | relatives = | period = | genre = | movement = | signature = Arthur Rimbaud-signature.jpg }} [[File:Graf Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud.jpg|jmpl|266x266px|kanan|Pasaréan Arthur Rimbaud.]] '''Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud''' ({{lahirmati|Charleville-Méziéres, Prancis|20|10|1854|Marseille, Prancis|10|11|1891}}) nyaéta saurang panulis [[Prancis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/arthur-rimbaud|title=Arthur Rimbaud|last=Poetry Foundation|first=|website=Poetry Foundation|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2020-12-14|access-date=2020-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arthur-Rimbaud|title=Arthur Rimbaud|last=Davies-Mitchell|first=Margaret C.|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2020-11-06|access-date=2020-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/french-poet-arthur-rimbaud-is-born|title=French Poet Arthur Rimbaud is Born|last=History com Editors|first=|website=History|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2019-10-17|access-date=2020-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/arthur-rimbaud-penyair-perancis-yang-jadi-desertir-knil-di-jawa-djMo|title=Arthur Rimbaud, Penyair Prancis yang Jadi Desertir KNIL di Jawa|last=Matanasi|first=Petrik|website=Tirto.id|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2019-11-10|access-date=2020-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/131676992/adakah-hubungan-antara-salatiga-arthur-rimbaud-dan-soekarno|title=Adakah Hubungan Antara Salatiga, Arthur Rimbaud, dan Soekarno?|last=Thamrin|first=Mahandis Yoanata|website=National Geographic Indonesia|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2019-04-05|access-date=2020-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://historead.co.id/desersi-sang-penyair-arthur-rimbaud/|title=Desersi Sang Penyair, Kisah Arthur Rimbaud|last=Iqbal|first=Muhammad|website=Historead (Majalah Intelektual Populer)|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2020-09-25|access-date=2020-12-14}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021034355/https://historead.co.id/desersi-sang-penyair-arthur-rimbaud/ |date=2021-10-21 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indoprogress.com/2013/09/remeh-temeh-rimbaud/|title=Remeh-Temeh Rimbaud|last=Normanda|first=Nosa|website=Indo Progress|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2013-09-05|access-date=2020-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.okezone.com/read/2017/11/02/18/1807235/okezone-story-petualangan-arthur-rimbaud-menjadi-penyair-yang-disegani-hingga-berkarier-di-dunia-penyelundupan-senjata|title=Okezone Story: Petualangan Arthur Rimbaud, Menjadi Penyair yang Disegani Hingga Berkarier di Dunia Penyelundupan Senjata|last=Islam|first=Putri Ainur|website=Okenews|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2017-11-03|access-date=2020-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://internasional.kompas.com/read/2012/04/29/09453966/Gila-gilaan.Orang.Hutan.Arthur.Rimbaud.di.Jawa|title=Gila-Gilaan Orang Hutan: Arthur Rimbaud di Jawa|last=Patnistik|first=Egidius|website=Kompas|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2012-04-29|access-date=2020-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indonesiana.id/read/108155/arthur-rimbaud|title=Arthur Rimbaud|last=Aji|first=Ranang|website=Indonesiana|language=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2019-04-27|access-date=2020-12-15}}</ref> == Publikasi == === Puisi === * ''Les Étrennes des orphelins'' (1869); * ''Premiére soirée'' (1870); * ''Le rêve de Bismarck'' (1870); * ''Le Dormeur du val'' (''The Sleeper in the Valley'' ) (1870); * ''Voyelles'' (1871 utawa 1872); * ''Le Bateau ivre'', ''Voyelles'', ''Oraison du soir'', ''Les assis'', ''Les effarés'', ''Les chercheuses de poux'' (1870–1872); * ''Les corbeaux'' (1871 utawa 1872); * ''Quest-ce pour nous mon cœur'' (1872); * ''Une Saison en Enfer'' (1873); * ''Illuminations'' (1872–1875); * ''Rapport sur l'Ogadine'' (1883).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://poets.org/poet/arthur-rimbaud|title=About Arthur Rimbaud|last=Academy of American Poets|first=|website=Poets.org|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|date=2020-01-01|access-date=2020-12-14}}</ref> === Anumerta === * ''Narration'' ("''Le Soleil était encore chaud…'' ") (1864–1865); * ''Lettre de Charles d'Orléans à Louis XI'' (1869 utawa 1870); * ''Un coeur sous une soutane'' (1870); * ''Reliquaire - Poésies'' (1891); * ''Poésies complétes'' (1869–1873); * ''Les mains de Marie-Jeanne'' (1871); * ''Lettres du Voyant'' (13–15 May 1871); * ''Album Zutique'' (1871); * ''Les Déserts de l'amour'' (''Deserts of Love'' ) (1871–1872); * ''Proses "évangeliques"'' (1872–1873); * ''Lettres de Jean-Arthur Rimbaud – Égypte, Arabie, Éthiopie'' (1880–1891). == Tingali ogé == * [[Paul Verlaine]] * [[Semusim di Neraka]] == Rujukan == <references /> == Pustaka == {{refbegin|1}} '''Buku''' * {{Cite book|title=Pengarang Prancis Sepanjang Masa Abad XV–XXI|last=Djokosujanto|first=Apsanti, dkk|date=|publisher=Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia|year=2020|isbn=978-602-4339-92-0|location=Jakarta|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Djokosujanto, dkk|2020}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Orang Indonésia dan Orang Prancis: Dari Abad XVI Sampai dengan Abad XX|last=Dorleans|first=Bernard|date=|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2006|isbn=978-602-4245-68-9|location=Jakarta|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Dorleans|2006}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Rimbaud: Complete Works, Selected Letters|url=https://archive.org/details/rimbaud0000fowl_i3k6|last=Fowlie|first=Wallace|date=|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1966|isbn=978-022-6719-73-3|location=Chicago|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Fowlie|1966}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Ensiklopedia Sastra Dunia|last=Kurnia|first=Anton|date=|publisher=Diva Press|year=2019|isbn=978-602-3916-62-7|location=Bantul|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Kurnia|2019}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Rimbaud Complete|url=https://archive.org/details/rimbaudcomplete0000rimb|last=Mason|first=Wyatt|date=|publisher=Modern Library|year=2003|isbn=978-037-5757-70-9|location=New York|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Mason|2003}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=The Time of the Assassins: A Study of Rimbaud|last=Miller|first=Henry|date=|publisher=New Directions Publishing|year=1962|isbn=978-081-1201-15-5|location=New York|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Miller|1962}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Diskriminasi Rasial di Kota Kolonial: Salatiga 1917-1942|last=Prakosa|first=Abel Jatayu|publisher=Sinar Hidoep|year=2017|isbn=978-602-6196-60-6|location=Semarang|page=}} * {{Cite book|title=Semusim di Neraka|last=Rimbaud|first=Arthur|date=|publisher=Penerbit Jualan Buku Sastra|year=2020|isbn=978-623-9216-58-0|location=Yogyakarta|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Rimbaud|2020}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Rimbaud|url=https://archive.org/details/rimbaud0000grah|last=Robb|first=Graham|last2=|first2=|date=2001|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-033-0488-03-7|location=London|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Robb|2001}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Sejarah Kecil Indonesia-Prancis 1800–2000 (Petite Histoire de L'Indonesie et du Francais)|last=Rocher|first=Jean|last2=Santosa|first2=Iwan|date=2013|publisher=Kompas|isbn=978-979-7097-67-7|location=Jakarta|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Rocher|Santosa|2013}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Gedung-Gedung Tua yang Melewati Lorong Waktu Salatiga|last=Supangkat|first=Eddy|publisher=Griya Media|year=2019|isbn=978-623-7528-00-5|location=Salatiga|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Supangkat|2019}}}} * {{Cite book|title=Salatiga: Sketsa Kota Lama|last=Supangkat|first=Eddy|date=|publisher=Griya Media|year=2012|isbn=978-979-7290-68-9|location=Salatiga|page=|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Supangkat|2012}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|last=Supangkat|first=Eddy|date=|year=2020|title=Ensiklopedia Salatiga|location=Salatiga|publisher=Griya Media|isbn=978-623-7528-43-2|page=|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Supangkat|2020}}|url-status=live}} '''Jurnal''' * {{Cite journal|last=Rohman|first=Fandy Aprianto|year=Juni 2020|title=Administrasi Pemerintahan ''Gemeente'' di Salatiga 1917–1942|url=https://jurnalwalasuji.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/walasuji/article/view/64|journal=Walasuji|volume=11|issue=1|pages=|doi=|issn=2502-2229|ref={{sfnref|Rohman|2020}}}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618142759/https://jurnalwalasuji.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/walasuji/article/view/64 |date=2020-06-18 }} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{sister project links|b=no|n=no|v=no|wikt=no|author=yes|d=Q493}} * [http://www.jualbukusastra.com/2012/12/semusim-di-neraka-kumpulan-puisi-arthur.html Semusim di Neraka Cetakan Pertama] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101145951/http://www.jualbukusastra.com/2012/12/semusim-di-neraka-kumpulan-puisi-arthur.html |date=2021-11-01 }} * [http://www.jualbukusastra.com/2020/03/semusim-di-neraka-kumpulan-puisi-arthur.html Semusim di Neraka Cetakan Kedua] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101145950/http://www.jualbukusastra.com/2020/03/semusim-di-neraka-kumpulan-puisi-arthur.html |date=2021-11-01 }} * [https://www.rimbaudverlaine.org/en/ Yayasan Rimbaud & Verlaine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204164806/https://www.rimbaudverlaine.org/en |date=2020-12-04 }} 6ayb1xl8v1rqhfwl23y74pnixakog3d 0 102874 711856 681213 2026-08-07T05:55:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711856 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist | name = Eric W. Weisstein | image = <!--(filename only)--> | image_size = | alt = | caption = | birth_date = {{Birth date and age |1969|3|18|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Bloomington, Indiana]] | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = | residence = | citizenship = [[Amérika Sarikat]] | nationality = | fields = [[Astronomi]] [[élmu kaplanétan|kaplanétan]], [[fisika]], [[matematika]] | workplaces = [[Wolfram Research]] | alma_mater = [[Universitas Cornell]] (BA), [[Institut Teknologi California]] (MS jeung PhD) | doctoral_advisor = Dewey Muhleman | academic_advisors = | doctoral_students = | notable_students = | known_for = ''[[MathWorld]]'', ''[[ScienceWorld]]'', ''[[CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics]]'' | author_abbrev_bot = | author_abbrev_zoo = | influences = | influenced = | awards = | signature = <!--(filename only)--> | signature_alt = | footnotes = | spouse = }} '''Eric Wolfgang Weisstein''' (gumelar 18 Maret 1969) nyaéta énsiklopédiwan anu nyiptakeun tur ngokolakeun ''[[MathWorld]]'' jeung ''Eric Weisstein's World of Science'' (''[[ScienceWorld]]''). Anjeunna mangrupa panulis ''[[CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics]]''. Kiwari, anjeunna gawé di [[Wolfram Research]], Inc. == Catetan suku == {{Reflist|colwidth=50em}} == Rujukan == * [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/about/author.html Eric Weisstein's Biography] at ''MathWorld'' * [http://www.ericweisstein.com/info/cv.html Eric Weisstein's Curriculum Vitae] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127091206/http://www.ericweisstein.com/info/cv.html |date=2013-01-27 }} * [http://www.ericweisstein.com/research/thesis/ Eric Weisstein's Doctoral Thesis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924001841/http://www.ericweisstein.com/research/thesis/ |date=2015-09-24 }} * [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/info/faq.html FAQ] at ''ScienceWorld'' * [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/about/faq.html FAQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040216032943/http://mathworld.wolfram.com/about/faq.html |date=2004-02-16 }} at ''MathWorld'' * {{cite book|last= Weisstein|first= Eric|title= CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics|url= https://archive.org/details/crcconciseencycl0000weis|publisher= CRC Press|date= 1999 }} ** [http://www.echarcha.com/f*orum/archive/index.php/t-19516.html "Mathworld" and its saga of a legal battle with CRC Publishers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705193505/http://www.echarcha.com/f*orum/archive/index.php/t-19516.html |date=2015-07-05 }}{{Pranala paéh|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ** [http://www.ericweisstein.com/authors-rights/ CRC Lawsuit Frequently Asked Questions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408051621/http://www.ericweisstein.com/authors-rights/ |date=2013-04-08 }} ** [http://www.ericweisstein.com/authors-rights/updates.html Updates about the CRC Lawsuit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408052034/http://www.ericweisstein.com/authors-rights/updates.html |date=2013-04-08 }} == Tutumbu kaluar == * {{Official website|http://www.ericweisstein.com/}} ;Énsiklopédia :Réngsé ::* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com ''MathWorld''] ::* [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com ''ScienceWorld''] :Keur dimekarkeun ::* [http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/books/ Scientific Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218045312/http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/books/ |date=2019-02-18 }} ::* [http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/life/ Game of Life in Cellular Automata Theory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621202845/http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/life/ |date=2018-06-21 }} ::* [http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/music/ Music] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711010428/http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/music/ |date=2018-07-11 }} ::* [http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/rockets/ Rocketry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207130654/http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/rockets/ |date=2017-12-07 }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Weisstein, Eric W.}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1969]] [[Kategori:Matematikawan Amérika Sarikat abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Matematikawan Amérika Sarikat abad ka-21]] [[Kategori:Énsiklopédiwan Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Alumni Institut Téhnologi California]] [[Kategori:Alumni Universitas Cornell]] [[Kategori:Wolfram Research]] 9va5rd4ealjdu82yw5c51h0cez1oagp 0 103020 711552 662240 2026-08-06T22:57:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711552 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} {{Taxobox | name = Melianthus | image = Melianthus_major_1.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = ''M. major'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Geraniales]] | familia = [[Melianthaceae]] | genus = '''''Melianthus''''' | genus_authority = [[L.]] | subdivision_ranks = Spésiés | subdivision = * ''[[Melianthus comosus]]'' * ''[[Melianthus major]]'' * ''[[Melianthus pectinatus]]'' }} '''''Melianthus''''' mangrupikeun genus [[Tutuwuhan kembangan|pepelakan kembangan]] anu asalna tina padang rumput hejo di [[Afrika Kidul]]. Ngaran umum pikeun pepelakan ieu nyaéta '''kembang madu''', anu ogé mangrupikeun tarjamahan basa Inggris tina nami Latin<ref name=AZPLA>{{cite book |last=Coombes |first=Allen J. |title=The A to Z of plant names |year=2012 |publisher=Timber Press |location=USA |isbn=9781604691962 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781604691962/page/312 312] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781604691962/page/312 }}</ref> Ngaran ieu ogé nempel kana spésiés '' M. comosus '' jeung '' M. utama'' nu kapanggih dina budidaya. Genus ngandung nepi ka genep [[spésiés]] evergreen shrubs. Aranjeunna gaduh daun anu ageung pinnate kalayan stipules anu menonjol, sareng ngadegkeun racemes kembang anu beunghar nectar.<ref name=RHSAZ>{{cite book|title=RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants |url=https://archive.org/details/azencyclopediaof0000unse |year=2008 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location=United Kingdom |isbn=1405332964 |pages=1136}}</ref> Bagian vegetatif pisan toksik.<ref name=han>{{cite journal |last=Hansen |first=Dennis M. |author2=Olesen, Jens M. |author3=Mione, Thomas |author4=Johnson, Steven D. |author5=Müller, Christine B. |title=Coloured nectar: distribution, ecology, and evolution of an enigmatic floral trait |journal=Biological Reviews |date=2007 |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=83–111 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.2006.00005.x |url=http://www.uwinst.uzh.ch/publications/ThesisHansen06.pdf |accessdate=1 May 2014 |pmid=17313525 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502032308/http://www.uwinst.uzh.ch/publications/ThesisHansen06.pdf |date=2 May 2014 }}</ref> ==Spéciés== Spésiés kaasup:<ref name=tpl>{{cite web|title=Melianthus|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Melianthus|work=The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1|accessdate=30 April 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219001340/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Melianthus |date=19 December 2021 }}</ref> *''[[Melianthus comosus]]'' <small>Vahl</small> *''[[Melianthus dregeanus]]'' <small>Sond.</small> *''[[Melianthus elongatus]]'' <small>Wijnands</small> *''[[Melianthus major]]'' <small>L.</small> *''[[Melianthus pectinatus]]'' <small>Harv.</small> *''[[Melianthus villosus]]'' <small>Bolus</small> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantklm/melianthusmajor.htm Planz Africa website on Melianthus major] {{Taxonbar|from=Q2618410}} [[kategori:Francoaceae]] [[kategori:Geraniales genera]] {{Geraniales-stub}} 3giltx9tk013i9l15cbkfqek9aby8qn 0 103021 711501 705724 2026-08-06T12:39:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 711501 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Network |name = Kompas TV |former_names = |logo = [[File:KOMPAS TV (2017).png|200px]] |type = [[Jaringan televisi]] |slogan = ''Independen, Terpercaya''<!-- slogan saat ini saja --> |country = {{flagcountry|Indonesia}} |language = [[Bahasa Indonesia]] |available = |established = |founded = |founder = [[Jakob Oetama]] |airdate = 1 Agustus 2011 |launch_date = 9 September 2011 |dissolved = |replaced_by = |market_share = |endowment = |revenue = |net_income = |license_area = |headquarters = [[Menara Kompas Multimedia|Menara Kompas]] Lt. 6, Jalan Palmerah Selatan Nomor 21, [[Gelora, Tanah Abang, Jakarta Pusat]] [[Indonesia]] 10270 |broadcast_area = [[Nasional]] |area = |erp = |owner = [[KG Media]] ([[Kompas Gramedia]])<!-- pemilik saat ini saja --> |parent = |groups = |affiliation = |affiliates = ''lihat [[#Jaringan siaran]]'' |former_affiliations= |key_people = [[Rikard Bagun]] (Direktur Utama)<br/>[[Lilik Oetama]] (Komisaris Utama) |test_card = |test_of-transmission = |picture format = [[1080i]] [[HDTV]] [[16:9]]<br/>{{small|(diturunkan menjadi [[576i]] [[16:9]] untuk umpan [[SDTV]])}} |servicename1 = Satelit |service1 = {{plainlist| * [[Telkom-4]] (gratis): 4104/H/1000 (DVB-S2/MPEG-4, [[Televisi resolusi standar|SD]]) * [[K-Vision]]: 108 * [[MNC Vision]]: 106 * [[Nex Parabola]]: 109 * [[Transvision]]: 814 }} |servicename2 = Kabel |service2 = [[First Media]]: 15 |servicename3 = [[IPTV]] |service3 = {{plainlist| * [[Biznet Home]]: 19 * [[IndiHome]]: 114 * [[MNC Play]]: 106 * [[MyRepublic Indonesia|MyRepublic]]: 555 }} |servicename4 = [[Televisi internet]] |service4 = {{plainlist| * Situs resmi: {{URL|http://www.kompas.tv/live/|Tonton langsung}} * [[UseeTV]]: {{url|https://useetv.com/live/kompastv|Tonton langsung}} * [[Vidio]]: {{url|https://www.vidio.com/live/874-kompas-tv|Tonton langsung}} * [[YouTube]]: {{URL|https://www.youtube.con/gIB2egm7tL8|Tonton langsung}} }} |servicename5 = |service5 = |servicename6 = |service6 = |servicename7 = |service7 = |servicename8 = |service8 = |servicename9 = |service9 = |servicename10 = |service10 = |servicename11 = |service11 = |servicename12 = |service12 = |servicename13 = |service13 = |servicename14 = |service14 = |website = {{URL|http://www.kompas.tv}} |footnotes = }} {{Infobox broadcast <!--khusus untuk stasiun lokal/induk di Jakarta--> | call_letters = Kompas TV | above = PT Cipta Megaswara Televisi<ref>[http://regional.kompas.com/read/2018/02/09/18163241/12-maret-kompastv-tayangkan-secara-langsung-debat-perdana-pilkada-jawa-barat 12 Maret, KompasTV Tayangkan Secara Langsung Debat Perdana Pilkada Jawa Barat]</ref> | station_logo = | logo_size = | logo_alt = | image = | image_size = | location = [[Jakarta Pusat]], [[DKI Jakarta]] | country = Indonesia | city = <!-- kota lisensi bila lokasinya berbeda --> | station_branding = | station_slogan = ''<nowiki>Independen, Terpercaya</nowiki>'' | analog = 25 UHF | digital = 40 UHF | virtual = | subchannels = | other_chs = | affiliations = Kompas TV (stasiun induk) | owner = {{plainlist| * [[Universitas Gunadarma|Megaswara Media]] (2004–2015) * [[Kompas Gramedia]] (2015–2018) * [[KG Media]] (2018–sekarang) }} | licensee = <!-- bila berbeda dengan pemilik --> | operator = <!-- bila berbeda dengan pemilik --> | founded = 18 Agustus 2004<Ref> [https://text-id.123dok.com/document/9ynxe5kpq-gambaran-umum-megaswara-tv.html 5.2 Gambaran Umum Megaswara TV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119061217/https://text-id.123dok.com/document/9ynxe5kpq-gambaran-umum-megaswara-tv.html |date=2021-11-19 }} </ref> | airdate = 7 November 2004 (sebagai [[MGSTV]])<Ref>[https://www.scribd.com/document/475868083/SEKERIPSI-BAB-1-SAMPE-3-2-rvisi-AutoRecovered SEKERIPSI BAB 1 SAMPE 3 (2) Rvisi (AutoRecovered)]</ref><br>28 Juni 2015 (sebagai Kompas TV, ''lihat [[#Sejarah]]'') | enddate = | callsign_meaning = '''''[[Kompas (surat kabar)|Kompas]] [[Televisi di Indonesia|TV]]''''' | sister_stations = {{plainlist| * [[KTV]] (2015–sekarang) * [[Gramedia TV]] (2016–sekarang) }} | former_callsigns = Megaswara TV (2004–2010)<br />MGSTV (2010–2013)<br />TV Plus! (2013–2015) | former_channel_numbers = 42 UHF (digital multipleks [[TVRI Jakarta]]) | former_affiliations = | effective_radiated_power = | HAAT = <!-- {{convert|height|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} --> | class = | facility_id = | coordinates = | licensing_authority = [[Kementerian Komunikasi dan Informatika Republik Indonesia]] | homepage = {{URL|http://www.kompas.tv}} }} '''Kompas TV''' nyaeta stasion TV swasta di Indonesia. <ref name="jaringannasional">[http://twitter.com/#!/KompasTV/status/106619131771629568 Tweet Kompas TV mengenai sistem berjaringan (1 dari 2)]</ref><ref name="jaringannasional2">[http://twitter.com/#!/KompasTV/status/106619277787922432 Tweet Kompas TV mengenai sistem berjaringan (2 dari 2)]</ref> Kompas TV dimiliki oleh [[KG Media]], anak usaha [[Kompas Gramedia]]. Diluncurkan awalnya sebagai penyedia konten dengan acara-acara berbasis hiburan pada 9 November 2011, perlahan-lahan statusnya berubah menjadi sebuah jaringan televisi, dan sejak 2016 acaranya menjadi berbasis berita sampai saat ini. Nama Kompas TV sendiri diambil dari [[surat kabar]] papan atas yang dimiliki oleh Kompas Gramedia, yaitu Harian ''[[Kompas (surat kabar)|Kompas]]''. == Sejarah == ===Latar belakang=== Keterlibatan Kompas Gramedia dalam industri penyiaran televisi telah dimulai sejak tahun 1996; saat harian ''[[Kompas (surat kabar)|Kompas]]'' membantu [[Indosiar]] dalam peliputan berita yang disiarkan dalam acara ''[[Fokus (acara televisi)|Fokus]]'' melalui 30% saham di perusahaan patungan PT Indomedia Wartatama.<Ref name="ishadi">Ishadi S.K. (2014). Media dan Kekuasaan: Televisi di Hari-hari Terakhir Presiden Soeharto. Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas</ref> Kerjasama tersebut berakhir saat perusahaan tersebut dibubarkan pada tahun 1999. Bahkan, Kompas Gramedia sendiri sesungguhnya sudah memiliki niat untuk mendirikan stasiun televisi swasta miliknya sendiri sejak 1970-an.<ref name="dtk1">[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Ub0TAQAAMAAJ&q=sukoyo+STARPAGE&dq=sukoyo+STARPAGE&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjI-ajmzcr0AhVeTWwGHVtFA_0Q6AF6BAgFEAI Tempo, Volume 30,Masalah 12-18]</ref> Namun, baru setelah [[Sejarah Indonesia (1998–sekarang)|Reformasi]] bergulir, Kompas Gramedia bisa mewujudkan mimpinya dengan mendirikan jaringan televisi baru bernama TV7 di tahun 2001. Sejak saham TV7 dibeli oleh pihak [[Trans Corp (1996–2013)|Trans Corp]] yang berdiri di bawah kepemimpinan [[Chairul Tanjung]] pada tahun 2006, nama TV7 diganti menjadi [[Trans7]]. Saham Kompas Gramedia terhadap Trans7 menurun menjadi hampir setengah dari Trans Corp. Kekurangberhasilan Kompas Gramedia dalam mengelola TV7, rupanya tidak menjadikan konglomerasi media ini "jera" dalam terjun ke industri penyiaran televisi. Pihak KKG rupanya menyadari, bahwa bisnis [[media cetak]] yang menjadi andalan mereka selama ini, tidak bisa terus diandalkan di masa depan, ditambah rasa menyesal karena kurang siap dan sabar dalam mengelola televisi sendiri.<ref>[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=XlH3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244&dq=TV7+Kompas&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjrqK3c5qP0AhWRyosBHThxAVAQ6AF6BAgDEAI#v=onepage&q=TV7%20Kompas&f=false Kompas Menjadi Perkasa Karena Kata]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=YePaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=TV7+KompasTV&source=bl&ots=ceswbzxBYp&sig=ACfU3U188s_TXfMV2ASktruZbdSENVAyTA&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKvYOxyqP0AhVb8HMBHTIMA1M4KBDoAXoECAcQAw#v=onepage&q=TV7%20KompasTV&f=false Media Power in Indonesia: Oligarchs, Citizens and the Digital Revolution]</ref> Maka, pada tahun 2008, KKG mendirikan sebuah perusahaan bernama [[Gramedia TV|PT Gramedia Media Nusantara]] yang awalnya akan disiapkan sebagai stasiun [[televisi berjaringan]] baru bernama Kompas Gramedia Televisi (KGTV) Network.<Ref>[https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2010/12/02/16362777/nan The Groove Bertemu Jubing dan Abdul di "Showcase"]</ref><ref>[https://money.kompas.com/read/2010/10/16/09281034/ikutan.audisi.penyiar.kompas.tv.yuk Ikutan Audisi Penyiar Kompas TV Yuk!]</ref> KGTV sendiri kemudian mulai menunjukkan kinerjanya dengan memproduksi beberapa acara bersama stasiun televisi lain.<ref>[https://www.kompasiana.com/bunbun/55008de9a333115263511e06/oh-sctv-atau-oh-kgtv Oh SCTV atau Oh KGTV?]</ref> Rencana pendirian televisi tersebut kemudian baru terealisasi pada 2011, dengan nama baru yaitu Kompas TV dan statusnya berubah menjadi penyedia konten (''content provider'') bagi sejumlah stasiun [[Daftar stasiun televisi lokal di Indonesia|televisi lokal]] di berbagai daerah Indonesia. Nama "Kompas TV" sendiri awalnya digunakan oleh bagian [[Kompas.com]] yang berisi video-video berita/informasi ataupun menyiarkan secara langsung ''live event'', yang bisa dikatakan sebagai "cikal-bakal" pendirian stasiun televisi ini.<ref>[https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2017/09/14/11520681/kompascom-reborn-2008-dan-satu-jiwa-visi-jakob-oetama?page=all Kompas.com “Reborn” 2008 dan Satu Jiwa Visi Jakob Oetama]</ref><Ref>[https://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2009/01/20/23131248/kompastv.live.streaming.pelantikan.barack.obama Kompas TV Live Streaming Pelantikan Barack Obama]</ref> Saat itu, Kompas TV sendiri dikonsepkan sebagai televisi yang bersifat inspiratif, menghibur dan acaranya berkualitas.<ref>[http://achmadfahlan.blogspot.com/2016/01/company-profile-kompas-gramedia-tv-kgtv.html Company Profile KOMPAS GRAMEDIA TV (KGTV)]</ref> Pasarnya sendiri ditargetkan sebesar 6%, dari segala jenis penonton.<ref>[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=6us8qakt4UkC&pg=PA295&lpg=PA295&dq=TV7+Kompas+TV+2011&source=bl&ots=ypaiRunsze&sig=ACfU3U2go2Oe81_znyS3-m8bGpbkWwOAGA&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6zID_1qP0AhVy4zgGHbq4D0Q4KBDoAXoECBMQAw#v=onepage&q=TV7%20Kompas%20TV%202011&f=false The Report: Indonesia, 2013 : Economy, Banking, Energy, Transport ...]</ref> Dalam persiapan siaran Kompas TV, telah dibangun gedung lima lantai yang diresmikan pada 14 Juli 2011<ref>[https://money.kompas.com/read/2011/07/14/11332798/Gedung.Kompas.TV.Diresmikan Gedung Kompas TV Diresmikan]</ref> dan studio berita yang diresmikan pada 6 September 2011.<ref>[https://travel.kompas.com/read/2011/09/06/11483784/studio.berita.kompas.tv.diresmikan Studio Berita Kompas TV Diresmikan]</ref> Karyawannya sendiri berasal baik dari rekrutan baru maupun jurnalis harian ''Kompas''.<ref>[https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2011/09/06/12035268/~Nasional Kompas TV Diperkuat Wartawan Kompas dan Pusat Informasi Kompas]</ref> [[File:Kompas-TV.png|250px|jmpl|ka|Logo pertama Kompas TV (1 Agustus-11 September 2011, 5 Oktober 2012-19 Oktober 2017)]] [[File:Logo Kompas Di Layar kaca.png|250px|jmpl|ka|Logo kedua Kompas TV (11 September 2011-5 Oktober 2012)]] ===Awal siaran=== Pada tanggal [[1 Agustus]] hingga [[8 September]] [[2011]], Kompas TV memulai siaran percobaan bersamaan dengan KTV selama 19 jam setiap hari mulai pukul 05.00 hingga 00.00 WIB, yang kemudian diperluas ke 8 stasiun televisi di sejumlah daerah pada 30 Agustus 2011.<ref>[https://money.kompas.com/read/2011/08/31/20074795/~Oase~Cakrawala KompasTV Mulai Dinikmati]</ref> Selanjutnya, pada tanggal [[9 September]] [[2011]], Kompas TV resmi diluncurkan dalam acara ''Simfoni Semesta Raya'' yang disiarkan oleh beberapa stasiun televisi lokal daerah. [[Jakob Oetama]] sendiri mengungkapkan harapannya dalam peluncuran itu agar Kompas TV dapat mencerahkan bangsa dan memperkaya manusia.<ref>[https://www.marketeers.com/kompas-tv-diluncurkan/ Kompas TV Diluncurkan]</ref> Walaupun demikian, kehadiran Kompas TV awalnya tidak mulus, karena menuai protes dari [[Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia]] (''lihat [[#Kontroversi]]''), sehingga pada tanggal [[11 September]] [[2011]], Kompas TV mengubah logonya dengan menghilangkan tulisan "TV" pada logo tersebut. Namun, pada akhirnya tulisan tersebut kembali digunakan mulai [[5 Oktober]] [[2012]] hingga [[19 Oktober]] [[2017]]. Kompas TV merupakan salah satu stasiun televisi pertama di Indonesia yang mengadopsi kualitas gambar beresolusi tinggi (''High Definition''), yang dahulu dinamakan Kompas HD. Kehadiran Kompas TV sendiri di [[Jabodetabek]], awalnya menggandeng salah satu televisi lokal asal [[Banten]] bernama [[KTV]] yang bersiaran di 28 UHF. Namun, pada saat itu, KTV sendiri mendapat izin siaran di [[Serang]], sedangkan siarannya dipancarkan dari [[Tangerang]], sehingga sejak 19 Desember 2011, pemerintah memaksa KTV memindahkan pemancarnya.<ref>[https://nasional.kontan.co.id/news/siaran-ktv-tak-lagi-bisa-dinikmati-warga-jabodetabek Siaran KTV tak lagi bisa dinikmati warga Jabodetabek]</ref> Akibatnya, KTV (dan Kompas TV) sempat tidak bisa dinikmati di Jakarta, hingga akhirnya mendapat izin dan mengudara kembali pada 22 Juni 2012.<ref>[https://davenirvana1.wordpress.com/2012/06/22/kompas-kembali-ke-jakarta/ KOMPAS Kembali ke Jakarta?]</ref><ref>[https://rinaldo92aldo.wordpress.com/2016/01/16/suara-indonesia-awal-baru-kompas-tv/ Suara Indonesia, Awal Baru Kompas TV]</ref> [[Syukuran]] atas kembali mengudaranya tersebut diadakan pada 28 Juni 2012 (menyamai hari lahir harian ''[[Kompas (surat kabar)|Kompas]]''), dan tanggal itu sempat dijadikan hari jadi Kompas TV selama beberapa waktu<ref>[https://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2014/06/28/ulang-tahun-ke-3-kompas-tv-bisa-disaksikan-lebih-100-kabupatenkota Ulang Tahun Ke-3, Kompas TV Bisa Disaksikan Lebih 100 Kabupaten/Kota]</ref><ref>[https://www.tribunnews.com/bisnis/2012/06/28/kompas-tv-adakan-syukuran-kembali-mengudara Kompas TV Adakan Syukuran Kembali Mengudara]</ref> sebelum akhirnya kembali ke 9 September beberapa tahun kemudian.<ref>[https://www.grid.id/read/042328271/gelar-perayaan-hut-kompastv-ke-9-kompastv-siapkan-sejumlah-rangkaian-kegiatan-menarik-yuk-intip?page=all Gelar Perayaan HUT KompasTV ke-9, KompasTV Siapkan Sejumlah Rangkaian Kegiatan Menarik, Yuk Intip!]</ref> Demi mencegah hal tersebut terulang, di tahun 2014,<ref>[https://jatmikadrawing.blogspot.com/2014/07/temen-tvplus.html?m=1 Temen TVplus!]</ref> Kompas TV mengambilalih suatu stasiun televisi lokal asal [[Bogor]] bernama TV Plus! yang bersiaran di 25 UHF. Badan hukum TV Plus! (PT Cipta Megaswara Televisi) kemudian dijadikan sebagai pengelola dari Kompas TV dan induk dari jaringannya di seluruh Indonesia (sebelumnya, juga dilakukan upaya pembentukan badan hukum/usaha baru dengan nama PT Kompas TV Media Televisi dan mengurus izinnya, tetapi tidak terealisasi dan kemudian dijadikan badan hukum jaringannya di Gorontalo).<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 November 2015|title=Data Rekomendasi Perusahaan Televisi Siaran Tahun 2010-2014|url=https://data.jakarta.go.id/dataset/data-rekomendasi-perusahaan-televisi-siaran/resource/d02fae85-fa64-4d73-a6bd-f15bf77928bb|website=data.jakarta.go.id}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202051920/https://data.jakarta.go.id/dataset/data-rekomendasi-perusahaan-televisi-siaran/resource/d02fae85-fa64-4d73-a6bd-f15bf77928bb |date=2 December 2021 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Puncaknya, pada [[28 Juni]] [[2015]], siaran Kompas TV pun berpindah ke 25 UHF, sedangkan TV Plus! menjadi di 32 UHF dan berganti nama menjadi [[MGSTV]].<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kVx3Ior51E Testimone Presenter 25 UHF (Promo)]</ref><ref>[https://davenirvana1.wordpress.com/2015/06/29/kompas-tv-ktv-dan-tvplus/ KOMPAS TV, ktv, dan tvPlus!]</ref> Dengan perpindahan frekuensi ini, diharapkan terjadi peningkatan kualitas siaran, sehingga Kompas TV bisa menaikkan ''rating''-nya.<ref>[https://industri.kontan.co.id/news/hijrah-frekuensi-kompastv-incar-kenaikan-rating Hijrah frekuensi, KompasTV incar kenaikan rating]</ref> Sementara itu, berbeda dari KTV yang kemudian dipisahkan operasionalnya dan acaranya dari Kompas TV, perlahan-lahan sejak 2014, jaringan dari stasiun televisi ini (kecuali RBTV Yogyakarta) diubah namanya menjadi Kompas TV + nama daerah (seperti Kompas TV Surabaya dari sebelumnya BCTV), mengisyaratkan Kompas TV kini berubah menjadi sebuah jaringan televisi nasional dari sebelumnya hanya ''content provider''.<ref>[https://davenirvana1.wordpress.com/2014/02/10/akhirnya-semua-jadi-kompas-tv/ Akhirnya, Semua Jadi KOMPAS TV]</ref> Diperkirakan, pada 2016, terdapat 30 stasiun televisi lokal yang menjadi jaringan Kompas TV.<ref>[https://wartakota.tribunnews.com/2016/01/28/kompas-tv-inspirasi-suara-indonesia Kompas TV Inspirasi Suara Indonesia]</ref> Awalnya, program Kompas TV lebih menekankan acara-acara hiburan, terutama yang bersifat mendidik dan melokal yang dirintis salah satunya oleh [[Indra Yudhistira]]. Karena itulah, tidak seperti stasiun televisi hiburan lainnya yang banyak berbasis [[sinetron]], program stasiun televisi ini didominasi oleh acara [[dokumenter]], [[gelar wicara]], ''[[edutainment]]'', [[kuis]], dan lainnya. Walaupun demikian, Kompas TV juga memiliki porsi penayangan acara berita yang jauh lebih banyak dibanding stasiun televisi lain yang berbasis hiburan pada saat itu. Tidak mendapatkan hasil yang memuaskan dari acara-acara tersebut, Kompas TV kemudian mencoba penayangan acara lain, seperti olahraga. Tercatat, pada tahun [[2013]], Kompas TV memegang hak siar [[Fußball-Bundesliga|Bundesliga]] (hanya musim 2013-2015) dan [[Serie A 2014–2015]] lewat kerjasama dengan [[beIN Sports]]. Kompas TV juga pernah menayangkan ajang balap mobil [[Formula Satu]] (hanya musim 2012 dan 2013) lewat kerjasama [[Fox Sports Asia|Fox Sports]] dan hak siar kompetisi/turnamen olahraga lainnya seperti bulutangkis (di bawah bendera ''House of Badminton''), voli, dan lain-lain. ===Penegasan sebagai televisi berita=== Memasuki Juli 2015 (setelah perpindahan frekuensi),<ref>[https://davenirvana1.wordpress.com/2015/07/24/kompas-tv-perkuat-identitas-sebagai-tv-berita/ KOMPAS TV Perkuat Identitas sebagai TV Berita]</ref> di bawah [[Rosiana Silalahi]], Kompas TV perlahan-lahan mengubah ''programming''-nya ke arah penayangan acara berbasis informasi dan berita, ditambah mengurangi acara hiburan. Pada akhirnya, di tanggal [[28 Januari]] [[2016]], Kompas TV berfokus menjadi saluran berita dalam perhelatan ''Suara Indonesia'' sampai saat ini.<ref>[http://industri.kontan.co.id/news/tahun-ini-kompas-tv-fokus-jadi-media-berita Tahun Ini, Kompas TV Fokus Jadi Media Berita]</ref><ref>[https://rinaldo92aldo.wordpress.com/2016/01/16/suara-indonesia-awal-baru-kompas-tv/ Suara Indonesia, Awal Baru Kompas TV]</ref><ref>[https://suarpemancar.com/menengok-pola-acara-kompastv-setelah-1-dekade/ Menengok Pola Acara KompasTV Setelah 1 Dekade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120051438/https://suarpemancar.com/menengok-pola-acara-kompastv-setelah-1-dekade/ |date=2021-11-20 }}</ref> Perubahan ini didasari karena selama ini publik sudah kadung mengenal Kompas sebagai nama surat kabar (sumber berita), ditambah upaya sinergi bersama harian ''Kompas'' dan [[Kompas.com]]. Untuk memperkuat ''branding'' tersebut, pada 19 Oktober 2017, Kompas TV juga mengubah logonya dengan menghilangkan ikon "K" pada logo tersebut (sehingga mirip dengan harian ''Kompas'') dan slogannya juga berganti menjadi "Independen <nowiki>|</nowiki> Terpercaya".<ref>[https://docplayer.info/177443671-Bab-iv-pembahasan-strategi-branding-kompastv-sebagai-televisi-berita-independen-dan-terpercaya.html BAB IV. PEMBAHASAN STRATEGI BRANDING KOMPASTV sebagai TELEVISI. BERITA INDEPENDEN dan TERPERCAYA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122165354/https://docplayer.info/177443671-Bab-iv-pembahasan-strategi-branding-kompastv-sebagai-televisi-berita-independen-dan-terpercaya.html |date=2021-11-22 }}</ref> Sebenarnya, ide penghilangan ikon "K" tersebut sudah direncanakan sejak tahun 2016, tetapi baru terealisasi setahun kemudian.<ref>[https://www.behance.net/gallery/33742482/KOMPAS-TV-2016-ON-AIR-RE-BRAND KOMPAS TV 2016 ON AIR RE-BRAND] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125184403/https://www.behance.net/gallery/33742482/KOMPAS-TV-2016-ON-AIR-RE-BRAND |date=2021-11-25 }}</ref> Walaupun sudah menjadi televisi berita, Kompas TV tetap menayangkan beberapa acara hiburan, seperti ''[[Stand Up Comedy Indonesia Kompas TV|Stand up Comedy Indonesia]]'' dan sejumlah program olahraga. Pada tanggal [[29 Juli]] [[2018]], untuk pertama kalinya dalam sejarah, Kompas TV menjadi televisi nasional pertama yang menayangkan cabang [[olahraga elektronik]] secara gratis di Indonesia lewat siaran langsung Grand Final turnamen [[Mobile Legends: Bang Bang|Mobile Legends]] Southeast Asia Cup 2018. Lalu, melalui kerjasama dengan [[Fox Sports Asia|Fox Sports]] dan [[Mola|Mola TV]], Kompas TV akan menayangkan ajang balap motor internasional yaitu [[Kejuaraan Dunia Superbike]] mulai musim 2020 dan hanya menayangkan sesi balapan kedua saja. == Jaringan siaran == === Jaringan terestrial === Kompas TV mulai mengudara secara luas pada tanggal [[9 September]] [[2011]] melalui [[televisi berjaringan|jaringan]] televisi lokal di daerah. Siaran stasiun televisi lokal tersebut terdiri dari 70% siaran yang direlai dari Kompas TV dan sisa 30%-nya merupakan siaran yang dikelola sendiri. Pada awalnya, Kompas TV menggandeng 9 televisi lokal, yaitu [[KTV]] ([[Jakarta]]), STV ([[Bandung]]), TVB ([[Semarang]]), BCTV ([[Surabaya]]), Mos TV ([[Palembang]]), Khatulistiwa TV ([[Pontianak]]), [[Agropolitan TV|ATV]] ([[Malang]]), Makassar TV ([[Makassar]]), dan Dewata TV ([[Denpasar]]).<ref>[https://regional.kompas.com/read/2011/09/01/03135341/kompastv.warnai.televisi.nasional. KompasTV Warnai Televisi Nasional]</ref> Direncanakan, kota-kota besar lain akan menyusul kemudian. Bahkan, sebagian besar kota sudah siap menyiarkan jaringan Kompas TV dengan membangun [[Stasiun relai televisi|stasiun relai]] dan dalam tahap siaran percobaan, seperti di [[Yogyakarta]], [[Purwokerto]], [[Cirebon]], dan kota-kota besar lain yang memiliki jaringan Kompas Gramedia atau disesuaikan dengan terbitnya koran [[Kompas (surat kabar)|Kompas]] di seluruh [[Indonesia]]. Seiring waktu, Kompas TV berhasil memperluas jangkauannya hingga ke seluruh Nusantara, dan tercatat kini telah mengudara dari Banda Aceh sampai Merauke. Menurut data [[Izin Penyelenggaraan Penyiaran]] (IPP) [[Kementerian Komunikasi dan Informatika Republik Indonesia|Kementerian Komunikasi dan Informatika RI]] (Kemenkominfo), Kompas TV saat ini disiarkan melalui 36 stasiun televisi yang dimiliki oleh 29 perusahaan (termasuk stasiun dan perusahaan induknya),<ref name=":0"/> dan menjangkau 29 dari 34 provinsi di Indonesia. Berikut ini adalah transmisi Kompas TV dan stasiun afiliasinya (sejak berlakunya UU Penyiaran, stasiun TV harus membangun stasiun TV afiliasi di daerah-daerah/[[Sistem televisi berjaringan di Indonesia|bersiaran secara berjaringan]] dengan stasiun lokal). Data dikutip dari IPP Kemenkominfo.<ref name=":0">[https://e-penyiaran.kominfo.go.id/uploads/informasi/4be6453eb9b45d3e3370ede9c586ce84.pdf DAFTAR IZIN PENYELENGGARAAN PENYIARAN LEMBAGA PENYIARAN TELEVISI YANG SUDAH DITERBITKAN OLEH MENTERI KOMINFO SAMPAI DENGAN NOVEMBER 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127204006/https://e-penyiaran.kominfo.go.id/uploads/informasi/4be6453eb9b45d3e3370ede9c586ce84.pdf |date=2021-01-27 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Nama Perusahaan !Nama Stasiun !Daerah !Frekuensi Analog ([[PAL]]) !Frekuensi Digital ([[DVB-T2]]) |- | PT Cipta Megaswara Televisi | Kompas TV | [[DKI Jakarta]], [[Bogor]], [[Depok]], [[Tangerang]], [[Bekasi]] | 25 [[UHF]] | 40 UHF |- |PT Bayanaka Multimedia Digital | Kompas TV Pekalongan |[[Brebes]], [[Kota Tegal|Tegal]], [[Pemalang]], [[Pekalongan]] |26 UHF |44 UHF |- |rowspan=2|PT Pratama Cipta Digital | Kompas TV Madiun |[[Madiun]], [[Magetan]], [[Kabupaten Ngawi|Ngawi]], [[Ponorogo]] |22 UHF |30 UHF |- | [[Kompas TV Palembang]] |[[Palembang]] |60 UHF |35 UHF |- |PT Oxcy Media Televisi | [[Kompas TV Jawa Timur]] |[[Surabaya]], [[Lamongan]], [[Gresik]], [[Mojokerto]], [[Pasuruan]], [[Bangkalan]] |40 UHF |27 UHF |- |rowspan=2|PT Jember Mutiara Nunggal Resti | Kompas TV Jember |[[Jember]] |54 UHF |45 UHF |- | Kompas TV Ambon |[[Kota Ambon|Ambon]] |60 UHF | |- |PT Syiar Media | [[Kompas TV Malang]] |[[Malang]], [[Kota Batu]] |62 UHF |27 UHF |- |PT Reksa Birama Media | [[RBTV]] |[[Kota Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]], [[Bantul]], [[Wonosari]], [[Sleman]], [[Wates]], [[Solo]] |40 UHF |47 UHF<ref>[https://www.facebook.com/groups/357305085288304/posts/572224613796349 Kompas TV, UHF 47 area Yogyakata & Solo Raya...]</ref> |- |PT Balakosa Media Digital |Kompas TV Kediri |[[Kediri]], [[Pare, Kediri|Pare]], [[Kertosono, Nganjuk|Kertosono]], [[Jombang]], [[Blitar]], [[Tulungagung]] |45 UHF |48 UHF |- |PT Media Khatulistiwa Televisi | [[Kompas TV Pontianak]] |[[Pontianak]] |39 UHF |<!--41 UHF--> |- |PT Borneo Television | Kompas TV Banjarmasin |[[Banjarmasin]], [[Martapura]], [[Marabahan]] |46 UHF |37 UHF |- |rowspan=2|PT Mediatama Amrita Digital | Kompas TV Balikpapan |[[Balikpapan]] |52 UHF |44 UHF |- | Kompas TV Lampung |[[Bandar Lampung]], [[Kota Metro]] |62 UHF | |- |rowspan=2|PT Mahkota Ogan Sumatera | [[Kompas TV Sumsel]] |[[Kayu Agung, Ogan Komering Ilir]] |52 UHF | |- | Kompas TV Tenggarong |[[Tenggarong]], [[Samarinda]] |29 UHF |31 UHF |- |PT Kompas TV Aceh-Bangka | Kompas TV Bangka |[[Pangkal Pinang]] |31 UHF | |- |rowspan=2|PT Kompas TV Media Informasi | Kompas TV Kupang |[[Kupang]] |58 UHF | |- | Kompas TV Medan |[[Medan]] |59 UHF |30 UHF |- |rowspan=2|PT Papua Sorta Televisi | Kompas TV Merauke |[[Merauke]] |48 UHF | |- | Kompas TV Sorong |[[Sorong]] |30 UHF | <!--|- | Kompas TV Jayapura |[[Kota Jayapura|Jayapura]] | |34 UHF--> |- |PT Alternatif Media Televisi | Kompas TV Riau |[[Pekanbaru]] |59 UHF |<!--33 UHF--> |- |PT Makassar Lintas Visual Cemerlang | [[Kompas TV Makassar]] |[[Makassar]], [[Maros]], [[Sungguminasa]], [[Pangkajene, Pangkajene dan Kepulauan|Pangkajene]] |23 UHF | |- |PT Kompas TV Media Televisi | Kompas TV Gorontalo |[[Kota Gorontalo|Gorontalo]] |54 UHF |<!--31 UHF--> |- |PT Pasundan Utama Televisi | [[Kompas TV Jawa Barat]] |[[Bandung]], [[Cimahi]], [[Padalarang]], [[Cianjur]] |34 UHF |45 UHF |- |PT Televisi Semarang Indonesia | [[Kompas TV Jawa Tengah]] |[[Semarang]], [[Ungaran]], [[Kendal]], [[Demak]], [[Jepara]], [[Kabupaten Kudus|Kudus]] |47 UHF |42 UHF |- |PT Andalan Utama Sukabumi | [[Kompas TV Sukabumi]] |[[Sukabumi]] |30 UHF |45 UHF |- |PT Televisi Antero Nusantara | [[Kompas TV Aceh]] |[[Banda Aceh]] |24 UHF |33 UHF |- |PT Televisi Tanah Liat Semesta | Kompas TV Purworejo |[[Purworejo]] |59 UHF | |- |PT Mediantara Televisi Bali | [[Kompas TV Dewata]] |[[Kota Denpasar]] |23 UHF | |- |PT Swara Alam Kendari Televisi | [[Kompas TV Kendari]] |[[Kendari]] |32 UHF | |- |PT Pacific Televisi Anugerah | [[Kompas TV Manado]] |[[Manado]] |46 UHF |<!--35 UHF--> |- |PT Batanghari Televisi Indonesia |Kompas TV Jambi |[[Kota Jambi|Jambi]] |47 UHF |<!--32 UHF--> |- |rowspan=2|PT Bengkulu Televisi | [[Kompas TV Bengkulu]] |[[Kota Bengkulu|Bengkulu]] |38 UHF | |- | Kompas TV Batam |[[Kota Batam|Batam]] | |46 UHF |- |PT Sulteng Senegor Televisi | Kompas TV Palu |[[Kota Palu|Palu]], [[Donggala]] |55 UHF | |- | | |[[Nunukan]] | |28 UHF <!--|- | | |[[Palangka Raya]] | |42 UHF |- | | |[[Kota Ternate|Ternate]] | |40 UHF--> |- | | |[[Meulaboh]] | |38 UHF |- <!--| |[[Purwokerto]], [[Banyumas]], [[Purbalingga]], [[Kebumen]], [[Cilacap]] | |40 UHF |- | |[[Sumedang]] | |41 UHF |- | |[[Cirebon]] | |41 UHF |- | |[[Garut]] | |40 UHF |---> |} === Jaringan lainnya === Sejak tanggal 9 September 2011, Kompas TV juga dapat disaksikan di [[televisi berlangganan]] sebagai berikut: {{col-css3-begin|2}} * [[K-Vision]] * [[First Media]] * [[IndiHome]] * [[Skynindo]] * [[MNC Vision]] * [[Transvision]] * [[MNC Play]] * [[Biznet Home]] * [[UseeTV]] * [[Vision+]] * [[Vidio]] {{col-css3-end}} Kompas TV dapat juga disaksikan secara [[siaran gratis]] melalui parabola di satelit [[Telkom-4]]. == Acara == {{Main|Daftar acara Kompas TV}} Sebagian besar acara Kompas TV adalah acara-acara berita dan faktual, dengan sedikit sisanya adalah acara hiburan. ''[[Kompas (acara televisi)|Kompas]]'' adalah acara berita induk Kompas TV, yang terdiri dari beragam acara dari pagi hingga malam hari. ''[[Sapa Indonesia]]'' merupakan acara gelar wicara andalan yang tayang di pagi dan malam hari. Acara hiburan di Kompas TV di antaranya audisi ''[[Stand Up Comedy Indonesia Kompas TV|Stand Up Comedy Indonesia]]'' dan ''Kata Kita''. == Presenter == {{Main|Daftar penyiar Kompas TV}} == Direksi == === Daftar direktur utama === {| class="wikitable" |- ! No. ! Nama ! Awal jabatan ! Akhir jabatan |- | 1 | [[Bimo Setiawan]] | [[2011]] | [[2018]] |- | 2 | [[Rikard Bagun]] | [[2018]] | sekarang |} === Direksi saat ini === {| class="wikitable" |- ! Nama ! Jabatan |- | [[Lilik Oetama]] | Komisaris Utama |- | [[Rikard Bagun]] | Direktur Utama |- | [[Rosianna Silalahi]] | Direktur Pemberitaan |- | [[Andreas Tirta Riyanto|Andreas Tirtarianto]] | Direktur Teknologi |- | [[Uncu Putra]] | Direktur Pemrograman |- | [[Andreas Tirta Riyanto|Andreas Tirtarianto]] | Direktur Operasional |} == Slogan utama == * Inspirasi Indonesia (9 September 2011-28 Januari 2016) * Berita dan Inspirasi Indonesia (28 Januari 2016-19 Oktober 2017) * <nowiki>Independen, Terpercaya</nowiki> (19 Oktober 2017-sekarang) == Kontroversi == Kehadiran Kompas TV dipersoalkan oleh [[Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia]] (KPI) melalui siaran pers tanggal 7 September 2011. Dalam siaran pers tersebut, KPI menilai Kompas TV belum memiliki izin sebagai lembaga penyiaran sehingga belum dapat mengatasnamakan diri sebagai badan hukum lembaga penyiaran. KPI juga berpendapat bahwa praktik sistem siaran berjaringan hanya dapat dilakukan pada sesama lembaga penyiaran yang telah memiliki Izin Penyelenggaraan Penyiaran (IPP) tetap, sementara Kompas TV bersiaran melalui sejumlah stasiun televisi lokal yang sebagian besar hanya memiliki IPP prinsip. Logo Kompas TV pada layar televisi di sejumlah stasiun televisi lokal juga dinilai menyembunyikan/mengaburkan/memperkecil identitas atau logo stasiun televisi lokal tersebut, tidak sesuai dengan eksistensi dari stasiun televisi lokal tersebut yang telah cukup lama menempuh proses perizinan dengan semangat lokal yang perlu didorong.<ref>[http://www.detiknews.com/read/2011/09/09/145016/1718997/10/kpi-kompas-tv-tidak-punya-izin KPI: Kompas TV Tidak Punya Izin]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kpi.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=30139%3Alegal-opinion-komisi-penyiaran-indonesia-kpi-terhadap-kompas-tv-ktv-yang-bersiaran-pada-beberapa-stasiun-televisi-lokal-di-sejumlah-daerah&catid=14%3Adalam-negeri-umum&lang=id |title=Legal Opinion Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia (KPI) Terhadap Kompas TV yang Bersiaran Pada Beberapa Stasiun Televisi Lokal di Sejumlah Daerah |access-date=2011-09-10 |archive-date=2011-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119233158/http://kpi.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=30139%3Alegal-opinion-komisi-penyiaran-indonesia-kpi-terhadap-kompas-tv-ktv-yang-bersiaran-pada-beberapa-stasiun-televisi-lokal-di-sejumlah-daerah&catid=14%3Adalam-negeri-umum&lang=id |dead-url=yes }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119233158/http://kpi.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=30139%3Alegal-opinion-komisi-penyiaran-indonesia-kpi-terhadap-kompas-tv-ktv-yang-bersiaran-pada-beberapa-stasiun-televisi-lokal-di-sejumlah-daerah&catid=14%3Adalam-negeri-umum&lang=id |date=2011-11-19 }}</ref> Kompas TV menanggapi siaran pers KPI tersebut dengan menegaskan bahwa Kompas TV hanya merupakan penyedia konten, sehingga yang memerlukan izin siaran adalah stasiun televisi lokal yang menjadi mitra siaran berjaringan di daerah.<ref>[http://www.detiknews.com/read/2011/09/09/150628/1719018/10/kompas-tv-kami-content-provider-tidak-perlu-izin-siaran Kompas TV: Kami Content Provider, Tidak Perlu Izin Siaran]</ref> Isu pengambilalihan kepemilikan saham Dewata TV oleh Kompas TV membuat pihak [[Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia|KPID Bali]] mulai mengambil tindakan. Namun, itu tidak terbukti. Hanya saja, beberapa program Dewata TV mengalami penghapusan dan hanya disiarkan di jam-jam tertentu saja.<ref>[http://metrobali.com/?p=1524 KPID Bali Sidak ke Kantor Dewata TV, Saham Dewata TV Tidak Dijual ke Kompas TV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713131326/https://metrobali.com/kpid-bali-sidak-ke-kantor-dewata-tv-saham-dewata-tv-tidak-dijual-ke-kompas-tv/ |date=2023-07-13 }}</ref> Namun, penayangan Kompas TV di Dewata TV membuat Dewata TV harus mengganti Izin Penyelenggaraan Penyiaran (IPP) dari status IPP prinsip yang hanya boleh dimiliki oleh stasiun televisi lokal Independen, menjadi IPP tetap.<ref>[http://regional.kompas.com/read/2012/07/20/2322438/Dewata.TV.Terima.Izin.Siaran.Tetap Dewata TV Terima Izin Siaran Tetap]</ref> == Referensi == {{reflist|2}} == Pranala luar == * {{id}} {{resmi|www.kompas.tv}} * {{facebook|kompastv}} * {{twitter|kompastv}} * {{instagram|kompastv}} {{Kelompok templat |list1 = {{Saluran berita internasional}} {{TelevisiIndonesia}} {{Kompas Gramedia}} {{Penyiar Kompas TV}} {{Acara Kompas TV}} {{ATVNI}} }} [[Kategori:Stasiun televisi Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Stasiun televisi yang berdiri pada tahun 2011]] [[Kategori:Saluran berita internasional]] [[Kategori:Pendirian tahun 2011 di Indonesia]] jl50twvcxvp5z2ak2f3ey8thwub29c6 0 103171 711832 624041 2026-08-07T05:29:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711832 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Supa béas | image = Schizophyllum commune (Split gill) (33389628036).jpg | image_size = 250px | image_caption =Schizophyllum commune | regnum = Fungi | divisio =Basidiomycota | classis = Agaricomycetes | ordo = Agaricales | familia =Schizophyllaceae | genus =Schizophyllum | species = S. commune | binomial =Schizophyllum commune | binomial_authority = | synonyms = {{Collapsible list Agaricus alneus L. (1755) Agaricus alneus Reichard (1780) Agaricus multifidus Batsch (1786) Merulius alneus (L.) J.F.Gmel. (1792) Merulius alneus (Reichard) Schumach. (1803) }}}} '''''Supa béas''''' nyaéta hiji spésiés [[supa]] anu aya dina genus ''[[Schizophyllum]]''.<ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =15|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 1 Jan 2022}}</ref> Wujudna kawas ombak cai atawa gundukan batu karang. Palebah "Gillies"na kelirna bodas nepika semu [[konéng]]. Palebah luhurna [[pileus (mycology)|tutup]] katempona leutik, 1–4.5&nbsp;cm rubak, katempona pejel tapi geunyal. Ieu supa sok disebut ogé supa asang lauk, duméh palebah handapna katempo gillesna ngentép kawas asang lauk. Ieu supa kapanggih hirup ampir di sakuliah dunya.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kuo |first1=M. |title=''Schizophyllum commune'' |url=https://www.mushroomexpert.com/schizophyllum_commune.html |website=Mushroom Expert |access-date=18 February 2020 |date=2003}}</ref> Hirup liar bijil dina [[catang]] [[kai]] anu geus bobo, utamana réngsé usum hujan manjing ka halodo. Ieu supa mimiti merentis jaradi kalayan sok ngahaja diarala keur anu buarutuheunmah. Utamana Ngahaja di kumpulkeun pikeun bahan nyieun [[ubar]], kalawan kiwari geus diproduksi dina ukuran industri salaku ''immunomodulator, antijamur, antineoplastic'' sarta ''antiviral, activities'' anu leuwihluhur tibatan ''glucan'' ''complex carbohydrate''. ==Ciri mandiri== ''Schizophyllum commune'' ilaharna digambarkeun salaku ''morphological'' spésiés anu geus loba kapanggih hirup, tapi numutkeun hasil panalungtikan anu leuwih jero kana rupa-rupa spésiés anu ngalimpudan sababaraha spésiés jauh anu henteu loba dipikawanoh, sababaraha supa mibanda sipat pikeun ''Basidiomycota''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=John|last2=Turner|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Townsend|first3=Jeffrey|last4=Dettman|first4=Jeremy|last5=Jacobson|first5=David|title=Eukaryotic microbes, species recognition and the geographic limits of species: examples from the kingdom Fungi|journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B|date=2006|volume=361|issue=1475|pages=1947–1963|doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1923|pmc=1764934|pmid=17062413}}</ref> Asangna (gills), anu ngahasilkeun [[basidiospora]] palebah luarna, baris beulah mangsa supa ngagaringan, nya alatan éta pisan, supa ieu sok disarebut supa ''split gill''.<ref>{{citation | pmc = 100249 | pmid = 10398676 |date=Jul 1999 |author1=Guarro, J |author2=Genéj |author3=Stchigel, Am | title = Developments in Fungal Taxonomy | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 454–500 | issn = 0893-8512 | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | doi=10.1128/CMR.12.3.454}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chowdhary | first1 = A | last2 = Kathuria | first2 = S | last3 = Agarwal | first3 = K | last4 = Meis | first4 = JF | date = Nov 2014 | title = Recognizing filamentous basidiomycetes as agents of human disease: A review | journal = Med Mycol | volume = 52 | issue = 8| pages = 782–97 | doi = 10.1093/mmy/myu047 | pmid = 25202126 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Ieu supa mibanda 23.328 jinis kelamin anu béda - béda.<ref name="Kothe 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Kothe |first1=Erika |title=Mating types and pheromone recognition in the homobasidiomycete ''Schizophyllum commune'' |journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology |volume=27 |issue=2–3 |year=1999 |pages=146–152 |doi=10.1006/fgbi.1999.1129}}</ref> ''Individu'' tina jinis ''kelamin'' naon waé bisa kompatibel pikeun kawin jeung sakabéhna kajaba jinis ''kelamin'' manéhna sorangan. Sanajan kitu, Aya dua ''lokus'' genetik nangtukeun jenis kawin, lokus A kalawan 288 ''[[allele]]''s sarta ''lokus'' B mibanda 81 ''alleles''. Sapasang supa ngan bakal subur lamun boga ''allele'' A jeung B anu béda;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kothe|first=Erika|date=1996|title=Tetrapolar fungal mating types: Sexes by the thousands|journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews|volume=18|issue=1|pages=65–87|doi=10.1016/0168-6445(96)00003-4|pmid=8672296|doi-access=free}}</ref> nyaéta, unggal ''kelamin'' bisa asupkeun pasangan subur kalawan 22.960 batur. ''[[Hydrophobin]]'' munggaran diisolasi tina ''Schizophyllum commune''. [[Génom]] tina ''Schizophyllum commune'' diurutkeun dina 2010.<ref>{{citation |date=Jul 2010 | pages = 957–63 | issue = 9 | volume = 28 | author =Robin A Ohm | last2 = De Jong | first2 = JF | last3 = Lugones | first3 = LG | last4 = Aerts | first4 = A | last5 = Kothe | first5 = E | last6 = Stajich | first6 = JE | last7 = De Vries | first7 = RP | last8 = Record | first8 = E | last9 = Levasseur | first9 = A | last10 = Baker | first10 = Scott E | last11 = Bartholomew | first11 = Kirk A | last12 = Coutinho | first12 = Pedro M | last13 = Erdmann | first13 = Susann | last14 = Fowler | first14 = Thomas J | last15 = Gathman | first15 = Allen C | last16 = Lombard | first16 = Vincent | last17 = Henrissat | first17 = Bernard | last18 = Knabe | first18 = Nicole | last19 = Kües | first19 = Ursula | last20 = Lilly | first20 = Walt W | last21 = Lindquist | first21 = Erika | last22 = Lucas | first22 = Susan | last23 = Magnuson | first23 = Jon K | last24 = Piumi | first24 = François | last25 = Raudaskoski | first25 = Marjatta | last26 = Salamov | first26 = Asaf | last27 = Schmutz | first27 = Jeremy | last28 = Schwarze | first28 = Francis W M R | last29 = Vankuyk | first29 = Patricia A | last30 = Horton | first30 = J Stephen | title = Genome sequence of the model mushroom Schizophyllum commune | journal = Nature Biotechnology | doi = 10.1038/nbt.1643 | pmid = 20622885| display-authors = 8 | doi-access = free }}</ref> ==Kulinér== Sanajan sababaraha sumber nyebutkeun ieu suung teu bisa di dahar, alatan ukuranna leutik tur liat. Tina spésiésna anu teu matak weureu.<ref name="Miller 2006">{{cite book|last=Miller Jr.|first=Orson K.|title=North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi|url=https://archive.org/details/northamericanmus0000mill|last2=Miller|first2=Hope H.|publisher=[[FalconGuide]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7627-3109-1|location=Guilford, CN|pages=[https://archive.org/details/northamericanmus0000mill/page/139 139]|author-link=Orson K. Miller Jr.}}</ref> Dina 2006, éta loba dikonsumsi di Mexico jeung di tempat séjén di wewengkon tropis.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ruán-Soto|first1=F.|last2=Garibay-Orijel|first2=R.|last3=Cifuentes|first3=J.|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|date=2006|volume=2|issue=1|page=3|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-2-3|title=Process and dynamics of traditional selling of wild edible mushrooms in tropical Mexico|pmc=1360659|pmid=16393345}}</ref> Di [[India Wétan]], di nagara [[Manipur]] éta katelah ''kanglayen'' sarta salah sahiji bahan dipikaresep pikeun [[Manipuri cuisine|Manipuri]]-gaya pancakes disebut ''paaknam''. Di [[Mizoram]], ngaran lokal nyaéta ''pasi'' (''pa'' hartina ''supa'', ''si'' hartina ''leutik'') jeung éta hiji tina pangluhurna dipeunteun supa bisa didahar diantara masarakat Mizo. Para pangarang/panulis sumanget ngaguar ieu supa, ''rubbery'' [[suung]] di wewengkon [[tropis]] salaku konsékuénsi kanyataan yén ieu supa lembut, suung ''fleshy'' gancang garing dina kondisi panas tur beueus, ngajadikeun masalah pamasaran maranéhanana. ==Gambar tambahan== <gallery> File:Schizophyllum commune, Fuzzy Fungi.jpg|''Schizophyllum commune'' [[Elk Grove, Illinois]] File:Schizophyllum commune - Nature does pleats.jpg|''Schizophyllum commune'' in [[Missouri]], US File:Split-gill bottom shot.jpg|''Schizophyllum commune'' [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]] Lõhkislehik.jpg|''Schizophyllum commune'' in [[Estonia]] </gallery> ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|2 }} ==Tutumbu ka luar == *{{Commons-inline|Schizophyllum commune}} *{{Wikispecies-inline|Schizophyllum commune}} * [http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Schizophyllum_commune.html "Schizophyllum commune"], MykoWeb * [http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/feb2000.html "Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month for February 2000] {{Taxonbar|from=Q941733}} [[Kategori:Schizophyllaceae]] [[Kategori:Supa]] 3bsbyxfscl2d56an0t3c45xtpsyqw14 0 103175 711533 708838 2026-08-06T22:31:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711533 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Supa acung | image = Phallus indusiatus from Kerala, India - 20090824.jpg | image_size = 250px | image_caption =Phallus indusiatus | regnum = Fungi | divisio =Basidiomycota | classis = Agaricomycetes | ordo = Phallales | familia =Phallaceae | genus =Schizophyllum | species = Phallus indusiatus | binomial = | binomial_authority = | synonyms = {{Collapsible list | Dictyophora indusiata | Hymenophallus indusiatus }}}} '''''Supa acung '''''; Phallus indusiatus dina basa [[Inggris]] disebut ''bamboo mushrooms'', ''bamboo pith''; ''long net stinkhorn'', ''crinoline stinkhorn'' aya ogé ''veiled lady'', nyaéta supa anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Phallaceae]], atawa ''stinkhorns''. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =11|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/11/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 25 Mei 2021}}</ref> Ieu supa loba kapanggih hirup di daérah [[tropis]], kayaning di [[Asia Kidul]], [[Afrika]], [[Amérika]], sareng [[Australia]], di mana éta supa hirup di [[leuweung]] sareng [[kebon]] anu di jero taneuhna loba mibanda [[kai]] anu bobo tur geus buruk. ==Ciri mandiri == Ieu supa mibanda ciri anu mandiri tayalian tiungna anu ngawujud kawas [[locéng]] sarta bijil kulambu ''(indusium)'' kawas rok [[awéwé]] ngagantung tina handapeunana, ngagapuy ampir ngangsar kana [[taneuh]] . Ieu supa mimiti didadarkeun sacara ilmiah dina taun 1798 ku ahli ''[[botani]]'' urang [[Prancis]]; [[Étienne Pierre Ventenat]], spésiésna remen disebut kana genus anu misah ''Dictyophora'' babarengan jeung anu séjén ''Phallus'' spésiés anu sarua nembongkeun ''indusium''. ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' tiasa dibédakeun tina spésiés anu sami bédana dina tataran biologi, ukuran, kelir, sareng panjang ''indusium''. Supa anu geus déwasa jangkungna nepi ka {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} kalayan rubak tiungna/topina anu kawas locéng/[[pileus]] {{convert|1.5|–|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} . Kedokna ditutupan ku spora semu héjo, ieu dipikaresep pisan ku [[laleur]] sarta [[gegeremet]] anu ngahakan spora. Ieu supa tiasa didahar, ngeunaan hal ieu tos diguar salaku bahan sayuran jeung kadaharan dina catetan bangsa [[Cina]] /''Chinese cuisine''. Tayalian diasakan kujalan digoréng atawa dicampur sareng sop [[hayam]]. Supa ieu, dipelak sacara komérsial sareng loba dijual di ''supermarket'' di Nagara-nagara "[[Asia]], ieu supa euyeub ku [[protéin]], [[karbohidrat]], jeung [[dietary fiber]]. Supa ieu ogé ngandung sagala rupa [[sanyawa bioaktif]], sareng gaduh pasipatan [[antioksidan]] jeung [[antimikroba]]. ''Phallus indusiatus'' ngabogaan sajarah anu kacatet kagunaan salaku ubar di Nagara Cina saméméh abad ka-7, Maséhi. ==Sajarah taksonomi== ''Phallus indusiatus'' mimitina diguar ku naturalis Perancis [[Étienne Pierre Ventenat]] dina taun 1798,<ref name="Ventenat 1798"/> sareng nami anu sangsi kénéh ku [[Christiaan Hendrik Persoon]] dina 1801.<ref name="Persoon 1801"/> Saurang pangarang sacara ''anonim'' masihan kesan-kesan na ngeunaan pamanggih Ventenat dina publikasina taun 1800: <blockquote>Ieu spésiés supa anu éndah, mibanda ciri mandiri pikeun ngabédakeun unggal individu tina kelas anu sanés, hirup di Guyana Walanda, kurang leuwih 300 léngkah ti laut, sareng ampir dugi ka belah kénca walungan Surinam. Éta dikomunikasikeun ka kuring ku kokolot Vaillant,<ref group=N>Bapana Ventenat langkung kawéntar [[François Levaillant]], salaku anu resep ngalalana sareng ornithologist, ogé mangrupikeun sodagar Metz anu janten konsul Perancis di Guyana Belanda dugi ka 1763.</ref> Saha anu mendakanana di 1755 dina sababaraha taneuh anu tara kungsi kaséblok ku ombak anu luhur, sareng diwangun ku keusik bodas anu alus pisan, ditutupan ku lapisan taneuh anu ipis. Kuantitas anu luar biasa pikeun jalma ti spésiés ieu anu tumuh dina waktos anu sami, jaman anu béda pisan tina ékspansi aranjeunna, jaman anu béda pisan tina ékspansi sumbangan, némbongkeun prospék anu saé pisan.<ref name="Anonymous 1800"/></blockquote> Ieu supa teras disimpen dina genus énggal, ''Dictyophora'', dina taun 1809 ku [[Nicaise Auguste Desvaux]];<ref name="Desvaux 1809"/> éta teras dipiwanoh mangtaun-taun salaku ''Dictyophora indusiata''.<ref name="Kirk 2008"/> [[Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck]] disimpen spésiésna di ''Hymenophallus'' dina 1817, salaku ''H.&nbsp;indusiatus''.<ref name="Nees 1817"/> Duanana antukna dipulangkeun ka [[sinonim (taksonomi) | sinonim]] '' [[ Phallus]] '' sareng spésiésna ayeuna dipiwanoh deui ku nami aslina.<ref name="urlMycoBank: Hymenophallus indusiatus"/><ref name="Kirk 2008"/> [[Curtis Gates Lloyd]] dijelaskeun dina [[variety (botany)|variety]] '' rochesterensis '' taun 1909, asalna salaku spésiés énggal, ''Phallus rochesterensis''. Éta aya di [[Kew, Victoria | Kew]], Australia.<ref name="Lloyd 1902"/>Kalayan [[Wangun (botani) | wujud]] indusium mibanda kelir kayas dilaporkeun ku [[Vincenzo de Cesati]] dina 1879 salaku ''Hymenophallus roseus'', sareng teras disebat ''Dictyophora indusiata'' f.&nbsp;''rosea'' Ku [[Yosio Kobayasi]] dina taun 1965;<ref name="urlMycoBank: Dictyophora indusiata f. rosea"/> éta sinonim sareng '' [[Phallus cinnabarinus]] ''.<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus cinnabarinus"/> Hiji takson dijelaskeun dina 1936 salaku ''Dictyophora lutea''<ref name="Liou 1936"/> sarta dipiwanoh sababaraha taun salaku '' Dictyophora indusiata '' f. '' lutea '', '' D. indusiata '' f. '' aurantiaca '', atanapi '' Phallus indusiatus '' f. '' citrinus '', sacara formal dipindahkeun ka '' Phallus '' di 2008 salaku spésiés anu béda, ''[[Phallus luteus]]''.<ref name="Kasuya 2008"/> Nami botani asalna tina kecap [[Latin]] ''indūsǐātus'', hartina "maké baju jero".<ref name="Simpson 1979"/> Tilas nami generik ''Dictyophora'' asalna tina kecap [[Yunani kuno]] [https://archive.is/20121215125021/http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.17:6:14.LSJ {{lang|grc|δίκτυον}}] (''diktyon'', "net"), and [https://archive.is/20121215062110/http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.79:3:158.LSJ {{lang|grc|φέρω}}] (''pherō'', "to bear"), hence "bearing a net".<ref name="Desvaux 1809"/><ref name="Liddell 1940"/> ''Phallus indusiatus'' mibanda loba ngaran, aya anu dumasar kana rupana, kaasup panjangna kulambu/stinkhorn, ''crinoline'' ''stinkhorn'',<ref name="Hall p.19">Hall (2003), p. 19.</ref> karinjang stinkhorn,<ref name="Arora 1986"/> supa tiung panganten,<ref name="Habtemariam 2019"/> sareng jilbab/tiung awéwé. Dina basa Jepang ngaranna {{Nihongo||衣笠茸 or キヌガサタケ|Kinugasatake}}, asalna tina kecap ''kinugasa'', nunjul kana topi lega-''brimmed'' anu katempo kawas tiung [[sutra]] ngagantung pikeun nyumput sareng nyibuatan anu makéna.<ref name="Inoki 2006"/> Dina basa [[Cinangsi, Cisitu, Sumedang|Cina]] ngaran umum ieu supa nunjul kana habitatna: "bamboo mushroom" ({{zh|s=竹荪|t=竹蓀|p=zhúsūn}}).<ref name="Ying 1987"/> ==Ciri anu mandiri== [[File:Dictyophora indusiata. Cooktown, Australia. 2010.JPG|thumb|left|''Dictyophora indusiata'' kapanggih dina [[Cooktown, Australia]]. Indisium téh "rok" anu ngagapuy handapeun tutupna]]. Supa anu ngora kénéh ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' mimitina wujudna kawas [[endog]] dugi ka buleud, anu tayalian ieu téh [[peridium]] atawa bungkus spora/pibiniheun. Kelirna bodas, sakapeung aya ogé anu semu beureum. Gedé buleudan/ diaméterna {{convert|6|cm|in|abbr=on}}, sareng biasana ngagaduhan [[mycelial cord]] kandel anu napel dina handapeunna.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Nalika supa parantos asak/kolot, tekenan anu disababkeun ku struktur internal anu ngagedéan nyababkeun peridium nepi ka luhur sareng awak buah/tangkal gancang bijil tina "endog". Supa anu geus asak/kolot mibanda ukuran dugi ka {{convert|25|cm|in|abbr=on}} jangkungna, kalawan mibanda lamad [[indusium]] (kawas rok) anu ngagantung tina handapeun tiung/congcotna. Bukaan netlike tina indusium tiasa ngawujud poligonal atanapi ngawujud buleud.<ref name="Chang p.344"/> Spesimen anu dikembangkeun kalayan saé ngagaduhan indusium anu dugi ka [[Volva (mycology)|volva]] sareng suar sakedik sateuacan lesot dina gagang.<ref name="Dissing 1962"/> Rubak tutup atawa tiung {{convert|1.5|–|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}, sarta mibanda zat anu kaangseu na bau. Luhureun tutup aya liang leutik.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Panjang gagangan {{convert|7|–|25|cm|in|abbr=on}},<ref name="Chang p.344">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 344.</ref> sarta kandelna {{convert|1.5|–|3|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}. Tangkalna bodas, rubakna kurang leuwih sarua jeung panjangna, sakapeung melengkung, hampos kawas busa. Ieu peridium baris lalesotan tina tangkalna.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Awak buah ngembang/ngagedéan nalika wengi,<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> waktu anu dibutuhkeun pikeun mangkak kurang leuwih 10–15 jam, saatos bijil tina peridium.<ref>Chang & Miles (2004), [https://books.google.com/books?id=XO4EGzpp1M0C&pg=PA348 p. 348.]</ref> Hirupna teu lila paling ngan sababaraha poé.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/>. us), sareng ukuran 2-3 ku 1–1.5&nbsp;μm.<ref name="Trierveiler 2009"/> ===Spésiés anu sami=== {{multiple image | header = Compared to ''Phallus indusiatus'' ... | align = right | image1 = 2012-07-24 Phallus multicolor crop.jpg | width1 = {{#expr: (200 * 574 / 715) round 0}} | caption1 = ... ''P. multicolor'' is smaller and more brightly coloured | image2 = Phallus luteus.jpg | width2 = {{#expr: (200 * 4000 / 6000) round 0}} | caption2 = ... ''P. luteus'' is bright yellow }} ''[[Phallus multicolor]]'' saliwat mah katempo sarimbag, pédah mibanda tiung anu katempona leuwih béngras, ukuran indusiumn ilaharna langkung leutik. Éta aya di Australia, [[Guam]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Borneo]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Zaire]], jeung [[Tobago]] <ref name="Burk 1978"/> ogé [[Hawaii]]. Topi spésiés Indo-Pasipik ''[[Phallus merulinus|P.&nbsp;merulinus]]'' katempo leueur nalika ditutupan gleba, sareng pias tur karijut saatosna gleba pareum. Sabalikna, tutup liar tina mah ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ngagaduhan réklikasi anu jelas anu tetep katingali jelas handapeun gleba. Ogé, indusium tina ''P.&nbsp;merulinus'' langkung lemes sareng langkung pondok tibatan ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', anu matak moal matak runtuh alatan kabeuratan.<ref name="Reid 1977"/> Biasa di Amérika Kalér wétan sareng Jepang, ogé kapanggih hirup.<ref name="Kibby 2012"/> Spésiésna ''[[Phallus duplicatus|P.&nbsp;duplicatus]]'' ngagaduhan indusium anu ngagantung langkung alit {{convert|3|–|6|cm|in|abbr=on}} ti handapeun tutupna, sareng sakapeung lésot tina gagangna.<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus duplicatus"/> Kapendak di Asia, Australia, Hawaii, kidul Mexico, sareng Amérika Tengah sareng Amérika Kidul,<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus cinnabarinus"/> ''P.&nbsp;cinnabarinus'' grows to {{convert|13|cm|in|abbr=on}} jangkung, sareng ngagaduhan bau anu langkung nyereng tibatan ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus''. Éta bauna ngondang laleur tina genus ''[[Lucilia]]'' (kulawarga [[Calliphoridae]]), aya ogé lalay tina genus ''[[Musca]]'' sok ngadeukeutan éta supa ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus''.<ref name="Lee 1957"/> ''[[Phallus echinovolvatus|P.&nbsp;echinovolvatus]]'', geus diguar di nagara Cina dina taun 1988, raket patalina sareng ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', tapi tiasa dibédakeun ku volvana anu spiky/mancung ([[wikt:echinulate|echinulate]]) , suhu tempat hirup anu pikaresep langkung luhur tina {{convert|30|to|35|C|F}}.<ref name="Zeng 1988"/> ''P.&nbsp;luteus'', asalna dianggap salaku ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', boga cap retikulasi konéng, indusium konéng, sareng kayas janten peridium ungu beureum sareng rhizomorphs. Éta aya di Asia sareng Mexico.<ref name="Kasuya 2008"/> ==Ékologi sareng tempat hirup== ''Phallus indusiatus'' loba kapanggih hirup di wewengkon [[tropical]], kaasup Afrika (Congo,<ref name="Dissing 1962"/> Nigeria,<ref name="Oso 1976"/> Uganda,<ref name="Maitland 1917"/> sareng Zaire<ref name="Demoulin 1975"/>) Amerika kalér (Brazil<ref name="Trierveiler 2009"/> Guyana,<ref name="Wakefield 1934"/> sareng Venezuela<ref name="Dennis 1960"/>), America tengah (Costa Rica),<ref name="Saenz 1982"/> and Tobago.<ref name="Dennis 1953"/> Di Amérika Kalér, kisaranana dugi ka Mexico.<ref name="Guzman 1973"/> Lokalitas Asia kalebet Indonésia, Nepal, Malaysia,<ref name="Oldridge 1986"/> India,<ref name="Lloyd 1902"/> Cina Kidul, Jepang,<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> sareng Taiwan.<ref name="Chang 2000"/> Éta ogé parantos dikumpulkeun di Australia.<ref name="Smith 2005"/> Sarua jeung spésiés ''Phallus'' lianna, ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' nyaéta [[saprobik]] - nurunkeun nutrisi tina ngarobog kai sareng melak zat organik. Tangkalna sakapeung hirup nyorangan sanajan kitu aya ogé dina wujud dapuran, dina taneuh anu mibanda potongan kai di jerona. Di Asia, éta tuwuh dina leuweung [[awj]], jeung ilaharna jaradi saatos hujan ageung.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/><ref>Hall (2003), [https://books.google.com/books?id=yqHA_M7BVRcC&pg=PA247 p. 247].</ref> Cara réproduksi pikeun stinkhorn, kalebet ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', bénten sareng anu sanésna [[agaric]] supa, anu mana sorana haliber /forcibly eject. Stinkhorn malah ngahasilkeun jisim spora anu napel dina awakna, ngahasilkeun sickly-sweet bau tina [[carrion]].<ref name="Chang p.346">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 346.</ref> Seungitna tina spora anu asak - tiasa kaangseu tina jarak anu jauh - matak pikaresepeun pikeun [[gegeremet]] anu sok ngakuan sporana.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> Spésiés anu kacatet kalebet kana [[stingless bees]] tina genus ''[[Trigona]]'',<ref name="Oliveria 2000"/> sareng lalay tina kulawarga [[Drosophilidae]] jeung [[Muscidae]]. Gegeremet ngabantosan ngaliarkeun spora ku nyéépkeun gleba sareng nyimpen kotoran anu ngandung spora [[germination|germinate]] di tempat séjén.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> Sanaos kagunaan tina indusium henteu dipikaterang sacara pasti, éta sacara visual tiasa ngadatangkeun gegeremet anu kataji ku bauna, sareng tiasa jadi [[tarajé]] pikeun gegeremet ngarayap Nepi ka gleba/luhur.<ref name="Kibby 1994"/> ==Kuliner sareng budidaya== [[File:Bamboo pith mushroom.jpg|thumb|left|Supa anu dijual garing sareng biasana dikeueum/rehidrasi sateuacan asak]] [[File:Tom yuea phai.jpg|thumb|left|''Tom yuea phai'' tayalian olahan has [[Thailand]] didamel ku ieu supa]] Di Asia wétan, ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' dianggap ngeunah sareng hiji [[aphrodisiac]].<ref name="Roberts 2011"/> Saméméhna ngan ukur ngala/ngumpulkeun ti alam liar, di mana henteu tiasa seueur, éta sesah pikeun dipulut. Kurangna supa hartosna éta biasana disimpen kanggo acara-acara khusus. Dina jaman [[Cina]] [[Dinasti Qing]], spésiésna dikumpulkeun di provinsi [[Yunnan]] sareng dikirim ka Kota Larang/Istana Kaisar pikeun nyugemakeun tuangeun [[Permaisuri Dowager Cixi]], anu resep pisan nuang rupa-rupa supa anu tiasa didahar.<ref>Hu (2005), pp. 94–5.</ref> Éta mangrupikeun salah sahiji tina dalapan bahan anu diulas tina "Sarang Burung Kadalapan Dalapan Kalanggengan" dilayanan dina pésta pikeun ngarayakeun ulang taun ka 60 na. Piring ieu, dilayanan ku katurunan ti [[Tangkal kulawarga Confucius dina garis katurunan utama | Kulawarga Confucius]] dina hajatan sareng pésta umur panjang, ngandung bahan-bahan anu "sadaya tuangeun anu mahal, ngeunah ti darat sareng laut, seger, lembut, sareng garing, pantes amis sareng asin".<ref>Hu (2005), p. 96.</ref> Pamakéan anu kasohor anu séjén nyaéta jamuan nagara anu diayakeun pikeun diplomat Amérika [[Henry Kissinger]] dina [[1972 kunjungan Nixon ka Cina | kunjungan ka Cina]] pikeun ngawangun deui [[hubungan Sino-Amérika | hubungan diplomatik]] dina awal taun 1970an.<ref name="Chang 04">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 343.</ref> Hiji sumber nyerat: "Éta supa ngagaduhan tékstur anu hipu sareng leuleus, seungit sareng pikaresepeun, wujudna seger, sareng karaos garing."<ref>Hu (2005), p. 110.</ref> Supa anu garing, biasa dijual di supermarket jeung pasar di [[Asia]], diolah ku jalan ngahidrasi atawa dikeueuman heula atanapi dibaseuhan dina cai dugi ka leuleus deui.<ref name="Halpern 2007"/> Sakapeung diasakan kujalan digoréng, remen dimangpaatkeun salaku campuran sop hayam.<ref name="Dunlop 2003"/> .<ref name="Newman 1999"/> ''Phallus indusiatus'' parantos [[Fungiculture|cultivated]] dina skala komérsial di Cina ti saprak 1979.<ref name="Chang 04" /> Di [[Provinsi Fujian]] Cina - dipikaterang ku industri supa anu maju dugi ka ngokolakeun 45 spésiés supa anu tiasa didahar - "P. indusiatus '' dihasilkeun di [[County (Républik Rahayat Cina) | kabupatén]] [[Fuan]], [[Jianou]], sareng [[Ningde]].<ref name="Hu 2004"/> Kamajuan dina widang budidaya ieu parantos ngajantenkeun harga supa langkung mirah sareng hasil panén langkung seueur; taun 1998, kurang leuwih {{convert|1100|MT}} anu dihasilkeun ti Nagara China.<ref name="Hall p.19"/> Harga di Hong Kong sakilo sup garing ngahontal US&nbsp;$770 in 1982, tapi parantos turun ka US&nbsp;$100–200 by 1988. Ku majuna téhnologi nyababkeun éta harga ragrag langkung jauh ka US&nbsp;$10–20 by 2000.<ref name="Chang 04"/> Supa dipelak dina limbah tatanén — runtah-awi anu ditutupan ku lapisan ipis tina taneuh anu henteu disterilkeun. Suhu optimal pikeun tumuh supa [[spawn]] jeung awak buah kurang leuwih {{convert|24|C|F}}, kalayan kaayaan beueus/lembab/ [[humidity]] dina 90–95%.<ref name="Yang 1987"/> [[Substrat]] (biologi) anu tiasa dianggo pikeun ngokolakeun jamur kalebet daun awi sareng régangna, cangkang atanapi tangkal kadelé, tangkal jagong, sareng daun [[willow]].<ref name="Zhou 1989"/> Analisis gizi '' P. indusiatus '' nunjukkeun yén awak buah mibanda langkung ti 90% [[cai]], sakitar 6% fiber, 4,8% protéin, 4,7% fat/gajih, sareng sababaraha unsur [[mineral]], kalebet [[kalsium]], sanajan kitu komposisi [[mineral]] anu dipibanda tiasa gumantung kana konséntrasi anu pakait dina substrat mangsa hirupna.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sitinjak RR. |title=The Nutritional Content of the Mushroom ''Phallus indusiatus Vent.'', which Grows in the Cocoa Plantation, Gaperta-Ujung, Medan |journal=Der Pharma Chemica |year=2017 |volume=9 |issue=15 |pages=44–47 |url=https://www.derpharmachemica.com/pharma-chemica/the-nutritional-content-of-the-mushroom-phallus-indusiatus-vent-which-grows-in-the-cocoa-plantation-gapertaujung-medan.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Carita rakyat== Numutkeun ka étnomikologis [[R. Gordon Wasson]], ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ieu supa tos ilahar dikonsumsi di Méksiko [[divinatory]] dina hiji upacara alatan wujudna anu sugestif. Di nagara séjén, [[New Guinea]] pribumina nganggap ieu supa suci.<ref name="Spooner 1994"/> Di Nigeria, supa mangrupikeun salah sahiji sababaraha bau anu dibéré nami ''Akufodewa'' ku Urang Yoruba. Ngaranna diturunkeun tina gabungan basa [[Yoruba]] tina kecap ''ku'' ("die"), ''fun'' ("for"), ''ode'' ("tukang moro"), jeung ''wa'' ("milarian"), alatan tukang moro mangsa harita sok salah ngangseu bau- bau supa éta kawas bau sato udagan anu geus paéh.<ref name="Oso 1975"/> Yoruba parantos dilaporkeun nganggona ieu supa salaku hiji sarat pikeun [[Jampé]] sangkan mangsana moro henteu pinanggih jeung bahaya. Di bagian sanés Nigeria, aranjeunna parantos dianggo dina nyiapkeun pesona anu ngabahayakeun ku kelompok etnis sapertos urang Urhobo jeung [[Ibibio urang]]. [[Urang Igbo]] beulah wétan-tengah Nigeria disebut stinkhorn ''éró ḿma'', tina [[basa Igbo | Igbo]] kecap pikeun "supa" sareng "kageulisan".<ref name="Oso 1976"/> ==Pasipatan biologis== Sipat ubar parantos dipasihkeun ''Phallus indusiatus'' ti jaman [[Dynasty Tang]] di Cina, nalika éta dijelaskeun dina [[pharmacopoeia]]. Supa dianggo pikeun ngubaran seueur [[inflammation|peradangan | radang]], [[nyeri beuteung]], jeung [[neurological/ saraf. Tiongkok Kidul [[Urang Miao]] ngamangoaatkeun sacara tradisional pikeun sababaraha kasakit, kaasup raheut, [[batuk]], [[disentri]], [[enteritis]], [[leukemia]], kalawan parantos diresépkeun sacara klinis salaku ubar pikeun [[laringitis]], [[leucorrhea]], [[muriang]], sareng [[oliguria]] (hésé kahampangan), [[diare]], [[hipertensi]], batuk , [[hyperlipidemia]], sareng dina terapi antikanker.<ref name="Ker 2011"/> Élmu modéren parantos niténan ​​dasar biokimia tina kauntungan ubar putative ieu. Awak buah tina jamur ngandung [[kagiatan biologis | aktip sacara biologis]] [[polysaccharide]]s. A [[beta-glucan|β-<small>D</small>-glucan]] called T-5-N and prepared from [[alkaline]] extracts<ref name="Ukai 1982"/> has been shown to have [[anti-inflammatory]] properties.<ref name="Hara 1982"/> Struktur kimia na mangrupikeun ranté tulang tonggong anu linier anu seueur didamelna α-1→3 linked <small>D</small>-[[Mannose|mannopyranosyl]] residues, kalayan ngambah tina 1→6 linked <small>D</small>-mannopyrosyl residues.<ref name="Ukai 1980"/> Polisakarida ngagaduhan aktivitas penekanan ngalawan tumor (subcutaneously) implanted [[sarcoma]]&nbsp;180 (a transplantable, [[metastasis|non-metastasizing]] jaringan konéktif [[tumor]] sering dianggo dina panilitian) dina beurit.<ref name="Hara 1982"/><ref name="Ukai 1983"/> {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 200 | image1 = Hydroxymethylfurfural.png | alt1 = Chemical structure of Hydroxymethylfurfural | caption1 = Hydroxymethylfurfural inhibits the enzyme tyrosinase. | image2 = Albaflavenone.png | alt2 = Chemical structure of Albaflavenone | caption2 = Albaflavenone has antibiotic properties. }} Bahan kimia sanés dipikaresep ogé kapendak ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' tayalian [[hydroxymethylfurfural]],<ref name="Sharma 2004"/> anu parantos narik perhatian salaku [[tyrosinase]] panghambat. Tyrosinase catalyzes léngkah awal tina [[melanogenesis]] dina mamalia, <ref name="Chang 2009"/><ref name="Sharma 2004"/> ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ogé ngandung [[ribonuclease]] unik (hiji [[énzim]] anu ngepak [[RNA]] kana komponén anu langkung alit) ngagaduhan sababaraha ciri biokimia anu ngabédakeun tina ribonuklease supa anu dipikaterang.<ref name="Wang 2003"/> Dua novel [[sesquiterpene]] s, [[dictyophorine]] A sareng B, parantos dikenalkeun tina awak buah jamur. Sanyawa ieu, dumasar kana kerangka eudesmane (struktur umum anu aya dina rasa tur parfum anu diturunkeun ku pepelakan), anu mimiti eudesmane [[derivative (chemistry)|derivatives]] diisolasi tina jamur sareng dipendakan pikeun ngamajukeun sintésis [[faktor pertumbuhan saraf]] dina [[sél astroglial]] s.<ref name="Kawagishi 1997"/> Senyawa anu aya hubunganana anu diisolasi sareng diidentifikasi tina jamur kalebet tilu turunan [[quinazoline]] (kelas sanyawa anu jarang di alam), dictyoquinazol A, B, sareng C.<ref name="Lee 2002"/> Bahan kimia ieu ditingalikeun dina tés laboratorium ngagaduhan pangaruh pelindung kana [[sél budaya | berbudaya]] beurit [[neuron]] s anu parantos kakeunaan [[neurotoxin]] s.<ref name="Liu 2005"/>[[Total sintésis]] pikeun dictyoquinazols dilaporkeun dina 2007.<ref name="Oh 2007"/> Jamur parantos lami dipikaterang ngagaduhan sipat [[antibakteri]]: nambahkeun supa kana kuah sop dipikaterang pikeun nyegah sangkan teu ruksak sahenteuna pikeun sababaraha dinten.<ref name="Huang 2011"/> Salah sahiji antibiotik anu tanggung jawab, [[albaflavenone]], diisolasi dina 2011. Éta mangrupikeun [[sesquiterpenoid]] anu parantos dipikaterang tina baktéri taneuh '[[Streptomyces albidoflavus]]''.<ref name="Huang 2011"/> Ékspérimén nunjukkeun yén ekstrak 'P. indusiatus '' ngagaduhan [[antioksidan]] salian ti sipat [[antimikrobial]].<ref name="Mau 2002"/> Publikasi dina taun 2001 ''[[International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms]]'' diusahakeun pikeun nangtoskeun khasiatna salaku [[aphrodisiac]]. Dina parcobaan ngalibetkeun genep belas awéwé, genep urang ngalaporkeun cenah pangalaman tina syahwat hampang bari ngambeu awak buah, sareng sapuluh anu sanés, anu nampi dosis anu langkung alit, dilaporkeun diri ayana ngaronjat haté karasa leuwih janglar. Sadayana dua puluh lalaki anu diuji dianggap bau anu teu raoseun. Panilitianana ngagunakeun awak buah anu aya di Hawaii, sanés ragam anu tiasa didahar anu dibudidayakan di Cina.<ref name="Holliday 2001"/> Panilitian parantos nampi kritik. Hiji cara pikeun ngahontal orgasme instan bakal dipiharep bakal langkung perhatian sareng seueur usaha pikeun baranahan pangaruhna, tapi teu aya anu hasil. Teu aya jurnal ilmiah utama anu nerbitkeun panilitian, sareng teu aya panilitian anu hasilna parantos diréproduksi.<ref>[http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/2016/02/14/hawaii-orgasm-mushroom/ Expedition Ecstasy: Sniffing Out The Truth About Hawai‘i’s Orgasm-Inducing Mushroom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025222119/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/2016/02/14/hawaii-orgasm-mushroom/ |date=2019-10-25 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencealert.com/can-a-rare-hawaiian-mushroom-really-give-women-a-spontaneous-orgasm Can a Rare Hawaiian Mushroom Really Give Women a "Spontaneous Orgasm"?]</ref> ==Dicutat tina== ===Catetan=== {{Reflist|group=N}} ===Béréndélan cutatan=== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= <ref name="Anonymous 1800">{{cite journal |title=XXVII. A dissertation on the genus ''Phallus'', by M. 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International Mycological Association |access-date=2012-08-13}}</ref> <ref name="urlMycoBank: Hymenophallus indusiatus">{{cite web |url=http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=330985&Fields=All |title=''Hymenophallus indusiatus'' (Vent.) Nees 1817 |publisher=[[MycoBank]]. International Mycological Association |access-date=2010-10-19}}</ref> <ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus duplicatus">{{cite web |title=''Phallus duplicatus'' |url=http://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallus_duplicatus.html |publisher=MushroomExpert.com |author=Kuo M. |date=April 2011 |access-date=2012-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="Ventenat 1798">{{cite journal |author=Ventenat ÉP. |year=1798 |title=Dissertation sur le genre ''Phallus'' |trans-title=Essay on the genus ''Phallus'' |journal=Mémoires de l'institut National des Sciences et Arts |volume=1 |pages=503–23 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k32166/f590.image |language=fr}}</ref> <ref name="Wakefield 1934">{{cite journal |title=Contributions to the flora of tropical America: XXI. Fungi collected in British Guiana, chiefly by the Oxford University Expedition, 1929 |journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Gardens, Kew) |volume=1934 |issue=6 |year=1934 |author=Wakefield E. |pages=238–58 |jstor=4115405 |doi=10.2307/4115405}}</ref> <ref name="Wang 2003">{{cite journal |title=A novel ribonuclease from the veiled lady mushroom ''Dictyophora indusiata'' |journal=Biochemistry and Cell Biology |year=2003 |volume=81 |issue=6 |vauthors=Wang H, Ng TB |pages=373–7 |doi=10.1139/O03-067 |pmid=14663503}}</ref> <ref name="Yang 1987">{{cite book |vauthors=Yang QY, Jong SC |year=1987 |chapter=Artificial cultivation of the veiled lady mushroom, ''Dictyophora indusiata'' |veditors=Wuest PJ, Royse DJ, Beelman RB |title=Cultivating Edible Fungi: International Symposium on Scientific and Technical Aspects of Cultivating Edible Fungi (IMS 86), July 15–17, 1986 |publisher=Elsevier Science Publishers |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |series=Developments in Crop Science, '''10''' |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingedibl0000inte/page/437 437–42] |isbn=0-444-42747-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingedibl0000inte/page/437 }}</ref> <ref name="Ying 1987">{{cite book |vauthors=Ying J, Mao X, Ma Q, Zong Y, Wen H |title=Icones of Medicinal Fungi from China |year=1987 |publisher=Science Press |location=Beijing, China |page=471}}</ref> <ref name="Zeng 1988">{{cite journal |title=A thermophilic delicious 'veiled lady'&nbsp;– ''Dictyophora echino-volvata'' Zang, Zheng & Hu [Abstract] |journal=Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China) |year=1988 |volume=4 |pages=5–6 |vauthors=Zeng DR, Hu ZX, Zhou CL |language=zh}}</ref> <ref name="Zhou 1989">{{cite journal |title=Initial research on the rapid cultivation of ''Dictyophora indusiata'' [Abstract] | journal=Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China) |year=1989 |volume=1 |vauthors=Zhou FL, Qiao CS |pages=17–8 |language=zh}}</ref> }} ===Baca ogé === *{{cite book |vauthors=((Chang S-T)), Miles PG |chapter=''Dictyophora'', formerly for the few |title=Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomscultiva00mile |url-access=limited |edition=2nd |year=2004 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-1043-1 |doi=10.1201/9780203492086.ch18 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomscultiva00mile/page/n367 343]–56}} *{{cite book |author=Hall IR. |title=Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/ediblepoisonousm0000unse |publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, Oregon |year=2003 |isbn=0-88192-586-1}} *{{cite report |title=Chinese food culture and mushroom |author=Hu D. |year=2005 |publisher=[[Wageningen University and Research Centre]], Agricultural Economics Research Institute, LEI BV |location=Wageningen, Netherlands |url=http://www.lei.dlo.nl/leichina/files/78ca5deca29c48c75da777243aa01393.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314155240/http://www.lei.dlo.nl/leichina/files/78ca5deca29c48c75da777243aa01393.pdf |date=2012-03-14 }} ==Tutumbu ka luar == {{Commons category|Phallus indusiatus}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50xqP38f36U YouTube] Time-lapse video of ''P. indusiatus'' growth {{featured article}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q2701671}} [[Kategori :Sayuran]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori :suung]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan sup]] 7jarm23gn67qzojo1dxlqmvg43nen2r 0 103442 711667 623387 2026-08-07T01:15:13Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711667 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:PorakVolcano.jpg|thumb|right|Kerucut piroklase tina rupa bumi gunungapi Axarbaxar.]] Kaca ieu mangrupa '''daptar [[gunung seuneuan]] di [[Azerbaijan]]'''. {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" |- align="center" bgcolor="cccccc" | rowspan="2"|Ngaran ||colspan ="2"| Luhur || Lokasi ||rowspan="2"| Ledakan panungtungan |- align="center" bgcolor="cccccc" | méter||suku||[[Sistim koordinat géografi|Koordinat]] |- align="right" | align="left" | [[Mets Ishkhanasar|Böyük İşıqlı]] || 3,552 || 11,653 || {{Coord|39|35|N|46|10|E|display=inline|type:mountain_region:AM-AZ|name=Mets Ishkhanasar}} || - |- align="right" | align="left" | [[Porak|Axarbaxar]] || 2,800 || 9,186 || {{Coord|40|01|N|45|47|E|display=inline|type:mountain_region:AM-AZ|name=Porak}} || 778 SM |- align="right" | align="left" | [[Tskhouk-Karckar|Qarqar]] || 3,000 || 9,842 || {{Coord|39|44|N|46|01|E|display=inline|type:mountain_region:AM-AZ|name=Tskhouk-Karckar}} || 3000 SM |} == Rujukan == * {{cite book|last1 = LeMasurier|first1 = W. E.|last2 = Thomson |first2=J. W.|title = Volcanoes of the Antarctic Plate and Southern Oceans|url = https://archive.org/details/volcanoesofantar0000unse|publisher = American Geophysical Union|date = 1990|isbn = 0-87590-172-7|page = 512 pp }} {{en icon}} == Tumbu luar == * [http://volcano.oregonstate.edu Volcano World Web site] {{en icon}} [[Kategori:Daptar gunung seuneuan|Azerbaijan]] [[Kategori:Gunung seuneuan di Azerbaijan| ]] r1l6rrqreezf5qccllkqbovbk627kdo 0 103495 711756 657280 2026-08-07T03:30:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Spésiés tutuwuhan kembangan}} {{Speciesbox | image = Alangium chinensis floraison2.jpg | status = | genus = Alangium | species = chinense | authority = ([[Lour.]]) [[Hermann August Theodor Harms|Harms]]<ref name="grin">{{GRIN | accessdate=2011-04-14 }}</ref> | synonyms = * ''Alangium begoniifolium'' ([[Roxb.]]) [[Baill.]] * ''Marlea begoniifolia'' Roxb. * ''Stylidium chinense'' Lour. | synonyms_ref = <ref name="grin" /> }} '''Ki Careuh'''<ref>{{Cite book|title=De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië|last=Heyne|first=K.|year=1917|location=Batavia|pages=402}}</ref> ('''''Alangium chinense''''') nyaéta hiji spésiés [[tutuwuhan kembangan]] ti kulawarga [[Cornaceae]]. ==Mangpaat== Ki careuh téh minangka salasahiji ti 50 tutuwuhan penting dina [[hérbal Cina]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Alangium+chinense |title=Alangium chinense - Plants For A Future database report |access-date=2008-02-05 |date=June 2004 |publisher=Plants for a Future |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303144507/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Alangium+chinense |archive-date=3 March 2008 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303144507/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Alangium+chinense |date=2008-03-03 }}</ref> di antarana pikeun natambaan anu dipacok oray, [[sistem sirkulasi|sirkulasi]], [[kontrasépsi]], [[hémostasis]], [[numbness]], [[racun]], [[reumatisme]], jeung [[bohak]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/duke/ethnobot.pl?ethnobot.taxon=Alangium%20chinense |title=Ethnobotany Query |access-date=2008-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923173951/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/duke/ethnobot.pl?ethnobot.taxon=Alangium%20chinense |archive-date=2015-09-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Minyak tina siki ki careuh bisa dipaké pikeun lantéra.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Plants and People of Nepal|url=https://archive.org/details/plantspeopleofne0000mana|last=Manandhar|first=Narayan|publisher=Timber Press. Oregon|year=2002|isbn=0-88192-527-6}}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== *[https://images.google.com/images?as_q=%22Alangium+chinense%22&num=20&btnG=Google+Search&imgsafe=active ''Alangium chinense'' (Google Images)] *[https://phytochem.nal.usda.gov/phytochem/ethnoPlants/show/3506 ''Alangium chinense'' Ethnomedical Uses (Dr. Duke's Databases)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125210712/https://phytochem.nal.usda.gov/phytochem/ethnoPlants/show/3506 |date=2022-01-25 }} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20100506020647/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Alangium+chinense ''Alangium chinense'' (Plants for a Future Database)] *[http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/detail?lang=en&channelid=1288&searchword=herb_id=D01037 Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms] Medicinal Plant Images Database (School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University) {{in lang|zh-hant}} {{in lang|en}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q2707318}} [[Category:Alangium|chinense]] [[Category:Hérbal Cina]] {{pondok}} 3imhlklplz9dk7w813wpoqa15i8bxrs 0 103553 711685 623787 2026-08-07T01:33:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711685 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Asam amino anu diruntuykeun sacara biosintétik jadi protéin nalika translasi}} [[File:Nonproteinogenic AAs.svg|thumbnail|400 px|Asam amino protéinogenik téh saeutik ti sakabéh asam amino]] '''Asam amino protéinogenik''' nyaéta [[asam amino]] anu diruntuykeun sacara biosintétik jadi [[protéin]] nalika [[translasi (biologi)|translasi]]. Kecap "protéinogenik" hartina "nyieun protéin". Di sakur [[mahluk hirup]] anu geus kanyahoan, aya 22 asam amino anu dikode sacara genetik (protéinogenik), 20 dina [[kode genetik]] baku ditambah 2 ([[selenosistéin]] jeung [[pirolisin]]) anu bisa diruntuykeun ku cara mékanisme translasi husus.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ambrogelly A, Palioura S, Söll D | title = Natural expansion of the genetic code | journal = Nature Chemical Biology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–35 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17173027 | doi = 10.1038/nchembio847 }}</ref> Sabalikna ti éta, [[asam amino non-protéinogenik]] mah asam amino anu teu ngaruntuy kana protéin atawa (kawas [[asam aminobutirat Gamma|GABA]], [[L-DOPA|<small>L</small>-DOPA]], atawa [[triiodotironin]]), salah karuntuykeun ngaganti asam amino protéinogenik, atawa henteu dijieun langsung sarta diisolasi ku mesin sélulér baku (kawas [[hidroksiprolin]]). Anu pandeuri biasana balukar tina [[modipikasi pos-translasi]] kana protéin. Sababaraha asam amino non-protéinogenik diruntuykeun kana [[péptida non-ribosomal]] anu disintésis ku sintetase péptida non-ribosomal. Boh [[eukariot]] jeung [[prokariot]] bisa nyelapkeun [[selenosistéin]] kana protéinna ngaliwatan runtuyan [[nukléotida]] anu katelah [[unsur SECIS]], anu ngatur sél pikeun narjamahkeun hiji [[kodon]] UGA nu deukeut jadi [[selenosistéin]] (kuduna UGA téh [[kodon stop]]). Dina sababaraha prokariot [[métanogenik]], kodon UAG ogé bisa ditarjamahkeun jadi [[pirolisin]].<ref name="LobanovTuranov2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lobanov AV, Turanov AA, Hatfield DL, Gladyshev VN | title = Dual functions of codons in the genetic code | journal = Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 45 | issue = 4 | pages = 257–65 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20446809 | pmc = 3311535 | doi = 10.3109/10409231003786094 }}</ref> Dina eukariot, aya ukur 21 asam amino protéinogenik, 20 kode genetik baku, ditambah [[selenosistéin]]. Awak [[manusa]] bisa nyintésis 12na, anapon nu 9 anu katelah [[asam amino ésénsial]] kudu ngala tina dahareun (salaku turunan protéinna). Anu salapan nyaéta [[histidin]], [[isoleusin]], [[leusin]], [[lisin]], [[métionin]], [[fénilalanin]], [[tréonin]], [[triptopan]], jeung [[valin]] (i.e. H, I, L, K, M, F, T, W, V).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Young VR | title = Adult amino acid requirements: the case for a major revision in current recommendations | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 124 | issue = 8 Suppl | pages = 1517S–1523S | date = August 1994 | pmid = 8064412 | doi = 10.1093/jn/124.suppl_8.1517S | url = http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/124/8_Suppl/1517S.pdf }}</ref> Asam amino protéinogenik kapanggih tumali jeung sét asam amino anu dipiwanoh ku sistem autoaminoasilasi [[ribozim]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Erives A | title = A model of proto-anti-codon RNA enzymes requiring L-amino acid homochirality | journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | volume = 73 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 10–22 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21779963 | pmc = 3223571 | doi = 10.1007/s00239-011-9453-4 | bibcode = 2011JMolE..73...10E }}</ref> Ku kituna, asam amino non-protéinogenik sigana geus disingkahkeun dina prosé évolusi. Watek séjén anu kapanggih anu sigana jadi sabab nyaéta matak teu stabil, contona [[ornitin]] jeung [[homoserin]] anu matak ngagulung jeung paregatna ranté péptida nu balukarna mondokan umur protéin. Anapon nu séjénna toksik alatan bisa napelna kana protéin kurang spésipik, contona baé [[kanavanin]] anu mangrupa analog arginin. == Baca ogé == * [[Asam amino glukogenik]] * [[Asam amino ketogenik]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} ==Rujukan umum== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Nelson |first=David L. |author2=Cox, Michael M. |title=Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry |edition=3rd |year=2000 |publisher=Worth Publishers |isbn=978-1-57259-153-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lehningerprincip01lehn }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Kyte J, Doolittle RF | title = A simple method for displaying the hydropathic character of a protein | journal = Journal of Molecular Biology | volume = 157 | issue = 1 | pages = 105–32 | date = May 1982 | pmid = 7108955 | doi = 10.1016/0022-2836(82)90515-0 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.458.454 }} * {{cite book |last=Meierhenrich |first=Uwe J. |title=Amino acids and the asymmetry of life |url=https://archive.org/details/aminoacidsasymme0000meie |edition=1st |year=2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-76885-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Biochemistry |first=Harpers |title=Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry |edition=30st |year=2015 |publisher=Lange |isbn=978-0-07-182534-4 }} {{refend}} == Tutumbu kaluar == {{commons category|Proteinogenic amino acids}} * [http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/aa/Dayhoff.html The origin of the single-letter code for the amino acids] {{Asam amino protéinogenik}} {{pondok}} [[Category:Asam amino protéinogenik| ]] [[Category:Daur nitrogén]] [[Category:Nutrisi]] l49e58tebelalqcs64oo0hifz8m4iec 0 103634 711757 710976 2026-08-07T03:31:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711757 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Marga tutuwuhan kembangan ti suku Moraceae}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Tangkal ara | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Maastrichtian|Present}} | image = Sycomoros old.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Ficus sycomorus]]'' | parent_authority = [[Dumort.]] | taxon = Ficus | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Spésiés]] | subdivision = 800-an }} '''''Ficus''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|aɪ|k|ə|s}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ficus |title=ficus |work=Merriam-Webster |via=merriam-webster.com}}</ref> atawa {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|k|ə|s}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Sunset Western Garden Book |year=1995 |pages=606–607 |publisher=Sunset Books |isbn=978-0-37603-851-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ficus |title=Definition of 'ficus' |work=Collins English Dictionary |via=collinsdictionary.com}}</ref>) nyaéta hiji [[marga]] [[tutuwuhan]] anu ngawengku 850-an [[spésiés]] [[tangkal]] [[kai]], [[rungkun]], [[rambat]], [[épipit]], jeung [[hémiépipit]] dina [[suku]] [[Moraceae]]. Ieu marga pituin wewengkon [[tropis]], ngan sababaraha spésiés anu bisa nepi ka wewengkon [[ugahari]]/sedeng. Conto spésiésna anu kawentar di antarana [[tin]] (''F. careca'') anu pituin Asia Kulon-ngidul jeung [[Méditerania]] (ti [[Apganistan]] nepi ka [[Portugal]]), dipelak ti mangsa bihari pikeun diala [[buah]]na. Sababaraha spésiés ''Ficus'' anu dipikawanoh di [[Pasundan]] di antarana<ref>{{Cite book|title=Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java|last=H. Priyadi, G. Takao, I. Rahmawati, B. Supriyanto, W.I. Nursal, I. Rahman|publisher=CIFOR|year=2010|isbn=978-602-8693-22-6|location=Bogor}}</ref>: {{multicol}} *[[Amis mata]] - ''F. montana'' *[[Areuy warejit]] - ''F. punctata'' *[[Beunying]] - ''F. fistulosa'' *[[Caliling]] - ''F. magnoliaefolia'' *[[Caringin]] - ''F. benjamina'' *[[Darangdang]] - ''F. melinocarpa'' *[[Hampelas]] - ''F. ampelas'' *[[Hamberang]] - ''F. padana'' *[[Kiara]] - ''F. calophilla'' {{multicol-break}} *[[Kiara wunuk]]/kiara gambir - ''F. drupacea'' *[[Ki gember]] - ''Ficus'' sp. *[[Ki walén]] - ''F. ribes'' *[[Kondang]] - ''F. variegata'' *[[Ki ciat]] - ''F. septica'' *[[Loa]] - ''F. racemosa'' *[[Pangsar]] - ''F. callosa'' *[[Seuhang]] - ''F. grossularioides'' {{multicol-end}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Rujukan umum == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |last=Berg |first=C.C. |title=Flora Malesiana Precursor for the Treatment of Moraceae 4: ''Ficus'' subgenus ''Synoecia'' |journal=Blumea |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=551–571 |date=28 November 2003 |doi=10.3767/000651903X489546 |url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/565443 }} *{{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=C.C. |last2=Hijmann |first2=M.E.E. |title=Flora of Tropical East Africa |year=1989 |editor=R.M. Polhill |chapter=Chapter 11: ''Ficus'' |pages=43–86 }} * {{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=C.C. |last2=Corner |first2=E.J.H. |year=2005 |title=Flora malesiana. Series I, Seed plants. Volume 17. Part 2, Moraceae (Ficus) |location=Leiden |publisher=National herbarium Nederland, Universiteit Leiden branch|isbn= 978-9-07123-661-7|oclc= 492578589}} * {{cite book |last1=Carauta |first1=Pedro |last2=Diaz |first2=Ernani |year=2002 |title=Figueiras no Brasil |publisher=Editora UFRJ |location=Rio de Janeiro |isbn=978-85-7108-250-2 }} * {{cite book |author-link=Ira J. Condit |last=Condit |first=Ira J |date=1969 |title=Ficus: the exotic species |url=https://archive.org/details/ficusexoticspeci0000iraj |publisher=University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences |oclc= 1086743649}} * {{cite book |last=Denisowski |first=Paul |year=2007 |url=http://www.mandarintools.com/worddict.html |title=Chinese–English Dictionary |chapter-url=http://www.mandarintools.com/cgi-bin/wordlook.pl?word=fig&searchtype=english&where=whole |chapter=Fig |access-date=November 1, 2008 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Harrison | first1 = Rhett D | year = 2005 | title = Figs and the diversity of tropical rain forests | url = http://eebweb.arizona.edu/courses/Ecol206/Connell1978_IntermedDisturb.pdf | journal = BioScience | volume = 55 | issue = 12 | pages = 1053–1064 | doi = 10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[1053:FATDOT]2.0.CO;2 | doi-access = free }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162520/http://eebweb.arizona.edu/courses/Ecol206/Connell1978_IntermedDisturb.pdf |date=2021-02-24 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Kislev | first1 = Mordechai E. | last2 = Hartmann | first2 = Anat | last3 = Bar-Yosef | first3 = Ofer | year = 2006 | title = Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 312 | issue = 5778| pages = 1372–1374 | doi = 10.1126/science.1125910 | pmid=16741119 | bibcode = 2006Sci...312.1372K | s2cid = 42150441 }} [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;312/5778/1372/DC1 Supporting Online Material] * {{cite journal|ref=none | last1 = Kislev | first1 = Mordechai E. | last2 = Hartmann | first2 = Anat | last3 = Bar-Yosef | first3 = Ofer | year = 2006 | title = Response to Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley" | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 314 | issue = 5806| page = 1683b | doi = 10.1126/science.1133748 | pmid = 17170278 | bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1683K | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Lev-Yadun | first1 = Simcha | last2 = Ne'eman | first2 = Gidi | last3 = Abbo | first3 = Shahal | last4 = Flaishman | first4 = Moshe A | year = 2006 | title = Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley" | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 314 | issue = 5806| page = 1683a | doi = 10.1126/science.1132636 | pmid=17170278| bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1683L | doi-access = free }} * {{cite book |last1=Lewington |first1=Anna |last2=Parker |first2=Edward |year=1999 |title=Ancient trees: Trees that live for 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/ancienttreestree0000lewi |location=London |publisher=Collins & Brown |isbn=978-18-5585-704-9}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Rønsted | first1 = Nina | last2 = Weiblen | first2 = George D. | last3 = Cook | first3 = James M. | last4 = Salamin | first4 = Nicholas | last5 = Machado | first5 = Carlos A. | last6 = Savoainen | first6 = Vincent | year = 2005 | title = 60 million years of co-divergence in the fig-wasp symbiosis | journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]] | volume = 272 | issue = 1581| pages = 2593–2599 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2005.3249 | pmid = 16321781 |ref={{harvid|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}}| pmc = 1559977 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Rønsted |first1=N |last2=Weiblen |first2=G.D. |last3=Clement |first3=W.L. |last4=Zerega |first4=N.J.C. |last5=Savolainen |first5=V. |year=2008 |title=Reconstructing the phylogeny of figs (Ficus, Moraceae) to reveal the history of the fig pollination mutualism |url=http://geo.cbs.umn.edu/RonstedEtAl2008a.pdf |journal=Symbiosis |volume=45 |issn=0334-5114 |ref={{harvid|Rønsted ''et al.''|2008}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126221654/https://geo.cbs.umn.edu/RonstedEtAl2008a.pdf |date=2022-01-26 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Shanahan | first1 = M. | last2 = Compton | first2 = S. G. | last3 = So | first3 = Samson | last4 = Corlett | first4 = Richard | year = 2001 | title = Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review | journal = [[Biological Reviews]] | volume = 76 | issue = 4| pages = 529–572 | doi = 10.1017/S1464793101005760 | pmid=11762492| s2cid = 27827864 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20091019170541/http://geocities.com/mikeshanahan/figs/figreview.html Electronic appendices] *{{cite journal |last1=van Noort |first1=Simon |last2=van Harten |first2=Antonius |title=The species richness of fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Agaonidae, Pteromalidae) in Yemen |journal=Fauna of Arabia |year=2006 |volume=22 |pages=449–472 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230600455 |access-date=2013-01-01 }} {{Refend}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== {{Commons category|Ficus}} * [http://www.figweb.org/Ficus/index.htm Figweb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050428035506/http://www.figweb.org/Ficus/index.htm |date=2005-04-28 }}—Major reference site for the genus ''Ficus'' * [http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2019/browse/classification/kingdom/Plantae/genus/Ficus/fossil/0/match/1 World checklist of Ficus species from the Catalogue of Life], 845 species supplied by M. Hassler's World Plants. * [http://www.figweb.org/Interaction/Video/index.htm Video: Interaction of figs and fig wasps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060212192755/http://www.figweb.org/Interaction/Video/index.htm |date=2006-02-12 }}—Multi-award-winning documentary * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/fig.html Fruits of Warm Climates: Fig] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm BBC: Fig fossil clue to early farming] '''Pidéo''' * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCUtpmwacoE How the fig tree strangles other plants for survival in the rainforest] {{Moraceae genera}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q59798}} {{Authority control}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Ficus]] [[Kategori:Moraceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori:Turuwuhan]] ebnpi8xdsrc2khlnilhq5dmlygr3dvi 0 103663 711831 651061 2026-08-07T05:29:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711831 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Kiara gedé | status = | image = | image_caption = | domain = | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Tracheophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Rosales]] | familia = [[Moraceae]] | genus = [[Ficus]] | species = '''Ficus crassiramea''' | binomial = Ficus crassiramea | binomial_authority = | range_map = | range_map_caption = | image2 = | image2_caption = | synonyms = }} '''Kiara gedé''' atawa '''kiara jingkang''' ('''''Ficus crassiramea''''')<ref name = "COL"/> nyaéta hiji spésiés tutuwuhan ti suku [[Moraceae]].<ref name = "COL"/><ref name = "source"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Atlas der baumarten von Java|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasderbaumarte3191koor|last=S. H. Koorders, Th. Valeton|publisher=Buch- und Steindruckerei|year=1913|location=Leiden}}</ref> == Subspésiés == * ''F. c. Ficus crassiramea crassiramea'' * ''F. c. Ficus crassiramea stupenda'' == Rujukan == <references> <ref name = "COL">{{cite web |url= http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2014/details/species/id/16798897|title= Species 2000 & ITIS [[Catalogue of Life]]: 2014 Annual Checklist.|author= Roskov Y., Kunze T., Orrell T., Abucay L., Paglinawan L., Culham A., Bailly N., Kirk P., Bourgoin T., Baillargeon G., Decock W., De Wever A., Didžiulis V. (ed)|year= 2014|publisher= Species 2000: Reading, UK.|accessdate= 26 May 2014}}</ref> <ref name = "source">[http://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ World Plants: Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318221109/http://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ |date=2019-03-18 }}</ref> </references> {{wikispecies|Ficus crassiramea|''Ficus crassiramea''}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Ficus (Moraceae)]] fqksynzronf9dstxrr7tfllw62yc81a 0 103749 711522 652639 2026-08-06T22:14:23Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711522 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Asam amino}} {{chembox | Name = Asam aspartat | ImageFile1 = L-Asparaginsäure - L-Aspartic acid.svg | ImageAlt1 = | ImageCaption1 = [[Rumus rangka]] asam <small>L</small>-aspartat | ImageFileL2 = Aspartic-acid-from-xtal-view-2-3D-bs-17.png | ImageSizeL2 = 110 | ImageCaptionL2 = [[Modél bal jeung tongkat]] | ImageFileR2 = Aspartic-acid-from-xtal-view-2-3D-sf.png | ImageSizeR2 = 110 | ImageCaptionR2 = [[Modél ngeusi rohang]] | IUPACName = {{Unbulleted list | ''Trivial:'' Asam aspartat | ''Sistematik:'' Asam 2-aminobutanadioat }} | OtherNames = {{Unbulleted list | Asam aminosuksinat | Asam asparagat | Asam asparaginat<ref name=merck>{{cite book |title= The Merck Index |chapter= 862. Aspartic acid |edition= 11th |page= [https://archive.org/details/merckindexency00buda/page/132 132] |year= 1989 |isbn= 978-0-911910-28-5 |last1= Budavari |first1= Susan |last2= Co |first2= Merck |chapter-url-access= registration |chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/merckindexency00buda |url= https://archive.org/details/merckindexency00buda/page/132 }}</ref> }} |Section1={{Chembox Identifiers | index1_label = D/L | index2_label = D | index_label = L <!-- needs to be L aspartic acid (natural isomer) so drugbank etc. take correct index_label --> | UNII1_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII1 = 28XF4669EP | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 30KYC7MIAI | UNII2_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII2 = 4SR0Q8YD1X | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 274323 | KEGG1_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG1 = C16433 | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C4H7NO4/c5-2(4(8)9)1-3(6)7/h2H,1,5H2,(H,6,7)(H,8,9)/t2-/m0/s1 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = CKLJMWTZIZZHCS-REOHCLBHSA-N | InChIKey1 = CKLJMWTZIZZHCS-UHFFFAOYSA-N | InChIKey2 = CKLJMWTZIZZHCS-UWTATZPHSA-N | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo = 56-84-8 | CASNo1 = 617-45-8 | CASNo1_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo2_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo2 = 1783-96-6 | DrugBank = DB00128 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | EC_number = 200-291-6 | PubChem = 5960 | PubChem1 = 424 | PubChem2 = 83887 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 5745 | ChemSpiderID1_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID1 = 411 | ChemSpiderID2_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID2 = 75697 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 17053 | ChEBI1_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI1 = 22660 | ChEBI2_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI2 = 17364 | SMILES = C([C@@H](C(=O)O)N)C(=O)O | SMILES1 = C(C(C(=O)O)N)C(=O)O | Jmol1 = none <!-- needs to be none because Jmol would show L if this SMILES were used --> | SMILES2 = C([C@H](C(=O)O)N)C(=O)O | SMILES4 = C(C(C(=O)[O-])[NH3+])C(=O)O | SMILES4_Comment = L [[Zwitterion]] | SMILES5 = C(C(C(=O)[O-])[NH3+])C(=O)[O-] | SMILES5_Comment = L Deprotonated zwitterion (aspartate) }} |Section2={{Chembox Properties | C=4 | H=7 | N=1 | O=4 | Appearance = kristal tanwarna | Density = 1.7 g/cm³ | MeltingPtC = 270 | MeltingPt_notes = | BoilingPtC = 324 | BoilingPt_notes = (terurai) | Solubility = 4.5 g/L<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1439.htm|title=ICSC 1439 - L-ASPARTIC ACID|website=inchem.org}}</ref> | ConjugateBase = Aspartat | pKa = {{Unbulleted list | 1.99 (α-carboxyl; H₂O) | 3.90 (side chain; H₂O) | 9.90 (amino; H₂O)<ref name="CRC97">{{cite book | editor= Haynes, William M. | year = 2016 | title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition = 97th | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | isbn = 978-1498754286 | pages=5–89 | title-link = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics }}</ref> }} | MagSus = -64.2·10⁻⁶ cm³/mol }} |Section7={{Chembox Hazards | NFPA-H = 1 | NFPA-F = 1 | NFPA-R = 0 | FlashPt = | AutoignitionPt = }} }} '''Asam aspartat''' (lambang '''Asp''' atawa '''D''';<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | title = Nomenclature and Symbolism for Amino Acids and Peptides | publisher = IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature | year = 1983 | access-date = 5 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081009023202/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | archive-date = 9 October 2008 | url-status = dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009023202/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html |date=9 October 2008 }}</ref> wangun ionikna katelah '''aspartat'''), nyaéta [[asam α-amino]] anu dipaké dina [[biosintésis]] [[protéin]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Fundamentals of biochemistry : life at the molecular level|url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofbi0000voet_k8p4|last1=G.|first1=Voet, Judith|last2=W.|first2=Pratt, Charlotte|isbn=9781118918401|oclc=910538334|date=2016-02-29}}</ref> Sarua jeung asam amino lianna, asam aspartat ngandung hiji gugus amino jeung hiji asam karboksilat. Gugus α-amino-na dina wangun [[protonasi|kaprotonan]] –NH{{su|b=3|p=+}} dina kaayaan pisiologis, anapon gugus asam α-karboxilatna deprotonasi −COO⁻dina kaayaan pisiologis. Asam aspartat boga ranté gigir asam (CH₂COOH) anu beréaksi jeung asam amino lianna, énjim, jeung protéin di jero awak.<ref name=":1" /> Dina kaayaan pisiologis (pH 7,4) dina protéin ranté gigirna biasana aspartat dina wangun muatan négatip, −COO⁻.<ref name=":1" /> Asam aspartat lain [[asam amino ésénsial]] pikeun manusa, kusabab bisa [[sintésis de novo|nyintésis]] sorangan upama butuh, anu [[kode genetik|dikode]] ku [[kodon]] GAU jeung GAC. <small>D</small>-Aspartat minangka salasahiji asam <small>D</small>-amino anu kapanggih di [[mamalia]].[[Aspartic acid#cite note-3|^[3]]] Dina protéin, ranté gigir aspartat osok [[beungkeutan hidrogén|kabeungkeut hidrogén]] ngabentuk [[péngkolan asx]] atawa [[motip asx]], anu mindeng kajadian dina tungtung-N [[hélix alpa]]. <small>L</small>-isomér Asp mangrupa salasahiji ti 22 [[asam amino protéinogenik]], nyaéta bata anu ngawangun [[protéin]]. Asam aspartat, siga [[asam glutamat]], kagolongkeun asam amino asam anu [[PKa|pK_a]]-na 3,9, tapi dina [[péptida]] mah gumantung ogé kana lingkungan lokal, bisa nepi ka 14. Asp téh perpasip dina biosintésis. == Baca ogé == * [[Transaminase aspartat]] * [[Asam poliaspartat]] * [[Natrium poliaspartat]], [[poliamida]] sintétik == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} == Tutumbu kaluar == *[http://gmd.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/Spectrums/E4577DF4-03FE-4AF1-ADBF-FFE6D1D3A468.aspx GMD MS Spectrum] * {{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100421121501.htm |title=Ancestral Eve' Crystal May Explain Origin of Life's Left-Handedness |author=American Chemical Society |date=21 April 2010 |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=2010-04-21| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100423002752/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100421121501.htm| archive-date= 23 April 2010 <!--DASHBot-->|url-status = live}} {{Asam amino protéinogenik}} {{Neurotransmiter}} {{Modulator reséptor glutamat ionotropik}} {{Modulator métabolisme jeung transpor glutamat}} [[Category:Asam amino protéinogenik]] [[Category:Asam amino glukogenik]] [[Category:Asam amino asam]] [[Category:Asam dikarboxilat]] [[Category:Neurotransmiter]] [[Category:Daur uréa]] [[Category:Agonis reséptor NMDA]] 7bldr24a0lkrp6wl49dg90v4jvcd26y 0 103759 711580 661714 2026-08-06T23:29:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711580 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses|Fig (disambiguation)}}{{Short description|Spésiés tutuwuhan kembangan}} {{Speciesbox |name = ''Ficus carica'' – Tin |image = Ficus carica L, 1771.jpg |image_caption = Foliage and fruit drawn in 1771<ref>1771 illustration from Trew, C.J., Plantae selectae quarum imagines ad exemplaria naturalia Londini, in hortis curiosorum nutrit, vol. 8: t. 73 (1771), drawing by G.D. Ehret</ref> |status = LC |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref = |genus = Ficus |parent = Ficus subg. Ficus |species = carica |authority =[[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/search?q=Ficus+carica|title=Search results — The Plant List|website=www.theplantlist.org}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628211936/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/search?q=Ficus+carica |date=2021-06-28 }}</ref> |synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true |title=<small>Synonymy</small> |''Caprificus insectifera'' <small>[[Gasp.]]</small> |''Caprificus leucocarpa'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Caprificus oblongata'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Caprificus pedunculata'' <small>([[Miq.]]) Gasp.</small> |''Caprificus rugosa'' <small>(Miq.) Gasp.</small> |''Caprificus sphaerocarpa'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus albescens'' <small>Miq.</small> |''Ficus burdigalensis'' <small>[[Poit.]] & [[Pierre Jean François Turpin|Turpin]]</small> |''Ficus caprificus'' <small>[[Antoine Risso|Risso]]</small> |''Ficus colchica'' <small>[[Grossh.]]</small> |''Ficus colombra'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus communis'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lam.]]</small> |''Ficus deliciosa'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus dottata'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus globosa'' <small>Miq. 1848 not [[Carl Ludwig Blume|Blume]] 1825</small> |''Ficus hypoleuca'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus hyrcana'' <small>Grossh.</small> |''Ficus kopetdagensis'' <small>[[Pachom.]]</small> |''Ficus latifolia'' <small>[[Salisb.]]</small> |''Ficus leucocarpa'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus macrocarpa'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus neapolitana'' <small>Miq.</small> |''Ficus pachycarpa'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus pedunculata'' <small>Miq.</small> |''Ficus polymorpha'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus praecox'' <small>Gasp.</small> |''Ficus regina'' <small>Miq.</small> |''Ficus rugosa'' <small>Miq.</small> |''Ficus silvestris'' <small>Risso</small> |''Ficus rupestris'' <small>([[Hausskn.]] ex [[Boiss.]]) Azizian </small> |}}}} '''Tin''' nyaéta buah dahareun tina '''''Ficus carica''''', spésiés tangkal leutik [[tutuwuhan kembangan|kembangan]] ti suku [[Moraceae]], [[tutuwuhan pituin|pituin]] [[Cekungan Méditerania|Méditerania]] jeung Asia kulon, dipelak ti jaman kuna nepi ka kiwari sumebar ka sakuliah dunya pikeun diala buahna atawa papaés.<ref name="ReferenceA">''The Fig: its History, Culture, and Curing'', Gustavus A. Eisen, Washington, Govt. print. off., 1901</ref><ref name=RHSAZ>{{cite book|title=RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants|url=https://archive.org/details/azencyclopediaof0000unse|year=2008|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1405332965|pages=1136}}</ref> ''Ficus carica'' téh [[spésiés tipe]] marga ''[[Ficus]]'', ngawengku leuwih ti 800 spésiés tatangkalan tropis jeung sobtropis. Tangkal tin leutik atawa ngarungkun, jangkungna nepi ka {{convert|7|-|10|m|ft|abbr=on}}, kulit kaina bodas lemes. Daunna rubak ngaramo tilu atawa lima. Panjang buahna {{convert|3|-|5|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} kelir héjo nepi ka bungur atawa coklat, daging buahna beureum amis sikian leutik rangu. Tin bisa didahar langsung atawa digaringkeun, atawa dijieun salé jeung rupa-rupa olahan bungbuahan. Ngan kusabab segerna teu awét, lolobana dipasarkeun garing atawa olahan. Taun 2018, produksi sajagat ngahontal 1,14 yuta ton, lolobana ti [[Turkiyé]] Jeung nagara-nagara Aprika Kalér ([[Mesir]], [[Maroko]], jeung [[Aljazair]]).<ref name=fao18/> ==Baca ogé== *''Ficus racemosa'' ([[loa]]), spésiés pituin Australia, Malésia, Asia Tenggara, jeung sub-buana India *''[[Ficus sycomorus]]'', spésiés pituin Aprika jeung Libanon ==Rujukan== {{Reflist| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fig-fig.gr/en/|title=PETOURIS FIGS {{!}} Greek Royal Figs from Markopoulo Attica|website=fig-fig.gr/en/|language=en-us|access-date=2020-12-23}}</ref>}} {{pondok}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q36146}} [[Category:Ficus| ]] [[Category:Buah dahareun|Tin]] [[Category:Bungbuahan ti Aprika]] [[Category:Bungbuahan ti Asia]] [[Category:Flora Asia]] [[Category:Flora Éropa]] [[Category:Flora Aprika Kalér]] [[Category:Taxa dingaranan ku Carl Linnaeus]] 55f48zv5b8jfnwiqoet33hkknoplgpn 0 103789 711528 668104 2026-08-06T22:19:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711528 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Tetrapeptide_structural_formulae_v.1.png|pra=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Tetrapeptide_structural_formulae_v.1.png/300px-Tetrapeptide_structural_formulae_v.1.png|jmpl|300x300px| Hiji tetrapeptida (conto Val - [[Glisin|Gly]] - [[Serin|Ser]] - [[Alanin|Ala]]). Kelir <span style="color:green;">'''héjo'''</span> nandakeun tungtung amino ( <nowiki><span id="mwEw" style="color:green;"><b id="mwFA">L-palin</b></nowiki><nowiki></span></nowiki> ), anapon tungtung karboksil ditandaan <span style="color:blue;">'''biru'''</span> ( [[Alanin|<span style="color:blue;">'''L-alanin'''</span>]] ).]] '''Péptida''' (tina Yunani kuna πεπτός, ti πέσσειν) nyaéta ranté pondok [[Asam amino|asam amino anu]] disambungkeun ku beungkeut péptida . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Hamley|first=I. W.|title=introduction to Peptide Science|date=September 2020|publisher=Wiley|isbn=9781119698173|url=https://www.wiley.com/en-ai/Introduction+to+Peptide+Science-p-9781119698173}}</ref> Ranté anu kurang ti dua puluh asam amino disebut oligopéptida, sarta ngawengku dipéptida, tripéptida, jeung tetrapéptida. '''Polipéptida''' nyaéta ranté péptida anu leuwih panjang, sinambung, tanpa cagak.<ref name="Saladin">{{Cite book|last=Saladin|first=K.|title=Anatomy & physiology: the unity of form and function|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780077691929|date=13 January 2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=9780073378251|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780077691929/page/67 67]|edition=6th}}</ref> Ku lantaran kitu, péptida kaasup kana kelas polimér biologis jeung oligomér, sarupa jeung [[asam nukléat]], oligosakarida, [[polisakarida]], jeung sajabana. Polipéptida anu ngandung leuwih ti 50 asam amino katelah [[protéin]] . <ref name="Saladin"/> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zealandpharma.com/what-are-peptides|title=What are peptides|publisher=Zealand Pharma A/S|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429200629/https://www.zealandpharma.com/what-are-peptides|archivedate=2019-04-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429200629/https://www.zealandpharma.com/what-are-peptides |date=2019-04-29 }}</ref> Protéin diwangun ku hiji atawa leuwih polipéptida nu disusun dina cara biologis pungsional, osok kabeungkeut ligan kayaning koénzim jeung kopaktor, atawa protéin séjén atawa [[makromolekul]] séjén kayaning [[DNA]] atawa [[RNA]], atawa rakitan makromolekul anu pajeujeut. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ardejani|first=Maziar S.|last2=Orner|first2=Brendan P.|date=2013-05-03|title=Obey the Peptide Assembly Rules|journal=Science|volume=340|issue=6132|pages=561–562|bibcode=2013Sci...340..561A|doi=10.1126/science.1237708|issn=0036-8075|pmid=23641105}}</ref> Asam amino nu geus diasupkeun kana péptida disebut résidu. Molekul cai dileupaskeun nalika formasi unggal beungkeut amida.<ref name="IUPAC1">{{GoldBookRef|file=A00279|title=amino-acid residue in a polypeptide}}.</ref> Kabéh péptida iwal péptida siklik boga N-terminal (gugus amina) jeung C-terminal (gugus karboksil) résidu dina tungtung péptida (sakumaha ditémbongkeun keur tétrapéptida dina gambar). == Kelas == Aya sababaraha jinis péptida anu digolongkeun dumasar kana sumber jeung pungsina. Kelompok péptida ngawengku péptida tutuwuhan, péptida baktéri/antibiotik, péptida supa, péptida invertebrata, péptida ampibi/kulit, péptida peurah, péptida kangker/antikangker, péptida paksin, péptida imun/radang, péptida otak, péptida éndokrin, péptida ingestif, péptida cerna, péptida kardiovaskular, péptida ginjal, péptida pernapasan, péptida opiat, péptida neurotropik, jeung péptida getih-otak. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbiolog0000unse_n9v5|editor-last=Abba J. Kastin|edition=2nd|year=2013|isbn=978-0-12-385095-9}}</ref> Sababaraha péptida ribosom bakal ngalaman proteolisis. Ieu fungsi, ilaharna dina organisme luhur, salaku [[hormon]] jeung molekul signaling. Sababaraha mikroba ngahasilkeun péptida salaku antibiotik, sarupaning mikrosin jeung baktériosin. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2007|title=Microcins, gene-encoded antibacterial peptides from enterobacteria|journal=Natural Product Reports|volume=24|issue=4|pages=708–34|doi=10.1039/b516237h|pmid=17653356|coauthors=Duquesne S, Destoumieux-Garzón D, Peduzzi J, Rebuffat S}}</ref> == Sintésis kimia == [[Gambar:Peptide_Synthesis.svg|pra=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Peptide_Synthesis.svg/660px-Peptide_Synthesis.svg.png|al=Table of amino acids|pus|jmpl| Sintésis péptida fase padet dina résin amida maké [[asam amino]] anu dikilungan Fmoc -α- amina.]] Péptida ribosomal === Péptida antimikrobial === * Kulawarga magainin * kulawarga sékropin * kulawarga katélisidin * kulawarga defénsin === Péptida Tahikinin === * Bahan P * Kassinin * Neurokinin A * Élédoisin * Neurokinin B === Péptida peujit vasoaktif === * VIP (PHM27) * PACAP * Péptida PHI 27 * GHRH 1-24 * [[glukagon]] * Sekrétin === Péptida polipéptida pankréas === * NPY * PYY * APP * PPY === Péptida opioid === * Péptida proopiomélanokortin (POMC) * Pentapéptida énkepalin * Péptida prodinorpin === Péptida kalsitonin === * Kalsitonin * Amilin * AGG01 == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Péptida]] ig9lam1qhh68dcz2x4pclwtpzepfst3 0 104128 711705 709123 2026-08-07T02:07:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711705 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Ancient Greek poet from Lesbos (c. 630-c. 570 BC)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} [[File:Malarz Safony - Kalpis wykonana techniką Six.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kalpis]] lukisan Sapfo ku [['' Pelukis'' Sapfo]] ({{circa}} 510 SM), ayeuna tempatna di [[Museum Nasional, Warsawa]]]] [[File:Head Sappho Glyptothek Munich.jpg|thumb|Patung sirah awéwé ti [[Glyptothek]] di Munich, ''diidentifikasi'' "meureun" minangkatironan tina [[Silanion]]'s potrét ''imajinatif'' abad ka opat SM ngeunaan Sapfo{{sfn|Ohly|2002|page=48}}]] '''Sapfo'''; Sappho ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|f|oʊ}}; {{lang-el|Σαπφώ}} ''Sapphō'' hu ''[[Aeolic Greek]] '' {{lang|grc|Ψάπφω}} ''Psápphō''; c. 630 – c. 570 BC) Nyaéta saurang pujangga asal [[Yunani kuna]] dumuk di [[Eresos]] atawa [[Mytilene]] di pulo [[Lesbos]].{{efn|The fragments of Sappho's poetry are conventionally referred to by fragment number, though some also have one or more common names. The most commonly used numbering system is that of [[Eva-Maria Voigt]], which in most cases matches the older Lobel-Page system. Unless otherwise specified, the numeration in this article is from Diane Rayor and André Lardinois' ''Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works'', which uses Voigt's numeration with some variations to account for the fragments of Sappho discovered since Voigt's edition was published. References to ancient authors commenting on Sappho give both the conventional reference, and the numeration given in Campbell's ''Greek Lyric I: Sappho and Alcaeus''.}} Sapfo dipiwanoh dina lirik puisina, nu ditulis pikeun ditembangkeun bari dipirig ku musik/gamelan. Jaman baheula, Sapfo dina umumna dianggap salaku saurang pujangga anu mana lirik-lirikna kamashur malahan dingaranan saperti "''Tenth Muse''" jeung "''The Poetess''". Kalolobaan [[Puisi]] Sapfo kiwari geus laleungitan, sanajan aya ogé anu nyésa kalolobaan ngawujud fragmén/potongan; Kajaba ''[[Ode to Aphrodite]]'' masih kénéh dina kaayan weuteuh. Kitu deui jeung lirik puisina, Koméntator kuna nyebutkeun cenah gaya nulis Sapfo lirik puisina ''élegi'' jeung ''iambic''. Aya tilu ''épigram'' anu disangkut pautkeun jeung sapfo, Sok padahal éta mah ''Hellenistik'' meunang niron tina gaya nulisna sapfo. Saeutik pisan anu dipikanyaho ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo. Anjeuna téh kawasna katurunan kulawarga beunghar ti Lesbos, Sanajan teu kungsi kanyahoan saha ngaran kolotna. Ceuk sumber kuna nyebutkeun cenah sapfo téh boga tilu dulur lalaki; Charaxos (Χάραξος), Larichos (Λάριχος) jeung Eurygios (Εὐρύγιος). Dua diantarana, Charaxos jeung Larichos, disebutkeun dina puisina “ [[Brothers Poem]]” kapanggih taun 2014. Manéhna Safo ditundung/diasingkeun ka Sicily kurang leuwih taun 600 SM, éta ogé meureun terus lumangsung digawé nepi ka taun 570 SM. Numutkeun kana legenda, anjeuna nelasan manénéh/bunuh diri kujalan luncat tina gawir Leucadian alatan ambon sorangan mikahayang ka [[Phaon]] tukang perahu. Sapfo saurang pujangga anu loba ngahasilkeun [[puisi]], meureun lamun dikumpulkeun aya kana 10,000 baris. Puisina kakoncara sareng seueur anu mikayungyun, Safo ogé kalebet salah saurang kanon [[Salapan Pujangga Lirik]] anu paling dipihormat ku sarjana [[Hellenistic]] Alexandria. Puisi-puisi Sapfo masih dianggap luar biasa sareng karya-karyana terus mangaruhan panulis sanés. Disaluareun puisina, anjeunna kasohor salaku simbol [[Lesbian]] cinta ka sasama awéwé,{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|pp=2–9}} dina kecap basa Inggris ''[[:wikt:sapphic|sapphic]]'' jeung ''[[:wikt:lesbian|lesbian]]'' diturunkeun tina ngaran dirina sareng pulo asalna masing-masing. ==Sumber kuna== Pangaweruh modérn ngeunaan Sapfo dumasar tina naon anu tiasa disimpulkeun tina puisina sorangan, jeung tina naskah kuno lianna anu nyebutkeun ngeunaan dirina.{{sfn|duBois|2015|p=81}} Puisi Sapfo sorangan mangrupikeun hiji-hijina sumber kontémporér pikeun hirupna.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=2}} ''Biografi'' Sapfo anu masih nyésa/salamet ti anu pangheubeulna abad kadua atawa mimiti abad katilu [[Maséhi]], kurang leuwih dalapan abad sanggeus hirup Sapfo; salajengna nyaéta ''Suda'', énsiklopédi jaman [[Bizantium]].{{sfn|Kivilo|2021|p=11}} Sumber-sumber sanés anu nyebatkeun leuwih jéntré ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo ditulis langkung caket sareng jamanna, dimimitian dina abad kalima SM.{{sfn|Kivilo|2021|p=11}} Inpormasi ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo anu kacatet dina sumber kuna diturunkeun tina guaran pernyataan-pernyataan dina puisina sorangan anu dianggap ku pangarang kuna salaku biografi, dibarengan ku ''tradisi lokal''.{{sfn|Kivilo|2021|p=11}} Sababaraha tradisi kuna ngeunaan Sapfo, kayaning pamadegan ngeunaan séksualitas jeung dangdanan dirina, bisa diturunkeun tina ''komedi/drama''.{{sfn|Lefkowitz|2012|p=42}} Nepi ka abad XIX, sumber kuna ngeunaan kahirupan pujangga kuna anu loba ditarima kurang jero/''uncritically''. Dina abad ka-19, kaom ''klasikis'' mimiti ''skeptis'' kana tradisi ieu, sarta tinimbang nyoba diturunkeun inpormasi biografi tina puisi-puisina anu salamet.{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|pp=2&ndash;3}} Dina satengah ahir abad ka XX, sarjana janten beuki ''skeptis'' kana ''lirik'' puisi [[Yunani]] salaku sumber informasi ''otobiografi''.{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|pp=3&ndash;4}} Sababaraha sarjana, sapertos [[Mary Lefkowitz]], mibanda pamadegan yén ampir euweuh anu bisa dipikawanoh ngeunaan kahirupan pujangga Yunani ti mimiti Sapfo; Seuseueurna sarjana percaya yén kasaksian kuno ngeunaan kahirupan para pujangga ngandung sababaraha bebeneran tapi kedah pariksa tur ditaluntik kalayan ati-ati.{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=4}} ==Kahirupan== Tangtuna saeutik anu dipikanyaho ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=1}} Manéhna ti pulo Lesbos{{sfn|Hutchinson|2001|p=139}}{{efn|According to the [[Suda]] she was from [[Eresos]] rather than Mytilene;{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=4}} most ''testimonia'' and some of Sappho's own poetry point to Mytilene.{{sfn|Hutchinson|2001|p=140|loc=n.1}}}} sarta hirup di ahir abad katujuh jeung awal abad kagenep SM.{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=198|loc=n.174}} Ieu mangrupikeun tanggal anu dipasihkeun ku kalolobaan sumber kuna, anu nganggap dirina kontémporér [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] jeung [[Pittacus]].{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=198|loc=n.174}}{{efn|[[Strabo]] nyebutkeun yén manéhna téh kontémporér tina [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] (born {{circa|620 BC}}) jeung [[Pittacus]] ({{circa|645 BC|570 BC}}); [[Athenaeus]] yén anjeunna kontemporer [[Alyattes of Lydia|Alyattes]], raja Lidia ({{circa|610 BC|560 BC}}). The Suda nyebutkeun yén manéhna aktip salila Olimpiade 42nd(612&ndash;608 BC), bari [[Eusebius]] nyebutkeun yén manéhna kawentar ku Olimpiade ka-45 (600&ndash;599 BC).{{sfn|Campbell|1982|pp=x–xi}}}} Ku kituna bisa waé manéhna bisa jadi geus dilahirkeun dina kuartal katilu abad katujuh &ndash; Franco Ferrari nyimpulkeun waktu kurangleuwih 650 atanapi 640 SM;{{sfn|Ferrari|2010|pp=8&ndash;9}} David Campbell nyarankeun kira-kira atawa saméméh 630 SM.{{sfn|Campbell|1982|p=xi}} [[Gregory Hutchinson (classicist)|Gregory Hutchinson]] nunjukkeun yén anjeunna aktip dugi ka 570-an SM.{{sfn|Hutchinson|2001|p=140}} Ngaran tradisional indungna salaku Cleïs.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Ieu tiasa diturun tina sajak atanapi catetan anu ayeuna tos leungit,{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=175}} sanajan sarjana kuna bisa ngan geus ditebak ieu ngaran, asumsina yén putri Sapfo urang Cleïs dingaranan dirina.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=4}} Ngaran bapana Sapfo urang kirang pasti. Sapuluh ngaran dipikawanoh pikeun bapana Sapfo urang ti sumber kuna;{{efn|Two in the [[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1800|Oxyrhynchus biography (P.Oxy. 1800)]], seven more in the Suda, and one in a [[scholion]] on Pindar.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 4 n. 65}}}} ''proliferasi'' ieu tina ngaran mungkin nunjukkeun yén anjeunna teu éksplisit ngaranna dina salah sahiji sajakna Sapfo.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|pp=3–4}} Ngaran pangheubeulna jeung paling ilahar #attesteds pikeun bapana Sapfo urang nyaéta Scamandronymus.{{efn|Σκαμανδρώνυμος in Greek. Given as Sappho's father in the Oxyrhynchus biography, Suda, a scholion on Plato's ''Phaedrus'', and Aelian's ''Historical Miscellanies'', and as Charaxos' father in Herodotus.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 4}}}} In Ovid's ''[[Heroides]]'', Bapana Sapfo maot nalika yuswa tujuh.{{sfn|Most|1995|p=20}} Anjeunna teu disebutkeun dina salah sahiji karyana anu salamet, tapi Campbell nunjukkeun kalawan jéntré ieu mungkin geus dumasar kana sajak anu ayeuna-leungit.{{sfn|Campbell|1982|p=15|loc=n.1}} Ngaran Sapfo sorangan kapanggih dina sababaraha rupa éjaan;{{efn|Inscriptions on Attic vase paintings read ΦΣΑΦΟ, ΣΑΦΟ, ΣΑΠΠΩΣ, and ΣΑΦΦΟ; on coins ΨΑΠΦΩ, ΣΑΠΦΩ, and ΣΑΦΦΩ all survive.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 2}}}} wangun nu nembongan dina puisi ''extant'' dirina sorangan nyaéta Sapfo (Ψάπφω).<ref>Sappho, frr. 1.20, 65.5, 94.5, 133b</ref>{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|page=98}} [[File:1877_Charles_Mengin_-_Sappho.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=|''Sappho'' (1877) by [[Charles Mengin]] (1853–1933). Hiji tradisi nyebutkeun yén Sapfo bunuh diri ku luncat tina gawir Leucadian.{{sfn|Lidov|2002|pp=205–6|loc=n.7}}]] Sapfo cenah gaduh tilu sadulur: Erigyius, Larichus, jeung Charaxus. Numutkeun [[Athenaeus]], anjeunna sering muji Larichus pikeun tuang anggur di aula kota Mytilene, hiji kantor dicekel ku budak kulawarga pangalusna.{{sfn|Campbell|1982|pp=xi, 189}} Indikasi ieu yén Sapfo lahir dina kulawarga bangsawan saluyu sareng lingkungan anu sakapeung jarang anu dirékam ayat-ayat na.. Hiji tradisi kuno nyarioskeun hubungan antara Charaxus sareng courtesan Mesir [[Rhodopis (hetaera)|Rhodopis]]. Herodotus, sumber carita pangkolotna, ngalaporkeun yén Charaxus nebus Rhodopis ku jumlah anu ageung sareng yén Sapfo nyerat sajak anu ngahukum anjeunna pikeun ieu.{{efn|Other sources say that Charaxus' lover was called Doricha, rather than Rhodopis.{{sfn|Campbell|1982|pp=15, 187}}}}<ref>Herodotus, ''Histories'', 2.135 = Sappho 254a</ref> Ngaran dua lanceukna, Charaxus jeung Larichus, anu disebutkeun dina [[Brothers Poem]], kapanggih dina 2014; lanceukna pamungkas, Erigyius, disebatkeun dina tilu sumber kuno tapi henteu aya dina karya Sapfo anu masih aya.{{sfn|Lardinois|2021|p=172}} Manéhna bisa jadi geus miboga putri ngaranna Cleïs, nu disebut dina dua fragmén.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=3}} Henteu sadayana sarjana nampi yén Cleïs mangrupikeun putri Sapfo. Fragment 132 ngajelaskeun Cleïs salaku "παῖς" (''pais''), anu, ogé hartina "anaking", ogé bisa ngarujuk kana "youthful beloved in a male homosexual liaison".{{sfn|Hallett|1982|p=22}} Geus ngusulkeun yén Cleïs éta salah sahiji pencinta ngora Sappho urang, tinimbang putrina,{{sfn|Hallett|1982|p=22}} sanajan [[Judith Hallett]] pamadegan yén basa nu dipaké dina fragmén 132 nunjukkeun yén Sappho ngarujuk Cleïs salaku putri nya..{{sfn|Hallett|1982|pp=22–23}} Nurutkeun kana [[Suda]], Sapfo ieu nikah ka Kerkylas ti [[Andros]].{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=4}} Ngaran ieu sigana geus invented by pujangga komik: nami "Kerkylas" ({{lang|grc|Κερκύλας}}) kaciri mangrupa kecap ''diminutif'' {{lang|grc|κέρκος}} ({{transl|grc|kerkos}}), kamungkinan hartina "sirit"/"penis", tur teu disebutkeun ''attested'' salaku ngaran,{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=309}}{{efn|Padahal ngaran sarupa kaasup {{lang|grc|Κερκύλος}} ({{transl|grc|Kerkylos}}) anu dibuktoskeun.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=Ch.4 n.36}}}} sedengkeun "Andros", sakumaha ogé jadi ngaran hiji pulo Yunani, mangrupa wangun kecap Yunani {{lang|grc|ἀνήρ}} ({{transl|grc|aner}}), anu hartina "lalaki".{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Ku kituna, ngaranna bisa jadi lulucon.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=309}} Dina basa Inggris sarua bakal éta Sapfo ieu nikah ka "Dick-Allcock ti Pulo Man".{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Ceuk hiji tradisi yén Sapfo diasingkeun ti Lesbos sabudeureun 600 SM.{{sfn|Hutchinson|2001|p=139}} Babad Parian/ [[Parian Chronicle]] catetan Sapfo badé diasingkeun di Sisilia sababaraha waktu antara 604 jeung 595, meureun ''coinciding''/bertepatan jeung [[Pittacus]] nyandak kakuatan dina 597.{{sfn|Ferrari|2010|pp=18&ndash;19}} Ieu bisa jadi salaku hasil tina ''involvement'' kulawargana jeung ''konflik'' antara élit pulitik di Lesbos dina mangsa ieu.,{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=10}} alesan anu sami pikeun pengasingan Alcaeus kontémporér Sapfo ti Mytilene sakitar waktos anu sami.{{sfn|Kurke|2007|p=158}} Hiji tradisi balik deui sahenteuna ka [[Menander]] (Fr. 258 K) ngusulkeun éta Sapfo bunuh diri ku luncat tina [[Lefkada|Leucadian cliffs]] pikeun cinta ka [[Phaon]], tukang kapal. Ieu dianggap salaku ahistorical ku sarjana moderén, meureun diciptakeun ku para panyajak komik atawa asalna tina kasalahan maca rujukan jalma kahiji dina sajak ''non-biografi''.{{sfn|Lidov|2002|pp=205–6|loc=n.7}} Legénda éta tiasa nyababkeun sabagian tina kahayang pikeun negeskeun Sapfo salaku hétéroséksual.{{sfn|Hallett|1979|pp=448–449}}{{clear left}} ==Pagawéna== [[File:P.Sapph.Obbink.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Black and white photograph of a fragment of papyrus with Greek text|P.&nbsp;Sapph.&nbsp;Obbink: hiji fragmén anu kapanggih tina papirus salahsahiji puisi Sapfo [[Brothers Poem]]/sajak baraya] Sapfo dipercaya geus nulis kurang leuwih 10,000 baris sajak; kiwari, ngan kari 650 anu salamet.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=7}} Anu dipikawanoh ti manéhna téh tayalian pangalusna dina [[puisi liris]], ditulis pikeun dipirig ku musik.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=7}} ''Suda'' ogé nyebutkeun kana karya Sappho mibanda ciri mandiri /genre ''[[epigrams]]'', ''[[elegiacs]]'', jeung ''[[iambus (genre)|iambics]];'' tilu tina ''epigrams'' ieu aya, engkéna sajak-sajakna Hellenistic diideuan ku ieukaryana Sappho.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=8}} ''The iambic'' jeung ''elegiac'' sajak dikaitkeun ka dirina di Suda ogé bisa jadi ''imitations'' engkéna.{{efn|Scholars such as Alexander Dale and Richard Martin have suggested that some of Sappho's surviving fragments may have been considered iambic in genre, even though they were not composed in iambic trimeter, by ancient sources.{{sfn|Dale|2011|pp=47&ndash;55}}{{sfn|Martin|2016|pp=115&ndash;118}}}}{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=8}}Baheula pangarang ngaku yén Sappho utamana nulis cinta sajak,{{sfn|Campbell|1982|p=xii}} sarta transmisi teu langsung karya Sappho ngarojong pamanggih ieu.{{sfn|Bierl|Lardinois|2016|p=3}} Sanajan kitu, tradisi papirus nyarankeun yén ieu bisa jadi teu jadi: runtuyan papirus diterbitkeun dina 2014 ngandung fragmen sapuluh padeukeut sajak ti Buku I tina édisi Alexandrian of Sapfo, di antarana waé dua anu pasti cinta puisi, sedengkeun sahanteuna tilu jeung kamungkinan opat utamana paduli kulawarga.{{sfn|Bierl|Lardinois|2016|p=3}} ===Édisi Baheula=== Puisi-puisi Sapfo éta meureun mimiti ditulis di Lesbos, boh dina hirupna atawa teu lila saterusna,{{sfn|Bolling|1961|p=152}} mimitina meureun dina wangun skor pikeun palaku karyana.{{sfn|Winkler|1990|p=166}} Dina abad kalima SM, Buku Athena penerbit meureun mimiti ngahasilkeun salinan puisi lirik Lesbian, sababaraha kaasup katerangan bahan jeung glosses ogé sajak sorangan.{{sfn|Bolling|1961|p=152}} Sababaraha waktu dina abad kadua atawa katilu, [[Alexandrian school|Alexandrian scholars]] ngahasilkeun édisi kritis puisi Sapfo.{{sfn|de Kreij|2015|p=28}} Aya meureun geus leuwih ti hiji édisi Alexandrian – [[John J. Winkler]] boga dua pamanggih, hiji diédit ku [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] jeung hiji deui ku muridna [[Aristarchus of Samothrace]].{{sfn|Winkler|1990|p=166}} eu henteu pasti – sumber kuna béjaan kami itu édisi Aristarchus ti Alcaeus gaganti édisi ku Aristophanes, tapi teu kanyahoan ngeunaan karya Sapfo naha ogé ngaliwat sababaraha édisi.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|1999|p=180|loc=n.4}} Édisi Alexandrian tina puisi Sapfo ieu dumasar kana aya kumpulan Athena,{{sfn|Bolling|1961|p=152}} sarta éta dibagi jadi sahenteuna dalapan buku, sanajan jumlah pastina teu pasti.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|1999|p=181}} Loba sarjana modern geus dituturkeun Nolak Kaca, anu ngaduga buku kasalapan dina édisi standar;{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|1999|p=181}} Yatromanolakis ieu ragu, sanajan yén teu aya sumber kuna ngarujuk kana buku kadalapan puisi Sapfo, taya nu nyebut kasalapan.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|1999|p=184}} Édisi Alexandrian tina Sapfo sigana dikelompokeun sajak-sajakna ku waktuna: sumber kuna ngabejaan urang yén tiap tina tilu buku munggaran ngandung sajak dina méter husus tunggal.{{sfn|Lidov|2011}} Édisi kuno Sapfo, kamungkinan dimimitian ku édisi Alexandrian, sigana geus maréntahkeun sajak dina sahenteuna buku munggaran puisi Sapfo – nu ngandung karya nu diwangun dina [[Sapphic stanza]]s – ''alphabetically''.{{sfn|Obbink|2016|p=42}} Malah sanggeus publikasi tina édisi Alexandrian standar, Puisi Sapfo terus medar dina kumpulan puisi séjénna. Contona, nu dina ''Cologne Papyrus'' [[Tithonus poem]] éta dilestarikeun bagian tina hiji puisi ''antologi'' Hellenistic, anu eusina puisi disusun dumasar téma, tinimbang ku waktu medalna, sakumaha anu kasebut dina édisi Alexandrian.{{sfn|Clayman|2011}} ===Puisi Anu Salamet=== {{multiple image | total_width = 320 | image1 = P.Köln XI 429.jpg | alt1 = Fragments of papyrus | width1 = 1608 | height1 = 1628 | image2 = Ostrakon PSI XIII 1300, II sec. ac, frammento di un'ode di saffo sul culto di afrodite.JPG | alt2 = A fragment of teracotta pottery, written on with black ink. | width2 = 1664 | height2 = 2080 | footer = Most of Sappho's poetry is preserved in manuscripts of other ancient writers or on papyrus fragments, but part of one poem survives on a potsherd.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=8}} The papyrus pictured (left) preserves the [[Tithonus poem]] (fragment 58); the potsherd (right) preserves [[Sappho 2|fragment 2]]. }} Naskah puisi Sapfo anu pangheubeulna masih keneh aya kapanggih, kaasup tulisan nu aya dina gerabah [[Sappho 2|fragment 2]] masih kaburu dilestarikeun, éta asalna ti abad ka katilu SM, kawasna baé tiasa sateuacanna édisi Alexandrian.{{sfn|Winkler|1990|p=166}} Salinan anu pang panderina tina sajak Sapfo anu dikirimkeun langsung ti jaman baheula ditulis dina parchment [[codex]] kaca ti kagenep jeung abad katujuh Masehi, tur éta pasti dihasilkeun tina papirus kuno ayeuna geus leungit.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=81–2}} Salinan naskah karya Sapfo mungkin geus salamet dina sababaraha abad, ngan kawasna abad ka-9 puisi kacirina geus ngiles,{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=81}} sarta ku abad ka 12, [[John Tzetzes]] bisa nulis éta "the passage of time has destroyed Sappho and her works".{{refn|1=Tzetzes, ''On the Metres of Pindar'' 20–22 = T. 61}} Nurutkeun legenda, Puisi Sapfo leungit kusabab [[gareja]] teu satuju kana moralna.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Ieu legenda nembongan geus asalna dina [[Renaissance]] – kurang leuwih dina 1550, [[Jerome Cardan]] nulis anu [[Gregory of Nazianzus|Gregory Nazianzen]] karya Sapfo sacara umum ancur, sarta dina ahir abad 16 [[Joseph Justus Scaliger]] ngaku yén karya Sappho diduruk di Roma jeung [[Konstantinopél]] di 1073 dumasar pesenan ti [[Pope Gregory VII]].{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=81}} bisa nulis éta|p=18}} Faktor nyumbang kana kaleungitan sajak Sapfo meureun nya [[dialék Aeolic]], dianggap propinsi dina hiji periode dimana éta [[Attic dialék]] dianggap salaku Yunani klasik asli,{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=18}} jeung kungsi jadi patokan karya sastra.{{sfn|Williamson|1995|page=41}} Balukarna, loba pamiarsa kapanggih hésé ngarti kana dialek Sapfo: dina abad kadua [[Maséhi]], pangarang [[Romawi]] [[Apuleius]] specifically remarks on its "strangeness",<ref>Apuleius, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu v/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0501%3Asection%3D9 ''Apologia'' 9]</ref> jeung sababaraha komééntator dina subjék démonstrasi kungsi ngalaman kasusah nu maca dina hésé ngahartikeun.{{sfn|Williamson|1995|pp=41&ndash;42}} Ieu bagian tina turunna leuwih umum dina minat para pujangga kuna;{{sfn|Williamson|1995|p=42}} leres pisan, papirus salamet nyarankeun yén puisi Sapfo urang salamet leuwih panjang batan nu kontémporée dirina kayaning Alcaeus.{{sfn|Finglass|2021|pp=232, 239}} Ngan kira-kira 650 baris puisi Sapfo urang masih salamet, nu ngan hiji sajak – the "Ode to Aphrodite" – geus lengkep, sarta leuwih ti satengah tina garis aslina salamet dina sabudeureun sapuluh deui fragmén. Loba sempalan salamet tina Sapfo ngandung ukur hiji kecap{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=7}} – salaku conto, fragment 169A ngan saukur harti kecap "kado kawinan",{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=85}} tur salamet salaku bagian tina kamus kecap langka.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=148}} Dua sumber utama tina fragmen salamet tina Sapfo mangrupa cutatan dina kuna séjén dianggo, tina sajak gembleng nepi ka saeutik jadi hiji kecap, jeung fragmén tina papirus, loba nu kapanggih di [[Oxyrhynchus]] di Mesir.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|pp=7–8}} sempalan lianna salamet dina bahan séjén, kaasup ''parchment''jeung ''potsherds''.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=8}} Pangkolotna salamet sempalan puisi Sapfo ayeuna dipikawanoh nyaéta ''Cologne papyrus'' nu ngandung sajak ''Tithonus'',{{sfn|West|2005|p=1}} ti abad ka tilu SM.{{sfn|Obbink|2011}} Sampai kuartal terakhir abad ka salapan belas, ngan kutipan kuna puisi Sapfo anu nyesa. Di 1879, munggaran anyar kapanggihna tina sempalan pisi Sapfo dijieun di [[Fayum]].{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=289}} Nepi ka tungtun taun abad XIX, [[Bernard Pyne Grenfell|Grenfell]] jeung [[Arthur Surridge Hunt|Hunt]] geus dimimitian ngagali tempat pamiceunan runtah kuna di Oxyrhynchus, ngarah kana pamanggihan tina loba fragmén/sempalan puisi Sapfo saméméhna kungsi kanyahoan.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Fragmén puisi Sapfo terus kapanggih deui. Loba Nu panganyarna, pamanggihan utama dina 2004 ''(the "Tithonus poem" and a new, previously unknown fragment)''{{sfn|Skinner|2011}} jeung 2014 (sempalan salapan sajak: lima geus dipikawanoh tapi ku bacaan anyar, opat, kaasup nu "[[Brothers Poem]]", teu dipikawanoh saméméhna){{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=155}} geus dilaporkeun dina média sakuliah dunya.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} ===Gaya=== Sapfo digawé dina tradisi anu alus-dimekarkeun tina puisi Lesbian, nu kungsi mekar diksi puitis sorangan, méter, jeung konvénsi.{{sfn|Burn|1960|page=229}} Sateuacan Sapfo sareng Alcaeus kontemporer na, Lesbos ieu pakait kalawan puisi jeung musik ngaliwatan mistis [[Orpheus]] jeung [[Arion]], dina abad katujuh SM pujangga [[Terpander]].{{sfn|Thomas|2021|p=35}} The [[Aeolic verse|Lesbian metrical tradition]] dimana Sapfo ngarang puisina béda tinu séjén di Yunani sabab baris na salawasna ngandung jumlah suku kata tetep &ndash; kontras jeung tradisi séjén nu diwenangkeun pikeun substitusi dua suku kata pondok pikeun hiji panjang atawa sabalikna.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=121}} Sapfo mangrupikeun salah sahiji pujangga Yunani anu munggaran ngadopsi "lyric 'I'" – nulis sajak nyoko kana panéénjo/''sudut pandang'' jalma nu tangtu, kontras jeung pujangga éépik saméméhna [[Homer]] jeung [[Hesiod]], anu nembongkeun n diri leuwih salaku "saluran tina ''divine''''/ ilham pangééean".{{sfn|duBois|1995|p=6}} Puisi nya explores individu jati diri jeung pribadi émosi – kahayang, timburuan, jeung cinta; éta ogé adopts jeung napsirkeun deui nu geus aya gambaran puisi épik dina ngokolakeun ieu téma.{{sfn|duBois|1995|p=7}} Sigana geus diwangun pikeun rupa-rupa kasempetan boh publik jeung swasta, sarta meureun ''encompassed'' duanana dianggi dina [[paduan suara]] dianggo.{{sfn|Kurke|2021|p=95}} Dibarengan ku puisi cinta anu anjeunna paling dikenal, karya-karyana anu masih kénéh hirup diantarana sajak museur kana kulawarga, naratif dipangaruhan epik, lagu kawinan, ''hymns kultus'', jeung ''invective''.{{sfn|Budelmann|2019|pp=113&ndash;114}} Puisi Sapfo dipikanyaho ku basa anu jelas sareng pikiran anu sederhana, jeung ngagunakeun cutatan langsung nu brings rasa immediacy.{{sfn|Campbell|1967|p=262}} Kecap-muter anu teu kaduga mangrupikeun ciri khas tina gayana.{{sfn|Zellner|2008|p=435}} Contona nyaéta tina sempalan 96: "ayeuna manehna nangtung kaluar diantara awéwé Lydian sakumaha sanggeus Panonpoé Tilelep the rose-meraba bulan melebihi semua bintang",{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=66}} variasi dari [[Homeric epithet]] "Fajar berjari kemerahan".{{sfn|Zellner|2008|p=439}} Puisi Sapfo sering digunakan [[hyperbole]], menurut kritikus kuno "karena pesonanya".{{sfn|Zellner|2008|p=438}} Contoh ditemukan dalam fragmen 111, di mana Sapfo menulis itu "Pengantin pria pendekatan seperti Ares [...] Jauh lebih besar dari pria besar".{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=73}} [[Leslie Kurke]] ngagolongkeun Sapfo dengan itu penyair Yunani kuno dari apa yang disebut "élit" ''ideologis tradisi'',{{efn|Though the word "élite" is used as a shorthand for a particular ideological tradition within Archaic Greek poetic thought, it is highly likely that all Archaic poets in fact were part of the elite, both by birth and wealth.{{sfn|Kurke|2007|p=152}}}} nu hargana méwah (''habrosyne'') jeung lahir luhur. Ieu pujangga élit condong ngaidentipikasi diri jeung dunya mitos Yunani, déwa, jeung pahlawan, kitu ogé Wétan jegud, utamana [[Lydia]].{{sfn|Kurke|2007|pp=147–148}} Thus in fragment 2 Sapfo boga Aphrodite "tuang kana cangkir emas nectar lavishly dicampurkeun jeung joys",{{refn|Sappho 2.14–16}} sedengkeun dina sajak Tithonus anjeunna sacara éksplisit nyatakeun yén "Abdi resep hal anu langkung saé [''habrosyne'']".{{refn|Sappho 58.15}}{{sfn|Kurke|2007|p=150}}{{efn|M.L. West comments on the translation of this word, "'Loveliness' is an inadequate translation of ''habrosyne'', but I have not found an adequate one. Sappho does not mean 'elegance' or 'luxury'".{{sfn|West|2005|page=7}}}} Numutkeun Page DuBois, basa, ogé eusina, puisi Sapfo evokes hiji lapisan aristocratic.{{sfn|duBois|1995|pp=176–7}} Manéhna kontras Sapfo urang"flowery,[...] adorned" style with the "austere, decorous, restrained" style embodied in the works of saterusna pangarang klasik kayaning [[Sophocles]], [[Demosthenes]], dan [[Pindar]].{{sfn|duBois|1995|pp=176–7}} ===Musik=== [[File:Brygos Painter ARV 385 228 Alkaios and Sappho - Dionysos and maenad (07).jpg|thumb|alt=Red-figure vase painting of a woman holding a barbitos. On the left, a bearded man with a barbitos is partially visible.|Salah sahiji gambar Sapfo pangheubeulna anu masih bisa disalametkeun, ti c. 470 SM. Manéhna ditémbongkeun keur nyekel hiji ''[[barbitos]]'' jeung ''plectrum'' (samodél harpa), bari ngaregepkeun [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]].{{sfn|McClure|2002|page=38}}]] Puisi Sapfo ditulis keur ditembangkeun tapi éta henteu tangtu gumantung kaperluanna.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=129}} Salaku éta sapertina teu mirip kanu mana wae tina sistem [[Musical system of ancient Greece|notasi musik]] nuaya di Yunani Kuna harita saméméh abad kalima, musik aslina anu bakal marengan lagu Sapfo urang meureun moal mikanyaho nepi ka panggih naskah séjén ti jaman klasik anu salamet,{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=129}} tur kitu deui euweuh sahiji ogé musik kuna nu dipiwanoh pikeun marengan puisi Sapfo anu salamet atawa kapanggih kiwari .{{sfn|Gordon|2002|p=xii}} Puisi Sapfo ieu cenah geus ditulis dina[[Mixolydian mode#Greek Mixolydian|mixolydian mode]],{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=130}} nu dianggap sedih; ieu ilahar dipaké dina [[tragedi Yunani]], jeung [[Aristoxenus]] percaya yén tragedi diajar ti Sapfo .{{sfn|West|1992|p=182}} Aristoxenus nyangkut pautkeunn Safpo tina pamanggih tina mode ieu, tapi ieu tetep klaim dubious.{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} '' The classicist Stefan Hagel'' boga panyangga éta sugan waé Sapfo mimiti ngapopulerkeun téh pakaitna antara mixolydian na mournfulness.{{sfn|Hagel|2010|p=373}} Bari aya euweuh attestations yén Aisyah dipaké lianna [[Mode (music)|mode]]s, nya meureun variatif aranjeunna gumantung kana sajak karakterna.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=130}} Nalika mimiti ditembangkeun, unggal suku kata téks nya sigana pakait sareng hiji catetan salaku pamakéan panjangna [[melisma]]s dimekarkeun dina jaman klasik engké..{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Sapfo utamina nyerat pikeun dua format: panyanyi solo sareng paduan suara.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Kalayan Alcaeus, anjeunna naratas gaya nyanyian énggal [[monody]] (single-line melody) anu undur tina gaya paduan suara multi-bagian anu umumna diartikeun musik Yunani baheula.{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} Gaya ieu dipasihan nya leuwih kasempetan pikeun ngaindividualkeun eusi sajakna; the historian [[Plutarch]] nyatet yén manéhna "speaks kecap dicampur sabenerna jeung seuneu, sarta ngaliwatan lagu nya, manéhna tarik panas ngagambarkeun haténa".{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} Beberapa sarjana téori yén sajak Tithonus éta diantara karyana maksudna pinanggih pikeun penyanyi solo.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Ngan fragmen karya paduan suara Sapfo masih aya, jeung ieu, saeutik leuwih ti dirina [[épithalamia]] lagu kawin masih aya bisa disalametkeun .{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} Nu engké komposisi éta meureun dimaksudkeun pikeun [[Call and response (music)|antiphonal]] prakna antara boh paduan suara lalaki jeung awéwé atawa soloist jeung paduan suara.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Dina waktosna Sapfo, puisi ditembangkeun éta dipirig ku [[musical instrument]]s, which usually [[Voicing (music)#Doubling|doubled]] the voice in [[unison]] atawa diputer [[Homophony|homophonically]] hiji [[octave]] luhur atawa handap.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=130}} Sajakna nyebut loba instrumén, kaasup the [[Ancient Greek harps#Pektis, trigonus|pēktis]], hiji harpa ti [[Lydians|Lydian]] asal usul,{{efn|The [[Ancient Greek harps#Pektis, trigonus|pēktis]] harpa, ogé katelah plektron atawa plectrum, bisa jadi sarua jeung [[magadis]].{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 3}}}} jeung [[lyre]].{{efn|Sappho names both the {{lang|grc|λύρα}} (''lyra'') and {{lang|grc|χελύννα}} (''chelynna'', {{lit|tortoise}});{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} duanana nuduhkeun [[bowl lyre]]s.{{sfn|West|1992|p=50}}}}{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Sappho paling raket pakaitna jeung [[barbitos]],{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} a lyre-kawas instrumen string anu jero dina pitch.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} [[Euphorion of Chalcis]] ngalaporkeun yén anjeunna ngarujuk kana sajakna,{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 3}} sareng vase abad ka-5 anu kasohor ku boh nu [[Dokimasia Painter]] atawa [[Brygos Painter]] ngawengku Sappho na Alcaeus kalawan barbitoi.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Sappho nyebatkeun [[aulos]], a wind instrument kalawan dua pipa, in [[Sappho 44|fragment 44]] salaku pamirig lagu wanoja-wanoja Trojan di [[Hector]] jeung [[Andromache]]'s kawinan, tapi henteu sebagé pamirig puisina sorangan .{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=132}} Engké Koméntator Yunani salah percaya anu mana manéhna geus manggihan [[plectrum]].{{sfn|West|1992|p=65}} ==Sexuality== {{multiple image|total_width=300|direction=vertical |image1=Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, R.A., O.M. - Sappho and Alcaeus - Google Art Project.jpg|width1=7628|height1=4172 |image2=Simeon Solomon - Sappho and Erinna in a Garden at Mytilene.jpg|width2=1536|height2=1338 |footer=Seksualitas Sapfo geus lila jadi bahan padungdengan. Sir [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]'s ''[[Sappho and Alcaeus]]'' (luuhur) katempo manéhna keur mencrong ka Alcaeus kalawan dilimpudan ku rasa birahi; gambar-gambar Sapfo lesbian, seperti lukisan Sapfo ku [[Simeon Solomon]] jeung [[Erinna]] (handap), jauh lewih jarang mangsa abad ke-19.}} Istilah umum ''lesbian'' tayalian métafora pikeun Sapfo, anu asalna tina ngarana ti pulo [[Lesbos]], tempat manéhna gumelar.{{efn|The adjective ''sapphic'', which means "relating to lesbians and/or lesbianism", and the related words ''sapphist'', ''sapphism'' etc. all also come from Sappho.}}{{sfn|Most|1995|p=15}} Sanajan kitu, manéhna teu salawasna dianggap kitu. Dina komedi Athena klasik (ti éta [[Old Comedy]] ti abad kalima ka Menander dina ahir kaopat jeung mimiti abad katilu SM), Sapfo karikatur salaku awéwé hétéroséksual promiscuous,{{sfn|Most|1995|p=17}} sarta teu nepi ka Hellenistic periode nu kahiji sumber anu sacara éksplisit ngaguar homoeroticism Sapfo dilestarikan. Pangheubeulna ieu mangrupa fragmentary biografi ditulis dina papyrus dina ahir abad katilu atawa awal abad kadua SM,<ref>P.Oxy. 1800 fr. 1 = T 1</ref> nu mertahankeun yén Sapfo éta "dituduh ku sababaraha anu henteu sajalan dina cara dirina sareng kabogoh awéwé".{{sfn|Campbell|1982|page=3}} meureun kaca koméntar éta frasa "ku sababaraha" nunjukkeun yén sanajan korpus pinuh ku puisi Sapfo teu nyadiakeun bukti konklusif naha manéhna digambarkeun salaku gaduh dorongan sex jeung awewe.{{sfn|Page|1959|page=142}} Ieu pangarang kuna teu kaciri boga dipercaya yén Sapfo tuh, kanyataanna, gaduh hubungan seksual jeung awéwé séjén, jeung ahir abad kasapuluh teh Suda ngarékam éta Sapfo "dituduh fitnah" gaduh hubungan seksual sareng anjeunna "murid awéwé".{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=448}} Di antara sarjana modern, seksualitas Sapfo masih jadi padungdengan – André Lardinois ngagambarkeun salaku "Patarosan Sapfo Hébat".{{sfn|Lardinois|2014|p=15}} Tarjamahan mimiti tina puisi Sapfo sakapeung eusina némbongkeun heterosexualised.{{sfn|Gubar|1984|p=44}} [[Ambrose Philips]]' 1711 tarjamah tina [[Ode to Aphrodite]] ngagambarkeun objek kahayang Sapfo salaku lalaki, bacaan anu dituturkeun ku ampir unggal penerjemah sajak lianna nepi ka abad ka,{{sfn|DeJean|1989|p=319}} Tisaprak 1781 Alessandro Verri nafsirkeun séjén [[Sappho 31|fragment 31]] salaku saurang anu némbongkeun cintana Sapfo pikeun Phaon.{{sfn|Most|1995|pp=27–28}} [[Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker]] pamadegan yén parasaan Sapfo pikeun awéwé séjén éta "sakabéhna nembongkeun idealis tur lain hubunganna jeung sensualitas",{{sfn|Most|1995|p=26}} Nalika [[Karl Otfried Müller]] nulis tina fragment 31 digambarkeun "euweuh micinta tapi ngan saukur sikep ramah":{{sfn|Most|1995|p=27}} [[Glenn Most]] ngoméntaran "hiji kaluhungan Basa nu dipaké Sapfo dipaké pikeun ngajelaskeun parasaan dirina lamun maranéhna geus leuwih ti pikagumbiraeun dina séksual", lamun téori ieu bener.{{sfn|Most|1995|p=27}} Ku 1970, éta bakal mibanda pamadegan yén sajakna sarua ngandung "buktina positip tina [Sapfo] memang saurang lesbianisme".{{sfn|Devereux|1970}} Kiwari, umumna ditarima yén puisi Sapfo ngagambarkeun parasaan homoérotik:{{sfn|Klinck|2005|p=194}} salaku Sandra Boehringer nempatkeun éta, karyana "jelas ngagungkeun eros antara awéwé".{{sfn|Boehringer|2014|p=151}} Nuju ahir abad ka XX, sanajan, sababaraha Sarjana mimiti nolak pananya tina naha Sapfo éta lesbian atawa sanes – Glenn Kalolobaan panulis ngeunaan Sapfo "bakal teu boga pamanggih naon-naon nalika aranjeunna nelepon dirina naha manéhna saurang homoseksual",{{sfn|Most|1995|p=27}} André Lardinois nyatakeun yén éta téh "omong kosong" nanya naha Sapfo éta lesbian,{{sfn|Lardinois|2014|p=30}} jeung Page duBois nelepon nepikeun hiji patarosan "khususna madungdengkeun hiji hal anu matak bingung".{{sfn|duBois|1995|p=67}} Salah sahiji anu jadi tujuan utama para sarjana nalungtik Sapfo tayalian usaha pikeun nangtukeun kontéks budaya di mana Puisi Sapfo disusun sareng dipintonkeun.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=216}} Rupa-rupa kontéks budaya jeung peran sosial anu geus ditempokeun ku Sapfo geus kungsi disodorkeu, kaasup guru, pamingpin séké, katut pujangga anu minton pikeu lingkungan batur awéwé.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=216}} Tangtu, kontéks nu ditembongkeun tina loba fragménn Sapfo henteu gampang ditangtukeun, sarta bisa dibayangkeun pikeun leuwih ti hiji kamungkinan konteks ..{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|pp=216–218}} Hiji saran anu parantos lami ngeunaan peran sosial pikeun Sapfo nyaéta "Sapfo salaku guru sakola".{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=310}} Dina awal abad ka dua puluh, ahli klasik ti Jerman [[Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff]] sapamadegan yén Sappho éta jenis guru sakola, pikeun "ngécéskeun jauh gairah Sapfo pikeun budak awéwéna jeung melaan dirina tina tuduhan homoseksualitas.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=313}} Panalungtikan terus jadi pangaruh, boh di kalangan sarjana anapon masarakat umum,{{sfn|Parker|1993|pp=314–315}} sanajan kamari ieu éta gagasan dikritik ku para sajarawan salaku anakronistik {{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=15}} kalawan meunang panolak ku sababaraha ahli klasik anu kamashur alatan henteu dibenerkeun ku bukti. Jeroning taun 1959, Denys Page, salaku conto, nyatakeun yén fragmén Sapfo anu masih aya ngagambarkeun "kaasih sareng timburu, kasenangan sareng kanyeri, ti Sapfo jeung babaturanna"; sarta anjeunna nambihan, "Kami geus manggihan, sarta bakal manggihan, henteu aya tapak formal kitu ogé hubungan resmi atau profesional di antara maranéhanana ."{{sfn|Page|1959|p=|pages=139–140}} David A. Campbell dina 1967 boga pamadegan yén Sapfo meureun "mingpin hiji paguyuban sastra", tapi itu "bukti pikeun penunjukan formal salaku panduta atawa guru hésé kapanggihna".{{sfn|Campbell|1967|page=261}} Teu aya hiji oge dina puisi Sapfo anu nyebutkeun ajarana, kitu deu sumber nu ngamimitian ngadukung pamadegan Sapfo saurang guru mimiti ti Ovid, genep abad sabada masa hidup Sapfo .{{sfn|Parker|1993|pp=314–316}} Sanajan masalah ini, loba interpretasi anyar ngeunaan peran sosial Sapfo masih dumasar kana ieu pamadegan.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=316}} Dina interpretasi ieu, Sapfo ilubiung dina ngatik ritual budak Awéwé,{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=316}} saperti salaku pelatih ''paduan suara'' budak awéwé.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=216}} Sanaos Sapfo ngadamel lagu pikeun ngalatih ''paduan suara'' barudak awéwé, henteu sakabeh puisina bisa ditafsirkeun maké cara séjén,{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=218}} kitu deui sanajan sarjana upaya anu hadé pikeun manggihan, Yatromanolakis boga pamadegan yén henteu aya kontéks pintonan tunggal anu bisa dikaitkeun jeung sakabeh puisi Sapfo. Parker argues cenah Sapfo kudu dianggap salaku bagian tina paguyuban batur awéwé anu baris dipintonkeun ku manéhna, sarua saperti jalma anu sazananna [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] .{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=342}} Sababaraha puisina katempo dijieun pikeun acara resmi,{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=343}} tapi loba ngeunaan tina laguna - jeung kawasna baris dipaké pikeun parasmanan .{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=344}} ==Warisan== ===Reputasi kuno=== [[File:NAMA Sappho lisant.jpg|thumb|alt=Red-figure vase, depicting a seated woman reading, surrounded by three standing women, one holding a lyre.|Sappho mere ilham penyair sareng seniman kuno, kalebet pelukis vas ti Grup Polygnotos anu ngagambarkeun anjeunna dina hydria beureum ieu..]] Dina jaman baheula, Puisi Sapfo kalintang dipiyungyun, katut sababaraha sumber kuna nyebutna salaku "Muse kasepuluh".{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=447}} Puisi paling awal anu masih kénéh aya dina wangun epigram abad ketiga SM ku [[Dioscorides (penyair)|Dioscorides]],<ref>AP 7.407 = T 58</ref>{{sfn|Gosetti-Murrayjohn|2006|pp=28–29}} Puisi disimpan dina "Antologi Yunani" ku Antipater ti Sidon<ref>AP 7.14 = T 27</ref>{{sfn|Gosetti-Murrayjohn|2006|p=33}} sarta dikaitkeun jeung Plato<ref>AP 9.506 = T 60</ref>{{sfn|Gosetti-Murrayjohn|2006|p=32}} dina téma anu sami. Anjeunna sakapeung sok disebut salaku "The Poetess", kawas Homer "The Poet".{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=312}} Sarjana - Sarjana ti Alexandria kaasup kana lirik pupuh salapan panyajak.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=340}} Dumasar [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]], the Athenian lawmaker and poet [[Solon]] dipenta diajarkeun lagu ku Sapfo "nepi ka kuring bisa diaja".<ref>Aelian, quoted by Stobaeus, ''Anthology'' 3.29.58 = T 10</ref> Carita ieu meureun apokrif/rusiah, utamana sabab Ammianus Marcellinus ngabejaan carita sarupa ngeunaan Socrates jeung lagu [[Stesischorus]], tapi nembongkeun kumaha puisi Sapfo dianggap kacida luhurna di dunya kuPuisina.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=221}} Sapfo ogé mangaruhan pujangga kuna lianna. dina basa Yunani, the Hellenistic pujangga [[Nossis]] dijelaskeun ku Marilyn B. Skinner salaku sok niron karya Sapfo, kitu deui Kathryn Gutzwiller mibanda pamadegan yén Nossis sacara éksplisit nempatkeun dirina salaku wawaris tina kalungguhan Sapfo salaku pujangga awéwé.{{sfn|Gosetti-Murrayjohn|2006|pp=27–28}} Di luar puisi, Plato mengutip Sapfo dina bukuna ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', ogé [[Socrates]]' pidato kedua ngeunaan cinta dina hiji dialog anu kawasna kamandang deskripsi Sapfo ngeunaan épék fisik kahayang jero fragmen 31.{{sfn|duBois|1995|pp=85–6}} Dina abad kahiji SM, [[Catullus]] ngadegkeun téma sareng méter puisi Sapfo salaku bagian tina literatur Latin, nganut ''stanza Sapphic'', dipercaya ku jaman baheula geus jadi pamanggih ku Sapfo,{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} méré ngaran kakasihna dina puisina "[[Lesbia]]" dina rujukan pikeun Sappho,{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=72}} jeung nyaluyukeun ogé narjamahkeun fragmen ka-31 Sapfo dina [[Catullus 51|sajak 51]].{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=108}}{{sfn|Most|1995|p=30}} Pujangga kuno lainna nulis ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo. Manéhna téh mibanda karakter anu populer di [[Komedi Yunani kuno|''ancient Athenian comedy'']]/Komedi Yunani kuno ,{{sfn|Most|1995|p=17}} ogé sahenteuna aya genep komedi anu misah ogé disebut mikawanoh "Sapfo" .{{sfn|Parker|1993|pp=309–310|loc=n. 2}}{{efn|Parker lists plays by [[Ameipsias]], [[Amphis]], [[Antiphanes (comic poet)|Antiphanes]], [[Diphilos]], [[Ephippus of Athens|Ephippus]], jeung [[Timocles]], sapanjang dengan dua drama disebut ''Phaon'', opat disebut ''Leucadia'', hiji ''Leukadios'', jeung hiji ''Antilais'' sakabéh nu meureun geus ngeunaan Sappho.}} Komedi kuna pangheubeulna dipikawanoh nyandak Sapfo salaku subjék utamana nyaéta awal kalima atawa ahir abad kaopat SM ''Sappho'' ku [[Ameipsias]], sanaos teu aya anu dipikanyaho salian ti namina.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 1}} Salaku komedi ieu salamet ngan dina fragmen, teu yakin kana kumaha maranéhna bakal ngajelaskeun Sapfo, tapi anjeunna dipikaresep dicirikeun salaku awéwé promiscuous. Dina kaulinan Diphilos, anjeunna kekasih para pujangga [[Anacreon]] sareng [[Hipponax]].{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=190}} Sapfo ogé janten subjek paling dipikaresep dina seni visual. Anjeunna mangrupikeun pujangga anu paling sering digambarkeun dina vas gambar beureum Loteng abad kagenep sareng kalima. lukisan{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} &ndash; meskipun tidak seperti penyair laki-laki seperti Anacreon dan Alcaeus, dalam empat vas yang bertahan di mana dia diidentifikasi oleh sebuah prasasti dia tidak pernah ditampilkan bernyanyi.{{sfn|Snyder|1997|p=114}} Anjeunna ogé dipidangkeun dina koin ti Mytilene sareng Lesbos ti mimiti dugi ka abad katilu Masehi, sarta dilaporkeun digambarkeun dina wujud patung ku [[Silanion]] di Syracuse, arca di Pergamon jeung Konstantinopel, sarta lukisan ku seniman Hellenistic Leon.{{sfn|Richter|1965|p=70}} Ti abad kaopat SM, karya kuno menggambarkan Sapfo salaku pahlawan awéwé anu tragis, disorong pijeun nelasan maneh alatan cintana anu ambon sorangan ka Phaon.{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=448}} Hiji panggalan drama ku Menander nyebutkeun cenah Sapfo luncat tina gawir di Leucas alatan cinta.{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=448|loc=n. 3}} Ovid's "Heroides" 15 ditulis salaku surat ti Sapfo ka Phaon, sarta nalija munggaran kapanggih dina abad ke-15 dianggap salaku tarjemahan tina surat asli Sapfo.{{sfn|Most|1995|p=19}} Bunuh diri Sapfo ogé digambarkeun dina seni klasik, umpamana dina basilika SM abad kahiji di deukeut Roma [[Porta Maggiore]].{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=448|loc=n. 3}} Sedengkeun puisi Sapfo dipigandrum di dunya kuna, karakterna henteu salawasna dianggap kalawan hadé. Dina jaman Romawi, kritikus boga anggapan ieu kacida nafsu jeung meureun homoseksual.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=73}} [[Horace]] nyebutna ''"mascula Sappho"'' dina "Epistles", nu engkéna dikoméntaran ku [[Pomponius Porphyrion|Porphyrio]] tayalian "sabab anjeunna kawentar ku puisina, di mana lalaki lewih mindeng onjoy, atawa kumargi anjeunna difitnah janten [[Tribadism|tribad]]".{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=72–3}} Nepi ka abad katilu Masehi, bédana antara reputasi sastra Sapfo salaku saurang penyair jeung reputasi moralna salaku saurang awéwé jadi kacida signifikan matakna anggapan yén sebenarna aya dua Sapfo mimiti mekar..{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=73–4}} Dina "Historical Miscellanies" na, Aelian nyerat yén aya "Sappho anu sanés, pelacur, sanés pujangga.".<ref>Aelian, ''Historical Miscellanies'' 12.19 = T 4</ref> ===Panarimaan Modern=== [[File:SapphoWoodcut.jpg|thumb|left|Dina période abad pertengahan, Sappho ngagaduhan reputasi salaku awéwé berpendidikan sareng pujangga anu berbakat. Dina potongan kayu ieu, ngagambarkeun [[incunable]] awal Boccaccio''De mulieribus claris'', anjeunna digambarkeun dikurilingan ku buku sareng alat musik.]] Menjelang periode abad pertengahan, Karya Sappho laleungit, sok sanajan kitu masih dicutat di panulis satuluyna. Karyana jadi lebih gampil diaksés dina abad ka genep belas ngaliwatan édisi citak ti para panulis anu nyutatna. Dina taun 1508 [[Aldus Manutius]] nyitak edisie [[Dionysius ti Halicarnassus]], anu eusina Sapfo 1, "Ode to Aphrodite", jeung édisi citak munggaran ti Longinus '''On the Sublime'', kumplit jeung cutatanna ngeunaan Sapfo 31, mucunghul taun 1554. Dina tahun 1566,' 'pencetak' ' Prancis Robert Estienne édisi diterbitkeun puisi lirik Yunani anu eusina aya kana 40 fragmén anu pakait sareng Sapfo.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=84}} Pada tahun 1652, tarjamahan basa Inggris kahiji ti hiji puisi karya Sapfo diterbitkeun, dina tarjamah [[John Hall (penyair)|John Hall]] ngeunaan ''On the Sublime''. Dina taun 1681 [[Anne Le Fèvre]] Sapfo édisi Prancis ngajadikeun karyana leuwih lega dipikawanoh.{{sfn|Wilson|2012|p=501}} Édisi [[Theodor Bergk]] taun 1854 janten édisi standar Sapfo dina satengah abad kadua abad ka-19;{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=229}} dina bagian mimiti ka-20, panemuan papirus sajak anyar karya Sapfoo nyababkeun édisi sareng tarjamahan ku [[Edwin Marion Cox]] sareng [[John Maxwell Edmonds]], sareng puncakna dina publikasi tina 1955 ti [[Edgar Lobel]] jeung [[Denys Page]]'s ''Poetarum Lesbiorum Fragmenta''.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=337}} Kawas baheula, kritikus modern geus condong nganggap puisi Sappho "luar biasa".{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=449}} Dina awal abad ka-9, Sappho disebut salaku pujangga awéwé berbakat,{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} sarta dina karya-karya kawas [[Boccaccio]]'s ''[[De Claris Mulieribus]]'' ogé [[Christine de Pisan]]'s ''[[Book of the City of Ladies]]'' manéhna meunangkeun reputasi salaku awéwé didikan.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=82–3}} Malah sanggeus karya Sapfo leungit, bait Sapphic terus dipaké dina lirik puisi abad pertengahan.{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} sarta kalawan pamanggihna karyana dina Renaissance, anjeunna mimiti beuki mangaruhan loba sajak Eropa. Dina abad ka-16, anggota [[La Pléiade]], lingkungan pujangga Prancis, dipangaruhan ku éta pikeun ékspérimén kalawan bait Sapphic sarta nulis sajak cinta dina sora jalma awéwé munggaran.{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} Komposer modern jeung modern mimiti ogé geus diideuan ku Sappho; komposisi kasohor dumasar kana kahirupan atawa karyana kaasup opera kayaning ''Sapfo'' (1794) ku [[Jean-Paul-Égide Martini]], ''[[Sapho (Massenet)|Sappho]]'' (1897) ku [[Jules Massenet]], ''Sappho'' (1963) ku [[Peggy Glanville-Hicks]]; potongan perkusi ''[[Psappha (Xenakis)|Psappha]]'' (1975) jeung karya orkestra ''[[Aïs (Xenakis)|Aïs]]'' (1980) ku [[Iannis Xenakis]]; jeung komposisi ''Charaxos, Eos and Tithonos'' (2014) ku [[Theodore Antoniou]].{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2019|loc=§ "Early Modern and Modern Reception"}} Ti [[Era Romantis]], karya Sappho - hususna "Ode to Aphrodite" - parantos janten pangaruh konci tina konsépsi ngeunaan naon anu kedah janten lirik puisi.{{sfn|Kurke|2007|pp=165–166}} Panyajak anu boga pangaruh sapertos [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]] dina abad ka-19, sareng [[A. E. Housman]] dina ka dua puluh, geus dipangaruhan ku puisi na. Puisi dumasar Tennyson kalebet "Eleanore" sareng "Fatima" dina sempalan Sapfo 31,{{sfn|Peterson|1994|p=123}} sedengkeun tilu karya Housman téh adaptasi tina [[Puisi tengah malam]], nu geus lila dianggap ku Sapfo najan ngeunaan pangarangna ayeuna aya bantahan.{{sfn|Sanford|1942|pp=223–4}} Dina awal abad ka-20, [[Imagists]] – hususna [[Ezra Pound]], [[H. D.]], dan [[Richard Aldington]] – kapangaruhan ku fragmen Sapfo; sajumlah puisi Pound dina koléksi awalna Lustra mangrupa adaptasi tina puisi Sapphic, sedangkeun puisi H.D. nyuhunkeun tulisan Sapfo.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=310–312}} [[File:Cropped image of Sappho from Raphael's Parnassus.jpg|thumb|right|Sapfo leuwih jéntré ku [[Raphael]]'s ''[[The Parnassus|Parnassus]]'' (1510–11), dipintonkeun bareng jeung pujangga séjénna. Dina leungeun kéncana, manéhna nyepeng gulungan anu didinya ngaranna ditulis.{{sfn|Johannides|1983|page=20}}]] Teu lila sanggeus kapanggih deui puisi-puisina Sapfo, seksualitasna sakali deui janten fokus perhatian kritis. Dina awal abad tujuh belas, [[John Donne]] nulis "Sapho to Philaenis", mulang ka pamanggih Sappho salaku anu mikaresep ka awewe kalawan hiperseksual.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=85–6}} Perdebatan modérn ngeunaan seksualitas Sapfo dimimitian dina abad ka-19, Welcker dina 1816, kalayan nyebarkeun hiji artikel ngabéla Sapfo tina tuduhan prostitusi sareng lesbianisme, nyatakeun yén anjeunna suci.{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} – posisi nu engkéna bakal dicokot ku Wilamowitz dina ahir abad ka-19 jeung [[Henry Thornton Wharton]] dina awal abad ka-20..{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=295}} Dina abad ka-19 Sapfo dipilih ku [[Decadent Movement]] salaku "putri de Sade" lesbian, ku [[Charles Baudelaire]] di Perancis sareng engké [[Algernon Charles Swinburne]] di Inggris..{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=231–2}} Dina ahir abad ka-19, panulis lesbian sapertos [[Michael Field (pangarang)|Michael Field]]{{efn|Michael Field was the shared pseudonym of the poets and lovers Katherine Bradley and Edith Cooper.}} jeung [[Amy Levy]] janten museurkeun Sapfo pikeun seksualitas dirina,{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=261}} dan pada pergantian abad ke-20 dia adalah semacam "santo pelindung lesbian".{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=294}} Ti mimiti abad ka-19, pujangga awéwé kawas [[Felicia Hemans]] (''The Last Song of Sappho'') katut [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] (''Sketch the First. Sappho'', ogé dijero ''Ideal Likenesses'') nyandak Sapfo salaku salah sahiji karuhun maranéhanana. Sapfo ogé mimiti dianggap salaku panutan pikeun kampanye hak-hak awéwé, dimimitian ku karyana kawas [[Caroline Norton]]'s "Gambar Sapfo''.{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} Engké dina abad éta, manéhna bakal jadi modél pikeun nu disebut [[Awéwé Anyar]] - awéwé mandiri jeung berpendidikan anu mikahayang otonomi sosial jeung seksual. –{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=258–9}} sareng dina 1960s, féminis Sapfo éta – bareng jeung hypersexual, mindeng tapi teu éksklusif lesbian Safo – salah sahiji dua persepsi budaya pangpentingna Sapfo.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=359}} Kapanggihna sajak anyar nu dijieun ku Sapfo di 2004 jeung 2014 ngagumbirakeun duanana ilmiah jeung perhatian média.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Pangumuman tina Tithonus sajak éta subyek internasional sinyalna warta, sarta digambarkeun ku Marilyn Skinner salaku "the ''[[wikt:trouvaille|trouvaille]]'' of a lifetime".{{sfn|Skinner|2011}}{{sfn|Payne|2014}} ==Tempo ogé== * [[Ancient Greek literature]] * [[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 7]] – papyrus preserving Sappho fr. 5 * [[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1231]] – papyrus preserving Sappho fr. 15–30 * [[List of poets portraying sexual relations between women|Lesbian poetry]] ==Catetan== {{notelist}} ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|20em}} ==Karya dicutat== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Anderson |first=Warren |others=Revised by [[Thomas J. Mathiesen]] |year=2001 |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Sappho |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.24571 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000024571 |ref={{sfnRef|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} }} {{Grove Music subscription}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Barnstone|editor-first=Willis|editor-link = Willis Barnstone|title=The Complete Poems of Sappho|publisher= Shambhala Publications |year=2009|isbn= 9780834822009}} * {{cite book |last=Battezzato |first=Luigi |editor1-last=Finglass |editor1-first=P. J. |editor2-last=Kelly |editor2-first=Adrian |year=2021 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Sappho |chapter=Sappho's Metres and Music |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-316-63877-4 |pages=121–134 }} * {{cite book|last1=Bierl|first1=Anton|last2=Lardinois|first2=André|chapter=Introduction|title=The Newest Sappho: P. Sapph. Obbink and P. GC inv. 105, frs.1–4|editor1-last=Bierl|editor2-last=Lardinois|editor1-first=Anton|editor2-first=André|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-31483-2}} * {{cite book|last=Boehringer|first=Sandra|chapter=Female Homoeroticism|editor-last=Hubbard|editor-first=Thomas K.|title=A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|location=Chichester|year=2014}} * {{cite journal|last=Bolling|first=George Melville|year=1961|title=Textual Notes on the Lesbian Poets|journal=The American Journal of Philology|volume=82|issue=2|pages=151–163|doi=10.2307/292403|jstor=292403}} * {{cite book|last=Budelmann|first=Felix|title=Greek Lyric: A Selection|year=2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} * {{citation|title=The Lyric Age of Greece|last=Burn|first=A. R.|publisher=St Martin's Press|year=1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_8cAAAAYAAJ|location=New York City}} <!--* {{cite book|last=Burnett|first=Anne Pippin|title=Three Archaic Poets: Archilochus, Alcaeus, Sappho|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1983}}--> * {{cite book|first=D. A.|last=Campbell|title=Greek lyric poetry: a selection of early Greek lyric, elegiac and iambic poetry|url=https://archive.org/details/greeklyricpoetry0000davi|year=1967}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Campbell|editor-first=D. A.|title=Greek Lyric 1: Sappho and Alcaeus (Loeb Classical Library No. 142)|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=1982|isbn=0-674-99157-5}} * {{cite journal|last=Clayman|first=Dee|title=The New Sappho in a Hellenistic Poetry Book|journal=Classics@|volume=4|year=2011|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3408|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210418/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3408|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210418/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3408 |date=2 March 2019 }} * {{cite journal|last=Dale|first=Alexander|title=Sapphica|journal=Harvard Studies of Classical Philology|volume=106|year=2011}} * {{cite book|last=DeJean|first=Joan|year=1989|title=Fictions of Sappho: 1546–1937|url=https://archive.org/details/fictionsofsappho00deje|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}} * {{cite book|last=de Kreij|first=Mark|chapter=Transmissions and Textual Variants: Divergent Fragments of Sappho's Songs Examined|title=Texts, Transmissions, Receptions: Modern Approaches to Narratives|year=2015|editor1-last=Lardinois|editor1-first=André|editor2-last=Levie|editor2-first=Sophie|editor3-last=Hoeken|editor3-first=Hans|editor4-last=Lüthy|editor4-first=Christoph|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|url=http://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=613359}} * {{cite journal|last=Devereux|first=George|title=The Nature of Sappho's Seizure in Fr. 31 LP as Evidence of Her Inversion|journal=The Classical Quarterly|year=1970|volume=20|issue=1|pages=17–31|doi=10.1017/S0009838800044542|pmid=11620360|s2cid=3193720 }} * {{cite book|last=duBois|first=Page|title=Sappho Is Burning|url=https://archive.org/details/sapphoisburning0000dubo|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1995|isbn=0-226-16755-0}} * {{cite book|last=duBois|first=Page|title=Sappho|year=2015|series=Understanding Classics|publisher=I. 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J.|editor2-last=Kelly|editor2-first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-316-63877-4}} * {{cite book|last=Lefkowitz|first=Mary R.|title=The Lives of the Greek Poets|year=2012|edition=2|publisher=Bloomsbury}} * {{cite journal|last=Lidov|first=Joel|title=Sappho, Herodotus and the ''Hetaira''|journal=Classical Philology|year=2002|volume=97|issue=3|pages=203–237|doi=10.1086/449585|s2cid=161865691}} * {{cite journal|last=Lidov|first=Joel|title=The Meter and Metrical Style of the New Poem|journal=Classics@|volume=4|year=2011|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3406|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210519/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3406|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210519/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3406 |date=2 March 2019 }} * {{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard P.|chapter=Sappho, Iambist: Abusing the Brother|title=The Newest Sappho: P. 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GC inv. 105, frs.1–4|editor1-last=Bierl|editor2-last=Lardinois|editor1-first=Anton|editor2-first=André|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-31483-2}} * {{citation|last=McClure|first=Laura K.|date=2002|title=Sexuality and Gender in the Classical World: Readings and Sources|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W742ZLpdLBoC&q=Glyptothek+Sappho+and+Alcaeus&pg=PA38|isbn=0-631-22589-7}} * {{cite magazine|last=Mendelsohn|first=Daniel|date=16 March 2015|title=Girl, Interrupted: Who Was Sappho?|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/16/girl-interrupted|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=17 June 2016}} * {{cite journal|last=Most|first=Glenn W.|title=Reflecting Sappho|journal=Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies|volume=40|year=1995|pages=15–38|doi=10.1111/j.2041-5370.1995.tb00462.x}} * {{cite journal|last=Obbink|first=Dirk|title=Sappho Fragments 58–59: Text, Apparatus Criticus, and Translation|journal=Classics@|volume=4|year=2011|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3400|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210448/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3400|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210448/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3400 |date=2 March 2019 }} * {{cite book|last=Obbink|first=Dirk|chapter=Ten Poems of Sappho: Provenance, Authority, and Text of the New Sappho Papyri|title=The Newest Sappho: P. Sapph. Obbink and P. GC inv. 105, frs.1–4|editor1-last=Bierl|editor2-last=Lardinois|editor1-first=Anton|editor2-first=André|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-31483-2}} * {{citation|last=Ohly|first=Dieter|year=2002|orig-year=1972|title=The Munich Glyptothek: Greek and Roman Sculpture: A Brief Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZsBeXP3LAEC&q=Glyptothek+Sappho+Silanion&pg=PA48|location=Munich|publisher=C. H. Beck|isbn=3-406-48355-0}} * {{cite book|last=Page|first=D. L.|title=Sappho and Alcaeus|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1959}} * {{cite journal|last=Parker|first=Holt|title=Sappho Schoolmistress|journal=Transactions of the American Philological Association|volume=123|year=1993}} * {{cite news|last=Payne|first=Tom|title=A new Sappho poem is more exciting than a new David Bowie album|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/10607569/A-new-Sappho-poem-is-more-exciting-than-a-new-David-Bowie-album.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/10607569/A-new-Sappho-poem-is-more-exciting-than-a-new-David-Bowie-album.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The Telegraph|date=30 January 2014|access-date=14 July 2016}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Linda H.|title=Sappho and the Making of Tennysonian Lyric|journal=ELH|year=1994|volume=61|issue=1|pages=121–137|doi=10.1353/elh.1994.0010|s2cid=162385092}} * {{cite book|last1=Rayor|last2=Lardinois|first1=Diane|first2=André|title=Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works|url=https://archive.org/details/sapphonewtransla0000sapp|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2014|isbn=978-1-107-02359-8}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Reynolds|editor-first=Margaret|year=2001|title=The Sappho Companion|publisher=Vintage|location=London|isbn=9780099738619}} * {{cite book|title=The Portraits of the Greeks|last=Richter|first=Gisela M. A.|publisher=Phaidon Press|year=1965|volume=1|location=London|pages=172|isbn=978-0801416835}} * {{cite journal|last=Sanford|first=Eva Matthews|author-link=Eva Matthews Sanford|journal=The Classical Journal|year=1942|volume=37|issue=4|title=Classical Poets in the Work of A. E. Housman}} * {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly Supplements II – Volume 7: Figures of Antiquity and Their Reception in Art, Literature, and Music|year=2015|title=Sappho|last=Schlesier|first=Renate|url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly-supplements-ii-7/sappho-SIM_004732?s.num=1|access-date=27 April 2017}} * {{cite journal|last=Skinner|first=Marilyn B.|title=Introduction|journal=Classics@|volume=4|year=2011|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3399|access-date=3 July 2016|archive-date=3 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303082601/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3399|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303082601/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3399 |date=3 March 2019 }} * {{cite book|first=Jane McIntosh|last=Snyder|chapter=Sappho in Attic Vase Painting|title=Naked Truths: Women, Sexuality, and Gender in Classical Art and Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/nakedtruthswomen0000unse|editor1-last=Koloski-Ostrow|editor1-first=Ann Olga|editor2-last=Lyons|editor2-first=Claire L.|editor3-last=Kampen|editor3-first=Natalie Boymel|year=1997 }} * {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Rosalind|chapter=Sappho's Lesbos|title=The Cambridge Companion to Sappho|year=2021|editor1-last=Finglass|editor1-first=P. J.|editor2-last=Kelly|editor2-first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-316-63877-4}} * {{cite book |last=West |first=Martin Litchfield |author-link=Martin Litchfield West |year=1992 |title=Ancient Greek Music |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-158685-9 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=So-Qpz6WDS4C}} }} * {{cite journal|last=West|first=Martin. L.|title=The New Sappho|journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik|volume=151|year=2005}} * {{citation|last=Williamson|first=Margaret|date=1995|title=Sappho's Immortal Daughters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnHreiBi6XoC&q=Sappho+Aeolic+dialect&pg=PA41|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0-674-78912-1}} * {{cite book|first=Penelope|last=Wilson|chapter=Women Writers and the Classics|title=The Oxford History of Classical Reception in English Literature: Volume 3 (1660–1790)|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Hopkins|editor2-first=Charles|editor2-last=Martindale|year=2012|isbn=9780199219810}} * {{cite book|last=Winkler|first=John J.|title=The Constraints of Desire: The Anthropology of Sex and Gender in Ancient Greece|url=https://archive.org/details/constraintsofdes0000wink|year=1990|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=0415901235}} * {{cite journal|last=Yatromanolakis|first=Dimitrios|year=1999|title=Alexandrian Sappho Revisited|journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology|volume=99|pages=179–195|doi=10.2307/311481|jstor=311481}} * {{cite book|last=Yatromanolakis|first=Dimitrios|year=2008|title=Sappho in the Making: the Early Reception|url=https://chs.harvard.edu/book/yatromanolakis-dimitrios-sappho-in-the-making-the-early-reception/|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=9780674026865}} * {{cite book|last=Yatromanolakis|first=Dimitrios|year=2009|chapter=Alcaeus and Sappho|title=The Cambridge Companion to Greek Lyric|editor-last=Budelmann|editor-first=Felix|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9781139002479}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Yatromanolakis |first=Dimitrios |date=27 February 2019 |orig-date=10 May 2017 |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Bibliographies Online|Oxford Bibliographies]]: Classics |title=Sappho |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780195389661-0074 |isbn=978-0-19-538966-1 |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0074.xml |url-access=subscription }} {{subscription}} * {{cite journal|last=Zellner|first=Harold|title=Sappho's Sparrows|journal=The Classical World|year=2008|volume=101|issue=4}} {{refend}} ==Bacaeun salajengna== {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite book|last=Balmer|first=Josephine|year=2018|edition=2|title=Sappho: Poems and Fragments|publisher=Bloodaxe}} * {{cite book|last=Boehringer|first=Sandra|year=2021|title=Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome|publisher=Routledge|translator-last=Preger|translator-first=Anna|isbn=9780367744762}} * {{cite journal |last1=Burris |last2=Fish |last3=Obbink |first1=Simon |first2=Jeffrey |first3=Dirk |title=New Fragments of Book 1 of Sappho |journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik |volume=189 |year=2014}} * {{cite book |last=Carson |first=Anne |title=If Not, Winter: Fragments of Sappho |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |year=2002 |isbn=0-375-41067-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/ifnotwinterfragm00sapp }} * {{cite book|last=Duban|first=Jeffrey M.|year=1983|title=Ancient and Modern Images of Sappho: Translations and Studies in Archaic Greek love Lyric|publisher=University Press of America}} * {{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Philip|title=Searching for Sappho: The Lost Songs and World of the First Woman Poet|location=New York City|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2016|isbn=978-0393242232|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/searchingforsapp0000free}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Greene|editor-first=Ellen |url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft3199n81q/ |title=Reading Sappho |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1996}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Lobel |editor-last2=Page |editor-first1=E. |editor-first2=D. L.| title=Poetarum Lesbiorum fragmenta |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |year=1955}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Neri|editor-first=Camillo|title=Saffo: Testimonianze e Frammenti|year=2021|publisher=de Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110735918 |isbn=9783110735918 |s2cid=239602934 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110735918/html|language=it}} * {{cite journal |last=Obbink |first=Dirk |title=Two New Poems by Sappho |journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik |volume=189 |year=2014}} * {{cite book|last=Powell|first=Jim|year=2019|title=The Poetry Of Sappho|url=https://archive.org/details/poetryofsapphoex0000sapp|publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book|last=Snyder|first=Jane McIntosh|year=1997|title=Lesbian Desire in the Lyrics of Sappho|url=https://archive.org/details/lesbiandesireinl00snyd|url-access=registration|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231099943|ref=CITEREFSnyder1997b}} * {{cite book|last=Voigt|first=Eva-Maria|title=Sappho et Alcaeus. Fragmenta |publisher=Polak & van Gennep |location=Amsterdam |year=1971}} {{refend}} ==Tutumbu ka luar == {{sister project links|b=no|n=no|v=no|wikt=no|author=yes|commonscat=yes|d=Q17892}} {{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Sappho |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} * [http://digitalsappho.org/title-page/ The Digital Sappho] * [http://www.aoidoi.org/poets/sappho/ Commentaries on Sappho's fragments], William Annis. * [https://chs.harvard.edu/primary-source/sappho-sb/ Fragments of Sappho], translated by Gregory Nagy and Julia Dubnoff * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05pqsk4 Sappho], [[BBC Radio 4]], ''In Our Time''. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00tbhbc Sappho], BBC Radio 4, ''Great Lives''. * {{Gutenberg author|id=32618|name=Sappho}} * {{Librivox author |id=3605}} * [https://rhapsodoi.org/index-of-ancient-greek-recitations/ Ancient Greek literature recitations]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, hosted by the Society for the Oral Reading of Greek and Latin Literature. Including a recording of Sappho 1 by Stephen Daitz. {{Sappho}} {{Lyric poets}} {{Ancient Greece topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori : Istilah dina sastra Sunda]] [[Category:Sastra| ]] [[Category:7th-century BC births]] [[Category:7th-century BC women poets]] [[Category:7th-century BC Greek people]] [[Category:7th-century BC poets]] [[Category:6th-century BC Greek people]] [[Category:6th-century BC poets]] [[Category:6th-century BC women writers]] [[Category:Aeolic Greek poets]] [[Category:Ancient Eresians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek erotic poets]] [[Category:Nine Lyric Poets]] [[Category:Poets from ancient Lesbos]] [[Category:Greek women composers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek women poets]] [[Category:Ancient Mytileneans]] [[Category:7th-century BC Greek women]] [[Category:6th-century BC Greek women]] [[Category:Ancient LGBT people]] age1tbsvd3ppisg7c6c6h3exl7al1mv 0 104309 711735 676116 2026-08-07T03:05:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711735 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info konflik militér|konflik=Perang Punic munggaran|partof=[[Perang Punic]]|gambar=File: Perang Punic munggaran 264 SM v3.png|ukuran_gambar=300|caption=Wewengkon Mediterania kulon taun 264 SM. Wewengkon beureum mangrupa wewengkon daulat Roma, wewengkon wungu mangrupa wewengkon daulat Carthage, jeung wewengkon héjo mangrupa wewengkon daulat Syracuse.|titimangsa=264-241 SM ({{Umur dina taun, bulan, minggu, jeung poé|taun1=241|taun2=264}})|casus=Sengketa [[Républik Romawi|Roma]]-[[Carthage Kuno|Carthage]] ngeunaan kota [[Patempuran Messana|Messana]] dikawasa ku [[tentara Mamertini]]|tempat=[[Mediterania]], [[Sisilia]], [[Afrika Kalér]], [[Italia (Romawi)|Italia]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]]|wilayah=[[Sisilia (provinsi Romawi)|Sisilia]] (iwal [[Daptar tiran Syracuse|Syracuse]]) dianéksasi ku Roma|hasilna=meunangna Romawi|combatant1=[[Républik Romawi|Roma]]|combatant2=[[Carthage Purba|Carthage]] <!--| commander1 = [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]]{{pasrah}}<br>[[Gaius Duilius]]<br>[[Publius Claudius Pulcher]]<br>[[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (konsul 251 SM)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus ]]<br>[[Lucius Postumius Megellus (konsul 262 SM)|Lucius Postumius Megellus]]<br>[[Quintus Mamilius Vitulus]]<br>[[Hiero II of Syracuse]] | commander2 = [[Hamilkar Barka]]<br>[[Hanno the great|Hano the great]]<br>[[Hasdrubal, putra Hano|Hasdrubal]]<br>[[Ksantipos of Carthage|Ksantipos]]<br >[ [Adherbal (admiral)|Adherbal]]<br>[[Hamilkar (Drepanum)|Hamilkar]]-->}} '''Perang Punik Kahiji''' (264-241 SM) nyaéta perang munggaran antara [[Républik Romawi|Roma]] jeung [[Carthage Kuno|Carthage]], dua nagara bagian nu pangkuatna di wewengkon Mediterania kulon. Salila 23 taun, dua nagara pajoang pikeun kaunggulan dina konflik kontinyu pangpanjangna jeung perang laut pangbadagna dina [[Sajarah kuna|Abad Kuna]]. Tempat anu pangseringna ningali perangna nyaéta pulo [[Sisilia]], cai di sabudeureun pulo Sisilia, jeung basisir Afrika Kalér. Saatos ngonsumsi seueur korban jiwa sareng material ti dua pihak, perang ieu dipungkas ku kameunangan bangsa Romawi. Perang Punic Kahiji dimimitian dina 264 SM, nalika tentara Républik Romawi nangkep kota [[Patempuran Messana|Messana]] (ayeuna [[Messina]]) di pulo Sisilia. Pasukan Romawi tuluy ngadesek [[Syracuse, Sisilia|Syracuse]], hiji-hijina nagara merdéka di pulo Sisilia anu patut diperhitungkeun, pikeun jadi sekutu jeung ngabantu maranéhna ngepung [[Agrigento|Akragas]], markas utama Carthaginian. pulo. Hiji tentara badag prajurit Carthaginian nyoba megatkeun pangepungan dina 262 SM, tapi éléh dina [[Patempuran Agrigentum|Patempuran Akragas]]. Républik Roma ahirna ngawangun angkatan laut sorangan pikeun ngalawan angkatan laut Carthaginian, sarta diadopsi taktik anyar nu nempo Carthaginians ngalaman sababaraha eleh. Pangkalan Carthaginian di [[Corsica]] dicandak, tapi serangan ka [[Sardinia]] rusak, sareng Carthage tiasa ngawasa deui Corsica. The victories kahontal ngaliwatan exertion angkatan laut ditanya Roma pikeun narajang Afrika Kalér. Carthage nyoba ngalawan deui, tapi ieu sakali deui dielehkeun dina [[Patempuran Cape Ecnomus]]. Dina hal jumlah prajurit aub, ieu bisa jadi [[perang laut pangbadagna dina sajarah]]. Invasi ka Afrika Kalér mimitina alus, sarta Carthage kapaksa nyieun tawaran karapihan dina 255 SM, tapi kaayaan karapihan ti Romawi teuing beurat jadi Carthaginians mutuskeun pikeun tetep tarung sarta ahirna hasil [[Patempuran Bagradas. Walungan (255 SM)|ngalahkeun penjajah]]. Républik Roma nyebarkeun armada kapal pikeun nyalametkeun sésa-sésa pasukanana di Afrika Kalér. Angkatan laut Carthaginian nyoba ngagagalkeun usaha nyalametkeun ieu dina [[Patempuran Cape Hermaeum]] di basisir Afrika Kalér, tapi dielehkeun ku armada Romawi. Tapi, armada Romawi kajebak dina badai dina perjalanan mulang, kaleungitan kalolobaan kapal sareng sakitar 100.000 urang. Perang dituluykeun, najan teu aya pihak anu bisa ngéléhkeun lawanna. Dina 255 SM, Carthage nyerang tur junun ngarebut deui kota Akragas. Henteu yakin naha aranjeunna tiasa ngabéla éta, aranjeunna ngantunkeun kota saatosna dirusak. Républik Roma gancang ngawangun deui armadana kalayan tambahan 220 kapal anyar, teras dikerahkan pikeun nyandak Panormus (ayeuna [[Palermo]]) dina 254 SM. Sataun saterusna, 150 kapal maranéhanana leungit dina badai. Carthage nyoba ngarebut deui kota Panormus dina 251 SM, tapi dielehkeun ku bangsa Romawi dina [[Patempuran Panormus|patempuran anu lumangsung di luar benteng kota]]. Bangsa Romawi laun-laun ngarebut daratan Sisilia, teras maju ngurilingan dua benteng Carthaginian anu terakhir di ujung kulon pulo taun 249 SM. Armada Romawi ogé nyobian serangan kejutan ngalawan armada Carthaginian, tapi dielehkeun dina [[Patempuran Drepana]]. The Carthaginians nuturkeun nepi kameunangan maranéhanana sarta junun ngaleungitkeun lolobana kapal perang Romawi dina [[Patempuran Phintias]]. Sanggeus stalemate sababaraha taun, Républik Romawi sakali deui ngawangun deui armada na di 243 SM, sarta [[diblokade]] garnisun Carthaginian. The Carthaginians deployed armada kapal pikeun nyalametkeun maranéhna, tapi ancur dina [[Patempuran Kapuloan Aegates]] dina 241 SM, ku kituna pasukan maranéhanana ditinggalkeun di Sisilia kapaksa neangan hungkul perdamaian. Kadua pihak tungtungna sapuk kana pajangjian perdamaian anu ngawajibkeun Carthage mayar [[reparasi]] sareng nyababkeun [[Sisilia (provinsi Romawi)|Pulo Sisilia dianéksasi]] ka [[Propinsi Romawi|koloni Romawi]]. Saprak harita, Roma geus jadi nagara nu boga kakuatan militér paling unggul di wewengkon Mediterania barat, sarta laun-laun jadi punjul di sakuliah wewengkon Tengah. Karya bangsa Romawi ngawangun 1.000 [[galleys]] salila Perang Punic Kahiji ngahasilkeun pangalaman berharga nu jadi dasar dominasi maritim 600 taun Roma. Dina ahir perang ieu, [[Perang Mercenary|pemberontakan hébat]] lumangsung di jero Kakaisaran Carthaginian, tapi éta dibasmi. Kompetisi strategis anu masih ngagantung antara Roma jeung Carthage ngabalukarkeun [[Perang Punic II]] kaluar dina 218 SM. == Sumber primér == [[Koropak:Stele des Polybios.jpg|thumb|upright=0,5|[[Polibios]], ahli sajarah Yunani Kuno]] Istilah ''Punic'' asalna tina kecap Latin ''Punicus'' (atawa ''Poenicus''), hartina "[[Sajarah Carthage|Carthage|Carthage]]", nujul kana karuhun Carthaginians, anu [[Phoenicians]] ({{lang-la|Phoenices}}; {{lang-el|Φοινίκη}}, ''Foinike'').{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}} Sumber utama pikeun ampir sakabéh aspék Perang Punic Kahiji nyaéta tulisan [[Polibios]] (''[[Circa|ca.]]''200–''ca.''118 SM), sarjana Yunani nu indit ka [[Roma]] dina taun 167 SM salaku sandera .{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=432}} Kumpulan tulisanna ngawengku buku manual ngeunaan taktik militér anu geus teu aya. ,{{sfn|Shutt|1938|p=53}} tapi karya anu ngajadikeun anjeunna kasohor di jaman modern nyaéta [[Historíai (Polibios)|''Historíai'']] (''Anthony of History''), anu manéhna nulis sanggeus 146 SM, atawa c. -kira-kira abad sanggeus Perang Punic Kahiji.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Walbank|1990|pp=11–12}} Tulisan Polibios nyaéta lega dianggap obyektif jeung netral, sabab nyokot posisi panengah antara sudut pandang Carthaginian jeung sudut pandang Romawi.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=x–xi}}{{sfn|Hau|2016|pp=23– 24}} Catetan sajarah Carthaginians [[Pengepungan Carthage (Perang Punic III)|ancur]] babarengan jeung ibukota maranéhanana, [[Carthage]], dina 146 SM, ku kituna informasi ngeunaan Perang Punic Kahiji disarikeun ku Polibios tina sababaraha sumber sastra [[Yunani]] jeung Latin nu kiwari geus punah.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=23}}<nowiki> Polibios mangrupa ahli sajarah analitik, jeung sabisa-bisa wawancara langsung jeung aktor sajarah nu kalibet dina perang.{ { sfn|Shutt|1938|p=55}}</nowiki>{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=21}} Mung jilid kahiji tina 40 jilid ''Historíai'' anu ngabahas ngeunaan Perang Punic Kahiji.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=20–21}} Katepatan akun Polyebus geus loba didebatkeun dina 150 taun ka tukang, tapi konsensus anu dihontal di jaman modéren nyaéta pikeun nyandak akun Polyebus sacara harfiah, sareng ampir sadaya detil ngeunaan First Punic. Perang dina sumber modern dumasar kana pernyataan Polibios.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=x–xi, 82–84}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|pp=432–433}} Numutkeun pangamatan sejarawan Andrew Curry, "Polibios tétéla cukup dipercaya",{{sfn|Kari|2012|p=34}} sedengkeun Dexter Hoyos ngajéntrékeun Polibios salaku "sejarawan. anu jelas-jelas terang pisan, aktip dina padamelan, sareng kuat dina panalungtikan". {{sfn|Hoyos|2015|p=102}} Aya tulisan sajarah sejenna ngeunaan Perang Punic Kahiji anu dijieun sanggeus ''Historíai'' , tapi teu lengkep atawa ngan ngandung déskripsi singget.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=432}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=22}} Sejarawan modéren umumna museurkeun kana petikan tina karya rupa-rupa analis Romawi, hususna [[Titus Livius|Livius]] (nu dumasar kana karya manéhna nulis dina akun Polibius), [[Diodoros Siculus]] (sajarawan Yunani asal Sisilia), ogé [[Appianos|<nowiki>Apianos]</nowiki>]] jeung [[Cassius Dio|Dion Kasios]] (sajarah Yunani engké). {{sfn|Mineo|2015|pp=111–127}} Ahli klasik [[Adrian Goldsworthy]]<nowiki> nunjukkeun yén "pernyataan Polibios biasana leuwih bisa dipercaya lamun kapanggih ngabantah bukti-bukti lianna nu urang boga". {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=21} }</nowiki>{{#tag:ref|Sumber daya lian ti karya Polibios dibahas ku Bernard Mineo dina ''"Principal Literary Sumber Perang Punic (salain Polybius)"''.{{sfn|Mineo|2015|pp=111– 127}}|group=description}} Sumber séjén kaasup prasasti, bukti tina penggalian arkéologis, jeung bukti émpiris ti rekonstruksi objék sajarah saperti triremis [[Olympias (triremis)|''Olympias'']] .{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=23, 98}} Kusabab 2010, arkeolog geus manggihan 19 parunggu [[rampers]] dijieun ku Romawi atawa Carthaginians di cai lepas basisir kulon Sisilia. Sapuluh helm parunggu jeung ratusan [[amphoras]] ogé geus kapanggih.{{sfn|RPM Foundation|2020}}{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=12}}{{sfn|Pragg|2013}} {{sfn|Murray|2019|}} Sanggeus éta, rammers, tujuh helm, genep amphora anu masih gembleng, sarta jumlah badag fragmen kapanggih. {{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=12, 26, 31–32}} Unggal rammer dipercaya geus napel dina kapal karam nalika eta tilelep ka dasar laut.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=39}} Nurutkeun ahli arkeologi nu kalibet, lokasi dimana artefak ieu disimpen. kapanggih ngarojong informasi ieu. Polibios ngeunaan mana [[Patempuran Kapuloan Aegates|Patempuran Aegates]].{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=35–36}} Dumasar kana ukuran rammers, arkeolog nalungtik aranjeunna. percaya yén éta kabéh asalna tina kapal tipe [[Trireme|triremis]], sabalikna tina pernyataan Polybius yén sakabéh kapal perang nu kalibet dina perangna téh tina tipe [[Kapal perang era Hellenistic|quinqueremis]].{{sfn|Murray|2019|}}{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=39–42}} Tapi, maranéhna yakin yén loba amphora anu geus diidentifikasi ngarojong katepatan aspék séjén tina akun Polybius ngeunaan perangna. "Ieu mangrupikeun catetan arkéologis sareng sajarah anu coveted [[Perang walungan|pertempuran]]," aranjeunna nyatakeun. {{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=45–46}} == Latar == [[Gambar:Carthage_view.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Poto hawa sésa-sésa dasar laut di kota Carthage. Tilas palabuhan komérsial katingal di tengah poto, sedengkeun tilas palabuhan militér katingali di katuhu handap poto. Saméméh Perang Punic Kahiji, Carthage boga angkatan laut pangkuatna di Mediterania kulon.]] Saacanna Perang Punic Kahiji, [[Républik Romawi]] mangabad-abad [[Ekspansi Romawi di Italia|ekspansi ngaliwatan kakuatan militér]] di wewengkon kidul Semenanjung Italia.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=157– 158}} Roma nalukkeun Semenanjung Italia kiduleun Walungan [[Arno]] dina 272 SM, nalika kota-kota Yunani di Italia kidul ([[Magna Graecia]]) nyerah dina tungtung [[Perang Pyros]. ]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=21–22}} Samentara éta, bangsa [[Carthage Kuno|Carthage]], pusatna di [[Tunisia]] ayeuna, geus ngawasa kidul [[Spanyol] ], lolobana basisir Afrika Kalér, [[Kapuloan Balearic]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]], jeung bagian kulon Pulo [[Sisilia]]. Kalayan wewengkon daulat anu lega, Carthage jadi sajenis kakaisaran militér jeung dagang. hasilna pasti]] ngalawan Yunani [[nagara kota]]-nagara di Pulo Sisilia dina kapamimpinan [[Syracuse, Sisilia|Syracuse]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=115, 132}} Carthage jeung Roma mangrupa nagara pangkuatna di wewengkon kuloneun Laut Tengah dina taun 264 SM.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=25–26}} Dua nagara éta geus ngajalin silaturahim sababaraha kali ngaliwatan [[Perjangjian antara Roma jeung Carthage.|perjangjian resmi aliansi]] anu ditandatanganan dina 509 SM, 348 SM, sareng sakitar 279 SM. Hubungan antara Roma jeung Carthage éta alus, sarta hubungan dagang antara dua nagara éta mulus. Dina mangsa Perang Pyroan (280–275 SM) ngalawan hiji raja ti [[Epirus]] anu giliran narajang Roma di Semenanjung Italia jeung Carthage di pulo Sisilia, Carthage nyadiakeun [[Materiel|panangan]] ka tentara Romawi jeung sahenteuna sakali ngirimkeun kapal angkatan lautna pikeun ngangkut pasukan Romawi.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=94, 160, 163, 164–165}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=69–70}} Dina 289 SM, [[tentara Mamertini]], pasukan [[Upahan|upah]] Italia anu diupahan ku Syracuse, nempatan kota Messana (ayeuna [[Messina, Italia|Messina]]<nowiki>) di ujung wétan. pulo Sisilia.{ {sfn|Warmington|1993|p=165}} Ditimpa tekanan ti Syracuse, tentara Mamertini menta tulung ka Roma jeung Carthage dina taun 265 SM. Carthage nindak heula ku cara ngadesek </nowiki>[[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II]], Raja Syracuse, pikeun ngeureunkeun lampahna, sarta ngayakinkeun tentara Mamertini pikeun narima postingan garnisun Carthaginian di Messana.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=44}} Numutkeun Polibios, timbul perdebatan sengit di Roma ngeunaan naha bakal ngabulkeun paménta pasukan Mamertini. Kusabab Carthage geus boga garnisun di Messana, bringing di bantuan ti Roma bakal gampang provoked perang jeung Carthage. Roma henteu kantos nunjukkeun minat ka pulo Sisilia sateuacanna, sareng henteu gaduh niat ngabantosan tentara anu ngarebut kota ti anu gaduh hakna. Mangkaning, loba di antarana anu enticed ku kasempetan pikeun Fedi mangpaat moneter gaining foothold di Sisilia. Teu bisa ngahontal konsensus, [[Sénat Romawi|dewan sesepuh Romawi]] ngantepkeun kaputusan dina panangan majelis rahayat dina taun 264 SM, paling dipikaresep ku saran [[Appius Claudius Caudex]]. Caudex ngayakinkeun jalma-jalma pikeun milih pilihan pikeun ngagerakkeun bantosan ku mamingan kasempetan pikeun nampi jumlah [[jarah]] anu ageung. Majelis rahayat ahirna mutuskeun pikeun ngabulkeun paménta tentara Mamertini. } Caudex diangkat jadi komandan ekspedisi militér ditugaskeun ka Sisilia jeung nempatkeun garnisun Romawi di Messana.{{sfn|Starr|1991|p=479}}<nowiki>{ {sfn|Warmington|1993|pp=168–169}}</nowiki> Perang dimimitian nalika pasukan Romawi badarat di Sisilia dina 264 SM. Sanajan boga angkatan laut, urang Carthaginians teu bisa ngagagalkeun pasukan Romawi meuntas [[Straights of Messina]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=48–49}} Dua legion Romawi prajurit di handapeun Caudex [[Patempuran of Messana|berbaris nuju Messana]], sedengkeun tentara Mamertini parantos ngusir garnisun Carthaginian anu dipimpin ku [[Hanno, kapala garnisun Messana|Hanno]] (teu aya hubunganana sareng [[Hanno Agung]]<nowiki> ]) sarta keur dikurilingan ku pasukan Carthaginian jeung Syracuse.{ ​​{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=52}} Ku sababaraha alesan, pasukan Syracuse tungtungna ngangkat pangepungan, dituturkeun engké ku Carthaginians. Sumber anu aya henteu ngajelaskeun naha. Bangsa Romawi pindah ka kidul jeung ngepung ka Syracuse, tapi pangepungan ieu geura-giru ditinggalkeun, boh alatan pasukan Romawi teu cukup kuat atawa alatan kurangna jalur suplai aman. </nowiki>{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=52–53} } Dumasar dina pangalaman tempur salila dua abad saméméhna di Sisilia, Carthaginians ngartos yen kameunangan mutlak teu mungkin pikeun ngahontal. Usaha militer ahirna ngaleungit saatos ngalaman karugian anu ageung sareng ngabiayaan seueur artos. Panglima Carthaginian ngaharepkeun yén perang ieu bakal diteruskeun sapertos sateuacanna. Samentara éta, kapamilikan angkatan laut ngamungkinkeun aranjeunna pikeun nyegah perang sumebar ka mana-mana, malah ngamungkinkeun aranjeunna pikeun terus aktip dina nyieun kauntungan.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} Ku cara ieu aranjeunna tiasa ngarekrut sareng mayar. Gajih pasukan anu dilayanan bakal dikerahkan pikeun ngalawan Romawi sacara terang-terangan, sedengkeun kota-kota anu dibenteng beurat tiasa disayogikeun ku laut sareng dianggo salaku pangkalan pertahanan sareng titik angkat pikeun serangan.{{sfn|Warmington|1993| p=171}} === Tentara === {{utama|Tentara Romawi dina période pertengahan républik|Militér Carthage}} [[Koropak:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3 (dipotong).jpg|jempol|kénca|tegak=0.7|Relief dua prajurit suku Romawi abad ka-2 SM dina [[Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus]]]] Unggal warga nagara Romawi lalaki sawawa pantes jadi prajurit. Rata-rata jadi [[prajurit|prajurit suku]], sarta sakeupeul warga anu leuwih makmur jadi [[kavaleri|hussar]]. Sacara tradisional, urang Romawi biasana ngawangun dua [[légion Romawi|legiun]], masing-masing mibanda 4.200 prajurit suku{{#tag:ref|Jumlah ieu bisa ngaronjat jadi 5.000 dina kaayaan nu tangtu.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999 |p=23 }}|group=remark}} jeung 300 prajurit kuda. Sajumlah leutik prajurit suku ngajabat salaku anggota [[velites|pasukan mogok]] bersenjata [[javelins]], sarta sésana jadi anggota [[infanteri beurat|pasukan suku beurat]] dilengkepan [[armor]] , [[Scutum ( tameng)|tameng gede]], jeung [[Gladius|pedang pondok]]. Aranjeunna dibagi kana tilu tingkatan. Prajurit [[hastati|pangkat kahiji]] ogé dilengkepan ku dua lembing, sedengkeun prajurit [[principes|gelar kadua]] jeung [[triari|katilu]] dilengkepan ku [[siga (tumbak)|tumbak]]. Duanana [[manipulus|tim]] dina legion jeung [[legionnaires]] tarung dina jajaran jarang. Pasukan tempur biasana diwangun ku pasukan Romawi jeung legiun [[Socii|Sekutu Latini]] kalayan jumlah prajurit jeung pakarang anu sarua.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=22–25}} Warga Carthaginian ngan ukur jadi prajurit nalika kota Carthage aya dina bahaya diserang ku musuh. Sanajan kaayaan precarious misalna, Carthage direkrut asing kana tentara na, lolobana ti Afrika Kalér. Prajurit ti Afrika Kalér dibagi jadi sababaraha jenis pasukan, nyaéta prajurit suku dina [[formasi garis padet|padet padet]] dilengkepan tameng badag, helm, pedang pondok, sarta panjang [[tumbak]]-tusuk; pasukan neunggeul suku lampu; Pasukan pembuli berkuda dina jajaran deukeut{{#tag:ref|Pasukan "bullying" nyaéta pasukan anu dilatih jeung dikerahkan pikeun ngempur musuh sagancang-gancangna, kalawan maksud pikeun ngabubarkeun barisan musuh saméméh atawa sanggeus lumangsungna pabalatak.{ {sfn|Jones|1987|p =1}}|group=remark}} (disebut oge "kavaleri beurat") bersenjata tumbak; jeung pasukan pemukul anu dipasang lampu ngalungkeun lembing ti kajauhan sarta ngahindarkeun tempur deukeut.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=80}} Spanyol jeung [[Gaul]] mangrupa suplai nagara pikeun prajurit suku seasoned. Pasukan ieu galak dina serangan sanajan teu boga armoured, tapi dipikawanoh pikeun bubarkeun di will lamun perangna nyered.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}} { {#tag:ref|Senjata prajurit Spanyol nyaéta tumbak lémparan beurat anu saterusna diadopsi ku bangsa Romawi sarta dibéré ngaran ''[[pilum]]''.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32} }|grup=catetan}} Kalolobaan prajurit suku Carthaginian perang dina formasi ketat disebut ''[[phalanx]]'', biasana dina dua atawa tilu garis.{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=80}} Pasukan[[[aisan]] direkrut ti Kapuloan Balearic. {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=8}} Carthage ogé ngagunakeun [[gajah perang]]. Dina waktos éta, Afrika Kalér masih gaduh populasi [[gajah leuweung Afrika]]<nowiki>.{{#tag:ref|Gajah ieu umumna jangkungna 2,5 méter (8 suku) ti suku nepi ka taktak, sarta béda ti [[Gajah rungkun Afrika] ] nu ukuranana leuwih badag.</nowiki>{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=240}}<nowiki>|group=caption}}</nowiki>{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=27}} Tina sumber nu aya, teu bisa dipastikeun lamun ieu gajah dipaké pikeun ngangkut bénténg nu dieusi prajurit.{{sfn|Sabin|1996|p=70, n. 76}} === Angkatan Laut === [[Kapal perang Hellenistic#Quinqueremis|Quinqueremis]], hartina "lima dek dayung", {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=98}} nyaéta jenis kapal anu dipaké ku armada Romawi jeung Carthaginian dina [[Punic] Perang|perang perang Punic]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=27–28}} Jumlahna kacida gedéna nepi ka ngadominasi adegan éta Polibios ngagunakeun istilah ''quinqueremis'' salaku istilah umum pikeun " kapal perang".{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=104}}<nowiki> Hiji quinqueremis boga awak 300 urang, nyaéta 280 dayung jeung 20 awak dek babarengan jeung perwira kapal,{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=100} } sarta dikawal ku 40 prajurit laut (biasana prajurit darat nu ditugaskeun ka kapal).</nowiki>{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}}<nowiki> Lamun perang geus deukeut, jumlah prajurit laut bakal ngaronjat nepi ka maksimum 120. jalma.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121} }</nowiki>{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=102–103}} [[Gambar:Corvus.svg|kiri|jmpl|''[[Corvus (pakarang perang)|Corvus]]'', hiji alat anu digunakeun ku pasukan Romawi pikeun ngaluncurkeun [[serangan kapal]]]] Nyiapkeun awak dayung sangkan mahir dina dayung babarengan salaku tim terpadu, utamana pikeun mahér nanganan manuver kapal kompléks dina tempur, merlukeun loba latihan diulang.{{sfn|Casson|1995|pp=278–280}} Dina raraga Pikeun kapal bisa diatur sacara éféktif, sahenteuna satengah tina sakabéh awak dayung kudu rowers ngalaman.{{sfn|de Souza|2008|p=358}} Ieu naha angkatan laut Romawi mimiti teu cocog jeung Carthaginian ngalaman. angkatan laut. Pikeun ngungkulan kalemahan ieu, bangsa Romawi nyiptakeun ''[[Corvus (pakarang perang)|corvus]]'', sajenis sasak salega {{convert|1.2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} kalawan panjangna nepi ka {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=off}}, dilengkepan ku pasak beusi di handapeun tungtung-tungtungna sangkan bisa nempel pageuh kana dek kapal musuh.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121}} Alat ieu ngamungkinkeun para legionnair Romawi anu ditugaskeun salaku prajurit laut pikeun [[Serangan kapal|nyebrang ka kapal musuh]] sarta nangkep aranjeunna, tinimbang ngadopsi [[Taktik perang angkatan laut tradisional jaman galley.|taktik]] [[nyebut kapal]] anu geus tradisional.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}} Kabéh kapal perang dilengkepan ku rammers, nu tilu 60-sentimeter (2&nbsp;ft) wilah parunggu rubak dirakit kana {{convert|270|kg|lb|sigfig=2}} pakarang sarta dipasang sajajar jeung freeboard dina élévasi ruku. A abad saméméh perang Punik, taktik ramming kapal beuki umum jeung taktik ramming ieu beuki ditinggalkeun. Kacenderungan ieu timbul sabab kapal-kapal anu digunakeun dina tempur dina jaman harita nyaéta [[Kapal perang jaman Hellenistic|kapal-kapal anu ukuranana jeung beuratna leuwih badag]], sahingga teu cukup gancang jeung lincah dina ngalaksanakeun manuver anu diperlukeun dina usaha ram. kapal musuh. Sajaba ti éta, konstruksi stiffer na ngurangan dampak dampak rammer urang, sanajan serangan éta hits target. "Corvus" anu diciptakeun ku bangsa Romawi mangrupikeun tuluyan tina kacenderungan ieu, sareng tiasa ngiringan kamajuanana dina widang gerak kapal. Sanajan kitu, beurat tambahan kana haluan ngurangan maneuverability sarta seaworthiness kapal, sarta "corvus" teu bisa dipaké nalika laut keur kasar.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}{{sfn|Wallinga|1956|pp=77–90}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=100–101, 103}} == Sisilia 264-256 SM == {{Play|Patempuran Messana|Patempuran Agrigentum}} [[Koropak:Sisilia - prima guerra punica.svg|jempol|Sisilia, adegan utama Perang Punic Kahiji]] The battles tina Perang Punic Kahiji lolobana perang di pulo daratan Sisilia ogé di cai sabudeureun. Pedalaman pulo Sisilia, nu pagunungan jeung taringgul, mangrupakeun rupa bumi hésé pikeun grup badag prajurit ngaliwatan tapi cocog pikeun pertahanan ngalawan serangan musuh. Sabagéan ageung operasi militér anu dilaksanakeun di darat dugi ka operasi [[(militer) razia|razia]], [[pengepungan]], sareng [[blok]]. Salila 23 taun perang di pulo Sisilia, ngan dua perang utama lumangsung, nyaéta [[Patempuran Agrigentum|Patempuran Akragas]] dina 262 SM jeung [[Patempuran Panormus]] dina 250 SM. Garrison alert and ground [[blockade]] mangrupikeun operasi anu paling umum dilakukeun ku angkatan bersenjata ti dua sisi.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=82}} Bangsa Romawi boga kabiasaan nunjuk dua jenderal unggal taun pikeun mingpin pasukan pakarang nagara maranéhanana. Komandan taunan ieu disebut "[[Konsul Romawi|konsul]]". Dina 263 SM, dua konsul incumbent ditugaskeun ka Sisilia, nyandak tentara 40.000 urang, {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=74}} jeung deui dikepung ka Syracuse. Teu bisa ménta bantuan ti Carthage, Syracuse buru-buru neangan perdamaian jeung Romawi. Syracuse jadi sekutu Roma, mayar [[indemnitas]] 100 [[bakat]] pérak,{{#tag:ref|100 talenta pérak kira-kira sarua jeung {{convert|2.6|lt|lk=out |kg |disp=flip|abbr=off}} pérak.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=inpormasi}} jeung nu pangpentingna daék mantuan meuli suplai pikeun angkatan bersenjata Romawi di Sisilia.{{sfn|Erdkamp|2015|p=71}} Sanggeus Syracuse sisi Roma, sababaraha kota leutik arah Carthage ogé sided jeung Roma.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=171}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=72–73}} Akragas ({{lang-la|Agrigentum}}, ayeuna [[Agrigento]]), hiji kota palabuan di basisir kidul Sisilia, dipilih ku Carthage pikeun jadi puseur strategis maranéhanana. Tentara Romawi narajang Akragas sarta ngepung kotana dina taun 262 SM.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} Sistem suplai Romawi teu cukup, boh ku sabab angkatan laut Carthaginian anu kuat ngahalangan pengiriman barang ku laut, jeung keur maranehna. teu boga pangalaman dina nyoco hiji tentara 40.000 prajurit. Dina usum panén, loba prajurit paburencay di sabudeureun pikeun panén gandum jeung ngumpulkeun susukan. Pasukan Carthaginian di handapeun komando [[Hannibal Gisco]], ujug-ujug narajang pasukan Romawi sarta nyerang kubu maranéhna. Prajurit Romawi berebut pikeun nutup barisan sarta ahirna junun ngajuru para panyerang. Pangalaman ieu dijadikeun palajaran pikeun kadua pihak pikeun ngaronjatkeun kaparigelan.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=77}} [[Gambar:Romanadvance_(dipotong).JPG|jmpl|Serangan Romawi ti 260 nepi ka 256 SM]] Samentara éta, Carthage ngangkat hiji tentara di Afrika, nu lajeng diangkut ku kapal ka Sisilia. Tentara ieu 50.000 prajurit leumpang, 6.000 kuda jeung 60 gajah perang dipingpin ku [[Hanno, putra Hannibal]]. Sababaraha prajurit nyaéta [[Ligurian]], [[Celtic]], jeung [[Ibéria]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Warmington|1993|pp=171–172}} Lima bulan sanggeus tentara Romawi ngepung ka Akragas, Hanno mingpin pasukan Carthaginian asup ka kota.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} Sanggeus aya, Hanno ngan masangkeun kemah di hiji tempat jangkungna, pemicu battles pondok acak, jeung ngalatih pasukanana. Dua bulan ti harita, di cinyusu 261 SM, Hanno ngaluncurkeun serangan gedé. Dina Patempuran Akragas, Carthaginians dielehkeun sarta ngalaman karugian beurat. Pasukan Romawi di handapeun komando dua konsul, [[Lucius Postumius Megellus (konsul taun 262 SM)|Lucius Postumius Megellus]] jeung [[Quintus Mamilius Vitulus]], ngaburu pasukan Carthaginian sarta junun nangkep gajah jeung [[transportasi]]. logistik|ngangkut suplai maranéhanana. Peuting anu sami, garnisun Carthaginian ngungsi ka kota Akragas bari urang Romawi kacekel. Poé isukna, pasukan Romawi nyerbu Akragas jeung nangkep wargana; 25.000 warga kota Akragas dijual jadi budak.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=179–180}} Sanggeus Romawi meunang Patempuran Akragas, battles séjén lumangsung di ditu di dieu salila sababaraha taun. Kadua pihak silih ganti meunang kalawan hasil anu teu pati penting, sarta tacan manggih léngkah anu bener pikeun ngeureunkeun perang. Salah sahiji alesanana nyaéta kaputusan bangsa Romawi pikeun ngalihkeun loba sumber daya maranéhna pikeun kapentingan kampanye militer di Corsica jeung Sardinia anu ahirna teu mawa hasil nanaon, lajeng ngulang deui tindakan anu sarua pikeun kapentingan ékspédisi militér ka Afrika anu sarua. sia-sia.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}} Sanggeus ngarebut Akragas, pasukan Romawi maju ka kulon jeung ngepung [[Mytistraton]] salila tujuh bulan tanpa hasil.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=82}} Dina 259 SM, tentara Romawi pindah ka arah [[Termini Imerese|Thermae]] di basisir kalér Sisilia. Sanggeus altercation sengit, pasukan Romawi jeung sekutu camped misah. [[Hamilcar (Drepanum)|Hamilcar]] ngamangpaatkeun kaayaan ieu pikeun ngaluncurkeun [[serangan balik]], ku nyerbu tempat kemah salah sahiji kontingén anu kemah misah tur junun maéhan 4.000 nepi ka 6.000 prajurit. Hamilcar salajengna ngarebut kota [[Enna]] di tengah pulo,{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=65–66}} jeung kota [[Kamarina, Sisilia|Camarina]] di tenggara. pulo anu cukup deukeut jeung Syracuse. Sigana mah Hamilcar ngan ukur sababaraha léngkah pikeun ngawasa sakabéh Sisilia.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=75, 79}} Taun saterusna, pasukan Romawi ngarebut deui kota Enna sarta ahirna junun nalukkeun Mytistraton. Aranjeunna teras pindah ka arah Panormus (ayeuna [[Palermo]]), tapi kapaksa mundur, sanaos aranjeunna tiasa ngarebut kota [[Hippana]]. Dina 258 SM, pasukan Romawi ngarebut Camarina sanggeus lila ngepung kota.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=82–83}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=75}} Dina sababaraha taun ka hareup, terus aya aliran pasea, pasea sakeudeung, jeung pergeseran kasatiaan kota ti hiji sisi ka sisi séjén di Pulo Sisilia.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=77–78}} == Bangsa Romawi ngawangun armada == {{Utama|Patempuran Mylae|Patempuran Sulci}}{{Tempo ogé|Angkatan Laut Romawi#Perang Punik I|l1=Angkatan Laut Romawi|Patempuran Kapuloan Lipara}} [[Gambar:Trireme_cut-fr.svg|jmpl|Yunani [[Trireme|triremis]] katerangan posisi awak dayung dina tilu tingkat dayung [[Trireme|triremis]] Perang di Sisilia geus ngahontal stalemate a, salaku Carthaginians konsentrasi dina defending kota bénténg maranéhanana. Kalolobaan kota ieu aya di basisir, ngarah bisa ngirim suplai jeung pasukan tanpa dihalangan ku pasukan Romawi unggul di darat.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=64–66}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=97}} Fokus perang pindah ti darat ka cai, hiji widang nu urang Romawi teu acan cukup mastered. Saacanna éta, bangsa Romawi geus sababaraha kali sadar kudu boga armada sorangan. Aranjeunna biasa ngandelkeun [[Eskadron (angkatan laut)|eskadron]] leutik anu disayogikeun ku sekutu Latin atanapi Yunani.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=66}} {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=91–92, 97}} Dina 260 SM, bangsa Romawi mimiti nyiapkeun pikeun ngabentuk [[Angkatan Laut Romawi|armada]] sorangan, sarta ngagunakeun bangkai kapal quinqueremis Carthaginian salaku conto pikeun {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=97, 99–100}} Kusabab masih héjo dina widang [[Ngawangun kapal|pengiriman barang]], urang Romawi ngan ukur bisa ngahasilkeun réplika kapal anu leuwih beurat - kapal Carthaginian. Balukarna, kapal-kapal ngaluncur lalaunan dina cai sarta kurang lincah dina manuver.{{sfn|Murray|2011|p=69}} Républik Roma ngawangun 120 kapal perang anu satuluyna dileupaskeun ka Sisilia dina taun 260 SM sangkan awak-awakna bisa ngalaman latihan dasar. [[Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina|Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio]], salah sahiji konsul anu ngajabat taun éta, mangkat mawa 17 kapal munggaran ka [[Kapuloan Aeolian|Kapuloan Lipara]], teu jauh ti basisir kalér-wétaneun Sisilia, kalawan niat [[Patempuran Kapuloan Lipara|ngarebut]] kota [[Lipara]], kota palabuan utama di kapuloan. The laksamana commanding armada Carthaginian éta Hannibal Gisco, urut kapala garnisun Akragas. Armada Carthaginian dumasar di Panormus, kurang leuwih {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=off}} ti Lipara. Sanggeus narima béja ngeunaan panyebaran kapal-kapal Romawi ka Lipara, Hanibal ngirimkeun 20 kapal di handapeun komando [[Bodo (hipostrategos)|Boodes]] ka éta kota. Pasukan Carthaginian sumping nalika wengi sareng nyegat kapal-kapal Romawi di palabuhan. Boodes mobilized kapal-Na pikeun nyerang, bari lalaki inexperienced Scipio urang éta teu bisa nempatkeun up loba lalawanan. Sababaraha prajurit Romawi panik sarta kabur ka darat. Scipio tungtungna ditawan. Sakabéh kapal Romawi direbut, lolobana kalawan saeutik ruksakna. armada Romawi bari dina pelayaran pangintipan jeung 50 kapal Carthaginian. Anjeunna junun kabur, tapi kaleungitan seueur kapalna.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=67}} Sanggeus perang pondok ieu, urang Romawi mimiti ngalengkepan kapalna ku ''corvus''.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=68}}{{sfn|Mil|2011|p=182}} The konsul [[Gaius Duilius]], a peerage of Scipio, delegated komando unit tentara Romawi ka bawahan sarta dianggap komando armada. Manéhna langsung balayar néangan lawan. Armada Romawi papanggih jeung armada Carthaginian di basisir [[Mylae]]. Dua armada bentrok saling dina [[Patempuran Mylae]]. Hannibal maréntahkeun 130 kapal, jeung numutkeun itungan sejarawan John Lazenby, Duilius maréntahkeun jumlah kapal anu kurang leuwih sarua.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=70–71}} Alatan leuwih gancang, kapal leuwih lincah maneuver, jeung diawakan ku pelaut ngalaman, urang Carthaginians yakin maranéhna bisa meunang perangna sahingga maranéhna ninggalkeun formasi perangna pikeun balayar leuwih gancang ka kapal Romawi.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=63}} 30 mimitina kapal Carthaginian ngadeukeutan langsung struck ku patok ' 'corvus'' nu nempel pageuh dina papan dek. Ngaliwatan ''corvus'', prajurit Romawi meuntas ka kapal musuh sarta direbut aranjeunna, kaasup kapal nu Hannibal keur iinditan. Laksamana junun kabur maké [[kanoe]]. Ningali sadayana ieu, sesa kapal Carthaginian sumebar, nyoba narajang armada Romawi ti dua sisi atawa pungkur. Bangsa Romawi bisa nahan lalawanan jeung nangkep 20 kapal deui.{{#tag:ref|Angka ieu dumasar kana informasi ti Polibios. Sumber-sumber kuno anu sanés masihan angka 30 atanapi 31 kapal anu direbut sareng 13 atanapi 14 tenggelam.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=73–74}}|group=remarks}} Sésana kapal Carthaginian eureun narajang . Lantaran leuwih gancang batan kapal-kapal Romawi, maranéhna gampang kabur ti ngungudag kapal-kapal Romawi. Duilius teras balayar ka [[Segesta]] pikeun ngabébaskeun kota anu dikuasai Romawi tina pangepungan Carthaginian.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=63}} Dina awal 262 SM, kapal Carthaginian geus raided basisir Italia ti pangkalan maranéhanana di Sardinia jeung Corsica.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=58}}<nowiki> Sanggeus perang Mylae, dina 259 SM, konsul [[ Lucius Cornelius Scipio] (konsul 259 SM)|Lucius Cornelius Scipio]] mingpin sabagian armada Romawi ka </nowiki>[[Aléria]] di Korsika sarta ngarebutna. Anjeunna teras nyerang [[Olbia|Ulbia]] di Sardinia, tapi dielehkeun ku Carthage,{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}} sareng Aléria deui dikawasa ku Carthage.{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=154}} Dina taun 258 SM, armada Romawi anu leuwih kuat ngalibatkeun armada Carthaginian leutik dina [[Patempuran Sulci]] di perairan lepas basisir [[Sulci]], kuloneun Sardinia. Armada Carthaginian ngalaman eleh ongkosna mahal pikeun aranjeunna. Hannibal Gisco, komandan Carthaginian anu ditinggalkeun lalaki sarta ngungsi ka Sulci, engké ditahan sarta disalib ku lalaki sorangan. Sanajan meunang perang, pasukan Romawi {{snd}} nu nyoba narajang duanana Sardinia jeung Sisilia dina waktu nu sarua {{snd}} gagal ngarebut kota Sulci, sarta usaha narajang Sardinia handapeun Carthage laun laun.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}} Dina 257 SM, armada Romawi kabeneran berlabuh di basisir [[Tindari|Tyndaris]], kalér-wétaneun Sisilia, nalika armada Carthaginian{{snd}}, teu sadar ayana armada Romawi{{snd}}. , balayar kaliwat dina formasi gaping. . Panglima Romawi, [[Gaius Atilius Regulus Serranus|Gaius Atilius Regulus]], geuwat maréntahkeun serangan, sahingga [[Patempuran Tyndaris]] pecah. Alatan awal perang ngadadak, kapal Romawi anu deployed dina ragam teratur. Armada Carthaginian langsung ngaréspon, nyerang sareng ngalelepkeun salapan tina sapuluh kapal Romawi anu unggul. Sanggeus pasukan tempur utama armada Romawi nepi ka tengah perang, dalapan kapal Carthaginian anu sunk sarta sapuluh deui direbut. Armada Carthaginian sésana mundur sarta junun kabur tanpa diudag sabab kapal na dihareupeun Romawi, sahingga nyingkahan karugian badag. '']] Pulo. {{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=78}} == Diserbu Afrika == {{play|Patempuran Cape Ecnomus|Kepungan Aspis|Patempuran Adis|Patempuran Tunis}} [[Gambar:Perang_Punic_munggaran_di_Afrika_256-255BC.svg|jmpl|1: Pasukan Romawi darat jeung ngarebut Apsis (256 SM)<br /> 2: Bangsa Romawi meunang Patempuran Adis (256 SM)<br /> 3: Pasukan Romawi ngarebut Tunis (256 SM)<br /> 4: Ksantipos pindah ti Carthage jeung tentara badag prajurit (255 SM)<br /> 5: Bangsa Romawi éléh dina Patempuran Tunis (255 SM)<br /> 6: Pasukan Romawi mundur ka Apsis sarta ninggalkeun Afrika (254 SM)]] Kameunangan di Mylae sareng Sulci ogé jenuh anu disababkeun ku jalan buntu di Sisilia nyababkeun bangsa Romawi ngadopsi strategi dumasar-laut sareng mimitian ngembangkeun rencana pikeun nyerang inti Carthaginian Afrika Kalér, ku kituna ngancam kota Carthage (deukeut ka dayeuh [[Tunis]]<nowiki>).{ {sfn|Rankov|2015|p=155}} Kadua belah pihak boga tekad pikeun jadi nagara </nowiki>[[master of the sea]], sarta bakti duit gede. jeung SDM pikeun ngajaga jeung ngagedéan kakuatan tempur angkatan laut maranéhanana.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=110}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=83}} Armada Romawi 330 kapal perang jeung jumlah nu teu dipikanyaho. angkutan laut séjén indit ti [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]], palabuan Roma, dina awal 256 SM, dina [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]] jeung [[Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus]], konsul anu ngajabat taun éta. {{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=434}} Kurang leuwih 26.000 legionnair ti pasukan Romawi di Sisilia diasupkeun kana kapal teu lila saméméh invasi dimimitian. Dua konsul éta rencanana rék balayar ka Afrika jeung narajang wewengkon nu kiwari disebut Tunisia.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}}{{sfn|Walbank|1959|p=10}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=84–85}} Saatos diajar niat Roma, Carthage langsung nyebarkeun sadaya 350 kapal perangna ka cai di basisir kidul Sisilia handapeun Hanno Agung sareng Hamilcar pikeun nyegat armada Romawi. Kusabab éta ngalibatkeun 680 kapal perang anu mawa maksimal 290.000 awak sareng pasukan laut, [[Patempuran Cape Ecnomus]] sigana mangrupikeun perang laut panggedéna dina sajarah dina hal jumlah pejuang anu kalibet.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=110 –111}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=87}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=436}} Patempuran ieu dimimitian ku serangan ku armada Carthaginian nu ngandelkeun kaunggulan maranéhanana dina pengiriman barang.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=112–113}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=459}} Sanggeus sapoe tarung sambarangan, armada Carthaginian tungtungna eleh. Carthage kaleungitan 30 kapal kalelep sareng 64 kapal direbut ku pasukan Romawi, sedengkeun armada Romawi mung kaleungitan 24 kapal kalelep ku armada Carthaginian.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=69}} Sanggeus Patempuran Cape Ecnomus, tentara Romawi di handapeun Regulus darat di Afrika, teu jauh ti kota Aspis (ayeuna [[Kelibia]]) ayana di [[Cape Bon]], sarta langsung narajang désa-désa sabudeureun kota Carthage. . Sanggeus [[Pengepungan Aspis|pengepungan sakeudeung]], Aspis ahirna direbut.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=176}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=186}} Seuseueurna kapal Romawi balayar deui ka Sisilia, ninggalkeun Regulus kalawan 15.000 prajurit leumpang jeung 500 horsemen neruskeun perang di Afrika. Regulus teras ngepung kota [[Uthina|Adis]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=186}} Urang Carthaginians parantos ngingetkeun Hamilcar ti Sisilia kalayan 5.000 prajurit leumpang sareng 500 pasukan kuda. Hamilcar, [[Hasdrubal, putra Hanno|Hasdrubal]], jeung jenderal Carthaginian séjénna nu ngaranna Bostar ditugaskeun pikeun babarengan mingpin tentara nu loba pasukan kuda jeung gajah perang, jeung kakuatan kasarna sarua jeung tentara Romawi. Pasukan Carthaginian berkemah di hiji pasir deukeut Adis.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=85}} Pasukan Romawi pindah kaluar peuting jeung nyieun serangan ngareureuwas ka kemah Carthaginian ti dua arah nalika subuh. Sanggeus tarung ambing, prajurit Carthaginian tungtungna bubar sarta ngungsi. Teu écés sabaraha kasangsaraan maranéhna, tapi gajah perang Carthaginian jeung prajurit kuda luput sarta ngalaman sababaraha korban jiwa.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=86}} Bangsa Romawi nyusul kameunanganana sarta ngarebut kota Tunis, ngan 16&nbsp;km (10 mil) ti Carthage. Ti Tunis, pasukan Romawi nyerang jeung ngancurkeun wewengkon sabudeureun dayeuh Carthage. Putus asa, urang Carthaginians [[Ngintunkeun perdamaian|nyiptakeun perdamaian]], tapi Regulus ngabales ku ngajukeun istilah perdamaian anu beurat teuing pikeun urang Carthaginians mutuskeun pikeun neraskeun perang.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=87}} Tugas ngalatih prajurit dipasrahkeun ka [[Ksantipos of Carthage|Ksantipos]], pamingpin tentara bayaran [[Sparta]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=188}} Kalawan 12.000 prajurit leumpang, 4.000 prajurit kuda, jeung 100 gajah perang, Ksantipos ngéléhkeun bangsa Romawi dina [[Patempuran Walungan Bagradas (255 SM)|Patempuran Tunis]] dina 255 SM. Kira-kira 2.000 pasukan Romawi mundur ka Aspis; 500 prajurit, kaasup Regulus, ditawan ku Carthaginians; jeung sésana tiwas. Sieun yén komandan Carthaginian bakal sirik kana prestasina, Ksantipos buru-buru ngumpulkeun ganjaranna sareng uih deui ka Yunani.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=188}} Bangsa Romawi ngirimkeun armada kapal pikeun nyalametkeun prajuritna anu salamet, tapi éta kapal dicegat ku armada Carthaginian di cai off [[Cape Bon]] (kalér-wétaneun Tunisia kiwari). Dina [[Patempuran Cape Hermaeum]], armada Romawi ngéléhkeun armada Carthaginian, sarta ngarebut 114 kapal maranéhanana.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}{{#tag:ref|Numutkeun G. K. Tipps , sigana jumlahna aya 114 kapal nu dibawa ku armada Romawi dina perjalanan mulang.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}|group=inpormasi}} Armada Romawi kajebak dina badai dina perjalanan mulang. ka Italia, kaleungitan 384 tina 464 kapalna, sareng 100.000 prajurit dina kapalna. lolobana prajurit Latini sekutu.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=189}}{{sfn|Erdkamp|2015|p=66}} Paling dipikaresep, pamasangan alat-alat ''corvus'' ngajadikeun kapal-kapal Romawi teu pantes. Sanggeus musibah ieu, catetan Romawi teu nyebutkeun deui pamakéan ''corvus''. {{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=112, 117}} == Sisilia 255-248 SM == {{Utama|Patempuran Panormus|Patempuran Drepana|Patempuran Phintias|Pengepungan Lilybaeum (250–241 SM)}} [[Gambar:Attacksrenewed_(dipotong).JPG|jmpl|Serangan Romawi ti 253 nepi ka 251 SM]] Sanggeus kaleungitan kalolobaan kapalna dina badai taun 255 SM, urang Romawi gancang ngawangun deui armadana ku tambahan 220 kapal anyar.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=189–190}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=114}}<nowiki> Dina 254 SM, pasukan Carthaginian narajang sarta ngarebut Akragas, tapi, teu yakin bisa ngajaga eta, ninggalkeun kota sanggeus eta kaduruk nepi ka taneuh jeung tembok diroboh. {{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp =114–116, 169} }</nowiki>{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=158}} Samentara éta, pasukan Romawi nyerang Sisilia tékad pikeun ngahontal kameunangan nu tangtu. Sakabéh armada Romawi, di handapeun komando dua konsul, raided Panormus saméméhna taun éta. Kota Panormus dikepung sareng diblokade, mesin pengepungan dipasang pikeun ngalanggar témbokna. Sanggeus tembok kota Panormus dilanggar, pasukan Romawi narajang pedalaman, ngarebut pinggiran kota, sarta dibantai wargana [[tanpa ampun]]. Wewengkon puseur dayeuh buru-buru pasrah. 14.000 warga Panormus anu boga duit nebus diri, sedengkeun 13.000 padumuk sésana dijual jadi budak. Kalolobaan hinterland kulon Sisilia urang éta dina kontrol Romawi. Boh [[Ietas]], [[Solous]], Petra, atawa [[Tyndaris]] neangan [[Perdamaian|perjangjian perdamaian]] jeung Roma.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=80}} Dina 253 SM, Roma sakali deui nyetél tetempoan na on Afrika, sarta nyieun sababaraha razia di dinya. Tina 220 kapal anu aranjeunna kumpulkeun, armada Romawi kaleungitan 150 ku badai nalika mulih ti nyerang basisir Afrika Kalér wétaneun Carthage. Républik Romawi ngawangun deui armadana.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=189–190}} Taun saterusna, Roma malikeun perhatian ka Sisilia barat laut. Ekspedisi laut dikirim ka [[Lilybaeum]]. Dina jalan ka tujuanana, pasukan Romawi junun nangkep jeung ngaduruk Karthaginian [[Selinunte|Selinous]] jeung [[Heraclea Minoa]], tapi ahirna maranéhna gagal ngarebut Lilybaeum, udagan utama maranéhanana. Dina 252 SM pasukan Romawi nangkep Thermae jeung Lipara nu geus diisolasi saprak Panormus murag ka aranjeunna, tapi dihindari tarung dina 252 jeung 251 SM. Numutkeun Polybius, pasukan Romawi teu wani nyanghareupan gajah perang anu dibawa ku kapal Carthaginian ku kapal ka Sisilia.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=118}}<nowiki>{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=159} } [[Koropak:C._Caecilius_Metellus_Caprarius,_denarius,_125_BC,_RRC_269-1.jpg|alt=|kénca|jempol|jejeg=|Kaluaran Denarius </nowiki>[[Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius]], dicitak taun 125 SM, mintonkeun gambar na , [[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (konsul taun 251 SM)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus]], jeung gajah-gajah nu direbut dina [[Patempuran Panormus|Panormus]].{{sfn|Crawford|1974|p=292, 293}} ] ] Nepi ka ahir usum panas taun 251 SM,{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=93}} jenderal Carthaginian Hasdrubal{{snd}}anu tarung ngalawan Regulus di Afrika{{snd}}ngadangu yen salah sahiji konsul geus ninggalkeun Sisilia méakkeun usum kalawan satengah tentara-Na. Anjeunna mingpin tentara Carthaginian nuju Panormus sarta ngancurkeun désa sabudeureunana.{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=159}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=169}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=82}} Prajurit Romawi anu ditugaskeun pikeun ngumpulkeun panén langsung ngungsi ka kota Panormus. Hasdrubal ngagerakkeun sabagéan ageung pasukanana, kalebet gajah, pikeun ngadeukeutan témbok kota Panormus. Komandan Romawi, [[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (konsul taun 251 SM)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus]], ngirimkeun pasukan pemukul pikeun ngaganggu pasukan Carthaginian. Javelin anu dianggo ku prajurit perang dicandak tina cadangan lembing anu tos lami disimpen di kota. [[Benteng|gundukan taneuh]] sabudeureun Panormus, diadegkeun nalika pasukan Romawi ngepung kota, ngajadikeun gajah perang hésé ngadeukeutan témbok kota. Disiram ku lembing tanpa bisa neunggeul deui, gajah-gajah nyemprung ngaliwatan prajurit suku Carthaginian di tukangeunana. Metellus lajeng mobilized awak badag prajurit Romawi narajang sarta paburencay flank kénca Carthaginian. Prajurit Carthaginian tungtungna bubar sareng kabur. Sanajan néwak sapuluh gajah, Metellus teu ngidinan Romawi pikeun moro prajurit musuh.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=82–83}} Sumber-sumber kontemporer teu nangtukeun karugian anu ditanggung ku dua pihak, sarta sejarawan modern ngabantah akun. ti sumber saterusna yén Carthaginians kaleungitan 20.000 nepi ka 30.000 pasukan.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=93–94}} [[Gambar:Attacksrenewed2_(dipotong).JPG|jmpl|Serangan Romawi ti 250 nepi ka 249 SM]] Kameunangan di Panormus ngajurung pasukan Romawi pikeun nyerang kota Lilybaeum, pangkalan utama Carthage di pulo Sisilia. Dina 249 SM, hiji tentara badag prajurit Romawi di handapeun [[Publius Claudius Pulcher (konsul taun 249 SM)|Publius Claudius Pulcher]] jeung [[Lucius Junius Pullus (konsul taun 249 SM)|Lucius Junius Pullus]], konsul- konsul anu nyandak kantor taun éta, ieu deployed ngurilingan kota Lilybaeum. 200 kapal milik armada Romawi anyar dikerahkan pikeun ngablokir palabuhan.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=190}} Nalika blokade anyar dimimitian, 50 quinqueremis Carthaginian ditempatkeun di perairan lepas [[Kapuloan Aegates]] , {{convert|15|-|40|km|0|abbr=off}} di kuloneun Sisilia. Salaku angin barat ngangkat, kapal Carthaginian rode arah Lilybaeum unhindered ku kapal blokade Romawi, sarta unloaded jumlah badag pasukan jeung suplai. Kapal-kapal lésot kaluar ti palabuhan peuting, ngangkut pasukan kuda Carthaginian ti Sisilia.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=117}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=85}} Bangsa Romawi nutup jalur darat nuju Lilybaeum sareng kemah anu dikuatkeun tina gundukan bumi sareng pager kai. Maranéhna rék nutup lawang palabuan ku [[halangan]] kai, tapi arus jeung ombak ngahalangan éta. kapal, nyaéta quinqueremis- quinqueremis nu lincah jeung lincah dimanuver jeung diawaki ku [[Pilot boat|pilot]]. {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=117–118}} Pulcher mutuskeun pikeun nyerang armada Carthaginian nu ieu anchored di Drepana (ayeuna Trapani), teu jauh ti Lilybaeum. Kapal-kapal Romawi balayar kaluar peuting dina serangan reuwas, tapi paburencay dina gelap. Laksamana [[Adherbal (admiral)|Adherbal]] junun ngalungkeun kapal Carthaginian ka laut sateuacan kajebak di palabuhan, sareng males serangan armada Romawi dina [[Patempuran Drepana]]. Saatos kadorong ka darat sareng dinten perang sengit, armada Romawi tungtungna dielehkeun ku kapal Carthaginian, anu langkung lincah dina manuver sareng diurus ku pelaut berpengalaman. Kameunangan di Drepana nyaéta nu panggedéna pikeun armada Carthaginian dina mangsa Perang Punic Kahiji.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=117–121}} Urang Carthaginians balik pikeun nyerang, sarta meunang deui kameunangan longsor ngalawan armada Romawi dina [ [Patempuran Phintias] ], tapi teu bisa miceun bangsa Romawi ti cai.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=88–91}} Ngan tujuh taun ti harita Roma bisa deui ngencarkeun armada anu cukup kuat. , Samentawis di Carthage parantos ngeureunkeun panggunaan seueur kapal kapalna pikeun nyalametkeun sareng ngabebaskeun awak.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=163}} == Tungtung == {{Utama|Kepungan Drepana|Kepungan Lilybaeum (250 SM)|Patempuran Kapuloan Aegates}} [[Koropak:CILI(2)p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg|kénca|jempol|jejeg=1|Sesa-sésa [[Fasti Triumphales]], prasasti-prasasti nu ngandung ngaran sakabéh [[Pawai meunangna (Romawi Kuna)|Komandan Romawi nu meunang perang]]]]] Dina 248 SM, ngan dua kota di Sisilia anu masih dikawasa ku Carthage, nyaéta Lilybaeum jeung [[Drepana]]. Duanana ditangtayungan ku benteng-benteng anu kuat sarta ayana di basisir kulon, sangkan suplai jeung pasukan ngagantian bisa dikirim tanpa dihalang-halang ku pasukan Romawi unggul di darat.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=64–66}}<nowiki>{ {sfn |Goldsworthy|2006|pp=94–95}} Nalika </nowiki>[[Hamilcar Barca]]<nowiki>{{#tag:ref|Hamilcar Barca nyaéta [[Hannibal] bapana].</nowiki>{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=165}} }|group=information}} dipercayakeun maréntahkeun tentara Carthaginian di Sisilia dina 247 SM, anjeunna dipercayakeun ngan hiji tentara leutik prajurit, sarta kapal tina armada Carthaginian ditarik hiji-hiji. Permusuhan antara tentara Romawi jeung Carthaginian diréduksi jadi operasi militér leutik di darat, luyu jeung strategi Carthaginian. Hamilcar nerapkeun taktik [[Panangan gabungan|elemen tempur ngahiji]] dina ngaluncurkeun [[strategi Fabius]] ti pangkalanna di [[Eryx (Sisilia)|Eryx]], kaléreun Drepana. Perang [[Perang gerilya|gerilya]] ieu ngajaga pasukan Romawi ka tempatna sangkan Carthage bisa ngajaga ayana diwilayahna di Sisilia.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=144}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=92–94}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=95}} Sanggeus leuwih ti 20 taun perang, kamampuhan waragad duanana nagara sarta jumlah pasukan tungtungna turun.{{sfn|Bringmann|2007|p=127}} Salah sahiji bukti kasusah finansial nyanghareupan Carthage nyaéta aplikasi pikeun injeuman. tina 2.000 talenta pérak{{#tag:ref|2.000 talenta pérak kira-kira sarua {{convert|51|lt|kg|disp=flip|abbr=off}} pérak.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p =158}}|group=remarks}} maranéhna banding ka [[Karajaan Ptolemaic|Karajaan Ptolemaic Mesir]] tapi teu dikabulkeun.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=92}} Roma oge di ambang [[standar nasional|bangkrut]]. Sajaba ti éta, populasi lalaki sawawa, kontributor sumber daya manusa pikeun angkatan laut jeung pasukan Romawi, turun ku 17 persén saprak perang peupeus.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=91}} Numutkeun Adrian Goldsworthy, nu turunna jumlah SDM di Républik Indonésia Roma geus ngahontal tingkat "jero pikahariwangeun".{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=131}} Nepi ka ahir taun 243 SM, majelis sesepuh Romawi mutuskeun pikeun ngawangun armada anyar sabab sadar yén pasukan Romawi ngan ukur tiasa ngarebut Drepana sareng Lilybaeum upami blokade ogé dilaksanakeun dina cai.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} Alatan kas kaayaan ieu thinning, déwan sesepuh narékahan pikeun pangadilan jalma beunghar di Roma. Unggal jalma jegud dipénta pikeun ngabiayaan pangwangunan hiji kapal. Dana aranjeunna tuang kaluar bakal reimbursed sanggeus pamaréntah narima [[parotries]] pangmayaran nu bakal kapaksa on Carthage sakali perang dimeunangkeun. Inisiatif ieu ngahasilkeun armada anyar kira-kira 200 quinqueremis anu diwangun, dilengkepan jeung diawaskeun tanpa ngaluarkeun duit nagara.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=49}} Pikeun nyieun kapal armada anyar ieu, Romawi. nuturkeun conto selop blokade kualitas alus teuing anu aranjeunna junun ngarebut ti Carthaginians.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} Bangsa Romawi dina waktu éta ngalaman pangalaman ngawangun kapal, sarta ku niru kapal anu kualitasna alus. Teu diragukeun, kapal quinqueremis kualitas luhur dihasilkeun.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=124}} Kapal-kapal anyar ieu teu dilengkepan deui ku ''corvus'' sangkan leuwih gancang jeung leuwih lincah dina gerakna,{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} tapi kusabab kitu taktik tempur kudu dirobah. Pikeun ngéléhkeun urang Carthaginians, maranéhna kudu jadi pelaut unggulan, tinimbang prajurit darat unggul.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=150}}<nowiki>{{sfn|Casson|1991|p=150} }</nowiki>{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=95}} The Carthaginians ngawangun anyar, armada gedé pikeun dipaké pikeun ngirim suplai ka Sisilia, sarta engké bakal imah lolobana pasukan tentara Carthaginian di Sisilia anu bakal empowered salaku seamen. Armada anyar ieu dicegat ku armada Romawi dina kapamimpinan [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]] jeung [[Quintus Valerius Falto]]. Dina tarung sengit di perairan Kapuloan Aegates, prajurit Romawi anu dilatih leuwih alus bisa ngéléhkeun armada Carthaginian, anu kawates jeung kurang dilatih.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=196}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=96}} Sanggeus unggul dina perang angkatan laut ieu sacara unanimously, urang Romawi nuluykeun operasi darat di Sisilia dina usaha pikeun ngarebut Lilybaeum jeung Drepana.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=125–126}} Déwan sesepuh Carthaginian nampik ngaluarkeun sumber daya -sumber daya anu diperlukeun pikeun ngawangun sareng ngadamel armada énggal.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=97}} Aranjeunna malah maréntahkeun Hamilcar pikeun milarian rundingan damai sareng Roma. Hamilcar ngadelegasikeun ieu tugas ka bawahanna, [[Gisco (d. 239 SM)|Gisco]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=97}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=157}} The peace ceramah réngsé ku nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Lutatius]] nu mungkas Perang Punic Kahiji. Urang Carthaginians diwajibkeun geuwat ninggalkeun Sisilia, nyerahkeun sakabéh tawanan anu dicandak nalika perang, sareng mayar di cicilan bayaran [[indemnity]] 3.200 talents pérak{{#tag:ref|3.200 talents pérak. kira-kira sarua jeung {{#tag:ref| {{convert|81|lt|kg|disp=flip|abbr=off}} pérak.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=remark}} dina jero sapuluh taun.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=196}} == Pasca Perang == [[Koropak:Perang Punic Kahiji 237 SM.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Daérah warna pink nyaéta bagian tina Carthage anu diserahkeun ka Roma dina perjangjian perdamaian]] Kusabab lumangsung 23 taun, Perang Punic Kahiji jadi perang pangpanjangna dina sajarah Romawi-Yunani, sarta perang laut pangbadagna dina sajarah Dunya Kuna.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=x}} Sanggeus perang, Carthage diusahakeun ulah mayar gajih tentara urang - prajurit asing anu geus ngagabung tarung. [[Perang Upah|Prajurit Asing ahirna barontak]], sarta loba golongan jalma nu teu sugema kana pamaréntahan ngagabung.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=112–114}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Hoyos|2000|p=371}} Sanggeus loba usaha, pamaréntahan Carthaginian ahirna bisa maéhan pemberontakan ieu ku cara anu cukup kejam. Dina 237 SM, Carthage siap ngajalankeun ekspedisi militér pikeun ngarebut deui pulo Sardinia, nu geus murag ka pemberontak.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=135}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=209, 212 –213}} Républik Romawi sacara sinis ngumumkeun yén gerakan Carthaginian dianggap tindakan perang. Pikeun mulangkeun katengtreman, Carthage wajib nyerahkeun Sardinia jeung Korsika sarta mayar tambahan indemnity 1.200 talents pérak.{{#tag:ref|1.200 talents pérak kurang leuwih {{convert|30|lt|kg|disp= flip| abbr=off}} pérak.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=remark}} Béak perang salila 30 taun, Carthage mutuskeun pikeun nurut kana tungtutan Roma tinimbang balik deui kana konflik. Pangmayaran tambahan sarta sékrési Sardinia jeung Corsica dijieun artikel anyar dina perjangjian karapihan nu disaluyuan ku dua nagara.{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=175}} Aksi- kalakuan Roma ieu nganyenyeri Carthage, tinimbang nyerah sakumaha anu dikira Roma, sareng dianggap salah sahiji faktor anu nyababkeun wabah [[Perang Punik II]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=175}} Kapamingpinan Hamilcar Barca anu pinunjul dina usaha pikeun ngancurkeun pemberontakan asing sareng kelompok pemberontak Afrika ningkatkeun darajat sareng kakawasaan kulawarga [[Kulawarga Barqa|Barca]]. Dina 237 SM, Hamilcar mingpin ékspédisi militér anu tujuanana pikeun ngalegaan kadaulatan Carthaginian di wewengkon kidul [[Iberia Carthage|Iberia]] (ayeuna [[Spanyol]]). Loba prajurit di pasukan ekspedisi militér éta urut pasukan na dina Perang Punic Kahiji. Salila 20 taun ka hareup, kiduleun Iberia jadi sajenis semi-otonom [[fief]]<nowiki> kulawarga Barça ogé supplier sabagian gedé pérak anu dikirim ka Roma minangka reparasi.{{sfn|Collins|1998 |p=13} }</nowiki>{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=152–155}} Pikeun Roma, ahir Perang Punic Kahiji ditandaan awal ékspansi na saluareun jazirah Italia. Pulo Sisilia jadi [[Sisilia (provinsi Romawi)|Provincia Sicilia]], jajahan Romawi munggaran ([[Propinsi Romawi|''provincia'']]) Roma. [[pretor]] pensiunan diangkat kapala administrasi régional. Satuluyna, Sisilia jadi wewengkon penting pikeun Roma, sabab éta [[Panyediaan gandum pikeun kota Roma|sumber suplai gandum]].{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}} [[Provincia Sardinia et Korsika|Sardinia jeung Korsika]] ngahiji jadi hiji "provincia" nu diparéntah ku pretor, sarta ogé dipaké salaku sumber suplai gandum, sanajan Roma kudu nyimpen hiji tentara badag di "provincia" salila sahenteuna tujuh taun, sabab pamaréntah kolonial kawalahan nyanghareupan pribumi anu teu diatur.{{sfn|Hoyos|2015|p=211}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=136}} [[Syracusa, Italia|Syracusa]] dilélér kamerdékaan nominal jeung sekutu saumur hirup status King Hiero II.{{sfn|Allen|Myers|1890|p=111}} Ti saprak meunangna Perang Punic Kahiji, Roma geus mecenghul minangka nagara nu boga kakuatan militér pangpunjulna di wewengkon Mediterania kulon, sarta laun-laun jadi punjul. di sakuliah wewengkon Mediterania .{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=213}}<nowiki> Bangsa Romawi ngawangun leuwih ti 1.000 galleys salila Perang Punic Kahiji. Pangalaman akumulasi dina commissioning, manning, latihan, supplying jeung ngajaga sajumlah badag kapal jadi pondasi kamulyaan maritim Roma salila 600 taun.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=128–129, 357, 359–360} } Sanajan Perang Punic Kahiji geus réngsé, masih can écés nagara mana nu ngawasa Mediterania kulon, sarta nalika Carthage ngepung kota </nowiki>[[Saguntum]]<nowiki> nu ditangtayungan Romawi di Iberia wétan dina 218 SM, [[Perang Punic II] ] peupeus.{ {sfn|Collins|1998|p=13}}</nowiki> == Katerangan, rujukan, jeung sumber == === Katerangan === {{Review|group=caption|30em}} === Rujukan === {{reflist|20em}} === Sumber === {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book|last1=Allen|first1=William|last2=Myers|first2=Philip Van Ness|author-link2=Philip van Ness Myers|title=Ancient History for Colleges and High Schools: Part II – A Short History of the Roman People|location=Boston|publisher=Ginn & Company|year=1890|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028286692|oclc=702198714}} * {{cite 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Supplement|volume=67|issue=67|pages=59–79|jstor=43767903}} * {{cite book|first=H.H.|last=Scullard|author-link=Howard Hayes Scullard|chapter=Carthage and Rome|pages=486–569|editor1-first=F. W.|editor1-last=Walbank|editor2-first=A. E.|editor2-last=Astin|editor3-first=M. W.|editor3-last=Frederiksen|editor4-first=R. M.|editor4-last=Ogilvie|title=Cambridge Ancient History: Jilid 7, Bagian 2, Edisi ke-2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|name-list-style=amp|year=2006|orig-year=1989|isbn=978-0-521-23446-7}} * {{Cite journal|last=Shutt|first=Rowland|date=1938|title=Polybius: A Sketch|journal=Greece & Rome|volume=8|issue=22|pages=50–57|doi=10.1017/S001738350000588X|jstor=642112}} * {{cite book|last1=Sidwell|first1=Keith C.|author1-link=Peter Jones (classicist)|location=Cambridge; New York|last2=Jones|first2=Peter V.|title=The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/worldofromeintro0000unse|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-38600-5}} * {{Cite book|first=Philip|last=de Souza|chapter=Naval Forces|pages=357–367|editor1-first=Philip|editor1-last=Sabin|editor2-first=Hans|editor2-last=van Wees|editor3-first=Michael|editor3-last=Whitby|name-list-style=amp|title=The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, Jilid 1: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-85779-6}} * {{cite book|last=Starr|first=Chester|author-link=Chester Starr|title=A History of the Ancient World|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000star|location=New York, New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|orig-year=1965|year=1991|isbn=978-0-19-506628-9}} * {{Cite journal|last=Tipps|first=G.K.|date=1985|title=The Battle of Ecnomus|journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|volume=34|issue=4|pages=432–465|jstor=4435938}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Tusa|first1=Sebastiano|last2=Royal|first2=Jeffrey|date=2012|title=The Landscape of the Naval Battle at the Egadi Islands (241 B.C.)|journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=25|pages=7–48|doi=10.1017/S1047759400001124|issn=1047-7594|author1-link=Sebastiano Tusa|s2cid=159518193}} * {{Cite journal|last=Walbank|first=Frank|author-link=F. W. Walbank|date=1959|title=Naval Triaii|journal=The Classical Review|volume=64|issue=1|pages=10–11|doi=10.1017/S0009840X00092258|jstor=702509}} * {{cite book|last=Walbank|first=F.W.|date=1990|title=Polybius|volume=1|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06981-7}} * {{cite book|last=Wallinga|first=Herman|title=The Boarding-bridge of the Romans: Its Construction and its Function in the Naval Tactics of the First Punic War|oclc=458845955|publisher=J.B. Wolters|location=Groningen|year=1956}} * {{cite book|last=Warmington|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Herbert Warmington|title=Carthage|url=https://archive.org/details/carthage0000warm_a5q6|publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc|year=1993|orig-year=1960|location=New York|isbn=978-1-56619-210-1}} {{refend}} === Bacaan lanjutan === * {{Cite journal|last=Biggs|first=T.|date=2017|title=Primus Romanorum: Origin Stories, Fictions of Primacy, and the First Punic War|journal=Classical Philology|volume=112|issue=3|pages=350–367|doi=10.1086/692606|issn=0009-837X|ref=none|s2cid=164526422}} * {{cite book|last=Dexter|first=Hoyos|date=1998|title=Unplanned Wars: The Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ja4fAAAAQBAJ&q=Unplanned+wars:+The+origins+of+the+First+and+Second+Punic+Wars|location=Berlin; New York|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-080835-3|ref=none}} * {{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/1*.html|title=Historiai|last=Polibios|website=Situs Web Bill Thayer|publisher=Universitas Chicago|orig-year=''[[circa|ca.]]'' 167–118 Pramasehi|ref=none|date=2020|translator-last1=Paton|translator-first1=William Roger|translator-last2=Thayer|translator-first2=Bill|translator1-link=William Roger Paton|access-date=4 Mei 2020}} {{kotak navigasi Perang Punik}} {{Perang Romawi Kuno}} [[Katégori:264 SM]] <references group="description" /> <references group="remark" /> <references group="inpormasi" /> [[Kategori:Perang Punic I]] [[Kategori:Konflik taun 260-an SM]] [[Kategori:Konflik dina 250-an SM]] [[Kategori:Konflik taun 240-an SM]] [[Kategori:Abad ka-3 SM di Républik Romawi|Perang Punic 01]] [[Kategori:Abad ka-3 SM|Perang Punic 01]] [[Kategori:Perang Punic|.01]] [[Kategori:Perang ngalibetkeun Carthage]] [[Kategori:Perang anu ngalibatkeun Républik Romawi]] 7vytb55i36fjrvbztazfl3ots7kpzg7 0 104838 711773 662975 2026-08-07T03:52:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Parliamentary system of government}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}} [[File:London Parlament-20090730-RM-110352.jpg|alt=The Houses of Parliament in Westminster|thumb| Sistem Westminster dingaranan nurutkeun [[Palace of Westminster|Istana Westminster]], nu mangrupakeun gedong tempat diayakeunana sidang [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parlemen Karajaan Inggris]].]] Sistem Westminster, atanapi modél Westminster, nyaéta jinis pamaréntahan [[parliamentary system|parleméntér]] anu ngawengku runtuyan prosedur pikeun ngokolakeun législatif, anu mimiti dikembangkeun di Inggris. Aspék konci tina sistem ieu di antarana nyaéta cabang éksékutif anu diwangun ku anggota législatif, sareng anu tanggel waler ka législatif; ayana partéy oposisi parleméntér; sareng hiji kapala nagara anu sifatna seremonial anu misah tina kapala pamaréntahan. Istilah ieu asalna tina Istana Westminster, anu geus jadi tempat Parlemén Westminster di Inggris sareng engké di Karajaan Inggris ti abad ka-13. Sistem Westminster mindeng dibandingkeun sareng sistem présidénsial anu mimiti di Amérika Sarikat<ref>{{Cite book|title=Political Representation|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521111270|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0521128650|chapter=Varieties of public representation}}</ref> atanapi sareng sistem [[semi-presidential|semi-présidénsial]], anu dumasar kana pamaréntahan [[France|Perancis]]. o3v3n2ccracd92hsepvj1dh8510r2w4 0 105013 711794 665421 2026-08-07T04:32:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711794 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Leiomioma Uteri | image = Uterine fibroids.jpg | caption = Leiomioma uteri nu katingali dina laparaskopi | field = [[Ginekologi]] | synonyms = Uterus fibroid, mioma uteri, mioma, fibromioma, fibroleiomioma | symptoms = [[dysmenorrhea|nyeri]] atawa kaleuleuwihan haid | onset = Patengahan umur produktif | duration = | types = | causes = Teu kanyahoan | risks = Riwayat kulawarga, [[obesitas]], daging beureum | diagnosis = Pamariksaan pelvis, pencitraan jeung modalitas | differential = [[Leiomiosarcoma]], [[kehamilan]], [[kista ovarium]], [[kanker ovarium]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferri|first1=Fred F.|title=Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders|url=https://archive.org/details/ferrisdifferenti0000ferr|date=2010|publisher=Elsevier/Mosby|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0323076999|page=Chapter U|edition=2nd}}</ref> | prevention = | treatment = Medikamentosa, operasi, embolisasi arteri uterus | medication = [[Ibuprofen]], [[parasetamol]] (asetaminofen), suplemen zat besi, agonis hormon pelepas gonadotropin | prognosis = Bakal cageur nalika [[menopause]] | frequency = | deaths = }} '''Mioma uteri''', '''leiomioma uteri''', atawa '''fibroid uterus''' nyaéta tumor jinak rahim nu sering timbul pasca ngalahirkeun. Leiomioma teu boga potensi ngembang jadi kanker. Ukuranna rupa-rupa, ti ukuran nu leutik pisan nu kadeteksi jeung pamariksaan ultrasonografi nepi nu ukuranna gede pisan sahingga nambah volume rahim jeung penderita katingali jiga nu keur hamil gede.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emedicinehealth.com/uterine_fibroids/article_em.htm|title=Uterine Fibroids: Pain, Symptoms, Causes, Surgery & Treatment|website=eMedicineHealth|language=en|access-date=2020-03-09}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/women/uterine-fibroids/uterine-fibroids|title=What Are Uterine Fibroids?|website=WebMD|language=en|access-date=2020-03-09}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/uterine-fibroids/symptoms-causes/syc-20354288|title=Uterine fibroids - Symptoms and causes|website=Mayo Clinic|language=en|access-date=2020-03-09}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.medicinenet.com/uterine_fibroids/article.htm|title=Uterine Fibroid Symptoms, Treatment, Causes & Surgery|website=MedicineNet|language=en|access-date=2020-03-09}}</ref> Gejalana nyaéta kaleuleuwihan ménstruasi, ménstruasi nu leuwih ti saminggu, nyeri panggul, sering ngompol jeung konstipasi. Sabab pasti tina kaayaan ieu henteu can kanyahoan, tapi disangka faktor hormonal, parobahan genetik, faktor partumbuhan, matrix ekstraselule boga peran dina prosés lumangsungna kaayaan Mioma uteri Jumlah penderita can kanyahoan sacara akurat sabab loba nu teu ngarasakeun keluhan sahingga teu buru dipariksakeun ka [[dokter]], tapi perkiraan sakitar 20-30% kajadian di awéwé umur di luhur 35 tahun. == Riwayat panyakit == Asal muasal panyakit mioma uteri asalna tina [[otot polos rahim]]. Sababaraha téori nyebutkeun tumuwuhna tumor ieu disababkeun ku stimulasi tina hormon éstrogén. Dina jaringan mioma jumlah reseptor [[Estrogen|éstrogén]] leuwih loba dibandingkan jaringan [[otot kandungan]] (miometrium) sakitarna sahingga mioma uteri ieu sering tumuwuh leuwih gancang dina kahamilan (ngagédean dina umur reproduksi) jeung biasana ukuran ngurangan saenggeus [[menopause]] (ngaleutikan dina [[pascamenopause]]) Loba tumor jinak rahim ka arah rongga ieu ngagédean jeung tumuwuh kaluar tina biwir [[rahim]]. [[Tumor]] nu aya dina rahim bisa tumuwuh leuwih ti hiji, karasa geunyal, bentukna buleud jeung benjol-benjol sarupa ukuran tumor. Beuratna rupa-rupa, mimiti tina sababaraha [[gram]] wungkul, tapi ogé nepika 5 [[kilogram]] atawa leuwih. == Jenis == Dumasar lokasina mioma uteri dibagi jadi tilu jenis: # Partumbuhan tetap di dijero biwir rahim # Partumbuhan ka arah rongga rahim # Partumbuhan ka arah hareup biwir rahim == Gejala dan tanda == Sawaréh dina panyakit kapanggih sacara kabeneran nalika pameriksaan panggul rutin. [[Gejala]] nu timbul tergantung pada lokasi jeung gedénya tumor, tapi nu paling sering kapanggih nyaéta: * Perdarahan nu loba jeung lila dina masa haid atawa di luar masa [[haid]]. * Rasa peurih sabab tumor nu neken kapuir tangkal tumor, jeung ayana infeksi di jero rahim. * Panekenan dina organ di sekitar tumor saperti [[kandung kemih]], [[ureter]], [[rektum]] atawa [[organ]] [[rongga panggul]] liana, nimbulkeun gangguan miceun jeung ngompol, palebaran [[pembuluh darah]] [[vena]] dina panggul, gangguan [[ginjal]] sabab pabengkakan tangkai tumor. * Gangguan hésé hamil sabab kajadian panekanan dina saluran indung [[telur]]. * Dina bagian handap beuteung deukeutt rahim karasa geunyal. Loba penderita ngarasa peurih akibat miom [[degenerasi]] atau [[kontraksi]] [[uterus]] kaleuleuwihan dian mioma nu tumuwuh ka jero rongga rahim. Pasangan salaki pamajika sok hése boga anak ([[infertilitas]]) disababkeun gangguan dina [[tuba]], gangguan [[implantasi]] dina [[endometrium]], panyumbatan, jeung nu lianna. Mioma Uteri bisa ngagganggu kahamilan ku dampak saperti kalainan posisi orok jeung [[plasenta]], kahalangna jalan [[lahir]], kalemahan dina [[kontraksi]] rahim, pandarahan nu loba saenggeus ngalahirkeun jeung gangguan palepasan plasenta, bahkan bisa nyebabkeun [[kaguguran]]. Sabalikna, kahamilan ogé bisa ngadampak parah Mioma Uteri. Nalika hamil, Mioma Uteri condong ngagédan, jeung sering kajadian parobahan dina tumor nu nyebabkan pandarahan dina tumor sahingga nimbulkeun peurih. Salian éta, salila kahamilan, tangkai tumor bisa muter. == Rujukan == bjkpsnyz7r7bviisdtbrctx7vabuvmf 0 105239 711853 705550 2026-08-07T05:53:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711853 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Tibia - frontal view.png|jempol|right|150px|Anatomi bincurang.]] Bincurang (Basa Indonésia: tulang kering; [[Basa Inggris]]: tibia) nyaéta salasahiji [[tulang]] bitis anu panggedéna sarta pangkuatna. Ieu tulang perenahna aya di handapeun [[tuur]] sarta luhureun [[mumuncangan]].<ref name="Gray">{{cite book |last=Standring |first=Susan |title=Gray's Anatomy |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |isbn=978-0702052309}}</ref><ref name="Rig">Rigg, Jonathan (1862). "A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java". Universitas Harvard: Lange.</ref> Dina anatomi manusa, bincurang téh mangrupa tulang kadua panggedéna saatos tulang [[pingping]] (fémur), sarta miboga pancén utama pikeun nyangga beurat awak.<ref name="Bridges">{{cite web |title=Tibia (Shin Bone): Anatomy, Function, and Common Conditions |url=https://www.verywellhealth.com/tibia-anatomy-4684000 |access-date=2026-01-25 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="GrayStudent">{{cite book |last1=Drake |first1=Richard L. |last2=Vogl |first2=A. Wayne |last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.| year=2010 |title=Gray´s Anatomy for Students |url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5 |edition=2nd | isbn =978-0-443-06952-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5/page/558 558]–560 |publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier }}</ref> == Struktur jeung Fungsi == Bincurang perenahna di bagian sisi ''médial'' (jero) bitis sarta bisa karaba langsung dina handapeun kulit sajajar jeung tulang [[Ciséké]] (''fibula''). Ieu tulang miboga tilu bagian utama: * '''Epifisis proksimal''': Bagian luhur anu nyambung jeung tulang [[pingping]] (fémur) sarta ngawangun sendi [[tuur]]. * '''Diafisis''': Bagian tengah atawa tangkal tulang anu bentukna prismatik sanyidat (segitiga). Bagian hareupna miboga sisi anu seukeut, anu dina basa sapopoé sok disebut "tulang kering" sabab perenahna langsung di handapeun kulit. * '''Epifisis distal''': Bagian handap anu ngawangun sendi [[mumuncangan]], di mana aya tonjolan anu disebut ''malleolus médial''.<ref name="Moore">{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Keith L. |last2=Dalley |first2=Arthur F. |last3=Agur |first3=Anne M. R. |title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy |edition=7th |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |year=2013 |pages=670-675 |isbn=978-1451119459}}</ref> Fungsi utama bincurang di antarana: * Panunjel beurat awak: Bincurang nyaéta tulang utama anu nanggung beban nalika manusa leumpang, lumpat, atawa nangtung.<ref name="KenHub">{{cite web |title=Tibia: Anatomy, surfaces and landmarks |url=https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/the-tibia |publisher=KenHub |access-date=2026-01-27 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * Panghubung sandi: Ngabentuk bagian tina sandi tuur (di luhur) sarta sandi mumuncangan (di handap).<ref name="Danadibrata">Danadibrata, R.A. (2006). "Kamus Basa Sunda". Bandung: Panitia Penerbitan Kamus Basa Sunda.</ref> * Sinyal kasaimbangan: Babarengan jeung tulang ciséké (fibula), bincurang mantuan ngajaga stabilitas sandi mumuncangan.<ref name="AJSM">Huson, A. (2018). "Biomechanical Aspects of the Tibia". The American Journal of Sports Medicine.</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] s4bt1vr9cremii3frkk7e611xq8l21s 0 105292 711654 709553 2026-08-07T00:59:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711654 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:1730 Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics - Geographicus - Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg|jmpl|Peta wewengkon Skandinavia jeung Fennoscandia taun 1730, kaasup wilayah Jérman kalér, Polandia kalér, wewengkon Baltik, Livonia, Bélarusia, jeung Rusia kalér kulon. (jieunan [[Johan Homann]])]] Ditingali tina wanci sajarah, dina harti ayana rincian anu ditulis ngeunaan [[Finlandia]], '''[[sajarah]] [[Finlandia]]''' mimiti kacatet sabudeureun taun 1100 M, nyaéta wanci kapamilikan Finlandia masih diparebutkeun ku [[Swédia]] jeung [[Rusia]].<ref name=":1" /> Sajarah Finlandia ngeunaan pangwangunan padumukan, pangrebutan wilayah jeung kakawasaan, tuluy kamerdékaan Finlandia éta sorangan. Di éra modérn, Finlandia ngalaman jadi negara handapeun kakawasaan [[Rusia]] jeung [[Swédia]]. Tuluy nuturkeun [[Revolusi Rusia|Révolusi Rusia]], [[Finlandia]] ahirna ngamerdékakeun manéh. Salila [[Perang Tiis]], [[Finlandia]] mertahankeun posisi nétral, tuluy jadi anggota [[Uni Éropa]] di taun 1995. Saprak invasi [[Rusia]] ka [[Ukraina]], [[Finlandia]] resmi ngagabung jadi anggota [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)]].<ref name=":0" /> Lemah cai urang [[Finlandia]] mimitina teu katingali jiga wewengkon anu bisa sukses dicicingan, ku sabab wewengkon kalér buana [[Éropa]] kaasup kana Buderan [[Arktik]], nu mana miboga sumber daya alam nu kawates: kakurangan sumber daya fosil jeung kudu ngimpor kabutuhan énérgi ti wewengkon séjén. Kitu deui ditingali tina kaayaan iklim anu ngawatesan kagiatan agrikultur jeung pola kahirupan sapopoé, utamana dina usum tiis anu panjang jeung poék. Ku kituna, rahayat [[Finlandia]] mampu adaptasi sangkan parobahan sarta salamet tina kondisi anu teu nguntungkeun, boh tina kondisi politik atawa kondisi alam sangkan bisa jadi bangsa nu suksés.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=A Short History of Finland|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffi00sing|last=Singleton|first=Fred|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffi00sing/page/1 1]-17|chapter=History of Finland|isbn=9780511608087|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511608087}}</ref> == Sajarah Mimiti == [[Guha Susiluola]], deukeut [[Kristinestad]] di [[Ostrobothnia]], mangrupakeun tempat anu diusulkeun yén mungkin kungsi dicicingan ku [[Néanderthal]] perkiraan 120.000 ka tukang nalika Wanci [[Interglasial Terahir]]. Interprétasi ieu masih diperdebatkeun ku para ahli jeung kasebut kontrovérsial ngeunaan bebeneranna. Upamana dikonpirmasi bener, guha ieu bakal jadi padumukan jalma mimiti di [[Fennoscandia]] anu dipikanyaho.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Trine Kellberg|last2=Riede|first2=Felix|date=2018-11|title=On Research History and Neanderthal Occupation at its Northern Margins|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1461957118000128/type/journal_article|journal=European Journal of Archaeology|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=506–527|doi=10.1017/eaa.2018.12|issn=1461-9571}}</ref> Para pamaké basa Proto-[[Finlandia]] nepi di [[Finlandia]] dina wanci praaksara mangrébu-rébu taun ka tukang.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Upheaval|last=Diamond|first=Jared|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2022|isbn=9786024818494|location=Jakarta|pages=55-96}}</ref> Diperkirakeun kelompok manusa éta nepi di [[Finlandia]] sakitar 9.000 taun ka tukang, ngawakilan sababaraha séké sélér, kaasup karuhun urang [[Sami]] kiwari. Kataji ku lobana sato jang diburu, utamana lauk jeung sato anu diarah buluna, kelompok jalma éta nuturkeun lééhan és ka belah kalér. Diperkirakeun yén tujuan mimiti kelompok manusa éta téh ngan saukur jang usum panas, tapi laun-laun beuki loba anu cicing di wewengkon éta salila usum tiis.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Finland|title=History of Finland|last=Sandvik|first=Gudmund|last2=Enander|first2=Henrik|publisher=Britannica|last3=Henriksson|first3=Markku Ilmari|last4=Larson|first4=Susan Ruth|last5=Weibull|first5=Jörgen}}</ref> Kelompok nu séjénna diperkirakeun nepi 3.000 taun saenggeusna ti belah kidul wétan. Kelompok ieu nyaéta nu mawa basa [[Finno-Ugric]] sarta diperkirakeun boga patali jeung karuhun urang [[Finlandia]] ([[Finns]]) kiwari. Salian ti éta, kelompok anu jadi karuhun urang [[Tavastian]] nuturkeun ti belah kidul kulon jeung tengah buana [[Éropa]], anu lila kalilaan ngadopsi basa [[Finno-Ugric]].<ref name=":0" /> Salila milenium kahiji, sababaraha kelompok manusa narepi ka wewengkon ieu. Kelompok Sami anu hirup nomadén sumebar di sabagian lega wewengkon [[Finlandia]], mundur ka belah kalér. Grup nu lian lolobana kawin campur sarta asimilasi jeung pendatang anyar, sahingga pangdumukan anyar sumebar di wewengkon kidul [[Finlandia]]. Jumlah populasi di jaman éta masih kaitung jarang jeung saeutik, tapi tilu bangsa ngahiji anu papisah geus katingali matuh di wewengkonna séwang-séwang: urang [[Finlandia]], urang [[Tavastia]], jeung urang [[Karélia]]. Unggal kelompok éta geus miboga pamingpinna sorangan sarta ngempur perang ka hiji jeung nu séjénna.<ref name=":0" /> == Wanci Kakawasaan [[Swédia]] == Finlandia aya handapeun kakawasaan [[Swédia]] ti abad ka-12. Sumber [[sajarah]] ngeunaan wanci ieu lobana tina [[legénda]] jeung [[tradisi]] dibandingkeun tina dokumén sejarah. Dina wanci ieu, karajaan [[Swédia]] geus ngadeg, tuluy di tengah abad ka-12 tahta karajaan keur ditempatan ku Raja Érik anu satia ka [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Garéja Roma]]. Ka belah wétan, wewengkon [[Novgorod]] anu sémi-merdeka diadegkeun ku urang [[Viking]] ti abad ka-salapan sarta miboga patali jeung [[Kiev]], mangrupa wewengkon pusat. Wewengkon ieu miboga hubungan dagang jeung daérah [[Baltik]] sarta basis militér anu kuat. Di jaman ieu Finlandia mangrupa daérah panyangga antara kakuatan [[Swédia]] jeung [[Novgorod]] anu silih lawan, sarta aya handapeun tekenan ti [[Baltik]]-[[Jerman|Jérman]] anu datang ti daratan belah kidul [[Teluk]] Finlandia. Teu siga tatanggana anu leuwih kuat, urang Finlandia ([[Finns]]) di jaman éta masih can ngadeg wilayah kakawasaanna sorangan, nyaéta masih kabagi jadi tilu kelompok: urang [[Suomalaiset]], [[Hämäläiset]], jeung [[Karjalaiset]] anu mindeng guntreng hiji jeung nu séjén.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|edition=2|title=A Short History of Finland|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511608087/type/book|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1998-10-01|isbn=978-0-521-64701-4|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511608087|first=Fred|last=Singleton}}</ref> Salah sahiji [[legénda]] anu nyaritakeun wanci ieu nyaéta kasebut yén [[perang suci]] anu dipingpin ku [[Raja Érik]] ti [[Swedia]], dipirig ku [[Uskup]] [[Henry]] ti [[Uppsala]], taun 1155. [[Perang suci]] ieu anu ngamimitian struktur organisasi [[Gereja]] [[Finlandia]] anu leuwih jelas, anu tuluy ngajalankeun tradisi [[Karésten|Kristen]] anu tartib. Diperkirakeun yén perang suci éta dijurung ku kadatangan [[Nicholas Breakspear]] di [[Swédia]] taun 1152-1153, anu dikirim ku [[Paus]] sangkan nguatkeun pangaruh [[Garéja]] di wewengkon [[Skandinavia]]. Sanggeus éta Nicholas tuluy jadi [[Paus]] anu miboga gelar [[Hadrian IV]].<ref name=":2" /> Taun 1249, [[Birger Jarl]] mingpin ékspedisi ka [[Tavastia]] (anu kiwari jadi [[Häme]]), nyaéta wewengkon anu geus dikristenkeun, sangkan usaha ngasupkeun [[Finlandia]] ka wewengkon [[Swédia]]. [[Birger Jarl|Birger]] tuluy ngawangun bénténg di [[Tavastia]] jeung daérah basisir kalér [[Teluk Finlandia]], anu tuluy dijadikeun daérah pangdumukan [[Swédia]] anu lega. Ti dinya, [[urang Swédia]] tuluy parindah ogé ka basisir wétan [[Teluk Bothnia]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Finland/Finland-under-Swedish-rule|title=Finland - Swedish Rule, Sovereignty, Independence {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2024-06-29}}</ref> Taun 1293, [[Torgils Knutsson]] muka ékspédisi sangkan nguasaan sakabeh [[Karélia]] jeung ngawangun bénténg di [[Viipuri]]. Perang tuluy lumangsung nepi ka taun 1323, nalika [[Perjangjian Pähkinäsaari]] nangtukeun wates wewengkon pangaruh [[Rusia]] jeung [[Swédia]] dina garis samar ti bagéan wétan [[Teluk Finlandia]], ngaliwatan tengah [[Karélia]] ka belah kalér kulon [[Teluk Bothnia]], tuluy ngeureunkeun [[perang suci]], anu hasilna [[Finlandia]] jadi bagéan wewengkon [[Swédia]]. Ti saprak éta, [[Swédia]] tuluy ngokolakeun tradisina sangkan dijalankeun ku [[Finlandia]]. Istana-istana diwangun, pajak ditarikan anu umumna make bulu sasatoan, tuluy jadi gandum atawa paparéan, mantéga, jeung duit.<ref name=":3" /> Taun 1362, [[Raja Haakon]] ti [[Swedia]] ngadegkeun hak jang urang [[Finlandia]] sangkan bisa miluan pamilihan karajaan sarta méré status Finlandia anu sarua jeung bagéan karajaan nu séjén. Sababaraha taun ti éta, [[Raja Haakon]] digulingkeun, tuluy [[Albert]] ti [[Mecklenburg]] naék jadi raja. Sanajan kitu, [[Albert]] kaitung kurang kasohor di kalangan rahayat [[Finlandia]], tuluy 1374, bangsawan [[Swédia]], [[Bo Jonsson Grip]], meunangkeun gelar jang sakabéh [[Finlandia]]. [[Bo Jonsson Grip|Grip]] tilar dunya taun 1386, teu lila ti éta Finlandia ngahiji jadi bagéan wewengkon [[Kalmar]]. <ref name=":3" /> Nincak ka abad 18, handapeun kakawasaan [[Charles XII]], [[Swédia]] geus mimiti kaleungitan kakuatanna di [[Éropa]]. Dina [[Perang Kalér Kadua]], [[Rusia]] nempatan [[Finlandia]] salila dalapan taun (ti 1713-1721), tuluy sanggeus [[Perjangjian Nystad|Perjangjian Damai Nystad (Uusikaupunki)]] taun 1721, [[Swédia]] kudu nyerahkeun bagéan tenggara [[Finlandia]] jeung [[Viipuri]] sarta propinsi-propinsi [[Baltik]]. Ti dinya, kamampuan [[Swédia]] jang mertahankeun [[Finlandia]] geus ngalemahan, sarta taun-taun penjajahan [[Rusia]] kahareupna méré rarasan kateupastian jeung teu aman anu lana.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> Salaku bagian ti monarki [[Swédia]], dina praktékna, [[Finlandia]] teu boga institusi atawa lembaga pamaréntahanna sorangan, tapi ti patengahan abad ka-18 kaum inteléktual jeung pajabat pamaréntah lolobana ti urang [[Finlandia]]. Dina kaayaan éta, muncul rarasan yén [[Finlandia]] kudu nanggung balukar kaborosan [[Swédia]] dina hal kawijakan luar negeri. Arahan stratégis [[Swédia]] taun 1785 nyebutkeun yén saumpama [[Rusia]] nyerang, pasukan [[Swédia]] kudu mundur ti garis hareup, ninggalkeun détasemén [[Finlandia]]; sarta lamun [[Finlandia]] aya handapeun kondisi bahaya nu ékstrim, sakumna kudu diévakuasi. Stratégi éta tuluy kalaksana di taun 1808-1809, nu mana panghianatan [[Liga Anjala]] kajadian deui di taun éta nalika [[Sveaborg]] (ayeuna [[Suomenlinna]]) deukeut [[Helsinki]] kudu diserahkeun ka [[Rusia]]. == Wanci Otonomi Handapeun [[Rusia]] == Taun 1809, [[Finlandia]] kudu nanggung kawajibanna sorangan jang damai jeung [[Rusia]]. [[Alexander I]] tuluy nawarkeun sangkan ngakuan kamajuan konstitusi [[Finlandia]] sarta méré otonomi salaku [[kadipatén]] agung handapeun tahtana. Sacara formal, [[Finlandia]] masih bagéan ti Karajaan Swédia nepi ka kaluarna [[Perjangjian Hamina]] di taun éta kénéh. Sanajan kitu, lolobana ti pamingpin urang [[Swédia]] geus taak kana kaayaan handapeun kawasa [[Swédia]] sarta ngarepkeun bisa miboga pamaréntahan mandiri saloba nu bisa diusahakeun handapeun panyalindungan [[Rusia]]. Harepan éta téh tuluy bisa kawujud sanggeus aya [[Diét Porvoo]], nyaéta majelis [[législatip]] anu nangtukeun kamerdikaan [[Finlandia]] salaku bangsa—éntitas pulitik anu ngahiji anu miboga status kadipatén. Ti saprak miboga status kadipatén, jang ngakuan otonomi urang [[Finlandia]], [[Alexander I]] ngajangjikeun yén arék ngajénan ageman nu dijalankeun sarta hukum-hukum dasar anu dilarapkeun di [[Finlandia]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Ti taun 1809 nepi ka 1863, [[Finlandia]] ngalarapkeun birokrasi nu diatur ku Kaisar [[Rusia]], anu tuluy diwakilan ku gubernur jenderal di pamaréntahanna. Saacanna, tingkatan administrasi anu pangluhurna di pamaréntahan dijalankeun ku mahkamah agung, ti saprak jaman ieu diubah jadi sénat nu mangrupan kamenterian, nu diwangun ku departemén judisial atawa hukum jeun departemén ékonomi. Sangkan ngawakilan [[Finlandia]] jang ka kakaisaran [[Rusia]], sekretaris kamenterian ogé ditempatkeun di [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]].<ref name=":0" /> Keur kalolobaan urang [[Finlandia]], jaman ieu kasebut jaman anu makmur, sangkilang kondisi ékonomi anu nguntungkeun, sarta teu aya peperangan salian ti [[Perang Kriméa]]. Sababaraha réformasi bisa dilarapkeun di periode ieu. Di antarana kaasup réstorasi wilayah Finlandia anu diserahkeun ti [[Swédia]] ka [[Rusia]] dina [[Perjangjian Uusikaupunki]] taun 1721, jeung [[Perjangjian Turku]] taun 1743. Sanggeus kitu, taun 1812 Hélsinki dijadikeun ibukota sarta dijalankeun pangwangunan tempat-tempat monuméntal. Sanajan kitu, lantaran pamaréntahna kawilang otoritér jeung birokratis sarta populasi warga désa nu kalayan loba jeung murni miboga struktur agraris pamikiran-pamikiran [[liberal]] jeung [[nasionalis]] masih kacegah sumebarna.<ref name=":0" /> Wanci tentrem [[Finlandia]] handapeun [[Rusia]] mimiti kaganggu ti saprak [[Tsar Nikolai II]] naék tahta tuluy nunjuk Gubernur Jénderal [[Bobrikov]], nu mana ngabalukarkeun pamaréntahan jadi oprésif. Di akhir hirupna, [[Bobrikov]] dibunuh ku urang [[Finlandia]] taun 1904.<ref name=":1" /> == Perjuangan Pikeun Kamerdékaan == [[Gambar:1918 Finnish Civil War Fronts.jpg|jmpl|273x273px|Peta nalika Perang Saudara Finlandia]] Ngadekeutan ka ahir [[Perang Dunya I]], révolusi [[Bolshevik]] di [[Rusia]] ngamimitian parah. Moméntum éta dimangfaatkeun ku [[Finlandia]] jang ngamaklumatkeun kamerdékaanna.<ref name=":1" /> Nalika éta, tungtutan ti kaum nasionalis [[Finlandia]] kasebut konservatif jeung défénsif, anu hayang mertahankeun otonomi konstitusional anu kungsi kadedet salila taun 1899-1905 jeung 1910-1917 handapeun kakawasaan otokratis [[Tsar]] [[Rusia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Coakley|first=John|date=1986-03|title=Political succession and regime change in new states in inter-war Europe: Ireland, Finland, Czechoslovakia and the Baltic Republics|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0304413000010237/type/journal_article|journal=European Journal of Political Research|language=en|volume=14|issue=1-2|pages=187–206|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.1986.tb00829.x|issn=0304-4130}}</ref> Désémber 1917, nalika aya kakosongan kakawasaan nuturkeun [[Révolusi Rusia]], [[Finlandia]] ngadéklarasikeun kemerdékaanna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Niemi|first=Marjaana|date=2017-11|title=Breaking from and building on the past: Helsinki and Dublin after independence|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021121417000347/type/journal_article|journal=Irish Historical Studies|language=en|volume=41|issue=160|pages=238–255|doi=10.1017/ihs.2017.34|issn=0021-1214}}</ref> Déklarasi kamerdékaan éta ngabalukarkeun perang saudara, antara urang [[Finlandia]] konservatif anu disebut Golongan Bodas, nyaéta prajurit [[Finlandia]] anu disokong jeung dibantuan ku tentara Jérman nu ngadarat di [[Finlandia]], ngalawan urang [[Finlandia]] [[komunis]] anu disebut Golongan Beureum, sakaligus prajurit [[Rusia]] anu kénéh nyicingan [[Finlandia]]. Nalika Golongan Bodas meunang, 8.000 jalma anu kaasup Golongan Beureum tiwas ditémbak, sarta 20.000 jalma lainna tilar dunya kusabab panyakit jeung kalaparan lantaran ditahan di kamp-kamp konséntrasi. Ingetan ngeunaan perang saudara éta saolah jadi pamicu rasa kasieunan urang [[Finlandia]] ka [[Rusia]] jeung [[komunisme]], kaasup konsekuénsi-konsekuénsi ti tindakan [[Finlandia]] ka [[Uni Soviét]] ka hareupna.<ref name=":1" /> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Sajarah dumasar nagara]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Éropa]] [[Kategori:Sajarah dunya]] apm9oxtajmi67w8aeopph3nhztf1vny 711864 711654 2026-08-07T07:56:00Z Hasnanf 28942 711864 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:1730 Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics - Geographicus - Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg|jmpl|Peta wewengkon Skandinavia jeung Fennoscandia taun 1730, kaasup wilayah Jérman kalér, Polandia kalér, wewengkon Baltik, Livonia, Bélarusia, jeung Rusia kalér kulon. (jieunan [[Johan Homann]])]] Ditingali tina wanci sajarah, dina harti ayana rincian anu ditulis ngeunaan [[Finlandia]], '''[[sajarah]] Finlandia''' mimiti kacatet sabudeureun taun 1100 M, nyaéta wanci kapamilikan Finlandia masih diparebutkeun ku [[Swédia]] jeung [[Rusia]].<ref name=":1" /> Sajarah Finlandia ngeunaan pangwangunan padumukan, pangrebutan wilayah jeung kakawasaan, tuluy kamerdékaan Finlandia éta sorangan. Di éra modérn, Finlandia ngalaman jadi negara handapeun kakawasaan Rusia jeung Swédia. Tuluy nuturkeun [[Revolusi Rusia|Révolusi Rusia]], Finlandia ahirna ngamerdékakeun manéh. Salila [[Perang Tiis]], Finlandia mertahankeun posisi nétral, tuluy jadi anggota [[Uni Éropa]] di taun 1995. Saprak invasi Rusia ka [[Ukraina]], Finlandia resmi ngagabung jadi anggota [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)]].<ref name=":0" /> Lemah cai urang Finlandia mimitina teu katingali jiga wewengkon anu bisa sukses dicicingan, ku sabab wewengkon kalér buana [[Éropa]] kaasup kana Buderan [[Arktik]], nu mana miboga sumber daya alam nu kawates: kakurangan sumber daya fosil jeung kudu ngimpor kabutuhan énérgi ti wewengkon séjén. Kitu deui ditingali tina kaayaan iklim anu ngawatesan kagiatan agrikultur jeung pola kahirupan sapopoé, utamana dina usum tiis anu panjang jeung poék. Ku kituna, rahayat Finlandia mampu adaptasi sangkan parobahan sarta salamet tina kondisi anu teu nguntungkeun, boh tina kondisi politik atawa kondisi alam sangkan bisa jadi bangsa nu suksés.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=A Short History of Finland|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffi00sing|last=Singleton|first=Fred|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffi00sing/page/1 1]-17|chapter=History of Finland|isbn=9780511608087|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511608087}}</ref> == Sajarah Mimiti == [[Guha Susiluola]], deukeut [[Kristinestad]] di [[Ostrobothnia]], mangrupakeun tempat anu diusulkeun yén mungkin kungsi dicicingan ku [[Néanderthal]] perkiraan 120.000 ka tukang nalika Wanci [[Interglasial Terahir]]. Interprétasi ieu masih diperdebatkeun ku para ahli jeung kasebut kontrovérsial ngeunaan bebeneranna. Upamana dikonpirmasi bener, guha ieu bakal jadi padumukan jalma mimiti di [[Fennoscandia]] anu dipikanyaho.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Trine Kellberg|last2=Riede|first2=Felix|date=2018-11|title=On Research History and Neanderthal Occupation at its Northern Margins|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1461957118000128/type/journal_article|journal=European Journal of Archaeology|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=506–527|doi=10.1017/eaa.2018.12|issn=1461-9571}}</ref> Para pamaké basa Proto-Finlandia nepi di Finlandia dina wanci praaksara mangrébu-rébu taun ka tukang.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Upheaval|last=Diamond|first=Jared|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2022|isbn=9786024818494|location=Jakarta|pages=55-96}}</ref> Diperkirakeun kelompok manusa éta nepi di Finlandia sakitar 9.000 taun ka tukang, ngawakilan sababaraha séké sélér, kaasup karuhun urang [[Sami]] kiwari. Kataji ku lobana sato jang diburu, utamana lauk jeung sato anu diarah buluna, kelompok jalma éta nuturkeun lééhan és ka belah kalér. Diperkirakeun yén tujuan mimiti kelompok manusa éta téh ngan saukur jang usum panas, tapi laun-laun beuki loba anu cicing di wewengkon éta salila usum tiis.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Finland|title=History of Finland|last=Sandvik|first=Gudmund|last2=Enander|first2=Henrik|publisher=Britannica|last3=Henriksson|first3=Markku Ilmari|last4=Larson|first4=Susan Ruth|last5=Weibull|first5=Jörgen}}</ref> Kelompok nu séjénna diperkirakeun nepi 3.000 taun saenggeusna ti belah kidul wétan. Kelompok ieu nyaéta nu mawa basa [[Finno-Ugric]] sarta diperkirakeun boga patali jeung karuhun urang Finlandia ([[Finns]]) kiwari. Salian ti éta, kelompok anu jadi karuhun urang [[Tavastian]] nuturkeun ti belah kidul kulon jeung tengah buana [[Éropa]], anu lila kalilaan ngadopsi basa [[Finno-Ugric]].<ref name=":0" /> Salila milenium kahiji, sababaraha kelompok manusa narepi ka wewengkon ieu. Kelompok Sami anu hirup nomadén sumebar di sabagian lega wewengkon Finlandia, mundur ka belah kalér. Grup nu lian lolobana kawin campur sarta asimilasi jeung pendatang anyar, sahingga pangdumukan anyar sumebar di wewengkon kidul Finlandia. Jumlah populasi di jaman éta masih kaitung jarang jeung saeutik, tapi tilu bangsa ngahiji anu papisah geus katingali matuh di wewengkonna séwang-séwang: urang Finlandia, urang [[Tavastia]], jeung urang [[Karélia]]. Unggal kelompok éta geus miboga pamingpinna sorangan sarta ngempur perang ka hiji jeung nu séjénna.<ref name=":0" /> == Wanci Kakawasaan Swédia == Finlandia aya handapeun kakawasaan Swédia ti abad ka-12. Sumber sajarah ngeunaan wanci ieu lobana tina [[legénda]] jeung [[tradisi]] dibandingkeun tina dokumén sejarah. Dina wanci ieu, karajaan Swédia geus ngadeg, tuluy di tengah abad ka-12 tahta karajaan keur ditempatan ku Raja Érik anu satia ka [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Garéja Roma]]. Ka belah wétan, wewengkon [[Novgorod]] anu sémi-merdeka diadegkeun ku urang [[Viking]] ti abad ka-salapan sarta miboga patali jeung [[Kiev]], mangrupa wewengkon pusat. Wewengkon ieu miboga hubungan dagang jeung daérah [[Baltik]] sarta basis militér anu kuat. Di jaman ieu Finlandia mangrupa daérah panyangga antara kakuatan Swédia jeung [[Novgorod]] anu silih lawan, sarta aya handapeun tekenan ti [[Baltik]]-[[Jerman|Jérman]] anu datang ti daratan belah kidul [[Teluk]] Finlandia. Teu siga tatanggana anu leuwih kuat, urang Finlandia ([[Finns]]) di jaman éta masih can ngadeg wilayah kakawasaanna sorangan, nyaéta masih kabagi jadi tilu kelompok: urang [[Suomalaiset]], [[Hämäläiset]], jeung [[Karjalaiset]] anu mindeng guntreng hiji jeung nu séjén.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|edition=2|title=A Short History of Finland|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511608087/type/book|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1998-10-01|isbn=978-0-521-64701-4|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511608087|first=Fred|last=Singleton}}</ref> Salah sahiji [[legénda]] anu nyaritakeun wanci ieu nyaéta kasebut yén [[perang suci]] anu dipingpin ku [[Raja Érik]] ti Swedia, dipirig ku [[Uskup]] [[Henry]] ti [[Uppsala]], taun 1155. [[Perang suci]] ieu anu ngamimitian struktur organisasi Garéja Finlandia anu leuwih jelas, anu tuluy ngajalankeun tradisi [[Karésten|Kristen]] anu tartib. Diperkirakeun yén perang suci éta dijurung ku kadatangan [[Nicholas Breakspear]] di Swédia taun 1152-1153, anu dikirim ku [[Paus]] sangkan nguatkeun pangaruh [[Garéja]] di wewengkon [[Skandinavia]]. Sanggeus éta Nicholas tuluy jadi Paus anu miboga gelar [[Hadrian IV]].<ref name=":2" /> Taun 1249, [[Birger Jarl]] mingpin ékspedisi ka [[Tavastia]] (anu kiwari jadi [[Häme]]), nyaéta wewengkon anu geus dikristenkeun, sangkan usaha ngasupkeun Finlandia ka wewengkon Swédia. [[Birger Jarl|Birger]] tuluy ngawangun bénténg di [[Tavastia]] jeung daérah basisir kalér [[Teluk Finlandia]], anu tuluy dijadikeun daérah pangdumukan Swédia anu lega. Ti dinya, [[urang Swédia]] tuluy parindah ogé ka basisir wétan [[Teluk Bothnia]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Finland/Finland-under-Swedish-rule|title=Finland - Swedish Rule, Sovereignty, Independence {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2024-06-29}}</ref> Taun 1293, [[Torgils Knutsson]] muka ékspédisi sangkan nguasaan sakabeh [[Karélia]] jeung ngawangun bénténg di [[Viipuri]]. Perang tuluy lumangsung nepi ka taun 1323, nalika [[Perjangjian Pähkinäsaari]] nangtukeun wates wewengkon pangaruh Rusia jeung Swédia dina garis samar ti bagéan wétan [[Teluk Finlandia]], ngaliwatan tengah [[Karélia]] ka belah kalér kulon [[Teluk Bothnia]], tuluy ngeureunkeun [[perang suci]], anu hasilna Finlandia jadi bagéan wewengkon Swédia. Ti saprak éta, Swédia tuluy ngokolakeun tradisina sangkan dijalankeun ku Finlandia. Istana-istana diwangun, pajak ditarikan anu umumna make bulu sasatoan, tuluy jadi gandum atawa paparéan, mantéga, jeung duit.<ref name=":3" /> Taun 1362, [[Raja Haakon]] ti Swedia ngadegkeun hak jang urang Finlandia sangkan bisa miluan pamilihan karajaan sarta méré status Finlandia anu sarua jeung bagéan karajaan nu séjén. Sababaraha taun ti éta, [[Raja Haakon]] digulingkeun, tuluy [[Albert]] ti [[Mecklenburg]] naék jadi raja. Sanajan kitu, [[Albert]] kaitung kurang kasohor di kalangan rahayat Finlandia, tuluy 1374, bangsawan Swédia, [[Bo Jonsson Grip]], meunangkeun gelar jang sakabéh Finlandia. [[Bo Jonsson Grip|Grip]] tilar dunya taun 1386, teu lila ti éta Finlandia ngahiji jadi bagéan wewengkon [[Kalmar]]. <ref name=":3" /> Nincak ka abad 18, handapeun kakawasaan [[Charles XII]], Swédia geus mimiti kaleungitan kakuatanna di [[Éropa]]. Dina [[Perang Kalér Kadua]], Rusia nempatan Finlandia salila dalapan taun (ti 1713-1721), tuluy sanggeus [[Perjangjian Nystad|Perjangjian Damai Nystad (Uusikaupunki)]] taun 1721, Swédia kudu nyerahkeun bagéan tenggara Finlandia jeung [[Viipuri]] sarta propinsi-propinsi [[Baltik]]. Ti dinya, kamampuan Swédia jang mertahankeun Finlandia geus ngalemahan, sarta taun-taun penjajahan Rusia kahareupna méré rarasan kateupastian jeung teu aman anu lana.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> Salaku bagian ti monarki Swédia, dina praktékna, Finlandia teu boga institusi atawa lembaga pamaréntahanna sorangan, tapi ti patengahan abad ka-18 kaum inteléktual jeung pajabat pamaréntah lolobana ti urang Finlandia. Dina kaayaan éta, muncul rarasan yén Finlandia kudu nanggung balukar kaborosan Swédia dina hal kawijakan luar negeri. Arahan stratégis Swédia taun 1785 nyebutkeun yén saumpama Rusia nyerang, pasukan Swédia kudu mundur ti garis hareup, ninggalkeun détasemén Finlandia; sarta lamun Finlandia aya handapeun kondisi bahaya nu ékstrim, sakumna kudu diévakuasi. Stratégi éta tuluy kalaksana di taun 1808-1809, nu mana panghianatan [[Liga Anjala]] kajadian deui di taun éta nalika [[Sveaborg]] (ayeuna [[Suomenlinna]]) deukeut [[Helsinki]] kudu diserahkeun ka [[Rusia]]. == Wanci Otonomi Handapeun Rusia == Taun 1809, Finlandia kudu nanggung kawajibanna sorangan jang damai jeung Rusia. [[Alexander I]] tuluy nawarkeun sangkan ngakuan kamajuan konstitusi Finlandia sarta méré otonomi salaku [[kadipatén]] agung handapeun tahtana. Sacara formal, Finlandia masih bagéan ti Karajaan Swédia nepi ka kaluarna [[Perjangjian Hamina]] di taun éta kénéh. Sanajan kitu, lolobana ti pamingpin urang Swédia geus taak kana kaayaan handapeun kawasa Swédia sarta ngarepkeun bisa miboga pamaréntahan mandiri saloba nu bisa diusahakeun handapeun panyalindungan Rusia. Harepan éta téh tuluy bisa kawujud sanggeus aya [[Diét Porvoo]], nyaéta majelis [[législatip]] anu nangtukeun kamerdikaan Finlandia salaku bangsa—éntitas pulitik anu ngahiji anu miboga status kadipatén. Ti saprak miboga status kadipatén, jang ngakuan otonomi urang Finlandia, [[Alexander I]] ngajangjikeun yén arék ngajénan ageman nu dijalankeun sarta hukum-hukum dasar anu dilarapkeun di Finlandia.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Ti taun 1809 nepi ka 1863, Finlandia ngalarapkeun birokrasi nu diatur ku Kaisar [[Rusia]], anu tuluy diwakilan ku gubernur jenderal di pamaréntahanna. Saacanna, tingkatan administrasi anu pangluhurna di pamaréntahan dijalankeun ku mahkamah agung, ti saprak jaman ieu diubah jadi sénat nu mangrupan kamenterian, nu diwangun ku departemén judisial atawa hukum jeun departemén ékonomi. Sangkan ngawakilan Finlandia jang ka kakaisaran Rusia, sekretaris kamenterian ogé ditempatkeun di [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]].<ref name=":0" /> Keur kalolobaan urang Finlandia, jaman ieu kasebut jaman anu makmur, sangkilang kondisi ékonomi anu nguntungkeun, sarta teu aya peperangan salian ti [[Perang Kriméa]]. Sababaraha réformasi bisa dilarapkeun di periode ieu. Di antarana kaasup réstorasi wilayah Finlandia anu diserahkeun ti Swédia ka Rusia dina [[Perjangjian Uusikaupunki]] taun 1721, jeung [[Perjangjian Turku]] taun 1743. Sanggeus kitu, taun 1812 Hélsinki dijadikeun ibukota sarta dijalankeun pangwangunan tempat-tempat monuméntal. Sanajan kitu, lantaran pamaréntahna kawilang otoritér jeung birokratis sarta populasi warga désa nu kalayan loba jeung murni miboga struktur agraris pamikiran-pamikiran [[liberal]] jeung [[nasionalis]] masih kacegah sumebarna.<ref name=":0" /> Wanci tentrem Finlandia handapeun Rusia mimiti kaganggu ti saprak [[Tsar Nikolai II]] naék tahta tuluy nunjuk Gubernur Jénderal [[Bobrikov]], nu mana ngabalukarkeun pamaréntahan jadi oprésif. Di akhir hirupna, [[Bobrikov]] dibunuh ku urang Finlandia taun 1904.<ref name=":1" /> == Perjuangan Pikeun Kamerdékaan == [[Gambar:1918 Finnish Civil War Fronts.jpg|jmpl|273x273px|Peta nalika Perang Saudara Finlandia]] Ngadekeutan ka ahir [[Perang Dunya I]], révolusi [[Bolshevik]] di Rusia ngamimitian parah. Moméntum éta dimangfaatkeun ku Finlandia jang ngamaklumatkeun kamerdékaanna.<ref name=":1" /> Nalika éta, tungtutan ti kaum nasionalis Finlandia kasebut konservatif jeung défénsif, anu hayang mertahankeun otonomi konstitusional anu kungsi kadedet salila taun 1899-1905 jeung 1910-1917 handapeun kakawasaan otokratis [[Tsar]] Rusia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Coakley|first=John|date=1986-03|title=Political succession and regime change in new states in inter-war Europe: Ireland, Finland, Czechoslovakia and the Baltic Republics|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0304413000010237/type/journal_article|journal=European Journal of Political Research|language=en|volume=14|issue=1-2|pages=187–206|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.1986.tb00829.x|issn=0304-4130}}</ref> Désémber 1917, nalika aya kakosongan kakawasaan nuturkeun [[Révolusi Rusia]], Finlandia ngadéklarasikeun kemerdékaanna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Niemi|first=Marjaana|date=2017-11|title=Breaking from and building on the past: Helsinki and Dublin after independence|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021121417000347/type/journal_article|journal=Irish Historical Studies|language=en|volume=41|issue=160|pages=238–255|doi=10.1017/ihs.2017.34|issn=0021-1214}}</ref> Déklarasi kamerdékaan éta ngabalukarkeun perang saudara, antara urang Finlandia konservatif anu disebut Golongan Bodas, nyaéta prajurit Finlandia anu disokong jeung dibantuan ku tentara Jérman nu ngadarat di Finlandia, ngalawan urang Finlandia [[komunis]] anu disebut Golongan Beureum, sakaligus prajurit Rusia anu kénéh nyicingan Finlandia. Nalika Golongan Bodas meunang, 8.000 jalma anu kaasup Golongan Beureum tiwas ditémbak, sarta 20.000 jalma lainna tilar dunya kusabab panyakit jeung kalaparan lantaran ditahan di kamp-kamp konséntrasi. Ingetan ngeunaan perang saudara éta saolah jadi pamicu rasa kasieunan urang Finlandia ka Rusia jeung [[komunisme]], kaasup konsekuénsi-konsekuénsi ti tindakan Finlandia ka [[Uni Soviét]] ka hareupna.<ref name=":1" /> == Wanci antar-perang == Sanggeusna perang saudara, parlemén Finlandia anu dikontrol ku Golongan Bodas milih pikeun ngajegkeun sistem monarki konstitusional anu tuluy bakal disebut Karajaan Finlandia, handapeun pangéran [[Frederick Charles]] ti [[Hesse]] salaku rajana. Nanging éléhna Jérman dina Nopémber 1918 ngajadikeun éta rencana téh teu mungkin. Finlandia tuluy jadi républik anu dipimpin ku [[Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg]] salaku présidén mimitina anu dipilih taun 1919. Sanajan perang saudara anu peurih, sarta ancaman anu tutuluyan ti gerakan [[fasis]], Finlandia angger mertahankeun sistem démokrasi [[kapitalis]] handapeun aturan hukum. Kontras ti éta, [[Éstonia]] anu padeukeut, dina kaayaan anu mirip nanging tanpa perang saudara, ngamimitian salaku nagara [[démokrasi]] tuluy jadi ka[[diktator]]<nowiki/>an di taun 1934.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siaroff|first=Alan|date=1999|title=Democratic Breakdown and Democratic Stability: A Comparison of Interwar Estonia and Finland|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3232774|journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique|volume=32|issue=1|pages=103–124|issn=0008-4239}}</ref> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Sajarah dumasar nagara]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Éropa]] [[Kategori:Sajarah dunya]] pottduagpbichbireavbo4mvvedheuy 711865 711864 2026-08-07T08:35:00Z Hasnanf 28942 /* Perjuangan Pikeun Kamerdékaan */ 711865 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:1730 Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics - Geographicus - Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg|jmpl|Peta wewengkon Skandinavia jeung Fennoscandia taun 1730, kaasup wilayah Jérman kalér, Polandia kalér, wewengkon Baltik, Livonia, Bélarusia, jeung Rusia kalér kulon. (jieunan [[Johan Homann]])]] Ditingali tina wanci sajarah, dina harti ayana rincian anu ditulis ngeunaan [[Finlandia]], '''[[sajarah]] Finlandia''' mimiti kacatet sabudeureun taun 1100 M, nyaéta wanci kapamilikan Finlandia masih diparebutkeun ku [[Swédia]] jeung [[Rusia]].<ref name=":1" /> Sajarah Finlandia ngeunaan pangwangunan padumukan, pangrebutan wilayah jeung kakawasaan, tuluy kamerdékaan Finlandia éta sorangan. Di éra modérn, Finlandia ngalaman jadi negara handapeun kakawasaan Rusia jeung Swédia. Tuluy nuturkeun [[Revolusi Rusia|Révolusi Rusia]], Finlandia ahirna ngamerdékakeun manéh. Salila [[Perang Tiis]], Finlandia mertahankeun posisi nétral, tuluy jadi anggota [[Uni Éropa]] di taun 1995. Saprak invasi Rusia ka [[Ukraina]], Finlandia resmi ngagabung jadi anggota [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)]].<ref name=":0" /> Lemah cai urang Finlandia mimitina teu katingali jiga wewengkon anu bisa sukses dicicingan, ku sabab wewengkon kalér buana [[Éropa]] kaasup kana Buderan [[Arktik]], nu mana miboga sumber daya alam nu kawates: kakurangan sumber daya fosil jeung kudu ngimpor kabutuhan énérgi ti wewengkon séjén. Kitu deui ditingali tina kaayaan iklim anu ngawatesan kagiatan agrikultur jeung pola kahirupan sapopoé, utamana dina usum tiis anu panjang jeung poék. Ku kituna, rahayat Finlandia mampu adaptasi sangkan parobahan sarta salamet tina kondisi anu teu nguntungkeun, boh tina kondisi politik atawa kondisi alam sangkan bisa jadi bangsa nu suksés.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=A Short History of Finland|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffi00sing|last=Singleton|first=Fred|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffi00sing/page/1 1]-17|chapter=History of Finland|isbn=9780511608087|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511608087}}</ref> == Sajarah Mimiti == [[Guha Susiluola]], deukeut [[Kristinestad]] di [[Ostrobothnia]], mangrupakeun tempat anu diusulkeun yén mungkin kungsi dicicingan ku [[Néanderthal]] perkiraan 120.000 ka tukang nalika Wanci [[Interglasial Terahir]]. Interprétasi ieu masih diperdebatkeun ku para ahli jeung kasebut kontrovérsial ngeunaan bebeneranna. Upamana dikonpirmasi bener, guha ieu bakal jadi padumukan jalma mimiti di [[Fennoscandia]] anu dipikanyaho.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Trine Kellberg|last2=Riede|first2=Felix|date=2018-11|title=On Research History and Neanderthal Occupation at its Northern Margins|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1461957118000128/type/journal_article|journal=European Journal of Archaeology|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=506–527|doi=10.1017/eaa.2018.12|issn=1461-9571}}</ref> Para pamaké basa Proto-Finlandia nepi di Finlandia dina wanci praaksara mangrébu-rébu taun ka tukang.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Upheaval|last=Diamond|first=Jared|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2022|isbn=9786024818494|location=Jakarta|pages=55-96}}</ref> Diperkirakeun kelompok manusa éta nepi di Finlandia sakitar 9.000 taun ka tukang, ngawakilan sababaraha séké sélér, kaasup karuhun urang [[Sami]] kiwari. Kataji ku lobana sato jang diburu, utamana lauk jeung sato anu diarah buluna, kelompok jalma éta nuturkeun lééhan és ka belah kalér. Diperkirakeun yén tujuan mimiti kelompok manusa éta téh ngan saukur jang usum panas, tapi laun-laun beuki loba anu cicing di wewengkon éta salila usum tiis.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Finland|title=History of Finland|last=Sandvik|first=Gudmund|last2=Enander|first2=Henrik|publisher=Britannica|last3=Henriksson|first3=Markku Ilmari|last4=Larson|first4=Susan Ruth|last5=Weibull|first5=Jörgen}}</ref> Kelompok nu séjénna diperkirakeun nepi 3.000 taun saenggeusna ti belah kidul wétan. Kelompok ieu nyaéta nu mawa basa [[Finno-Ugric]] sarta diperkirakeun boga patali jeung karuhun urang Finlandia ([[Finns]]) kiwari. Salian ti éta, kelompok anu jadi karuhun urang [[Tavastian]] nuturkeun ti belah kidul kulon jeung tengah buana [[Éropa]], anu lila kalilaan ngadopsi basa [[Finno-Ugric]].<ref name=":0" /> Salila milenium kahiji, sababaraha kelompok manusa narepi ka wewengkon ieu. Kelompok Sami anu hirup nomadén sumebar di sabagian lega wewengkon Finlandia, mundur ka belah kalér. Grup nu lian lolobana kawin campur sarta asimilasi jeung pendatang anyar, sahingga pangdumukan anyar sumebar di wewengkon kidul Finlandia. Jumlah populasi di jaman éta masih kaitung jarang jeung saeutik, tapi tilu bangsa ngahiji anu papisah geus katingali matuh di wewengkonna séwang-séwang: urang Finlandia, urang [[Tavastia]], jeung urang [[Karélia]]. Unggal kelompok éta geus miboga pamingpinna sorangan sarta ngempur perang ka hiji jeung nu séjénna.<ref name=":0" /> == Wanci Kakawasaan Swédia == Finlandia aya handapeun kakawasaan Swédia ti abad ka-12. Sumber sajarah ngeunaan wanci ieu lobana tina [[legénda]] jeung [[tradisi]] dibandingkeun tina dokumén sejarah. Dina wanci ieu, karajaan Swédia geus ngadeg, tuluy di tengah abad ka-12 tahta karajaan keur ditempatan ku Raja Érik anu satia ka [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Garéja Roma]]. Ka belah wétan, wewengkon [[Novgorod]] anu sémi-merdeka diadegkeun ku urang [[Viking]] ti abad ka-salapan sarta miboga patali jeung [[Kiev]], mangrupa wewengkon pusat. Wewengkon ieu miboga hubungan dagang jeung daérah [[Baltik]] sarta basis militér anu kuat. Di jaman ieu Finlandia mangrupa daérah panyangga antara kakuatan Swédia jeung [[Novgorod]] anu silih lawan, sarta aya handapeun tekenan ti [[Baltik]]-[[Jerman|Jérman]] anu datang ti daratan belah kidul [[Teluk]] Finlandia. Teu siga tatanggana anu leuwih kuat, urang Finlandia ([[Finns]]) di jaman éta masih can ngadeg wilayah kakawasaanna sorangan, nyaéta masih kabagi jadi tilu kelompok: urang [[Suomalaiset]], [[Hämäläiset]], jeung [[Karjalaiset]] anu mindeng guntreng hiji jeung nu séjén.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|edition=2|title=A Short History of Finland|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511608087/type/book|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1998-10-01|isbn=978-0-521-64701-4|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511608087|first=Fred|last=Singleton}}</ref> Salah sahiji [[legénda]] anu nyaritakeun wanci ieu nyaéta kasebut yén [[perang suci]] anu dipingpin ku [[Raja Érik]] ti Swedia, dipirig ku [[Uskup]] [[Henry]] ti [[Uppsala]], taun 1155. [[Perang suci]] ieu anu ngamimitian struktur organisasi Garéja Finlandia anu leuwih jelas, anu tuluy ngajalankeun tradisi [[Karésten|Kristen]] anu tartib. Diperkirakeun yén perang suci éta dijurung ku kadatangan [[Nicholas Breakspear]] di Swédia taun 1152-1153, anu dikirim ku [[Paus]] sangkan nguatkeun pangaruh [[Garéja]] di wewengkon [[Skandinavia]]. Sanggeus éta Nicholas tuluy jadi Paus anu miboga gelar [[Hadrian IV]].<ref name=":2" /> Taun 1249, [[Birger Jarl]] mingpin ékspedisi ka [[Tavastia]] (anu kiwari jadi [[Häme]]), nyaéta wewengkon anu geus dikristenkeun, sangkan usaha ngasupkeun Finlandia ka wewengkon Swédia. [[Birger Jarl|Birger]] tuluy ngawangun bénténg di [[Tavastia]] jeung daérah basisir kalér [[Teluk Finlandia]], anu tuluy dijadikeun daérah pangdumukan Swédia anu lega. Ti dinya, [[urang Swédia]] tuluy parindah ogé ka basisir wétan [[Teluk Bothnia]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Finland/Finland-under-Swedish-rule|title=Finland - Swedish Rule, Sovereignty, Independence {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2024-06-29}}</ref> Taun 1293, [[Torgils Knutsson]] muka ékspédisi sangkan nguasaan sakabeh [[Karélia]] jeung ngawangun bénténg di [[Viipuri]]. Perang tuluy lumangsung nepi ka taun 1323, nalika [[Perjangjian Pähkinäsaari]] nangtukeun wates wewengkon pangaruh Rusia jeung Swédia dina garis samar ti bagéan wétan [[Teluk Finlandia]], ngaliwatan tengah [[Karélia]] ka belah kalér kulon [[Teluk Bothnia]], tuluy ngeureunkeun [[perang suci]], anu hasilna Finlandia jadi bagéan wewengkon Swédia. Ti saprak éta, Swédia tuluy ngokolakeun tradisina sangkan dijalankeun ku Finlandia. Istana-istana diwangun, pajak ditarikan anu umumna make bulu sasatoan, tuluy jadi gandum atawa paparéan, mantéga, jeung duit.<ref name=":3" /> Taun 1362, [[Raja Haakon]] ti Swedia ngadegkeun hak jang urang Finlandia sangkan bisa miluan pamilihan karajaan sarta méré status Finlandia anu sarua jeung bagéan karajaan nu séjén. Sababaraha taun ti éta, [[Raja Haakon]] digulingkeun, tuluy [[Albert]] ti [[Mecklenburg]] naék jadi raja. Sanajan kitu, [[Albert]] kaitung kurang kasohor di kalangan rahayat Finlandia, tuluy 1374, bangsawan Swédia, [[Bo Jonsson Grip]], meunangkeun gelar jang sakabéh Finlandia. [[Bo Jonsson Grip|Grip]] tilar dunya taun 1386, teu lila ti éta Finlandia ngahiji jadi bagéan wewengkon [[Kalmar]]. <ref name=":3" /> Nincak ka abad 18, handapeun kakawasaan [[Charles XII]], Swédia geus mimiti kaleungitan kakuatanna di [[Éropa]]. Dina [[Perang Kalér Kadua]], Rusia nempatan Finlandia salila dalapan taun (ti 1713-1721), tuluy sanggeus [[Perjangjian Nystad|Perjangjian Damai Nystad (Uusikaupunki)]] taun 1721, Swédia kudu nyerahkeun bagéan tenggara Finlandia jeung [[Viipuri]] sarta propinsi-propinsi [[Baltik]]. Ti dinya, kamampuan Swédia jang mertahankeun Finlandia geus ngalemahan, sarta taun-taun penjajahan Rusia kahareupna méré rarasan kateupastian jeung teu aman anu lana.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> Salaku bagian ti monarki Swédia, dina praktékna, Finlandia teu boga institusi atawa lembaga pamaréntahanna sorangan, tapi ti patengahan abad ka-18 kaum inteléktual jeung pajabat pamaréntah lolobana ti urang Finlandia. Dina kaayaan éta, muncul rarasan yén Finlandia kudu nanggung balukar kaborosan Swédia dina hal kawijakan luar negeri. Arahan stratégis Swédia taun 1785 nyebutkeun yén saumpama Rusia nyerang, pasukan Swédia kudu mundur ti garis hareup, ninggalkeun détasemén Finlandia; sarta lamun Finlandia aya handapeun kondisi bahaya nu ékstrim, sakumna kudu diévakuasi. Stratégi éta tuluy kalaksana di taun 1808-1809, nu mana panghianatan [[Liga Anjala]] kajadian deui di taun éta nalika [[Sveaborg]] (ayeuna [[Suomenlinna]]) deukeut [[Helsinki]] kudu diserahkeun ka [[Rusia]]. == Wanci Otonomi Handapeun Rusia == Taun 1809, Finlandia kudu nanggung kawajibanna sorangan jang damai jeung Rusia. [[Alexander I]] tuluy nawarkeun sangkan ngakuan kamajuan konstitusi Finlandia sarta méré otonomi salaku [[kadipatén]] agung handapeun tahtana. Sacara formal, Finlandia masih bagéan ti Karajaan Swédia nepi ka kaluarna [[Perjangjian Hamina]] di taun éta kénéh. Sanajan kitu, lolobana ti pamingpin urang Swédia geus taak kana kaayaan handapeun kawasa Swédia sarta ngarepkeun bisa miboga pamaréntahan mandiri saloba nu bisa diusahakeun handapeun panyalindungan Rusia. Harepan éta téh tuluy bisa kawujud sanggeus aya [[Diét Porvoo]], nyaéta majelis [[législatip]] anu nangtukeun kamerdikaan Finlandia salaku bangsa—éntitas pulitik anu ngahiji anu miboga status kadipatén. Ti saprak miboga status kadipatén, jang ngakuan otonomi urang Finlandia, [[Alexander I]] ngajangjikeun yén arék ngajénan ageman nu dijalankeun sarta hukum-hukum dasar anu dilarapkeun di Finlandia.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Ti taun 1809 nepi ka 1863, Finlandia ngalarapkeun birokrasi nu diatur ku Kaisar [[Rusia]], anu tuluy diwakilan ku gubernur jenderal di pamaréntahanna. Saacanna, tingkatan administrasi anu pangluhurna di pamaréntahan dijalankeun ku mahkamah agung, ti saprak jaman ieu diubah jadi sénat nu mangrupan kamenterian, nu diwangun ku departemén judisial atawa hukum jeun departemén ékonomi. Sangkan ngawakilan Finlandia jang ka kakaisaran Rusia, sekretaris kamenterian ogé ditempatkeun di [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]].<ref name=":0" /> Keur kalolobaan urang Finlandia, jaman ieu kasebut jaman anu makmur, sangkilang kondisi ékonomi anu nguntungkeun, sarta teu aya peperangan salian ti [[Perang Kriméa]]. Sababaraha réformasi bisa dilarapkeun di periode ieu. Di antarana kaasup réstorasi wilayah Finlandia anu diserahkeun ti Swédia ka Rusia dina [[Perjangjian Uusikaupunki]] taun 1721, jeung [[Perjangjian Turku]] taun 1743. Sanggeus kitu, taun 1812 Hélsinki dijadikeun ibukota sarta dijalankeun pangwangunan tempat-tempat monuméntal. Sanajan kitu, lantaran pamaréntahna kawilang otoritér jeung birokratis sarta populasi warga désa nu kalayan loba jeung murni miboga struktur agraris pamikiran-pamikiran [[liberal]] jeung [[nasionalis]] masih kacegah sumebarna.<ref name=":0" /> Wanci tentrem Finlandia handapeun Rusia mimiti kaganggu ti saprak [[Tsar Nikolai II]] naék tahta tuluy nunjuk Gubernur Jénderal [[Bobrikov]], nu mana ngabalukarkeun pamaréntahan jadi oprésif. Di akhir hirupna, [[Bobrikov]] dibunuh ku urang Finlandia taun 1904.<ref name=":1" /> == Perjuangan Pikeun Kamerdékaan == [[Gambar:1918 Finnish Civil War Fronts.jpg|jmpl|273x273px|Peta nalika Perang Saudara Finlandia]] Ngadekeutan ka ahir [[Perang Dunya I]], révolusi [[Bolshevik]] di Rusia ngamimitian parah. Moméntum éta dimangfaatkeun ku Finlandia jang ngamaklumatkeun kamerdékaanna.<ref name=":1" /> Nalika éta, tungtutan ti kaum nasionalis Finlandia kasebut konservatif jeung défénsif, anu hayang mertahankeun otonomi konstitusional anu kungsi kadedet salila taun 1899-1905 jeung 1910-1917 handapeun kakawasaan otokratis [[Tsar]] Rusia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Coakley|first=John|date=1986-03|title=Political succession and regime change in new states in inter-war Europe: Ireland, Finland, Czechoslovakia and the Baltic Republics|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0304413000010237/type/journal_article|journal=European Journal of Political Research|language=en|volume=14|issue=1-2|pages=187–206|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.1986.tb00829.x|issn=0304-4130}}</ref> Désémber 1917, nalika aya kakosongan kakawasaan nuturkeun [[Révolusi Rusia]], Finlandia ngadéklarasikeun kemerdékaanna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Niemi|first=Marjaana|date=2017-11|title=Breaking from and building on the past: Helsinki and Dublin after independence|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021121417000347/type/journal_article|journal=Irish Historical Studies|language=en|volume=41|issue=160|pages=238–255|doi=10.1017/ihs.2017.34|issn=0021-1214}}</ref> Déklarasi kamerdékaan éta ngabalukarkeun perang saudara, antara urang Finlandia konservatif anu disebut Golongan Bodas, nyaéta prajurit Finlandia anu disokong jeung dibantuan ku tentara Jérman nu ngadarat di Finlandia, ngalawan urang Finlandia [[komunis]] anu disebut Golongan Beureum, sakaligus prajurit Rusia anu kénéh nyicingan Finlandia. Nalika Golongan Bodas meunang, 8.000 jalma anu kaasup Golongan Beureum tiwas ditémbak, sarta 20.000 jalma lainna tilar dunya kusabab panyakit jeung kalaparan lantaran ditahan di kamp-kamp konséntrasi. Ingetan ngeunaan perang saudara éta saolah jadi pamicu rasa kasieunan urang Finlandia ka Rusia jeung [[komunisme]], kaasup konsekuénsi-konsekuénsi ti tindakan Finlandia ka [[Uni Soviét]] ka hareupna.<ref name=":1" /> == Wanci antar-perang == Sanggeusna perang saudara, parlemén Finlandia anu dikontrol ku Golongan Bodas milih pikeun ngajegkeun sistem monarki konstitusional anu tuluy bakal disebut Karajaan Finlandia, handapeun pangéran [[Frederick Charles]] ti [[Hesse]] salaku rajana. Nanging éléhna Jérman dina Nopémber 1918 ngajadikeun éta rencana téh teu mungkin. Finlandia tuluy jadi républik anu dipimpin ku [[Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg]] salaku présidén mimitina anu dipilih taun 1919. Sanajan perang saudara anu peurih, sarta ancaman anu tutuluyan ti gerakan [[fasis]], Finlandia angger mertahankeun sistem démokrasi [[kapitalis]] handapeun aturan hukum. Kontras ti éta, [[Éstonia]] anu padeukeut, dina kaayaan anu mirip nanging tanpa perang saudara, ngamimitian salaku nagara [[démokrasi]] tuluy jadi ka[[diktator]]<nowiki/>an di taun 1934.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siaroff|first=Alan|date=1999|title=Democratic Breakdown and Democratic Stability: A Comparison of Interwar Estonia and Finland|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3232774|journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique|volume=32|issue=1|pages=103–124|issn=0008-4239}}</ref> == Perang Dunya II == Dina 23 Agustus 1939, Uni Soviet jeung Nazi Jérman nandatanganan Pakta Molotov-Ribbentrop anu tuluy ngabagi Éropa jadi wewengkon pangaruh ti dua kadiktatoran. Numutkeun kana pakta éta, Uni Soviét ngamimitian Perang Musim Tiis dina 30 Nopémber 1939 pikeun nganéksasi Finlandia. Républik Demokratik Finlandia diatur ku [[Josef Stalin]] mangsa perang dimimitian pikeun maréntah Finlandia sanggeus panaklukan ku Soviet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.co.uk/articles/how-finland-protected-its-ww2-independence-during-the-winter-war|title=How Finland protected its WW2 independence during the Winter War|website=Sky HISTORY TV channel|language=en|accessdate=2026-08-07}}</ref> Kecaman internasional sumébar pikeun ngaréspon serangan anu ngadadak éta anu tuluy ngabalukarkeun Uni Soviet dikaluarkeun ti [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa|Liga Bangsa-Bangsa.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/december-14/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations|title=USSR expelled from the League of Nations {{!}} December 14, 1939|last=Editors|first=HISTORY com|website=HISTORY|language=en|accessdate=2026-08-07}}</ref> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Sajarah dumasar nagara]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Éropa]] [[Kategori:Sajarah dunya]] 4p075o5k7i75bcv11sm6olet765f203 711866 711865 2026-08-07T08:44:21Z Hasnanf 28942 /* Perang Dunya II */ 711866 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:1730 Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics - Geographicus - Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg|jmpl|Peta wewengkon Skandinavia jeung Fennoscandia taun 1730, kaasup wilayah Jérman kalér, Polandia kalér, wewengkon Baltik, Livonia, Bélarusia, jeung Rusia kalér kulon. (jieunan [[Johan Homann]])]] Ditingali tina wanci sajarah, dina harti ayana rincian anu ditulis ngeunaan [[Finlandia]], '''[[sajarah]] Finlandia''' mimiti kacatet sabudeureun taun 1100 M, nyaéta wanci kapamilikan Finlandia masih diparebutkeun ku [[Swédia]] jeung [[Rusia]].<ref name=":1" /> Sajarah Finlandia ngeunaan pangwangunan padumukan, pangrebutan wilayah jeung kakawasaan, tuluy kamerdékaan Finlandia éta sorangan. Di éra modérn, Finlandia ngalaman jadi negara handapeun kakawasaan Rusia jeung Swédia. Tuluy nuturkeun [[Revolusi Rusia|Révolusi Rusia]], Finlandia ahirna ngamerdékakeun manéh. Salila [[Perang Tiis]], Finlandia mertahankeun posisi nétral, tuluy jadi anggota [[Uni Éropa]] di taun 1995. Saprak invasi Rusia ka [[Ukraina]], Finlandia resmi ngagabung jadi anggota [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)]].<ref name=":0" /> Lemah cai urang Finlandia mimitina teu katingali jiga wewengkon anu bisa sukses dicicingan, ku sabab wewengkon kalér buana [[Éropa]] kaasup kana Buderan [[Arktik]], nu mana miboga sumber daya alam nu kawates: kakurangan sumber daya fosil jeung kudu ngimpor kabutuhan énérgi ti wewengkon séjén. Kitu deui ditingali tina kaayaan iklim anu ngawatesan kagiatan agrikultur jeung pola kahirupan sapopoé, utamana dina usum tiis anu panjang jeung poék. Ku kituna, rahayat Finlandia mampu adaptasi sangkan parobahan sarta salamet tina kondisi anu teu nguntungkeun, boh tina kondisi politik atawa kondisi alam sangkan bisa jadi bangsa nu suksés.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=A Short History of Finland|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffi00sing|last=Singleton|first=Fred|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoffi00sing/page/1 1]-17|chapter=History of Finland|isbn=9780511608087|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511608087}}</ref> == Sajarah Mimiti == [[Guha Susiluola]], deukeut [[Kristinestad]] di [[Ostrobothnia]], mangrupakeun tempat anu diusulkeun yén mungkin kungsi dicicingan ku [[Néanderthal]] perkiraan 120.000 ka tukang nalika Wanci [[Interglasial Terahir]]. Interprétasi ieu masih diperdebatkeun ku para ahli jeung kasebut kontrovérsial ngeunaan bebeneranna. Upamana dikonpirmasi bener, guha ieu bakal jadi padumukan jalma mimiti di [[Fennoscandia]] anu dipikanyaho.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Trine Kellberg|last2=Riede|first2=Felix|date=2018-11|title=On Research History and Neanderthal Occupation at its Northern Margins|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1461957118000128/type/journal_article|journal=European Journal of Archaeology|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=506–527|doi=10.1017/eaa.2018.12|issn=1461-9571}}</ref> Para pamaké basa Proto-Finlandia nepi di Finlandia dina wanci praaksara mangrébu-rébu taun ka tukang.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Upheaval|last=Diamond|first=Jared|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2022|isbn=9786024818494|location=Jakarta|pages=55-96}}</ref> Diperkirakeun kelompok manusa éta nepi di Finlandia sakitar 9.000 taun ka tukang, ngawakilan sababaraha séké sélér, kaasup karuhun urang [[Sami]] kiwari. Kataji ku lobana sato jang diburu, utamana lauk jeung sato anu diarah buluna, kelompok jalma éta nuturkeun lééhan és ka belah kalér. Diperkirakeun yén tujuan mimiti kelompok manusa éta téh ngan saukur jang usum panas, tapi laun-laun beuki loba anu cicing di wewengkon éta salila usum tiis.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Finland|title=History of Finland|last=Sandvik|first=Gudmund|last2=Enander|first2=Henrik|publisher=Britannica|last3=Henriksson|first3=Markku Ilmari|last4=Larson|first4=Susan Ruth|last5=Weibull|first5=Jörgen}}</ref> Kelompok nu séjénna diperkirakeun nepi 3.000 taun saenggeusna ti belah kidul wétan. Kelompok ieu nyaéta nu mawa basa [[Finno-Ugric]] sarta diperkirakeun boga patali jeung karuhun urang Finlandia ([[Finns]]) kiwari. Salian ti éta, kelompok anu jadi karuhun urang [[Tavastian]] nuturkeun ti belah kidul kulon jeung tengah buana [[Éropa]], anu lila kalilaan ngadopsi basa [[Finno-Ugric]].<ref name=":0" /> Salila milenium kahiji, sababaraha kelompok manusa narepi ka wewengkon ieu. Kelompok Sami anu hirup nomadén sumebar di sabagian lega wewengkon Finlandia, mundur ka belah kalér. Grup nu lian lolobana kawin campur sarta asimilasi jeung pendatang anyar, sahingga pangdumukan anyar sumebar di wewengkon kidul Finlandia. Jumlah populasi di jaman éta masih kaitung jarang jeung saeutik, tapi tilu bangsa ngahiji anu papisah geus katingali matuh di wewengkonna séwang-séwang: urang Finlandia, urang [[Tavastia]], jeung urang [[Karélia]]. Unggal kelompok éta geus miboga pamingpinna sorangan sarta ngempur perang ka hiji jeung nu séjénna.<ref name=":0" /> == Wanci Kakawasaan Swédia == Finlandia aya handapeun kakawasaan Swédia ti abad ka-12. Sumber sajarah ngeunaan wanci ieu lobana tina [[legénda]] jeung [[tradisi]] dibandingkeun tina dokumén sejarah. Dina wanci ieu, karajaan Swédia geus ngadeg, tuluy di tengah abad ka-12 tahta karajaan keur ditempatan ku Raja Érik anu satia ka [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Garéja Roma]]. Ka belah wétan, wewengkon [[Novgorod]] anu sémi-merdeka diadegkeun ku urang [[Viking]] ti abad ka-salapan sarta miboga patali jeung [[Kiev]], mangrupa wewengkon pusat. Wewengkon ieu miboga hubungan dagang jeung daérah [[Baltik]] sarta basis militér anu kuat. Di jaman ieu Finlandia mangrupa daérah panyangga antara kakuatan Swédia jeung [[Novgorod]] anu silih lawan, sarta aya handapeun tekenan ti [[Baltik]]-[[Jerman|Jérman]] anu datang ti daratan belah kidul [[Teluk]] Finlandia. Teu siga tatanggana anu leuwih kuat, urang Finlandia ([[Finns]]) di jaman éta masih can ngadeg wilayah kakawasaanna sorangan, nyaéta masih kabagi jadi tilu kelompok: urang [[Suomalaiset]], [[Hämäläiset]], jeung [[Karjalaiset]] anu mindeng guntreng hiji jeung nu séjén.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|edition=2|title=A Short History of Finland|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511608087/type/book|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1998-10-01|isbn=978-0-521-64701-4|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511608087|first=Fred|last=Singleton}}</ref> Salah sahiji [[legénda]] anu nyaritakeun wanci ieu nyaéta kasebut yén [[perang suci]] anu dipingpin ku [[Raja Érik]] ti Swedia, dipirig ku [[Uskup]] [[Henry]] ti [[Uppsala]], taun 1155. [[Perang suci]] ieu anu ngamimitian struktur organisasi Garéja Finlandia anu leuwih jelas, anu tuluy ngajalankeun tradisi [[Karésten|Kristen]] anu tartib. Diperkirakeun yén perang suci éta dijurung ku kadatangan [[Nicholas Breakspear]] di Swédia taun 1152-1153, anu dikirim ku [[Paus]] sangkan nguatkeun pangaruh [[Garéja]] di wewengkon [[Skandinavia]]. Sanggeus éta Nicholas tuluy jadi Paus anu miboga gelar [[Hadrian IV]].<ref name=":2" /> Taun 1249, [[Birger Jarl]] mingpin ékspedisi ka [[Tavastia]] (anu kiwari jadi [[Häme]]), nyaéta wewengkon anu geus dikristenkeun, sangkan usaha ngasupkeun Finlandia ka wewengkon Swédia. [[Birger Jarl|Birger]] tuluy ngawangun bénténg di [[Tavastia]] jeung daérah basisir kalér [[Teluk Finlandia]], anu tuluy dijadikeun daérah pangdumukan Swédia anu lega. Ti dinya, [[urang Swédia]] tuluy parindah ogé ka basisir wétan [[Teluk Bothnia]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Finland/Finland-under-Swedish-rule|title=Finland - Swedish Rule, Sovereignty, Independence {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2024-06-29}}</ref> Taun 1293, [[Torgils Knutsson]] muka ékspédisi sangkan nguasaan sakabeh [[Karélia]] jeung ngawangun bénténg di [[Viipuri]]. Perang tuluy lumangsung nepi ka taun 1323, nalika [[Perjangjian Pähkinäsaari]] nangtukeun wates wewengkon pangaruh Rusia jeung Swédia dina garis samar ti bagéan wétan [[Teluk Finlandia]], ngaliwatan tengah [[Karélia]] ka belah kalér kulon [[Teluk Bothnia]], tuluy ngeureunkeun [[perang suci]], anu hasilna Finlandia jadi bagéan wewengkon Swédia. Ti saprak éta, Swédia tuluy ngokolakeun tradisina sangkan dijalankeun ku Finlandia. Istana-istana diwangun, pajak ditarikan anu umumna make bulu sasatoan, tuluy jadi gandum atawa paparéan, mantéga, jeung duit.<ref name=":3" /> Taun 1362, [[Raja Haakon]] ti Swedia ngadegkeun hak jang urang Finlandia sangkan bisa miluan pamilihan karajaan sarta méré status Finlandia anu sarua jeung bagéan karajaan nu séjén. Sababaraha taun ti éta, [[Raja Haakon]] digulingkeun, tuluy [[Albert]] ti [[Mecklenburg]] naék jadi raja. Sanajan kitu, [[Albert]] kaitung kurang kasohor di kalangan rahayat Finlandia, tuluy 1374, bangsawan Swédia, [[Bo Jonsson Grip]], meunangkeun gelar jang sakabéh Finlandia. [[Bo Jonsson Grip|Grip]] tilar dunya taun 1386, teu lila ti éta Finlandia ngahiji jadi bagéan wewengkon [[Kalmar]]. <ref name=":3" /> Nincak ka abad 18, handapeun kakawasaan [[Charles XII]], Swédia geus mimiti kaleungitan kakuatanna di [[Éropa]]. Dina [[Perang Kalér Kadua]], Rusia nempatan Finlandia salila dalapan taun (ti 1713-1721), tuluy sanggeus [[Perjangjian Nystad|Perjangjian Damai Nystad (Uusikaupunki)]] taun 1721, Swédia kudu nyerahkeun bagéan tenggara Finlandia jeung [[Viipuri]] sarta propinsi-propinsi [[Baltik]]. Ti dinya, kamampuan Swédia jang mertahankeun Finlandia geus ngalemahan, sarta taun-taun penjajahan Rusia kahareupna méré rarasan kateupastian jeung teu aman anu lana.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> Salaku bagian ti monarki Swédia, dina praktékna, Finlandia teu boga institusi atawa lembaga pamaréntahanna sorangan, tapi ti patengahan abad ka-18 kaum inteléktual jeung pajabat pamaréntah lolobana ti urang Finlandia. Dina kaayaan éta, muncul rarasan yén Finlandia kudu nanggung balukar kaborosan Swédia dina hal kawijakan luar negeri. Arahan stratégis Swédia taun 1785 nyebutkeun yén saumpama Rusia nyerang, pasukan Swédia kudu mundur ti garis hareup, ninggalkeun détasemén Finlandia; sarta lamun Finlandia aya handapeun kondisi bahaya nu ékstrim, sakumna kudu diévakuasi. Stratégi éta tuluy kalaksana di taun 1808-1809, nu mana panghianatan [[Liga Anjala]] kajadian deui di taun éta nalika [[Sveaborg]] (ayeuna [[Suomenlinna]]) deukeut [[Helsinki]] kudu diserahkeun ka [[Rusia]]. == Wanci Otonomi Handapeun Rusia == Taun 1809, Finlandia kudu nanggung kawajibanna sorangan jang damai jeung Rusia. [[Alexander I]] tuluy nawarkeun sangkan ngakuan kamajuan konstitusi Finlandia sarta méré otonomi salaku [[kadipatén]] agung handapeun tahtana. Sacara formal, Finlandia masih bagéan ti Karajaan Swédia nepi ka kaluarna [[Perjangjian Hamina]] di taun éta kénéh. Sanajan kitu, lolobana ti pamingpin urang Swédia geus taak kana kaayaan handapeun kawasa Swédia sarta ngarepkeun bisa miboga pamaréntahan mandiri saloba nu bisa diusahakeun handapeun panyalindungan Rusia. Harepan éta téh tuluy bisa kawujud sanggeus aya [[Diét Porvoo]], nyaéta majelis [[législatip]] anu nangtukeun kamerdikaan Finlandia salaku bangsa—éntitas pulitik anu ngahiji anu miboga status kadipatén. Ti saprak miboga status kadipatén, jang ngakuan otonomi urang Finlandia, [[Alexander I]] ngajangjikeun yén arék ngajénan ageman nu dijalankeun sarta hukum-hukum dasar anu dilarapkeun di Finlandia.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Ti taun 1809 nepi ka 1863, Finlandia ngalarapkeun birokrasi nu diatur ku Kaisar [[Rusia]], anu tuluy diwakilan ku gubernur jenderal di pamaréntahanna. Saacanna, tingkatan administrasi anu pangluhurna di pamaréntahan dijalankeun ku mahkamah agung, ti saprak jaman ieu diubah jadi sénat nu mangrupan kamenterian, nu diwangun ku departemén judisial atawa hukum jeun departemén ékonomi. Sangkan ngawakilan Finlandia jang ka kakaisaran Rusia, sekretaris kamenterian ogé ditempatkeun di [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]].<ref name=":0" /> Keur kalolobaan urang Finlandia, jaman ieu kasebut jaman anu makmur, sangkilang kondisi ékonomi anu nguntungkeun, sarta teu aya peperangan salian ti [[Perang Kriméa]]. Sababaraha réformasi bisa dilarapkeun di periode ieu. Di antarana kaasup réstorasi wilayah Finlandia anu diserahkeun ti Swédia ka Rusia dina [[Perjangjian Uusikaupunki]] taun 1721, jeung [[Perjangjian Turku]] taun 1743. Sanggeus kitu, taun 1812 Hélsinki dijadikeun ibukota sarta dijalankeun pangwangunan tempat-tempat monuméntal. Sanajan kitu, lantaran pamaréntahna kawilang otoritér jeung birokratis sarta populasi warga désa nu kalayan loba jeung murni miboga struktur agraris pamikiran-pamikiran [[liberal]] jeung [[nasionalis]] masih kacegah sumebarna.<ref name=":0" /> Wanci tentrem Finlandia handapeun Rusia mimiti kaganggu ti saprak [[Tsar Nikolai II]] naék tahta tuluy nunjuk Gubernur Jénderal [[Bobrikov]], nu mana ngabalukarkeun pamaréntahan jadi oprésif. Di akhir hirupna, [[Bobrikov]] dibunuh ku urang Finlandia taun 1904.<ref name=":1" /> == Perjuangan Pikeun Kamerdékaan == [[Gambar:1918 Finnish Civil War Fronts.jpg|jmpl|273x273px|Peta nalika Perang Saudara Finlandia]] Ngadekeutan ka ahir [[Perang Dunya I]], révolusi [[Bolshevik]] di Rusia ngamimitian parah. Moméntum éta dimangfaatkeun ku Finlandia jang ngamaklumatkeun kamerdékaanna.<ref name=":1" /> Nalika éta, tungtutan ti kaum nasionalis Finlandia kasebut konservatif jeung défénsif, anu hayang mertahankeun otonomi konstitusional anu kungsi kadedet salila taun 1899-1905 jeung 1910-1917 handapeun kakawasaan otokratis [[Tsar]] Rusia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Coakley|first=John|date=1986-03|title=Political succession and regime change in new states in inter-war Europe: Ireland, Finland, Czechoslovakia and the Baltic Republics|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0304413000010237/type/journal_article|journal=European Journal of Political Research|language=en|volume=14|issue=1-2|pages=187–206|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.1986.tb00829.x|issn=0304-4130}}</ref> Désémber 1917, nalika aya kakosongan kakawasaan nuturkeun [[Révolusi Rusia]], Finlandia ngadéklarasikeun kemerdékaanna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Niemi|first=Marjaana|date=2017-11|title=Breaking from and building on the past: Helsinki and Dublin after independence|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021121417000347/type/journal_article|journal=Irish Historical Studies|language=en|volume=41|issue=160|pages=238–255|doi=10.1017/ihs.2017.34|issn=0021-1214}}</ref> Déklarasi kamerdékaan éta ngabalukarkeun perang saudara, antara urang Finlandia konservatif anu disebut Golongan Bodas, nyaéta prajurit Finlandia anu disokong jeung dibantuan ku tentara Jérman nu ngadarat di Finlandia, ngalawan urang Finlandia [[komunis]] anu disebut Golongan Beureum, sakaligus prajurit Rusia anu kénéh nyicingan Finlandia. Nalika Golongan Bodas meunang, 8.000 jalma anu kaasup Golongan Beureum tiwas ditémbak, sarta 20.000 jalma lainna tilar dunya kusabab panyakit jeung kalaparan lantaran ditahan di kamp-kamp konséntrasi. Ingetan ngeunaan perang saudara éta saolah jadi pamicu rasa kasieunan urang Finlandia ka Rusia jeung [[komunisme]], kaasup konsekuénsi-konsekuénsi ti tindakan Finlandia ka [[Uni Soviét]] ka hareupna.<ref name=":1" /> == Wanci antar-perang == Sanggeusna perang saudara, parlemén Finlandia anu dikontrol ku Golongan Bodas milih pikeun ngajegkeun sistem monarki konstitusional anu tuluy bakal disebut Karajaan Finlandia, handapeun pangéran [[Frederick Charles]] ti [[Hesse]] salaku rajana. Nanging éléhna Jérman dina Nopémber 1918 ngajadikeun éta rencana téh teu mungkin. Finlandia tuluy jadi républik anu dipimpin ku [[Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg]] salaku présidén mimitina anu dipilih taun 1919. Sanajan perang saudara anu peurih, sarta ancaman anu tutuluyan ti gerakan [[fasis]], Finlandia angger mertahankeun sistem démokrasi [[kapitalis]] handapeun aturan hukum. Kontras ti éta, [[Éstonia]] anu padeukeut, dina kaayaan anu mirip nanging tanpa perang saudara, ngamimitian salaku nagara [[démokrasi]] tuluy jadi ka[[diktator]]<nowiki/>an di taun 1934.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siaroff|first=Alan|date=1999|title=Democratic Breakdown and Democratic Stability: A Comparison of Interwar Estonia and Finland|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3232774|journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique|volume=32|issue=1|pages=103–124|issn=0008-4239}}</ref> == Perang Dunya II == Dina 23 Agustus 1939, Uni Soviet jeung Nazi Jérman nandatanganan Pakta Molotov-Ribbentrop anu tuluy ngabagi Éropa jadi wewengkon pangaruh ti dua kadiktatoran. Numutkeun kana pakta éta, Uni Soviét ngamimitian [[Perang Musim Tiis]] dina 30 Nopémber 1939 pikeun nganéksasi Finlandia. Républik Demokratik Finlandia diatur ku [[Josef Stalin]] mangsa perang dimimitian pikeun maréntah Finlandia sanggeus panaklukan ku Soviet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.co.uk/articles/how-finland-protected-its-ww2-independence-during-the-winter-war|title=How Finland protected its WW2 independence during the Winter War|website=Sky HISTORY TV channel|language=en|accessdate=2026-08-07}}</ref> Kecaman internasional sumébar pikeun ngaréspon serangan anu ngadadak éta anu tuluy ngabalukarkeun Uni Soviet dikaluarkeun ti [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa|Liga Bangsa-Bangsa.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/december-14/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations|title=USSR expelled from the League of Nations {{!}} December 14, 1939|last=Editors|first=HISTORY com|website=HISTORY|language=en|accessdate=2026-08-07}}</ref> Nalika Perang Musim Tiis éta, Tantara Beureum, nyaéta tantara Soviet éléh di loba patempuran, pang katelahna dina Patempuran Suomussalmi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thetimes.com/comment/register/article/weather-forecast-winter-war-1939-snow-w3h528mhl|title=Winter war: Snow skills gave Finland advantage over Soviet invaders in 1939|last=Simons|first=Paul|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-08-07}}</ref> Sanggeus dua bulan lilana tempur anu teu kaharti, sarta geus kaleungitan pasukan jeung amunisi, Uni Soviet ngamimitian maju di Pébruari, tuluy nepi ka Vyborg di Maret. Parjanjian Daméy Moskow tuluy ditandatanganan dina 12 Maret 1940, tuluy perang dieureunkeun isukannana. Finlandia mampu mertahankeun kamerdikaanna tapi ngaleupaskeun 9% téritori wewengkonna ka Uni Soviet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prlib.ru/challenge-en.html?redirect=/en/history/619090|title=USSR and Finland Signed the Moscow Treaty|website=www.prlib.ru|publisher=Presidential Library|accessdate=2026-08-07}}</ref> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Sajarah dumasar nagara]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Éropa]] [[Kategori:Sajarah dunya]] 4ys6n6nyyum58okptg5qe129iepefw7 0 105331 711745 710910 2026-08-07T03:16:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 8 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711745 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #aaa; padding: 0.2em; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background: #ccf;" | Taksonomi |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip nij.svg|220px]]<br /><small>Hierarki klasifikasi biologis.</small> |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Widang élmu | [[Biologi]], [[Sistematika]] |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Objék | Organisme (Hirup & Fosil) |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Konsep konci | [[Takson]], [[Klasifikasi ilmiah]], [[Nomenklatur]] |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Inohong | [[Carl Linnaeus]], [[A.P. de Candolle]] |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: #ccf;" | Tingkatan Takson |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | * [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]] * [[Karajaan (biologi)|Karajaan]] * [[Filum]] / [[Divisi (biologi)|Divisi]] * [[Kelas (biologi)|Kelas]] * [[Ordo (biologi)|Ordo]] * [[Kulawarga (biologi)|Kulawarga]] * [[Marga (biologi)|Marga]] * [[Spésiés]] |} '''Taksonomi (biologi)''' nyaéta élmu pangaweruh anu maluruh ngeunaan tata ngaran papasingan (klasifikasi), sarta idéntifikasi [[organismeu]] dumasar kana kasarimbagan ciri-cirina. Dina sistem ieu, organismeu digolongkeun kana sababaraha tingkatan anu disebut [[taksa]] (tunggal: [[takson]]). Organismeu disusun sacara ngaruntuy (hirarki) ti mimiti tingkatan anu paling umum nepi ka anu paling spésifik. Ku ayana ieu hirarki, unggal golongan taksonomi; grup tina pangkat nu tangtu bisa dikumpulkeun pikeun ngabentuk grup anu undakanna leuwih luhur sarta ''inklusif'', sahingga nyiptakeun rundayan/''hirarki'' taksonomi. Rundayan poko dina pamakéan modérn nyaéta: * ''[[Domain]]'' * [[Karajaan]] * ''[[Filum]]'' (pikeun sato) atawa [[Divisi]] (pikeun tutuwuhan), * [[Kelas]], * ''[[Ordo]]'' * [[Kulawarga]] * ''[[Génus]]'' * [[Spésiés]] Ahli botani ti [[Swédia]], [[Carl Linnaeus]] dianggap salaku anu mitembeyan dina ngadegkeun sistem taksonomi nu aya kiwari, sakumaha anjeunna ngembangkeun sistem réngking nu katelah ''[[Linnaean taxonomy]]'' pikeun ngategorikeun organismeu, sarta sistem tata ngaran [[binomial nomenklatur]] pikeun méré ngaran ilmiah ka mahluk hirup. Balukarna ayana kamajuan dina téori, data, sareng téknologi ''analitik sistematika biologis'', sistem Linnaéan téh kiwari geus mekar jadi ''sistem klasifikasi biologis'' modérn, Ieu sistem anyar miboga tujuan pikeun nembongkeun hubungan [[évolusi]] di antara rupa-rupa organismeu, boh nu masih hirup boh anu geus tumpur. Wangenan (définisi) ngeunaan taksonomi téh mémang béda-béda gumantung kana sumberna. Sanajan kitu, dina prak-prakanna mah ieu élmu téh tetep museur kana tilu hal utama, nyaéta: [[konsép]], [[tata ngaran]], sarta [[papasingan]] (klasifikasi) golongan organismeu. == Harti taxonomi == Wangenan définisi ngeunaan taksonomi téh mémang béda-béda gumantung kana sumberna. Sanajan kitu, dina prak-prakanna mah ieu élmu téh tetep museur kana tilu hal utama: [[konsép]], [[tata ngaran]], sarta [[papasingan]] ngaklasifikasikeun golongan organismeu.<ref name="Wilkins2011">{{Cite web |url=http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |title=What is systematics and what is taxonomy? |last=Wilkins |first=J. S. |date=5 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |archive-date=27 August 2016 |access-date=21 August 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |date=27 August 2016 }}</ref> Salaku bahan babandingan, ieu di handap aya sababaraha wangenan panganyarna ngeunaan taksonom taksonomi saperti handap ieu: # Téori sarta prakték dina ngagolongkeun individu kana tingkatan spésiés, nu tuluy disusun jadi kelompok anu leuwih gedé, sarta dibéré ngaran éta grup, sahingga ngahasilkeun klasifikasi anu jéntré.<ref name="Judd">{{Cite book |title=Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach |last1=Judd |first1=W. S. |last2=Campbell |first2=C. S. |last3=Kellogg |first3=E. A. |last4=Stevens |first4=P. F. |last5=Donoghue |first5=M. J. |date=2007 |publisher=Sinauer Associates |edition=3rd |location=Sunderland |chapter=Taxonomy}}</ref> # Hiji widang élmu (sarta komponén utama [[sistematika]]) anu ngawengku katerangan, idéntifikasi, [[tata ngaran]], jeung klasifikasi<ref name="Simpson">{{Cite book |title=Plant Systematics |url=https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0000simp |last=Simpson |first=Michael G. |date=2010 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780123743800 |edition=2nd |chapter=Chapter 1 Plant Systematics: an Overview}}</ref> # Élmu klasifikasi, dina susunan organismeu biologi kana hiji klasifikasi.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Kirk |editor-first1=P. M. |editor-last2=Cannon |editor-first2=P. F. |editor-last3=Minter |editor-first3=D. W. |editor-last4=Stalpers |editor-first4=J. A. |date=2008 |chapter=Taxonomy |title=Dictionary of the Fungi |edition=10th |publisher=CABI}}</ref> # "Élmu klasifikasi sakumaha dilarapkeun ka organismeu hirup, kaasup élmu ngeunaan cara ''formasi'' spésiés, jsb."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Wordsworth Dictionary of Science and Technology |date=1988 |publisher=W. R. Chambers Ltd. and Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=P. M. B.}}</ref> # "Analisis karakteristik hiji organismeu pikeun tujuan klasifikasi"<ref name="Henderson">{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-PLgy6DWe0wC |title=Henderson's Dictionary Of Biology |last=Lawrence |first=E. |date=2005 |publisher=Pearson/Prentice Hall |isbn=9780131273849}}</ref> # "Studi sistimatika [[filogéni]] pikeun nyadiakeun pola nu bisa ditarjamahkeun kana klasifikasi jeung ngaran widang taksonomi nu leuwih inklusif" (didaptarkeun salaku harti nu dipikahoyong tapi teu ilahar)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wheeler |first=Quentin D. |title=Taxonomic triage and the poverty of phylogeny |date=2004 |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |editor1-first=H. C. J. |editor1-last=Godfray |editor2-first=S. |editor2-last=Knapp |volume=359: Taxonomy for the twenty-first century |pages=571–583 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2003.1452 |pmc=1693342 |pmid=15253345 |author-link=Quentin D. Wheeler |issue=1444}}</ref> Watesan anu rupa-rupa boh nempatkeun taksonomi salaku sub-wewengkon sistematika (harti 2), balikkeun éta hubungan (harti 6), atawa sigana nganggap dua istilah sinonim. Aya sababaraha kaayaan teu satuju naha ''[[nomenclature biologis]]'' dianggap bagian tina taksonomi (definisi 1 jeung 2), atawa bagian tina sistematika luar taksonomi.<ref name="Herbarium">{{Cite web |title=Nomenclature, Names, and Taxonomy |url= http://herbarium.usu.edu:80/teaching/4420/botnom.htm |date=2005 |website=Intermountain Herbarium |publisher=Utah State University |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161123030604/http://herbarium.usu.edu/teaching/4420/botnom.htm |archive-date=23 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent">{{cite book |last1=Laurin |first1=Michel |title=The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature |date=3 August 2023 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=9781003092827 |pages=xv + 209 |doi=10.1201/9781003092827 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905140719/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin |url-status=live }}</ref> Salaku conto, harti 6 dipasangkeun jeung harti sistematika handap nu nempatkeun tata ngaran luar taksonomi:<ref name="Henderson" /> * ''Sistimétika'': "Ulikan ngeunaan idéntifikasi, taksonomi, jeung tata ngaran organisme, kaasup klasifikasi mahluk hirup nu patali jeung hubungan alam maranéhanana sarta ulikan ngeunaan variasi jeung évolusi taksa". Dina taun 1970, Michener '' jeung nu lian.'' ngadéfinisikeun "biologi sistimatis" jeung "taksonomi" (istilah anu mindeng bingung tur dipaké silih tukeur) patalina jeung nu séjénna saperti ieu di handap:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Michener |first1=Charles D. |first2=John O. |last2=Corliss |first3=Richard S. |last3=Cowan |first4=Peter H. |last4=Raven |first5=Curtis W. |last5=Sabrosky |first6=Donald S. |last6=Squires |first7=G. W. |last7=Wharton |date=1970 |title=Systematics In Support of Biological Research |publisher=Division of Biology and Agriculture, National Research Council |location=Washington, DC}}</ref> <blockquote> sistimatis biologi (engkéna disebut saukur sistematika) nyaéta widang anu: (a) nyadiakeun ngaran ilmiah pikeun organismeu, (b) ngajelaskeun aranjeunna, (c) ngawétkeun koléksi aranjeunna, (d) nyadiakeun klasifikasi pikeun organismeu, konci pikeun idéntifikasi maranéhanana, sarta data ngeunaan sebaran maranéhanana, (é) nalungtik sajarah évolusionér maranéhna, jeung (f) tinimbangan adaptasi lingkungan maranéhanana. Ieu mangrupikeun kaayaan anu gaduh sajarah panjang anu dina taun-taun ayeuna parantos ngalaman ronjotan anu kasohor, utamana ngeunaan eusi téoritis. Bagian tina bahan téoritis aya hubunganana sareng daérah évolusionér (jéjér é sareng f di luhur), sésana patali utamana jeung masalah klasifikasi. Taksonomi nyaéta bagian tina Sistematika anu patali jeung jejer (a) nepi ka (d) di luhur. </blockquote> Sakabeh sét istilah kaasup taksonomi, biologi sistimatis, [[sistematika]], klasifikasi ilmiah, klasifikasi biologis, jeung [[filogenetik]] sakapeung mibanda maksud anu papalimpang– sakapeung sarua, sakapeung beda saeutik, ngan sok pacorok.<ref name="Wilkins2011" /><ref name="Small1989">{{Cite journal |last=Small |first=Ernest |date=1989 |title=Systematics of Biological Systematics (Or, Taxonomy of Taxonomy) |journal=Taxon |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=335–356 |doi=10.2307/1222265 |jstor=1222265}}</ref> Harti anupang legana "taksonomi" dipaké didieu. Istilah ieu di tepangkeun dina taun 1813 ku [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|de Candolle]], dina milikna ''[[Théorie élémentaire de la botanique]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C&pg=PA20 |title=Plant systematics: An integrated approach |last=Singh |first=Gurcharan |date=2004 |publisher=Science Publishers |isbn=9781578083510 |page=20 |via=Google Books}}</ref> [[John Lindley]] disadiakeun définisi awal sistematika dina taun 1830, sanajan manéhna nulis ngeunaan "sistematis botani" tinimbang ngagunakeun istilah "sistematika".<ref>{{cite web |last=Wilkins |first=J. S. |url=http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |title=What is systematics and what is taxonomy? |work=EvolvingThoughts.net |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |archive-date=27 August 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |date=27 August 2016 }}</ref> Urang Éropa resep ngagunakeun istilah "sistematika" jeung "biosistematika" pikeun ulikan ngeunaan ''biodiversity'' sacara gembleng, sedengkeun Amérika Kalér leuwih remen ngagunakeun "taksonomi".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brusca |first1=R. C. |last2=Brusca |first2=G. J. |date=2003 |title=Invertebrates |url=https://archive.org/details/invertebrates0002brus |edition=2nd |location=Sunderland, Massachusetts |publisher=Sinauer Associates |page=[https://archive.org/details/invertebrates0002brus/page/27 27]}}</ref> Tapi, taksonomi, sareng hususna ''[[taksonomi alfa]]'', langkung spésifikna idéntifikasi, déskripsi, sareng nami (nyaéta, nomenklatur/tata ngaran) organismeu.<ref name="Fortey">{{Cite book |last=Fortey |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Fortey |date=2008 |title=Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum |url=https://archive.org/details/drystoreroomno1s0000fort |location=London |publisher=Harper Perennial |isbn=9780007209897}}</ref> Sedengkeun "klasifikasi" museurkeun kana nempatkeun organismeu dina grup hirarki anu némbongkeun hubungan maranéhanana jeung organismeu séjén. === Monograf jeung révisi taksonomi === Hiji '''révisi taksonomi''' atawa '''résénsi taksonomi''' mangrupa pedaran analisis ngeunaan pola variasi dina [[takson]] anu tinangtu. Analisis ieu tiasa dilaksanakeun dumasar kana kombinasi naon waé tina sababaraha jinis karakter anu sayogi, sapertos [[morfologis]], [[anatomi]], [[palinologis]], [[biokimia]] sareng [[génetik]]. [[monograf]] atanapi révisi lengkep nyaéta révisi anu kompréhénsif keur takson pikeun inpormasi anu dipasihkeun dina waktos anu tangtu, sareng pikeun sakuliah dunya. Révisi séjén (parsial) bisa diwatesan dina harti yén maranéhna ngan bisa ngagunakeun sababaraha sét karakter sadia atawa boga wates wengkuan husus. Révisi ngahasilkeun konformasi atanapi wawasan anyar dina hubungan antara subtaksa dina takson anu ditalungtik, nu bisa ngakibatkeun parobahan dina klasifikasi subtaxa ieu, idéntifikasi subtaxa anyar, atawa ngahiji tina subtaxa saméméhna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maxted |first=Nigel |date=1992 |title=Towards Defining a Taxonomic Revision Methodology |journal=Taxon |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=653–660 |doi=10.2307/1222391 |jstor=1222391}}</ref> === Aksara taksonomi === Karakter taksonomi nyaéta mangrupa ''atribut taksonomi'' anu bisa dipaké pikeun méré bukti di mana hubungan ([[filogéni]]) antara taksa dipuguhkeun.<ref name="Hennig 1965">{{cite journal |last1=Hennig |first1=Willi |title=Phylogenetic Systematics |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 1965 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=97–116 |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |issn=0066-4170 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101423/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |date=1991 |title=Principles of Systematic Zoology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofsyst0000mayr_s2i3 |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofsyst0000mayr_s2i3/page/159 159]}}</ref> Jinis karakter taksonomi ngawengku:<ref>Mayr, Ernst (1991), p. 162.</ref> {{div col|colwidth=35em}} * [[Morfologis (biologi)|Morfologis]] Karakter; ciri mandiri ** Umum éksternal [[Morfologis (biologi)|Morfologis]] ** Struktur husus (misalna., [[alat sanggama]]) ** Morfologi internal ([[anatomi]]) ** [[Émbriologi]] ** [[Karyologi]] jeung lianna ''[[cytological]]'' ''faktor'' * [[Fisiologis]] karakter ** [[paktor métabolik]] ** sékrési awak ** ''Faktor'' sterility gén * [[Molekul]] karakter ** Jarak imunologis ** Béda éléktroforétik ** Runtuyan protéin asam amino ** DNA ''hibridisasi'' ** Runtuyan DNA jeung RNA ** Watesan ''endonuclease'' nganalisa ** Bédana molekular séjén * ''[[Behavioral]]'' karakter ** Tatacara jeung mékanismeu isolasi ''ethological'' séjén ** Pola kabiasaan séjén * ''[[Ecological]]'' karakter ** Kabiasaan jeung habitat ** Kadaharan ** Robahna usum-usuman ** Sabangsaning parasit * [[Géografis]] karakter ** Umum ''[[biogeographic distribution]]'' pola ** hubungan populasi [[Simpatric]]-[[allopatric]] {{div col end}} === Alfa jeung béta taksonomi === {{distinguish|Alpha diversity}} Syaratna "'''taksonomi alfa'''" utamana dipaké pikeun ngarujuk kana disiplin tatacarana manggihan, ngajéntrékeun, jeung ngaranan [[taxa]]na, spésiés utamana .<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Dina litelatur saméméhna, istilah éta miboga harti anu béda, jeung produk panalungtikan nepi ka ahir abad ka-19.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rosselló-Mora |first1=Ramon |last2=Amann |first2=Rudolf |date=1 January 2001 |title=The species concept for prokaryotes |journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=39–67 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x |issn=1574-6976 |pmid=11152940|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[William Bertram Turrill]] ngawanohkeun istilah "taksonomi alfa" dina runtuyan makalah anu medal dina taun 1935 ogé 1937 di mana anjeunna ngaguar filsafat jeung nyawang disiplin taksonomi dina mangsa nu baris datang. {{sfn|Turrill|1938}}<blockquote> ... Aya kahayang anu beuki gedé diantara para ahli taksonomi pikeun nganggap masalahna dina panempo anu langkung lega, pikeun nalungtik kemungkinan gawé babarengan leuwih deukeut jeung cytological maranéhanana, koléga ékologis jeung genetika sarta pikeun ngaku yén sababaraha révisi atawa ékspansi, meureun alam drastis, tujuan jeung métode maranéhanana, bisa jadi desirable ... Turrill (1935) geus ngusulkeun yén bari narima taksonomi invaluable heubeul, dumasar kana struktur, jeung merenah ditunjuk "alfa", kasebut nyaéta dimungkinkeun pikeun sawangan urang anu jauh taxonomy diwangun dina salega dasar fakta morfologis jeung fisiologis jéntré, jeung hiji nu "tempat kapanggih pikeun sakabéh data observasi jeung ékspérimén patali, sanajan teu langsung, kana konstitusi, kana konstitusi, asal, jeung kabiasaan spésiés jeung grup taksonomi séjén". Cita-cita tiasa, bisa disebutkeun, pernah jadi sagemblengna sadar. Aranjeunna ngagaduhan, anu mana, niléy hébat akting salaku stimulan permanén, jeung lamun urang boga sababaraha, malah samar, idéal hiji "omega" taksonomi urang bisa maju saeutik handap alfabét Yunani. Sababaraha urang nyenangkeun diri sorangan ku mikir urang ayeuna groping dina taksonomi "béta".{{sfn|Turrill|1938}}</blockquote> Turrill antukna sacara éksplisit ngaluarkeun tina alfa taksonomi sagala rupa wewengkon tina ulikan yén anjeunna kaasup kana taksonomi sakabéhna, kayaning ékologi, fisiologi, génétika, jeung sitologi. Anjeunna salajengna ngaluarkeun rekonstruksi filogenetik tina taksonomi alfa.{{sfn|Turrill|1938|pp=365–366}} Engké pangarang geus dipaké istilah dina hiji béda rasa, hartina wates spésiés (sanés subspésiés atawa taksa tina jajaran séjén), ngagunakeun naon waé téhnik investigative sadia, jeung kaasup téhnik komputasi atawa laboratorium canggih.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steyskal |first=G. C. |date=1965 |title=Trend curves of the rate of species description in zoology |journal=Science |volume=149 |issue=3686 |pages= 880–882 |bibcode=1965Sci...149..880S |doi=10.1126/science.149.3686.880 |pmid=17737388|s2cid=36277653}}</ref><ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Ku kituna, [[Ernst Mayr]] dina taun 1968 didefinisikeun "'''beta taxonomy'''" salaku klasifikasi pangkat leuwih luhur ti spésiés (jenis).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |title=The Role of Systematics in Biology: The study of all aspects of the diversity of life is one of the most important concerns in biology |date=9 February 1968 |journal=Science |volume=159 |issue=3815 |pages=595–599 |bibcode=1968Sci...159..595M |doi=10.1126/science.159.3815.595 |pmid=4886900 |author-link=Ernst Mayr}}</ref><blockquote>Hiji pamahaman biologis hartina tina variasi jeung tina nu évolusionér asal grup spésiés patali malah leuwih penting pikeun tahap kadua aktivitas taksonomi, diurutkeun spésiés kana grup baraya ("taxa") jeung susunan maranéhanana dina hirarki kategori luhur. Kagiatan ieu anu dimaksud klasifikasi istilah; Éta ogé disebut "taksonomi béta".</blockquote> === Mikrotaksonomi jeung makrotaksonomi === {{Main|Species problem}} Kumaha spésiés kudu dihartikeun dina hiji grup husus organisme méré naék kana masalah praktis jeung téoritis anu disebut salaku [[masalah spésiés]]. Karya ilmiah mutuskeun kumaha nangtukeun spésiés geus disebut microtaxonomy.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |date=1982 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674364462 |chapter=Chapter 6: Microtaxonomy, the science of species |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703072557/https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |title=Result of Your Query |website=biological-concepts.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170414/http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170414/http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref><ref name="BiologyDiscussion">{{Cite news |url=http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |title=Taxonomy: Meaning, Levels, Periods and Role |date=27 May 2016 |work=Biology Discussion |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073645/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073645/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref> Ku éksténsi, makrotaksonomi nyaéta ulikan ngeunaan grup dina subgenus [[pangkat taksonomi]] nu leuwih luhur.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> atawa ngan saukur dina clades nu ngawengku leuwih ti hiji takson dianggap specie as, dinyatakeun dina istilah [[nomenklatur filogenetik]].<ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020">{{cite book |last1=Cantino |first1=Philip D. |last2=de Queiroz |first2=Kevin |title=International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (PhyloCode): A Phylogenetic Code of Biological Nomenclature |date=29 April 2020 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0429821356 |pages=xl + 149 |url=https://www.routledge.com/International-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode/Queiroz-Cantino/p/book/9781138332829 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=14 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014042402/https://www.routledge.com/International-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode/Queiroz-Cantino/p/book/9781138332829 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Sajarah == Sedengkeun sawatara pedaran ngeunaan taksonomi sajarah nyoba tanggal taksonomi ka peradaban kuna, usaha sabenerna ilmiah pikeun ngaklasifikasikeun organismeu teu lumangsung nepi ka abad ka-18, iwal mungkin Aristoteles, nu karya pituduh di taksonomi. <ref name="Voultsiadou & Vafidis 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Voultsiadou |first1=Eleni |last2=Vafidis |first2=Dimitris |title=Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology |journal=Contributions to Zoology |date=1 January 2007 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=103–120 |doi=10.1163/18759866-07602004 |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/18759866-07602004 |issn=1875-9866 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425063507/https://brill.com/view/journals/ctoz/76/2/article-p103_4.xml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Voultsiadou et al. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Voultsiadou |first1=Eleni |last2=Gerovasileiou |first2=Vasilis |last3=Vandepitte |first3=Leen |last4=Ganias |first4=Kostas |last5=Arvanitidis |first5=Christos |title=Aristotle's scientific contributions to the classification, nomenclature and distribution of marine organisms |journal=Mediterranean Marine Science |date=2017 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=468–478 |doi=10.12681/mms.13874 |issn=1791-6763 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Karya-karya saméméhna utamana déskriptif sarta museur kana tatangkalan anu mangpaat dina tatanén atawa ubar. Aya sababaraha tahap dina pamikiran ilmiah ieu. Taksonomi mimiti dumasar kana kritéria saayana, nu disebut "sistem jieunan", kaasup [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]'s Sistim klasifikasi seksual pikeun tutuwuhan (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals was entitled "[[Sistema Alam]]" ("the System of Nature"), implying yén manéhna, sahenteuna, percaya yén éta leuwih ti hiji "sistem jieunan"). Kadieunakeun sumping sistem dumasar kana tinimbangan leuwih lengkep tina ciri taksa, disebut salaku "sistem alam", kayaning tina pamadegan [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|de Jussieu]] (1789), de Candolle (1813) sarta [[Bentham and Hooker]] (1862–1863). Klasifikasi ieu ngajelaskeun pola émpiris sareng pra-[[évolusi]] dina pamikiran. Publikasi tina [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' (1859) ngabalukarkeun katerangan anyar pikeun klasifikasi, dumasar kana hubungan évolusionér. Ieu konsép [[filotik]] sistem, ti 1883 saterusna. Ieu dumasar pamadegan [[August Eichler|Eichler]] (1883) sarta [[Adolf Engler|Engler]] (1886–1892). Datangna tina [[cladistic]] metodologi dina 1970an ngarah kana klasifikasi dumasar kana hiji-hijina kritéria [[monofil]], dirojong ku ayana [[synapomorphies]]. Ti saprak éta, dasar evidentiary geus dimekarkeun kalawan data ti [[genetik molekular]] nu keur sabagian complements tradisional [[Morfologi]].{{sfn|Datta|1988}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}}{{sfn|Stace|1989}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}}{{sfn|Stuessy|2009}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}} === Saméméh-Linnaean === ==== Ahli taksonomi mimiti ==== Ngaran jeung klasifikasi lingkungan manusa kawasnamah dimimitian ku awal basa. Ngabédakeun tutuwuhan kana pepelakan matak weureu sareng anu tiasa didahar tayalian integral pikeun kalumangsungan hirup tina masarakat manusa. Ilustrasi tutuwuhan ubar muncul dina lukisan témbok Mesir ti {{Circa|1500 BC}}, nunjukkeun yén pamakéan spésiés béda anu dipikaharti sarta yén hiji taksonomi dasar aya dina tempat.<ref name="Manktelow">{{cite web |last=Manktelow |first=M. |date=2010 |url=http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |title=History of Taxonomy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529020546/http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=Dept. of Systematic Biology, [[Uppsala University]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529020546/http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |date=29 May 2015 }}</ref> ==== Jaman Baheula ==== {{further|Aristotle's biology#Classification}} [[File:Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|''Gambaran tina sato langka'' (写生珍禽图), ti [[Song dinasti]] digambar ku [[Huang Quan (painter)|Huang Quan]] (903–965)]] Organismeu munggaran digolongkeun ku [[Aristoteles]] ([[Yunani]], 384–322 BC) salila anjeunna maneuh di [[Lesbos|Pulo Lesbos]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |date=1982 |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref><ref name="Palaeos">{{Cite web |url= http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |title= History of Taxonomy |website= Palaeos |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170331022648/http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |archive-date= 31 March 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331022648/http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |date=31 March 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> Anjeunna ngagolongkeun mahluk dumasar bagian maranéhanana, atawa dina istilah modern ''atribut'', kayaning hirup tina anakan, ngabogaan opat suku, [[endog]], [[getih]] atawa panas awaka.[38] Anjeunna ngabagi sakabeh mahluk hirup kana dua golongan: tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan..<ref name="Roanoke">{{Cite web |url= http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/courses/genomics_course/roanoke/bio101ch20.htm |title=Biology 101, Ch 20 |date=23 March 1998 |website=cbs.dtu.dk |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170628023508/http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/courses/genomics_course/roanoke/bio101ch20.htm |archive-date=28 June 2017}}</ref> He divided all living things into two groups: [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s.<ref name="Palaeos" /> Sawatara kelompokna sato, sapertos ''Anhaima'' (sato henteu mibanda getih, ditarjamahkeun salaku [[invertebrata]]) sarta ''Enhaima'' (sasatoan anu mibanda [[getih]], kasarna téh sabangsaning [[vertebrata]]), sakumaha ogé kawas grup sabangsaning [[hiu]] jeung [[cetacean]], anu ilahar dipaké.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |date=2014 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=9781408836224 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lagoonhowaristot0000lero_m5a9/page/384 384]–395 |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi}}</ref><ref name="von Lieven & Humar 2008">{{cite journal |last1=von Lieven |first1=Alexander Fürst |last2=Humar |first2=Marcel |title=A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium" |journal=History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences |date=2008 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=227–262 |jstor=23334371 |pmid=19203017 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371 |issn=0391-9714 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127081940/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Laurin & Humar 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Laurin |first1=Michel |last2=Humar |first2=Marcel |title=Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals |journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol |date=2022 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1 |language=fr |doi-access=free }}</ref> muridna [[Theophrastus]] (Yunani, 370–285 BC) ngalaksanakeun tradisi ieu, mentioning sababaraha 500 tutuwuhan jeung kagunaan maranéhanana di na ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]''. Sababaraha tutuwuhan [[Genus|genera]] bisa disusud deui ka Theophrastus, sapertos ''[[Cornus (genus)|Cornus]]'', ''[[Crocus]]'', sarta ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]''.<ref name="Palaeos" /> ==== Abad Pertengahan==== Taksonomi dina [[Abad Pertengahan]] ieu sakitu legana dumasar kana[[Sistim Aristoteles]],<ref name="Roanoke" /> kalawan tambahan ngeunaan tatanan filosofis jeung ''existential'' mahluk. Ieu kalebet konsép sapertos éta [[ranté sasatoan anu ageung]] tradisi ​​di Kulon ''[[skolastik]]'',<ref name="Roanoke" /> deui deriving pamustunganana ti Aristoteles. Sistim Aristotelian teu ngaklasifikasikeun tutuwuhan anapon sabangsaning [[supa]], alatan kurangna mikroskop dina waktos éta.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> sakumaha gagasan na dumasar kana nyusun dunya lengkep dina hiji kontinum tunggal, sapertos 'scala naturae'' (tangga alam).<ref name="Palaeos" /> Ieu, ogé, dibawa kana tinimbangan dina ranté gedé sasatoan.<ref name="Palaeos" /> Kamajuan anu dilakukeun ku élmuwan sapertos [[Procopius]], [[Timotheus of Gaza]], [[Demetrios Pepagomenos]], ogé [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Pamikir abad ''pertengahan'' ngagunakeun ''categorizations filosofis'' jeung ''logis abstrak'' leuwih cocog kana filsafat abstrak batan taksonomi pragmatis..<ref name="Palaeos" /> ==== Renaissance jeung mimiti modern ==== Dina mangsa [[Renaissance]] atawa ''[[Jaman Pencerahan]],'' categorizing organismeu janten langkung umum,<ref name="Palaeos" /> jeung karya taksonomi jadi cukup ambisius pikeun ngaganti téks kuna. Ieu dipangaruhan ku ayana ngembangkeun lénsa optik canggih, nu ngidinan morfologi organismeu bisa diulik leuwih jéntré. Salah sahiji pangarang pangheubeulna pikeun ngamangpaatkeun ieu téhnologi éta dokter ti Italia [[Andrea Cesalpino]] (1519–1603), anu disebut "the first taxonomist".<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino |title=Andrea Cesalpino {{!}} Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Ieu hasil gawé anu onjoy ''De Plantis'' diguar di taun 1583, sarta digambarkeun leuwih ti 1500 spésiés tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/deplantislibrixv00cesa |title=De plantis libri XVI |last1=Cesalpino |first1=Andrea |last2=Marescotti |first2=Giorgio |date=1583 |publisher=Apud Georgium Marescottum |location=Florence |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino#ref130098 |title=Andrea Cesalpino {{!}} Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino#ref130098 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>Dua kulawarga pepelakan ageung anu kiwari mimiti dikenal sarta dianggo nepi ka ayeuna : [[Asteraceae]] jeung [[Brassicaceae]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=International Edition Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae (Handbook of Plant Breeding) |last=Jaime |first=Prohens |date=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781441924742}}</ref> Dina abad ka 17 [[John Ray]] ([[Inggris]], 1627–1705) nulis loba karya taksonomi penting.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy |title=taxonomy {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075451/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Bisa disebut hasil gawé anu pang gedéna tayalian ''Methodus Plantarum Nova'' (1682),<ref>{{Cite book |last=John |first=Ray |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/7/mode/1up |title=Methodus plantarum nova |publisher=impensis Henrici Faithorne & Joannis Kersey, ad insigne Rofæ Coemeterio D. Pauli |date=1682 |language=la |trans-title=New Method of Plants |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170929060003/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/7/mode/1up |archive-date=29 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> dimana anjeuna ngaguar lewih ti 18,000 spésiés tutuwuhan. Dina waktos éta, meureun moal aya deui hasil ti ahli taksonomi anu pang rumitna, nalika anjeuna ngagolongkeun taksana dina loba karakter gabungan. Karya taksonomi séjén anu henteu éléh kasohor dijieun ku [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] (France, 1656–1708).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort |title=Joseph Pitton de Tournefort {{!}} French botanist and physician |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075951/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Ieu karyana taun 1700, ''Institutiones Rei Herbariae'', kaasup leuwih ti 9000 spésiés 698 genera, nu langsung mangaruhan Linnaeus, sakumaha éta téks anjeunna dipaké salaku murid ngora.<ref name="Manktelow" /> === Mangsa Linnaean === {{Main|Linnaean taxonomy}} [[File:Linné-Systema Naturae 1735.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''[[Systema Naturae]]'', Leiden, 1735]] Ahli botani Swedia [[Carl Linnaeus]] (1707–1778)<ref name="Roanoke" /> ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' 1st Edition in 1735,<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1735 |title=Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species |language=la |publisher=Haak |location=Leiden}}</ref> ''[[Spésiés Plantarum]]'' dina taun 1753,<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1753 |title=Species Plantarum |language=la |location=Stockholm}}</ref> and [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|''Systema Naturae'' 10th Edition]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1758 |title=Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species |edition=10th |language=la |publisher=Haak |location=Leiden}}</ref> anjeunna ngarévolusi taksonomi modern. Karya-karyana ngalaksanakeun sistem tata ngaran binomial standar pikeun spésiés sato jeung tutuwuhan,<ref name="Britannica – Linnaean">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-Linnaean-system |title=taxonomy – The Linnaean system {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405074215/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-Linnaean-system |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> anu geus kabukti ngajadi solusi ampuh pikeun literatur taksonomi anu kacau jeung henteu puguh éntép sureuhna. Anjeunna henteu ngan nepangkeun standar kelas, order, genus, and&nbsp;spésiés, tapi ogé ngamungkinkeun pikeun ngaidentipikasi pepelakan sareng sasatoan tina bukuna, kalayan ngagunakeun sabagean leutik tina kembang (dipikawanoh salaku [[Linnaean system]]).<ref name="Britannica – Linnaean" /> ''Taxonomists'' tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan regard Linnaeus' dianggo salaku "titik mimiti" pikeun ngaran anu loyog (at 1753 and 1758 respectively).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Donk |first=M. A. |date=December 1957 |title=Typification and later starting-points |url= http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1959/Prop018-019.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Taxon |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=245–256 |doi=10.2307/1217493 |jstor=1217493 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091529/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1959/Prop018-019.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> Ngaran anu diterbitkeun sateuacan tanggal ieu disebut "pra-Linnaean", tur teu dianggap ''valid'' (iwal spiders diterbitkeun dina ''[[Svenska Spindlar]]''. <ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carl |first1=Clerck |last2=Carl |first2=Bergquist |last3=Eric |first3=Borg |last4=L. |first4=Gottman |last5=Lars |first5=Salvius |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209583#page/7/mode/1up |title=Svenska spindlar |publisher=Literis Laur. Salvii |date=1757 |language=sv |trans-title=Swedish Spiders |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171201181959/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209583#page/7/mode/1up |archive-date=1 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>). Malah ngaran taksonomi dipedalkeun ku Linnaeus sorangan saméméh tanggal ieu dianggap ''pra-Linnaean''.<ref name="Manktelow" /> === Jaman taksonomi digital=== Taksonomi modern dipangaruhan pisan ku téknologi sapertos [[DNA sequencing]], [[bioinformatics]], [[Biological database|databases]], sareng [[imaging]]. == Sistem klasifikasi modern == {{Main|Evolutionary taxonomy|Phylogenetic nomenclature}} [[File:Spindle diagram.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Evolution of the [[vertebrates]] at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for [[evolutionary taxonomy]].]] [[File:Cladogram vertebrata.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Hubungan anu sarua, ditepikeun salaku hiji [[cladogram]] has pikeun [[cladistics]]]] Hiji pola pikeun golongan anu nyayang sajeroning golongan anu geus ditangtukeun ku Linnaeus' klasifikasi tina tutuwukan tur sasatoan, sarta pola ieu mimiti jadi salaku gambaran [[dendrograms]] pikeun sasatoan sarta tutuwuhan [[Kingdom (biology)|karanaa]] lajeng dugi ka ahir abad ka 18, ogé saméméh Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'' dipedalkeun.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> Hiji pola "Natural System" teu merlukeun prosés generating , saperti dina evolusi, tapi bisa waé geus kasawang, mereun pamikir transmutationist. Diantara karya mimiti neuleuman tina pamikiran [[transmutation of species]] anu tayalian ''[[Zoonomia]]'' dina taun 1796 ku [[Erasmus Darwin]] ( akina Charles Darwin's), jeung [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]'s ''[[Philosophie zoologique]]'' dina taun 1809.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Hiji ideu anu geus dipopulerkeun dina dunya Anglophone sanajan loba anu sipatna spekulatif tapi loba ogé anu maraca ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'', dipedalkeun sacara anonim ku [[Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)|Robert Chambers]] in 1844.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |title=Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation |last=Secord |first=James A. |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=9780226744100 |author-link=James A. Secord |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |archive-date=16 May 2008 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |date=16 May 2008 }}</ref> Ayana téori Darwin, hiji anu disaluyuan kalawan gancang ditarima tayalian hiji klasifikasi kudu numutkeun kana prinsip Darwinian [[katangtuan umum]].<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Classification-since-Linnaeus |title=taxonomy – Classification since Linnaeus {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075916/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Classification-since-Linnaeus |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> [[Tangkal kahirupan]] élmu pangaweruh Répréséntasi jadi populér dina karya ilmiah, kalawan grup fosil dipikawanoh diasupkeun. Salah sahiji grup modéren munggaran anu dihijikeun ka karuhun fosil nyaéta manuk.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Black |first=Riley |date=7 December 2010 |title=Thomas Henry Huxley and the Dinobirds |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/thomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294/ |magazine=Smithsonian Magazine |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=10 November 2023 |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110094503/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/thomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ngagunakeun fosil lajeng anyar kapanggih tina ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' jeung ''[[Hesperornis]]'', [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] Nyebutkeun yén maranéhna geus mekar tina dinosaurus, hiji group resmi anu dingaranan ku [[Richard Owen]] taun 1842.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Thomas Henry Huxley |last=Huxley |first=Thomas Henry |date=1876 |chapter=Lectures on Evolution |title=Collected Essays |volume=IV |pages=46–138 |url= http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110628224543/http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html |archive-date=28 June 2011}} Original text w/ figures. First published as ''New York Tribune'', Extra no. 36.</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Henry-Huxley |title=Thomas Henry Huxley {{!}} British biologist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114405/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Henry-Huxley |archive-date=6 February 2018 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Pedaran anu dihasilkeun, éta dinosaurus "nimbulkeun" atawa mahluk "karuhun ti" manuk, mangrupa ciri penting tina pamikiran [[taksonomi évolusionér]]. Beuki loba grup fosil anu kapanggih sarta bisa dipikanyaho sahenteuna dina akhir abad ka 19 jeung mimiti abad 20, [[palaeontologists]] digawé pikeun mikanyaho sajarahna sasatoan ngaliwatan umur ku cara ngaitkeun babarengan jeung grup anu geus dipikawanoh.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NuYXr8BszwC&pg=PA24 |last=Rudwick |first=M. J. S. |date=1985 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226731032 |page=24}}</ref> kitu deui [[sintésis évolusionér modern]] ti mimiti 1940-an, dasarna pamahaman modérn ngeunaan évolusi tina grup utama di éta tempat. Salaku taksonomi évolusionér dumasar kana jajaran taksonomi Linnaean, dua istilah anu sakitu legana ditukeurkeun dina pamakéan modern.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Paterlini |first=Marta |date=September 2007 |title=There shall be order. The legacy of Linnaeus in the age of molecular biology |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=814–816 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7401061 |doi-access=free |pmc=1973966 |pmid=17767191}}</ref> Métode [[kladistik]] muncul ti taun 1960-an.<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus" /> Dina taun 1958, [[Julian Huxley]] ngagunakeun istilah ''clade''.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Engké, dina 1960, Cain jeung Harrison ngawanohkeun istilah "cladistic".<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Fitur anu penting nyaéta nyusun taksa dina hirarki [[tangkal évolusionér]], kalawan desideratum yén sakabéh taksa ngaranna téh monophyletic.<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus" /> Hiji takson disebut monophyletic lamun ngawengku sakabéh turunan tina wangun karuhun.<ref name="Mike Taylor">{{Cite web |url= http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |date=17 July 2003 |title=What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean? |last=Taylor |first=Mike |website=miketaylor.org.uk |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100801072310/http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |archive-date=1 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="NCSE">{{Cite web |url= https://ncse.com/book/export/html/2206 |title=Polyphyletic vs. Monophyletic |website=National Center for Science Education |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170039/https://ncse.com/book/export/html/2206 |archive-date=5 April 2017}}</ref> Grup anu ngagaduhan grup turunan dikaluarkeun tina aranjeunna disebut [[paraphyletic]],<ref name="Mike Taylor" /> sedengkeun grup nu ngawakilan leuwih ti hiji cabang tina tangkal kahirupan disebut [[polyphyletic]].<ref name="Mike Taylor" /><ref name="NCSE" /> Grup monophyletic dipikawanoh tur didiagnosis dumasar kana [[synapomorphies]], kaayaan karakter turunan dibagikeun.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brower |first1=Andrew V. Z. |first2=Randall T. |last2=Schuh |date=2021 |title=Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications |edition=3rd |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, New York |page=13}}</ref> Klasifikasi kladistik taksonomi Linnean cocog sareng Kodeu tradisional ‘’ [[Nomenklatur Zoologis]] ‘’ jeung [[nomenklatur botani]], ka extent tangtu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schuh |first=Randall T. |title=The Linnaean system and its 250-year persistence |journal=The Botanical Review |volume=69 |issue=1 |date=2003 |page=59|doi=10.1663/0006-8101(2003)069[0059:TLSAIY]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> Sistem tata ngaran alternatip, nyaéta PhyloCod/ ''[[Kode Internasional Nomenklatur Filogénétik]]'' atawa ''PhyloCode'' geus diajukeun, nu ngatur ngaran formal klad.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.ohio.edu/phylocode/ |title=The PhyloCode |last1=Queiroz |first1=Philip D. |last2=de Cantino |first2=Kevin |website=Ohio.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160510200022/https://www.ohio.edu/phylocode/ |archive-date=10 May 2016}}</ref><ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020" /><ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent" /> Jajaran Linnaean téh pilihan jeung teu boga status resmi dina ''PhyloCode'', nu dimaksudkeun pikeun hirup babarengan jeung kode ayeuna, dumasar-rank..<ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020" /> Samentara popularitas nomenklatur filogenetik parantos ningkat sacara stabil dina sababaraha dekade katukang, <ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent" /> tetep katingalna seuseueurna ahli sistematis antukna ngadopsi ''PhyloCode'' atanapi neraskeun ngagunakeun sistem tatangaran kiwari anu parantos dianggo (sareng dirobih, tapi panginten henteu sakumaha anu dipikahoyong ku sababaraha sistematis)<ref name="Dubois 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Dubois |first1=Alain |title=Naming taxa from cladograms: A cautionary tale |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=1 February 2007 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=317–330 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007 |pmid=16949307 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007 |issn=1055-7903 |access-date=21 October 2023 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101502/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790306002375?via%3Dihub |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dubois et al. 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Dubois |first1=Alain |last2=Bauer |first2=Aaron M. |last3=Ceríaco |first3=Luis M. P. |last4=Dusoulier |first4=François |last5=Frétey |first5=Thierry |last6=Löbl |first6=Ivan |last7=Lorvelec |first7=Olivier |last8=Ohler |first8=Annemarie |last9=Stopiglia |first9=Renata |last10=Aescht |first10=Erna |title=The Linz Zoocode project: A set of new proposals regarding the terminology, the Principles and Rules of zoological nomenclature. First report of activities (2014‒2019) |journal=Bionomina |date=17 December 2019 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1–111 |doi=10.11646/BIONOMINA.17.1.1|doi-access=free }}</ref> sahenteuna leuwih 250 taun. === Karajaan jeung domain === [[File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip.svg|thumb|upright|Skéma dasar klasifikasi modérn. Seueur tingkatan anu sanés tiasa dianggo; domain, tingkat pangluhurna dina kahirupan, duanana anyar jeung dibantah.]] {{Main|Kingdom (biology)|Domain (biology)}} Sateuacan kapanggihna Carl Linnaeus (Botanist) tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan dianggap Karajaan anu misah.<ref name="Kingdom classification">{{Cite news |url=http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |title=Kingdom Classification of Living Organism |date=2 December 2014 |work=Biology Discussion |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073641/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073641/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2017}} Linnaeus ngagunakeun ieu salaku pangkat luhur, ngabagi dunya fisik kana sayur, karajaan sato jeung mineral. Salaku kamajuan dina mikroskop ngajadikeun klasifikasi mikroorganismeu, jumlah karajaan ngaronjat, sistem lima jeung genep karajaan anu paling umum. [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]] mangrupa grup nu kawilang anyar. Mimiti diajukeun dina 1977, [[Carl Woese]] [[sistem tilu domain]] sacara umum teu ditarima nepi ka engké.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |title=Carl Woese {{!}} Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology |website=www.igb.Illinois.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163950/http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |archive-date=28 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163950/http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |date=28 April 2017 }}</ref>Salah sahiji ciri utama metode tilu domain nyaéta pamisahan [[Archaea]] sareng [[Baktéri]], anu sateuacana dikelompokkeun kana karajaan tunggal Baktéri (hiji karajaan anu sok disebut [[Monera]]),<ref name="Kingdom classification" /> kalawan [[Eukariota]] pikeun sakabéh organisme anu sélna ngandung [[Inti (biologi)|inti]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-link=Joel Cracraft |editor1-last=Cracraft |editor1-first=Joel |editor2-last=Donaghue |editor2-first=Michael J. |date=2004 |title=Assembling the Tree of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/assemblingtreeof0000unse |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195172345 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/assemblingtreeof0000unse/page/45 45], 78, 555}}</ref> Sajumlah leutik élmuwan kalebet karajaan kagenep, Archaea, tapi henteu nampi metode domain.<ref name="Kingdom classification" /> [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]], anu dipedalkeun sacara éksténsif ngeunaan klasifikasi [[protista]], taun 2002<ref name="pmid11931142">{{cite journal |last=Cavalier-Smith |first=T. |title=The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=52 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=297–354 |date=March 2002 |pmid=11931142 |doi=10.1099/00207713-52-2-297 |url=http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11931142 |access-date=21 November 2022 |archive-date=29 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729113756/http://ijs.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729113756/http://ijs.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem |date=29 July 2017 }}</ref> ngusulkeun yén [[Neomura]], clade anu ngahijikeun Archaea jeung [[Eukariota|Eucarya]]<!--yeah, Woese used a 'c' here-->, bakal mekar tina Baktéri, langkung tepatna tina [[Actinomycetota]]. Klasifikasi na 2004 nganggap [[archaeobacteria]] salaku bagian tina subkingdom karajaan Baktéri, nyaéta, anjeunna nampik sistem tilu domain sagemblengna.<ref name="CavalierSmith2004" /> Stefan Luketa di 2012 ngusulkeun lima sistem "dominion", nambahan [[Prion]]obiota ([[kahirupan non-sélular|asélular]] jeung tanpa [[asam nukléat]]) jeung [[Virus]]obiota (asélular tapi ' 'kalayan'' asam nukléat) kana tilu domain tradisional.<ref name="Luketa2012">{{Cite journal |last=Luketa |first=S. |date=2012 |title=New views on the megaclassification of life |url= http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Protistology |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=218–237 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150257/http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> {{center|{{Biological systems}}}} === Klasifikasi komprehensif panganyarna === Klasifikasi lengkep; parsial aya pikeun loba grup individu organismeu sarta dirévisi jeung diganti sakumaha informasi anyar anu sadia; kumaha ogé, kompréhénsif, diterbitkeun lumaku sawaréh atawa sagemblengna; conto panganyarna nyaéta jeung sajabana., 2012 jeung 2019,<ref name="Adl-et-al-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Adl |first1=S. M. |last2=Simpson |first2=A. G. B. |last3=Lane |first3=C. E. |last4=Lukeš |first4=J. |last5=Bass |first5=D. |last6=Bowser |first6=S. S. |display-authors=etal |date=December 2015 |title=The revised classification of eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–493 |doi=10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x |pmc=3483872 |pmid=23020233}}</ref><ref name="Adl-et-al-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Adl |first1=S. M. |last2=Bass |first2=D. |last3=Lane |first3=C. E. |last4=Lukeš |first4=J. |last5=Schoch |first5=C. L. |last6=Smirnov |first6=A. |display-authors=etal |date=2019 |title=Revisions to the classification, nomenclature, and diversity of eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=4–119 |doi=10.1111/jeu.12691 |pmc= 6492006|pmid=30257078|doi-access=free}}</ref> nu ngawengku eukariot wungkul kalawan tekenan kana protista, sarta Ruggiero jeung sajabana. taun 2015,<ref name="Ruggiero-et-al-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Ruggiero |first1=Michael A. |last2=Gordon |first2=D. P. |last3=Orrell |first3=T. M. |last4=Bailly |first4=N. |last5=Bourgoin |first5=T. |last6=Brusca |first6=R. C. |display-authors=etal |date=2015 |title=A higher level classification of all living organisms |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0119248 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1019248R |bibcode-access=free |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119248 |pmc=4418965 |pmid=25923521|doi-access=free}}</ref> ngawengku boh eukariot jeung [[prokariot]]s kana pangkat Orde, sanajan duanana ngaluarkeun wawakil fosil.<ref name="Ruggiero-et-al-2015" /> Kompilasi anu misah (Ruggiero, 2014)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Döring |first=Markus |title=Families of Living Organisms (FALO) |url=https://www.gbif.org/dataset/8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c |website=GBIF |date=August 13, 2015 |doi=10.15468/tfp6yv |access-date=11 March 2020 |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302232032/https://www.gbif.org/dataset/8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c |url-status=live }}</ref> nambahkeun taksa anu masih aya pikeun pangkat Kulawarga. Lain, Pangobatan dumasar basis data kalebet [[Ensiklopedia Kahirupan]], éta [[Fasilitas Émbaran Keanekaragaman Hayati Global]], [[database taksonomi NCBI]], [[Pendaptaran Interim Genera Kelautan sareng Nonmarine]], éta [[Buka Tangkal Kahirupan]], jeung [[Katalog Kahirupan]]. [[Database Paleobiologi]] mangrupa sumber pikeun fosil. == Aplikasi== Taksonomi biologis mangrupa sub-disiplin [[biologi]], sareng umumna dipraktékkeun ku ahli biologi anu katelah "ahli taksonomi", sanajan antusias [[Sajarah alam|naturalis]] ogé sering kalibet dina publikasi taksa anyar.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629/ |first1=Benjamin |last1=Jones |date=September 7, 2017 |title=A Few Bad Scientists Are Threatening to Topple Taxonomy |website=Smithsonian |access-date=24 February 2019 |archive-date=8 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208041357/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusabab taksonomi boga tujuan pikeun ngajelaskeun tur ngatur [[kahirupan]], karya anu dilakukeun ku ahli taksonomi penting pisan pikeun ulikan ngeunaan [[biodiversitas]] jeung hasil widang [[biologi konservasi]].<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html |title=What is taxonomy? |publisher=Natural History Museum |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131001152618/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html |archive-date=1 October 2013 |access-date=23 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McNeely |first=Jeffrey A. |date=2002 |title=The role of taxonomy in conserving biodiversity |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal for Nature Conservation |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=145–153 |doi=10.1078/1617-1381-00015 |bibcode=2002JNatC..10..145M |s2cid=16953722 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224155349/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2017 |via=Semantic Scholar }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224155349/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |date=24 December 2017 }}</ref> === Klasifikasi organismeu === {{Main|Taxonomic rank}} Klasifikasi biologis mangrupakeun komponén kritis prosés taksonomi. Hasilna, éta informs pamaké sakumaha naon baraya tina takson nu dihipotesiskeun. Klasifikasi biologis ngagunakeun pangkat taksonomi, kaasup antara séjén (urutan ti paling inklusif ka nu henteu inklusif): [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]], [[Karajaan (biologi)|Karajaan]], [[Filum]], [[Kelas (biologi)|Kelas]], [[Urutan (biologi)|Urutan]], [[Kulawarga (biologi)|Kulawarga]], [[Genus]], [[Spésiés]], jeung [[Galur (biologi)|Galur]].<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.mnemonic-device.com/biology/taxonomy/domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species/ |title=Mnemonic taxonomy / biology: Kingdom Phylum Class Order... |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170606171902/https://www.mnemonic-device.com/biology/taxonomy/domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species/ |archive-date=6 June 2017}}</ref>{{NoteTag|This ranking system, except for "Strain", can be remembered by the mnemonic "Do Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets?"}} === Katerangan taksonomi === {{See also|Species description}} [[File:Nepenthes smilesii type specimen.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tipe]] spécimén tina ''[[Nepenthes smilesii]]'', hiji tutuwuhan lokal sok disebut [[kantong semar]] [[pitcher plant]]]] Pedaran takson ieu di encapsulated ku déskripsi atawa diagnosis na atawa gabungan ku duanana. Henteu aya aturan anu diatur anu ngatur definisi taksa, tapi ngaran jeung publikasi taksa anyar diatur ku susunan aturan.<ref name="Herbarium" /> Dina [[zoologi]], [[nomenklatur]] pikeun jajaran anu leuwih ilahar dipaké ([[Superfamili (taksonomi)|superfamili]] nepi ka [[subspésiés]]), diatur ku ''[[Kode Internasional Nomenklatur Zoologis]]'' (''Kode ICZN'').<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |title=ICZN Code |website=animalbase.uni-goettingen.de |access-date=8 April 2017 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003055350/http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003055350/http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |date=3 October 2022 }}</ref> Dina widang [[phycology]], [[mycology]], jeung [[botani]], ngaran taksa diatur ku ''[[Kode Nomenklatur Internasional pikeun ganggang, fungi, jeung tutuwuhan]]'' (''ICN'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants |url= http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |work=IAPT-Taxon.org |publisher=[[International Association for Plant Taxonomy]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130111104255/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |archive-date=11 January 2013}}</ref> Katerangan awal hiji takson ngalibatkeun lima sarat utama:<ref>{{Cite web |title=How can I describe new species? |url= http://iczn.org/content/how-can-i-describe-new-species |work=ICZN.org |publisher=[[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120306133052/http://iczn.org/content/how-can-i-describe-new-species |archive-date=6 March 2012 |access-date=21 May 2020}}</ref> # Taksonna kudu dibéré ngaran dumasar kana 26 hurup alfabét Latin ([[binomial nomenclature|binomial]] pikeun spésiés anyar, atawa uninomial pikeun jajaran séjén). # Ngaranna kudu unik (nyaéta lain [[homonim (biologi)|homonim]]). # Katerangan kudu dumasar kana sakurang-kurangna hiji [[Spésiés Tipe|spésimén]]. #Éta kedah kalebet pernyataan ngeunaan atribut anu cocog pikeun ngajelaskeun (ngahartikeun) takson atanapi ngabédakeun tina takson anu sanés. (diagnosis, ''Kode ICZN'', Pasal 13.1.1, ''ICN'', Pasal 38, anu tiasa atanapi henteu dumasar kana morfologi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lawley |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Gamero-Mora |first2=Edgar |last3=Maronna |first3=Maximiliano M. |last4=Chiaverano |first4=Luciano M. |last5=Stampar |first5=Sérgio N. |last6=Hopcroft |first6=Russell R. |last7=Collins |first7=Allen G. |last8=Morandini |first8=André C. |date=19 September 2022 |title=Morphology is not always useful for diagnosis, and that's ok: Species hypotheses should not be bound to a class of data. Reply to Brown and Gibbons (S Afr J Sci. 2022;118(9/10), Art. #12590) |url=https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495 |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=118 |issue=9/10 |doi=10.17159/sajs.2022/14495 |s2cid=252562185 |issn=1996-7489 |doi-access=free |access-date=20 October 2022 |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020063714/https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495 |url-status=live }}</ref>). Kadua kodeu ngahaja misahkeun nangtukeun eusi takson ([[circumscription (taksonomi)|circumscription]]) tina nangtukeun ngaranna. # Opat sarat munggaran ieu kedah dipedalkeun dina karya anu tiasa dicandak dina sababaraha salinan anu sami, salaku catetan ilmiah anu permanén. Nanging, sering langkung seueur inpormasi anu kalebet, sapertos rentang geografis takson, catetan ékologis, kimia, kabiasaan, jsb Kumaha panaluntik anjog di taksa maranéhna béda-béda: gumantung kana data anu sadia, jeung sumber, métode béda ti basajan [[Sipat kuantitatif|kuantitatif]] atawa [[Sipat kualitatif|kualitatif]] babandingan fitur-fitur anu aya, pikeun ngajéntrékeun analisa komputer tina jumlah badag data [[DNA]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Taxonomy – Evaluating taxonomic characters |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Evaluating-taxonomic-characters |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190422143927/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Evaluating-taxonomic-characters |archive-date=22 April 2019 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> === Cutatan pangarang === {{Main|Author citation (botany)|Author citation (zoology)}} "Otoritas" tiasa ditempatkeun saatos nami ilmiah.<ref name="AJE">{{Cite web |url= http://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-scientific-names-species/ |title=Editing Tip: Scientific Names of Species |publisher=American Journal Experts, Research Square Company |website=AJE.com |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021714/http://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-scientific-names-species/ |archive-date=9 April 2017}}</ref> Wewenang nyaéta ngaran élmuwan atawa élmuwan anu mimiti sah medalkeun ngaran éta.<ref name="AJE" /> Contona, dina taun 1758 Linnaeus méré ngaran ilmiahna [[gajah Asia]]; ''Elephas maximus'', jadi ngaran ieu sakapeung ditulis jadi "''Elephas maximus'' Linnaeus, 1758".<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html |title=Carolus Linnaeus: Classification, Taxonomy & Contributions to Biology – Video & Lesson Transcript |website=Study.com |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021600/http://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html |archive-date=9 April 2017}}</ref> Ngaran pangarang mindeng disingget: singketan ''L.'', keur ''Linnaeus,'' ilahar dipaké. Dina botani, kanyataanna, aya daptar singketan standar anu diatur (tingali [[daptar ahli botani dumasar singgetan pangarang]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |title=Biological Classification |last=Biocyclopedia.com |website=biocyclopedia.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514164313/http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |archive-date=14 May 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514164313/http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |date=14 May 2017 }}</ref> Sistem pikeun nangtukeun otoritas rada béda antara [[Kutipan pangarang (botani)|botani]] jeung [[Kutipan pangarang (zoologi)|zoologi]].<ref name="Herbarium" /> Sanajan kitu, éta standar yén lamun genus spésiés geus robah ti déskripsi aslina, ngaran otoritas aslina urang disimpen dina kurung.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |title=Zoological nomenclature: a basic guide for non-taxonomist authors |website=Annelida.net |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316112709/http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |archive-date=16 March 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316112709/http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |date=16 March 2017 }}</ref> == Pénétika == [[File:Phylogenetics.svg|thumb|300px|A comparison of phylogenetic and phenetic (character-based) concepts]] {{Main|Phenetics}} Dina phenetics, ogé katelah taximetrics, atawa taksonomi numerik, organismeu digolongkeun dumasar kana kasaruaan sakabéh, paduli filogeni atawa hubungan évolusionér maranéhanana.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Hasilna dina ukuran hypergeometric "jarak" antara taksa. Métode fénétik geus kawilang jarang di jaman modéren, lolobana diganti ku analisis [[Kladistik|kladistik]], sabab métode fénétik teu ngabédakeun sipat karuhun (atawa [[plesiomorph]] ic) tina turunan babarengan (atawa [[apomorphic]]). ) ciri.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Classification |url= https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/evoresources/Evolutionary%20medicine/classification/classification16.htm |publisher=[[North Carolina State University]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170414163250/https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/evoresources/Evolutionary%20medicine/classification/classification16.htm |archive-date=14 April 2017 |access-date=27 April 2017}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, métode phenetic tangtu, kayaning [[tatangga gabung]], tetep, salaku estimators gancang tina hubungan lamun métode leuwih canggih (saperti [[Bayesian inferensi]]) teuing komputasi mahal.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Molecular Marker Glossary |url= http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/mcdgloss.html |last=McDonald |first=David |date=Fall 2008 |publisher=[[University of Wyoming]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070610123503/http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/McDGloss.html |archive-date=10 June 2007}}</ref> == Basis data == {{Main|Taxonomic database}} Taksonomi modern ngagunakeun téknologi database pikeun milarian sareng katalog ''klasifikasi'' sareng dokuméntasina.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Dylan |last2=King |first2=Margaret |last3=Landis |first3=Drew |last4=Courtney |first4=William |last5=Wang |first5=Runtang |last6=Kelly |first6=Ross |last7=Turner |first7=Jessica A. |last8=Calhoun |first8=Vince D. |date=26 August 2014 |title=Harnessing modern web application technology to create intuitive and efficient data visualization and sharing tools |journal=Frontiers in Neuroinformatics |volume=8 |pages=71 |doi=10.3389/fninf.2014.00071 |issn=1662-5196 |pmc=4144441 |pmid=25206330|doi-access=free}}</ref> Bari euweuh database ilahar dipaké, aya pangkalan data anu ''komprehensif'' sapertos ''[[Katalog Kahirupan]]'', nu tos nyoba ngadaptar unggal spésiés.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.theplantlist.org/about/ |title= About – The Plant List |website= theplantlist.org |access-date= 8 April 2017 |archive-date= 21 June 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170621190909/http://www.theplantlist.org/about/ |url-status= live }}</ref> Katalog didaptarkeun 1,64&nbsp;juta spésiés pikeun sadaya karajaan {{as of|2016|4|lc=on}}, ngaku liputan leuwih ti tilu-suku tina estimasi spésiés dipikawanoh pikeun élmu modern.<ref name="About the Catalogue of Life">{{Cite web |url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |title=About the Catalogue of Life: 2016 Annual Checklist |website=Catalogue of Life |publisher=[[Integrated Taxonomic Information System]] (ITIS) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515032942/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |archive-date=15 May 2016 |access-date=22 May 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515032942/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |date=15 May 2016 }}</ref> == Tempo ogé== {{Div col|small=yes}} * [[Automated species identification]] * [[Bacterial taxonomy]] * [[Cluster analysis]] * [[Consortium for the Barcode of Life]] * [[Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities]] * [[Genetypes]] * [[Glossary of scientific naming]] * [[Identification (biology)]] * ''[[Incertae sedis]]'' * [[Open Tree of Life]] * [[Parataxonomy]] * [[Phenogram]] * [[Set theory]] * [[Taxonomy]] (general) * [[Virus classification]] {{div col end}} == Dicutat tina== {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C |title=Systematic Botany |last=Datta |first=Subhash Chandra |date=1988 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=9788122400137 |edition=4 |location=New Delhi |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101351/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C |title=Plant taxonomy and biosystematics |last=Stace |first=Clive A. |date=1989 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521427852 |edition=2nd. |location=Cambridge |author-link=Clive A. Stace |access-date=19 April 2015 |orig-year=1980 |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113180249/https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC |title=Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data |last=Stuessy |first=Tod F. |date=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231147125 |access-date=6 February 2014 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101356/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC |url-status=live }} *{{Cite journal |last=Turrill |first=W. B. |date=1938 |title=The Expansion Of Taxonomy With Special Reference To Spermatophyta |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=342–373 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.1938.tb00522.x|s2cid=84905335}} * {{cite book |last1=Wiley |first1=Edward O. |first2=Bruce S. |last2=Lieberman |date=2011 |title=Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470905968 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |edition=2nd |isbn=9780470905968}} {{refend}} == Tutumbu ka luar == * [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html What is taxonomy?] at the [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/ ''Natural History Museum London''] * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/ Taxonomy] at [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ NCBI] the ''National Center for Biotechnology Information'' * [https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/ Taxonomy] at [https://www.uniprot.org/ UniProt] the ''Universal Protein Resource'' * [https://www.itis.gov/ ITIS] the ''Integrated Taxonomic Information System'' * [http://www.cetaf.org/ CETaF] the ''Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities'' * [http://species.wikimedia.org/ Wikispecies] ''free species directory'' * [https://www.thescienceclass.online/2019/10/biological-classification.html Biological classification.] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200813180358/https://www.thescienceclass.online/2019/10/biological-classification.html |date=13 August 2020}} {{Branches of biology}} {{Subject bar |wikt = yes |wikt-search = taxonomy |commons = yes |q = yes |s = yes |v = yes |d = yes |portal1 = Biology }} [[Kategori:biologi ]] [[Kategori :Élmu]] [[Kategori :Élmu Alam]] gu541dde1rpzc884tupuqmxtqbqyo75 0 105445 711666 678922 2026-08-07T01:13:55Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711666 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Cf-251.png|thumb|Kalifornium(III) nitrat]] Sababaraha '''[[sanyawa kimia|sanyawa]] [[kalifornium]]''' parantos dijieun jeung ditaliti.<ref name=”Krebs2006”>{{cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert|title=The History and Use of our Earth’s Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/historyuseourear00kreb_356|url-access=limited|year=2006|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] Group|isbn=978-0-313-33438-2|location=Westport, Connecticut|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyuseourear00kreb_356/page/n351 327]–328}}</ref> Hiji-hijina [[ion]] kalifornium anu stabil dina leyuran cai nyaéta kation kalifornium(III).{{sfn|CRC|2006|p=4-8}} Dua [[kaayaan oksidasi]] séjénna nyaéta IV (agén pangoksidasi kuat) jeung II (agén réduksi kuat).{{sfn|Jakubke|1994|p=166}} Unsur ieu ngabentuk klorida larut [[cai]], [[nitrat]], [[perklorat]], jeung [[sulfat]] sarta endapan jadi [[fluorida]], [[oksalat]] atawa [[hidroksida]].{{sfn|Seaborg|2004}} Upami masalah kasadiaan unsur tiasa diatasi, maka CfBr₂ sareng CfI₂ sigana bakal stabil.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=1272}} Kaayaan oksidasi +3 diwakilan ku kalifornium(III) oksida (konéng-héjo, Cf₂O₃), kalifornium(III) fluorida (héjo caang, CfF₃) jeung kalifornium(III) iodida (lemon konéng, CfI₃).{{sfn|Jakubke|1994|p=166}} Kaayaan oksidasi +3 séjén kaasup sulfida jeung metalosin.{{sfn|Cotton|1999|p=1163}} Kalifornium(IV) oksida (coklat hideung, CfO₂), kalifornium(IV) fluorida (héjo, CfF₄) ngagambarkeun kaayaan oksidasi IV. Kaayaan II diwakilan ku kalifornium(II) bromida (konéng, CfBr₂) jeung kalifornium(II) iodida (violet poék, CfI₂).{{sfn|Jakubke|1994|p=166}} == Sanyawa == [[Kalifornium(IV) oksida]] (CfO₂) nyaéta padet hideung-coklat nu mibanda struktur kristal kubik jeung parameter kisi, jarak antara sél unit dina kristal, tina 531,0 ± 0,2 pm.<ref name=”CF_OX”>{{cite journal|first=R. D.|last=Baybarz|author2=Haire, R. G. |author3=Fahey, J. A |title=On the Californium Oxide System|journal=[[Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry]]|year=1972|volume=34|issue=2|pages=557–565|doi=10.1016/0022-1902(72)80435-4}}</ref> Kristal [[kalifornium(III) oksida]] biasana mibanda simétri kubik anu puseur awak. Aranjeunna ngarobah kana bentuk monoclinic nalika dipanaskeun dugi ka 1400 °C sareng ngalembereh dina 1750 °C.<ref name=”CF_OX” /> [[Kalifornium(III) klorida]] (CfCl₃) nyaéta sanyawa héjo zamrud jeung struktur héksagonal nu bisa dijieun ku ngaréaksikeun Cf₂O₃ jeung asam hidroklorat dina 500 °C.{{sfn|Cunningham|1968|p=105}} CfCl₃ lajeng dipaké salaku feeder stock pikeun ngabentuk triiodide konéng-oranyeu CfI₃, nu salajengna bisa diréduksi jadi ungu lavender diiodida CfI₂.<ref>{{cite book|title=Lanthanide and Actinide Chemistry|last=Cotton|first=Simon| publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=West Sussex, England|year=2006|isbn=978-0-470-01006-8|page=168|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SvAbtU6XvzgC&dq=Lanthanide%20and%20Actinide%20Chemistry&pg=PP1}}</ref> [[Kalifornium(III) fluorida]] (CfF₃) nyaéta padet konéng-héjo kalayan simétri kristal anu laun-laun robah tina ortorombik jadi trigonal lamun dipanaskeun di luhur suhu kamar.<ref>{{cite journal|first=J. N.|last=Stevenson|author2=Peterson, J. R.|title=The Trigonal and Orthorhombic Crystal Structures of CfF₃ and their Temperature Relationship|journal=[[Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry]]|year=1973|volume=35|issue=10|pages=3481–3486|doi=10.1016/0022-1902(73)80356-2}}</ref> [[Kalifornium(IV) fluorida]] (CfF₄) nyaéta padet héjo caang jeung struktur kristal monoklinik.<ref>{{cite journal|first=C-T. P.|last=Chang|author2=Haire, R. G. |author3=Nave, S. E. |title=Magnetic Susceptibility of Californium Fluorides|journal=Physical Review B|year=1990|volume=41|issue=13|pages=9045–9048|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.41.9045|pmid=9993248|bibcode = 1990PhRvB..41.9045C |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1233719}}</ref> [[Kalifornium(II) iodida]] (CfI₂) nyaéta padet ungu jero kalayan struktur rhombohedral anu stabil dina suhu kamar sareng struktur héksagonal anu teu stabil. Kalifornium(III) iodida (CfI₃) nyaéta padet konéng-lemon nu mibanda struktur rhombohedral jeung sublim dina ~800 °C.<ref name=dictoc>{{cite book|first=J. E.|last=Macintyre|author2=Daniel, F. M. |author3=Stirling, V. M. |title=Dictionary of inorganic compounds|publisher=[[Chapman and Hall]], [[CRC Press]]|location=London|year=1992|isbn=978-0-412-30120-9|page=2826}}</ref> Kalifornium(III) oksifluorida (CfOF) disiapkeun ku hidrolisis kalifornium (III) fluorida (CfF₃) dina suhu luhur.<ref>{{cite journal|first=J. R.|last= Peterson|author2=Burns, John H.|title=Preparation and Crystal Structure of Californium Oxyfluoride, CfOF|journal=[[Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry]]|year=1968|volume=30|issue=11|pages=2955–2958|doi=10.1016/0022-1902(68)80155-1}}</ref> Kalifornium(III) oksiklorida (CfOCl) dijieun ku cara hidrolisis hidrat kalifornium(III) klorida dina suhu 280–320 °C.<ref name=”CF_OX_CL_1969”>{{cite journal|first=J. C.|last=Copeland|author2=Cunningham, B. B.|title=Crystallography of the Compounds of Californium. II. Crystal Structure and Lattice Parameters of Californium Oxychloride and Californium Sesquioxide|journal=[[Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry]]|year=1969|volume=31|pages=733–740|issue=3|doi=10.1016/0022-1902(69)80020-5|url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt4gw1g9cb/qt4gw1g9cb.pdf?t=p0uwbs}}</ref> Pemanasan sulfat dina hawa kira-kira 1200 °C terus diréduksi ku hidrogén dina 500 °C ngahasilkeun sésquioksida (Cf₂O₃).{{sfn|Cunningham|1968|p=105}} Hidroksida Cf(OH)₃ jeung trifluorida CfF₃ rada leyur.{{sfn|Cunningham|1968|p=105}} Kalifornium(III) oksiklorida (CfOCl) nyaéta sanyawa kalifornium munggaran anu kapanggih.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Seaborg|first1=Glenn T.|title=Man-Made Transuranium Elements|url=https://archive.org/details/manmadetransuran0000seab|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1963}}</ref> [[Kalifornium(III) poliborat]] teu ilahar dina nu kalifornium ieu kovalén kabeungkeut borat.<ref name=doe>{{cite web|title=Unusual structure, bonding, and properties may provide a new possibility for a californium borate|url=http://phys.org/news/2015-06-unusual-bonding-properties-possibility-californium.html|accessdate=29 July 2015|date=1 June 2015}}</ref> Tris(siklopentadienil)kalifornium(III) (Cp₃Cf) nampilkeun dirina salaku kristal beureum ruby. Komplek siklopentadienil ieu disusun ku réaksi antara Cp₂Be jeung CfCl₃ dina skala mikrogram jeung dicirikeun ku kristalografi sinar-X.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Peter G.|last=Laubereau|author2=Burns, John H.|title=Microchemical preparation of tricyclopentadienyl compounds of berkelium, californium, and some lanthanide elements|journal=Inorganic Chemistry|year=1970|volume=9|pages=1091–1095|issue=5|doi=10.1021/ic50087a018}}</ref> Kalifornium nyaéta unsur kadua pangbeuratna anu dipikawanoh sanyawa organologam. A metallocene kalifornium ngagulung ogé geus diisolasi jeung dicirikeun.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Conrad A. P. |last2=Su |first2=Jing |last3=Stevens |first3=Lauren M. |last4=White |first4=Frankie D. |last5=Anderson |first5=Nickolas H. |last6=Auxier |first6=John D. |last7=Albrecht-Schönzart |first7=Thomas E. |last8=Batista |first8=Enrique R. |last9=Briscoe |first9=Sasha F. |last10=Cross |first10=Justin N. |last11=Evans |first11=William J. |last12=Gaiser |first12=Alyssa N. |last13=Gaunt |first13=Andrew J. |last14=James |first14=Michael R. |last15=Janicke |first15=Michael T. |last16=Jenkins |first16=Tener F. |last17=Jones |first17=Zachary R. |last18=Kozimor |first18=Stosh A. |last19=Scott |first19=Brian L. |last20=Sperling |first20=Joseph. M. |last21=Wedal |first21=Justin C. |last22=Windorff |first22=Cory J. |last23=Yang |first23=Ping |last24=Ziller |first24=Joseph W. |title=Isolation and characterization of a californium metallocene |journal=Nature |date=18 November 2021 |volume=599 |issue=7885 |pages=421–424 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04027-8|pmid=34789902 |bibcode=2021Natur.599..421G |s2cid=244347582 |url=https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/files/211664193/goodwin2021Nature_CfCp2_draft.pdf }}</ref> == Tempo ogé == *[[Kalifornium]] *[[Sanyawa uranium]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == *{{cite book |last = Cotton|first = F. Albert |author2=Wilkinson, Geoffrey |author3=Murillo, Carlos A. |author4=Bochmann, Manfred |title = Advanced Inorganic Chemistry |url = https://archive.org/details/advancedinorgani0000unse|edition = 6th |year = 1999 |publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]] |location = New York City |isbn = 0-471-19957-5 |chapter = |pages = |ref = CITEREFCotton1999}} *{{cite book |author = CRC contributors |title = Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |editor = David R. Lide |edition = 87th |year = 2006 |publisher = [[CRC Press]], [[Taylor & Francis Group]] |location = Boca Raton, Florida |isbn = 0-8493-0487-3 |ref = CITEREFCRC2006}} *{{cite book |title = The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements |url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp |url-access = registration |publisher = [[Reinhold Book Corporation]] |location = New York City |year = 1968 |editor = Clifford A. Hampel |lccn = 68-29938 |last = Cunningham |first = B. B. |chapter = Californium |pages= }} *{{cite book |last = Greenwood |first = N. N. |author2=Earnshaw, A. |title = Chemistry of the Elements |edition = 2nd |publisher = [[Butterworth-Heinemann]] |location = Oxford, England |year = 1997 |isbn = 0-7506-3365-4 |page = |chapter = |ref = CITEREFGreenwood1997}} *{{cite book |others = trans. Rev. Eagleson, Mary |editor1-first = Hans-Dieter|editor1-last=Jakubke |editor2-first = Hans|editor2-last = Jeschkeit |title = Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry |publisher = [[Walter de Gruyter]] |location = Berlin |year = 1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Owuv-c9L_IMC |isbn = 3-11-011451-8 |ref = CITEREFJakubke1994}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last = Seaborg|first = Glenn T. |encyclopedia = Concise Encyclopedia of Chemistry |title = Californium |editor = Geller, Elizabeth |publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]] |location = New York City |year = 2004 |isbn = 0-07-143953-6 |page = 94 }} {{Sanyawa kalifornium}} [[Kategori: Sanyawa kalifornium| Sanyawa kalifornium]] [[Kategori: Kalifornium]] abkq7t6rt8sv6ltadky0dvvsfsjt638 0 105447 711803 670054 2026-08-07T04:40:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711803 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kalifornium''' nyaéta [[unsur kimia]] dina sistem périodik unsur-unsur anu [[lambang atom|lambangna]] Cf jeung [[nomer atom]] 98. Atom ieu dingaranan universitas jeung nagara bagian [[Kalifornia]]. Kalifornium mangrupa sanyawa 7 paling mahal di dunya, dina 27 juta dollar AS per gram.<ref>{{Citation|title=Why Does Californium-252 Cost $27 Million Per Gram|url=https://medium.com/illumination/why-does-californium-252-cost-27-million-per-gram-91526225287|accessdate=2023-06-24|language=id-ID}}</ref> == Sanyawa == {{main|Sanyawa kalifornium}} == Mangpaat == Kalifornium tiasa dianggo pikeun terapi [[kanker]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mastah.org/kalifornium-californium-cf-penjelasan-ciri-sifat-dan-fungsi-kegunaan/|title=Kalifornium {{!}} Californium (Cf) : Penjelasan, Ciri Sifat dan Kegunaan|date=2017-11-30|website=MASTAH|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref> Ieu unsur mangrupa sumber neutron efisien. Ku kituna aya loba poténsi kagunaan anyar pikeun unsur ieu. == Tempo ogé == *[[Sanyawa kalifornium]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Pustaka == <!--NOTE only add URLs to places where at least some preview of the book is available --> * {{cite book | last1 = Cotton | first1 = F. Albert | last2 = Wilkinson | first2 = Geoffrey | last3 = Murillo | first3 = Carlos A. | last4 = Bochmann | first4 = Manfred | title = Advanced Inorganic Chemistry | url = https://archive.org/details/advancedinorgani0000unse | edition = 6th | date = 1999 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | isbn = 978-0-471-19957-1 }} * {{cite book | title = The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp | chapter-url-access = registration | publisher = Reinhold Book Corporation | date = 1968 | editor-last = Hampel |editor-first = Clifford A. | last = Cunningham | first = B. B. | chapter = Californium | lccn = 68029938 }} * {{cite book | title = The Elements | last = Emsley | first = John | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-19-855818-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgYpAAAAYAAJ }} * {{cite book | title = Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements | last = Emsley | first = John | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-19-850340-8 | chapter = Californium | url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl | url-access = registration }} * {{cite book | last1 = Greenwood | first1 = N. N. | last2 = Earnshaw | first2 = A. | title = Chemistry of the Elements | edition = 2nd | publisher = Butterworth-Heinemann | date = 1997 | isbn = 978-0-7506-3365-9 }} * {{cite book | title = The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements | editor1-first = Lester R. | editor1-last = Morss|editor2-first = Norman M. | editor2-last = Edelstein | editor3-last = Fuger|editor3-first = Jean | last = Haire|first = Richard G. | chapter = Californium | publisher = Springer Science+Business Media | date = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-4020-3555-5 | edition = 3rd }} * {{cite book | last = Heiserman | first = David L. | date = 1992 | title = Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds | publisher = TAB Books | isbn = 978-0-8306-3018-9 | chapter = Element 98: Californium | url=https://archive.org/details/exploringchemica01heis | url-access = registration }} * {{cite book | others = trans. rev. Eagleson, Mary | editor1-first = Hans-Dieter | editor1-last = Jakubke | editor2-first = Hans | editor2-last = Jeschkeit | title = Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry | publisher = Walter de Gruyter | date = 1994 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Owuv-c9L_IMC | isbn = 978-3-11-011451-5 | ref = {{sfnRef|Jakubke|1994}} }} * {{cite book | last = Krebs | first = Robert | title = The History and Use of our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide | url = https://archive.org/details/historyuseofoure0000kreb | date = 2006 | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | isbn = 978-0-313-33438-2 }} * {{cite book | title = Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | editor-first = David R.|editor-last = Lide | edition = 87th | date = 2006 | publisher = CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group | isbn = 978-0-8493-0487-3 | ref = {{sfnRef|CRC|2006}} }} * {{cite book | title = Radiation Source Use and Replacement: Abbreviated Version | author = National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Radiation Source Use and Replacement | date = 2008 | publisher = National Academies Press | ref = {{sfnRef|NRC|2008}} | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3cT2REdXJ98C | isbn = 978-0-309-11014-3 }} * {{cite book | editor1-last = O'Neil|editor1-first = Marydale J. | editor2-last = Heckelman|editor2-first = Patricia E. | editor3-last = Roman|editor3-first = Cherie B. | title = The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals | edition = 14th | publisher = Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Co. | date = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-911910-00-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kEYfRAAACAAJ | ref = {{sfnRef|O'Neil|2006}} }} * {{cite journal | title = Californium-252: A Remarkable Versatile Radioisotope | last1 = Osborne-Lee|first1 = I. W. | last2 = Alexander|first2 = C. W. | journal = Oak Ridge Technical Report ORNL/TM-12706 | date = 1995 | url = http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?query_id=1&page=0&osti_id=205871 |doi=10.2172/205871 | ref = {{sfnRef|Osborne-Lee|1995}} | doi-access = free | osti = 205871}} * {{cite book | last1 = Ruiz-Lapuente | first1 = P. | last2 = Canal | first2 = R. | last3 = Isern | first3 = J. | date = 1996 | title = Thermonuclear Supernovae | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media]] | isbn = 978-0-7923-4359-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=I6Rl1VAAX3QC | ref = {{sfnRef|Ruiz-Lapuente|1996}} }} * {{cite book | last1 = Seaborg|first1 = Glenn T. | author-link1 = Glenn T. Seaborg | last2 = Loveland|first2 = Walter D. | title = The Elements Beyond Uranium | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | date = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-471-89062-1 | ref = {{sfnRef|Seaborg|1990}} | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QFhRAAAAMAAJ }} * {{cite book | last = Seaborg | first = Glenn T. | date = 1994 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=e53sNAOXrdMC&pg=PA245 | title = Modern alchemy: selected papers of Glenn T. Seaborg | publisher = World Scientific | isbn = 978-981-02-1440-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Seaborg | first = Glenn T. | date = 1996 | editor = Adloff, J. P. | title = One Hundred Years after the Discovery of Radioactivity | publisher = Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag | isbn = 978-3-486-64252-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ4rvgAACAAJ }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Seaborg | first = Glenn T. | encyclopedia = Concise Encyclopedia of Chemistry | title = Californium | editor = Geller, Elizabeth | publisher = McGraw-Hill | date = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-07-143953-4 | page = 94 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Owuv-c9L_IMC }} * {{cite book | last1 = Szwacki | first1 = Nevill Gonzalez | last2 = Szwacka | first2 = Teresa | title = Basic Elements of Crystallography | publisher = Pan Stanford | date = 2010 | isbn = 978-981-4241-59-5 | url = https://www.scribd.com/doc/39588027/Basic-Elements-of-Crystallography | ref= {{sfnRef|Szwacki|2010}} }} * {{cite book | title = Handbook of Metal Etchants | editor1-first = Perrin|editor1-last = Walker | editor2-first = William H.| editor2-last = Tarn | date = 1991 | publisher = CRC Press | isbn = 978-0-8493-3623-2 | ref = {{sfnRef|CRC|1991}} }} * {{cite book | last1 = Weeks | first1 = Mary Elvira | author-link=Mary Elvira Weeks| last2 = Leichester |first2=Henry M. | date = 1968 | title = Discovery of the Elements | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/discoveryofeleme0000week | chapter-url-access = registration | publisher = Journal of Chemical Education | chapter = 21: Modern Alchemy | pages = [https://archive.org/details/discoveryofeleme0000week/page/848 848–850] | isbn = 978-0-7661-3872-8 | lccn = 68015217 }} {{Sanyawa kalifornium}} [[Kategori: Unsur kimia]] [[Kategori: Kalifornium]] n8vqjjkdumrvehsgutzmq2rvsysofgt 0 105465 711708 670365 2026-08-07T02:09:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711708 wikitext text/x-wiki [[gambar:Sate Bandeng 2.jpg|thumb|Saté bandeng]] '''Saté bandeng''' nyaéta masakan tradisional Sunda populér ti [[Banten]], propinsi deukeut [[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia]].<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2006/02/05/dinner-baby-shark-south-banten.html | title = Dinner with a baby shark in South Banten | author = Suryatini N. Ganie | date = 5 February 2006 | newspaper = [[The Jakarta Post]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304141551/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2006/02/05/dinner-baby-shark-south-banten.html |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://travel.kompas.com/read/2009/07/29/09412274/Gurihnya.Sate.Bandeng.Khas.Banten | title = Gurihnya Sate Bandeng Khas Banten | date = 29 July 2009 | publisher = [[kompas.com]] }}</ref> Saté bandeng dijieun tina lauk bandeng (''Chanos chanos'') dipanggang dina kulitna dina tusuk awi leuwih baranahan.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DYJLmXTPFyoC&pg=PA166 | title = Masakan Indonesia | publisher = [[Gramedia Pustaka Utama]] | year = 2008 | author = Yasa Boga | isbn = 9792234454 | page = 166 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xn-VdElNGpgC&pg=PA81 | title = Ragam Olahan Bandeng | publisher = [[Penerbit Kanisius]] | year = 2007 | isbn = 979211730X | author1 = Ida Purnomowati | author2 = Diana Hidayati | author3 = Cahyo Saparinto | page = 81 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = The Indonesian Kitchen: Recipes and Stories | url = https://archive.org/details/indonesiankitche0000owen | author = Sri Owen | publisher = Interlink Publishing Group | year = 2008 | isbn = 1566567394 }}</ref> == Tempo ogé == *[[Saté]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori: Masakan Indonesia]] [[Kategori: Saté]] on7voz8hzyid9nb3q7ioi76a4w17ugp 0 105808 711695 704095 2026-08-07T01:45:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711695 wikitext text/x-wiki    '''Salafiyah''' ( {{Lang-ar|السلفية}}, wangun kecap sipat '''Salafi''' ), disebut oge '''Salafisme''', mangrupa gerakan reformasi ultra-konservatif <ref>{{Cite book|last=Esposito|first=John|date=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&q=salafi+movement+reform&pg=PA275|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195125597|page=275|access-date=5 December 2015}}</ref> dina Islam Sunni.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Joppke|first=Christian|date=1 April 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ak_1CnYlinMC&q=Salafi+sect&pg=PA27|title=Legal Integration of Islam|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674074910|pages=27|language=en|quote=Salafism, which is a largely pietistic, [[apolitical]] sect favoring a literalist reading of the Quran and Sunna.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Joas Wagemakers|year=2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L13WDAAAQBAJ&lpg=PA227|title=Salafism in Jordan: Political Islam in a Quietist Community|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107163669|page=227|quote=These men adhere to the Salafi branch of Islam}}</ref> Ngaran ieu dicokot tina anjuran balik deui kana pamahaman karuhun ( salaf ), tilu generasi awal Muslim anu terang ajaran Islam murni tanpa tambahan atawa ngurangan. Generasi-generasi ieu kalebet Nabi [[Muhammad|Muhammad SAW]] sareng para sahabat anu diajarkeun ku dirina ( Sahabat ), penerusna ( Tabi'in ), sareng penerusna ( ''Tabi'ut Tabi'in'' ). Sacara praktis, Salafi percaya yén umat Islam kedah ngandelkeun [[Qur'an|Al Qur'an]], [[Sunnah]] sareng Ijma' (konsensus) Salaf, masihan aranjeunna prioritas pikeun tafsiran agama engké.<ref>Bin Ali Mohamed ''Roots Of Religious Extremism, The: Understanding The Salafi Doctrine Of Al-wala' Wal Bara'' World Scientific, 14.09.2015 9781783263943 p. 61</ref> Gerakan ieu boga tujuan pikeun ngabarukeun kahirupan Muslim sareng parantos gaduh pangaruh anu ageung kana seueur pamikir sareng gerakan Muslim di sakumna dunya Islam.<ref>{{Cite book|last=L. Esposito|first=John|title=The Oxford encyclopedia of the modern Islamic world vol.3|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=0-19-509614-2|location=200 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016|pages=463|quote="SALAFIYAH... It aimed at the renewal of Muslim life and had a formative impact on many Muslim thinkers and movements across the Islamic world."}}</ref> Saprak awalna, Salafisme mekar ngaliwatan usaha rupa-rupa pembaharu Islam, anu kagiatanana sumebar ka sagala rupa wewengkon.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-539589-1|editor-last=L. Esposito, El-Din Shahin|editor-first=John, Emad|location=198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016|pages=38|quote="Salafism has evolved under a number of key reformers, each of whom has brought his own unique insights and vision to the movement in response to the challenges of his national context."}}</ref> Istilah Salafi diciptakeun ku Ibnu Taimiyah dina abad ka-8 Hijriyah, sarta [[Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab]] ngahirupkeun deui istilah ieu di wewengkon [[Najd]] dina abad ka-12 Hijriyah, anu ngajadikeun Salafi hiji gerakan reformasi anu diadegkeun ku salah sahiji wakil pang menonjol di jaman modern.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Botobekov|first=Uran|year=2021|chapter=How Central Asian Salafi-Jihadi Groups are Exploiting the Covid-19 Pandemic: New Opportunities and Challenges|editor-last=Käsehage|editor-first=Nina|title=Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic|series=Religionswissenschaft|volume=21|location=[[Bielefeld]]|publisher=Transcript Verlag|doi=10.14361/9783839454855-005|pages=107–148|isbn=978-3-8376-5485-1}}</ref> Doktrin Salafi dumasar kana ningali deui ka taun awal agama Islam pikeun ngartos kumaha umat Islam kontemporer kedah ngalaksanakeun imanna.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EdvBAAAQBAJ&q=Salafist+doctrine&pg=PT73|title=Religious Ideology and the Roots of the Global Jihad: Salafi Jihadism and International Order|last=Turner|first=J.|date=26 August 2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781137409577|language=en}}</ref> Salafi nolak inovasi agama atawa bid'ah sarta ngarojong palaksanaan syariah (hukum Islam).<ref name="Economist27Jun15">{{Cite news|date=27 June 2015|title=Salafism: Politics and the puritanical|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21656189-islams-most-conservative-adherents-are-finding-politics-hard-it-beats|work=[[The Economist]]|access-date=29 June 2015}}</ref> Dina pendekatan kana pulitik, gerakan Salafi kadang dibagi ku akademisi Kulon jeung wartawan kana tilu kategori: grup pangbadagna nyaéta puritans (atawa quietists), anu nyingkahan pulitik; grup kadua pangbadagna nyaéta aktivis, anu ngajaga involvement rutin dina pulitik; sareng kelompok katilu nyaéta jihadists, anu ngabentuk minoritas sareng ngabela perjuangan bersenjata pikeun mulangkeun gerakan Islam awal.<ref name="Economist27Jun15" /> Dina urusan hukum, Muslim Salafi dibagi antara jalma anu ngajengkeun judgment hukum bebas ( [[ijtihad]] ) jeung nolak adherence ketat ( taklid ) kana opat mazhab Sunni hukum jeung lianna anu tetep satia ka ieu, utamana ulama [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]], anu teu nuturkeun nanaon husus Sakola Hukum.<ref name="al-Yaqoubi">{{Cite book|last=Al-Yaqoubi|first=Muhammad|title=Refuting ISIS: A Rebuttal Of Its Religious And Ideological Foundations|url=https://archive.org/details/refutingisisrebu0000shay|publisher=Sacred Knowledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1908224125|page=xiii}}</ref> Dina jaman kontemporer, Salafisme nujul kana grup pembaharuan Sunni béda jeung gerakan reformasi sarta geus tetep trend signifikan dina pamikiran Islam pikeun leuwih ti abad. <ref>{{Cite book|last=E. Campo|first=Juan|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0000camp|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|location=132 West 31st Street, New York, NY 10001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0000camp/page/601 601]|quote="Salafism (Arabic: al-Salafiyya) Salafism refers to a cluster of different Sunni renewal and reform movements and ideologies in contemporary Islam"}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-539589-1|editor-last=L. Esposito, El-Din Shahin|editor-first=John, Emad|location=198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016|pages=38|quote="Salafism, in its varying guises, has been an important trend in Islamic thought for more than a century."}}</ref> Salafiyah kontemporer ngawangun salaku gerakan revivalist sakuliah Dunya Muslim salila ahir abad ka-19 dina konteks Imperialisme Éropa .<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mahmood|first=Saba|title=Politics of piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofpietyi00mahm_2|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780691149806|pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofpietyi00mahm_2/page/61 61]|chapter=Chapter 2: Topography of the Piety movement|quote="The Salafi movement emerged at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth in the context of European intellectual and political dominance in the Muslim World"}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=E. Curtis|first=Edward|title=Encyclopedia of Muslim-American History|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2010|isbn=9781438130408|pages=499|language=English|quote="Salafi Muslims: As a social movement within Sunni Islam, Salafi Muslims ARE a global revivalism movement"}}</ref> == Étimologi == Kecap salafiyah dicokot tina kecap " ''Salaf'' " singgetan tina " ''{{Unicode|Salaf al-Ṣhāliḥ}}'' " ( [[basa Arab]] : السلف الصالح ), anu hartina "paheula-heula anu soleh".Sacara umum terminologi Islam, dipaké pikeun nyebut tilu generasi muslim pangalusna, nyaéta sahabat, ''tabi'in'', ''tabi'ut tabi'in'' .Tilu generasi ieu dianggap conto panghadéna dina ngalaksanakeun hukum Islam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ikhwanonline.com/article/12913|title=مقال|website=www.ikhwanonline.com|language=ar|accessdate=2022-08-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Meijer|first=Roel|title=Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement|last2=Lacroix|first2=Stéphane|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-933343-1|location=New York|pages=38|chapter=Between Revolution and Apoliticism: On the Nature of Salafi thought and Action}}</ref> == Pamakéan istilah == Kecap Salafi mindeng dipatalikeun jeung Wahhabisme (kanggo sabagéan ageung pengikutna, nami Wahhabi dianggap hina; aranjeunna langkung resep istilah Salafisme), ku kituna dua istilah ieu sering katingali [[sinonim]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=|title=Salinan arsip|access-date=2012-08-04|archive-date=2012-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929085504/http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/islam/bldef_salafiyya.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Ilaharna, panganut gerakan Salafi ngagambarkeun dirina salaku ''Muwahidin'', ''Ahlul Hadits'',<ref>The Muslim World After 9/11 By Angel M. Rabasa, pg. 275</ref> atawa ''Ahlu Tauhid''.<ref name="global">GlobalSecurity.org [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-salafi.htm Salafi Islam]</ref> Ajaran utama idéologi ''Salafi'' dasar nyaéta yén Islam sampurna sareng réngsé dina jaman [[Muhammad]] sareng para sahabatna, ku kituna henteu aya inovasi atanapi tambahan atanapi pangurangan anu diidinan dina hukum Islam kusabab pangaruh adat sareng budaya. Ideologi salafi nyobian ngahirupkeun deui prak-prakan Islam saluyu sareng ageman anu mimiti didakwakeun Muhammad.<ref>[http://islamicweb.com/beliefs/creed/taymiyah.htm Sheikh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah - One of the best Muslim scholars].</ref> Salafisme ogé geus didadarkeun salaku versi basajan tur pangaweruh Islam. Panganutna nuturkeun sababaraha parentah jeung amalan anu ngan luyu jeung parentah Muhammad.<ref>''The Idea of Pakistan'', By Stephen P. Cohen ISBN 0-8157-1502-1 - Page 183.</ref> Dina jaman kiwari kecap salafy aya dua harti anu kadang-kadang béda. Kahiji, dipaké ku akademisi jeung sejarawan, nujul kana "mazhab pamikiran anu mecenghul dina satengah kadua abad ka-19 salaku réaksi kana sumebarna gagasan ti Éropa," sarta "jalma-jalma anu nyoba ngamurnikeun deui ajaran anu Nabi Islam dibawa sareng anjeunna sareng ngajauhan sagala rupa bid'ah, khurafat, syirik dina agama Islam"<ref name="KepelJihad">[http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=OLvTNk75hUoC&dq=islamism&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=vzDyZ5LPO-&sig=dQqq7sPqaZId6nLWXV6BBjdUf5A&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result#PPA220,M1 ''Jihad'' By Gilles Kepel, Anthony F. Roberts]</ref> Pamakéan kadua "rada béda" favored ku salafis kontemporer unilaterally ngahartikeun salafi salaku Muslim anu nuturkeun "paréntah scriptural ... sacara harfiah, tradisional" tinimbang "interpretasi sigana euweuh watesna" mimiti "salafis" . Kaum Salafi ieu neuteup ka Ibnu Taimiyah, lain ka tokoh abad ka-19 Muhammad Abduh, Jamaluddin, jeung Rasyid Rida.<ref name="KepelJihad"/> == Doktrin == Numutkeun [[Bernard Haykel]], "deukeutna temporal kana sunnah Muhammad pakait jeung bentuk truest Islam" diantara grup Sunni.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Haykel|first=Bernard|year=2009|title=Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement|url=https://archive.org/details/globalsalafismis0000unse_e3g9|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-15420-8|editor-last=Meijer|editor-first=Roel|page=[https://archive.org/details/globalsalafismis0000unse_e3g9/page/34 34]|chapter=Chapter 1: On the Nature of Salafi Thought and Action}}</ref> Salafis mangrupikeun gerakan reformasi agama sareng sosial anu munggaran sareng seueur kalibet dina nyiptakeun sareng ngahasilkeun sababaraha bentuk otoritas sareng identitas, boh pribadi sareng komunal. Aranjeunna netepkeun proyék reformis anu munggaran utamina ngaliwatan prinsip syahadat. Anu langkung penting, metodologina, anu katelah '''manhaj salaf,''' mangrupikeun sakumpulan hukum sareng bentuk sosio-politik.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Haykel|first=Bernard|year=2009|title=Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement|url=https://archive.org/details/globalsalafismis0000unse_e3g9|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-15420-8|editor-last=Meijer|editor-first=Roel|pages=[https://archive.org/details/globalsalafismis0000unse_e3g9/page/34 34]–35|chapter=Chapter 1: On the Nature of Salafi Thought and Action|quote="Salafis are first and foremost religious and social reformers who are engaged in creating and reproducing particular forms of authority and identity, both personal and communal. Indeed, Salafis are determined to create a distinct Muslim subjectivity, one with profound social and political implications.It is important to understand Salafis as constituting a group that defines its reformist project first and foremost through credal tenets (i.e., a theology).Also important, though secondary, for their self-definition are certain legal teachings as well as forms of sociability and politics. I hope to show in this study that Salafism is a term that is heuristically useful because it is a marker of a distinctive form of engagement with the world, and one that is identifiable as such to many Muslims"}}</ref> Dakwah salafi mah manhaj, lain mazhab [[fiqih]], sakumaha anu disangka jalma biasa. Salafi bisa asalna ti Maliki, Shafii, Hanbali, Hanafi, atawa Zhahiri mazhab pamikiran. Dina hal iman, Salafi loba ngarujuk kana pamikiran-pamikiran mazhab Hanbali. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ardiansyah|first=Ardiansyah|date=2013|title=PENGARUH MADZHAB HAMBALI DAN PEMIKIRAN IBNU TAIMIYAH DALAM PAHAM SALAFI|url=http://repository.uinsu.ac.id/198/4/artikel.pdf|journal=Analytica Islamica|volume=15|issue=2|pages=267-283}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518143441/http://repository.uinsu.ac.id/198/4/artikel.pdf |date=2024-05-18 }}</ref> Para pengikut manhaj ieu ngaku ''Ahlussunnah wal-Jama'ah'' oge Ahli Hadits . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Asadullah al-Ghalib|first=Muhammad|year=2012|title=AHLE HADEETH MOVEMENT What and Why?|location=Kajla, Rajshahi, Bangladesh H.F.B. Publication: 35|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-984-33-4799-2|pages=625–643|quote="In different books of Hadeeth and in reliable books of Fiqh, the Ahle hadeeth have been described as Ahle hadeeth, Ashabul Hadeeth, Ahle Sunnah wal Jama‘at, Ahlul Athar, Ahlul Haq, Muhadditheen etc. As the followers of Salaf-i-Saleheen, they are also known as Salafi."}}</ref> Gerakan ieu ogé nganut teologi tradisionalis, nyaéta mazhab Atsariyah . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidtke|first=Sabine|year=2016|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969670-3|pages=625–643}}</ref> Salafi bener-bener ngantebkeun amalan numutkeun ''hadits'' -hadits shahih sareng ''hasan'' Nabi [[Muhammad|Muhammad SAW]], sanes wungkul dina ibadah ''mahdah'' sapertos [[Solat|sholat]], oge dina ''ibadah gairu mahdah,'' kitu deui unggal kagiatan dina kahirupan sapopoe. Contona, make tilu ramo pisan nalika dahar, nginum cai dina tilu tegukan, sarta nyekel eta ku leungeun katuhu bari diuk. <ref name="roy-266">{{Cite book|last=Roy|first=Olivier|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b9eFGcsWnwEC&q=use+three+fingers+when+eating+roy&pg=PA266|title=Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231134996|page=266|access-date=13 October 2016}}</ref> === Pandangan dina taqlid === Pamikiran salafi neangan orientasi deui [[Fiqih|fiqh]] (fiqih Islam) jauh tina taqlid (adherence kana precedents hukum Madhhab tangtu) jeung langsung balik ka [[Muhammad|Nabi]], para sahabatna, sarta <nowiki><i id="mwrA">salafusshalih</i></nowiki> . Balik deui ka jalan suci Nabi disebut ''"ittiba'"'' (nuturkeun Nabi ku langsung ngarujuk kana Kitab Suci). <ref>{{Cite journal|last=ElMasry|first=Shadee|year=2010|title=The Salafis in America|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2010.494072|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|location=Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden|publisher=Routledge Publishers|volume=56|pages=219–220|doi=10.1080/13602004.2010.494072}}</ref> Dina pendekatan hukum, Salafis dibagi antara jalma anu, dina nami judgment légal bebas ( [[ijtihad]] ), nolak adherence ketat ( taqlid ) kana opat mazhab jeung lianna anu tetep satia ka ieu. <ref name="al-Yaqoubi"/> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamdeh|first=Emad|date=9 June 2017|title=Qurʾān and Sunna or the Madhhabs?: A Salafi Polemic Against Islamic Legal Tradition|url=https://commons.erau.edu/publication/1480|journal=Islamic Law and Society|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=211–253|doi=10.1163/15685195-00240A01|issn=1568-5195}}</ref> <ref>''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought,'' p. 484</ref> Sanajan [[Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab]] sacara pribadi nolak praktek Taqlid, Wahhabi jeung ulama Salafi leuwih resep nuturkeun madzhab Hanbali jeung umumna ngidinan Taqlid nuturkeun Fatwa (pendapat yudisial) jeung ajak nuturkeun madhhab. <ref>{{Cite book|last=H. Warren|first=David|title=Rivals in the Gulf|publisher=Routledge: Taylor & Francis|year=2021|isbn=978-0-367-28062-8|location=Abingdon, Oxon|pages=5|quote="While Wahhab personally rejected the practice of adhering (taqlīd) to a particular legal school, the Wahhabi ʿulamāʾ who follow his thought do, in effect, practice a taqlīd of the Hanbali school.."}}</ref> Bari maranéhna doctrinally ngahukum Taqlid jeung ngajengkeun Ijtihad, sajarahna praktek hukum Wahhabism geus sakitu legana dumasar dina confines tina mazhab Hanbali pamikiran, nepi ka ayeuna. Panolakan doktrin Taqlid ku Salafi bakal ngakibatkeun munculna ulama Salafi anu kasohor sapertos [[Sa'ad bin Atiq]], Abdurrahman bin Nashir as-Sa'di, Ibnu Utsaimin, Ibnu Baz, sareng anu sanésna; anu bakal nyimpang sacara signifikan tina hukum-hukum fiqih Hanbali. <ref name="al-Yaqoubi"/> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Lacroix|first=Stéphane|title=Awakening Islam: The Politics of Religious Dissent in Contemporary Saudi Arabia|url=https://archive.org/details/awakeningislampo0000lacr|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-674-04964-2|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England|pages=[https://archive.org/details/awakeningislampo0000lacr/page/83 83]–84|chapter=Chapter 3: Resistance to Sahwa Ascendancy}}</ref> <ref name="muslimmatters.org"/> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Meijer|first=Roel|title=Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-933343-1|location=New York|pages=43, 61–62, 63|chapter=Between Revolution and Apoliticism: Nasir al-Din al-Albani and his Impact on the Shaping of Contemporary Salafism}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Gauvain|first=Richard|title=Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013|isbn=978-0-7103-1356-0|location=New York|pages=8, 293}}</ref> Gerakan Salafi anu sanés, kumaha ogé, yakin yén taqlid haram sareng tangtangan otoritas sakola hukum. Dina sudut pandang maranéhanana, saprak sakola mecenghul sanggeus jaman Salafus Shalih (solehah miheulaan); Umat Islam anu nuturkeun madzhab tanpa langsung milarian dalil Kitab Suci bakal nyimpang. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Olidort|first=Jacob|url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Brookings-Analysis-Paper_Jacob-Olidort-Inside_Final_Web.pdf|title=The Politics of "Quietist Salafism"|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2015|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England|pages=7, 8}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Cooke, B. Lawrence|first=Miriam, Bruce|title=Muslim Networks from Hajj to Hip Hop|url=https://archive.org/details/muslimnetworksfr0000unse|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=2005|isbn=0-8078-2923-4|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/muslimnetworksfr0000unse/page/212 212]–213|chapter=Chapter 10: The Salafi Movement}}</ref> Ieu diantarana ulama-ulama gerakan Ahlul Hadits saperti Muhammad Nashiruddin al-Albani, Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindzī, Ibnu Amir al-Ṣanʿānī, ash-Syaukānī, jeung sajabana; nu sagemblengna ngahukum taqlid (taklid), nolak kakawasaan madzhab, jeung ngawajibkeun umat Islam neangan fatwa anu dikaluarkeun ku ulama ngan dumasar kana [[Qur'an|Al Qur'an]] jeung [[Hadis|Hadist]] ; tanpa ngalibetkeun perantara. <ref name="muslimmatters.org"/> <ref name="Bennett, p. 174">"From there he [Albani] learned to oppose taqlid in a madhab." Bennett, ''The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies'', p. 174. "Al-Albani had denounced Wahhabi attachment to the Hanbali school." Stephane Lacroix, George Holoch, ''Awakening Islam,'' p. 85</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Meijer|first=Roel|title=Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-933343-1|location=New York|pages=62–63|chapter=Between Revolution and Apoliticism: Nasir al-Din al-Albani and his Impact on the Shaping of Contemporary Salafism}}</ref> Ulama Ahlul Hadits bakal ngabedakeun diri jeung Wahhabi anu nuturkeun mazhab Hanbali bari nganggap dirina henteu nuturkeun mazhab anu tangtu. Dina jaman ayeuna, Albani sareng murid-muridna, khususna, langsung ngiritik kaum Wahabi dina masalah Taqlid. sabab afinitas maranéhanana pikeun mazhab Hanbali pamikiran jeung nelepon pikeun regenerasi Wahhabism dimurnikeun tina unsur-unsur anu bertentangan jeung doktrin Salafist. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Krawietz, Tamer|first=Birgit, Georges|title=Islamic Theology, Philosophy and Law: Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya|publisher=Walter De Gruyter|year=2013|isbn=978-3-11-028534-5|location=Berlin, Germany|pages=165–166}}</ref> Ulama Salafi lianna saperti Rasyid Rida nuturkeun jalan tengah, sahingga jalma awam ngalakukeun Taklid ngan lamun diperlukeun, ngawajibkeun anjeunna ngalakukeun Ittiba nalika bukti Kitab Suci jadi dipikawanoh anjeunna. Métodologi hukumna nolak resep kana risalah tina mana-mana sakola pamikiran khusus, sareng ngarujuk kana buku-buku sadaya aliran pamikiran. Saatos Ibnu Taymiyah sareng Ibnul Qayyim, ulama ieu nampi warisan sastra anu beunghar tina Fiqh Sunni sareng nganggap literatur tina opat mazhab Sunni salaku sumber anu mangpaat pikeun ngaluarkeun kaputusan pikeun jaman kontemporer. <ref name="Bennett, p. 174">"From there he [Albani] learned to oppose taqlid in a madhab." Bennett, ''The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies'', p. 174. "Al-Albani had denounced Wahhabi attachment to the Hanbali school." Stephane Lacroix, George Holoch, ''Awakening Islam,'' p. 85</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Meijer|first=Roel|title=Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-933343-1|location=New York|pages=43|chapter=Between Revolution and Apoliticism: Nasir al-Din al-Albani and his Impact on the Shaping of Contemporary Salafism}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Lacroix|first=Stéphane|title=Awakening Islam: The Politics of Religious Dissent in Contemporary Saudi Arabia|url=https://archive.org/details/awakeningislampo0000lacr|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-674-04964-2|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England|pages=[https://archive.org/details/awakeningislampo0000lacr/page/84 84]–85, 220|chapter=Chapter 3: Resistance to Sahwa Ascendancy}}</ref> Di tungtung séjén spéktrum, sababaraha Salafis pamadegan yén taat kana taqlid mangrupakeun kalakuan syirik (syirik). Salafi kontemporer umumna miceun praktek nuturkeun aturan ngadegkeun tina sagala Madhhab tinangtu, ngahukum prinsip Taqlid (taklid buta) salaku bid'ah (inovasi) sarta nyata dipangaruhan ku prinsip hukum madzhab, nu sajarahna numbu ka anti. -doktrin madzhab anu nentang kanonisasi hukum madzhab. Ulama Zahir awal Ibnu Hazm ngahukum Taqlid sareng nyebatkeun pikeun ngabebaskeun diri tina sistem interpretasi tina sagala rupa mazhab anu dikanonisasi pikeun Fiqh anu langsung dumasar kana Al Qur'an sareng Hadits; geus miboga dampak badag dina gerakan Salafiyya. <ref name="muslimmatters.org">{{Cite web|url=https://muslimmatters.org/2014/04/22/on-salafi-islam-dr-yasir-qadhi/|title=On Salafi Islam|last=Qadhi|first=Dr. Yasir|website=Muslimmatters|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117190311/https://muslimmatters.org/2014/04/22/on-salafi-islam-dr-yasir-qadhi/|archivedate=17 January 2017}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Shaham|first=Ron|title=Rethinking Islamic Legal Modernism|publisher=Brill Publishers|year=2018|isbn=978-90-04-36954-2|location=Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands|pages=37|quote="In setting forth these premises, Rida appears to prepare the ground to steer a middle course.. Rida did not ignore the rich heritage of Islamic law, as did a number of his strict Salafi contemporaries. Instead, following Ibn Taymiyya and especially his student Ibn al-Qayyim, he viewed the literature of the four Sunni law-schools (without committing himself to the teachings of one school in particular) as a resource from which to draw guidance and inspiration for adapting the law to changing circumstances"}}</ref> Salafi legalisme paling sering dicirikeun ku miang tina aturan ngadegkeun (mu'tamad) tina opat mazhab Sunni, ogé mindeng aligning jeung pamadegan Zahir disebutkeun ku Ibnu Hazm dina compendium hukum na ''Al-Muhalla'' . <ref name="muslimmatters.org" /> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/05022020-salafi-islam-and-its-reincarnations-analysis/|title=Salafi Islam and its Reincarnations- Analysis|last=Khan|first=Rehan|website=Eurasia Review|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205150143/https://www.eurasiareview.com/05022020-salafi-islam-and-its-reincarnations-analysis/|archivedate=5 Feb 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Gauvain|first=Richard|title=Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-0-7103-1356-0|location=New York|pages=8 ,11, 229–230, 328, 347|quote="the identity of many modern Salafis is dependent upon their departure from the established rulings of the four Sunni law schools (madhahib), including that of Ibn Hanbal. Modern Salafis generally dislike the practice of following the established rulings of any particular law school and view the principle of legal “imitation” (taqlid) as a significant factor in the overall decline of the Muslim Umma... Zahiri influence on modern Salafi legal thought occurs almost entirely through the Muhalla of Ibn Hazm, .... more important than Ibn Hazm’s individual opinions to the Salafi scholars and ritual practitioners mentioned here is the unyielding Zahiri-style logic that underscores them... modern Salafis are endeavouring to shift Zahiri legal from the margins of orthodoxy into its centre "}}</ref> === Beda jeung elmu kalam === Loba pendukung mazhab Atsariyah di jaman kiwari asalna ti golongan ieu; maranehna ngajungjung karya tokoh Atsariyah Ibnu Taimiyah . <ref name="TCSI2010: 39-48 +">[[Salafiyah#TCSI2010|Halverson, ''Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam,'' 2010]]: 38–48</ref> Ibnu Taimiyyah mangrupikeun tokoh ulama anu sering didebat malah dilawan, sareng mangrupikeun ulama anu dihormat pisan di kalangan pengikut gerakan Salafi sareng sering disebut ''Syaikhul-Islam'' . Tokoh-tokoh penting séjénna nyaéta ulama-ulama utama sajarah Islam, saperti Ahmad bin Hanbal . <ref name="auto1">Michael Cook, ''On the Origins of Wahhābism'', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 2, No. 2 (July, 1992), p. 198</ref> Pengikut gerakan Salafi nganggap sumber utama hukum Islam, [[Qur'an|Al-Qur'an]] jeung [[Sunnah]], janten timer explanatory, sarta mindeng nolak pamakéan interpretasi jeung nalar manusa. Salafis ni'mat palaksanaan praktis leuwih sengketa harti, sabab bisa dianggap atra atawa saluareun akal manusa. <ref>Bin Ali Mohamed ''Roots Of Religious Extremism, The: Understanding The Salafi Doctrine Of Al-wala Wal Bara'' World Scientific, 14.09.2015 9781783263943 p. 61</ref> Aranjeunna nganggap yén nuturkeun teologi élmu alam, sanaos kabuktian leres, leres pisan dilarang.<ref name="TCSI2010: 36">[[Salafiyah#TCSI2010|Halverson, ''Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam,'' 2010]]: 36 "For the Atharis, the “clear” (i.e., zahir, apparent, or literal) meaning of the Qur’an and especially the prophetic traditions (ahadith) have sole authority in matters of belief, as well as law, and to engage in rational disputation (jadal), even if one arrives at the truth, is absolutely forbidden. A strictly literal, or perhaps amodal, reading of the Qur’an, as opposed to one engaged in ta’wil (metaphorical interpretation), or an attempt to rationally conceptualize its meanings, cannot be questioned and the “real” meanings should be consigned to God."</ref> Atsariyah nafsirkeun Qur'an jeung [[Hadis|hadits]] sacara harfiah jeung amodally, sarta mikawanoh harti anu dianggap jelas dina hal iman. Hal ieu béda jeung panganut ''takwil'' (interpretasi métaforis), panganut salafi teu ngakonseptualisasikeun harti Al-Qur’an sacara rasional; jeung yakin yén harti sabenerna kudu diserahkeun ka Alloh wungkul ( ''[[tafwidh]]'' ).<ref name="TCSI2010: 36-7">[[Salafiyah#TCSI2010|Halverson, ''Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam,'' 2010]]: 36–7 "For the Atharis, the “clear” (i.e., zahir, apparent, or literal) meaning of the Qur’an and especially the prophetic traditions (ahadith) have sole authority in matters of belief, as well as law, and to engage in rational disputation (jadal), even if one arrives at the truth, is absolutely forbidden. A strictly literal, or perhaps amodal, reading of the Qur’an, as opposed to one engaged in ta’wil (metaphorical interpretation), or an attempt to rationally conceptualize its meanings, cannot be questioned and the “real” meanings should be consigned to God."</ref> Hermeunistically, Salafis béda ti non-Salafis dina sababaraha aspék kamampuhan maranéhanana.<ref>Bin Ali Mohamed ''Roots Of Religious Extremism, The: Understanding The Salafi Doctrine Of Al-wala Wal Bara'' World Scientific, 14.09.2015 9781783263943 pp. 62-63</ref> Ibnu Taimiyyah kasohor nyerat sababaraha oposisi kana firkah-firkah Islam sareng mazhab-mazhab iman sanés sapertos [[Sufi]], Jahmiyah, Asy'ariyah, Syiah, Filsafat, jsb. , ngaliwatan fatwa na. Pikeun ngajelaskeun pendekatan teologis Salafiyah, Ibnu Taimiyah ngaluarkeun ''fatwa'' : Manhaj ''[[Salaf]]'' adalah menafsirkan secara literal ayat-ayat Alquran dan hadis-hadis yang berhubungan dengan sifat-sifat Ilahi [''ijra' ayat aṣ-ṣifat wa ahadiṡ aṣ-ṣifat 'ala ẓahiriha''], dan tanpa menyerupakan-Nya dengan makhluk [''ma' nafi al-kaifiyyah wat-tasybih'']."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Salafism in Lebanon : from apoliticism to transnational jihadism|url=http://archive.org/details/salafisminlebano0000rabi|publisher=Washington, DC : Georgetown University Pres|date=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|last=Internet Archive|first=Robert G.}}</ref> Seueur sistem kapercayaan anu aya hubunganana sareng dunya spiritual anu dilaksanakeun ku umat Islam di sababaraha tempat sareng daérah anu dianggap syirik ku pengikut Salafi. Pengikut gerakan Salafi nganggap sajumlah prakték anu aya hubunganana sareng [[jin]] atanapi roh wali sareng jalma-jalma soleh mangrupikeun bid'ah sareng syirik. Kitu ogé, Salafisme béda ngeunaan pamahaman teologis sareng interpretasi jin, sétan sareng malaikat, dibandingkeun sareng umat Islam umumna.<ref>Rothenberg, Celia E. "Islam on the Internet: the jinn and the objectification of Islam." The Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23.3 (2011): 358-371.</ref> Kapercayaan nyebar ngeunaan roh-roh sareng [[Malaékat|malaikat]] anu ditampi sacara lega ku para penganut Islam Klasik dipangkas nuturkeun Al-Qur'an sareng hadits, tanpa bahan exegetical atanapi referensi anekdot.<ref>TY - Jour Au - Østebø, Terje PY - 2014 DA - 2014/01/01 TI - ''The revenge of the Jinns: spirits, Salafi reform, and the continuity in change in contemporary Ethiopia'' JO - Contemporary Islam SP - 17 EP - 36 VL - 8 IS - 1 AB - The point of departure for this article is a story about jinns taking revenge upon people who have abandoned earlier religious practices. It is a powerful account of their attempt to free themselves from a past viewed as inhabited by evil forces and about the encounter between contemporary Salafi reformism and a presumed disappearing religious universe. It serves to prove how a novel version of Islam has superseded former practices; delegitimized and categorized as belonging to the past. The story is, however, also an important source and an interesting entry-point to examine the continued relevance of past practices within processes of reform. Analyzing the story about the jinns and the trajectory of Salafi reform in Bale, this contribution demonstrates how the past remains intersected with present reformism, and how both former practices and novel impetuses are reconfigured through this process. The article pays attention to the dialectics of negotiations inherent to processes of reform and points to the manner in which the involvement of a range of different actors produces idiosyncratic results. It challenges notions of contemporary Islamic reform as something linear and fixed and argues that such processes are multifaceted and open-ended. SN - 1872-0226 UR - https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-013-0282-7 DO - 10.1007/s11562-013-0282-7 ID - Østebø2014 ER -</ref> === Ajaran Ibnu Taimiyah === Pengikut Salafi nuturkeun seueur ajaran Ibnu Taimiyah, khususna dina masalah teologis sareng spiritual. Ajaran Ibnu Taimiyah loba pangaruhna kana Wahhabisme, Ahli Hadits, jeung gerakan Salafi lianna. Nurutkeun doktrin tauhid Ibnu Taimiyah, [[Tauhid]] dibagi jadi tilu: ''ar-rubūbiyyah'' (Tauhid Allah), ''al-ulūhiyyah'' (Tauhid Allah), jeung ''al-asmā’ waṣ-ṣifāt'' (Tauhid Asma jeung Sifat). Tafsiran [[Sahadat|syahadat tauhid]] ku Ibnu Taimiyah nyaéta negeskeun yén "teu aya deui Pangéran (Tuhan anu disembah) anging Allah", tanpa sekutu pikeun-Na, sarta mangrupa dasar anu penting dina akidah Salafi. Dina jaman kontemporer, tulisan Ibnu Taimiyah ngeunaan teologi sareng novelties dina praktékna parantos ngainspirasi gerakan Salafi tina sababaraha jinis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoover|first=Jon|year=2019|title=Ibn Taymiyya (Makers of the Muslim World)|location=10 Bloomsbury Street, London WC1B 3SR, England|publisher=Oneworld Academic|isbn=978-1-78607-689-2|pages=11, 19, 46–47, 88, 140}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidtke|first=Sabine|year=2016|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969670-3|page=635|quote="Ibn Taymiyya also speaks of the priority of worship and ethics over metaphysics in theological terms that later became widespread among Wahhābīs and modern Salafīs. He distinguishes two tawḥīds, or two ways of confessing God’s unity. Ibn Taymiyya’s first tawḥīd is that of God’s divinity (ulūhiyya). Al-tawḥīd al-ulūhiyya signifies God’s sole worthiness to be a god, that is, God’s sole right to be an object of worship (ʿibāda). Al-tawḥīd al-ulūhiyya is exclusive worship of God that refuses to give devotion and love to anything or anyone else. Then flowing out from this is the second tawḥīd, the tawḥīd of God’s lordship (rubūbiyya). God’s lordship refers to His creative power, and al-tawḥīd al-rubūbiyya means confessing that God is the only source of created beings"}}</ref> Kamekaran gerakan-gerakan ieu dina abad ka-20 ngabalukarkeun minat kana tulisan Ibnu Taimiyah ngaronjat. Salafi umumna nyebut Ibnu Taimiyah teh ''Syekh Islam''. Salian ti Ibnu Taimiyyah, murid-muridna saperti Ibnul Qayyim al-Jauziyyah, Ibnu Kathir, adz-Dzahabi, jst. loba ulama rujukan Salafi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidtke|first=Sabine|year=2016|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969670-3|pages=427, 626, 641–642}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=C. Martin|first=Richard|year=2004|title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|isbn=0-02-865603-2|page=468}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Bosworth, Donzel, Heinrichs, Lecomte|first=C. E., E. Van, W. P., G.|year=1997|title=The Encyclopedia of Islam:New Edition Vol. IX|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-10422-4|page=400}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Leaman|first=Oliver|year=2006|title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia|url=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse|location=New York|publisher=Routledge: Taylor & Francis|isbn=0-415-32639-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/n662 631]–633}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|date=2010|title=The Construction Ofsalafiyya: Reconsidering Salafism from the Perspective of Conceptual History|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-middle-east-studies_2010-08_42_3/page/369|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=42|issue=3|pages=369–389|doi=10.1017/S0020743810000401}}</ref> Karya-karya ilmiah Ibnu Taimiyah, anu ngajengkeun akidah Atsariyah sareng ngritik pisan mazhab-mazhab agama anu sanés, janten dasar teologi Salafiyah.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Leaman|first=Oliver|year=2006|title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia|url=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse|location=New York|publisher=Routledge: Taylor & Francis|isbn=0-415-32639-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/n313 282]|quote="Ibn Taymiyya’s works extend to almost every area of contemporary intellectual life... Nearly all of his works are in the style of a refutation or a critique,... He embodies the theology of the Salafi (Traditionalist) movement and all his works are intense, focused and well-argued."}}</ref> Ibnu Taimiyah ogé ngadugikeun konsensus ( Ijma' ), ngeunaan keizinan nyebatkeun diri kana iman Salaf, anu nyatakeun: {{Quotation|“Tidaklah mengapa menyatakan diri (Anda) sebagai pengikut salaf, termasuk padanya dan merasa bangga padanya; melainkan harus diterima darinya, menurut ijmak. Manhaj salaf tidak dapat lari dari kebenaran. Jika seseorang berpegang padanya secara lahir dan batin, maka ia seperti orang mukmin yang selalu mengikuti kebenaran lahir dan batin.”<ref>{{cite web| title=Is it permissible for people to call themselves "Ahl al-Hadeeth" |url=http://islamhelpline.net/iqa/answer/233/163503/is-it-permissible-for-people-to-call-themselves-ahl-al-hadeeth |website=Islam Helpline }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ibn Taymiyya|first=Ahmad|title=Majmu al-Fatawa Vol.1 |publisher=Dar al-Hadith | location=Cairo, Egypt |page=141}}</ref>}} == Salafisme numutkeun Barat == Salafis geus pakait sareng pendekatan literalist, ketat, tur puritanical Islam nurutkeun sababaraha akademisi Kulon. Sababaraha pengamat sareng analis Barat condong nyaruakeun gerakan sareng jihadisme Salafi, ideologi hibrida anu ngabela serangan kekerasan ngalawan anu dianggap musuh Islam (kaasup Salafi) salaku ekspresi sah Islam. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2001/10/religion-not-enemy-david-f-forte/|title=Religion is Not the Enemy|website=National Review|accessdate=2020-04-09}}</ref> Pajabat pamaréntahan [[Jérman]]<ref name="verfassungsschuetz">{{Cite web|url=http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/en/en_fields_of_work/islamism/|title=Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz) 7/18/2012: latest 2011 report on Islamic Salafist extremism in Germany (English)|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217003940/http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/en/en_fields_of_work/islamism/|archivedate=17 February 2013|accessdate=17 July 2012}}</ref> geus nuduh Salafisme miboga hubungan kuat jeung térorisme tapi engké netelakeun yén ''teu sakabéh Salafi téh teroris'' . Pernyataan pajabat pamaréntahan Jérman anu ngritik Salafisme disiarkeun ku ''Deutsche Welle'' salami April 2012.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,15935366,00.html|title=Salafist extremism spreading in Germany|date=8 May 2012|work=Deutsche Welle (www.dw.com)}}</ref> <ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.pipeline.de/www/index.php?&kat=10&artikel=110085213&red=1&ausgabe=|title=Verfassungsschutzbericht warnt vor Salafisten|trans_title=Constitutional protection report warns of Salafists|date=17 June 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520190058/http://www.pipeline.de/www/index.php?&kat=10&artikel=110085213&red=1&ausgabe=|archivedate=20 May 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520190058/http://www.pipeline.de/www/index.php?&kat=10&artikel=110085213&red=1&ausgabe= |date=20 May 2013 }}</ref> Numutkeun élmuwan pulitik Jérman [[Thorsten Gerald Schneiders]], sanajan Salafi ngaku ngadegkeun deui ajén-inajén Islam jeung ngabéla budaya Islam, sababaraha anggota gerakan napsirkeun aranjeunna ku cara nu teu cocog jeung tradisi Islam sarta nganggap elemen tangtu budaya Muslim kayaning. puisi, sastra, lagu, filsafat, jeung sajabana salaku karya Iblis. Numutkeun élmuwan pulitik Perancis [[Olivier Roy]], paling generasi katilu imigran Muslim Kulon condong ngadopsi Salafism sarta sababaraha di antarana bisa megatkeun tina warisan kulawarga maranéhanana, nikah mualaf séjén, tinimbang brides ti nagara asal maranéhanana, dipilih ku kolotna.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stevens, O'hara|first=David, Kieron|year=2015|title=The Devil's Long Tail: Religious and Other Radicals in the Internet Marketplace|url=https://archive.org/details/devilslongtailre0000stev|page=[https://archive.org/details/devilslongtailre0000stev/page/76 76]|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-939624-5|quote="They do not represent an Islamic tradition; on the contrary they break with the religion of their parents. When they convert or become born-again, they always adopt some sort of Salafism, which is a scriptualist version of Islam that discards traditional Muslim culture. They do not revert to traditions: for instance when they marry, it is with the sisters of their friends or with converts, and not with a bride from the country of origin chosen by their parents."}}</ref> Numutkeun [[Marc Sageman]], bagian tina gerakan Salafi numbu ka sababaraha grup téroris di sakuliah dunya, kayaning Al-Qaeda.<ref>[http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/hearings/hearing3/witness_sageman.htm Third public hearing of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States], ''Statement of Marc Sageman to the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States'', 9 July 2003</ref> Sanajan kitu, nurutkeun analis sejen, Salafis dasarna apolitical. Salafi tiasa nunjukkeun sagala rupa hubungan anu béda-béda sareng nagara gumantung kana lingkungan, sapertos populasi umum ti mana aranjeunna asalna. Aranjeunna teu nunjukkeun proclivity ka kekerasan salaku grup monolithic. Salafis anu kalibet dina partisipasi pulitik atawa pemberontakan pakarang ngalakukeunana salaku bagian tina proyék pulitik payung lega.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Li|first=Darryl|year=2015|title=THE UNIVERSAL ENEMY: Jihad, Empire, and the Challenge of Solidarity|pages=105–106|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, California, United States|isbn=9781503610873}}</ref> Numutkeun Roel Meijer, asosiasi Kulon Salafisme sareng kekerasan asalna tina tulisan ngaliwatan prisma studi kaamanan anu dilakukeun dina awal 2000-an sareng tina gambaran Orientalis populér anu nyaruakeun Islam revivalis sareng kekerasan dina jaman kolonial. == Tempo ogé == * As-Sabiqun al-Awwalun * Tabi'in * Tabi'ut tabi'in * [[Khalaf]] * Wahabi == Rujukan == <references responsive="1"></references> {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == * ''Muhammad dina Sajarah, Pikiran, sareng Budaya: Ensiklopedia Nabi Allah'' (2 jilid), Diédit ku C. Fitzpatrick sareng A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. <nowiki>ISBN 1610691776</nowiki> . * {{Cite book|last=Botobekov|first=Uran|year=2021|chapter=How Central Asian Salafi-Jihadi Groups are Exploiting the Covid-19 Pandemic: New Opportunities and Challenges|editor-last=Käsehage|editor-first=Nina|title=Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic|series=Religionswissenschaft|volume=21|location=[[Bielefeld]]|publisher=Transcript Verlag|doi=10.14361/9783839454855-005|pages=107–148|isbn=978-3-8376-5485-1}} {{Cite book|last=Botobekov|first=Uran|year=2021|chapter=How Central Asian Salafi-Jihadi Groups are Exploiting the Covid-19 Pandemic: New Opportunities and Challenges|editor-last=Käsehage|editor-first=Nina|title=Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic|series=Religionswissenschaft|volume=21|location=[[Bielefeld]]|publisher=Transcript Verlag|doi=10.14361/9783839454855-005|pages=107–148|isbn=978-3-8376-5485-1}} == Tumbu éksternal == {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} * [http://www.salafy.or.id/ Info Salaf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719112516/https://salafy.or.id/ |date=2024-07-19 }} * [http://isnad.net/ Salafy Indonesia-Yaman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320091239/http://isnad.net/ |date=2023-03-20 }} * [http://www.rujukanmuslim.com/ Mesin Pencari Khusus Salafy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240721133526/https://www.rujukanmuslim.com/ |date=2024-07-21 }} * [http://mirath.net/ Download Kajian Salafi Internasional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209023445/http://mirath.net/ |date=2023-12-09 }} {{Col-break}} * [http://www.manhajul-anbiya.net/ Salafi Indonesia] * [http://forumsalafy.net/ Milis Salaf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718202549/https://forumsalafy.net/ |date=2024-07-18 }} * [http://www.salafy.or.id/modules/konten/?id=2 Situs Salafy] {{Webarchive}} {{Col-end}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] 76yhsu2ktn38nfpocjy7chlemosjpki 0 105905 711651 710256 2026-08-07T00:56:50Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711651 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Domain of life whose cells have nuclei}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Eukaryota | fossil_range = [[Statherian]]–[[Holocene|Present]] {{long fossil range|1650|0 |earliest=2300}} | image = {{Multiple image | perrow = 2/2/2 | total_width = 270 | image1 = Rhodomonas salina CCMP 322.jpg | caption1 = [[Cryptista]] | image2 = Ranunculus asiaticus4LEST.jpg | caption2 = [[Viridiplantae]] (plants) | image3 = Trypanosoma sp. PHIL 613 lores.jpg | caption3 = [[Discoba]] | image4 = Chaos carolinensis Wilson 1900.jpg | caption4 = [[Amoebozoa]] | image5 = Ammonia tepida.jpg | caption5 = [[Rhizaria]] | image6 = Isotricha intestinalis.jpg | caption6 = [[Alveolata]] | image7 = Osmia rufa couple (aka).jpg | caption7 = [[Animalia]] | image8 = Boletus edulis (Tillegem).jpg | caption8 = [[Fungi]] | border = infobox }} | taxon = Eukaryota | authority = ([[Édouard Chatton|Chatton]], 1925) [[Robert Whittaker (ecologist)|Whittaker]] & [[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]], 1978 | subdivision_ranks = [[Supergroup (biology)|Supergroups]] and [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdoms]] | subdivision = * [[Diaphoretickes]] ** [[SAR supergroup]] ** [[Haptista]] ** [[Cryptista]] ** [[Archaeplastida]] (incl. [[Plants]]) ** [[Provora]]<ref name="Provora"/> * [[Hemimastigophora]] * [[Metamonada]] * [[Malawimonadida]] * [[Ancyromonadida]] * [[CRuMs]] * [[Amorphea]] ** [[Amoebozoa]] ** [[Breviatea]] ** [[Apusomonadida]] ** [[Opisthokonta]] *** [[Holomycota]] (incl. [[Fungi]]) *** [[Holozoa]] (incl. [[Animals]]) {{!}}- style="background:#e0d0b0;" {{!}} | synonyms = * Eucarya {{au|[[Carl Woese|Woese]] et al. 1990}}<ref name="w1990"/> * Eukarya {{au|[[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]] 1996}}<ref name="Margulis 1996"/> }} '''Eukariota''' nyaéta sakumpulan organismeu anu sélna mibanda [[nukleus]] anu ngabeungkeut mémbran (lamad). Ieu anu ngabédakeun maranéhanana jeung [[prokariota]], anu sélna teu boga nukleus atawa organél mémbran (lamad).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |title=Sequoia sempervirens |work=The Gymnosperm Database |editor=Earle CJ |date=2017 |access-date=2017-09-15 |archive-date=2016-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401041103/http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Ngaran "Eukariota" asalna tina basa [[Yunani]], "eu" anu hartina "hadé" atawa "alus" sarta "karyon" anu hartina "inti". Hal ieu ngagambarkeun ciri husus maranéhanana anu boga inti sél anu ''terorganisir'' jeung alus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eme |first1=Laura |last2=Tamarit |first2=Daniel |last3=Caceres |first3=Eva F. |last4=Stairs |first4=Courtney W. |last5=De Anda |first5=Valerie |last6=Schön |first6=Max E. |last7=Seitz |first7=Kiley W. |last8=Dombrowski |first8=Nina |last9=Lewis |first9=William H. |last10=Homa |first10=Felix |last11=Saw |first11=Jimmy H. |last12=Lombard |first12=Jonathan |last13=Nunoura |first13=Takuro |last14=Li |first14=Wen-Jun |last15=Hua |first15=Zheng-Shuang |last16=Chen |first16=Lin-Xing |last17=Banfield |first17=Jillian F. |last18=John |first18=Emily St |last19=Reysenbach |first19=Anna-Louise |last20=Stott |first20=Matthew B. |last21=Schramm |first21=Andreas |last22=Kjeldsen |first22=Kasper U. |last23=Teske |first23=Andreas P. |last24=Baker |first24=Brett J. |last25=Ettema |first25=Thijs J. G. |title=Inference and reconstruction of the heimdallarchaeial ancestry of eukaryotes |journal=Nature |date=29 June 2023 |volume=618 |issue=7967 |pages=992–999 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06186-2 |pmid=37316666 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=10307638|bibcode=2023Natur.618..992E }}</ref> Anu kalebet kana eukariota téh naon waé [[sato]], [[tutuwuhan]], [[fungi]], sareng seueur [[organismeu]] [[unisélular]]. Aranjeunna mangrupakeun kumpulan anu penting dina ngawangun kahirupan barengan jeung dua grup [[prokariot]] : [[Baktéri]] jeung [[Archaea]].<ref name="Hoek 95">{{cite book |last1=van den Hoek |first1=C. |last2=Mann |first2=D.G. |last3=Jahns |first3=H.M. |name-list-style=vanc |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuUoiFesSHMC |title=Algae An Introduction to Phycology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-30419-9 |access-date=7 April 2023 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210172546/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuUoiFesSHMC |url-status=live }}</ref> Eukariota ngawakilan sabagian leutik tina jumlah organismeu, tapi dumasar kana ukuranana umumna leuwih badag, [[biomassa]] global koléktip maranéhanana leuwih badag batan ''prokariot''. ''Eukariota'' kawasna bijil tina ''archaea Asgard'', sareng caket hubunganana sareng ''Heimdallarchaeia''.<ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gerald |name-list-style=vanc |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood |publisher=Enfield, Middlesex : Guinness Superlatives }}</ref> Ieu tiasa ngandung harti yén ngan aya dua domain kahirupan, [[Baktéri]] jeung ''Archaea'', kalawan ''eukariota'' diasupkeun kana ''Archaea''. Eukariota mimiti aya dina mangsa ''Paleoproterozoikum'', kawasna salaku sél ''flagellated''.<ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565">{{cite journal |last1=Seenivasan |first1=Ramkumar |last2=Sausen |first2=Nicole |last3=Medlin |first3=Linda K. |last4=Melkonian |first4=Michael |name-list-style=vanc |title=Picomonas judraskeda Gen. Et Sp. Nov.: The First Identified Member of the Picozoa Phylum Nov., a Widespread Group of Picoeukaryotes, Formerly Known as 'Picobiliphytes' |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=3 |date=26 March 2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0059565 |page=e59565|pmid=23555709 |pmc=3608682 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...859565S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Téori évolusionér anu utama nyaéta aranjeunna diciptakeun ku ''simbiogenesis'' antara ''archaean'' ''Asgard'' anaérobik sareng ''proteobacterium'' aérobik, anu ngawangun ''mitokondria''. Épisode kadua simbiogenesis sareng ''cyanobacterium'' nyiptakeun pepelakan, kalayan kloroplas. Sél ''eukariot'' ngandung organél anu kabeungkeut mémbran sapertos inti, ''retikulum endoplasma'', sareng aparat Golgi. Eukariota bisa jadi uniselulér atawa multiselulér. Dina babandingan, prokariot ilaharna unisélular. Eukariota ''uniséluler'' sakapeung disebut ''protista''. Eukariota bisa réproduksi boh sacara aséksual ngaliwatan ''[[mitosis]]'' jeung séksual ngaliwatan ''[[meiosis]]'' jeung fusi gamét ''(fertilisasi)''. ==Karagaman== Eukariota téh organismeu anu dimimitian tina sél tunggal ''[[mikroskopis]]'', kayaning ''[[picozoans]]'' kurang leuwih handapeun 3 ''microméters'' sakuliah, nepika [[sato]] kawas [[paus biru]]. Beuratna nepi ka 190 [[ton]] jeung panjangna nepi ka 33,6 méter (110 ft), atawa tutuwuhan kawas tangkal [[kai]] pang jangkungna/''[[redwood]]'', jangkungna nepi ka 120 méter (390 ft).<ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565"/> Loba eukariota anu unisélular; Eukariota multisélular kaasup [[sato]], [[tutuwuhan]], jeung [[fungi]], tapi deui, grup ieu ogé ngandung loba spésiés unisélular.<ref name=Wood/> Sél eukariot biasana leuwih badag batan sél prokariot—baktéri jeung ''archaea''—''volume'' kira-kira 10.000 kali leuwih gedé.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parfrey |first1=L.W. |last2=Lahr |first2=D.J.G. |name-list-style=vanc |year=2013 |title=Multicellularity arose several times in the evolution of eukaryotes |journal=BioEssays |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=339–347 |doi=10.1002/bies.201200143 |pmid=23315654 |s2cid=13872783 |url=http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725235332/http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725235332/http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |date=25 July 2014 }}</ref> Eukariota ngawakilan sabagian leutik tina jumlah organismeu, tapi, sabab loba di antarana jauh leuwih badag, ''biomassa global'' koléktif maranéhanana (468 gigatons) jauh leuwih badag batan prokariot (77 gigatons), kalawan tutuwuhan nyalira lobana kana leuwih ti 81% tina total ''biomassa Bumi''.<ref name="Hoek 95"/> <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225 heights=225 caption="Eukariot ukuranana rupa-rupa ti sél tunggal nepi ka organisme anu beuratna ton-tonan"> File:Gram-negative Bacteria and Paramecium forming cyst.jpg|[[Prokaryote]]s (sél cylindrical leutik, [[baktéri]], di kénca) jeung eukariota anu sél tunggal, ''[[Paramecium]]'' File:California Redwood National Park (216450575).jpeg|Tangkal kai pang jangkungna [[Sequoia sempervirens|''Coast redwood'']] File:Anim1754 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library (rotated).jpg|[[Paus Biru]] </gallery> Eukariota mangrupa garis katurunan anu rupa-rupa, utamana diwangun ku organismeu ''mikroskopis''.<ref name="Burki Roger Brown Simpson 2020 pp. 43–55"/> Multisélularitas dina sababaraha bentuk parantos mekar sacara mandiri sahenteuna 25 kali dina eukariota.<ref name="Grosberg2007">{{cite journal |last1=Grosberg |first1=RK |last2=Strathmann |first2=RR |name-list-style=vanc |year=2007 |title=The evolution of multicellularity: A minor major transition? |journal=[[Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst]] |volume=38 |pages=621–654 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735 |u b. B: :rl=https://grosberglab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/453/2017/05/2007-Grosberg-R.-K.-and-R.-R.-Strathmann.pdf |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314222721/https://grosberglab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/453/2017/05/2007-Grosberg-R.-K.-and-R.-R.-Strathmann.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Organisme multisélular kompléks, kumpulan amoéba anu teu kaétang pikeun ngabentuk ''molds slime'', ngalaman évolusi ngan dina genep runtuyan katurunan eukariot: [[sasatoan]], [[fungi]] ''symbiomycotan'', [[ganggang coklat]], [[ganggang beureum]], [[ganggang héjo]], jeung tutuwuhan darat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Popper |first1=Zoë A. |last2=Michel |first2=Gurvan |last3=Hervé |first3=Cécile |last4=Domozych |first4=David S. |last5=Willats |first5=William G.T. |last6=Tuohy |first6=Maria G. |last7=Kloareg |first7=Bernard |last8=Stengel |first8=Dagmar B. |name-list-style=vanc |year=2011 |title=Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: From algae to flowering plants |journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology |volume=62 |pages=567–590 |pmid=21351878 |hdl=10379/6762 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=11961888 |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809}}</ref> Eukariota dikumpulkeun dumasar kana kamiripan génomik, ku kituna katempo grup mindeng kakurangan ciri anu kanyahoan.<ref name="Burki Roger Brown Simpson 2020 pp. 43–55">{{cite journal |last1=Burki |first1=Fabien |last2=Roger |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Brown |first3=Matthew W. |last4=Simpson |first4=Alastair G.B. |name-list-style=vanc |title=The New Tree of Eukaryotes |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |publisher=Elsevier BV |volume=35 |issue=1 |year=2020 |issn=0169-5347 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.008 |pages=43–55|pmid=31606140 |s2cid=204545629 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020TEcoE..35...43B |url=https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1387649/FULLTEXT01 }}</ref> ==Bagéan anu jadi pangbéda== ===Nucleus (Inti)=== Ciri pangdeukeutna eukariot nyaéta sélna boga [[inti]], Ieu masihan aranjeunna namina, tina basa [[Yunani]] εὖ (eu, "well" atawa "alus") jeung κάρυον (karyon, "inti" atawa "puseur"), Sél eukariot boga rupa-rupa struktur kabeungkeut mémbran ''internal'', disebut organél, jeung ''sitoskeleton'' nu nangtukeun [[organisasi]] jeung wangun sél urang.<ref name="OnlineEtDict">{{OEtymD|eukaryotic}}</ref> Nukleus nyimpen DNA sél, nu dibagi kana kebat linier disebut kromosom; ieu dipisahkeun jadi dua sét anj cocog ku ''spindle microtubular'' salila ''division'' [[nuklir]], enggoning prosés ''mitosis eukariot'' anu has.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonev |first1=B |last2=Cavalli |first2=G |name-list-style=vanc |date=14 October 2016 |title=Organization and function of the 3D genome |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=661–678 |doi=10.1038/nrg.2016.112 |pmid=27739532 |hdl=2027.42/151884 |s2cid=31259189 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chromosome Segregation: The Role of Centromeres |last=O'Connor |first=Clare |work=Nature Education |date= 2008|access-date=18 February 2024 |url= https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/chromosome-segregation-in-mitosis-the-role-of-242/ |quote=eukar }}</ref> ===Biokimia=== Eukariot béda jeung ''prokariot'' dina sababaraha cara, kalayan jalur [[biokimi]]awi unik sapertos sintésis ''sterané''. Protéin tanda tangan eukariot teu boga ''[[homologi]]'' jeung ''[[protéin]]'' dina domain kahirupan séjén, tapi sigana [[universal]] diantara eukariota. Éta kalebet protéin ''[[sitoskeleton]]'', mesin ''[[transkripsi]]'' kompléks, sistem sortir-membran, pori nuklir, jeung sababaraha énzim dina jalur biokimiawi.<ref name="pmid11805300">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hartman H, Fedorov A |title=The origin of the eukaryotic cell: a genomic investigation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=1420–5 |date=February 2002 |pmid=11805300 |pmc=122206 |doi=10.1073/pnas.032658599 |bibcode=2002PNAS...99.1420H |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mémbran internal=== {{multiple image | image1 = Prokaryote cell.svg | width1 = 5<!--to scale! the point is this is the relative size, thanks-->0 | caption1 = <small>[[Prokaryote]], to same scale</small> | image2 = Endomembrane system diagram en (edit).svg | width2 = 300 | caption2 = Sél eukariot dengan [[sistem endomembran]] | footer = Sél eukariot kira-kira 10.000 kali leuwih badag batan sél prokariot dumasar volumna, sarta ngandung [[organél kabeungkeut mémbran]]. }} Sél eukariot ngawengku rupa-rupa ''[[struktur]]'' anu kabeungkeut mémbran, babarengan ngabentuk sistem [[éndomémbran]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Linka M, Weber AP |chapter=Evolutionary Integration of Chloroplast Metabolism with the Metabolic Networks of the Cells |veditors=Burnap RL, Vermaas WF |title=Functional Genomics and Evolution of Photosynthetic Systems |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=978-94-007-1533-2 |page=215 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfzEgaLibuwC&pg=PA215 |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=29 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529130011/https://books.google.com/books?id=WfzEgaLibuwC&pg=PA215 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kompartemén basajan,disebut ''[[vesikel]]'' jeung ''[[vakuola]]'', bisa dibentuk ku ''budding'' kaluar mémbran séjén.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors=Marsh M | title=Endocytosis| url=https://archive.org/details/endocytosis0000unse_i6q0 | publisher=Oxford University Press| year=2001| page=vii| isbn=978-0-19-963851-2}}</ref> Loba sél nyerna dahareun jeung bahan séjén ngaliwatan prosés ''[[endositosis]]'', dimana mémbran luar ''invaginates'' lajeng ''pinches'' kaluar pikeun ngabentuk hiji ''[[vesicle]]''. Sababaraha produk sél bisa ninggalkeun dina vesikel ngaliwatan ''exocytosis''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stalder |first1=Danièle |last2=Gershlick |first2=David C. |name-list-style=vanc |date=November 2020|title=Direct trafficking pathways from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane |journal=Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology |volume=107 |pages=112–125 |doi=10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.04.001 |pmc=7152905 |pmid=32317144}}</ref> Inti dikurilingan ku mémbran ganda nu katelah amplop nuklir/''[[nuclear envelope]]'', kalawan ''pori'' nuklir nu ngidinan bahan pikeun mindahkeun asup jeung kaluar. Rupa-rupa ''tabung''- jeung lembaran-kawas éksténsi mémbran nuklir ngabentuk ''retikulum endoplasmic'', nu aub dina angkutan [[protéin]] jeung ''maturation''/kadéwasaan.<ref name=TheNuclearEnvelope-NCBI>{{cite journal | vauthors=Hetzer MW | title=The nuclear envelope | journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology | volume=2 | issue=3 | pages=a000539 | date=March 2010 | pmid=20300205 | pmc=2829960 | doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a000539 }}</ref> Ieu ngawengku rétikulum ''endoplasma'' kasar, katutupan ku ''ribosom'' nu nyintésis protéin; ieu asup kana rohangan intérior atawa ''lumen''. Salajengna, aranjeunna umumna asup kana ''vesikel'', nu kuncup kaluar lalaunan tina ''[[retikulum endoplasmic]]''. Dina kalolobaan eukariota, vesikel anu mawa protéin ieu dileupaskeun sarta salajengna dirobah dina tumpukan vesikel datar (''cisternae''), puseur pangolahan. Vesikel bisa jadi husus; contona, ''[[lisosom]]'' ngandung énzim ''pencernaan'' anu ngarecah biomolekul dina ''[[sitoplasma]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth) |url=http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/ |publisher=British Society for Cell Biology |access-date=12 November 2017 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324055727/https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Golgi Apparatus |url=http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/golgi-apparatus/ |publisher=British Society for Cell Biology |access-date=12 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060218/http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/golgi-apparatus/ |archive-date=13 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Mitochondria=== [[File:Mitochondrion structure.svg |thumb |upright=1.4 |[[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]] v. ]] Mitokondria nyaéta ''organél'' pada sél eukariot.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Saygin D, Tabib T, Bittar HE, Valenzi E, Sembrat J, Chan SY, Rojas M, Lafyatis R |display-authors=3 |title=Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension |journal=Pulmonary Circulation |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=131–144 |date=July 1957 |pmid=32166015 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0757-131 |pmc=7052475 |bibcode=1957SciAm.197a.131S }}</ref> Mitokondria biasana disebut "''powerhouse sél''", pikeun fungsina nyadiakeun énérgi ku cara ngoksidasi [[gula]] atawa [[lemak]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[molekul]] ATP nu nyimpen-énergi.<ref name=Voet>{{cite book | vauthors=Voet D, Voet JC, Pratt CW |name-list-style=vanc |title=Fundamentals of Biochemistry |edition=2nd |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofbi00voet_0/page/547 547, 556] |isbn=978-0471214953 |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofbi00voet_0/page/547 }}</ref> Mitokondria mibanda dua mémbran sakurilingna, masing-masing lapisan ganda ''fosfolipid''; bagian jero nu narilep kana ''invaginations'' disebut ''cristae'' mana réspirasi aérobik lumangsung.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2006-05/1146679455.Ev.r.html |title=Re: Are there eukaryotic cells without mitochondria? |date=1 May 2006 |work=madsci.org |vauthors=Mack S |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=24 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424224700/http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2006-05/1146679455.Ev.r.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mitokondria ngandung DNA sorangan, nu mibanda kamiripan struktural deukeut jeung DNA baktéri, ti mana asalna, jeung nu ngodekeun rRNA jeung tRNA gén nu ngahasilkeun RNA nu strukturna leuwih deukeut jeung RNA baktéri ti RNA eukariota.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zick |first1=M |last2=Rabl |first2=R |last3=Reichert |first3=AS |name-list-style=vanc |title=Cristae formation-linking ultrastructure and function of mitochondria. |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research |date=January 2009 |volume=1793 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |pmid=18620004 |doi=10.1016/j.bbamcr.2008.06.013 |doi-access=}}</ref> Sababaraha eukariota, sapertos ''[[metamonads Giardia]]'' sareng ''[[Trichomonas]]'', sareng ''[[amoebozoan Pelomyxa]]'', sigana kurang mitokondria, tapi sadayana ngandung organél turunan mitokondria, seperti ''[[hidrogénosom]]'' atanapi ''mitosom'', kaleungitan mitokondria kadua. Aranjeunna meunang énergi ku aksi énzimatik dina ''sitoplasma''.<ref name="Karn">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karnkowska A, Vacek V, Zubáčová Z, Treitli SC, Petrželková R, Eme L, Novák L, Žárský V, Barlow LD, Herman EK, Soukal P, Hroudová M, Doležal P, Stairs CW, Roger AJ, Eliáš M, Dacks JB, Vlček Č, Hampl V |display-authors=3 |title=A Eukaryote without a Mitochondrial Organelle |journal=Current Biology |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=1274–1284 |date=May 2016 |pmid=27185558 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.053 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016CBio...26.1274K }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/first-eukaryote-found-lack-mitochondria |title=Scientists Shocked To Discover Eukaryote With NO Mitochondria |date=13 May 2016 |vauthors=Davis JL |website=IFL Science |access-date=2016-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217214255/https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/first-eukaryote-found-lack-mitochondria/ |archive-date=17 February 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Plastida=== [[File:Chloroplast II.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Jinis [[plastid]] anu paling umum nyaéta [[kloroplas]], anu ngandung [[klorofil]] sareng ngahasilkeun sanyawa [[organik]] ku [[fotosintésis]]. ]] Tutuwuhan jeung sagala rupa golongan ganggang boga plastida ogé mitokondria.<ref name="Kleptoplastidy Hypothesis">{{cite journal | vauthors=Bodył A | s2cid=24613863 | title=Did some red alga-derived plastids evolve via kleptoplastidy? A hypothesis | journal=Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | volume=93 | issue=1 | pages=201–222 | date=February 2018 | pmid=28544184 | doi=10.1111/brv.12340 }}</ref> Plastida, sapertos mitokondria, gaduh [[DNA]] sorangan sareng dikembangkeun tina [[éndosimbion]], dina hal ieu [[sianobaktéri]]. Biasana aya dina bentuk kloroplas anu, seperti sianobakteri, ngandung [[klorofil]] sarta ngahasilkeun sanyawa organik (sapertos glukosa) ngaliwatan fotosintésis.Nu séjénna milu nyimpen dahareun.Sanajan plastida sigana boga asal tunggal,teu sakabéh grup plastid-ngandung patalina raket. Gantina, sababaraha eukariotaaranjeunna geus meunang ti batur ngaliwatan endosymbiosis sekundér atawa ingestion.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=Sato N |year=2006 |pages= 75–102 |title=The Structure and Function of Plastids |volume=23 |veditors=Wise RR, Hoober JK |publisher= Springer Netherlands|chapter=Origin and Evolution of Plastids: Genomic View on the Unification and Diversity of Plastids |isbn=978-1-4020-4060-3 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-4061-0_4 |series=Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration}}</ref> Panangkepan sareng sequestering sél fotosintétik sareng kloroplas, kleptoplasti, lumangsung dina loba jenis organismeu eukariot modern.<ref name=pmid18518896>{{cite journal |vauthors=Minnhagen S, Carvalho WF, Salomon PS, Janson S |title=Chloroplast DNA content in Dinophysis (Dinophyceae) from different cell cycle stages is consistent with kleptoplasty |journal=Environ. Microbiol. |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=2411–7 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18518896 |doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01666.x |bibcode=2008EnvMi..10.2411M }}</ref> ===Struktur sitoskeletal=== Sitoskeleton nyadiakeun ''[[struktur]]'' kaku jeung titik kantétan pikeun struktur motor anu ngamungkinkeun pikeun mindahkeun sél, ngarobah bentuk, atawa angkutan bahan. Struktur ''[[motorik]]'' nyaéta ''[[mikrofilamén]]'' ''[[aktin]]'' sareng protéin beungkeut ''[[aktin]]'', kaasup ''α-aktinin'', ''[[fimbrin]]'', sarta ''[[filamin]]'' aya dina beungkeutan lapisan ''[[cortical submembranous]]'' na. Protéin motor ''[[mikrotubulus]]'', ''[[dynein]]'' sareng ''[[kinesin]]'', sarta ''[[miosin]]'' tina ''[[filamén]]'' ''[[aktin]]'', nyadiakeun karakter ''[[dinamis]]'' tina kantétan.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Molecular Motors |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |edition=4th |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26888/ |date=2002-01-01 |first1=Bruce |last1=Alberts |first2=Alexander |last2=Johnson |first3=Julian |last3=Lewis |first4=Martin |last4=Raff |first5=Keith |last5=Roberts |first6=Peter |last6=Walter |name-list-style=vanc |publisher=Garland Science |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3 |access-date=6 April 2023 |archive-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308094109/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26888/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sweeney">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sweeney HL, Holzbaur EL |title=Motor Proteins |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages= a021931|date=May 2018 |pmid=29716949 |pmc=5932582 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a021931 |url=}}</ref> Loba eukariota boga proyéksi ''[[sitoplasma motil]]'' ramping panjang,disebut ''[[flagélla]]'', atawa sababaraha ''struktur'' pondok disebut ''[[silia]]''. Organél ieu rupa-rupa aub dina gerakan, dahar, jeung sénsasi. Utamana diwangun ku ''[[tubulin]]'', sarta sagemblengna béda ti ''[[flagella prokariot]]''.<ref name="Bardy Ng Jarrell 2003">{{cite journal | vauthors=Bardy SL, Ng SY, Jarrell KF | title=Prokaryotic motility structures | journal=Microbiology | volume=149 | issue=Pt 2 | pages=295–304 | date=February 2003 | pmid=12624192 | doi=10.1099/mic.0.25948-0 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Silflow Lefebvre 2001">{{cite journal | vauthors=Silflow CD, Lefebvre PA | title=Assembly and motility of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Lessons from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii | journal=Plant Physiology | volume=127 | issue=4 | pages=1500–7 | date=December 2001 | pmid=11743094 | pmc=1540183 | doi=10.1104/pp.010807 }}</ref> Éta dirojong ku kebat/amparan ''[[mikrotubulus]]'' anu timbul tina ''[[séntriol]]'', ciri disusun salaku salapan pasang sabudeureun dua singlets. Flagela tiasa gaduh bulu ''(mastigonemes)'', sakumaha dina loba ''Stramenopiles''. Bagian jerona kontinyu sareng sitoplasma sél. ''[[Centrioles]]'' sering aya, sanajan dina sél jeung grup nu teu boga flagella, tapi ''conifers'' jeung tutuwuhan kembangan boga. Aranjeunna umumna lumangsung dina grup anu ngabalukarkeun rupa-rupa akar ''microtubular''. Ieu ngabentuk komponén primér ''[[sitoskeleton]]'', sarta mindeng dirakit ngaliwatan sababaraha divisi sél, kalawan hiji ''[[flagellum]]'' dipikagaduh ti indungna sarta séjéna diturunkeun tina. ''[[Centrioles]]'' ngahasilkeun benang/''spindle'' salila division [[nuklir]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Vorobjev IA, Nadezhdina ES |title=The centrosome and its role in the organization of microtubules |volume=106 |pages=227–293 |year=1987 |pmid=3294718 |doi=10.1016/S0074-7696(08)61714-3 |isbn=978-0-12-364506-7 |series=International Review of Cytology }}</ref> ===Témbok sél=== Sél tutuwuhan, [[ganggang]], [[fungi]] sareng seueur ''kromalveolat'', tapi sanés [[sato]], dikurilingan ku [[témbok sél]]. Ieu lapisan luar mémbran sél, nyayogikeun sél kalayan dukungan struktural, panyalindungan, jeung mékanisme nyaring. Témbok sél ogé nyegah ékspansi kaleuleuwihan nalika [[cai]] asup kana sél.<ref name="Howland 2000">{{cite book | vauthors=Howland JL | year=2000 | title=The Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life | url=https://archive.org/details/surprisingarchae0000howl | pages=[https://archive.org/details/surprisingarchae0000howl/page/69 69]–71 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-511183-5}}</ref> ''[[Polisakarida]]'' utama anu ngawangun dinding sél primér tutuwuhan darat nyaéta ''[[sélulosa]]'', ''[[hémiselulosa]]'', jeung ''[[pektin]]''. ''[[Mikrofibril]]'' sélulosa dihijikeun sareng ''hémiselulosa'', diasupkeun kana matriks pektin. ''[[Hémiselulosa]]'' anu paling umum dina témbok sél primér nyaéta ''[[xyloglucan]]''.<ref name="Fry1989">{{cite journal | vauthors=Fry SC |title=The Structure and Functions of Xyloglucan |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |volume=40 |issue=1 |year=1989 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1093/jxb/40.1.1}}</ref> ===Réproduksi séksual=== [[File:Sexual cycle N-2N.svg|thumb|[[Reproduksi séksual]] merlukeun [[siklus hirup biologis|siklus hirup]] anu silih ganti antara fase [[haploid]], kalayan hiji salinan unggal [[kromosom]] dina sél, jeung hiji [[diploid]] fase, kalayan dua salinan. Dina eukariota, haploid [[gamet]]s dihasilkeun ku [[meiosis]]; dua gamét ngahiji ngabentuk diploid [[zigot]].]] Eukariota memiliki siklus hidup yang ngalibatkeun réproduksi séksual, pilihganti antara bagéan ''[[haploid]]'', dimana ngan hiji salinan unggal ''[[kromosom]]'' aya dina unggal [[sél]], jeung nalika ''[[diploid]]'', kalawan dua salinan unggal kromosom dina unggal sél. Fase diploid dibentuk ku ''[[fusi]]'' dua [[gamét]] haploid, sapertos [[endog]] sareng spérmatozoa, pikeun ngabentuk [[zigot]]; Ieu bisa tumuwuh jadi awak, kalayan sélna ngabagi ku ''[[mitosis]]'', sarta dina sababaraha tahap ngahasilkeun ''gamet haploid'' ngaliwatan ''[[meiosis]]'', ''[[division]]'' anu ngurangan jumlah ''kromosom'' sarta nyieun ''[[variability genetik]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Matthew B. |name-list-style=vanc |title=Population genetics |url=https://archive.org/details/populationgeneti00hami |url-access=limited |year=2009 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-4051-3277-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/populationgeneti00hami/page/n69 55]}}</ref> Aya variasi anu kacida penting dina pola ieu. [[Tutuwuhan]] gaduh fase ''[[multisélular]]'' haploid sareng diploid. Eukariot memiliki laju metabolisme yang lebih rendah dan waktu generasi yang lebih lama dibandingkan prokariot, sabab leuwih badag sarta ku kituna boga aréa mun ''[[rasio]]'' volume ''permukaan'' leutik.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=TN |last2=Kerp |first2=H |last3=Hass |first3=H |name-list-style=vanc |year=2005 |title=Life history biology of early land plants: Deciphering the gametophyte phase |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=102 |issue=16 |pages=5892–5897 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0501985102 |pmid=15809414 |pmc=556298 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Évolusi réproduksi séksual bisa jadi ciri mimiti /''[[primordial]]'' eukariota. Dumasar analisis filogenetik, Dacks sareng Roger parantos ngusulkeun yén séks fakultatif aya dina karuhun umum grup éta.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dacks J, Roger AJ |s2cid=9441768 |title=The first sexual lineage and the relevance of facultative sex |journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=779–783 |date=June 1999 |pmid=10229582 |doi=10.1007/PL00013156 |bibcode=1999JMolE..48..779D }}</ref> Sakumpulan inti gén anu fungsina dina ''meiosis'' aya dina ''[[Trichomonas vaginalis]]'' sareng ''[[Giardia intestinalis]]'', dua organismeu saméméhna dianggap aséksual. Kusabab dua spésiés ieu turunan tina silsilah anu ''[[diverged]]'' mimiti tina tangkal évolusionér eukariot, gén meiotik inti, sareng ku kituna séks, kemungkinan gede aya dina karuhun umum eukariota.<ref name=Ramesh>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramesh MA, Malik SB, Logsdon JM |title=A phylogenomic inventory of meiotic genes; evidence for sex in Giardia and an early eukaryotic origin of meiosis |journal=Current Biology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=185–191 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15668177 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.003 |s2cid=17013247 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2005CBio...15..185R }}</ref><ref name=Malik>{{cite journal |vauthors=Malik SB, Pightling AW, Stefaniak LM, Schurko AM, Logsdon JM |title=An expanded inventory of conserved meiotic genes provides evidence for sex in Trichomonas vaginalis |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=e2879 |date=August 2007 |pmid=18663385 |pmc=2488364 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002879 |veditors=Hahn MW |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2879M |doi-access=free }}</ref> Spésiés pernah dianggap aséksual, sapertos parasit ''Leishmania'', gaduh siklus séksual. ''[[Amoebae]]'', saméméhna dianggap aséksual, anu baheulana seksual; grup aséksual kiwari bisa waé mecenghul anu anyar.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lahr DJ, Parfrey LW, Mitchell EA, Katz LA, Lara E |title=The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence for sex in amoeboid organisms |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |volume=278 |issue=1715 |pages=2081–2090 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21429931 |pmc=3107637 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2011.0289 }}</ref> ==Évolusi== [[File:Openly available illustrations as tools to describe eukaryotic microbial diversity - Journal.pbio.3002395.g001.tif|thumb|Tangkal eukariota nunjukkeun ''subgrup'' utama sareng ''diagram'' gambar leutik anggota wawakilan unggal grup. Sintésis diropéa dumasar kana rékonstruksi ''[[filogénomik]]'' panganyarna (nepi ka 2023).<ref>{{Cite Q|Q123558544|doi-access=free}}</ref>]] ===Sajarah klasifikasi=== Dina jaman baheula, dua katurunan [[sasatoan]] jeung [[tutuwuhan]] ieu dipikawanoh ku [[Aristoteles]] jeung [[Theophrastus]]. Silsilahna dibéré pangkat [[taksonomi]] Karajaan ku [[Linnaeus]] dina abad ka-18. Padahal anjeunna kaasup [[fungi]] jeung tutuwuhan jeung sababaraha ''[[reservations]]'', éta engkéna baris sadar yén aranjeunna rada béda jeung ngajamin éta karajaan anu misah. Rupa-rupa eukariota sél tunggal asalna disimpen sareng tutuwuhan atanapi sasatoan nalika aranjeunna dipiwanoh.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Goldfuß |title=Ueber die Classification der Zoophyten |journal=Isis, Oder, Encyclopädische Zeitung von Oken |date=1818 |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=1008–1019 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/47614#page/530/mode/1up |trans-title=On the classification of zoophytes |language=de |access-date=15 March 2019 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324105702/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/47614#page/530/mode/1up |url-status=live }} From p. 1008: ''"Erste Klasse. Urthiere. Protozoa."'' (First class. Primordial animals. Protozoa.) [Note: each column of each page of this journal is numbered; there are two columns per page.]</ref> Dina taun 1818, ahli [[biologi]] Jerman [[Georg A. Goldfuss]] nyiptakeun kecap ''[[protozoa]]'' pikeun ngarujuk kana organismeu sapertos ''[[ciliates]]'', sarta grup ieu dimekarkeun nepi ka [[Ernst Haeckel]] ngajadikeun éta karajaan ngawengku sakabéh eukariota sél tunggal, nu ''[[Protista]]'', taun 1866. Eukariota jadi katempona opat karajaan:<ref name=Scamardella1999>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scamardella JM |title=Not plants or animals: a brief history of the origin of Kingdoms Protozoa, Protista and Protoctista |year=1999 |journal=[[International Microbiology]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=207–221 |pmid=10943416 |url=http://www.im.microbios.org/08december99/03%20Scamardella.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614000656/http://www.im.microbios.org/08december99/03%20Scamardella.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name=Rothschild1989>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rothschild LJ |title=Protozoa, Protista, Protoctista: what's in a name? |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=277–305 |year=1989 |pmid=11542176 |doi=10.1007/BF00139515 |s2cid=32462158 |authorlink=Lynn J. Rothschild |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1232387 |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204233203/https://zenodo.org/record/1232387 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Whittaker">{{cite journal |vauthors=Whittaker RH |title=New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms |journal=Science |volume=163 |issue=3863 |pages=150–60 |date=January 1969 |pmid=5762760 |doi=10.1126/science.163.3863.150 |citeseerx=10.1.1.403.5430 |bibcode=1969Sci...163..150W }}</ref> #Karajaan ''Protista'' (mikro organismeu unik) #Karajaan ''Plantae'' (Tutuwuhan) #Karajaan ''Fungi'' #Karajaan ''Animalia''(Sasatoan) Protista dina waktos éta dianggap "bentuk primitif", sahingga hiji kelas évolusionér, dihijikeun ku alam unisélular primitif maranéhanana.<ref name="w1990">{{cite journal |vauthors=Woese CR, Kandler O, Wheelis ML |author1-link=Carl Woese |author2-link=Otto Kandler |author3-link=Mark Wheelis |title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=87 |issue=12 |pages=4576–4579 |date=June 1990 |pmid=2112744 |pmc=54159 |doi=10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 |bibcode=1990PNAS...87.4576W |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Knoll 1992">{{cite journal |last=Knoll |first=Andrew H. |name-list-style=vanc |authorlink=Andrew H. Knoll |title=The Early Evolution of Eukaryotes: A Geological Perspective |journal=Science |volume=256 |issue=5057 |year=1992 |doi=10.1126/science.1585174 |pages=622–627 |pmid=1585174 |bibcode=1992Sci...256..622K |quote=Eucarya, or eukaryotes}}</ref> Pamahaman ngeunaan branchings pangkolotna dina tangkal kahirupan ngan dimekarkeun substansi kalawan runtuyan DNA, pangheulana kana sistem domain tinimbang karajaan salaku pangkat tingkat luhur anu diajukeun ku [[Carl Woese]], [[Otto Kandler]], sareng [[Mark Wheelis]] taun 1990, ngahijikeun sakabéh karajaan eukariota dina domain "Eucarya", nyatakeun, kumaha ogé, yén "'eukariota' bakal terus jadi [[sinonim]] umum bisa ditarima".<ref name=Rothschild1989/> Dina taun 1996, ahli biologi évolusionér [[Lynn Margulis]] ngusulkeun pikeun ngagentos Karajaan sareng Domain sareng nami "inklusif" pikeun nyiptakeun "filogéni dumasar simbiosis", masihan katerangan "Eukarya (organismee nukleus turunan simbiosis)".<ref name="Margulis 1996">{{cite journal |last=Margulis |first=Lynn |authorlink=Lynn Margulis |name-list-style=vanc |title=Archaeal-eubacterial mergers in the origin of Eukarya: phylogenetic classification of life |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=93 |issue=3 |date=6 February 1996 |doi=10.1073/pnas.93.3.1071 |pages=1071–1076 |pmid=8577716 |pmc=40032 |bibcode=1996PNAS...93.1071M |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Filogéni=== Nepi ka 2014, konsensus kasar mimiti muncul tina studi filogénomik dua dasawarsa saméméhna.<ref name="burki2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Burki F |title=The eukaryotic tree of life from a global phylogenomic perspective |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=a016147 |date=May 2014 |pmid=24789819 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a016147 |pmc=3996474 }}</ref><ref name="UntanglingEarlyEukaryotes">{{cite journal |vauthors=Burki F, Kaplan M, Tikhonenkov DV, Zlatogursky V, Minh BQ, Radaykina LV, Smirnov A, Mylnikov AP, Keeling PJ |display-authors=3 |title=Untangling the early diversification of eukaryotes: a phylogenomic study of the evolutionary origins of Centrohelida, Haptophyta and Cryptista |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |volume=283 |issue=1823 |pages=20152802 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26817772 |pmc=4795036 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2015.2802 }}</ref> Mayoritas eukariota bisa ditempatkeun dina salah sahiji dua ''[[clades]]'' badag disebut ''[[Amorphea]]'' (komposisi sarupa jeung hipotésa unikont) jeung ''[[Diphoda]]'' (baheulana bikonts), nu ngawengku tutuwuhan jeung lolobana turunan ganggang.<ref name="SchönZlatogursky2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schön ME, Zlatogursky VV, Singh RP, Poirier C, Wilken S, Mathur V, Strassert JF, Pinhassi J, Worden AZ, Keeling PJ, Ettema TJ |display-authors=3 |title=Picozoa are archaeplastids without plastid |journal=Nature Communications |year=2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6651 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-26918-0 |pmid=34789758 |pmc=8599508 |biorxiv=10.1101/2021.04.14.439778 |s2cid=233328713 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-189959 |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=2 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202091441/https://umu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1614928&dswid=-3028 |url-status=live }}</ref> Grup utama katilu, ''[[Excavata]]'', parantos ditinggalkeun salaku grup formal sabab ''[[paraphyletic]]''/ampir sampurna. Filogén anu diusulkeun di handap ieu ngan ukur kalebet hiji kumpulan ékskavasi (Discoba), sareng ngalebetkeun usulan 2021 yén ''[[picozoan]]'' mangrupikeun baraya deukeut ''[[rhodophytes]]''. ''[[Provora]]'' mangrupikeun sakumpulan prédator mikroba anu kapanggih dina 2022.<ref name="Provora">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tikhonenkov DV, Mikhailov KV, Gawryluk RM, Belyaev AO, Mathur V, Karpov SA, Zagumyonnyi DG, Borodina AS, Prokina KI, Mylnikov AP, Aleoshin VV, Keeling PJ |display-authors=3 |title=Microbial predators form a new supergroup of eukaryotes |journal=Nature |date=December 2022 |volume=612 |issue=7941 |pages=714–719 |pmid=36477531 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05511-5 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..714T |s2cid=254436650 }}</ref> {{stem group kingdoms}} {{clear}} Sisipkan tabel disini Hiji pintonan karajaan hébat sarta grup bobot maranéhanana. ''Metamonada hésé ditempatkeun, jadi adina meureun ka Discob, jigana ka Malawimonada.''<ref name="Brown 2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Matthew W. |last2=Heiss |first2=Aaron A. |last3=Kamikawa |first3=Ryoma |last4=Inagaki |first4=Yuji |last5=Yabuki |first5=Akinori |last6=Tice |first6=Alexander K |last7=Shiratori |first7=Takashi |last8=Ishida |first8=Ken-Ichiro |last9=Hashimoto |first9=Tetsuo |last10=Simpson |first10=Alastair |last11=Roger |first11=Andrew |name-list-style=vanc |date=2018-01-19 |title=Phylogenomics Places Orphan Protistan Lineages in a Novel Eukaryotic Super-Group|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=427–433 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evy014 |pmc=5793813|pmid=29360967}}</ref> ===Asal usul eukariota=== [[File:Symbiogenesis 2 mergers.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Dina téori [[simbiogenesis]], ngahiji tina ''[[''archaean'']]'' jeung ''[[baktéri aérobik]]'' nyiptakeun ''[[eukariota]]'', jeung ''[[mitokondria aérobik]]''; ngahiji kadua ditambahkeun ''[[kloroplas]]'', nyieun tutuwuhan héjo.<ref name=latorre/>]] Asal usul sél ''[[eukariot]]'', atawa ''[[eukariogenesis]]'', mangrupakeun milestone (titik hontalan) dina évolusi kahirupan, sabab ''[[eukariota]]'' ngawengku sakabéh sél kompléks jeung ampir sakabéh organismeu [[multisélular]].<ref name="Gabaldón">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gabaldón T |title=Origin and Early Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell |journal=Annual Review of Microbiology |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=631–647 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34343017 |doi=10.1146/annurev-micro-090817-062213 |s2cid=236916203 }}</ref> Karuhun umum eukariot panungtung (LECA) tayalian asal hipotétis ti sakabéh eukariota hidup, tur éta paling dipikaresep populasi biologis, lain individu tunggal.<ref name="O'Malley Leger Wideman Ruiz-Trillo pp. 338–344">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Malley MA, Leger MM, Wideman JG, Ruiz-Trillo I |title=Concepts of the last eukaryotic common ancestor |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=338–344 |date=March 2019 |pmid=30778187 |doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0796-3 |bibcode=2019NatEE...3..338O |hdl-access=free |s2cid=67790751 |hdl=10261/201794 }}</ref> LECA dipercaya mangrupa [[protista]] nu boga inti, sahenteuna hiji ''[[centriole]]'' sareng ''[[flagellum]]'', mitokondria aérobik fakultatif, kelamin (meiosis jeung syngamy), kista dorman kalawan témbok sél ''[[kitin]]'' atawa ''[[selulosa]]'', sarta ''[[peroksisom]]''. <ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Leander BS |title=Predatory protists |journal=Current Biology |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=R510–R516 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32428491 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.052 |s2cid=218710816 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020CBio...30.R510L }}</ref><ref name="RedAlgalDerivedPlastids">{{cite journal |vauthors=Strassert JF, Irisarri I, Williams TA, Burki F |title=A molecular timescale for eukaryote evolution with implications for the origin of red algal-derived plastids |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1879 |date=March 2021 |pmid=33767194 |pmc=7994803 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22044-z |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.1879S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Koumandou Wickstead Ginger van der Giezen 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Koumandou |first1=V. Lila |last2=Wickstead |first2=Bill |last3=Ginger |first3=Michael L. |last4=van der Giezen |first4=Mark |last5=Dacks |first5=Joel B. |last6=Field |first6=Mark C. |name-list-style=vanc |title=Molecular paleontology and complexity in the last eukaryotic common ancestor |journal=Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology |volume=48 |issue=4 |year=2013 |doi=10.3109/10409238.2013.821444 |pages=373–396|pmid=23895660 |pmc=3791482 }}</ref> Gabungan éndosimbiotik antara ''[[archaea]]'' ''anaérobik motil'' jeung ''[[alphaproteobacterium]] aérobik'' ngalahirkeun LECA jeung sakabéh [[''eukariota'']], kalawan ''[[mitokondria]]''. Sadetik, loba engké ''[[endosymbiosis]]'' jeung ''[[cyanobacterium]]'' ngahudangkeun karuhun [[tutuwuhan]], kalawan ''[[kloroplas]]''.<ref name=latorre>{{cite book |vauthors=Latorre A, Durban A, Moya A, Pereto J |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3oFebknu1cC&pg=PA326 |chapter=The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution |title=Origins and Evolution of Life: An astrobiological perspective |veditors=Gargaud M, López-Garcìa P, Martin H |year=2011 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=326–339 |isbn=978-0-521-76131-4 |access-date=27 August 2017 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324055723/https://books.google.com/books?id=m3oFebknu1cC&pg=PA326 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ayana ''biomarker eukariot'' dina [[archaea]] nunjuk ka arah asal ''[[archaeal]]''. ''Genom Asgard archaea'' gaduh seueur gén protéin tanda tangan ''[[Eukariot]]'', nu maénkeun peran kacida penting dina ngembangkeun ''[[sitoskeleton]]'' jeung ''struktur'' sélular kompléks ciri ''eukariota''. Dina 2022, tomografi cryo-éléktron nunjukkeun yén ''[[Asgard archaea]]'' boga [[sitoskeleton]] basis aktin kompléks, nyadiakeun bukti ''visual'' langsung munggaran ngeunaan karuhun ''[[archaeal eukariota]]''.<ref name="Rodrigues-Oliveira et al 2023">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rodrigues-Oliveira T, Wollweber F, Ponce-Toledo RI, etal. |title=Actin cytoskeleton and complex cell architecture in an Asgard archaean |journal=Nature |volume=613 |pages=332–339 |date=2023 |issue=7943 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05550-y|pmid=36544020 |pmc=9834061 |bibcode=2023Natur.613..332R |hdl=20.500.11850/589210 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ===Fosil=== Waktu asal usul ''[[eukariota]]'' sesah ditetepkeun tapi kapanggihna ''Qingshania magnificia'', ''eukariota multiseluler'' pangheubeulna ti [[Cina]] Kalér nu hirup salila 1,635 milyar taun ka tukang, nunjukkeun yén grup mahkota eukariota asalna ti [[Paleoproterozoic]] ahir (Statherian); [[Eukariota uniseluler]] pangheubeulna [[unequivocal]] nu hirup salila kurang leuwih 1,65 milyar taun ka tukang ogé kapanggih ti Cina Kalér:''Tappania plana'', ''Shuiyousphaeridium macroreticulatum'', ''Dictyosphaera macroreticulata'', ''Germinosphaera alveolata'', sareng ''Valeria lophostriata''. Sababaraha ''[[acritarchs]]'' dipikanyaho ti sahenteuna 1,65 milyar taun ka tukang, jeung fosil, ''[[Grypania]]'', nu bisa jadi [[alga]], nyaéta saloba 2,1 milyar taun. hiji "masalah" fosil Diskagma geus kapanggih dina ''[[paleosol]]'' heubeul 2,2 miliar taun.<ref name="Retallack 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Retallack GJ, Krull ES, Thackray GD, Parkinson DH |title= Problematic urn-shaped fossils from a Paleoproterozoic (2.2 Ga) paleosol in South Africa. |journal=Precambrian Research |year=2013 |volume=235 |pages=71–87 |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2013.05.015 |bibcode=2013PreR..235...71R }}</ref> [[File:Diskagma butonii.jpg|thumb|left|Rekonstruksi tina masalah <ref name="Retallack 2013"/> ''[[Diskagma buttonii]]'', fosil terestrial jangkungna kirang ti 1mm, tina batu heubeul sabudeureun 2,2 milyar taun]] Struktur anu diusulkeun pikeun ngagambarkeun "organisme kolonial badag" geus kapanggih dina shales hideung tina ''[[Palaeoproterozoic]]'' kayaning Formasi Francevillian B, di Gabon, dijuluki "biota Francevillian" anu umurna 2,1 milyar taun. <ref name="El Albani Bengtson Canfield 2010">{{cite journal |vauthors=El Albani A, Bengtson S, Canfield DE, Bekker A, Macchiarelli R, Mazurier A, Hammarlund EU, Boulvais P, Dupuy JJ, Fontaine C, Fürsich FT, Gauthier-Lafaye F, Janvier P, Javaux E, Ossa FO, Pierson-Wickmann AC, Riboulleau A, Sardini P, Vachard D, Whitehouse M, Meunier A |display-authors=3 |s2cid=4331375 |title=Large colonial organisms with coordinated growth in oxygenated environments 2.1 Gyr ago |journal=Nature |volume=466 |issue=7302 |pages=100–104 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20596019 |doi=10.1038/nature09166 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..100A }}</ref> Tapi, status struktur ieu salaku fosil dilombakeun, kalawan pangarang séjén suggesting yén maranéhna bisa ngagambarkeun pseudofossils. Fosil-fosil pangkolotna anu teu jelas ditugaskeun ka eukariota nyaéta ti Grup Ruyang Cina, kira-kira 1,8-1,6 milyar taun ka tukang.<ref name="El Albani 2023">{{cite journal |title=A search for life in Palaeoproterozoic marine sediments using Zn isotopes and geochemistry |last=El Albani |first=Abderrazak |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |year=2023 |volume=623 |page=118169 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118169|bibcode=2023E&PSL.61218169E |s2cid=258360867 |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-04095643/file/El%20Albani%20et%20al._EPSL_2023.pdf }}</ref> Fosil anu jelas patali jeung grup modern mimiti muncul kira 1,2 miliar taun ka tukang, dina bentuk ganggang beureum, sanajan karya panganyarna nunjukkeun ayana fosil ganggang filamén dina cekungan Vindhya dating deui meureun 1,6 nepi ka 1,7 miliar taun ka tukang.<ref name="Ossa Ossa Pons Bekker Hofmann 2023">{{cite journal | last1=Ossa Ossa | first1=Frantz | last2=Pons | first2=Marie-Laure | last3=Bekker | first3=Andrey | last4=Hofmann | first4=Axel | last5=Poulton | first5=Simon W. | last6=Andersen | first6=Morten B. | last7=Agangi | first7=Andrea | last8=Gregory | first8=Daniel | last9=Reinke | first9=Christian | last10=Steinhilber | first10=Bernd | last11=Marin-Carbonne | first11=Johanna | last12=Schoenberg | first12=Ronny | display-authors=5 | title=Zinc enrichment and isotopic fractionation in a marine habitat of the c. 2.1 Ga Francevillian Group: A signature of zinc utilization by eukaryotes? | journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters | volume=611 | date=2023 | doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118147 | page=118147| doi-access=free | bibcode=2023E&PSL.61118147O | url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/197720/8/1-s2.0-S0012821X23001607-main.pdf }}</ref> Ayana steranes, biomarker khusus eukariot, dina shales Australia saméméhna nunjukkeun yén eukariota aya dina batuan ieu tanggal 2,7 milyar taun,tapi biomarker Archaean ieu geus rebutted salaku rereged engké. Catetan biomarker valid pangkolotna umurna ngan sakitar 800 juta taun. Sabalikna, analisis jam molekular nunjukkeun mecenghulna biosintésis stérol ti mimiti 2,3 milyar taun ka tukang. Sifat sterana salaku biomarker eukariot langkung rumit ku produksi stérol ku sababaraha baktéri.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wei JH, Yin X, Welander PV |title=Sterol Synthesis in Diverse Bacteria |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=7 |pages=990 |date=2016-06-24 |pmid=27446030 |pmc=4919349 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2016.00990 |doi-access=free |authorlink3=Paula V. Welander }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoshino Y, Gaucher EA |title=Evolution of bacterial steroid biosynthesis and its impact on eukaryogenesis |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=118 |issue=25 |pages=e2101276118 |date=June 2021 |pmid=34131078 |pmc=8237579 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2101276118 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11801276H |doi-access=free }}</ref> Iraha waé asal-usulna, eukariot bisa jadi teu jadi dominan sacara ékologis nepi ka engké; kanaékan masif dina komposisi séng sédimén laut 800 juta taun ka tukang geus dikaitkeun kana kabangkitan populasi badag eukariota, nu preferentially meakeun jeung ngasupkeun séng relatif ka prokariot, kira-kira samilyar taun sanggeus asal maranéhanana (paling panganyarna)<ref name="pmid29869832">{{cite journal |vauthors=Isson TT, Love GD, Dupont CL, Reinhard CT, Zumberge AJ, Asael D, Gueguen B, McCrow J, Gill BC, Owens J, Rainbird RH, Rooney AD, Zhao MY, Stueeken EE, Konhauser KO, John SG, Lyons TW, Planavsky NJ |display-authors=3 |title=Tracking the rise of eukaryotes to ecological dominance with zinc isotopes |journal=Geobiology |volume=16|issue=4|pages=341–352|date=June 2018 |pmid=29869832 |doi=10.1111/gbi.12289 |bibcode=2018Gbio...16..341I |doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Élmu alam]] [[Kategori:Élmu]] pgwbrkvmxt8vf5wg14n7za1t7l215up 0 105976 711625 684411 2026-08-07T00:29:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711625 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Archipelago in the Bay of Bengal}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}} {{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}} {{Verification|date=October 2023}} {{Infobox islands | name = Andaman Islands | native_name = <!-- or local name to remove the "native name:" prefix --> | sobriquet = <!-- or nickname --> | image_name = | image_size = | image_caption = | image_alt = | image_map = Andaman Islands.PNG | image_map_caption = Location in the Indian Ocean | location = [[Bay of Bengal]] | coordinates = {{Coord|12|30|N|92|45|E|region:IN_type:isle|display=inline,title}} | archipelago = [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] | total_islands = 572 | major_islands = [[North Andaman Island]], [[Little Andaman]], [[Middle Andaman Island]], [[South Andaman Island]] | area_km2 = 6,408 | area_footnotes = | rank = | length_km = <!-- or length m --> | length_footnotes = | width_km = <!-- or width m --> | width_footnotes = | coastline_km = <!-- or coastline m --> | coastline_footnotes = | elevation_m = 732 | elevation_footnotes = | highest_mount = [[Saddle Peak (Andaman Islands)|Saddle Peak]] | country = {{IND}} | country_admin_divisions_title = Union territory | country_admin_divisions = [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] | country_admin_divisions_title_1 = | country_admin_divisions_1 = | country_admin_divisions_title_2 = | country_admin_divisions_2 = | country_capital = [[Port Blair]] | country_largest_city = | country_largest_city_population = | country_leader_title = | country_leader_name = | country1 = {{MMR}} | country1_admin_divisions_title = Administrative region | country1_admin_divisions = [[Yangon Region]] | country1_admin_divisions_title_1 = | country1_admin_divisions_1 = | country1_capital_type = | country1_capital = [[Yangon]] | demonym = | population = [http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_ani.html 343,125] | population_as_of = 2011 | density_km2 = 48 | density_footnotes = | ethnic_groups = [[Bamar people|Bamar]]<br /> [[Indian people|Mainland Indians]]<br />[[Jarawas (Andaman Islands)|Jarawa]]<br />[[Onge]]<br />[[Sentinelese]]<br />[[Great Andamanese]] | timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] | utc_offset1 = +5:30 | timezone1_DST = {{nowrap|not observed}} | utc_offset1_DST = +5:30 | website = {{URL|http://www.andaman.nic.in}} | additional_info = }} [[File:Andaman nicobar 76.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|{{center|Peta lengkep<br />ti Kapuloan Andaman sareng Nicobar}}]] '''Kapuloan Andaman''' ({{IPAc-en|'|æ|n|d|@|m|@|n}}) nyaéta hiji [[kapuloan]], diwangun ku 200 pulo, di [[kalér-wétaneun]] [[Samudra Hindia]] perenahna aya kana 130&nbsp;km [[kidul-kulon]] ti basisir [[Myanmar]] Wewengkon [[Ayeyarwady]]. Bareng jeung [[Kapuloan Nikobar]] ka kidul maranéhna, Andaman jadi salaku hiji [[wates maritim]] antara [[Teluk Benggala]] ka kulon jeung [[Laut Andaman]] ka wétan. Kalolobaan pulo mangrupa bagian tina [[Kapuloan Andaman sareng Nikobar]], tayalian hiji [[Kumpulan Wewengkon]] ti [[India]], sedengkeun [[Kapuloan Coco]] jeung [[Pulo Preparis]] mangrupa bagian ti [[Wilayah Yangon]] [[Myanmar]]. Kapuloan Andaman mangrupa imah pikeun [[bangsa Andaman]], sakumpulan masarakat [[pribumi]] anu diwangun ku sababaraha étnis, kaasup ''[[Jarawa]]'' jeung ''[[Sentinelese]]''.<ref name="trained_news.au">{{cite news |title=Police face-off with Sentinelese tribe as they struggle to recover slain missionary's body |url=https://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-updates/incidents/police-faceoff-with-sentinelese-tribe-as-they-struggle-to-recover-slain-missionarys-body/news-story/a88d3780059939a5e11ebcfb556327ac |access-date=26 November 2018 |work=News.com.au |date=26 November 2018 |archive-date=26 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126034539/https://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-updates/incidents/police-faceoff-with-sentinelese-tribe-as-they-struggle-to-recover-slain-missionarys-body/news-story/a88d3780059939a5e11ebcfb556327ac |url-status=live }}</ref> Sawaréh ti sababaraha pulo bisa didatangan kalawan ménta heula idin saméméhna, kajaba [[Pulo Sentinel Kalér]] ieu teumeunang didatangan sarta dilarang ku hukum teumeunang sagawayah jalma luar asup ka éta pulo. Urang ''Sentinelese'' umumna ngamusuhan ka sémah kitu deui ka jalma didinya anu kungsi [[saeutik kontak]] jeung urang luar. Pamaréntah [[India]] sareng patugana ogé milu ngajaga basisirna pikeun ngamumulé hak privasina urang ''Sentinelese''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andaman.gov.in/web/guest/indigenous-tribes|title=Andaman & Nicobar|website=The Internet Archive|publisher=A&N Administration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611075752/http://www.and.nic.in/archives/andaman/tribes.php|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=dead|access-date=13 February 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218205553/http://www.and.nic.in/andaman/tribes.php |date=18 February 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Hor"/><ref name="Wil"/> ==Sajarah== [[File:Andamanese comparative distribution.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Babandingan sumebarna masarakat pribumi Andaman, sateuacan abad ka-18 sareng ayeuna]] ===Étimologi=== Dina abad ka-13, ngaran Andaman muncul dina Ahir [[Cina Tengah]] salaku ''ʔˠan^H dɑ mˠan'' ({{lang|zh|晏陀蠻}}, diucapkeun ''yàntuómán'' dina ''[[Mandarin Chinese]]'' modern ) dina buku ''[[Zhu Fan Zhi]]'' ku [[Zhao Rukuo]].<ref name="ZhuFanZhi">{{cite book |title=Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese And Arab Trade in the Twelfth And Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chï |translator= Friedrich Hirth |translator2= William Woodville Rockhill |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023289345 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924023289345/page/n162 147] | year=1911 | publisher= St. Petersburg, Printing office of the Imperial academy of sciences | quote=When sailing from lan-wu-li to si-lan, if the wind is not fair, ships maybe driven to a place called Yen-to-man. This is a group of two islands in the middle of the sea, one of them being large, the other small; the latter is quite uninhabited. ... The natives on it are of a colour resembling black lacquer; they eat men alive, so that sailors dare not anchor on this coast. }}</ref> Dina buku Bab ka 38 , ''Countries in the Sea'', Zhao Rukuo negeskeun yén angkat ti ''Lambri'' ([[Sumatra]]) ka Ceylan, tapi angin tarik nyéréd kapalna dugi ka antukna anjog ka Kapuloan Andaman ieu.<ref name="ZhuFanZhi" /><ref>{{cite book | title=Ser Marco Polo : notes and addenda to Sir Henry Yule's edition, containing the results of recent research and discovery | author1=Cordier, Henri | author2=Yule, Henry | year=1920 | publisher=London: John Murray | language=en | url=https://archive.org/details/sermarcopolonote00cord | page = [https://archive.org/details/sermarcopolonote00cord/page/109 109] }}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=April 2019}} Dina abad ka-15, Andaman kacatet salaku ''"Andeman Mountain"'' (安得蠻山, diucapkeun ''āndémán shān'' dina ''Mandarin Chinese'' modérn) salila ''[[Balayarna Zheng He]]'' dina [[Peta Mao Kun]] tina [[Wu Bei Zhi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Wu Bei Zhi Map 17 |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/g7821rm.gct00058/?sp=17 |website=Library of Congress |access-date=1 August 2019 |archive-date=21 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221105843/https://www.loc.gov/resource/g7821rm.gct00058/?sp=17 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Pangeusi anu mimiti=== Bukti arkéologis pangkolotna pikeun maluruh saha anu nempatan éta pulo dina [[Milénium ka-1 SM]]. Bukti [[génetik]] nunjukkeun yén pribumi [[bangsa Andaman]] timana pituinna, sarta yén anu netep di pulo ieu dina 26,000 taun ka pengker, meureun di ahir ''[[Période glasial]]'', nalika tingkat [[cai]] laut leuwih handap anu bisa jadi ngurangan jarak antawis Kapuloan Andaman jeung daratan Asia,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chaubey |first1=Gyaneshwer |last2=Endicott |first2=Phillip |date=June 2013 |title=The Andaman Islanders in a Regional Genetic Context: Reexamining the Evidence for an Early Peopling of the Archipelago from South Asia |url=https://bioone.org/journals/human-biology/volume-85/issue-1_2f_3/027.085.0307/The-Andaman-Islanders-in-a-Regional-Genetic-Context--Reexamining/10.3378/027.085.0307.full |journal=Human Biology |volume=85 |issue=1/3 |pages=153–172 |doi=10.3378/027.085.0307 |pmid=24297224 |issn=0018-7143}}</ref> kalawan sawangan génetik dipercaya yén dua grup linguistik utama papisah dina sabudeureun 16.000 taun ka tukang.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sitalaximi |first1=T. |last2=Varghese |first2=N. |last3=Kashyap |first3=V.K. |date=February 2023 |title=Genetic differentiation of Andaman Islanders and their relatedness to Nicobar Islanders |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2773044123000074 |journal=Human Gene |language=en |volume=35 |pages=201148 |doi=10.1016/j.humgen.2023.201148}}</ref> Bangsa Andaman mangrupikeun kumpulan anu béda sacara génetik malahan béda pisan sareng urang [[Asia]] anu sanés.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mondal |first1=Mayukh |last2=Casals |first2=Ferran |last3=Xu |first3=Tina |last4=Dall'Olio |first4=Giovanni M |last5=Pybus |first5=Marc |last6=Netea |first6=Mihai G |last7=Comas |first7=David |last8=Laayouni |first8=Hafid |last9=Li |first9=Qibin |last10=Majumder |first10=Partha P |last11=Bertranpetit |first11=Jaume |date=September 2016 |title=Genomic analysis of Andamanese provides insights into ancient human migration into Asia and adaptation |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ng.3621 |journal=Nature Genetics |language=en |volume=48 |issue=9 |pages=1066–1070 |doi=10.1038/ng.3621 |hdl=10230/34401 |issn=1061-4036|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jinam |first1=Timothy A. |last2=Phipps |first2=Maude E. |last3=Aghakhanian |first3=Farhang |last4=Majumder |first4=Partha P. |last5=Datar |first5=Francisco |last6=Stoneking |first6=Mark |last7=Sawai |first7=Hiromi |last8=Nishida |first8=Nao |last9=Tokunaga |first9=Katsushi |last10=Kawamura |first10=Shoji |last11=Omoto |first11=Keiichi |last12=Saitou |first12=Naruya |date=August 2017 |title=Discerning the Origins of the Negritos, First Sundaland People: Deep Divergence and Archaic Admixture |url=http://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/9/8/2013/3952725/Discerning-the-Origins-of-the-Negritos-First |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |language=en |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=2013–2022 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evx118 |issn=1759-6653 |pmc=5597900 |pmid=28854687}}</ref>[[File:The Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal were said to be inhabited by wolf-headed people.jpg|thumb|left|Kapuloan Andaman di Teluk Benggala disebut dicicingan ku jalma-jalma anu sirahna [[ajag]], anu digambarkeun dina "buku kaajaiban" anu diproduksi di Paris dina awal abad ka-15.]] ===Kakaisaran Chola=== [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]] ngarebut Kapuloan Andaman sareng Nikobar.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/children/happy-in-havelock/article18376630.ece|title=Happy in Havelock|last=Krishnan|first=Madhuvanti S.|date=4 May 2017|work=The Hindu|access-date=4 November 2019|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222085712/https://www.thehindu.com/children/happy-in-havelock/article18376630.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Anjeunna nganggo Kapuloan Andaman sareng Nikobar salaku pangkalan angkatan laut stratégis pikeun ngalancarkeun ékspédisi ngalawan éta [[Karajaan Sriwijaya]]. [[Chola]] menyebutn pulo Ma-Nakkavaram ("Nembrak/Taneuh buligir"), Kapanggih tina prasasti [[Thanjavur]] taun 1050 kalender kiwari/''[[Common Era|CE]]''. Tukang ngalalana urang Éuropa [[Marco Polo]] (Abad ka 12–13) ogé disebut pulo ieu salaku '''Necuverann''' (teu katutupan) sareng wujud rusak tina nami Tamil ''Nakkavaram'' engkena baris disebut dina mangsa modérn Nikobar salami jaman [[kolonial]] [[Inggris]].<ref name="goi1908">{{Cite journal|author=Government of India|year=1908|title=The Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Local Gazetteer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrwBAAAAYAAJ|publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta|quote=''... In the great Tanjore inscription of 1050 CE, the Andamans are mentioned under a translated name along with the Nicobars, as '''Nakkavaram''' or land of the naked people.''}}</ref> ===Jaman kolonial Inggris=== Dina taun 1789, [[Kaprésidénan Bengal]] ngadegkeun pangkalan angkatan laut sareng [[penjara koloni]] di pulo Chatham]] di bay [[tenggara]] ti [[Andaman gedé]]. Patempatan ayeuna katelah [[Palabuhan Blair]] (sanggeus éta létnan [[Kelautan Bombay]] [[Archibald Blair]] anu ngadegkeun na). Sanggeus dua taun, koloni éta pindah ka Andaman gedé sarta dingaranan palabuhan Cornwallis sanggeus Admiral [[William Cornwallis]]. Kituna ku alatan, aya loba panyakit jeung anu maot dina hukuman koloni jeung pamaréntah ngeureunkeun éta operasina dina Méi 1796.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|pp=957–958}}<ref name="olivierblaise">{{Cite journal | title=Andaman Islands, India | author=Blaise, Olivier | publisher=PictureTank | url=http://www.picturetank.com/___/series/ff5d5b4d962b08bc130471b877292c58/en/Andaman_Isl.,_India_(1).html | access-date=16 November 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715083143/http://www.picturetank.com/___/series/ff5d5b4d962b08bc130471b877292c58/en/Andaman_Isl.,_India_(1).html | archive-date=15 July 2011 | url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715083143/http://www.picturetank.com/___/series/ff5d5b4d962b08bc130471b877292c58/en/Andaman_Isl.,_India_(1).html |date=15 July 2011 }}</ref> Dina taun 1824, Palabuhan Cornwallis nyaéta tempat ngarumpulna armada nu mawa tentara ka [[Perang Burma Kahiji]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=958}} Dina taun 1830-an jeung 1840-an, awak kapal anu titeuleum badarat di Andaman mindeng diserang jeung ditelasan ku pribumi pulo jeung ogé miboga ''réputasi'' sok ngahakan jalma ''[[cannibalism]]''.<ref name="Joh">{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=gHgOAAAAQAAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover&hl=id&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false| title =Adventures and Researches Among the Andaman Islanders, Bagian 8John Mouat| last =John Mouat| first =Frederic | publisher =Hurst and Blackett, 1863| location =Universitas Oxford| year =2007|pages =37}} Disungsi 12 Agustus 2024</ref> Leungitna tina ''Runnymede'' ogé ''Briton'' dina taun 1844 ngarandapan badéy sarua, bari ngangkut barang jeung panumpang antara [[India]] jeung [[Australia]], Sarta terus terusan ngayakeun serangan ku pribumi, anu salamet dilawan, nyieun hariwang [[Pamaréntahan British]].<ref>Kingston, W.H.G. (1873) ''Shipwrecks and Disasters at Sea''. George Routledge sareng putrana, London.</ref> Dina taun 1855, pamaréntah diusulkeun pakampungan sejen dina kapuloan, Kaasup [[lembaga pamasyarakatan]], ngan waé ''[[Pemberontakan India tahun 1857]]'' kapaksa ngeureunan dina pangwangunan na. Sanajan kitu, alatan ieu barontak ngabalukarkeun Inggris loba nahan [[tawanan]], éta dijieun pakampungan Andaman anyar jeung panjara kalintang dipikabutuh. Pangwangunan dimimitian dina bulan [[Nopémber]] [[1857]] di [[''Port Blair'']] ngagunakeun tanaga [[narapidana]], kalayan nyingkahan sabudeureun [[rawa]]-rawa [[uyah]] nu sigana tidieu pisan sumber loba masalah saméméhna di palabuhan Cornwallis.<ref name="Wil">{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=WNgRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=andaman&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiz1eTovu6HAxVI4zgGHenpCRc4ChDoAXoECAkQAg#v=onepage&q=andaman&f=false| title =Colburn's United Service Magazine and Naval Military Journal, Volume 119William Alsager Pollock| last =William Alsager Pollock| first =Arthur | publisher =H. Colburn, | location =London| year =1869|ISBN=|pages =57}} Disungsi 12 Agustus 2024</ref>.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} [[Patempuran Aberdeen]] ieu perang dina 17 [[Méi]] [[1859]] antara [[Bangsa Andaman]] jeung Inggris. Kiwari, hiji pangéling-éling nangtung di kompléks [[olahraga]] [[cai]] Andaman salaku pangajén ka jalma anu maot dina peperangna. Sieun ku niat Inggris jeung kalayan bantuan ti narapidana kabur ti [[penjara]], Urang Andaman gedé ngajorag pakampungan [[Inggris]], tapi aranjeunna éléh jumlahna antukna loba ngarandapan anu jadi korban. Engké, ieu dicirikeun yén aya hiji narapidana anu bisa kabur ngaranna[[Dudhnath Tewari]] geus robah pamadegan sarta jadi aya di pihak Britania kalayan jadi anu mérébéja ngeunaan rencana pribumi pikeun ngayakeun ieu serangan.<ref name="Rapidiq">{{cite web|url=https://rapidiq.wordpress.com/2012/04/08/the-rise-and-the-fall-of-the-great-andamanese/|title=The Rise and Fall of the Great Andamanese|work=Confessions of a Linguist!|date=8 April 2012|access-date=16 January 2015|archive-date=17 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217192515/http://rapidiq.wordpress.com/2012/04/08/the-rise-and-the-fall-of-the-great-andamanese/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="One India">{{cite web|url=http://www.oneindia.com/2007/05/17/who-are-heroes-of-battle-of-aberdeen-1179405748.html|title=Who are heroes of Battle of Aberdeen?|work=oneindia.com|date=17 May 2007|access-date=16 January 2015|archive-date=9 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150709165627/http://www.oneindia.com/2007/05/17/who-are-heroes-of-battle-of-aberdeen-1179405748.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Andaman Sheekha">{{cite web|url=http://www.andamansheekha.com/2012/05/16/tribute-at-the-memorial-of-battle-of-aberdeen-today/|title=Tribute at the Memorial of "Battle of Aberdeen" Today|author=sanjib|work=andamansheekha.com|date=15 May 2012|access-date=16 January 2015|archive-date=10 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710012822/http://www.andamansheekha.com/2012/05/16/tribute-at-the-memorial-of-battle-of-aberdeen-today/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dina taun 1867, éta [[kapal dagang]] ''Nineveh'' geus [[ancur]]di batu karang di Pulo ''Sentinel'' Kalér. 86 korban salamet hasil nepika basisir dina parahu kapal. Dina poé katilu, maranéhna diserang maké [[tumbak]] anu tungtungna [[beusi]] ku pangeusi éta pulo anu dina kaayaan masih kénéh dibuligir. Saurang tina éta kapal téh bisa kabur make parahu anu séjéna disalametkeun ku kapal [[Angkatan Laut Karajaan Inggris]].<ref name="Goodheart">{{cite news | url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-28578579_ITM | work=American Scholar | title=The Last Island of the Savages | date=22 September 2000 | access-date=14 June 2009 | archive-date=22 May 2015 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20150522060225/https://www.questia.com/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Pikeun sawatara waktu, panyakit jeung anu palastra loba pisan, tapi [[réklamasi rawa]] jeung nuar tatangkalan di leuweung tuluy dilaksanakeun. ''Koloni'' Andaman jadi kasohor alatan kajadian ditelasanna Raja Anom [[Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo]], nalika nganjang ka pakampungan dina (8 Pébruari 1872), ku urang [[Pashtun]] ti [[Afghanistan]], [[Sher Ali Afridi]]. Dina taun anu sarua, dua grup pulo Andaman jeung [[kapuloan Nikobar]], dihijikeun dina pangriksa komisaris utama anu cicing di ''Port Blair''.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=958}} [[File:Port Blair 1872 Ross Island Penal HQ.jpg|thumb|right|Markas panjara Pulo Ross, 1872]] [[File:Great Andamanese women - 1876.jpg|thumb|Lalaki, awéwé sareng murangkalih urang Andaman anu harébat, 1876]] Ti nalika waktos pangwangunanna di 1858 di handapeun panalingaan [[James Pattison Walker]], sarta dina nyingareupan tina ayana barontak taun saméméhna, pakampungan ieu mimitina jeung utamana mangrupakeun tempat pikeun nunda sajumlah [[tahanan pulitik]]. Penjara di Port Blair, nalika réngsé dina 1910, kaasup 698 sél disayagakeun pikeun ngurungan; unggal sél diukur {{convert|4.5|by|2.7|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} kalayan jandéla ngan hiji {{convert|3|m|ft|0}} perenahna di luhur.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Urang [[India]] anu dipenjara di dieu nyebutkeun pulo jeung penjarana salaku ''Kala Pani'' ("Cai hideung");<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm |title=History of Andaman Cellular Jail |publisher=Andamancellularjail.org |access-date=14 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031136/http://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm |archive-date= 9 February 2010 }}</ref> hiji film taun 1996 anu pamandanganna di ieu pulo nyokot istilah éta salaku judulna, ''[[Kaalapani (1996 film)|Kaalapani]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://imdb.com/title/tt0255289/ |title=Kala Pani (1996) |date=12 April 1996 |publisher=Imdb.com |access-date=14 May 2010 |archive-date=12 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112003713/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0255289/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Jumlah tahanan anu tilar dunya di ieu kamp disawang bisa nepika rébuan lobana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andamancellularjail.org/ListOfRevolutionaries.htm |title=Andaman Islands Political Prisoners |publisher=Andamancellularjail.org |access-date=14 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906201654/http://www.andamancellularjail.org/ListOfRevolutionaries.htm |archive-date= 6 September 2010 }}</ref> Kalolobaan anu tilardunya alatan pagawéan anu kacida beurat sarta kasarna laku lampah ka sakumna tahanan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/12/21/stories/2005122107881100.htm |title=Opinion / News Analysis: Hundred years of the Andamans Cellular Jail |date=21 December 2005 |access-date=14 May 2010 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100511175419/http://www.hindu.com/2005/12/21/stories/2005122107881100.htm |archive-date=11 May 2010 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061213184157/http://www.hindu.com/2005/12/21/stories/2005122107881100.htm |date=13 December 2006 }}</ref> Penjara Rantai Viper di [[Kapuloan Viper]] ditujukeun pikeun tahanan anu kacida ngabahayakeun jeung ogé mangrupakeun tempat ngalaksanakeun hukuman gantung. Dina abad ka 20, éta jadi tempat anu merenah pikeun [[imah]] sakumna anggota anu kakoncara tina gerakan gerakan kamerdikaan India.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=13 April 2023 |orig-date=13 April 2023 is from HTTP Last-Modified header; webpage says "Feb 25" with no year specified anywhere |title=Discover the dark history of Viper Island : Where punishment was harsh and retribution was swift |url=https://www.exploreandaman.co.in/islands/dark-history-of-viper-island-andaman |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016195141/https://www.exploreandaman.co.in/islands/dark-history-of-viper-island-andaman |archive-date=2023-10-16 |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=ExploreAndaman |publisher=Explore Andaman |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Viper Chain Gang Jail In Andaman And Nicobar |url=https://www.thomascook.in/places-to-visit/viper-chain-gang-jail-in-andaman-and-nicobar-5563 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203223913/https://www.thomascook.in/places-to-visit/viper-chain-gang-jail-in-andaman-and-nicobar-5563 |archive-date=2023-02-03 |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=Thomas Cook |department=India Tourism > Andaman And Nicobar Tourism > Places to visit in Andaman And Nicobar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jail at Viper Island |url=https://www.mountainedge.in/Jail-at-viper-island-andman.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016195237/https://www.mountainedge.in/Jail-at-viper-island-andman.php |archive-date=2023-10-16 |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=Mountain Edge Tours and Holidays Pvt. Ltd. }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016195237/https://www.mountainedge.in/Jail-at-viper-island-andman.php |date=16 October 2023 }}</ref> ===Penjajahan Jepang=== [[File:Andaman ross is.jpg|thumb|Netaji Subhash Chandra pulo Bose dina taun 2004]] [[File:Andaman.jpg|thumb|Kapuloan Andaman]] Kapuloan Andaman sareng Nikobar éta [[dijajah ku Jepang]] salila [[Perang dunya II]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Klemen|last=L|url=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/andaman.html|title=The capture of the Andaman Islands, March 1942|date=1999–2000|work=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942|access-date=30 March 2021|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726181150/https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/andaman.html|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726181150/https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/andaman.html |date=26 July 2021 }}</ref> Kapuloan anu sacara ''nominally'' nempatkeun dina ''otoritas'' ti [[Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind]] (Pamaréntah Samentara Kamerdékaan India) dipingpin ku [[Subhas Chandra Bose]], anu ngadatangan kapuloan nalika perang, sarta diganti ngaranna jadi [[Shahid|Shaheed]] (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). Dina 30 Désémber 1943, dina mangsa penjajahan [[Jepang]], Bose, anu sekutu jeung Jepang, pangheulana ngangkat bandéra kamerdikaan India. Umum [[A. D. Loganathan|Loganathan]], ti [[Indian National Army]], nyaéta Gubernur Kapuloan Andaman sareng Nikobar, anu parantos dianéksasi ku Pamaréntah Samentara. Numutkeun Werner Gruhl: "Méméh ninggalkeun kapuloan, urang Jepang mengumpulkan jeung ngaéksékusi 750 jalma teu boga salah ''[[Japanese war crimes]]''."<ref>Gruhl, Werner (2007) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC&pg=PA102 Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931–1945] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209011823/https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC&pg=PA102 |date=9 December 2015 }}'', Transaction Publishers. {{ISBN|978-0-7658-0352-8}}. p. 102.</ref> ===''Pasca'' Perang Dunia II=== Nalika Perang Dunya II eureunna, pamaréntah Britania ngumumkeun niat na pikeun nutup pakampungan penal. Pamaréntah boga pamikiran pikeun ngusulkeun ngamangpaatkeun tanaga urut narapidana pikeun ngembangkeun usaha ''perikanan'' di ieu pulo, [[kai]], jeung sumberdaya tatanén. Salaku gantina, narapidana ieu baris dibéré izin pikeun balik deui ka daratan [[India]], atawa hak pikeun netep di kapuloan. [[James Howard Williams|J H Williams]], salah sahiji ''pajabat'' senior Pausahaan Bombay Burma, dikirim pikeun ngalaksanakeun panalungtikan [[kai]] di ieu pulo-pulo kalayan nggagunakeun tanaga ti urut narapidana. Anjeunna ngarékam papanggihan na jeung ''The Spotted Deer'' (diterbitkeun dina 1957 ku [[Rupert Hart-Davis]]). Koloni penal ahirna ditutup dina 15 Agustus 1947 nalika India meunang kamerdékaan dina taun 1947. Ti saprak éta, tempat ieu dimangpaatkeun salaku museum ''[[independence movement]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/cellular-jail-india-integral-country-fight-freedom-independence-british-colony-andaman-and-nicobar-a7883691.html|title=How India's Cellular Jail was integral in the country's fight for freedom|date=11 August 2017|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=10 November 2019|archive-date=10 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110125549/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/cellular-jail-india-integral-country-fight-freedom-independence-british-colony-andaman-and-nicobar-a7883691.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Kalolobaan Kapuloan Andaman jadi bagian tina Républik [[India]] dina taun 1950 sarta dinyatakeun salaku hiji ''[[union territory]]'' ti nagara dina taun 1956, sedengkeun [[Pulo Preparis]] sarta [[Pulo Coco]] janten bagian tina ''[[Yangon Region]]'' ti [[Myanmar]] dina taun 1948.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Planning Commission of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujf2N5O4iKgC|title=Andaman and Nicobar Islands Development Report|publisher=Academic Foundation|year=2008|isbn=978-81-7188-652-4|edition=illustrated|series=State Development Report series|access-date=12 March 2011|archive-date=9 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209011823/https://books.google.com/books?id=ujf2N5O4iKgC|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Ahir abad ka-20 - abad ka-21=== ====Indit ka luar==== Dina bulan April 1998, fotografer Amérika John S. Callahan ngayakeun kagiatan ''selancar'' anu munggaran di kapuloan andaman, mimiti ti [[Phuket]] di Thailand jeung ''the assistance of Southeast Asia Liveaboards (SEAL)'', parusahaan anu nyéwakeun parabot teuleum milik Inggris.{{Citation needed|date=May 2014}} Kalawan patugas selancar profésional [[internasional]], aranjeunna meuntas Laut Andaman dina parahu pelesir ''Crescent''jeung ngaliwatan pamaliksaan resmi di Port Blair. Rombongan nuluykeun ka kapuloan Andaman anu laleutik, di mana maranéhna salila sapuluh poé ulin ''selancar'' di sababaraha tempat di éta kapuloan pikeun anu munggaran, kaasup Jarawa ''Point'' deukeut ''Hut Bay'' jeung ''long right reef point'' di tungtung kidul-kulon pulo, ngarana ''Kumari Point''. Artikel anu dihasilkeun dina ''Surfer Magazine'', "Quest for Fire" ku ''wartawan'' Sam George, nempatkeun kapuloan Andaman dina peta selancar pikeun waktu anu munggaran.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.surfermag.com/magazine/archivedissues/quest-for-fire |title=Surfer Explores The Andaman Islands |publisher=Surfer Magazine |website=Surfermag.com |date=22 July 2010 |access-date=28 December 2011 |archive-date=19 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819112026/http://www.surfermag.com/magazine/archivedissues/quest-for-fire/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Rékaman [[ombak]] Kapuloan Andaman oge katempo dijero film ''Thicker than Water'', dirékam ku anu produksi ''[[documentary film]]'' tayalian [[Jack Johnson (musician)|Jack Johnson]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2014}} Callahan kadieunakeun nuluykeun nyieun sababaraha proyék ''selancar'' lianna di Kapuloan Andaman, kaasup lalampahan ka Kapuloan Nikobar di taun 1999.{{Citation needed|date=May 2014}} In November 2018, [[John Allen Chau]], an American [[missionary]], traveled illegally with the help of local fishermen to the [[North Sentinel Island]] off the Andaman Islands chain group on several occasions, despite a travel ban to the island. He is reported to have been killed.<ref name="cnn.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/11/25/asia/missionary-john-chau-north-sentinel-island-sentinelese/index.html|title=Indian authorities struggle to retrieve US missionary feared killed on remote island|date=25 November 2018|work=CNN|access-date=25 November 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=25 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125131356/https://www.cnn.com/2018/11/25/asia/missionary-john-chau-north-sentinel-island-sentinelese/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite some relaxation introduced earlier in 2018 to the stringent visit permit system for the islands, North Sentinel Island was still highly protected from outside contact. Special permission to allow researchers and anthropologists to visit could be sought.<ref name="3tier 2018 toi">{{Cite news|last1=Jain|first1=Bharti |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/us-national-defied-3-tier-curbs-caution-to-reach-island/articleshow/66758172.cms|title=US National Defied 3-tier Curbs & Caution to Reach Island |date=23 November 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=31 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=26 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126001420/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/us-national-defied-3-tier-curbs-caution-to-reach-island/articleshow/66758172.cms |url-status=live}}</ref> Chau had no special clearance and knew that his visit was illegal.<ref name="cnn.com"/><ref name="3tier 2018 toi"/> Sanajan sistim katangtuan asup ka pulo-pulo di Andaman ieu kiwari geus teupati hésé kawas saméméhna, kalawan warga nagara salian-[[India]] henteu kudu maké ngantongan ijin pikeun asup ka polo-pulo ieu anu tadina ''Restricted Area Permit (RAP)'', sémahna asing tetep kedah nunjukkeun pasporna di [[Imigrasi]] di Bandara ''Port Blair'' sareng Pelabuhan pikeun divérifikasi. Warga Afganistan, Cina jeung Pakistan, atawa warga nagara asing séjénna anu asalna salah sahiji nagara ieu, {{em|are}} masih diperlukeun pikeun ménta RAP pikeun nganjang Kapuloan Andaman jeung Nicobar. Nya kitu deui, warga ti [[Myanmar]] anu hoyong nganjang [[Mayabunder]] atawa [[Diglipur]]ogé kedah ngajukeun lamaran ka RAP. Dina kasus ieu, idin kudu tos disatujuan saméméh datangna di Port Blair.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Andaman and Nicobar Police |title=For Foreign Tourists |url=https://police.andaman.gov.in/index.php/en/2013-10-13-13-21-25/foreigners/for-foreign-tourist.html |website=police.andaman.gov.in |access-date=30 October 2021 |date=29 June 2018 |quote=... no RAP is required by foreigners to visit these islands, till 31.12.2022 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002164810/http://police.andaman.gov.in/index.php/en/2013-10-13-13-21-25/foreigners/for-foreign-tourist.html |date=2 October 2018 }}</ref> ====Musibah alam==== Nalika 26 Désémber 2004, basisir Kapuloan Andaman ancur ku kajadian tsunami anu jangkungna {{convert|10|m|ft|0|adj=mid|-high}} datang ti [[Samudra Hindia]], saméméhna mangrupa lini pangpanjangna anu kungsi kacatet, lumangsung salila 500 nepika 600 detik.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Guinness Book of World Records 2014|last=Glenday|first=Craig|publisher=The Jim Pattison Group|year=2013|isbn=978-1-908843-15-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/015 015]|url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/015}}</ref> Kabiasaan kuat mepelingan kucara cumarita/lisan di lingkungan pangeusi pulo-pulo di daérah ieu ngeunaan pentingna geuwat nyingkah ka gunung jeung ngajauhan basisir sabada ayana lini ieu jadi hiji kayakinan loba jiwa anu salamet tina ieu kajadian.<ref name="folklore">{{cite news |last1=Bhaumik |first1=Subir |title=Tsunami folklore 'saved islanders' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4181855.stm |access-date=1 June 2024 |agency=BBC News |date=20 January 2005}}</ref> Sabada ieu kajadian, leuwih ti 2,000 jalma tilar dunya sarta leuwih ti 4,000 barudak kaleungitan kolot jeung kulawargana. Sarta teu kurang ti 40,000 kaleungitan imah anu antukna samentara kapaksa nyaricingan heula kémah pangungsian.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake and Tsunami of December 26, 2004|year=2007|publisher=ASCE, Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering|location=Reston, VA|isbn=9780784409510|url=http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id=2147486137&productid=5511|editor1=Strand, Carl|editor2=Masek, John|access-date=12 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024115815/http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id=2147486137&productid=5511|archive-date=24 October 2013|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024115815/http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id=2147486137&productid=5511 |date=24 October 2013 }}</ref> Nalika tanggal 11 [[Agustus]] 2009, aya lini anu kakuatanna 7 ''skala Richter'' perenahna di kapuloan Andaman, anu ngabalukarkeun ''peringatan'' [[tsunami]] dibewarakeun. Kitu deui dina tanggal 30 [[Maret]] 2010, aya deui lini anu kakuatanna 6,9 ''skala Richter'' puseurna ogé deukeut jeung kapuloan Andaman. ==Géografi jeung Géologi== Kapuloan Andaman mangrupakeun tutugan sagara ti kapuloan Burma [''[Arakan Yoma range]]'' di kalér jeung ti kapuloan [[Indonésia]] di kidul. Ieu mibanda 325 pulo anu legana {{convert|6408|km2|0|abbr=on}},<ref name="Planning Commission Report"/> kalayan [[Laut Andaman]] ka wétan aya pulo-pulo jeung basisir [[Burma]].<ref name="olivierblaise" /> [[Pulo Andaman Kalér]] téh {{convert|285|km}} kiduleun Burma, sanajan sababaraha pulo Burma leutik leuwih deukeut, kaasup tilu Kapuloan Coco. ''[[Ten Degree Channel]]'' nyaéta Sapuluh Darajat mangrupakeun saluran anu misahkeun Kapuloan Andaman jeung Kapuloan Nikobar perenahna di ''Teluk Benggala''. Andamans ti [[Kapuloan Nikobar]] ka kidul. Titik pangluhurna aya di Pulo Andaman Kalér ([[Saddle Peak]]) di {{convert|732|m|abbr=on}}).<ref name="Planning Commission Report">{{cite book|title=Andaman and Nicobar Islands Development Report|series=State Development Report series|author=Planning Commission of India|edition=illustrated|publisher=Academic Foundation|year=2008|isbn=978-81-7188-652-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujf2N5O4iKgC|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=9 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209011823/https://books.google.com/books?id=ujf2N5O4iKgC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|33}} Géologi kapuloan Andaman dasarna diwangun ku ''[[Jurasik]]'' ahir ka [[Eosen]] Awal [[ofiolit]] jeung [[batuan sédimen]] ([[argillaceous]] jeung ganggang [[apu]]), robah wujudna ku lobana ngerelep/[[fault (geology)|faults]] jeung kasurungkeun/[[thrust]] kalawan ''[[ultramafic]] [[igneous]] [[intrusion (geology)|intrusion]]s''.<ref name="tsu"/> Sahenteuna aya 11 gunung anu ngaluarkeun leutak/[[mud volcano]] di ieu kapuloan.<ref name="tsu">Chakrabarti, P.; Nag, A.; Dutta, S. B.; Dasgupta, S. and Gupta, N. (2006) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5gEBfvCBclUC&pg=PA42 S & T Input: Earthquake and Tsunami Effects...] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209011823/https://books.google.com/books?id=5gEBfvCBclUC&pg=PA42 |date=9 December 2015 }}'', page 43. Chapter 5 in S. M. Ramasamy et al. (eds.), ''Geomatics in Tsunami'', New India Publishing. {{ISBN|81-89422-31-6}}</ref> Aya dua pulo vulkanik, [[kapuloan Narcondam]] jeung [[Barren Island]], nu geus dihasilkeun [[basalt]] jeung [[andesite]]. Kapuloan Barren mangrupa hiji-hijina gunung seuneuan anu masihkénéh hirup di [[anak benua India]]jeung bitu panganyarna dilaporkeun dina Désémber 2022, ngarah kana poténsi pikeun [[geotourism]].<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.andamantourism.gov.in/capital.php| title=Andaman Tourism – Science Centre| access-date=1 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=260010| title=Global Volcanism Program – Barren Island| access-date=1 May 2023}}</ref> ==Iklim== Iklim anu has pulo-pulo [[tropis]] kalawan gurat ''lintang'' anu sarua. Salawasna haneut, kalawan [[angin]] [[laut]] anu tarik. Hujan turun henteu tangtu, ilaharna garing nalika angin [[muson]] kalér-wétan, Sarta kacida baseuh nalika muson kidul-kulon.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=956}} ==Tutuwuhan== [[File:Shaheed Island, Andamans, Tropical forest.jpg|thumb|[[Leuweung]] [[tropis]], Pulo Shaheed]] [[File:Havelock Island, Mangrove trees in tropical sea, Andaman Islands.jpg|thumb|Tangkal [[babakoan]] di basisir, Pulo Havelock]] Palabuhan Andaman Tengah lolobana beueus [[leuweung]] anu daunna ngarangrangan ''(gugur)''. Ari Andaman Kalérmah mibanda leuweung anu héjo sapanjang taun, sarta dipinuhan ku tatangkalan anu ngarambat kana éta tatangkalan.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Végétasi alami Andaman tayalian [[leuweung]] tropis, kalawan tangkal [[babakoan]] ngampar di sisi basisir. Leuweung hujan [[tropis]] di dieu mibanda komposisi anu mirip jeung [[leuweung hujan]] tropis di basisir kulon [[Burma]]. Sabagian gedé leuweungna hejo sapanjang taun, tapi aya ogé wewengkon anu leuweungna ngaragrangan (gugur) di Andaman Kalér, [[Andaman Tengah]], [[Baratang]] anu mangrupakeun bagian ti [[Pulo Andaman Kidul]]. Leuweung Andaman Kidul mah loba pisan tutuwuhan anu napel ka tutuwuhan séjén [[epiphytic]], lolobana pakis jeung anggrek. Di dieu Leuweung Andaman téh sabagian gedé masih kénéh weuteuh tur alami, sanajan aya leuweung anu ditaluaran alatan dipikabutuh tisaprak loba ''imigrasi'' ti wilayah daratan [[India]], [[Andaman Leutik]], [[Narcondam]], Andaman kalér jaung Andaman kidul. Tapi, maksudna tina proyék téh pikeun ngalestarikeun basisir jeung sato-sato laut, lain pikeun ngababad leuweung hujan.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0101 |name=Andaman Islands rain forests|access-date=28 December 2011}}</ref> Di [[Pulo Interview]] jeung Andaman Kalér Ancaman pikeun sato-sato liar datang ti spésiés anu dipikawanoh kaasup [[beurit]], [[anjing]], [[ucing]] jeung [[gajah]]. Para élmuwan manggihan spésies anyar ganggang héjau di kapuloan Andaman, ngarana ''Acetabularia jalakanyakae''. "Jalakanyaka" mangrupa kecap Sanskerta anu hartina "putri duyung".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/mermaid-plant-india-andamans-archipelago-b1903845.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817145707/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/mermaid-plant-india-andamans-archipelago-b1903845.html |archive-date=2021-08-17 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|title=Indian scientists discover new 'mermaid' plant species in Andamans archipelago|date=17 August 2021|website=The Independent}}</ref> ===Kai=== [[File:Timber.JPG|thumb|upright=1|right|Rumah panggung di perkebunan kayu Andaman]] Leuweung Andaman mibanda 200 malahan leuwih spésiés tangkal anu ngahasilkeun [[kai]], aya kurang leuwih 30 jinis dianggap mibanda harga anu mahal. Spésiés kai komérsial utama tayalian Gurjan (''[[Dipterocarpus]]'' spp.) jeung [[Padauk]] (''[[Pterocarpus dalbergioides]]''). Kai hias dihandap ieu dipiwanoh alatan wangun tina urat kai anu hadé: * ''Kai'' [[marmer]] (''[[Diospyros|Diospyros marmorata]]'') * ''Padauk'' (''[[Pterocarpus dalbergioides]]'') * ''Silver grey'' (kai husus anu kelirna bodas[[utkarsh]]) * ''Chooi'' (''[[Sageraea|Sageraea elliptica]]'') * ''Kokko'' (''[[Albizzia lebbeck]]'') Kai Padauk leuwih kuat tibatan kai [[jati]] sarta loba dimangpaatkeun pikeun nyiun parabot imah/''furniture''. Aya wujud kai [[kayu cucuk]] jeung ''[[akar penopang]]'' di Padauk Andaman. Potongan panggédena anu kungsi dipikanyaho ti leuweun andaman tayalian méja makan anu ukuranna {{convert|13|x|7|ft|abbr=on}}. Potongan kai cucuk anu dijieun méja makan ieu bisa dipaké ku dalapan urang. Tangkal [[Rudraksha]] (''Elaeocarps sphaericus'') jeung tangkal damar Dhoop anu kaangseu seungit/aromatik ogé kapanggih hirup didieu.<ref name="Sha"/> ==Sasatoan== [[File:The Coral Reef at the Andaman Islands.jpg|thumb|Batu karang Havelock di Andaman]] Kapuloan Andaman téh imah pikeun sajumlah sato, loba diantarana sato éndemik. Kapuloan Andaman jeung Nikobar téh imah pikeun 10% ti sakabéh spésiés sasatoan [[India]].<ref name="Singh">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/andaman-nicobar-islands-home-to-a-tenth-of-indias-fauna-species/article25592134.ece|title=Andaman & Nicobar Islands: home to a tenth of India's fauna species|last=Singh|first=Shiv Sahay|date=25 November 2018|work=The Hindu|access-date=10 November 2019|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=18 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218190850/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/andaman-nicobar-islands-home-to-a-tenth-of-indias-fauna-species/article25592134.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Kapuloan ieu legana ngan 0,25% tina lega géografis ieu nagara, tapi mibanda 11.009 spésiés, numutkeun hiji ''publikasi'' ti [[Survei Zoologi India]].<ref name="Singh"/> ===Mamalia=== Mamalia éndemik pulo ieu antarana: * [[Beurit cucukan Andaman]] (''Crocidura hispida'') * [[Beurit Andaman]] (''Crocidura andamanensis'') * [[Beurit Jenkins's]] (''Crocidura jenkinsi'') * [[Kalong Andaman]] (''Rhinolophus cognatus'') * [[Beurit Andaman]] (''Rattus stoicus'') Céléng (''Sus scrofa vittatus''), ogé dipiwanoh salaku babi leuweung Andaman ogé kungsi dianggap salaku subspésiés éndemik,<ref name="SrinivasuluSrinivasulu2012">{{Cite book | title = South Asian Mammals: Their Diversity, Distribution, and Status | last1 = Srinivasulu | first1 = C. | last2 = Srinivasulu | first2 = B. | publisher = Springer | year = 2012 | page = 353 | isbn = 9781461434498}}</ref> ditangtayungan ku Undang-Undang ''Perlindungan Satwa Liar'' taun 1972 (Sch I). aya ogé [[peucang]], [[uncal]] (''Axis axis''), [[mencek]] (''Muntiacus muntjak'') ogé [[uncal]] (''Rusa unicolor'') maranéhna katempi hirup di ieu kapuloan. [[Pulo Interview]] (suaka margasatwa pang gedéna di wewengkon ieu) perenahna di Andaman Tengah loba kapanggih hirup [[monyét]] liar [[gajah]], anu dibawa ku pagswé pausahaan nalika ngabukbak leuweung sarta dileupaskeun didieu alatan pausahaanna tutup. Populasi ieu geus jadi subjék pikeun panalungtikan. ===Manuk=== Manuk éndemik atawa ampir éndemik di antawisna: * ''[[Spilornis elgini]]'', heulang oray * ''[[Rallina canningi]]'', mandar (endemic; data-deficient per IUCN 2000) * ''[[Columba palumboides]]'', japati leuweung * ''[[Macropygia rufipennis]]'', japati andaman * ''[[Centropus andamanensis]]'', andaman caucal * ''[[Otus balli]]'', otus balli * ''[[Ninox affinis]]'', punggok andaman * ''[[Rhyticeros narcondami]]'', Rangkong Narcondam * ''[[Dryocopus hodgei]]'', burung platuk Andaman* ''[[Dicrurus andamanensis]]'', Andaman drongo * ''[[Dendrocitta bayleyii]]'', treepie Andaman * ''[[Sturnus erythropygius]]'', jalak hulu bodas * ''[[Collocalia affinis]]'', walét bulu toéd * ''[[Aerodramus fuciphagus]]'', walét sayang bodas <ref name="SAL">{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=8HgeAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA149&dq=andaman&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiz1eTovu6HAxVI4zgGHenpCRc4ChDoAXoECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=andaman&f=false| title =The IbisSALVIN, MA, FRS,| last =SALVIN, MA, FRS,| first =OSBERT | publisher =Hurst and Blackett, 1863| location =London| year =1874|ISBN=|pages =37}} Disungsi 12 Agustus 2024</ref> Pulo anu mibanda [[guha]] anu loba, saperti anu aya di [[Chalis Ek]] tayalian tempat nyayang pikeun rupa-rupa manuk anu bisa diarah sayangna [[swiftlet]], sayangna dihargaan mahal pisan di Tiongkok salaku bahan nyieun sop /''[[bird's nest soup]]''.<ref name="soup">Sankaran, R. (1998), ''[http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_birds8.pdf The impact of nest collection on the Edible-nest Swiftlet in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704194845/http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_birds8.pdf |date=4 July 2010 }}''. Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore, India.</ref> ===Réptil jeung amphibi=== Kapuloan ieu ogé mibanda sajumlah spésiés [[réptil]] éndemik, [[bangkong]] jeung [[bancét]], aya ogé [[kobra Andaman]] (''Naja sagittifera''), oray krait Andaman Kidul/kawas iray welang (''[[Bungarus andamanensis]]'') jeung [[bayawak]] cai Andaman (''[[Varanus salvator andamanensis]]''). Aya tempat panyalindungan {{convert|45|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} ti [[kapuloan Havelock]] pikeun [[buaya cai laut]]. Salila 25 taun katukang geus aya kana 24 kali serangan anu dilancarkeun ku buaya kalawan aya 4 anu geus jadi korbanna, kaasup maotna turis Amérika Lauren Failla. Ku ieu kajadian pameréntah dikritik alatan gagal méré nyaho wisatawan ngeunaan tempat garawatan buaya jeung bahayana. sakaligus ngapromosikeun pariwisata.<ref>{{cite news|author=Sacks, Ethan|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/nj-woman-killed-crocodile-attack-snorkeling-indian-coast-article-1.445025|title=NJ woman killed by crocodile attack while snorkeling off Indian coast|newspaper=NY Daily News|date=6 May 2010|access-date=26 April 2017|archive-date=26 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426151615/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/nj-woman-killed-crocodile-attack-snorkeling-indian-coast-article-1.445025|url-status=live}}</ref> Buaya henteu ngan kapanggih di jero suaka margasatwa, tapi ogé di sakabéh kantétan pulo kalayan kapadatan anu rupa-rupa. Habitat maranéhanana teu loba, matakna populasina stabil tapi henteu loba. Populasina kapanggih di sakabéh habitat [[babakoan]] anu sayagi di sakabeh pulo gedé, kaasup sababaraha anak susukan di Havelock. Spésiés ieu ngagunakeun [[laut]] salaku sarana transportasi tiap [[susukan]] jeung [[muara]] anu béda, matakna maranéhanana henteu ilahar katempo di tengah laut. Sabalikna ulah ngojay di deukeut daérah babakoan atara [[muara]] [[susukan]]; ngojay di tengah laut kuduna leuwih aman, tapi sabalikna kudu aya anu nalingakeun di tempat sabudeureun. ==Démografi== [[File:The von Eickstedts in the Andamans 1926.jpg|thumb|The von Eickstedts di Andamans 1926]] [[File:Andamanese Onge.png|thumb|Hiji kulawarga Andaman di pulo [[Andaman gedé]] taun 2006]] {{As of|2011}}, the population of the Andaman was 343,125,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/ut_andaman.php |access-date=3 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619045535/http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/ut_andaman.php|publisher=india.gov.in|title=Andaman & Nicobar Islands |archive-date=19 June 2010 }}</ref> Sanggeus tumuwuh tina 50.000 taun 1960. Seuseueurna populasi asalna ti imigran anu datang ka pulo saprak jaman kolonial, utamana urang [[Bengali]], [[Hindustan]], [[Telugu]] [https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/telugu-culture-flourishing-in-andamans/article6136317.ece], [[Tamil people|Tamil]] backgrounds.<ref name="distadmin">{{cite web |url=http://andamandt.nic.in/profile.htm |title=Andaman & Nicobar Islands at a glance |publisher=Andamandt.nic.in |access-date=14 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213201339/http://andamandt.nic.in/profile.htm |archive-date=13 December 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213201339/http://andamandt.nic.in/profile.htm |date=13 December 2011 }}</ref> [[File:Jarwa Tribes Andaman.jpg|thumb|left|Étnis Andaman]] Hiji étnis Andaman anu saeutik jumlahna tayalian urang [[aboriginal inhabitants]] ([[adivasi]]) di ieu pulo. Nalika maranéhna munggaran muka diri ka jalmi diluar taun 1850-an ti harita ngeureuyeuh ngawangun hubungan, kurang leuwih aya kana 7.000 jalmi, diantawisna [[Andaman Besar]], [[Jarawa (Kepulauan Andaman)|Jarawa]], [[Jangil]] (atawa ''Rutland Jarawa''), [[Suku Onge|Onge]], jeung [[Suku Sentinel|Sentinelese]]. Andaman gedé diwangun ku 10 étnis anu anggotana aya 5.000 jalma. Dibarung ku ngaronjatna pangeusi di daratan utama (anu mimitina sabagian gedé urut tahanan sarta [[buruh kontrak]] anu henteu sukarela, kadieunakeun ngahaja digawékeun sangkan mantuan patani), Andaman kungsi ngalaman ngurangan populasi alatan kaserang ku [[panyakit]] anu népa datangna ti luar, parebut taneuh ku anu nyaricingan, jeung pacogrégan.<ref name="Hor">{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=NnBAiQnFLpgC&pg=PA21&dq=andaman&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0g4DDru6HAxVnyDgGHaHyM98Q6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=andaman&f=false| title =The Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman IslandsHorace Man, Alexander John Ellis| last =Horace Man, Alexander John Ellis| first =Edward | publisher =Mittal Publication| location =New Delhi| year =1880|pages =Xi}} Disungsi 12 Agustus 2024</ref> Kapuloan Andaman téh imah pikeun bangsa [[Sentinelese ]], étnis anu tacan kungsi ka saba ku jalma luar.<ref>{{cite news |title=Everything We Know About The Isolated Sentinelese People Of North Sentinel Island |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kionasmith/2018/11/30/everything-we-know-about-the-isolated-sentinelese-people-of-north-sentinel-island/ |work=Forbes |date=30 November 2018}}</ref> Alatan pulo maranéhna anu hésé kasaba, masarakat Andaman sabagéan gedé byingkahan ayana hubungan jeung jalma luar. Basa maranéhna mangrupakeun gambaran gedé tina ieu hal, linguistik maranéhna béda tur mibanda ciri-ciri morfologi anu kuat – kecap dasar, mimiti, panungtung– tur saeutik pisan mibanda hubungan jeung jalma luar sarta géografis disabudeureuna .<ref>{{Kutip jurnal |last1=Endicott |first1=Phillip |last2=Gilbert |first2=M. Thomas P. |last3=Stringer |first3=Chris |last4=Lalueza-Fox |first4=Carles |last5=Willerslev |first5=Eske |last6=Hansen |first6=Anders J. |last7=Cooper |first7=Alan |date=Januari 2003 |title=Asal Genetik Penduduk Kepulauan Andaman |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/345487 |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=178–184 |doi=10.1086/345487 |pmid=12478481 |issn=0002-9297|pmc=378623 }}</ref> Nincak akhir abad ke-20 diperkirakeung anu nyesa tinggal 400–450 étnis Andaman di éta pulo, sarta ngan 50 anu masih keneh maké basa Jangil geus tumpur. sabagian gedé étnis Andaman gedé geus tumpur, anu masih kénéh hirup kiwari, kurang leuwih 52, sawaréhna ngaromong maké bahasa [[Hindi]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Malekar |first=Anosh |date=April 2010 |title=Alasan untuk survei linguistik |work=InfoChange News & Features |publication-place=India |url=http://infochangeindia.org/Media/Languages-of-India/The-case-for-a-linguistic-survey.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927215058/http://infochangeindia.org/Media/Languages-of-India/The-case-for-a-linguistic-survey.html |archive-date=27 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100424231241/http://infochangeindia.org/Media/Languages-of-India/The-case-for-a-linguistic-survey.html |date=24 April 2010 }}</ref> Etnis Onge ngurangan kiwari nepika nyesa kurang ti 100 jalma. Ngan étnis Jarawa jeung Sentinel anu masih kénéh hirup pengkuh dina kamandirianna sarta nolak tina sabagian gedé usaha pikeun muka hubungan; jumlahna teu pasti tapi kawasna ngan sababaratus urang.<ref name="Sha">{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=WEztW7c0CqQC&pg=PA33&dq=andaman&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwifppztte6HAxXtwzgGHYNdBW4Q6AF6BAgFEAI#v=onepage&q=andaman&f=false| title =Tribal Development in Andaman IslandsSharma| last =Sharma| first =A. N. | publisher =Sarup & Sons| location =New Delhi| year =2003|ISBN=9788176253475|pages =37}} Disungsi 12 Agustus 2024</ref> Basa-basa asli sakumna disebut salaku [[basa Andaman]], nanging ti kitu aranjeuna ieu diwangun ku dua kulawarga anu henteu sarua, sarta aya lusinan basa basa-basa asli secara anu kiwari geus tumpur atawa ampir tumpur. ==Ageman== Sabagian gedé masarakat suku di Kapulauan Andaman jeung Nikobar ngagem kayakinan anu tiasa disebat salaku [[animisme]] monoteistik. Masarakan di pulo-pulo ieu percaya yén [[Puluga]] nyaéta hiji-hijina déwa anu tanggungjawab kana sagala rupa anu kajadian di luhureun dunya.<ref>{{cite book|author=Radcliffe-Brown, A. R.|title=The Andaman Islanders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRJaAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|date=14 November 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-62556-3|page=161|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=26 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426152135/https://books.google.com/books?id=iRJaAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|url-status=live}}</ref> Kapercayaan urang Andaman sarta diwariskeun katurunana yén Paluga cicingna di [[Saddle Peak (kapuloan Andaman)|Saddle Peak]] Kapuloan Andaman jeung Nikobar. Jalma-jalma di pulo ieu sabisa-bisa nyingkahan naon wae lampah anu matak henteu pikaresepeun Paluga. Jalma-jalma anu ngagem kana ieu kapercayaan bakal nyurup hiji jiwa, jurig, jeung roh. maranehna ogé kacida percayana kana kajadian dina ngimpi. Nya tina ngimpi ieu manranéhna nangtukeun hirup rék kamana jeung kumaha.<ref>{{Cite web|title = People of Andaman and Nicobar Islands|url = http://www.webindia123.com/territories/andaman/people/intro.htm|website = Webindia123.com|access-date = 31 January 2016|archive-date = 1 June 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160601155012/http://www.webindia123.com/Territories/ANDAMAN/People/intro.htm|url-status = live}}</ref> Mitologi Andaman nyebatkeun cenah manusa lalaki asalan bijil tina beulah awi, sedengkeun anu awéwéna dijieun tina taneuh liat (tela).<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology . 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 [1906]. p. 192</ref> Salah sahiji carita anu kapanggih ku [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] nyebutkeun cenah, manusa anu pangheulana tilar dunya éta mangkat ka surga, dunya anu matak pikabetaheun, nanging ieu kabetah jeung ka bungah téh sirna ku alatan ngalanggah hiji pantangan, hususna nuang sayuran anu dicarang pikeun di tuang.<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology . 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 [1906]. p. 220</ref> Antukna ditarajang ku bala bencana, tisaprak harita pangesi anu hirup jadi leuwih padet sarta henteu pengkuh kana aturan Puluga. Ku alatan kitu, nya datang [[Banjir]] gedé anu ngabalukarkeun tinggal opatan anu salamet, tapi kaleungitan seuneu maranéhna.<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology . 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 [1906]. p. 216</ref><ref>Witzel, Michael E.J. (2012). The Origin of The World's Mythologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 309-312</ref> Kayakinan sejen anu diagem di kapuloan Andaman jeung Nikobar tayalian, dumasar kan lobana anu muhit, [[Hindu]], [[Kristen]], [[Islam]], [[Sikhism]], [[Buddha]], [[Jainism]] and [[Baháʼí Faith]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|title=Population by religious communities|publisher=censusindia.gov.in|access-date=21 September 2016|archive-date=6 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106014425/http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bahai.org/national-communities/andaman-and-nicobar-islands|title=Baháʼí Community of Andaman and Nicobar Islands|last=Baháʼí|website=Baháʼí Community|access-date=17 August 2017|archive-date=17 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817163632/http://www.bahai.org/national-communities/andaman-and-nicobar-islands|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Pamaréntah== [[File:Aberdeen Bazar, Port Blair.JPG|thumb|Puseurdayeuh kapuloan Andaman, Port Blair]] [[Port Blair]] tayalian komunitas anu utama di pulo-pulo ieu, jeung jadi puseur administrasi wewengkon ''persatuan''. Kapuloan Andaman diwangun ku hiji distrik ''administratif'' di jero wewengkon Persatuan, [[district Andaman]] (Kapuloan Nikobar dipisahkeun sarta ditetepkeun salaku [[distrik Nikobar]] geus dipisahkeun tisaprak taun 1974). ==Angkutan== Hiji-hijina bandara komérsial nyaéta [[Veer Savarkar International Airport]] di Port Blair, nu geus dijadwalkeun jasa pikeun [[Kolkata]], [[Chennai]], [[New Delhi]], [[Bengaluru]], [[Hyderabad]] jeung [[Visakhapatnam]]. Bandara ini aya dina pang riksa [[Angkatan Laut India]]. Saméméh taun 2016 ngan meunang operasi tibeurang wungkul; Ngan, tisaprak 2016 peuting ogé geus diijinan .<ref>{{cite news|editor1=Roy, Sanjib Kumar|editor2=Sheekha, Andaman|title=Maiden night flight arrives in Isles|url=http://www.andamansheekha.com/2016/01/21/maiden-night-flight-arrives-in-isles-goair-flight-with-155-tourists-lands-at-vsi-airport-to-operate-chartered-flight-between-bengaluru-port-blair/|access-date=21 January 2016|work=Andaman Sheekha|date=21 January 2016|archive-date=2 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002092304/http://www.andamansheekha.com/2016/01/21/maiden-night-flight-arrives-in-isles-goair-flight-with-155-tourists-lands-at-vsi-airport-to-operate-chartered-flight-between-bengaluru-port-blair/|url-status=live}}</ref> Aya hiji lapangan udara leutik, kurang leuwih panjangna {{convert|1000|m|ft}}, perenahna di deukeut basisir wétan Andaman kalér deukeut dekat [[Diglipur]]. Alatan panjangna rute jeung saeutikna jumlah maskapai anu hiber ka pulo-pulo éta, harga tikét pesawat sacara historis kawilang mahal, sanajan leuwih murah pikeun warga lokal tibatan sémah anu datang. Harga tikét pesawat mahal salila usum puncak usum semi jeung usum tiris, sanajan harga tikét pesawat geus ngurangan hargana bareng jeung waktu anu sarua ngalegaanna industri penerbangan sipil di India. Penerbangan pribadi ogé diizinkeun eunteup di ieu bandara Port Blair kalawan kudu ménta ijin heula saméméhna. Aya ogé jasa kapal ti Chennai, Visakhapatnam sareng Kolkata. Perjalanan butuh tilu dinten dua wengi, sareng gumantung kana cuaca. ==Rujukan budaya== {{Perbaikan bagian|tanggal=April 2024}} Pulo-pulo ieu sacara husus diguar sajereun misteri [[Sherlock Holmes]] taun 1890 hasil ti [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LitCharts |url =https://www.litcharts.com/lit/the-sign-of-the-four/summary |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=LitCharts |bahasa=en}}</ref><ref>{{Kutip jurnal |last=Chatterjee |first=Arup K. |journal=Shima: Jurnal Internasional Penelitian Budaya Pulau |title=Ilmu Bangsa Andaman dan Tanda Empat: Hirarki rasial kekaisaran Inggris yang terdistorsi antropologi |tanggal=11 Februari 2019|volume=14 |issue=2 |doi=10.21463/SHIMA.14.2.14 |s2cid=224924041 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Hakim di [[Lady Gregory]] Drama ''[[Menyebarkan Berita]]'' saméméhna dipidangkeun di kapuloan ieu.<ref>{{Kutip buku |last=Gregory |first=Lady |url=https://books.google.com/books ?id=RkE2AQAAMAAJ |title=Menyebarkan Berita |tanggal=1909 |publisher=Putnam |bahasa=en}}</ref> [[M. M. Kaye]] 1985 [[novel]] ''Death in the Andamans''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaye |first=M. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IADkCgAAQBAJ |title=Death in the Andamans |date=2015-12-01 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-250-08926-7 |language=en}}</ref> ogé [[Marianne Wiggins]]' 1989 novel ''John Dollar'' disetél di ieu kapuloan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wiggins |first=Marianne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC7HfgbTFaQC |title=John Dollar |date=1990 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-091655-8 |language=en}}</ref> Anu pandeuri dimimitian ku ékspedisi ti [[Burma]] pikeun ngareuah-reuah tepung taun Raja George, tapi robah jadi hiji carita hirup kumaha sangkan bisa tetep hirup sabada ditarajang [[Lini]] jeung [[Tsunami]]. [[Priyadarshan]] 1996 film ''[[Kaalapani]]'' (Malayalam; ''[[Sirai Chaalai]]'' di Tamil) ngagambarkeun perjuangan kabebasan India jeung kahirupan tahanan di ''[[Cellular Jail]]'' di Port Blair.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1995-06-15 |title=Kaala Paani, a Malayalam film banks on lavish budget, freedom movement and multilingual cast |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19950615-kaala-paani-a-malayalam-film-banks-on-lavish-budget-freedom-movement-and-multilingual-cast-806763-1995-06-14 |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> ''Island's End'' nyaéta hiji novel taun 2011 ti [[Padma Venkatraman]] ngeunaan latihan dukun pribumi. Tokoh utama dina ieu novel ''[[Six Suspects (novel)|Six Suspects]]'' ku [[Vikas Swarup]] asalna ti Kapuloan Andaman. ''The Last Wave'' (2014) ku [[Pankaj Sekhsaria]] ogé nyaritakeun ieu kapuloan. Brodie Moncur, Protagonis utama ti [[William Boyd (writer)|William Boyd's]] taun 2018 dina novel ''Love is Blind'', nyéépkeun waktos di Kapuloan Andaman dina taun-taun awal abad ka-20. Kapuloan Andaman dina période saméméhna, salila jeung ngan sanggeus Perang Dunya Kadua nyaéta setting pikeun Uzma Aslan Khan 'The Miraculous True History of Nomi Ali'. Taun 2023, kapuloan Andaman dipidangkeun dina séri netflix anu dingaranan Kaala Paani dumasar kana wabah panyakit fiksi dina taun 2027..{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} ==Tempo ogé == <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> * [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] * [[List of endemic birds of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] * [[List of trees of the Andaman Islands]] * [[Lists of islands]] ==Dicutat tina== '''Notes''' {{Reflist|2}} '''Sources''' * {{EB1911|wstitle=Andaman Islands|volume=1|pages=955–958}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034922/http://www.andamantravelagent.com/about-andaman History & Culture. The Andaman Islands with destination quide] * {{cite web |first= Klemen |last= L |date= 2000 |title= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |url= https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726053035/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html |date=26 July 2011 }} * {{cite book|author=India Home Dept|title=The Andaman Islands: With Notes on Barren Island|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E0xFAAAAYAAJ|year=1859|publisher=C.B. Lewis, Baptist Mission Press}} * {{cite book|author=Suresh Vaidya|title=Islands of the Marigold Sun|year=1960|publisher=Robert Hale}} * {{cite book|author=Raleigh Trevelyan|author-link=Raleigh Trevelyan|title=The Golden Oriole: Childhood, Family and Friends in India|url=https://archive.org/details/goldenoriolechil0000trev|year=1987|publisher=Secker & Warburg}} ==Tutumbu ka luar== {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181213232827/http://www.and.nic.in/ Official Andaman and Nicobar Tourism Website] * {{citation|last=Sorenson|first=E. Richard|title=Sensuality and Consciousness:Psychosexual Transformation in the Eastern Andaman|journal=Anthropology of Consciousness|volume=4|issue=4|year=1993|doi=10.1525/ac.1993.4.4.1|pages=1–9}} * {{citation|last=Sen|first=Satadru|title=Savage Bodies, Civilized Pleasures: M. V. Portman and the Andamanese|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=36|issue=2|year=2009|doi=10.1111/j.1548-1425.2009.01140.x |pages=364–379}} {{ecoregions of India}} {{Portal bar|Islands|India}} {{authority control}} [[Kategori:Kapuloan]] [[Kategori:Nagara kapuloan]] f3oth8msvzyi61wgrem5lttpnxyta0m 0 106138 711516 675449 2026-08-06T22:04:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 13 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711516 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pulitik sayap kénca''' téh mangrupa spéktrum politik nu ngadukung [[kasataraan sosial]] jeung [[égalitarianisme]], sarta mindeng nentang sistim hierarki sosial gaya katuhu. Pulitik kénca biasana ngasupkeun kaprihatinan ka jalma-jalma dina masarakat anu ku panganutna dianggap kurang untung batan batur, ogé kayakinan yén aya kateuadilan anu teu bisa dibenerkeun anu kudu dikurangan atawa dihapuskeun.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cultures at war : moral conflicts in western democracies|url=https://archive.org/details/culturesatwarmor0000smit|publisher=Peterborough, Ont. : Broadview Press|date=2003|isbn=978-1-55111-334-0|last=Internet Archive|first=T. Alexander|first2=Raymond|last2=Tatalovich}}</ref> Numutkeun ka proféor éméritus ékonomi Barry Clark, panganut kénca "ngaku yén kamekaran manusa bakal kajadian lamun individu-individu ngiluan dina gawé babarengan—hubungan silih hormat—anu ngan bisa mekar lamun bédana nu kaleuleuwihi dina status, kakawasaan, jeung kabeungharan dihantemkeun."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Political Economy: A Comparative Approach|url=https://archive.org/details/politicaleconomy0000clar_d9w3|last=Clark|first=Barry|publisher=Praeger Press|year=1998|isbn=9780275958695.|location=Westport, Connecticut}}</ref> Dina spéktrum pulitik kénca–katuhu, istilah Kénca jeung Katuhu dijieun nalika [[Révolusi Perancis]], nujul kana susunan korsi di États Généraux Perancis. Jalma-jalma anu datang di kénca biasana ngalawan Ancien Régime jeung monarki Bourbon sarta ngadukung Révolusi Perancis, ngawangun [[républik démokratis]], jeung sékularisasi masarakat,<ref>{{Cite book|title=The government and politics of France|url=https://archive.org/details/governmentpoliti0000knap|publisher=London ; New York, NY : Routledge|date=2006|isbn=978-0-415-35732-6|last=Internet Archive|first=Andrew}}</ref> sedengkeun jalma-jalma anu di katuhu ngadukung institusi tradisional Ancien Régime. Pamakéan istilah Kénca jadi leuwih nunjul sanggeus mulangna monarki Perancis dina taun 1815, nalika istilah éta diterapkeun ka kelompok Indepéndén.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Realms of memory : the construction of the French past. Volume III, Symbols|url=https://archive.org/details/realmsofmemory00colu|publisher=New York : Columbia University Press|date=1998|isbn=978-0-231-10926-0|last=Internet Archive|first=Pierre (1931-|last2=historien). Directeur de la publication}}</ref> Kecap "sayap" mimiti ditambahkeun kana istilah Kénca jeung Katuhu dina ahir abad ka-19 (biasana kalayan maksud méréméhkeun), sarta istilah "sayap kénca" diterapkeun ka jalma-jalma anu boga pandangan agama jeung pulitik anu henteu biasa. Istilah Kénca tuluy diterapkeun kana rupa-rupa gerakan, kawas [[gerakan républikanisme]] di [[Prancis]] dina abad ka-18, dituturkeun ku [[sosialisme]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=The case for socialism|url=https://archive.org/details/caseforsocialism0000maas|publisher=Chicago, IL : Haymarket Books ; [Minneapolis, Minn.] : [distributor] Consortium Book Sales and Distribution|date=2010|isbn=978-1-60846-073-1|last=Internet Archive|first=Alan}}</ref> kaasup [[anarkisme]], [[komunisme]], [[gerakan buruh]], [[Marxisme]], [[démokrasi sosial]], jeung [[sindikalisme]] dina abad ka-19 jeung ka-20.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Last exit to Utopia : the survival of socialism in a post-Soviet era|url=https://archive.org/details/lastexittoutopia0000reve|publisher=New York : Encounter Books|date=2009|isbn=978-1-59403-264-6|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean François}}</ref> Ti saprak éta, istilah "sayap kénca" geus diterapkeun ka rupa-rupa gerakan, kaasup [[gerakan hak-hak sipil]], [[gerakan féminis]], [[gerakan hak aborsi]], [[multikulturalisme]], [[gerakan anti-perang]], jeung [[gerakan lingkungan]], ogé rupa-rupa idéologi partéy pulitik.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Green party to position itself as the real left of UK politics|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/sep/05/green-party-left-uk-politics-caroline-lucas|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2014-09-05|access-date=2025-01-16|issn=0261-3077|language=en-GB|first=Fiona|last=Harvey}}</ref> == Sajarah == Pulitik sayap kénca mangrupakeun salasahiji spéktrum idéologi anu mibanda akar dina kahayang pikeun nyiptakeun kaadilan sosial, pemerataan ékonomi, jeung pemberdayaan masarakat kelas handap. Istilah ieu mimiti muncul dina mangsa Révolusi Prancis (1789-1799), nalika para pangrojong parobahan radikal jeung égalitarianisme datang di sisi kénca majelis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The French Revolution. Columbia University Press|last=Lefebvre|first=Georges|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1962}}</ref> Dina lila waktu, konsep politik sayap kénca berkembang ngawengku rupa-rupa ideologi kawas sosialisme, komunisme, jeung anarkisme. === Revolusi Perancis jeung Awal Mula Sayap Kénca === Pulitik sayap kénca dimimitian ti Révolusi Prancis, nalika para anggota Majelis Nasional anu ngarojong parobahan sosial jeung ngaleungitkeun sistem féodal datang di sisi kénca.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Short History of the French Revolution 1789-1799|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-BFU-526|last=Soboul|first=Albert|publisher=University of California Press|year=1977}}</ref> Kelompok ieu nungtut kabentukna républik anu dumasar kana prinsip kabébasan, kasataraan, jeung duduluran (“Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité”). Perdebatan antara kaum kénca jeung katuhu di Prancis jadi dasar pikeun kabentukna spéktrum politik modérn.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Interpreting the French Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/interpretingfren0000fure|last=Furet|first=François|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1981}}</ref> === '''Abad ka-19: Perkembangan Sosialisme jeung Komunisme''' === Dina abad ka-19, idéologi sayap kénca beuki terstruktur ku lahirna sosialisme jeung komunisme. Tokoh kawas [[Karl Marx]] jeung [[Friedrich Engels]] maénkeun peran penting dina ngabentuk téori-téori pulitik sayap kénca liwat karyana, “Manifesto Komunis” (1848).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Communist Manifesto|url=https://archive.org/details/ComManifesto|last=Marx|first=Karl|year=1848|first2=Friedrich|last2=Engels}}</ref> Marx jeung Engels ngakritik kapitalisme salaku sistem anu nyiptakeun ketimpangan sosial jeung nyarankeun kabentukna masarakat tanpa kelas ngaliwatan [[révolusi prolétariat]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Karl Marx: His Life and Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/karlmarxhislife0000mcle|last=McLellan|first=David|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1973}}</ref> Salian ti éta, gerakan buruh anu mekar dina abad ieu jadi dasar kakuatan politik sayap kénca. Serikat pagawe, anu memperjuangkeun hak-hak pagawe kawas gaji anu pantes jeung jam kerja anu manusiawi, jadi unsur penting dina ngawangun pangrojong pikeun ideologi ieu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789-1848|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofrevolutione0000ejho_o2t2|last=Hobsbawm|first=Eric|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year=1962}}</ref> === '''Abad ka-20: Kebangkitan jeung Perjuangan Sayap Kénca''' === Abad ka-20 ningali kebangkitan politik sayap kénca ngaliwatan rupa-rupa revolusi jeung kabentukna nagara-nagara anu dumasar kana ideologi ieu. Revolusi Bolshevik di Rusia taun 1917, anu dipingpin ku Vladimir Lenin, nandakeun ayana Uni Soviét minangka nagara komunis kahiji di dunya.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Russian Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/russianrevolutio00pipe|last=Pipes|first=Richard|publisher=Vintage|year=1990}}</ref> Kasuksésan ieu jadi inspirasi pikeun gerakan sayap kénca di rupa-rupa belahan dunya, kaasup Asia, Amérika Latin, jeung Afrika.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Comrades: A History of World Communism|url=https://archive.org/details/comradeshistoryo0000serv|last=Service|first=Robert|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2007}}</ref> Tapi, abad ieu ogé ditandaan ku konflik ideologi antara sayap kénca jeung katuhu, utamina dina mangsa Perang Tiis (1947-1991). Blok Wétan anu dipingpin ku Uni Soviét berlawanan jeung Blok Kulon anu didominasi ku nagara-nagara kapitalis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cold War: A New History|url=https://archive.org/details/coldwarnewhistor00gadd|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|publisher=Penguin|year=2005}}</ref> Sayap kénca ogé nyanghareupan tantangan internal, kawas perpecahan antara komunisme jeung sosialisme demokratik, ogé kritik kana kabijakan otoriter anu diimplementasikeun di sababaraha nagara komunis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Russian Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/russianrevolutio0000shie|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Sheila|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1994}}</ref> === '''Politik Sayap Kénca di Nagara Dunia Katilu''' === Di nagara-nagara dunya katilu, politik sayap kénca sering dikaitkeun jeung perjuangan ngalawan kolonialisme jeung impérialisme. Pamimpin kawas Che Guevara jeung Fidel Castro di Amérika Latin jadi simbol perjuangan ngalawan dominasi asing jeung ketimpangan sosial.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life|url=https://archive.org/details/cheguevara00jonl|last=Anderson|first=Jon Lee|publisher=Grove Press|year=1997}}</ref> Di Afrika, gerakan sayap kénca ngarojong dékolonisasi jeung pangwangunan masarakat anu leuwih adil, kawas anu katingali dina kabijakan sosialisme Afrika ku Julius Nyerere di Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Freedom and Unity: A Selection from Writings and Speeches 1952-65|last=Nyerere|first=Julius|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1966}}</ref> === Parobahan Sayap Kénca di Éra Modéren === Dina ahir abad ka-20 jeung awal abad ka-21, politik sayap kénca ngalaman transformasi gedé. Partéy-partéy sosial demokrat di Éropa mimiti ngadopsi pendekatan anu leuwih moderat, narima unsur pasar bebas bari tetep ngajaga komitmen kana kaadilan sosial.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy.|url=https://archive.org/details/thirdwayrenewalo0000gidd|last=Giddens|first=Anthony|publisher=Polity Press|year=1998}}</ref> Gerakan anyar kawas ékososialisme muncul minangka réspon kana krisis lingkungan global, ngagabungkeun kaadilan sosial jeung kaberlanjutan ékologis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Enemy of Nature: The End of Capitalism or the End of the World?|url=https://archive.org/details/enemyofnatureend0000kove|last=Kovel|first=Joel|publisher=Zed Books|year=2002}}</ref> == Référénsi == [[Kategori:Pulitik]] 0tlol1kon062ngxrduovuvleyqn60cy 0 106162 711657 676140 2026-08-07T01:03:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711657 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+Diethylenetriamine ! colspan="2" |Names |- | colspan="2" |Preferred IUPAC name ''N''¹-(2-Aminoethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine |- | colspan="2" |Other names N-(2-Aminoethyl)-1,2-ethanediamine; bis(2-Aminoethyl)amine; DETA; 2,2'-Diaminodiethylamine |- ! colspan="2" |Identifiers |- |CAS Number | * 111-40-0 |- |3D model (JSmol) | * Interactive image |- |Beilstein Reference |605314 |- |ChEBI | * CHEBI:30629 |- |ChEMBL | * ChEMBL303429 |- |ChemSpider | * 13835401 |- |ECHA InfoCard |100.003.515 |- |EC Number | * 203-865-4 |- |Gmelin Reference |2392 |- |MeSH |diethylenetriamine |- |PubChem <abbr>CID</abbr> | * 8111 |- |RTECS number | * IE1225000 |- |UNII | * 03K6SX4V2J |- |UN number |2079 |- |CompTox Dashboard (<abbr>EPA</abbr>) | * DTXSID2025050 |- | colspan="2" |InChI |- | colspan="2" |SMILES |- ! colspan="2" |Properties |- |Chemical formula |C₄H₁₃N₃ |- |Molar mass |103.169 g·mol⁻¹ |- |Appearance |Colourless liquid |- |Odor |Ammoniacal |- |Density |955&nbsp;mg mL⁻¹ |- |Melting point |−39.00&nbsp;°C; −38.20&nbsp;°F; 234.15 K |- |Boiling point |204.1&nbsp;°C; 399.3&nbsp;°F; 477.2 K |- |Solubility in water |miscible |- |log ''P'' |−1.73 |- |Vapor pressure |10 Pa (at 20&nbsp;°C) |- |Refractive index (''n''_D) |1.484 |- ! colspan="2" |Thermochemistry |- |Heat capacity (''C'') |254 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹ (at 40&nbsp;°C) |- |Std enthalpy of formation (Δ_f''H''^⦵₂₉₈) |−65.7–−64.7 kJ mol⁻¹ |- |Std enthalpy of combustion (Δ_c''H''^⦵₂₉₈) |−3367.2–−3366.2 kJ mol⁻¹ |- ! colspan="2" |Hazards |- | colspan="2" |'''GHS''' labelling: |- |Pictograms | |- |Signal word |'''Danger''' |- |Hazard statements |<abbr>H302</abbr>, <abbr>H312</abbr>, <abbr>H314</abbr>, <abbr>H317</abbr> |- |Precautionary statements |<abbr>P280</abbr>, <abbr>P305+P351+P338</abbr>, <abbr>P310</abbr> |- |Flash point |102&nbsp;°C (216&nbsp;°F; 375 K) |- |Autoignition temperature |358&nbsp;°C (676&nbsp;°F; 631 K) |- |Explosive limits |2–6.7% |- | colspan="2" |'''NIOSH''' (US health exposure limits): |- |PEL (Permissible) |none |- |REL (Recommended) |TWA 1 ppm (4&nbsp;mg/m³) |- |IDLH (Immediate danger) |N.D. |- ! colspan="2" |Related compounds |- |Related amines | * Dimethylamine * Trimethylamine * ''N''-Nitrosodimethylamine * Diethylamine * Triethylamine * Diisopropylamine * Dimethylaminopropylamine * ''N'',''N''-Diisopropylethylamine * Triisopropylamine * Tris(2-aminoethyl)amine * Mechlorethamine * HN1 (nitrogen mustard) * HN3 (nitrogen mustard) |- |Related compounds | * Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine * Biguanide * Dithiobiuret * Agmatine |} '''Diethylenetriamine''' (disingkat '''<span lang="Hi" dir="ltr">Dien atawa DETA)</span>''' jeung katelah ogé '''2,2'-Iminodi(éthylamine)''' <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gr.nl/sites/default/files/0015OSH153.pdf|title=Health Council of the Netherlands: Committee on Updating of Occupational Exposure Limits. 2,2'-Iminodi(ethylamine); Health-based Reassessment of Administrative Occupational Exposure Limits.|date=2005}}</ref> ) nyaéta [[sanyawa organik]] nu boga rumus HN(CH ₂ CH ₂ NH ₂ ) ₂ . Cairan higroskopis anu teu warnaan ieu larut dina cai sareng pangleyur organik polar, tapi sanés [[hidrokarbon]] sederhana. Diethylenetrimine mangrupikeun analog struktural tina dietiléna glikol. Sipat kimiana nyarupaan étiléna diamina, sarta miboga kagunaan nu sarupa. Éta basa lemah sareng leyuran cai na basa. DETA mangrupikeun produk sampingan tina produksi étiléna diamin tina étiléna diklorida. == Réaksi jeung kagunaan == Diethylenetriamine mangrupakeun agén curing umum pikeun résin epoxy dina napel epoxy jeung térmosét séjén.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brydson, J. A.|title=Plastics Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/plasticsmaterial0000bryd|edition=Seventh|pages=[https://archive.org/details/plasticsmaterial0000bryd/page/744 744]–777|chapter=Epoxide Resins|editor-last=J. A. Brydson|year=1999|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|location=Oxford|doi=10.1016/B978-075064132-6/50067-X|isbn=9780750641326}}</ref> Ieu N-alkylated kana réaksi jeung gugus epoksida ngabentuk crosslinks. [[Gambar:VernetzteEpoxidharze.svg|kiri|jmpl|320x320px| Struktur lem epoksi triamine-kapok. Gugus époksida résin kabéh geus diréaksikeun jeung hardener. Hasilna bahan kacida crosslinked ngandung loba gugus OH, nu maparin sipat napel.]] Dina kimia koordinasi, éta boga fungsi salaku ligan tridentate ngabentuk kompléx kayaning Co(dien)(NO ₂ ) ₃ .<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crayton, P. H.|last2=Zitomer, F.|last3=Lambert, J.|editor-last=Kleinberg, J.|chapter=Inner Complexes of Cobalt(III) with Diethylenetriamine|title=Inorganic Syntheses|year=1963|volume=7|pages=207–213|doi=10.1002/9780470132388.ch56|isbn=9780470132388}}</ref> Sapertos sababaraha amina anu aya hubunganana, éta dianggo dina industri minyak pikeun ékstraksi gas asam. Kawas éthylenediamine, DETA ogé bisa dipaké pikeun sensitize nitromethane, nyieun sanyawa ngabeledug cair sarupa PLX. Sanyawa ieu sénsitip cap kalayan laju ngabeledug sakitar 6200&nbsp;m / s sarta dibahas dina patén # 3.713.915. Dicampur jeung dimethylhydrazine unsymmetrical dipaké salaku Hydyne, propelén pikeun rokét bahan bakar cair. DETA parantos dievaluasi pikeun dianggo dina Sistem Countermine anu dikembangkeun ku Kantor Panaliti Angkatan Laut AS, dimana éta bakal dianggo pikeun ngahurungkeun sareng ngonsumsi bahan peledak tina tambang darat di zona pantai sareng surfing .<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dailytech.com/US+Navy+Announces+Venom+Penetrator+Countermine+Projectile/article5838.htm|title=U.S. Navy Announces "Venom Penetrator" Countermine Projectile|work=[[DailyTech]]|date=January 25, 2007|access-date=July 16, 2013|last=Hill, Brandon|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004175426/http://www.dailytech.com/US+Navy+Announces+Venom+Penetrator+Countermine+Projectile/article5838.htm|archive-date=October 4, 2014}}</ref> == Tempo ogé == * Triethylenetétramine * {{Commons category-inline}} cekyuoqspher81hi104xymjwtjs139l 0 106164 711507 710526 2026-08-06T20:01:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 711507 wikitext text/x-wiki '''LAser éléktron bébas SPring-8 Angstrom Compact''', disebut '''SACLA''' (dibaca''さくら (Sa-Ku-Ra)'' ), nyaéta laser éléktron bébas sinar-X (XFEL) di Harima Science Garden City, [[Jepang]], dipasang dina Spring . -8 akselerator jeung synchrotron kompléks. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://xfel.riken.jp/eng/|title=The SACLA (XFEL) home page}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507101726/http://xfel.riken.jp/eng/ |date=2013-05-07 }}</ref> <ref name="SACLA_SD">{{Cite news|last=RIKEN|title=First X-ray lasing of SACLA: Next-generation facility up and running with powerful new X-ray laser.|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110613053815.htm|access-date=1 May 2015|work=ScienceDaily|date=13 June 2011}}</ref> Nalika mimiti beroperasi taun 2011, éta XFEL kadua di dunya sareng anu munggaran di Jepang. <ref name="NP">{{Cite journal|last=Huang, Zhirong|last2=Lindau, Ingolf|date=31 July 2012|title=Free-electron lasers: SACLA hard-X-ray compact FEL|journal=Nature Photonics|volume=6|issue=8|pages=505–506|bibcode=2012NaPho...6..505H|doi=10.1038/nphoton.2012.184}}</ref> <ref name="Phys">{{Cite news|title=RIKEN, JASRI unveil 'SACLA', Japan's first X-ray free electron laser|url=http://phys.org/news/2011-04-riken-jasri-unveil-sacla-japan.html|access-date=1 May 2015|work=Phys.org|date=11 April 2011}}</ref> == Desain == Sapertos XFEL anu sanés, SACLA ngagunakeun émisi spontan anu diamplifikasi diri pikeun ngahontal intensitas sinar-X anu kacida luhurna. SACLA ngagunakeun in-vakum, undulators période pondok, nu mangrupa salah sahiji faktor unik dina rarancangna nu ngamungkinkeun pikeun ngahontal [[Gelombang|panjang gelombang]] sub-Ångstrom 0,6 Å dina jarak rélatif leuwih pondok 0,7.&nbsp;km, dibandingkeun sareng XFEL anu sami sapertos LCLS (2&nbsp;km) atanapi XFEL Éropa (3.4&nbsp;km). <ref name="NP" /> <ref name="SLAC_ST">{{Cite news|last=Roberts, Jr.|first=Glenn|title=A Growth Spurt for X-ray Lasers|url=https://news.slac.stanford.edu/features/growth-spurt-x-ray-lasers|access-date=1 May 2015|work=SLAC Today|agency=Stanford Linear Accelerator Center|date=17 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022074035/https://news.slac.stanford.edu/features/growth-spurt-x-ray-lasers|archive-date=22 October 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022074035/https://news.slac.stanford.edu/features/growth-spurt-x-ray-lasers |date=22 October 2015 }}</ref> Beam éléktron 8,5 GeV dipaké salaku sumberna. [[Gambar:SACLA_experimental_hutch.jpg|ka|jmpl|280x280px| Pondok ékspérimén SACLA]] == Pilem Pondok Animasi == SACLA parantos ngarilis sajumlah pilem pondok [[Animé|animasi]] pikeun ngamajukeun kamampuan panalungtikanana ka masarakat. Dina Juli 2013, SACLA ngarilis dua film pondok animasi anu judulna "Picotopia", anu ngabahas biologi sélular, sareng "Wasureboshi", nyaéta ngeunaan konsepsi . <ref name="SACLA_ANN">{{Cite news|title=Kamikaze Douga Creates Anime Short for SACLA Research Center|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013-12-03/kamikaze-douga-creates-anime-short-for-sacla-research-center|access-date=1 May 2015|publisher=Anime News Network|date=3 December 2013}}</ref> Dina 3 Désémber 2013, animasi pondok sejen anu judulna "Mirai Koshi: Harima SACLA" dirilis pikeun ngamajukeun kamampuan XFEL pikeun ngadeteksi atom sareng molekul. <ref name="SACLA_ANN" /> <references responsive="0"></references> {{Reflist|2}} 97ejqz8h6basb7u1nl0kpsqhnnx86l5 0 106237 711822 706056 2026-08-07T05:17:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Melaleuca armillaris | image = Melaleuca armillaris-batang-Raflinoer32.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Batang Melaleuca armillaris di Kebon Raya Cibodas, Cianjur | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = | classis = [[Tracheophytes]] | ordo = [[Myrtales]] | familia = [[Myrtaceae]] | genus = ''[[Melaleuca]]'' | species = '''''M. armillaris''''' | binomial = ''Melaleuca armillaris'' | binomial_authority = ([[Sol.]] ex [[Gaertn.]]) [[Sm.]] | synonyms = * ''Metrosideros armillaris'' <small>Sol. ex Gaertn.</small> * ''Myrtoleucodendron armillare'' <small>(Sol. ex Gaertn.) [[Otto Kuntze|Kuntze]]</small> }} '''''Melaleuca armillaris''''' atawa nu leuwih dipikawanoh ''bracelet honey myrtle'' nyaéta tutuwuhan tina kulawarga Myrtaceae anu asalna ti [[Australia Kidul]], [[Victoria]], jeung [[Tasmania]] di wewengkon tenggara [[Australia]]. Tutuwuhan ieu kawentar kuat sarta sering dipaké minangka pager alam sabab tumuwuhna gancang. Spésiés ieu ogé geus sumebar sacara alami di sabagéan wewengkon Australia Kulon jeung Victoria. Dina habitat aslina, ''Melaleuca armillaris'' biasana tumuwuh di gawir basisir jeung sabudeureun muara walungan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://inaturalist.ala.org.au/taxa/323997-Melaleuca-armillaris|title=Bracelet Honey-myrtle (Melaleuca armillaris)|website=iNaturalist Australia|language=en|accessdate=2025-02-15}}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Ciri-ciri == ''Melaleuca armillaris'' bisa tumuwuh minangka [[rungkun]] badag atawa tangkal leutik nu miboga dahan ngagantung, kalayan jangkung nepi ka 8 meter. Tutuwuhan ieu boga kulit kai nu kasar jeung warna [[kulawu]], dahan nu tumuwuh nyamping, jeung daun nu leubeut. Daunna tumuwuh silih paadu dina pola nyilangan sahingga katémbong siga opat jajar sapanjang tangkal. Sababaraha sumber nyebutkeun yén daunna tumuwuh sacara spiral, sedengkeun nu séjén nyebutkeun yén daunna tumuwuh selang-seling. Daunna leutik, panjangna antara 4,5–19 mm sarta rubakna 0,8–4 mm. Biasana henteu boga bulu pas waktu masih kénéh ngora. Bentuk daunna ti mimiti jangkep nepi ka oval sempit kalayan tungtung nu runcing siga kait.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Melaleucas : their botany, essential oils and uses|url=https://archive.org/details/melaleucastheirb0000brop|last=Brophy|first=Joseph J.|publisher=Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research|year=2013|isbn=9781922137517|location=Canberra|pages=[https://archive.org/details/melaleucastheirb0000brop/page/80 80]|last2=Craven|first2=Lyndley A.|last3=Doran|first3=John C.}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Melaleucas : a field and garden guide|last=Holliday|first=Ivan|publisher=Reed New Holland Publishers|year=2004|isbn=1876334983|location=Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.|pages=24–25}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Melaleuca~armillaris|title=PlantNET - FloraOnline|website=plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au|accessdate=2025-02-15}}</ref> Tutuwuhan ieu miboga kembang nu warnana [[bodas]], kadang-kadang [[krem]], sarta jarang aya nu warna [[pink]]. Kembang ieu tumuwuh dina kelompok nu ngabentuk silinder sapanjang dahan, mindeng kapanggih dina tangkal nu leuwih kolot. Panjang kelompok kembang bisa nepi ka 50 mm kalayan diameter kurang leuwih 25 mm, sarta diwangun ku loba kembang leutik. Makuta kembangna panjangna kurang leuwih 1,5–3 mm sarta bakal ragrag nalika kembang mimiti asak. Unggal kembang boga benang sari nu kabagi jadi lima kelompok leutik, masing-masing panjangna 3–4,9 mm sarta unggal kelompok ngandung dalapan nepi ka dalapan belas benang sari. Biasana, tatangkalan ieu mimiti mekar dina usum semi nepi ka awal usum halodo. Sanggeus éta, kembangna robah jadi buah leutik nu mibanda cangkang kai, ukuranana 2,3–4,5 mm, sarta tumuwuh dina kelompok bentuk silinder sapanjang dahan.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> == Habitat jeung panyebaran == Subspésiés ''armillaris'' tumuwuh di daérah basisir, ti mimiti kiduleun wewengkon [[Walungan Manning]] di [[New South Wales]] nepi ka bagian wétan Victoria. Spésiés ieu ogé kapanggih di sababaraha pulo di [[Selat Bass]], saperti Pulo Curtis, sarta di pojok kalér-wétan Tasmania. Sajaba ti éta, tutuwuhan ieu geus sumebar sacara alami ka sababaraha daérah séjén, di antarana Victoria, Wilayah Ibu Kota Australia (ACT), bagian kidul Australia Kidul, jeung kulon-kidul Australia Kulon. Tutuwuhan ieu utamana loba kapanggih di basisir kidul New South Wales. Sacara alami, ''armillaris'' tumuwuh di pasisian basisir jeung gawir, biasana dina wewengkon leuweung rungkun nu rapet. Sedengkeun ti éta, subspésiés ''akineta'' ngan ukur kapanggih di Pagunungan Gawler, Australia Kidul. Spésiés ieu hirup di daérah pasirwangi jeung batu granit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Artikel WikiTutuwuhan-Raflinoer32]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Australia]] sy3fsw5nwpfn65qrhihg964jakqb2do 0 106387 711778 678332 2026-08-07T04:05:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Jalma|name=|image=Professor Jennifer Doudna ForMemRS.jpg|caption=Jennifer A. Doudna.|birth_name=Jennifer A. Doudna.|birth_date={{birth date|1964|02|19}}|birth_place=Washington, D.C, AS|residence=|nationality=|education=[[Pomona College]], 1984<br/> [[Harvard University]]<br/>[[Ph.D.]], 1989|occupation=[[Biokimiawan]]|employer=|known_for=Ahli Biokimia Amérika|spouse=|children=}} '''Jennifer A. Doudna''' (gumelar 19 Pébruari 1964; umur 61 taun) nyaéta salah sahiji ahli biokimia Amérika. Manéhna narima gelar sarjana biokimia ti Pomona College, [[California]]. Tuluy dina 1989 manéhna narima gelar Ph.D di Universitas [[Harvard]]. Dina taun 1994 manéhna pindah ka Yale sanggeus narima sababaraha posisi ''postdoctoral''. Manéhna mingpin tim anu gawé dina struktur tilu diménsi RNA ribosom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kavliprize.org/bio/jennifer-a-doudna|title=Kavli Prize Laureate Jennifer A. Doudna|website=www.kavliprize.org|accessdate=2025-03-16}}</ref> Dina taun 2020, manéhna dilélér Hadiah Nobel Kimia jeung Emmanuelle Charpentier pikeun karyana dina pamekaran jeung metode ngedit génom.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2020/summary/|title=Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|accessdate=2025-03-16}}</ref> == Kasangtukang == Jennifer babar di Washington D.C, sedengkeun gedéna di daérah Hilo, [[Hawaii]] <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jennifer-Doudna|title=Jennifer Doudna {{!}} Biography, Facts, & Nobel Prize {{!}} Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|accessdate=2025-03-16}}</ref>, minangka anak pangheulana tina tilu sadulur awéwé. Bapana nyaéta Martin K. Doudna, mangrupa panulis pidato di Kementerian Pertahanan [[Amérika Sarikat]], sarta Indungna nyaéta Dorothy mangrupa guru di koléj komunitas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2020/doudna/biographical/|title=Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|accessdate=2025-03-16}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Dina Agustus 1971 waktu umurna tujuh taun, kulawargana pindah ka Hawaii, lantaran bapana jadi profésor di Universitas Hawaii di Hilo. <ref name=":1" /> Ti leuleutik, Doudna geus nunjukkeun minat kana élmu pangaweruh jeung meunang dukungan ti kolotna. Nalika kelas 6 SD, manéhna maca buku '''"''The Double Helix''"''' karya James D. Watson, nu ngajadikeun manéhna beuki resep kana widang élmu biologi. Manéhna kagum ku cara para élmuwan bisa gawé bareng, taliti, jeung tekun sangkan bisa mecahkeun misteri biologi nu pangsulitna. Salian ti éta, nalika manéhna ogé diajar ngeunaan Rosalind Franklin nu katelah '''"Dark Lady of DNA",''' sarta tina gambar kristalografi sinar-X nu dihasilkeun bisa ngungkab bentuk hélik DNA, éta jadi momen anu ngajurung kasadaran Jennifer yén awéwé ogé bisa jadi élmuwan anu hébat.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|edition=First Simon & Schuster trade paperback edition|title=The code breaker: Jennifer Doudna, gene editing, and the future of the human race|url=https://archive.org/details/codebreakerjenni0000walt|publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperbacks|date=2022|location=New York London Toronto Sydney New Delhi|isbn=978-1-9821-1587-6|first=Walter|last=Isaacson}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Dina usum panas taun 1981, nalika umurna 17 taun, manéhna daftar jeung katarima di Pomona College, California, milih jurusan kimia, sanajan sempat mikir pikeun pindah jurusan ka basa Perancis. Dina usum panas éta, manéhna balik ka Hilo lanjut migawé di laboratorium Don Hemmes pikeun nalungtik inféksi jamur Phytophthora palmivora dina gedang. Panalungtikanna ngungkab peran penting ion kalsium dina pamekaran jamur, nu jadi pangalaman munggaran anu nguatkeun minatna kana élmu pangaweruh.<ref name=":1" /> Dina usum panas taun 1984, sanggeus dua taun diajar élmu biokimia, manéhna diondang sangkan bisa gawé di laboratorium Sharon Panasenko (pembimbing manéhna) pikeun nalungtik sinyal kimia dina baktéri, nu hasil panalungtikanna diterbitkeun di ''Journal of Bacteriology. S''arta dina taun 1985 manéhna lulus ti Pomona College salaku mahasiswa pangalusna dina bidang kimia.<ref name=":1" /> Sanggeus lulus ti Pomona College, manéhna didorong ku bapana, sangkan bisa ngalanjutkeun pendidikan [[doktor]]. Dina taun 1985, manéhna daftar ka program pascasarjana di Harvard Medical School, sarta ngamimitian kuliah dina usum gugur. Sataun ti harita, manéhna milih ngalakukeun disertasi di laboratorium Jack Szostak, anu harita Jack keur mindahkeun fokus panalungtikanana ti [[DNA]] ka [[RNA]], jeung peranna dina asal-usul kahirupan di bumi.<ref name=":1" /> Sanajan harita fokus utama élmuwan dunya aya dina Proyék Genom Manusa, manéhna jeung Jack ningali poténsi gedé dina pamahaman RNA salaku molekul multiguna. Maranéhna ngarékayasa ulang intron RNA jadi énzim RNA anu mampuh réplikasi sorangan, hal ieu ngabuktikeun yén RNA bisa berfungsi salaku polimérase. Hasil panalungtikanna diterbitkeun di Jurnal ''Nature'' dina taun 1989, nandaan awal perjalanan manéhna dina widang panalungtikan RNA. Dina taun 1989 manéhna narima gelar Ph.D, sarta ngalanjutkeun panalungtikanna di laboratorium Jack salaku panaliti pascadoktoral pikeun ngulik molekul RNA anu bisa ngaréplikasi sorangan. <ref name=":1" /> == Pangajén == Jennifer meunang panghargaani ti University of California, Berkeley, CA, AS nyaéta penghargaan Nobel Kimia 2020, pikeun ngembangkeun métode ngedit génom".<ref name=":1" /> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Biokimiawan Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Tokoh]] h91ggj2ww98nuls64fppx1o31imvwr8 0 106391 711563 678312 2026-08-06T23:12:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711563 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person|image=Commodore Grace M. Hopper, USN (covered).jpg|name=Grace Hopper|caption=Hopper in 1984|death_date={{death date and age|1992|1|1|1906|12|9}}|death_place=[[Arlington County, Virginia]], [[U.S]].|resting place=[[Arlington National Cemetery]]|alma mater=[[Vassar College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|AB]]) <br> [[Yale University]] ([[Master of Science|MS]], [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])|birth_date=9 Desember 1906|birth_place=[[New York City]], [[U.S]]|birth_name=Grace Brewster Murray}} '''Grace Brewster Hopper''' (9 Désémber 1906 – 1 Januari 1992) nyaéta saurang ilmuwan komputer [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika]], [[matematikawan]], sareng laksamana punggawa angkatan laut Amérika Sarikat. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://content.yudu.com/A2qfj4/201403March/resources/3.htm|title=Amazing Grace: Rear Adm. Grace Hopper, USN, was a pioneer in computer science|last=Cantrell|first=Mark|website=Military Officer. Vol. 12, no. 3. Military Officers Association of America. pp. 52–55, 106.|accessdate=16-03-2025}}</ref> Manéhna mangrupikeun pelopor program komputer. Hopper mangrupikeun anu munggaran ngagagas téori basa pamrograman anu mandiri tina mesin, sareng ngagunakeun téori ieu pikeun ngembangkeun basa pamrograman [[FLOW-MATIC]] sareng [[COBOL]], hiji basa pamrograman tingkat luhur anu awal anu masih digunakeun dugi ka ayeuna. Anjeunna ogé salah sahiji programer anu munggaran di komputer Harvard Mark I. Anjeunna dipikawanoh parantos nyerat manual komputer anu munggaran, "''A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator.''" Sateuacan ngagabung jeung Angkatan Laut, Hopper meunang gelar Ph.D. dina matematika jeung fisika matematika ti Universitas Yale jeung janten profesor matematika di Vassar College. Manehna ninggalkeun jabatan na di Vassar pikeun ngagabung jeung Cadangan Angkatan Laut Amérika Serikat salila Perang Dunya II. Hopper ngamimitian karir komputasi na dina taun 1944 minangka anggota tim Harvard Mark I, dipimpin ku Howard H. Aiken. Dina taun 1949, manehna ngagabung kana Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation jeung janten bagian ti tim anu ngembangkeun komputer UNIVAC I. Di Eckert–Mauchly, manehna ngatur pangembangan salah sahiji compiler COBOL anu pertama. Manéhna nganggap yén programing kudu disederhanakeun ku basa pemrograman anu dumasar kana Inggris. Kompilers-na ngarobah istilah-istilah Inggris jadi kode mesin anu dipikaharti ku komputer. Ku 1952, Hopper parantos réngsé program linker-na (anu asalna disebut kompiler), anu ditulis pikeun A-0 System. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Computers and Information Processing.|url=https://archive.org/details/computerinformat0000unse_n4p5|last=Donald D.|first=Spence|publisher=C.E. Merrill Publishing Co.|year=1985|isbn=978-0-675-20290-9}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of computer science, engineering, and technology|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcomp0000unse_g1p1|last=Laplante|first=Phillip A|publisher=CRC Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8493-2691-2|location=Boca Raton, FL}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Timetables of Technology: A Chronology of the Most Important People and Events in the History of Technology|last=Bunch, Bryan H.;|first=Hellemans, Alexander|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1993|isbn=978-0-671-76918-5|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/timetablesoftech00brya}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Mathematics and War|last=Booss-Bavnbek, Bernhelm;|first=Høyrup, Jens|publisher=Birkhäuser Verlag|year=20023|isbn=978-3-7643-1634-1}}</ref> Dina taun 1954, Eckert–Mauchly milih Hopper pikeun mingpin departemen program otomatisna, sareng anjeunna mingpin pelepasan sababaraha basa anu munggaran dikompilasi sapertos FLOW-MATIC. Dina taun 1959, anjeunna milu dina konsorsium CODASYL, ngabantosan nyiptakeun basa program anu mandiri mesin anu disebut COBOL, anu dumasar kana kecap Inggris. Hopper ngadukung pamakean basa éta salami taun 60-an. Kapal perusak misil pandu kelas Arleigh Burke U.S. Navy USS Hopper dinamakankeun tina anjeunna, sapertos superkomputer Cray XE6 "Hopper" di NERSC.<ref>{{Cite book|title=National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center. Archived from the original|last=Hopper|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314142943/http://www.nersc.gov/users/computational-systems/retired-systems/hopper|access-date=16 03 2025}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Tokoh Wanoja]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Amerika]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran 1906]] [[Kategori:Panalungtik]] il0gu0da1dcn8dv60g0s2r9kjcpzmdm 0 106551 711649 704084 2026-08-07T00:55:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711649 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Wormhole-demo.png|ki|jmpl|Visualisasi liang rejang dina grafik komputer. Rute nganggo garis beureum nyaéta jalur aslina tanpa ngelebetkeun liang; rute nganggo garis héjo nyaéta jalur anu ngelebetkeun liang.]] '''Liang rêjang''' atawa '''liang cacing''' ([[Basa Sunda|Sunda]]: ᮜᮤᮃᮀ ᮛᮨᮏᮀ) mangrupakeun hiji struktur hipotétis dina bentuk [[liang]] anu sacara rejang<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/rejang%20(4)|title=Rejang (4) - KBBI VI Daring|website=kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id|accessdate=2025-06-09}}{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ngahubungkeun sababaraha tempat dina [[Rohang|rohangan]] sareng [[Waktu|waktos]] anu babéda. Téori ieu diusulkeun ku dua urang élmuwan [[fisika]], nyaéta [[Albert Einstein]] sareng [[:id:Nathan Rosen|Nathan Rosen]], tina hipotésis ngeunaan iinditan jauh di [[Jagat|jagitada]], tapi langkung gancang, ku ngadamel misal tina [[kertas]] anu dilipetkeun.<ref name="NYT-20221010">{{Cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|author-link=Dennis Overbye|title=Black Holes May Hide a Mind-Bending Secret About Our Universe – Take gravity, add quantum mechanics, stir. What do you get? Just maybe, a holographic cosmos.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/10/science/black-holes-cosmology-hologram.html|date=10 October 2022|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=10 October 2022}}</ref> Konsep liang rejang éta sajajar sareng konsep [[:id:teori relativitas umum|téori rélativitas umum]], tapi kusabab kurangna bukti anu tiasa nunjukkeun wujudna, liang éta teu dipikanyaho persis dimana sareng iraha kaayaanna, bahkan sababaraha élmuwan parantos nyatakeun yén éta henteu aya. Tina hal éta, loba élmuwan anu sanés nyatakeun yén liang rejang éta téh sahiji ukur proyéksi tina diménsi rohangan kaopat, salaku barang dua diménsi tiasa diletakkeun dina sagala rupa wilayah tilu diménsi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/spooky-physics-phenomenon-may-link-universes-wormholes-f2D11690659|title=Spooky physics phenomenon may link universe's wormholes|last=Choi|first=Charles Q.|publisher=NBC News|language=en|accessdate=2019-07-30|date=2013-12-03}}</ref> Dina taun 1995 anu silam, Matt Visser ngusulkeun pendapatna lamun meureun aya loba liang éta di jagitada lamun [[:id:benang kosmik|benang kosmik]] jeung massa négatip dihasilkeun dina semesta anu mimiti.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cramer|first=John|last2=Forward|first2=Robert|last3=Morris|first3=Michael|last4=Visser|first4=Matt|last5=Benford|first5=Gregory|last6=Landis|first6=Geoffrey|year=1995|title=Natural wormholes as gravitational lenses|journal=Physical Review D|volume=51|issue=6|pages=3117–3120|arxiv=astro-ph/9409051|bibcode=1995PhRvD..51.3117C|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.51.3117|pmid=10018782}}</ref> Di sisi séjén, sababaraha élmuwan kayaning [[:id:Kip Thorne|Kip Thorne]] sareng anu sanésna geus ngusulkeun sababaraha laba cara keur nyieun [[:id:miniatur|lagucitra]] ti liang rejang éta sacara sintétis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorne|first=Kip S.|title=Black holes and time warps : Einstein's outrageous legacy|url=https://archive.org/details/blackholestimewa0000kips_t2o7|date=1994|location=New York|isbn=978-0393312768|page=[https://archive.org/details/blackholestimewa0000kips_t2o7/page/493 493]}}</ref> {{fisika-stub}} ==Sumber== g9ars5lv50eo97nwo0le10o75y5lmzk 0 106939 711689 697904 2026-08-07T01:35:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711689 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Logo of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg|jmpl|Lambang Partéy Komunis Indonésia]] '''Partéy Komunis Indonésia (PKI)''' téh hiji organisasi pulitik anu nganut paham [[komunis]], mimiti mucunghul di jaman [[Hindia-Walanda|Hindia Walanda]] tuluy ngembang di [[Indonésia]]. Saméméh dibubarkeun maksa taun 1965, PKI kungsi jadi partéy komunis panggedéna di dunya anu henteu nyekel kakawasaan pamaréntahan. Dina [[pamilu 1955]], anggota PKI ngahontal kira-kira dua juta urang, meunang 16 persen sora sacara nasional jeung meh 30 persen sora di [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=The Indonesian Counter-Revolution|url=https://jacobin.com/2019/01/unmasked-graves-review-indonesia-genocide-communist-party|access-date=2025-09-13|language=en-US}}</ref> Ti mimiti mangsa kamerdikaan nepi ka waktu PKI dipareuman taun 1965, PKI téh jadi partéy resmi anu jalan sacara kabuka di Indonésia.<ref>{{Cite news|title=What the United States Did in Indonesia|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|newspaper=The Atlantic|date=2017-10-20|access-date=2025-09-13|language=en-US|first=Vincent|last=Bevins}}</ref> == Palopor == [[Gambar:Henk-sneevliet.gif|jmpl|286x286px|Henk Sneevliet]] [[Henk Sneevliet]] jeung kaum [[sosialis]] [[Hindia-Walanda|Hindia Walanda]] ngadegkeun serikat buruh palabuan taun 1914, dingaranan ''[[Indische Sociaal Democratische Vereeniging]]'' (ISDV). Mimiti mah anggotana aya 85 urang ti dua [[partéy sosialis Walanda]], nya éta SDAP jeung Partéy Sosialis Walanda (nu engkéna jadi SDP komunis).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.marxist.com/Asia/earlyPKI.html|title=The First Period of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI): 1914-1926 - An outline.|website=www.marxist.com|accessdate=2025-09-13}}</ref> Ngaliwatan ISDV, urang Walanda ngenalkeun pamanggih Marxis ka urang pribumi pikeun ngalawan kakawasaan [[kolonial]]. Taun 1915, ISDV mimiti ngaluarkeun koran [[basa Walanda]] ''[[Het Vrije Woord]]'' nu diedit ku Adolf Baars. Dina mangsa éta, ISDV can nuntut kamerdikaan Indonésia sarta ngan boga kira 100 anggota, jeung urang pribumi ngan tilu urang. Tapi, teu lila organisasi ieu jadi radikal jeung [[anti-kapitalis]]. Waktu Sneevliet mindahkeun markasna ka Semarang, loba urang pribumi ti kalangan agamawan, nasionalis, nepi ka aktivis nu mimiti ngagabung. Sneevliet ogé mecahkeun hubungan jeung SDAP di Walanda sarta nolak gawé bareng jeung pamaréntah kolonial, kaasup nolak [[Volksraad]]. [[Gambar:Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg|jmpl|Bandéra Partéy Komunis Indonésia]] Taun 1917, golongan réformis misah sarta ngadegkeun [[Partéy Demokrat Sosial Hindia]]. Dina taun nu sarua, ISDV ngaluarkeun koran basa Indonésia kahiji, ''[[Soeara Merdeka]]''. Sneevliet yakin yén [[Révolusi Oktober]] di Rusia kudu dituturkeun ku Indonésia. Maranéhna meunang simpati ti tentara jeung matros Walanda nepi ka ngadegkeun “Pengawal Beureum” kalayan 3.000 anggota. Dina ahir 1917, aya pemberontakan di [[Kota Surabaya|Surabaya]] jeung maranéhna ngadegkeun déwan soviet, tapi gancang dipareuman ku pamaréntah kolonial. Sneevliet jeung pamingpin ISDV séjénna dipulangkeun ka Walanda, sedengkeun tentara nu méréontak dihukum panjara nepi ka 40 taun.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digilib.uin-suka.ac.id/2312/|title=PERSETERUAN PARTAI MASYUMI DENGAN PARTAI KOMUNIS INDONESIA 1945 - 1960|last=WASUL NURI - NIM. 01120646,|website=digilib.uin-suka.ac.id|language=en|accessdate=2025-09-13}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, ISDV tetep jalan ku ngajalin blok jeung [[Syaréat Islam|Syarékat Islam]]. Sababaraha tokoh SI kawas Semaun di Surabaya jeung Darsono di [[Kota Surakarta|Solo]] kapangaruhan ku gagasan Sneevliet. Ku strategi “blok jero”, sababaraha anggota SI tungtungna ngadegkeun [[Syarékat Rakjat]] nu leuwih révolusionér jeung kabeungkeut ku [[Marxisme]]. ISDV tuluy jalan sacara jero-jeroan, nerbitkeun deui koran anyar ''[[Soeara Rakyat]]''. Sanggeus sababaraha kader Walanda dipiceun, anggota ISDV leuwih loba ti urang Indonésia. Dina taun 1919, ti kurang ti 400 anggota, ngan 25 urang anu masih kénéh ti [[Walanda]]. == Formasi jeung tumuwuhna == Dina Kongrés ISDV di [[Kota Semarang|Semarang]] bulan Méi 1920, ngaran organisasi ieu diganti jadi ''Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia'' (PKH).<ref name=":0" /> Semaun kapilih jadi pupuhu, sedengkeun Darsono jadi wakil pupuhu. Jabatan séjén kawas sekrétaris, bendahara, jeung mayoritas anggota komite kénéh didominasi ku urang [[Walanda]]. PKH tuluy jadi partéy komunis munggaran di [[Asia]] nu asup kana Komintern, jeung Henk Sneevliet nu jadi wakil dina kongrés Komintern taun 1921. [[Gambar:Communist youth organization in Semarang 1922 from Blumberger 1935.png|jmpl|Anggota partéy di Semarang]] Saméméh Kongrés kagenep Sarekat Islam taun 1921, anggota mimiti nyadar stratégi Sneevliet. [[Agus Salim]] ngusulkeun aturan yén anggota [[Syarékat Islam]] henteu meunang boga keanggotaan dobel dina organisasi séjén. Kaputusan ieu matak loba anggota komunis kuciwa tuluy kaluar, kaasup Tan Malaka jeung Semaun. Duanana tuluy ngarobah taktik perjuanganana. Dina waktu nu sarua, pamaréntah [[kolonial Walanda]] ngalarang kagiatan pulitik leuwih ketat, sedengkeun Sarékat Islam leuwih milih fokus kana urusan agama. Ahirna, komunis jadi hiji-hijina kakuatan nasionalis nu aktip.<ref name=":0" /> Dina awal 1922, Semaun indit ka [[Moskwa]] pikeun hadir dina ''Far Eastern Labor Conference''. Dina waktos nu sarua, Tan Malaka nyobaan ngarobah mogok pagawé pegadaian pamaréntah jadi mogok nasional lintas serikat buruh, tapi gagal. Anjeunna katangkep jeung diasingkeun, tuluy milih diasingkeun ka luar nagri sarta indit ka [[Rusia]]. Dina Méi 1922, Semaun balik sanggeus tujuh bulan di Rusia. Anjeunna ngagerakkeun ngadegkeun hiji organisasi buruh tunggal, nepi ka ahirna tanggal 22 Séptémber lahir ''Persatuan Vakbonded Hindia'' atawa Serikat Organisasi Pagawé Sakuliah Indonésia. Dina Kongrés Komintern kalima taun 1924, Semaun nekenkeun yén syarat utama révolusi anu hasil téh nya éta lamun partéy komunis bisa ngawasaan serikat buruh. Dina taun nu sarua, PKH deui ngarobah ngaran jadi ''Partéy Komunis Indonesia'' (PKI).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/nationalismrevol0000geor_y8o4|last=Kahin|first=George McTurnan|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1952|location=Ithaca, New York}}</ref> == Pambarontakan 1926 == Dina Méi 1925, [[Komite Eksékutif Komintern]] maréntahkeun kaum komunis di Indonésia pikeun ngawangun [[Front anti-imperialis|front anti-impérialis]] bareng jeung kelompok nasionalis anu lain komunis. Tapi tokoh radikal kawas [[Alimin]] jeung [[Musso]] malah ngadorong révolusi pikeun ngagulingkeun [[pamaréntah kolonial Walanda]]. Dina hiji konperénsi di Prambanan, [[Jawa Tengah]], [[serikat buruh]] nu dikawasa ku komunis mutuskeun yén revolusi bakal dimimitian ku [[mogok buruh]] karéta api. Eta mogok bakal jadi tanda pikeun aksi anu leuwih lega nepi ka révolusi bisa dimimitian. Tujuan ahirna nya éta PKI bisa ngagantikeun kakawasaan kolonial.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Communism and the Communist Party in Indonesia (MA Thesis).|last=Sinaga|first=Edward Djanner|publisher=George Washington University School of Government.|year=1960}}</ref> Dina Nopémber 1926, PKI mingpin pemberontakan gedé di [[Jawa Kulon|Jawa]] [[Jawa Kulon|Kulon]] jeung [[Sumatra Kulon|Sumatra]] [[Sumatra Kulon|Kulon]] sarta ngumumkeun ngadegkeun républik. Waktu éta, Musso jeung Alimin keur aya di luar nagri keur ngobrol jeung [[Tan Malaka]] nu henteu satuju jeung rencana pemberontakan. Pemberontakan ieu dihancurkeun ku Walanda kalawan pisan kejem: rébuan jalma tiwas, kira 13.000 ditangkep, 4.500 dipenjara, leuwih ti 1.300 diasingkeun, jeung 823 dipiceun ka [[Boven Digul]] di [[Papua]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.independent-bangladesh.com/news/may/20/20052005ed.htm|title=independent-bangladesh.com|website=www.independent-bangladesh.com|language=en|accessdate=2025-09-13}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225205344/http://www.independent-bangladesh.com/news/may/20/20052005ed.htm |date=2020-02-25 }}</ref> Loba tahanan nu maot di dinya. Pamaréntah kolonial ogé sasaranana lain ngan komunis hungkul, tapi ogé aktivis politik non-komunis kalayan alesan nindak pemberontakan. Taun 1927 PKI dinyatakeun dilarang, tuluy jalan ngaliwatan gerakan bawah tanah. Rencana pemberontakan téh sabenerna geus dirancang lila, dina rapat rahasia di Prambanan. Tapi Tan Malaka teges nolak sabab nurutkeun manéhna kaayaan di Indonésia béda jeung [[Uni Soviét]] di dieu mayoritas rahayat téh patani lain buruh. Anjeunna nyangka pemberontakan pasti gagal. Ku sabab kitu Tan Malaka dicap minangka pangikut [[Trotsky]]. Sanajan kitu, sababaraha aksi PKI tetep lumangsung sanggeus pemberontakan di [[Pulo Jawa|Jawa]], contona [[Pembarontakan Silungkang|Pemberontakan Silungkang]] di [[Sumatra]]. Dina awal larangan, PKI tetep berjuang sanajan loba pamingpinna nu dipenjara. Taun 1935, Musso balik ti [[Moskow|Moskwa]] sanggeus diasingkeun, pikeun ngatur deui PKI dina gerakan bawah tanah, sanajan anjeunna ngan sakeudeung di Indonésia. Saterusna, PKI ngaliwatan rupa-rupa saluran, saperti organisasi [[Gerindo]] jeung [[serikat buruh]]. Di Walanda, PKI ogé aktip ngaliwatan mahasiswa Indonésia dina Perhimpoenan Indonésia, anu teu lila ahirna ngadukung PKI.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/indonesia/indones/pkihist.htm|title=The Rise and Fall of the PKI, A short history of the Indonesian Communist Party|last=Bowen|first=Craig|website=www.marxists.org|accessdate=2025-09-13}}</ref> == Kabangkitan saenggeus perang == Sanggeus [[Jepang]] nyerah taun 1945, PKI mimiti aktip deui dina kancah pulitik sarta milu ngabéla kamerdikaan ngalawan Walanda. Loba kelompok nu boga pakarang aya dina pangaruh PKI. Sanajan milisi PKI boga peran gedé dina perjuangan, [[Sukarno|Soekarno]] ngarasa sieun lamun pangaruh PKI nu terus ngagedéan bakal ngancem posisina. Sajaba ti éta, ngaronjatna kakuatan PKI ogé jadi masalah keur kelompok sayap katuhu di pamaréntahan jeung nagara deungeun, hususna [[Amérika Sarikat]] anu kacida anti-komunisna. Ku kituna, hubungan PKI jeung kakuatan séjén nu sarua-sarua merjuangkeun kamerdikaan mindeng jadi panas. Dina bulan Pébruari 1948, PKI babarengan jeung [[Partéy Sosialis]] ngadegkeun [[Front Démokrasi Rakyat]]. Sanajan henteu lila umurna, tungtungna Partéy Sosialis ngagabung ka PKI. Dina waktu éta, milisi Pesindo ogé geus dikawasa ku PKI. Tanggal 11 Agustus 1948, [[Musso]] balik deui ti [[Uni Soviét]] sanggeus dua belas taun. PKI tuluy ngarobah deui politbirona kalawan ngasupkeun tokoh anyar saperti [[D.N. Aidit]], M.H. Lukman, jeung Njoto. Dina 5 Séptémber 1948, Musso nyampeurkeun pidato anu nyarankeun sangkan Indonésia deukeut ka Uni Soviét, anu ahirna nimbulkeun kajadian pamberontakan PKI di [[Madiun]], [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]]. === Kajadian Madiun 1948 === Sanggeus [[Perjanjian Renville|Perjangjian Renville]] ditandatangan taun 1948, hasilna leuwih nguntungkeun pihak [[Walanda]]. Sedengkeun Indonésia ngarasa dirugikeun sabab wewengkonna jadi beuki sempit. Loba pasukan Républik balik deui tina daérah konflik. Kaayaan ieu ngajadikeun kelompok sayap katuhu di Indonésia ngarasa yakin bisa ngungkulan PKI sacara militér. Unit gerilya jeung milisi nu aya dina pangaruh PKI diparéntahkeun bubar. Tapi di Madiun pasukan PKI nolak, malah dina bulan Séptémber kajadian rajapati ka anggota nu dileupaskeun pakarangna. Kajadian éta nu jadi pemicu pemberontakan. Sumber militér ngaku yén PKI geus ngumumkeun “Républik Soviét Indonésia” dina 18 Séptémber, jeung Musso dijadikeun présidén sarta [[Amir Syarifuddin]] salaku perdana menteri. Bari kitu, PKI sorangan ngaluarkeun pernyataan anu nyalahkeun pemberontakan sarta ménta sangkan kaayaan tetep tenang. Tanggal 30 Séptémber, TNI ti Divisi Siliwangi bisa ngarebut Madiun. Ribu-ribu kader PKI maot, sarta kira-kira 36 rébu urang diasupkeun ka panjara. Sababaraha pamingpin dihukum pati, kaasup Musso anu paéh ditembak tanggal 31 Oktober nalika kakeuheul katéwak di Désa Niten, Ponorogo, disangka keur nyobaan kabur. Aidit jeung Lukman tuluy ngalalajoan ka Républik Rahayat Tiongkok. Sanajan kitu, PKI henteu langsung dibubarkeun jeung dina taun 1949 partéy éta mimiti direkonstruksi deui. == Bangkit deui == Taun 1950, PKI mimiti aktip deui dina widang penerbitan ngaliwatan médiana, nyaéta [[Harian Rakjat]] jeung [[Bintang Merah]]. Dina dasawarsa 1950-an, PKI nempokeun diri minangka partéy nasionalis di handapeun kapamingpinan D.N. Aidit, anu ngarojong kawijakan anti-kolonialis jeung anti-Barat nu dilakukeun ku Présidén [[Sukarno|Soekarno]]. Aidit jeung kelompok deukeutna kaasup tokoh ngora saperti Sudisman, Lukman, Njoto, jeung Sakirman ngawasaan kapamingpinan partéy dina 1951. Waktu éta, euweuh saurang ogé di antara maranéhna nu umurna leuwih ti 30 taun. Dina jaman Aidit, PKI tumuwuh kacida gancangna: ti kira-kira 3.000–5.000 anggota taun 1950, jadi 165.000 taun 1954, nepi ka ngahontal 1,5 juta taun 1959.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.workersliberty.org/wlmags/wl61/indonesi.htm|title=Communism and Stalinism in Indonesia. Workers' Liberty #61, February 2000.|website=archive.workersliberty.org|accessdate=2025-09-13}}</ref> Salah sahiji isu utama anu sok diangkat ku PKI dina awal taun 1950-an nyaéta panentangan ka sikap [[Walanda]] ngeunaan [[Papua Kulon|Irian Jaya]]. Dina bulan Agustus 1951, PKI mingpin rupa-rupa mogok pagawé. Ieu nyababkeun réaksi teges ti pihak anti-PKI di Médan jeung [[Jakarta]], nepi ka pamingpin PKI kudu ngalakukeun kagiatan sacara bawah tanah heula. Dina Pébruari 1958, aya usaha kudéta ti kakuatan pro-Amérika anu ngaliwatan kalangan militér jeung [[pulitik sayap katuhu]]. Pemberontak nu markasna di [[Sumatra]] jeung [[Sulawesi]] ngumumkeun [[Pamaréntahan Revolusionér Républik Indonesia (PRRI)]] dina 15 Pébruari. Pamaréntahan tandingan ieu langsung nyekel rébuan anggota PKI di wewengkon nu maranéhna kuasai. PKI sorangan ngarojong léngkah Soekarno pikeun nundungan pemberontakan éta, kaasup ngalarapkeun hukum darurat militér. Tungtungna, pemberontakan éta bisa dipatahan. Dina Agustus 1959, aya usaha ti pihak militér pikeun ngahalangan kongrés PKI. Tapi kongrés tetep dilaksanakeun nurutkeun jadwalna, malah langsung dibuka ku Présidén Soekarno. Sataun ti harita, Soekarno ngenalkeun konsép Nasakom (Nasionalisme, Agama, Komunisme), anu sacara resmi nempatkeun PKI minangka mitra pulitik dina pamaréntahan. PKI nampa éta konsép kalayan gumbira, sabab ningali Nasakom minangka wangun persatuan lintas kelas. == Pamilu taun 1955 == Saméméh Pamilihan Umum 1955, PKI meunang simpati ti Soekarno pikeun ngarojong rencana [[Demokrasi terpimpin|démokrasi terpimpin]], sarta jadi salah sahiji panyokong satia. Dina pamilu éta, PKI hasil meunang posisi kaopat kalayan 16% sora nasional, meunang 39 korsi tina 257 korsi [[Déwan Pangwakil Rahayat Républik Indonésia|DPR]], sarta 80 korsi tina 514 korsi di Konstituante. Dina bulan Juli 1957, kantor PKI di Jakarta kungsi diserang ku granat. Sanajan kitu, dina bulan anu sarua PKI malah meunang loba kameunangan dina pamilihan lokal di sababaraha kota. Dina bulan Séptémber 1957, [[partéy Masyumi]] nu ngarasa kaancam ku pangaruh PKI sacara terus caang ménta supaya PKI dibubarkeun. Tanggal 3 Désémber 1957, serikat buruh anu lolobana aya dina pangaruh PKI mimiti nyekel perusahaan-perusahaan Walanda. Léngkah ieu jadi awal prosés nasionalisasi pausahaan asing. Ku cara ngalawan kapitalis asing, PKI bisa mintonkeun dirina minangka partéy nasional.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah09.shtml|title=The Sukarno years: 1950 to 1965|website=www.gimonca.com|accessdate=2025-09-13}}</ref> Dina Pébruari 1958, mucunghul hiji gerakan pikeun ngoréksi kawijakan Soekarno anu beuki deukeut ka [[blok wétan]]. Sajaba ti éta, masalah teu adilna bagi hasil bumi antara puseur jeung daerah jadi panyulut. Pemberontak nu markasna di Sumatra jeung Sulawesi ngadéklarasikeun Pamaréntahan Revolusionér Républik Indonésia (PRRI) dina 15 Pébruari 1958. Pamaréntahan tandingan ieu langsung nyekel rébuan anggota PKI di daérah anu maranéhna kuasai. PKI ngarojong léngkah Soekarno pikeun nundungan pemberontakan ieu, kaasup ngalarapkeun [[Undang-Undang Darurat]]. Tungtungna, gerakan PRRI bisa dipareuman. Taun 1959, pihak militér nyobian ngahalangan [[kongrés PKI]], tapi kongrés tetep lumangsung nurutkeun jadwalna, malah meunang sambutan ti [[Sukarno|Soekarno]]. Sataun ti harita, Soekarno ngenalkeun slogan Nasakom (Nasionalisme, Agama, Komunisme), anu resmi nempatkeun PKI minangka mitra pulitik dina pamaréntahan. PKI ogé nampa éta konsép kalayan bagja, lantaran nempo Nasakom minangka front persatuan lintas kelas jeung golongan. == Taun 1960 == Sanajan PKI ngarojong [[Sukarno|Soekarno]], éta partéy téh masih kénéh ngajaga kamerdikaan pulitikna. Dina Maret 1960, PKI ngécéskeun kritik kana cara Soekarno ngatur anggaran nagara sacara demokratis. Tanggal 8 Juli, koran ''[[Harian Rakyat]]'' nulis artikel nu nyorot kawijakan pamaréntah. Sababaraha pamingpin PKI kungsi ditahan ku militér, tapi engké dileupaskeun ku parentah ti Soekarno. Nalika mucunghul gagasan pikeun ngabentuk [[Malaysia]], boh PKI boh Partai Komunis Malaya sarua nolak. Maranéhna nempo yén Malaysia téh ngan ukur proyek neo-kolonialisme jeung neo-imperialisme Inggris jeung sekutuna. Saméméh taun 1965, pangrojong ka PKI terus ngagedé. Anggotana ngahontal sakitar 3 juta urang, ngajadikeun PKI minangka partéy komunis pangkuatna di luar [[Uni Soviét]] jeung [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Tiongkok]]. Basisna sumebar dina rupa-rupa organisasi massa saperti SOBSI, Pemuda Rakjat, [[Gerakan Wanita Indonésia|Gerwani]], [[Barisan Tani Indonesia|Barisan Tani Indonésia]] (BTI), Lekra, jeung HSI. Diperkirakeun jumlah anggota partéy jeung organisasi nu aya dina panangtayunganana ngahontal ampir sapertilu lima tina rahayat Indonésia. Dina Maret 1962, PKI asup resmi kana pamaréntahan. Dua pamingpinna, Aidit jeung Njoto, diangkat jadi menteri panasehat. Sabulan ti harita, PKI ngayakeun kongrés partéy. Dina 1963, Indonésia, Malaysia, jeung Pilipina rembugan ngeunaan pasualan wates jeung gagasan Konfederasi Maphilindo nu digagas ku Présidén [[Pilipina]], Diosdado Macapagal. PKI nolak boh Maphilindo boh [[féderasi Malaysia]]. Sababaraha anggota PKI nu militan nepi ka nyebrang ka Malaysia pikeun tarung ngalawan tentara [[Inggris]] jeung [[Australia]]. Aya nu hasil nembus ka [[Semenanjung Malaysia]], tapi loba ogé nu katangkep sanggeus nepi. Sababaraha satuan tempur PKI ogé aktif di wates Kalimantan. Sanggeus PKI aya dina jero pamaréntahan [[Orde Lama]], maranéhna ngusulkeun pikeun ngabentuk Angkatan Kalima nu diwangun ku buruh jeung patani. Tujuanana pikeun ngarojong mobilisasi rahayat dina ngalaksanakeun Operasi Dwikora pikeun nyanghareupan Malaysia. Tapi usulan ieu ngajadikeun [[Tentara Nasional Indonésia Angkatan Darat|TNI AD]] ngarasa sieun, lantaran bisa wae aya panyalahgunaan pakarang ku PKI. Dina Januari 1964, PKI mimiti nyita harta perusahaan Inggris di Indonésia. Dina pertengahan taun 1960-an, Departemén Luar Nagri [[Amérika Sarikat]] ngira-ngira yén anggota PKI ngahontal kira-kira 2 juta urang, atawa 3,8% tina total populasi umur gawé di Indonésia. == Pembunuhan masal jeung ahir PKI == Sukarno ménta pikeun nahan kasaimbangan antara PKI, tentara, fraksi nasionalis, jeung kelompok-kelompok Islam anu ngarasa kaancem ku kasohorna PKI. Tumuwuhna pangaruh PKI ngajadikeun [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung kakuatan Kulon anti-komunis séjénna jadi prihatin. Kaayaan [[pulitik]] jeung [[ékonomi]] beuki teu ajeg; [[inflasi]] sataun nepi leuwih ti 600 persén, sarta kahirupan masarakat Indonésia beuki goréng. PKI ku kalangan politik dirasakeun beuki kuat sababaraha bulan saméméh Kajadian G30S, nepi ka lawan-lawan PKI mimiti hariwang lamun PKI bakal meunang dina pamilihan umum salajengna. Gerakan pikeun ngalawan PKI mimiti mucunghul, sarta dipelopori ku Angkatan Darat. Dina bulan Désémber 1964, [[Chaerul Saleh]] ti Partéy Murba (anu dijieun ku mantan pamingpin PKI Tan Malaka) nyatakeun yén PKI keur nyiapkeun [[kudéta]]. PKI nungtut supaya Partai Murba diulahkeun, sarta éta tuntutan dipaksakeun ka Sukarno dina awal 1965. Dina kontéks Konfrontasi jeung [[Malaysia]], PKI ngadorong supaya “mempersenjatai rakyat”. Kalolobaan pihak Angkatan Darat nolak hal éta. Sikap resmi Sukarno mah tetep henteu teges, sabab Sukarno condong ngadukung Konfrontasi jeung Malaysia sarua jeung PKI. Dina bulan Juli, kira-kira 2000 anggota PKI mimiti ngayakeun latihan militér di deukeut pangkalan udara Halim. Ieu utamana patali jeung konsép “mempersenjatai rakyat” anu meunang dukungan gedé ti kalangan militér Angkatan Udara jeung Angkatan Laut. Tanggal 8 Séptémber, démo PKI mimiti ngalakukeun pengepungan salila dua poé di Konsulat Amérika Sarikat di [[Kota Surabaya|Surabaya]]. Tanggal 14 Séptémber, Aidit nyarita ka gerilyawan PKI pikeun ngajak anggota supaya waspada kana kajadian anu bakal datang. Dina 30 Séptémber, organisasi [[Pemuda Rakyat]] jeung [[Gerwani]] dua organisasi anu aya patalina jeung PKI ngayakeun aksi unjuk rasa masal di [[Jakarta]] pikeun nolak krisis inflasi anu keur lumangsung. Tanggal 5 Oktober 1965, Soeharto hadir dina panguburan jéndral-jéndral anu dibunuh. Dina peuting 30 Séptémber jeung 1 Oktober 1965, genep jéndral senior Indonésia dibunuh sarta mayitna dialungkeun ka sumur. Isukna, palaku pembunuhan nyatakeun yén aya Déwan Revolusi anyar anu geus nyekel kakawasaan, ngaran dirina “[[Gerakan 30 Séptémber]]” (G30S). Sabab loba jéndral senior anu paéh atawa leungit, Jéndral [[Suharto|Soeharto]] langsung nyekel kapamingpinan tentara sarta tanggal 2 Oktober nyatakeun yén éta téh kudéta gagal. Tentara gancang-gancang nuduh PKI salaku dalang kudéta sarta nyebarkeun kampanye propaganda anti-komunis ka sakuliah Indonésia. Dina pembersihan anti-komunis ngaliwatan kekerasan anu lumangsung saterusna, kira-kira 500.000 urang komunis (atawa anu dicurigaan) dibunuh, sarta PKI sacara éféktif dileungitkeun (tempo Pembantaian di Indonésia 1965–1966). Jéndral Soeharto tuluy ngéléhkeun Sukarno sacara pulitik sarta diangkat jadi présidén taun 1968, sanggeus mantepkeun pangaruhna kana tentara jeung pamaréntah. Dina tanggal 2 Oktober, basis di Halim bisa direbut ku pihak tentara. Harian Rakyat ngaluarkeun artikel anu eusina ngadukung kudéta G30S, tapi aya spékulasi naha éta bener-bener ngagambarkeun pamadegan PKI. Sabalikna, pernyataan resmi PKI nalika harita nyebut yén usaha G30S téh urusan internal di jero angkatan bersenjata. Tanggal 6 Oktober, [[Kabinét Sukarno]] ngayakeun rapat munggaran ti saprak 30 Séptémber. Menteri PKI hadir. Résolusi pikeun ngécéskeun yén G30S kudu dikecam disatujuan. Njoto langsung ditangkap sanggeus rapat éta. Présidén Sukarno sababaraha kali ngabela yén PKI sacara organisasi henteu aub dina kajadian éta, ngan aya sabagian tokoh partai anu meta kaluar tina kontrol sarta kacida dipangaruhan ku inisiatif Kulon, ku kituna Sukarno henteu bakal ngabubarkeun PKI. Samentara éta, pamingpin jeung sababaraha perwira Angkatan Darat méré vérsi yén PKI sakabéhna aub dina penculikan jeung pembunuhan genep jéndral sarta saurang perwira Angkatan Darat dina peuting 30 Séptémber ka 1 Oktober 1965. Vérsi ieu gancang ditarima ku loba pihak sabab saolah-olah nyaluyukeun jeung fakta anu katempo, ditambah deui pangalaman goréng masarakat jeung PKI dina kahirupan sosial-politik taun-taun ka tukang. Ngan kudu diaku yén sababaraha perwira penerangan geus nambahan dramatisasi ngeunaan kakejeman, leuwih ti kajadian anu sabenerna. Penculikan jeung pembunuhan jéndral-jéndral téh geus kejem, tapi dramatisasi anu hyperbolis ngajadikeun éta kajadian karasa leuwih ngagebeg. Tungtungna, ieu ngundang pembalasan anu luar biasa dina bentuk panumpasan berdarah di antara bangsa sorangan. Dua poé ti harita, di Jakarta aya manifestasi gede nuntut supaya PKI dilarang. Kantor utama PKI dibakar. Tanggal 13 Oktober, organisasi Islam Ansor ngayakeun aksi unjuk rasa anti-PKI di sakuliah Jawa. Tanggal 18 Oktober, kira-kira saratus anggota PKI dibunuh ku pihak Ansor. Gerakan pikeun ngaleungitkeun partai sacara sistematis geus dimimitian. Antara 300.000 nepi ka hiji juta urang Indonésia dibunuh dina pembantaian masal éta. Korbanna kaasup ogé jalma-jalma anu sabenerna lain komunis, tapi salah idéntitas atawa “salah ku asosiasi”. Hanjakal, kurangna informasi ngajadikeun hésé pisan pikeun nangtukeun angka pasti sabaraha korban anu paéh. Seueur panalungtik ayeuna ngajelaskeun yén korban anu dibunuh antara 200.000 nepi ka 500.000 urang. Sanajan motif utama pembunuhan katingalina pulitik, sababaraha ahli nyebut yén kajadian éta disababkeun ku kaayaan panik jeung kabingungan politik. Sabagian kakuatan anti-komunis anu tanggung jawab kana pembantaian téh diwangun ku para kriminal sapertos preman, anu meunang idin pikeun ngalakukeun kekerasan anu teu asup akal. Aya ogé motif séjén anu kapanggih. Dina tingkat internasional, Kantor Warta RRT (Républik Rahayat Tiongkok), Xinhua, méré vérsi yén Kajadian 30 Séptémber 1965 téh masalah internal Angkatan Darat Indonésia anu diprovokasi ku dinas intelején Kulon salaku usaha kudéta ku PKI.[butuh rujukan] Di antara daérah anu pangparahna téh nyaéta Bali, tempat PKI kungsi mekar pesat saméméh tindakan kekerasan. Tanggal 11 Nopémber, bentrokan kajadian antara PKI jeung PNI, anu tungtungna jadi pembantaian ka anggota jeung simpatisan anu dituduh PKI. Lamun di loba daérah séjén pogrom anti-PKI dilakukeun ku organisasi politik Islam, di Bali mah pembunuhanana dijalankeun ngagunakeun ngaran Hindu. Bali jadi hiji-hijina tempat di Indonésia anu tentara lokalna dina sababaraha hal malah ngurangan prakna pembantaian. Tanggal 22 Nopémber, Aidit ditangkep jeung dibunuh. Dina bulan Désémber, tentara nyatakeun yén Aceh geus dibersihan tina komunis. Sajalan jeung éta, Pangadilan Militér Husus dibentuk pikeun ngadakwa jeung ngukum anggota PKI. Tanggal 12 Maret, PKI sacara resmi dilarang ku Suharto, sarta SOBSI, serikat buruh anu pro-PKI, dilarang dina bulan April. Panjarahan panjara di Jakarta nepi ka pinuh, ampir sakabéh panjara dipaké pikeun nahan anggota PKI. Loba tahanan politik ditahan tanpa alesan anu jelas. Ti dinya, jati diri bangsa Indonésia robah total sanggeus 1965. Semangat anti-kolonial leungit, diganti ku anti-komunis anu jadi dasar identitas bangsa. Kabencian ka sasama bangsa sorangan jadi patokan pikeun nentukeun saha warga anu jahat jeung saha anu hade. Sababaraha kajadian anu matak ngagebeg ieu tuluy dijadikeun novel populér sarta difilmkeun ku judul anu sarua, nyaéta ''The Year of Living Dangerously'' (1982). == Rujukan == 9cqjng4nqqgihggnc1kdb5wtf6gwlle 0 106959 711821 697577 2026-08-07T05:16:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711821 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Reginald's Tower - geograph.org.uk - 5537030.jpg|jmpl|Munara Reginald, Irlandia]] '''Munara Reginald''' ([[Basa Irlandia]]: ''Túr Raghnaill'') téh hiji munara sajarah anu ayana di [[Waterford]], [[Munster]], [[Irlandia]]. Tempatna aya di tungtung wétan palabuhan kota. Munara ieu geus dipaké pikeun rupa-rupa kaperluan salila ratusan taun sarta jadi tanda kota anu penting di Waterford, ogé minangka titinggal utama tina sistem pertahanan kota dina jaman abad pertengahan. Ieu téh gedong sipil pangkolotna di Irlandia, sarta hiji-hijina monumén kota di ditu anu masih ngajaga ngaran [[Norse]] atawa [[Viking]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Discover Waterford|url=https://archive.org/details/discoverwaterfor0000mcen|last=McEneaney|publisher=O'Brien Press|year=2001|isbn=9780862786564}}</ref> == Sajarah == Munara Reginald di Waterford, Irlandia, asalna diwangun ku bangsa [[Anglo-Norman]] pikeun ngaganti benténg Viking baheula. Ngaran “Reginald” asalna tina ''Raghnall'', wangun Gaelik tina ngaran Norse Kuna ''Røgnvaldr'', anu dipaké ku sababaraha pangawasa Viking di kota éta.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Vikings in Munster Languages, Myths and Finds (series vol. 3). Centre for the Study of the Viking Age|last=Wilson|first=A|publisher=University of Nottingham|isbn=9780853583004|first2=Birkett|last3=T|first3=Lee}}</ref> Munara ayeuna diperkirakeun diwangun abad ka-13 atawa ka-14, sarta kungsi jadi bagian tina témbok pertahanan kota Waterford. Wangunna bunder, jangkungna 54 kaki, diaméter 42½ kaki, jeung témbokna kandel. Tempatna stratégis antara [[walungan St. John]] jeung [[walungan Suir]], deukeut jeung [[Garéja Perancis]].<ref name=":0" /> Dina abad pertengahan, munara ieu salah sahiji tina 17 munara anu ngurilingan Waterford, sarta ayeuna masih aya 6 nu hirup. Di antarana, Munara Reginald téh anu panggedéna jeung pangpentingna, sarta dianggap conto anu hadé tina sistem pertahanan kota abad pertengahan di Irlandia. == Sumber rujukan == [[Kategori:Irlandia]] jvepna8z017iay2hqar6v12klz9ors7 0 107671 711603 703394 2026-08-07T00:06:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711603 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Moralitas''' (tina kecap [[Basa Latén|Latén]] ''moralitas'' anu hartina ‘cara, watak, paripolah anu luyu’) nyaéta penggolongan kana niat, kaputusan, jeung lampah kana nu dianggap bener atawa leres, sarta kana nu dianggap henteu leres atawa salah.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Hellenistic Philosophers: Translations of the principal sources, with philosophical commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AfemGeG8SysC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1987|isbn=978-0-521-27556-9|language=en|first=A. A.|last=Long|first2=D. N.|last2=Sedley}}</ref> Moralitas bisa ngarujuk kana sakumpulan standar atawa prinsip anu asalna tina kode étika hiji aliran [[filsafat]], [[Ageman|agama]], atawa [[budaya]], sarta bisa ogé dumasar kana standar anu dianggap miboga sifat universal.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=Spring 2025|title=The Definition of Morality|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2025/entries/morality-definition/|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|date=2025|first=Joshua|last=Gert|first2=Bernard|last2=Gert|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first2=Uri|editor-last2=Nodelman}}</ref> Moralitas sok dianggap sarua hartina jeung “kabagjaan”, “kalayakan”, atawa “kabeneran”. Filsafat moral ngawengku méta-étika, anu nalungtik masalah-masalah abstrak saperti [[ontologi moral]] jeung [[épistémologi moral]], sarta [[étika normatif]], anu ngulik sistem-sistem anu leuwih konkrét dina nyieun kaputusan moral, saperti [[étika déontologis]] jeung [[konsékuénsialisme]]. Salah sahiji conto étika normatif nyaéta Aturan Emas, anu nyatakeun: “Saurang jalma kudu ngalakukeun ka batur sapertos kumaha anjeunna hoyong diperlakukeun ku batur.”<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Philosophy|year=1984|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphil00flew|last=Flew|first=Antony|publisher=Pan Books in association with The MacMillan Press.|isbn=978-0-333-26204-7|location=London}}</ref> [[Imoralitas]] nyaéta oposisi aktip kana moralitas (nyaéta nolak kana naon waé anu dianggap hadé atawa bener), sedengkeun [[amoralitas]] biasana dihartikeun salaku kaayaan henteu sadar, henteu paduli, atawa henteu percaya kana sakumpulan standar atawa prinsip moral nu tangtu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/amorality|title=Amorality|website=Dictionary.com}}</ref> == Sumber rujukan == ca1809t6ijag6odmbhtakv1nhlt5ud6 0 107717 711539 709085 2026-08-06T22:42:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711539 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Anti-Syiah''' nyaéta prasangka goréng atawa rasa keuheul ka umat Islam [[Syiah]] alatan agama jeung warisan kapercayaanana. Istilah ieu mimiti dipaké ku panitén hak-hak Syiah dina taun 2011, sanajan sabenerna geus lila dipaké dina rupa-rupa panalungtikan resmi jeung artikel ilmiah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shiarightswatch.org/incidents-of-anti-shiism-december-2025/|title=Shia Rights Watch {{!}} Defending Justice and Rights|website=Shia Rights Watch|language=en|accessdate=2026-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kedourie|first=Elie|date=1988-10|title=The Shiite issue in Iraqi politics, 1941|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00263208808700760|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|volume=24|issue=4|pages=495–500|doi=10.1080/00263208808700760|issn=0026-3206}}</ref> Polémik ngeunaan saha nu boga hak ngaganti [[Muhammad]] [[Muhammad|SAW.]] tungtungna nyababkeun [[Islam]] kabagi jadi dua sékte utama, nyaéta [[Sunni]] jeung Syiah. Golongan Sunni nuturkeun sistem kakhalifahan sarta yakin yén saha waé umat Islam anu taat bisa jadi panerus Nabi lamun disatujuan ku sasama umatna. Ari golongan Syiah percaya yén ngan jalma anu dipilih ku Allah sarta diumumkeun ku Nabi anu bisa jadi panerusna. Ku sabab kitu, Imam Ali dianggap minangka nu nyekel otoritas kaagamaan pikeun penganut Syiah. Ku ayana kakawasaan militér anu kuat sarta ngawasaan pamaréntahan [[Bani Umayyah|Umayyah]], loba pangawasa Sunni anu nganggap Syiah minangka ancaman, boh pikeun kawenangan [[pulitik]] boh pikeun kawenangan [[Ageman|agama]] maranéhna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.islamfortoday.com/shia.htm|title=The Origins of the Sunni/Shia split in Islam|website=www.islamfortoday.com|accessdate=2026-01-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126045119/http://www.islamfortoday.com/shia.htm |date=2007-01-26 }}</ref> Para pangawasa Sunni dina kakhalifahan Umayyah ngupayakeun pikeun nyingsieunan jeung nyingkirkeun minoritas Syiah. Satuluyna, kakhalifahan Abbasiyah malah ngahianat ka sakutu-sakutu Syiah, tuluy maréntahkeun panjara, panindesan, jeung pembunuhan ka warga Syiah. Panindesan ka umat Syiah ku sasama umat Islam golongan Sunni sapanjang sajarah mindeng dicirikeun ku kalakuan-kalakuan anu brutal jeung sipatna génosidal. Sanajan jumlahna kira-kira 10–15% tina sakabéh populasi umat Islam di dunya, nepi ka ayeuna kénéh kaum Syiah can meunang tempat anu adil di sababaraha nagara anu didominasi ku Arab Sunni, lantaran teu dibéré hak pikeun ngalaksanakeun agamana sacara bébas jeung ngayakeun pasamoan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|edition=1st ed|title=The Shia revival: how conflicts within Islam will shape the future|url=https://archive.org/details/shiarevivalhowco0000nasr_v2n2|publisher=Norton|date=2006|location=New York|isbn=978-0-393-06211-3|first=Seyyed Vali Reza|last=Nasr}}</ref> == Mangsa baheula == === Umayyah === Incu Nabi Muhammad SAW., Imam Husain, nolak ngakuan légitimasi kakhalifahan Yazid. Teu lila sanggeusna, dina taun 680 M, Yazid ngirimkeun rébuan pasukan Umayyah pikeun ngepung kafilah Husain. Dina [[Perang Karbala]], sanggeus nahan serangan pasukan Umayyah salila genep poé, Husain jeung 72 urang babaturanana dibantai, dipancung, sarta sirahna dikirimkeun deui ka khalifah di [[Damaskus]]. Sanajan pupusna Imam Husain nutup kamungkinan ayana ancaman langsung ka kakhalifahan Umayyah, ajaran Syiah malah beuki gampang ditarima ku masarakat minangka wujud pemberontakan moral ngalawan Umayyah jeung sakabéh tuntutanana.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>“Kalayan kahirupan anu tengtrem di Alexandria, para filsuf Yunani bisa neruskeun karya-karyana. Kaayaan pulitik anu ruksak di wewengkon wétan mangrupa kajadian anyar. Muawiyah ngangkat al-Mughirah ibn Shu‘bah jadi gubernur al-Basrah, sarta sanggeus Mughirah pupus, Yazid jadi pangawasa Arabia, Irak, jeung Persia. Anjeunna maréntah dibarengan ku 4.000 agén rusiah. Tujuan utama jalma-jalma éta nyaéta ngungkab jeung ngudag umat Syiah, anu dina prakna hartina hukuman pati. Sanajan Damaskus katémbong tengtrem, satengah wilayah kakhalifahan di beulah kulon pinuh ku pertumpahan getih.”<ref>{{Cite book|title=Edwin P. Hoyt 'Arab Science: Discoveries and Contributions. Thomas Nelson Inc., Publishers. Nashville, New York 1975. pg 28-29}}</ref></blockquote> === Abbasiyah (750-1258) === Para khalifah Abbasiyah anu maréntah di Baghdad mindeng maréntahkeun panjara jeung maéhan para Imam Syiah, sarta ngadorong ulama Sunni pikeun netepkeun ortodoksi Sunni jeung ngawatesan pangaruh Syiah. Dina dasawarsa panungtung abad ka-10, kajadian kekerasan anti-Syiah lumangsung di jero jeung sabudeureun Baghdad. Umat Syiah diserang di masjid-masjidna sarta mindeng dibunuh atawa diduruk hirup-hirup dina poé Asyura.<ref name=":0" /> Dina taun 971 M, pasukan Romawi Wétan nyerang kakhalifahan Abbasiyah. Réaksi munggaran pasukan khalifah jeung warga Sunni anu ambek nyaéta nyalahkeun umat Syiah. Imah-imah urang Syiah di Al-Karkh (ayeuna di [[Irak]]) diduruk. Pola kakerasan ieu terus kajadian nepi ka mangsa kiwari. Umat Syiah mindeng jadi sasaran kakeuheul masarakat alatan kagagalan pangawasa Sunni. Maranéhna ilaharna diperlakukeun minangka musuh ti jero nagara sarta jadi pihak kahiji anu dicuriga lamun aya ancaman ka pamaréntahan Sunni.<ref name=":0" /> Dina pertengahan abad ka-11, geus jadi kabiasaan pikeun sababaraha oknum Sunni ngarampok kota al-Karkh unggal poé Saptu. Paripolah anti-Syiah ieu beuki parah ku ajaran Sunni ti mazhab Hambali, anu netepkeun umat Syiah minangka golongan anu nolak kabeneran.<ref name=":0" /> === Baghdad === Sanggeus bangsa [[Mongol]] ngepung Baghdad dina taun 1258, kekerasan ka umat Syiah jadi beuki sering kajadian, sarua jeung kabiasaan nyalahkeun umat Syiah kana sagala rupa masalah ti luar nagara.<ref name=":0" /> === Kasultanan Seljuk / Utsmaniyah === Nyanghareupan tumuwuhna Syiah jeung ngaronjatna pangaruh Safawiyah, [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] netepkeun hukuman pati pikeun penganut Syiah di [[Anatolia]]. Rébuan umat Syiah dibantai di sakuliah Kasultanan Utsmaniyah, kaasup kaum [[Alevi]] di [[Turki]], Alawi di [[Suriah]], jeung umat Syiah di [[Libanon]].<ref name=":0" /> === India === Umat Syiah di [[India]] kungsi ditindes ku sababaraha pangawasa Sunni jeung Kaisar Mughal, anu tungtungna nyababkeun gugurna cendekiawan-cendekiawan Syiah India saperti [[Qazi Nurullah Shustari]] (ogé dipikawanoh minangka ''Shaheed-e-Thaalis'', martir katilu) jeung [[Mirza Muhammad Kamil Dehlavi]] (ogé dipikawanoh minangka ''Shaheed-e-Rabay'', martir kaopat), dua tina lima martir Islam Syiah. Umat Syiah ogé ngalaman panindesan di Kashmir, India, salila ratusan taun alatan asupna umat Muslim Sunni ka daérah éta, anu ngakibatkeun pembantaian penganut Syiah. Loba umat Syiah anu tungtungna ngungsi ti wewengkon éta.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|title=Shias of Kashmir: Socio-Political Dilemmas|url=http://kashmirobserver.net/news/features/shias-kashmir-socio-political-dilemmas|newspaper=Kashmir Observer|access-date=2026-01-12|language=en}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104214200/http://kashmirobserver.net/news/features/shias-kashmir-socio-political-dilemmas |date=2013-01-04 }}</ref> Dina taun-taun saterusna, umat Syiah di Kashmir kudu ngalaman mangsa anu panggoréngna dina sajarah maranéhna. Perampasan, panjarahan, jeung pembunuhan anu disebut Taaraj ngaluluhlantakeun komunitas Syiah. Sajarah nyatet sahenteuna aya 10 kali Taaraj (Taraj-e-Shia) antara abad ka-15 nepi ka abad ka-19, nyaéta dina taun 1548, 1585, 1635, 1686, 1719, 1741, 1762, 1801, 1830, jeung 1872. Dina mangsa éta, kampung-kampung Syiah dijarah, pangeusina dibantai, perpustakaan dibakar, sarta tempat-tempat sucina diruksak. Salila période ieu, umat Syiah ngalaksanakeun taqiyah pikeun ngajaga diri jeung ngahargaan kahormatan awéwéna.<ref name=":1" /> Lila-lila, sababaraha désa leungit tina peta. Anggota komunitas Syiah di dinya pindah néangan panyalindungan ka beulah kalér atawa ngahiji jeung kapercayaan golongan mayoritas. Panindesan anu karandapan ku umat Syiah di Kashmir nalika aya dina kakawasaan asing lain hal anyar keur maranéhna. Loba penganut Syiah sajati, saperti Sa’adaat atawa turunan Nabi Muhammad SAW. jeung para juru dakwah séjén anu boga peran penting dina sumebarna ajaran ieu di Kashmir, ninggalkeun tanah kalahiranana sanggeus nyanghareupan kaayaan anu sarupa. === Cina === Kalolobaan budak asing di [[Xinjiang]] nyaéta [[urang Tajik]] pagunungan penganut [[Syiah Ismaili]]. Maranéhna disebut Ghalcha ku umat Muslim Turkik Sunni sarta mindeng diperbudak lantaran dianggap béda jeung penduduk Turkik Sunni.[12] Umat Muslim Syiah dijual kawas budak di Khotan. Kaayaan ieu nuduhkeun yén sabagian umat Muslim di Xinjiang ngalanggar ajaran Islam ku cara ngajualbelikeun budak Muslim.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA138&dq=slavery+was+officially+abolished+in+eastern+turkestan+in+1897+british+agent+sir+george&hl=en&ei=bo4bTZ3UFI-q8AaBosDeDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result|publisher=BRILL|date=2008|isbn=978-90-04-16675-2|language=en|first=Ildikó|last=Bellér-Hann}}</ref> == Kiwari == === Arab Saudi === Di [[Saudi Arabia|Arab Saudi]] kiwari, para pangawasa [[Salafiyah|Salafi]] ngawatesan partisipasi pulitik umat Syiah dina pamaréntahan. Élit-élit pamaréntahan meunang kauntungan tina hubungan maranéhna jeung pihak pangawasa, ari pangawasa ngaharepkeun bisa ngadalikeun masarakatna ku cara kitu.<ref name=":0" /> Jumlah umat Syiah di Arab Saudi kira-kira 15% tina 28 juta penduduk (perkiraan taun 2012).<ref>{{Cite news|title=Saudi Arabia's Shia press for rights|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7959531.stm|date=2009-03-24|access-date=2026-01-12|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Sanajan sabagian aya nu cicing di [[Madinah]] (dipikawanoh minangka Nakhawila), [[Mekah|Makkah]], jeung malah [[Riyadh]], kalolobaanana museur di sabudeureun [[oasis al-Hasa]] jeung [[Qatif]] di Provinsi Wétan anu beunghar ku minyak. Salila mangtaun-taun, maranéhna ngalaman diskriminasi agama jeung ékonomi. Umat Syiah mindeng dicap sesat, panghianat, jeung lain Muslim. Maranéhna ogé dituduh ngalakukeun sabotase, kaasup kajadian peledakan pipa minyak taun 1988. Sabagian warga Syiah nepi ka dihukum pati. Ngabales militansi Iran, pamaréntah Saudi sacara koléktif ngahukum komunitas Syiah ku cara ngawatesan kabébasanana sarta ngapinggirkeun maranéhna dina widang ékonomi. Ulama Wahabi dibéré idin pikeun ngahalkan kekerasan ka umat Syiah. Saterusna, sababaraha fatwa dikaluarkeun ku ulama Saudi anu kasohor, [[Abdul-Aziz ibn Baz]], anu nyatakeun yén Syiah téh aliran sesat. Abdul-Rahman al-Jibrin, anggota Déwan Ulama Luhur, malah ngahalkan pembunuhan ka umat Syiah. Seruan ieu diasupkeun deui kana literatur agama Wahabi dina taun 2002.<ref name=":0" /> Béda jeung Irak jeung Libanon anu miboga élit pulitik ti kalangan Syiah, Arab Saudi teu miboga élit pulitik Syiah. Teu aya menteri kabinét anu nganut Syiah. Maranéhna teu diidinan pikeun jadi anggota angkatan bersenjata atawa jasa kaamanan. Teu aya wali kota atawa kapala pulisi anu Syiah. Aya kira-kira 300 sakola awéwé Syiah di Provinsi Wétan, tapi euweuh hiji ogé anu dipingpin ku urang Syiah.<ref name=":0" /> Pamaréntah ngawatesan ngaran-ngaran anu meunang dipaké ku barudak Syiah sangkan maranéhna henteu némbongkeun idéntitasna. Buku-buku palajaran Saudi, anu loba dikritik alatan [[anti-Semitisme]]-na, ogé kacida anti-Syiah. Buku-buku éta nyebut kapercayaan Syiah minangka aliran sesat anu dianggap leuwih parah ti batan [[Karésten|Kristen]] jeung [[Yahudi]]. Guru-guru penganut Wahabi mindeng nyaritakeun ka murid awéwé Syiah yén maranéhna téh penganut aliran sesat.<ref name=":0" /> Di kota [[Dammam]], distrik anu loba dicicingan ku umat Syiah ditutup nalika Asyura sarta teu aya azan Syiah. Teu aya makam Syiah pikeun ampir saparapat tina 600.000 warga Syiah anu cicing di dinya. Di kota éta ngan aya hiji masjid pikeun 150.000 warga Syiah. Dina Maret 2011, pulisi nembak ka arah démonstran di Qatif. Sanggeus karusuhan Syiah dina Oktober 2011, pamaréntah Saudi jangji bakal ngaredam sagala karusuhan di Provinsi Wétan ku “leungeun beusi.”<ref>{{Cite news|title=Saudis crush dissent and point finger at Iran for trouble in eastern province|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/06/saudi-crush-protests-iran|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2011-10-06|access-date=2026-01-12|issn=0261-3077|language=en-GB|first=Ian|last=Black}}</ref> === Bahrain === Langkung ti dua per tilu populasi [[Bahrain]] nyaéta Muslim Syiah. Kulawarga Al Khalifa, anu ayeuna keur nyekel kakawasaan sarta penganut Islam Sunni, sumping ka Bahrain ti [[Qatar]] dina ahir abad ka-18. Umat Syiah nuduh yén Al Khalifa gagal meunangkeun légitimasi di Bahrain sarta ngawangun sistem “[[pulitik apartheid]] ” anu dumasar kana diskriminasi ras, sékte, jeung kasukuan.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=L. Carl|last2=Nakash|first2=Yitzhak|date=2006|title=Reaching for Power: The Shi'a in the Modern Arab World|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/20031956|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=85|issue=2|pages=202|doi=10.2307/20031956|issn=0015-7120}}</ref> Vali Nasr, ahli Wétan Tengah jeung dunya Islam anu kawentar, nyebutkeun: ''“Pikeun umat Syiah, kakawasaan Sunni karasa siga hirup dina jaman apartheid.”''<ref>{{Cite news|title=Behind the Sunni-Shi'ite Divide|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1592849-2,00.html|newspaper=TIME.com|access-date=2026-01-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311033818/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1592849-2,00.html |date=2012-03-11 }}</ref> ==== Pambarontakan 2011 ==== Sakitar 1.000 warga Bahrain ditahan ti saprak pemberontakan lumangsung. Organisasi HAM Bahrain jeung internasional geus ngadokuméntasikeun ratusan kasus panyiksaan jeung pelecehan ka tahanan Syiah. Numutkeun csmonitor.org, pamaréntah geus meta leuwih jauh ti batan ngan saukur ngaredam oposisi pulitik sarta ''“katémbongna”'' boga tujuan pikeun ngahina sacara psikologis mayoritas warga Syiah sangkan maranéhna pindah aliran sacara cicing-cicing.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Bahrain campaign to humiliate Shiites goes beyond politics|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0607/Bahrain-campaign-to-humiliate-Shiites-goes-beyond-politics?cmpid=ema:nws:World%20Daily%2006082011&cmpid=ema:nws:NzI5NjYzNTI3NwS2|newspaper=Christian Science Monitor|access-date=2026-01-12|issn=0882-7729}}</ref> ==== Apartheid ==== Diskriminasi ka umat Syiah di Bahrain kacida parna jeung sistematisna nepi ka sababaraha sumber (saperti ''Time Magazine'',<ref>{{Cite news|title=Why A Saudi Intervention into Bahrain Won’t End the Protests|url=https://world.time.com/2011/03/14/saudi-troops-enter-bahrain-to-quell-protests-it-wont-work-for-long/|newspaper=Time|date=2011-03-14|access-date=2026-01-12|issn=0040-781X|language=en-US|first=Aryn|last=Baker}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260112020334/https://world.time.com/2011/03/14/saudi-troops-enter-bahrain-to-quell-protests-it-wont-work-for-long/ |date=2026-01-12 }}</ref> Vali Nasr, Yitzhak Nakash, ''Counterpunch'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.counterpunch.org/lamb04152011.html|title=Franklin Lamb: The Obama Doctrine: AWOL in Bahrain|last=Alexander Cockburn, Jeffrey St. Clair|website=www.counterpunch.org|accessdate=2026-01-12}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623170213/http://www.counterpunch.org/lamb04152011.html |date=2011-06-23 }}</ref> Bahrain Centre for Human Rights, jsb.) ngarasa perlu ngagunakeun istilah “apartheid” pikeun ngajelaskeunana. [[Ameen Izzadeen]] nulis dina ''Daily Mirror'' yén:<blockquote>“Sanggeus ragragna réjim apartheid di Afrika Kidul, Bahrain jadi hiji-hijina nagara di mana minoritas nyekel kakawasaan leuwih ti mayoritas. Langkung ti 70% penduduk Bahrain nyaéta Muslim Syiah, tapi maranéhna dibéré rohangan anu kacida sempitna, atawa malah euweuh pisan, pikeun ngébréhkeun kritik ka pamaréntah.”[28]</blockquote>''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'' nyebut yén Bahrain ngalaksanakeun:<blockquote>“sawatara wangun apartheid sektarian ku cara teu ngidinan umat Syiah nyekel jabatan pamaréntahan atawa ngalayanan di pulisi jeung militér. Nyatana, pasukan kaamanan Bahrain dieusi ku urang Sunni ti Suriah, Pakistan, jeung Baluchistan anu digampangkeun meunang kawarganagaraan Bahrain. Ieu kaayaan kacida nguciwakeunana pikeun warga asli Bahrain anu nganut Syiah.”</blockquote> === Indonésia === Dina 29 Désémber 2011 di [[Nangkrenang]], Sampang, [[Pulo Madura|Madura]], hiji pesantren Islam Syiah, imah penaséhat sakola, jeung imah kapala sakola dibakar ku warga ti désa satempat jeung ti daérah séjén. Indonesia nyaéta nagara nu miboga penduduk Muslim panglobana di dunya jeung didominasi ku aliran Sunni. Sapoe sanggeus kajadian éta, saurang ulama Sunni ti Jakarta nyebutkeun: ''“Éta kasalahan maranéhna. Maranéhna ngadegkeun pesantren di daérah Sunni. Salian ti éta, jadi penganut Syiah téh kasalahan gedé. Ajaran anu leres téh Sunni jeung Allah ngan narima Muslim Sunni. Lamun umat Syiah hayang hirup tengtrem, maranéhna kudu tobat jeung pindah aliran.”''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/12/29/sharia-islamic-boarding-school-attacked-madura.html|title=Shia Islamic boarding school attacked in Madura {{!}} The Jakarta Post|website=www.thejakartapost.com|accessdate=2026-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/12/31/arson-shiite-pesantren-illiteracy-and-local-leaders.html|title=Arson of Shiite ‘pesantren’, illiteracy and local leaders - Sat, December 31, 2011|last=Post|first=The Jakarta|website=The Jakarta Post|language=en|accessdate=2026-01-12}}</ref> Amnesty International nyatet rupa-rupa kasus intimidasi jeung kekerasan ka minoritas agama di Indonésia ku kelompok-kelompok Islam radikal, sarta maksa pamaréntah Indonésia pikeun ngajaga ratusan warga Syiah anu dipaksa balik ka [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.antaranews.com/news/79142/amnesty-intl-urges-ri-to-protect-shiite-minority|title=Amnesty Int`l urges RI to protect Shiite minority|last=antaranews.com|website=Antara News|language=en|accessdate=2026-01-12}}</ref> === Malaysia === [[Malaysia]] ngalarang umat Syiah pikeun nyebarkeun ajaranana. === Pakistan === [[Pakistan]] ngalaman kanaékan kekerasan ka umat Muslim Syiah dina sababaraha taun pamungkas. Kekerasan ieu nyababkeun rébuan lalaki, awéwé, jeung barudak maot. Sahenteuna 20% tina total penduduk Pakistan nyaéta penganut Syiah, anu asalna ti rupa-rupa latar étnis. Dokter, pangusaha, jeung profésional séjén di Karachi mindeng jadi sasaran militan Muslim Sunni. [[Suku Hazara]] di [[Quetta]] kaleungitan kira-kira 800 anggota sukunana. Kalolobaanana jadi korban serangan teroris [[Lashkar-e-Jhangvi]] jeung [[Sipah-e-Sahaba]] Pakistan, organisasi militan Sunni anu aya patalina jeung [[Al-Qaeda]] jeung [[Taliban]]. Di wewengkon kalér Pakistan, saperti [[Parachinar]] jeung [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], militan Muslim terus-terusan nyerang jeung maéhan penganut Syiah. Dina kajadian 16 Agustus 2012, sakitar 25 panumpang Syiah dipaksa turun tina opat beus di jalan Babusar nalika maranéhna rék balik ka kampung pikeun miéling Idul Fitri bareng kulawargana. Sadayana langsung dieksekusi ku militan Muslim Sunni Al-Qaeda. Dina poé anu sarua, tilu anggota suku Hazara ditembak nepi ka paéh di Quetta, Pakistan. == Baca ogé == * [[Syiah]] * [[Asyura]] * [[Perang Karbala]] == Sumber rujukan == {{Reflist}} <references /> qsmjtb71maadq8kmhamtk8cmz9qfmnb 0 107719 711578 704004 2026-08-06T23:28:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711578 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gén''' élmu [[biologi]] (serapan tina [[basa Walanda]]: ''gen'') miboga dua harti. Dina pamahaman Mendel, gén nyaéta unit dasar pikeun nurunkeun sipat. Ari dina pamahaman molékular, gén nyaéta runtuyan nukléotida dina DNA anu ditranskripsi pikeun ngahasilkeun RNA anu fungsional. Aya dua rupa gén molékular, nyaéta gén panyandi [[protéin]] jeung gén non-panyandi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pearson|first=Helen|date=2006-05-01|title=What is a gene?|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/441398a|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=441|issue=7092|pages=398–401|doi=10.1038/441398a|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pennisi|first=Elizabeth|date=2007-06-15|title=DNA Study Forces Rethink of What It Means to Be a Gene|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.316.5831.1556|journal=Science|volume=316|issue=5831|pages=1556–1557|doi=10.1126/science.316.5831.1556}}</ref> Dina prosés éksprési gén, nya éta sintésis RNA atawa protéin tina hiji gén, DNA heula disalin jadi RNA. RNA ieu aya nu langsung boga fungsi (saperti tRNA atawa rRNA) atawa boga peran minangka citakan panengah dina prosés ngabentuk protéin. Pewarisan gén ti indung ka turunan jadi dasar pindahna sipat fenotipe ti hiji generasi ka generasi salajengna. Gén-gén ieu ngawangun runtuyan DNA anu rupa-rupa, disebut génótípe, anu miboga ciri has pikeun unggal individu dina hiji populasi spésiés. Génótípe, babarengan jeung faktor lingkungan sarta prosés kamekaran, ahirna nangtukeun fenotipe hiji individu. Kalolobaan sipat biologis mucunghul lantaran pangaruh gabungan tina loba gén (poligén) sarta interaksi antara gén jeung lingkungan. Sababaraha sipat génétik bisa katingali sacara langsung, saperti warna panon atawa jumlah anggota awak. Ari sipat séjén mah teu katingali ku panon taranjang, contona golongan getih, kamungkinan katarajang panyakit tangtu, atawa rébuan prosés biokimia dasar anu ngajaga kahirupan. Gén ogé bisa ngalaman mutasi dina runtuyan nukléotidana, anu ngahasilkeun rupa-rupa variasi nu disebut alél. Alél ieu mawa vérsi gén anu rada béda sarta bisa nyababkeun béda-béda sipat fenotipe.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Genetic Terminology|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-555-8_1|publisher=Humana Press|date=2012|location=Totowa, NJ|isbn=978-1-61779-555-8|pmc=4450815|pmid=22307690|pages=1–9|doi=10.1007/978-1-61779-555-8_1|language=en|first=Robert C.|last=Elston|first2=Jaya M.|last2=Satagopan|first3=Shuying|last3=Sun|editor-first=Robert C.|editor-last=Elston|editor-first2=Jaya M.|editor-last2=Satagopan|editor-first3=Shuying|editor-last3=Sun}}</ref> Gén mekar (évolusi) ngaliwatan mékanisme seleksi alam jeung drift génétik anu mangaruhan frékuénsi alél dina hiji populasi. == Sajarah == [[Gregor Mendel]] kungsi ngaduga ayana hiji bahan dina awak hiji individu anu patali jeung hiji sipat atawa ciri, sarta bisa diwariskeun ti hiji generasi ka generasi salajengna. Anjeunna nyebut bahan éta minangka “faktor”. Ku [[Hugo de Vries]], konsép anu sarupa dingaranan pangen (dibaca: ''pan-gén'') dina buku karanganana ''Intracellular Pangenesis'' anu medal taun 1889. Sanajan can maca tulisan Mendel, de Vries ngadefinisikeun pangen minangka “partikel pangleutikna anu ngawakilan hiji ciri anu bisa diwariskeun”. Wilhelm Johannsen saterusna nyederhanakeun istilah éta jadi gén kira-kira dua puluh taun sanggeusna. Dina taun 1910, Thomas Hunt Morgan némbongkeun yén gén ayana dina kromosom. Sanggeus éta, lumangsung hiji “perlombaan” ilmiah anu pikaresepeun pikeun manggihan zat naon sabenerna anu mangrupa gén. Loba pangajén Hadiah Nobel anu tuluy dipasrahkeun ka para panalungtik anu kalibet dina widang ieu. Dina mangsa éta, DNA sabenerna geus kapanggih sarta dipikanyaho ngan aya dina kromosom (taun 1869), tapi jalma can sadar yén DNA aya patalina jeung gén. Ngaliwatan panalungtikan Oswald Avery kana baktéri ''Pneumococcus'' (taun 1943), sarta panalungtikan Alfred Hershey jeung Martha Chase (dipublikasikeun taun 1953) maké virus bakteriofag T2, ahirna kaharti yén DNA nyaéta bahan génétik. Dina taun 1940-an, [[George Beadle]] jeung [[Edward Tatum]] ngalakukeun ékspérimén maké jamur ''Neurospora crassa''. Tina ékspérimén éta, Beadle jeung Tatum bisa nyieun hiji hipotésis yén gén nyandi énzim, sarta maranéhna nyimpulkeun yén hiji gén nyintésis hiji énzim (''one gene–one enzyme theory''). Sababaraha puluh taun saterusna, kapanggih yén gén nyandi protéin anu fungsina henteu ngan saukur jadi énzim wungkul, sarta aya protéin anu diwangun ku dua atawa leuwih polipéptida. Ku ayana panemuan-panemuan ieu, pamadegan Beadle jeung Tatum tuluy dirévisi, sahingga téori hiji gén–hiji énzim dimodifikasi jadi téori hiji gén–hiji polipéptida (''one gene–one polypeptide theory''). == Struktur gén == Dina sél éukariot, hiji gén diwangun ku sababaraha bagian, nyaéta:<ref>{{Cite book|edition=7th ed|title=An introduction to genetic analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge0000unse_v1d3|publisher=W.H. Freeman|date=2000|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5|editor-first=Anthony J. F.|editor-last=Griffiths}}</ref> # [[Domén]] régulasi inisiasi transkripsi, nyaéta bagian anu boga fungsi pikeun ngamimitian prosés transkripsi. Domén ieu di antarana ngandung runtuyan GCCACACCC, ATGCAAAT, kotak GC, kotak CCAAT, jeung kotak TATA. # Intron, nyaéta wewengkon dina gén anu henteu kaasup kana molekul mRNA ahir sanggeus prosés transkripsi lumangsung, sarta henteu nyandi asam amino anu ngabentuk protéin anu dikode ku gén éta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Intron|title=Intron|website=www.genome.gov|language=en|accessdate=2026-01-12}}</ref> # [[Ékson]], nyaéta bagian gén anu nyandi protéin sarta bisa ditranskripsi sacara nonoverlapping atawa overlapping. Salaku conto, dina kode anu diwangun ku tilu runtuyan nukléotida (kodon triplet) AUU GCU CAG, bisa dibaca sacara nonoverlapping jadi AUU GCU CAG, atawa sacara overlapping jadi AUU UUG UGC GCU CUC CAG. Sanajan kira-kira taun 1961 geus dipikanyaho yén asam amino disandi ku kodon sacara nonoverlapping, saterusna kapanggih protéin anu béda-béda minangka hasil transkripsi kalayan pergeseran kodon overlapping. Ékson mangrupa bagian génom anu nyandi molekul mRNA; hiji ékson nyandi sarta nyayagikeun informasi pikeun ngatur (mérégulasi) prosés kabentukna protéin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Exon|title=Exon|website=www.genome.gov|language=en|accessdate=2026-01-12}}</ref> # Domén régulasi ahir transkripsi, nyaéta bagian gén anu boga peran dina ngatur prosés eureunna transkripsi. == Ékspresi gén == Ékspresi gén nyaéta prosés nalika kode-kode informasi anu aya dina hiji gén dirobah jadi protéin anu bisa ngalaksanakeun fungsina di jero [[Sél (biologi)|sél]]. Ékspresi gén mangrupa prosés pikeun nyandi jeung ngajalankeun informasi gén luyu jeung fungsina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Gene-Expression|title=Gene Expression|website=www.genome.gov|language=en|accessdate=2026-01-12}}</ref> Ékspresi gén diwangun ku dua tahapan utama, nyaéta: # Transkripsi, nyaéta prosés nyieun salinan RNA tina DNA. # Translasi, nyaéta prosés sintésis polipéptida anu husus di jero [[ribosom]]. Prosés robahna DNA jadi mRNA jeung robahna mRNA jadi polipéptida disebut dogma sentral (''central dogma''). Dogma sentral ieu lumaku boh dina organisme prokariot boh éukariot. Sanajan kitu, dina éukariot aya tahapan tambahan anu kajadian antara transkripsi jeung translasi, anu disebut tahap pré-mRNA. Tahap pré-mRNA boga fungsi pikeun milih mRNA anu baris dikirim kaluar tina nukléus pikeun ditranslasikeun di ribosom. Ékson mangrupa bagian mRNA anu bakal dikirim kaluar tina nukléus pikeun ditranslasikeun, sedengkeun intron nyaéta bagian mRNA anu tetep aya di jero nukléus lantaran dipiharep bakal ngahasilkeun protéin anu teu fungsional (teu aya gunana) lamun ditranslasikeun. Intron saterusna bakal diurai deui pikeun ngabentuk runtuyan mRNA anu anyar. Dina prosés ékspresi gén ieu, bisa kajadian sababaraha kasalahan anu disebut mutasi. == Sumber rujukan == bilfkylqhsdcz1qu8p32fcr3ovt733f 0 107817 711658 711372 2026-08-07T01:07:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 10 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711658 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = William Henry Harrison | image = William Henry Harrison.jpg | caption = Portrait, 1840 | order = 9th | office = President of the United States | vicepresident = John Tyler | term_start = March 4, 1841 | term_end = April 4, 1841 | predecessor = [[Martin Van Buren]] | successor = [[John Tyler]] | office1 = [[List of ambassadors of the United States to Colombia|United States Minister to Gran&nbsp;Colombia]] | president1 = {{ubl|[[John Quincy Adams]]|[[Andrew Jackson]]}} | term_start1 = February 5, 1829 | term_end1 = September 26, 1829 | predecessor1 = [[Beaufort Taylor Watts]] | successor1 = [[Thomas Patrick Moore]] | jr/sr2 = United States Senator | state2 = [[Ohio]] | term_start2 = March 4, 1825 | term_end2 = May 20, 1828 | predecessor2 = [[Ethan Allen Brown]] | successor2 = [[Jacob Burnet]] | state_senate3 = Ohio | district3 = [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]] | term_start3 = December 5, 1819 | term_end3 = December 2, 1821 | predecessor3 = Ephraim Brown | successor3 = Ephraim Brown | state4 = Ohio | district4 = {{ushr|OH|1|1st}} | term_start4 = October 8, 1816 | term_end4 = March 3, 1819 | predecessor4 = [[John McLean]] | successor4 = [[Thomas R. Ross]] | office5 = 1st [[Governor of Indiana|Governor of the Indiana Territory]] | appointer5 = [[John Adams]] | term_start5 = January 10, 1801 | term_end5 = December 28, 1812 | predecessor5 = Office established | successor5 = [[Thomas Posey]] | office6 = {{br entries|Delegate to the|[[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]|from the [[Northwest Territory]]'s|[[Northwest Territory's at-large congressional district|at-large]] district}} | term_start6 = October 3, 1799 | term_end6 = May 14, 1800 | predecessor6 = Constituency established | successor6 = [[William McMillan (congressman)|William McMillan]] | office7 = 2nd Secretary of the [[Northwest Territory]] | governor7 = [[Arthur St. Clair]] | term_start7 = June 28, 1798 | term_end7 = October 1, 1799 | predecessor7 = [[Winthrop Sargent]] | successor7 = [[Charles Willing Byrd]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1773|2|9}} | birth_place = [[Charles City County, Virginia]], British America | death_date = {{death date and age|1841|4|4|1773|2|9}} | death_place = Washington, D.C., U.S. | death_cause = [[Enteric fever]] | restingplace = [[William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial|Harrison Tomb State Memorial]] | party = {{ubl|[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] (before 1828)|[[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (from 1836)}} | spouse = {{marriage|[[Anna Harrison|Anna Symmes]]|November 22, 1795}} | children = 10 with Anna, including [[John Scott Harrison|John]], 2 alleged with Dilsia, including [[Marie Harrison]] | relatives = [[Harrison family of Virginia]] | father = [[Benjamin Harrison V]] | education = {{ubl|[[Hampden–Sydney College]]|[[University of Pennsylvania]]}} | occupation = {{hlist|Soldier|politician}} | awards = {{ubl|[[Congressional Gold Medal]]|[[Thanks of Congress]]}} | signature = William Henry Harrison Signature-full.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | branch = {{flatlist|*[[United States Army]] **[[Indiana Territory]] militia}} | serviceyears = {{ubl|1791–1798|1811|1812–1814}} | rank = [[Major general (United States)|Major general]] | unit = [[Legion of the United States]] | commands = [[Army of the Northwest (United States)|Army of the Northwest]] | battles = {{tree list}} *[[Northwest Indian War]] **[[Siege of Fort Recovery]] **[[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] *[[Tecumseh's War]] **[[Battle of Tippecanoe]] *[[War of 1812]] **[[Siege of Fort Wayne]] **[[Battle of the Thames]] {{Tree list/end}} }} '''William Henry Harrison''' (9 Pébruari 1773{{spnd}}4 April 1841) nyaéta [[présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-9, anu ngajabat ti 4 Maret dugi ka 4 April 1841, masa jabatan pangpondokna dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat. Anjeunna ogé janten présidén munggaran anu pupus nalika nuju ngajabat, anu ngabalukarkeun krisis [[konstitusi]] samentara, jalaran [[suksési présidén Amérika Sarikat|suksési présidén]] harita tacan diatur sacara jéntré dina [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Konstitusi AS]]. Harrison mangrupa présidén terakhir anu lahir salaku subjek nagara [[Inggris]] di wilayah [[Tilu Belas Koloni]]. Anjeunna mangrupa anggota ti [[kulawarga Harrison ti Virginia]] [[Benjamin Harrison V]], anu mangrupa salah saurang [[Founding Fathers Amérika Sarikat|Founding Father AS]]. Putrana sorangan, [[John Scott Harrison]], nyaéta ramana [[Benjamin Harrison]], présidén AS anu ka-23. Harrison lahir di [[Charles City County, Virginia]]. Dina taun 1794, anjeunna milu ancrub dina [[Perang Fallen Timbers|Battle of Fallen Timbers]], hiji kameunangan militer Amérika anu mungkas [[Perang Indindia Kulon Kalér|Northwest Indian War]]. Dina taun 1811, anjeunna mingpin kakuatan militer ngalawan [[Konpédérasi Tecumseh|Tecumseh's confederacy]] dina [[Perang Tippecanoe|Battle of Tippecanoe]], anu matak anjeunna meunang julukan "'''Old Tippecanoe'''". Anjeunna ditaékkeun pangkatna janten mayor jenderal dina Angkatan Darat salami [[Perang 1812|War of 1812]], sarta mingpin pasukan infanteri jeung kavaleri Amérika kana kameunangan dina [[Perang Thames|Battle of the Thames]] di [[Kanada Luhur|Upper Canada]]. Karier pulitik Harrison dimimitian dina taun 1798, kalayan pangangkatan salaku sekretaris [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]]. Dina taun 1799, anjeunna kapilih salaku delegasi non-voting wilayah éta dina [[DPR Amérika Sarikat|U.S. House of Representatives]]. Anjeunna janten gubernur [[Téritori Indiana|Indiana Territory]] anu nembé dibentuk dina taun 1801 sarta, ngaliwatan sababaraha pajangjian jeung suku-suku pribumi Amérika, anjeunna meunangkeun jutaan héktar lahan pikeun nagara. Saatos Perang 1812, anjeunna pindah ka Ohio di mana, [[Pamilihan DPR Amérika Sarikat 1816 jeung 1817 di Ohio|dina taun 1816]], anjeunna kapilih pikeun ngawakilan distrik ka-1 nagara bagian éta di DPR. [[Pamilihan Sénat Amérika Sarikat 1824–25|Dina taun 1824]], anjeunna kapilih janten anggota [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat|U.S. Senate]], sanajan mangsa jabatan Sénatna kapeugat ku pangangkatanana salaku [[mentri plenipotentiary]] ka [[Gran Colombia]] dina taun 1828. Harrison mulang deui kana kahirupan pribadi di Ohio dugi ka anjeunna janten salah saurang tina opat calon [[Partéy Whig Amérika Sarikat|Whig Party]] dina [[Pamilihan présidén AS 1836|pamilihan présidén AS 1836]], anu harita anjeunna éléh ku urang Démokrat [[Martin Van Buren]]. Dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|pamilihan présidén 1840]], partéy nyalonkeun deui anjeunna, kalayan [[John Tyler]] salaku pasanganana, dina handapeun slogan kampanye "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]", sarta Harrison hasil ngéléhkeun Van Buren. Ngan tilu minggu saatos pelantikanana, Harrison kaserang panyakit sarta pupus sababaraha dinten saatosna. Saatos réngséna kateujelasan dina konstitusi ngeunaan suksési, Tyler janten présidén. Harrison émut ku sabab pajangjian-pajangjianana sareng pribumi Amérika, sarta ogé taktik kampanye pamilihanana anu kréatif. Anjeunna sering dileungitkeun dina [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]] alatan pondokna mangsa jabatan anjeunna. ==Masa leutik sarta atikan== William Henry Harrison mangrupa anak katujuh sarta pangbungsuna ti [[Benjamin Harrison V]] jeung Elizabeth (Bassett) Harrison. Lahir dina 9 Pébruari 1773, di [[Berkeley Plantation]], bumi [[kulawarga Harrison ti Virginia]] di sisi [[Walungan James]] di [[Charles City County, Virginia|Charles City County]],{{sfn|Dowdey|1957|pp=291–315}} anjeunna janten [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] terakhir anu henteu lahir salaku warga nagara Amérika.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://touringohio.com/profiles/harrison.html|title=William Henry Harrison|publisher=Touring Ohio, Heart of America|access-date=November 18, 2021}}</ref> Kulawarga Harrison nyaéta kulawarga pulitik nonjol katurunan Inggris anu karuhunna parantos aya di [[Virginia]] saprak taun 1630-an.<ref name= "Smith">{{cite book|editor-last1=Smith|editor-first1=Howard|editor-last2=Riley|editor-first2=Edward M.|title=Benjamin Harrison and the American Revolution|publisher=Virginia Independence Bicentennial Commission|series=Virginia in the Revolution|year=1978|location=Williamsburg, VA|pages=59–65|oclc=4781472}}</ref> Ramana mangrupa saurang juragan kebon "planter" di Virginia, anu ngabdi salaku delegasi dina [[Kongrés Kontinental]] sarta nandatanganan [[Déklarasi Kamerdikaan Amérika Sarikat|Déklarasi Kamerdikaan]].<ref name= "Smith"/> Ramana ogé ngabdi dina législatur Virginia sarta janten gubernur Virginia kalima (1781–1784) salami sarta saatos mangsa [[Perang Révolusi Amérika]].<ref name= "Smith"/> Lanceuk Harrison, [[Carter Bassett Harrison]], ngawakilan Virginia dina DPR (1793–1799).<ref>{{cite web|title=Carter Bassett Harrison|work=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress|publisher=U.S. Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000266|access-date=September 14, 2016}}</ref> William Henry mindeng nyebut dirina salaku "anak révolusi", jalaran anjeunna memang digedékeun di bumi anu jarakna ngan {{convert|30|mi|abbr=on}} ti tempat Washington meunangkeun perang ngalawan Inggris dina [[Perang Yorktown|Battle of Yorktown]].<ref name="Freehling">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Life Before the Presidency| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-before-the-presidency| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 8, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison dididik di bumi "tutored" dugi ka yuswa 14 taun nalika anjeunna sakola di [[Hampden–Sydney College]], hiji paguron luhur [[Présbitérianisme|Presbyterian]] di [[Hampden Sydney, Virginia]].<ref name= "Smith"/><ref name=Perrysburg>{{cite web|url=https://www.historicperrysburg.org/wh-harrison|title=W. H. Harrison biography|publisher=Perrysburg, Ohio|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Anjeunna diajar di dinya salami tilu taun, nampi atikan klasik anu ngawengku basa Latin, Yunani, Perancis, logika, sarta debat.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=45}} Ramana anu nganut [[Épiskopalian]] mindahkeun anjeunna ti paguron luhur éta, kamungkinan kusabab alesan kaagamaan, sarta saatos cicing samentara di hiji akademi di [[Southampton County, Virginia]], sarta sareng lanceukna [[Benjamin Harrison VI]] di [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], anjeunna angkat ka [[Philadelphia]] dina taun 1790.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=14}} Ramana pupus dina ''musim semi'' taun 1791, sarta anjeunna diasuh ku [[Robert Morris (bankir)|Robert Morris]], saurang sobat dalit kulawargana di Philadelphia.<ref name= "Rabin">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thedp.com/article/2017/01/william-henry-harrison-history|title=A Penn graduate in the Oval Office|last=Rabin|first=Alex|date=January 25, 2017|work=[[The Daily Pennsylvanian]]|access-date=April 3, 2019}}</ref> Anjeunna diajar kedokteran di [[Universitas Pennsylvania]]. Nalika di Penn, anjeunna diajar sareng [[Benjamin Rush]], salah saurang "founding father" Amérika Sarikat anu ogé profesor [[kimia]] sareng kedokteran di Penn, sarta [[William Shippen Sr.]]<ref name= "Rabin"/> Lanceukna William Harrison mewariskeun sadaya kabeungharan ramana, sahingga William kakirangan waragad pikeun neraskeun sakola kedokteranana, anu tétéla anjeunna ogé henteu pati mikaresep widang éta.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna kaluar ti Penn, sanajan arsip sakola nyatet anjeunna salaku "alumnus non-lulusan ti kelas sakola kedokteran Penn taun 1793".<ref name= "Rabin"/> Ku ayana pangaruh ti sobat ramana, Gubernur [[Henry Lee III]], anjeunna ngamimitian karier militerna.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=16}} ===Karier militer awal=== Dina tanggal 16 Agustus 1791, dina jero waktu 24 jam saatos pendak sareng Lee, William Harrison anu yuswana 18 taun diangkat janten [[Ensign (pangkat)#Amérika Sarikat|ensign]] dina [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] sarta ditugaskeun ka [[Rézimén Kahiji Amérika|First American Regiment]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Anjeunna mimitina ditugaskeun di [[Bénténg Washington (Ohio)|Fort Washington]], [[Cincinnati]] di [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]] di mana angkatan darat harita nuju kalibet dina [[Perang Indindia Kulon Kalér|Northwest Indian War]] anu nuju lumangsung.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=14, 16, 22}} Penulis biografi [[William W. Freehling]] nyebutkeun yén Harrison ngora, dina tindakan militer munggaranana, ngumpulkeun sakitar dalapan puluh urang nu sok néangan hiburan sarta nu sok nyieun kaributan ti jalanan Philadelphia, ngolo maranéhna sangkan nandatanganan surat pendaptaran militer, sarta mawa maranéhna ka Fort Washington.<ref name="Freehling"/> ===Karier militer awal=== Dina tanggal 16 Agustus 1791, dina jero waktu 24 jam saatos pendak sareng Lee, William Harrison anu yuswana 18 taun diangkat janten [[Ensign (pangkat)#Amérika Sarikat|ensign]] dina [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] sarta ditugaskeun ka [[Rézimén Kahiji Amérika|First American Regiment]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Anjeunna mimitina ditugaskeun di [[Bénténg Washington (Ohio)|Fort Washington]], [[Cincinnati]] di [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]] di mana angkatan darat harita nuju kalibet dina [[Perang Indindia Kulon Kalér|Northwest Indian War]] anu nuju lumangsung.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=14, 16, 22}} Penulis biografi [[William W. Freehling]] nyebutkeun yén Harrison ngora, dina tindakan militer munggaranana, ngumpulkeun sakitar dalapan puluh urang nu sok néangan hiburan sarta nu sok nyieun kaributan ti jalanan Philadelphia, ngolo maranéhna sangkan nandatanganan surat pendaptaran militer, sarta mawa maranéhna ka Fort Washington.<ref name="Freehling"/> Harrison ditaékkeun pangkatna janten [[Létnan hiji (Amérika Sarikat)|lieutenant]] saatos Mayor Jenderal [[Anthony Wayne|"Mad Anthony" Wayne]] nyepeng paréntah pasukan bagian kulon dina taun 1792, saatos kéléhan anu kacida parahna di handapeun [[Arthur St. Clair]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Dina taun 1793, anjeunna janten [[aide-de-camp]] Wayne sarta meunangkeun kaparigelan pikeun mingpin hiji pasukan di wilayah wates ("frontier");<ref name=Perrysburg/> anjeunna milu ancrub dina kameunangan Wayne anu nangtukeun dina [[Perang Fallen Timbers|Battle of Fallen Timbers]] tanggal 20 Agustus 1794, anu mungkas Perang Indindia Kulon Kalér.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=23–26}} Anjeunna nampi pangajén kieu ti Wayne pikeun kalungguhanana dina éta perang: "Kuring kudu nambahkeun ngaran Aide-de-camp kuring anu satia tur gagah... Létnan Harrison, anu... méré palayanan anu pangpentingna ku cara nepikeun paréntah kuring ka unggal madhab... sikep sarta kawani anu ngahudangkeun sumanget pasukan pikeun ngahontal kameunangan."<ref name="Freehling"/> Harrison mangrupa salah saurang anu nandatanganan [[Pajangjian Greenville]] (1795), salaku saksi pikeun Wayne, negosiator utama pikeun AS.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Dina katangtuan éta pajangjian, koalisi urang Indindia nyerahkeun sabagian tina lahan maranéhna ka pamaréntah féderal, anu muka dua per tilu wilayah [[Ohio]] pikeun padumukan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Paul David |year=1985 |title=Anthony Wayne, Soldier of the Early Republic |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0253307511 |url=https://archive.org/details/anthonywaynesold00nels/page/282 |page=[https://archive.org/details/anthonywaynesold00nels/page/282 282] }}</ref>{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=21, 28–30}} Nalika ibuna pupus dina taun 1793, Harrison mewariskeun sabagian ti harta kulawargana di Virginia, kalebet sakitar {{convert|3000|acre|km2}} lahan sarta sababaraha urang budak beulian ("slaves"). Anjeunna nuju ngabdi dina Angkatan Darat harita sarta ngical lahan éta ka lanceukna.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=39}} Harrison ditaékkeun pangkatna janten [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat O-3)|captain]] dina bulan Méi 1797 sarta ngundurkeun diri tina Angkatan Darat dina ping 1 Juni 1798.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=67–69}} ===Pernikahan sarta kulawarga=== Harrison patepang sareng [[Anna Harrison|Anna Tuthill Symmes]] ti [[North Bend, Ohio]] dina taun 1795 nalika anjeunna yuswa 22 taun. Anna téh putri ti Anna Tuthill sareng Hakim [[John Cleves Symmes]], anu kantos ngabdi salaku kolonél dina Perang Révolusi sarta salaku wawakil dina [[Kongrés Konfédérasi]].{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=46}} Harrison nyuhunkeun idin ka hakim kanggo nikah ka Anna nanging ditolak, sahingga ieu pasangan téh ngantosan dugi ka Symmes angkat kanggé urusan bisnis. Maranéhna tuluy kawin lari sarta nikah dina ping 25 Nopémber 1795, di bumi Stephen Wood di North Bend, bendahara Téritori Kulon Kalér.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=38–39}} Maranéhna bulan madu di [[Bénténg Washington (Cincinnati, Ohio)|Fort Washington]], jalaran Harrison harita masih kénéh ngalaksanakeun tugas militer.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=40}} Hakim Symmes nyanghareupan anjeunna dua minggu saatosna dina jamuan perpisahan kanggé Jenderal Wayne, kalayan teugeug nanyakeun kumaha anjeunna bakal nganapkahan kulawarga. Harrison ngajawab, "ku pedang kuring, sarta ku leungeun katuhu kuring sorangan, Juragan".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpresidentia00dole |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/greatpresidentia00dole/page/222 222] |title=Great Presidential Wit: – I Wish I was in this Book |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-0392-0 |last1=Dole |first1=Bob |author-link=Bob Dole|year=2001 }}</ref> Ieu pernikahan téh méré kauntungan kanggé Harrison, sabab ahirna anjeunna bisa ngamangpaatkeun hubungan mertuana sareng para spékulan tanah, anu ngagampangkeun anjeunna kanggé kaluar tina angkatan darat. Karagu-raguan Hakim Symmes ka anjeunna tetep aya, sakumaha anu ditulis ku anjeunna ka hiji sobatna, "Anjeunna teu bisa ngubaran (dokter), teu bisa méré pambélaan (pengacara), teu bisa ogé hutbah, sarta upami anjeunna bisa nguluku mah kuring bakal sugema."<ref name="Freehling"/> Hubunganana ahirna janten saé sareng mertuana, anu saatosna ngajual lahan saluareun {{convert|160|acres|ha}} di [[North Bend, Ohio|North Bend]] ka kulawarga Harrison, anu ngamungkinkeun Harrison kanggé ngawangun bumi sarta ngamimitian tatanén.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=40}} Anna mindeng gering salami pernikahan maranéhna, utamana alatan mindengna kakandungan, nanging anjeunna hirup 23 taun langkung lami batan William, sarta pupus dina ping 25 Pébruari 1864, dina yuswa 88 taun.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=56}} Kulawarga Harrison gaduh sapuluh putra: *Elizabeth Bassett (1796–1846) *John Cleves Symmes (1798–1830), anu nikah ka hiji-hijina putri [[Zebulon Pike]] anu salamet *Lucy Singleton (1800–1826) *William Henry Jr. (1802–1838) *[[John Scott Harrison|John Scott]] (1804–1878), ramana calon présidén AS [[Benjamin Harrison]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/H000272|title=John Scott Harrison|publisher=U. S. Congress|access-date=January 26, 2022}}</ref> *Benjamin (1806–1840) *Mary Symmes (1809–1842) *Carter Bassett (1811–1839) *Anna Tuthill (1813–1865) *James Findlay (1814–1817)<ref>{{Cite web|title=William Henry Harrison: Fast Facts| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=September 26, 2016}}</ref> Profesor Kenneth R. Janken, dina biografi [[Walter Francis White]], ngaku yén Harrison gaduh genep putra ti saurang awéwé Amérika-Afrika anu diperbudak kasebat [[Dilsia (budak)|Dilsia]] sarta, sateuacan nyalonkeun janten présidén, mikeun opat di antarana ka lanceukna kanggé nyingkahan skandal. Ieu pernyataan téh dumasar kana sajarah lisan kulawarga White.<ref>{{cite book|first=Kenneth Robert|last=Janken|title=White: The Biography of Walter White: Mr. NAACP|url=https://archive.org/details/whitebiographyof00jank|location=New York|publisher=The New York Press|year=2003|page=[https://archive.org/details/whitebiographyof00jank/page/3 3]|isbn=978-1-5658-4773-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Phillips |first1=Amber |title=Warren Harding and 5 other presidents who have faced 'love child' questions |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/08/13/warren-harding-and-the-5-other-presidents-who-have-faced-love-child-questions/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> Dina biografi Harrison taun 2012, panulis [[Gail Collins]] ngajelaskeun yén ieu téh carita anu sigana moal leres, sanajan White percaya yén éta téh bener.{{sfn|Collins|2012|p=103}} ==Karier pulitik== Harrison ngamimitian karier pulitikna nalika anjeunna ngundurkeun diri samentara tina militer dina ping 1 Juni 1798, sarta ngayakeun kampanye di kalangan babaturan katut kulawargana pikeun meunangkeun kalungguhan dina pamaréntahan Téritori Kulon Kalér.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Sobat dalitna, [[Timothy Pickering]], harita nuju ngajabat salaku Sekretaris Nagara, sarta dibarengan ku pangaruh ti Hakim Symmes, anjeunna dirékoméndasikeun pikeun ngagentos [[Winthrop Sargent]], sekretaris téritori anu nuju lungsur jabatan.<ref name="Freehling"/> Présidén [[John Adams]] ngangkat Harrison kana éta jabatan dina bulan Juli 1798.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Pagawéan nyatet sagala kagiatan téritori téh karasana kacida ngabosankeunana, sarta teu lami anjeunna janten bosen, tuluy nyiar kasempetan pikeun nempatan posisi dina Kongrés AS.{{sfn|Greene|2007|p=44}} ===Kongrés AS=== [[File:W.H. Harrison ca. 1800.jpg|thumb|left|Hiji citakan potrét ukiran Harrison dina yuswa 27 taun, salaku anggota delegasi [[DPR Amérika Sarikat|U.S. House of Representatives]] ti [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]], ku [[Charles Balthazar Julien Févret de Saint-Mémin]], {{Circa|1800}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2007676954/|title=William Henry Harrison, 9th Pres. of United States|last=de Saint-Mémin|first= Charles Balthazar Julien Fevret|date=January 1800 |publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=August 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/presidents/bio9.htm|title=Biographical Sketch–William Henry Harrison|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=August 5, 2016}}</ref>]] Harrison gaduh seueur réngréngan sobat di kalangan aristokrat Wétan sarta gancang meunangkeun reputasi di antara maranéhna salaku pamingpin wilayah wates ("frontier"). Anjeunna ngajalankeun usaha tatanén sarta panyatuaan kuda anu suksés, anu matak anjeunna meunangkeun pangaku-ngaku di sakuliah [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Kongrés parantos netepkeun kawijakan téritori anu ngabalukarkeun luhurna harga lahan, hiji pasualan utama pikeun para padumuk di Téritori éta; Harrison janten jawara maranéhna pikeun nurunkeun éta harga. Populasi Téritori Kulon Kalér ngahontal jumlah anu cukup pikeun gaduh delegasi kongrés dina Oktober 1799, sarta Harrison maju dina pamilihan.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Anjeunna ngayakeun kampanye pikeun ngarojong migrasi salajengna ka éta téritori, anu ahirna ngabalukarkeun parobahan status janten nagara bagian.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/history/files/interritory.pdf|title=Indiana Territory|publisher=The Indiana Historian|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison ngéléhkeun Arthur St. Clair Jr. pikeun janten delegasi kongrés munggaran Téritori Kulon Kalér dina taun 1798 dina yuswa 26 taun, sarta ngabdi dina [[Kongrés ka-genep Amérika Sarikat]] ti 4 Maret 1799 dugi ka 14 Méi 1800.<ref name="wh">{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison Biography |work=About The White House: Presidents |publisher=The White House |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/williamhenryharrison |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122233458/http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/williamhenryharrison/ |archive-date=January 22, 2009|access-date=November 6, 2021}}</ref><ref name="cb">{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison (1773–1841) Biography|publisher=United States Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=h000279|access-date=February 4, 2009}}</ref> Anjeunna teu gaduh wewenang pikeun méré sora (voting) dina rancangan undang-undang, nanging diidinan pikeun ngabdi dina komite, ngajukeun panerapan, sarta aub dina debat.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=45–48}} Anjeunna janten pupuhu Komite Lahan Publik sarta ngamajukeun "Land Act of 1800", anu ngagampangkeun pameseran lahan Téritori Kulon Kalér dina kapling anu langkung alit kalayan harga anu langkung mirah.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Para nu gaduh lahan diidinan meuli kapling leutik kalayan artos panjer (DP) ngan lima persén, sarta ieu janten faktor penting dina kamekaran populasi Téritori anu gancang.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=161}} Harrison ogé boga peran penting dina ngatur babagian Téritori janten dua bagian.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Bagian wétan tetep kawanoh salaku Téritori Kulon Kalér sarta ngawengku wilayah anu ayeuna janten [[Ohio]] sareng bagian wétan [[Michigan]]; bagian kulon dingaranan [[Téritori Indiana|Indiana Territory]] sarta ngawengku wilayah anu ayeuna janten [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Wisconsin]], sabagian kulon [[Michigan]], sarta sabagian wétan [[Minnesota]]. Dua téritori anyar ieu sacara resmi diadegkeun dumasar hukum dina taun 1800.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=47–48}} Dina ping 13 Méi 1800, Présidén [[John Adams]] ngangkat Harrison salaku gubernur Téritori Indiana, dumasar kana hubunganana sareng wilayah kulon sarta sikep pulitikna anu katingalna nétral.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=50–51}} Anjeunna ngabdi dina jabatan ieu salami dua belas taun.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/history/about-indiana-history-and-trivia/governors-portraits/list-of-governors/indiana-territorial-governor-william-henry-harrison-1773-1841|title=Indiana Territorial Governor|date=December 15, 2020|publisher=Indiana Historical Bureau|access-date=November 28, 2021}}</ref> Jabatan gubernurna dikonfirmasi ku Sénat sarta anjeunna ngundurkeun diri ti Kongrés pikeun janten gubernur téritori Indiana munggaran dina taun 1801.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=50–53}} ===Gubernur téritori Indiana=== {{see also|Sajarah perbudakan di Indiana|Téritori Indiana}} Harrison ngamimitian tugasna dina ping 10 Januari 1801, di [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]], puseur dayeuh Téritori Indiana.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=53}} Présidén [[Thomas Jefferson]] sareng [[James Madison]] mangrupa anggota Partéy Démokratik-Républik, sarta maranéhna ngangkat deui anjeunna janten gubernur dina taun 1803, 1806, sarta 1809.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Dina taun 1804, Harrison ditugaskeun pikeun ngokolakeun pamaréntahan sipil di [[Distrik Louisiana]]. Anjeunna ngajalankeun urusan distrik éta salami lima minggu dugi ka Téritori Louisiana sacara resmi diadegkeun dina ping 4 Juli 1805, sarta Brigadir Jenderal [[James Wilkinson]] nyepeng tugas salaku gubernur.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=21}} Dina taun 1805, Harrison ngawangun bumi gaya perkebunan caket Vincennes anu dingaranan [[Grouseland]], salaku panghormat kana manuk-manuk anu aya di éta lahan.{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=46}} Bumi anu gaduh 26 kamar éta mangrupa salah sahiji wangunan bata munggaran di téritori kasebat;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000018_text|title=Grouseland|publisher=National Register of Historic Places|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> sarta janten puseur kahirupan sosial katut pulitik di téritori salami anjeunna ngajabat gubernur.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://visitvincennes.org/attractions/grouseland-president-william-henry-harrison-mansion/|title=Grouseland|publisher=Historic Vincennes|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison ngadegkeun hiji universitas di Vincennes dina taun 1801, anu diresmikeun janten [[Universitas Vincennes]] dina ping 29 Nopémber 1806.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |title=History – Vincennes University |publisher=Vincennes University |access-date=November 8, 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816120836/http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |archive-date=August 16, 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816120836/http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |date=August 16, 2016 }}</ref> Puseur dayeuh téritori ahirna dipindahkeun ka [[Corydon, Indiana|Corydon]] dina taun 1813, sarta Harrison ngawangun bumi kadua di deukeut [[Harrison Spring|Harrison Valley]].<ref>{{cite web|url =https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/25b93/N/Corydon_HD_Harrison_CO_Nom.pdf|title =National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Corydon Historic District|access-date=November 30, 2021|last=Griffin|first=Frederick Porter| date=1972}}</ref> Tanggung jawab utama Harrison nyaéta kanggé kéngingkeun hak milik atas lahan Indindia anu bakal ngamungkinkeun padumukan di mangsa hareup sarta ningkatkeun populasi téritori, anu janten sarat kanggé janten nagara bagian. Anjeunna ogé sumanget kanggé ngalegaan téritori kusabab alesan pribadi, jalaran nasib pulitikna kabeungkeut kana robahna status [[Indiana]] janten nagara bagian.<ref name="Freehling"/> Salami anjeunna kéngingkeun kauntungan tina spékulasi tanah kanggé kapentingan pribadina, sarta miboga dua usaha panggilingan, anjeunna diaku salaku administrator anu saé, kalayan ayana perbaikan anu signifikan dina jalan sarta infrastruktur sanésna.<ref name="Freehling"/> Nalika Harrison diangkat deui janten gubernur téritori Indiana dina ping 8 Pébruari 1803, anjeunna dipasihan wewenang anu langkung lega kanggé ngayakeun rundayan sarta mutuskeun pajangjian sareng urang Indindia.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} [[Pajangjian St. Louis (1804)]] sareng [[Quashquame]] meryogikeun suku [[Suku Sauk|Sauk]] sareng [[Meskwaki]] kanggé nyerahkeun sabagian ageung wilayah kulon Illinois sarta sabagian [[Missouri]]. Seueur urang Sauk anu teu rido kana leungitna éta lahan, utamana pamingpin maranéhna, [[Black Hawk (pamingpin Sauk)|Black Hawk]].{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=87–89}} Harrison mikir yén [[Pajangjian Grouseland]] (1805) parantos ngademkeun sabagian urang Indindia, nanging kaayaan tetep panas di wilayah wates. [[Pajangjian Fort Wayne (1809)]] nimbulkeun katéngtréman anyar nalika Harrison mésér langkung ti {{convert|2.5|e6acre|km2|abbr=unit}} ti suku Potawatomi, Delaware, Miami, sareng Eel River. Sababaraha urang Indindia mangmang kana wewenang suku-suku anu milu dina éta pajangjian.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-indian/2017/09/29/treaty-fort-wayne-1809/|title=Treaty of Fort Wayne, 1809|publisher=Smithsonian Magazine|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison ogé tiasa ngajalankeun rupa-rupa urusan tanpa ditaros deui ku pamaréntah, jalaran administrasi pindah tangan ti Jefferson ka Madison.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna ngalaksanakeun prosés pajangjian sacara agrésif, nawarkeun subsidi ageung ka suku-suku sarta pamingpin maranéhna, supados kéngingkeun dukungan pulitik ti Jefferson sateuacan anjeunna lungsur jabatan.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/william-henry-harrison-shady-treaty-maker-and-indian-land-taker|title=William Henry Harrison: Shady Treaty Maker (quoting Owens)|publisher=Indian Country Today|last=Landry|first=Alysa|date=September 13, 2018 |access-date=November 14, 2021}}</ref> Panulis biografi Freehling negeskeun yén urang Indindia nganggap kapamilikan tanah téh milik babarengan, sapertos hawa anu diseuseup. Dina taun 1805, Harrison hasil kéngingkeun dugi ka 51.000.000 héktar lahan kanggé nagara ti urang Indindia, saatos nyuguhan lima kapala sukuna ku inuman keras, kalayan harga teu langkung ti sadolar per 20.000 héktar {{USDCY|1|1805}}, anu ngawengku dua per tilu wilayah [[Illinois]] sarta sabagian ageung Wisconsin jeung Missouri.<ref name="Freehling"/> Salian ti nimbulkeun katéngtréman sareng urang Indindia, sikep Harrison anu ngarojong perbudakan ngajantenkeun anjeunna teu dipikaresep ku para [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|abolisionis]] di Téritori Indiana, jalaran anjeunna nyobian pisan ngamajukeun perbudakan di éta téritori. Dina taun 1803, anjeunna ngalobi Kongrés kanggé nunda samentara salami sapuluh taun Pasal VI tina [[Ordonansi Kulon Kalér]] anu ngalarang perbudakan di Téritori Indiana.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=68–69}} Sanajan Harrison negeskeun yén panundaan éta diperyogikeun kanggé ngadorong padumukan sarta ngajantenkeun téritori mandiri sacara ékonomi sarta siap janten nagara bagian, usul éta gagal.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=69–72}} Alatan gagalna panundaan Pasal VI, dina taun 1807 législatur téritori, kalayan dukungan Harrison, ngesahkeun undang-undang anu ngawenangkeun "indentured servitude" (pagawé beulian kontrak) sarta masihan wewenang ka dunungan kanggé nangtukeun lami waktos damelna.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lib.niu.edu/1998/iht519802.html|title=Freedom's Early Ring|publisher=Illinois Periodicals Online|access-date=December 1, 2021|archive-date=November 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108185052/https://www.lib.niu.edu/1998/iht519802.html|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108185052/https://www.lib.niu.edu/1998/iht519802.html |date=November 8, 2021 }}</ref> Présidén Jefferson, nu nulis utama Ordonansi Kulon Kalér, ngayakeun pajangjian rasiah sareng [[James Lemen]] kanggé ngéléhkeun gerakan pro-perbudakan anu dirojong ku Harrison.<ref name="Peck">{{cite book|last=Peck|first=J. M.|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1915|title=The Jefferson-Lemen Compact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNASAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 28, 2010}}</ref> Anjeunna nyumbang $100 kanggé ngadorong Lemen dina gerakan abolisi sareng padamelan saé sanésna, sarta saatosna (dina taun 1808) nyumbang deui $20 {{USDCY|20|1808}} kanggé ngabantosan waragad garéja anu kawanoh salaku Bethel Baptist Church.<ref name="Peck"/> Di [[Indiana]], diadegkeunana garéja anti-perbudakan ngadorong warga kanggé nandatanganan pétisi sarta ngayakeun gerakan pulitik kanggé ngéléhkeun usaha Harrison dina ngalégalkeun perbudakan di téritori.<ref name="Peck"/> [[Téritori Indiana]] ngayakeun pamilihan kanggé majelis luhur sareng handap législatur kanggé munggaranana dina taun 1809. Harrison mendakan dirina teu sapamadegan sareng législatur saatos golongan abolisionis nyepeng kakawasaan, sarta bagian wétan Téritori Indiana tumuwuh janten wilayah anu seueur populasi anti-perbudakanana.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=21}} Majelis umum Téritori ngayakeun sidang dina taun 1810, sarta faksi anti-perbudakan langsung ngabatalkeun undang-undang "indentured servitude" anu sateuacanana disahkeun.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.capitolandwashington.com/blog/2021/02/25/a-brief-history-of-race-and-politics-in-indiana|title= A Brief History of Race and Politics in Indiana|date= February 25, 2021|publisher=Capitol & Washington|access-date=December 1, 2021}}</ref> Saatos taun 1809, législatur Indiana nyepeng wewenang anu langkung ageung sarta téritori éta maju nuju status nagara bagian.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} ==Jenderal Angkatan Darat== ===Tecumseh sareng Tippecanoe=== {{main|Perang Tecumseh|Perang Tippecanoe}} Lalawanan urang Indindia kana ékspansi Amérika ngahontal puncatna di handapeun lulugu dua sadulur suku Shawnee, [[Tecumseh]] sareng [[Tenskwatawa]] ("Sang Nabi"), dina konflik anu kawanoh salaku [[Perang Tecumseh]].{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=158–160}} Tenskwatawa ngayakinkeun suku-suku yén maranéhna bakal dijaga ku [[Roh Agung]] sarta moal aya bahaya anu ninggang upami maranéhna ngalawan para padumuk. Anjeunna ngadorong lalawanan ku cara nitah suku-suku sangkan mayar padagang bule ngan satengah tina hutangna sarta miceun sagala cara hirup jalma bule, kalebet pakéan, sanjata musket, sarta utamana inuman keras (whiskey).{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=158–160}} Harrison nampi béja ngeunaan ieu lalawanan ti mata-mata anu diteundeun di jero suku-suku éta, sarta ménta Madison kanggé ngawaragadan persiapan militer. Madison lila mutuskeunana, sarta Harrison nyobian ngayakeun rundayan ku cara ngintunkeun serat ka Tecumseh anu unina, "Blue Coats (prajurit AD AS) kami leuwih loba ti batan nu bisa kairit ku anjeun, sarta baju moro kami (milisi sukaréla) loba lir ibarat dangdaunan di leuweung atawa keusik di sisi walungan Wabash."<ref name="Freehling"/> [[File:Tecumseh02.jpg|thumb|upright|Gambaran [[Tecumseh]] taun 1915, anu dipercaya mangrupa turunan tina sketsa taun 1808]] Dina Agustus 1810, Tecumseh mingpin 400 prajurit nyorang [[Walungan Wabash]] kanggé papendak sareng Harrison di Vincennes. Maranéhna dangdos make cet perang, sarta jolna anu ujug-ujug téh mimitina mah nyieun miris para prajurit di Vincennes.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=164}} Para pamingpin éta kelompok dianteur ka [[Grouseland]], tempat maranéhna panggih jeung Harrison. Tecumseh nyarékan Harrison anu dianggapna sok nganggap réntéh, sarta keukeuh yén Pajangjian Fort Wayne téh teu sah, kalayan alesan yén hiji suku teu bisa ngajual tanah tanpa aya kasatujuan ti suku-suku séjénna. Anjeunna ménta Harrison kanggé ngabatalkeunana sarta ngingetkeun yén urang Amérika ulah nyoba nempatan lahan anu dijual dina éta pajangjian.<ref name="Freehling"/> Tecumseh ogé ngabéjaan Harrison yén anjeunna parantos ngancam bakal maéhan kapala-kapala suku anu nandatanganan pajangjian upami maranéhna ngajalankeun eusina, sarta nyebutkeun yén konpédérasi sukuna nuju tumuwuh gancang.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Harrison ngajawab yén unggal suku téh nu boga lahan masing-masing sarta bébas ngajualna sakahayangna. Anjeunna nolak klaim Tecumseh yén sakabéh urang Indindia téh hiji bangsa sarta nyebutkeun yén unggal suku bisa boga hubungan misah jeung Amérika Sarikat. Harrison boga pamadegan yén lamun enya Indindia téh hiji bangsa, tangtu Roh Agung bakal nyieun sakabéh suku nyarita dina hiji basa anu sarua.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Tecumseh ngaluarkeun "bantahan anu kacida sumangetna", dumasar kana basa saurang sejarawan, nanging Harrison teu ngalarti kana basana.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Tecumseh tuluy ngagorowok ka Harrison sarta nyebutna tukang bohong.<ref name="Freehling"/> Saurang urang Shawnee anu mihak ka Harrison nyiapkeun pistulna ti sisi kanggé méré tanda ka Harrison yén pidato Tecumseh bakal mawa kaributan, sarta sababaraha saksi ngalaporkeun yén Tecumseh nuju ngahudangkeun sumanget para prajuritna kanggé maéhan Harrison. Seueur di antarana mimiti ngaluarkeun sanjata, anu janten ancaman nyata kanggé Harrison sarta éta kota anu pangeusina ngan 1.000 urang. Harrison nyabut pedangna, sarta para prajurit Tecumseh mundur nalika para perwira militer ogé nyiapkeun sanjata kanggé ngabéla Harrison.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Kapala Suku [[Winamac]] anu bageur ka Harrison males argumén Tecumseh, mépéndé para prajurit sangkan baralik kalayan tengtrem sakumaha maranéhna datang kalayan tengtrem. Sateuacan angkat, Tecumseh ngabéjaan Harrison yén anjeunna bakal nyiar aliansi jeung Inggris upami Pajangjian Fort Wayne teu dibatalkeun.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=166}} Saatos éta pasamoan, Tecumseh indit nepungan loba suku di wilayah éta kalayan harepan bisa nyieun hiji [[Konpédérasi Tecumseh|konpédérasi]] kanggé merangan Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Tecumseh|title=Tecumseh|publisher=Ohio History Central|access-date=November 21, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227182121/https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Tecumseh |date=December 27, 2023 }}</ref> Harrison hariwang yén peta Tecumseh bakal ngancam status nagara bagian Indiana, sarta ogé masa depan pulitikna, ku cara ngantepkeun éta wilayah janten "pancicingan sababaraha urang biadab anu sangsara".<ref name="Freehling"/> Nalika Tecumseh nuju iinditan dina taun 1811, anjeunna masrahkeun kakuatan Indindia ka Tenskwatawa. Harrison ningali ieu salaku kasempetan, sarta méré saran ka Sekretaris Perang [[William Eustis]] kanggé mintonkeun kakuatan ka konpédérasi Indindia.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=167}} Sanajan parantos 13 taun teu turun ka médan perang, Harrison hasil ngayakinkeun Madison jeung Eustis kanggé méré wewenang paréntah ka anjeunna.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna mingpin pasukan ka kalér kalayan 950 urang prajurit kanggé nyingsieunan suku Shawnee sangkan daék damai, nanging suku-suku éta kalah ngalakukeun serangan dadakan dina wanci subuh ping 7 Nopémber dina [[Perang Tippecanoe|Battle of Tippecanoe]].{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=168}} Harrison bales narajang sarta hasil ngéléhkeun kakuatan suku-suku éta di [[Prophetstown State Park|Prophetstown]] di sisi walungan Wabash jeung [[Walungan Tippecanoe]]; ieu perang janten kasohor sarta anjeunna dipuji salaku pahlawan nasional. Sanajan pasukanna kaleungitan 62 urang anu palastra sarta 126 tatu, sarta urang Shawnee ngan 150 urang anu jadi korban, nanging visi "sang nabi" ngeunaan panangtayungan gaib téh geus runtag. Tenskwatawa sarta pasukanna kabur ka Kanada, sarta gerakan maranéhna kanggé ngahijikeun suku-suku di wilayah éta dina nolak asimilasi téh gagal.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=169}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Pirtle|first=Alfred|publisher=John P. Morton & Co.|year=1900|location=Louisville|title=The Battle of Tippecanoe| page=158 |isbn=978-0-7222-6509-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvA7AAAAMAAJ&q=Pirtle,+Alfred.+(1900).+The+Battle+of+Tippecanoe&pg=PR1}}</ref> Nalika ngalaporkeun ka Sekretaris Eustis, Harrison ngabéjaan yén aya perang deukeut Walungan Tippecanoe sarta anjeunna memang parantos ngantisipasi serangan éta. Laporan munggaran tacan écés pihak mana anu meunang, sahingga sekretaris nyangka éta téh hiji kéléhan, dugi ka aya laporan susulan anu ngajéntrékeun kaayaanana.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=219–220}} Nalika taya serangan kadua, kéléhan [[Suku Shawnee|Shawnee]] téh janten beuki pasti. Eustis nanyakeun naha Harrison teu ngayakeun persiapan anu cukup kanggé ngabénténgan kémahna tina serangan awal, sarta Harrison ngajawab yén anjeunna nganggap posisi harita geus cukup kuat. Ieu pacogrégan téh janten bibit masalah antara Harrison sareng Departemén Perang anu nuluy dugi ka mangsa Perang 1812.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Indiana|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryindiana00dillgoog|last=Dillon|first=John Brown|publisher=Bingham & Doughty|year=1859|isbn=978-0-253-20305-2|pages=466–471}}</ref> Freehling nyebutkeun yén kaparigelan Harrison anu tos "karahaan" ngabalukarkeun pasukanna nyieun hawu (api unggun) dina peuting sateuacan perang, anu matak posisi maranéhna katingali ku musuh sarta ngabalukarkeun serangan dadakan katut lobana korban.<ref name="Freehling"/> Mimitina mah média massa teu pati ngaliput ieu perang, dugi ka aya hiji koran di Ohio anu salah nafsirkeun laporan munggaran Harrison anu dikira éléh.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=220}} Nanging dina bulan Désémber, lolobana koran utama di Amérika parantos midangkeun carita ngeunaan kameunangan éta, sarta amarah publik ka urang Shawnee beuki ningkat.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=220–222}} Urang Amérika nyalahkeun Inggris anu dianggap ngangsonan suku-suku Indindia kanggé ngalakukeun kekerasan sarta nyadiakeun sanjata api, sarta Kongrés ngaluarkeun résolusi anu nyawad Inggris alatan pipilueun kana urusan jero nagara Amérika. Kongrés [[Déklarasi perang Amérika Sarikat ka Britania Raya|nyatakeun perang dina ping 18 Juni 1812]], sarta Harrison ninggalkeun Vincennes kanggé nyiar kalungguhan militer deui.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} ===Perang 1812=== [[File:Rembrandt Peale - William Henry Harrison - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Ieu potrét Harrison mimitina némbongkeun anjeunna nganggo papakéan sipil salaku delegasi kongrés dina taun 1800; seragamna nembé ditambahkeun saatos anjeunna ngabdi dina Perang 1812.|329x329px]] Pecahna perang sareng Inggris dina taun 1812 ngabalukarkeun konflik anu nuluy sareng urang Indindia di wilayah Kulon Kalér. Harrison kungsi ngabdi sakeudeung salaku mayor jenderal dina milisi [[Kentucky]] dugi ka pamaréntah ngangkat anjeunna dina ping 17 Séptémber pikeun mingpin [[Angkatan Darat Kulon Kalér (Amérika Sarikat)|Army of the Northwest]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Anjeunna nampi bayaran militer féderal pikeun jasana, sarta anjeunna ogé tetep nampi gaji gubernur téritori ti Séptémber dugi ka 28 Désémber, nalika anjeunna sacara resmi ngundurkeun diri tina jabatan gubernur sarta neraskeun pangabdian militerna. Panulis Gugin sarta St. Clair nyebutkeun yén éta pangunduran diri téh dipaksakeun ka anjeunna.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Harrison digantikeun ku John Gibson salaku palaksana tugas gubernur téritori.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Urang Amérika nandang kéléhan dina [[pangepungan Detroit]]. Jenderal [[James Winchester (jenderal)|James Winchester]] nawarkeun pangkat brigadir jenderal ka Harrison, nanging Harrison hoyong nyepeng kakawasaan pinuh atas angkatan darat éta. Présidén [[James Madison]] ngalungsurkeun Winchester tina jabatanana dina bulan Séptémber, sarta Harrison janten komandan pikeun para prajurit anu nembé ditarima.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Anjeunna nampi paréntah pikeun ngarebut deui Detroit sarta ngahudangkeun sumanget pasukan, nanging mimitina anjeunna nahan diri, jalaran teu kersa rurusuhan mawa perang ka arah kalér.<ref name="Freehling"/> Pasukan Inggris sareng sekutu Indindiana jauh langkung seueur jumlahna dibandingkeun pasukan Harrison, sahingga Harrison ngawangun posisi pertahanan salami usum tiris di sapanjang [[Walungan Maumee]] di kalér-kulon Ohio. Anjeunna dingaranan [[Bénténg Meigs|Fort Meigs]] kanggé ngahormat gubernur Ohio [[Return J. Meigs Jr.]] Anjeunna tuluy nampi pasukan bantuan dina taun 1813, mimiti narajang, sarta mingpin angkatan darat ka kalér pikeun perang. Anjeunna kéngingkeun kameunangan di Téritori Indiana sarta Ohio, sarta hasil ngarebut deui Detroit sateuacan nyerang ka [[Kanada]] Luhur ([[Ontario]]). Pasukanna ngéléhkeun Inggris, sarta Tecumseh palastra, dina ping 5 Oktober 1813, dina [[Perang Thames|Battle of the Thames]]. Ieu dianggap salaku salah sahiji kameunangan gedé Amérika dina perang éta, kadua saatos [[Perang New Orleans|Battle of New Orleans]], sarta ngukuhkeun reputasi nasional pikeun Harrison.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=257–70}}<ref name="Freehling"/> Dina taun 1814, Sekretaris Perang [[John Armstrong Jr.]] ngabagi komando angkatan darat, nempatkeun Harrison di hiji pos anu jauh sarta mikeun kadali garis hareup ka salah saurang bawahan Harrison.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=232–244}} Armstrong sareng Harrison teu sapamadegan ngeunaan kurangna koordinasi sarta éféktivitas dina invasi ka Kanada, sahingga Harrison ngundurkeun diri tina angkatan darat dina bulan Méi.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=290–291}}{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=24}} Saatos perang réngsé, Kongrés ngayakeun pamariksaan kana pangunduran diri Harrison sarta nangtukeun yén Armstrong parantos nindak sacara sawenang-wenang ka Harrison salami kampanye militerna sarta pangunduran dirina téh mémang boga alesan anu kuat. Kongrés nganugrahkeun medali emas ka Harrison pikeun jasa-jasana salami perang.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Presidential Series – William H. Harrison|url=https://www.nationalguard.mil/Resources/Image-Gallery/Historical-Paintings/Presidential-Series/William-H-Harrison/|access-date=June 18, 2020|publisher=National Guard}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918175742/https://www.nationalguard.mil/Resources/Image-Gallery/Historical-Paintings/Presidential-Series/William-H-Harrison/ |date=September 18, 2020 }}</ref> Harrison sareng Gubernur [[Téritori Michigan]] [[Lewis Cass]] tanggung jawab pikeun ngayakeun rundayan [[Pajangjian Greenville (1814)|pajangjian damai]] sareng urang Indindia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Treaty_with_the_Wyandots,_Delawares,_Shawnees,_Senecas,_and_Miamis_(1814)|title=Treaty with the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawnees, Senecas, and Miamis (1814)|publisher=Ohio History Central|access-date=December 1, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227183649/https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Treaty_with_the_Wyandots,_Delawares,_Shawnees,_Senecas,_and_Miamis_(1814) |date=December 27, 2023 }}</ref> Présidén Madison ngangkat Harrison dina bulan Juni 1815 pikeun mantuan rundayan pajangjian kadua sareng urang Indindia anu kawanoh salaku [[Pajangjian Springwells]], di mana suku-suku éta nyerahkeun lahan anu lega di wilayah kulon, nyadiakeun lahan tambahan pikeun pameseran sarta padumukan Amérika.<ref name="cb"/> ==Kahirupan saatos perang== ===Politikus Ohio sarta diplomat=== [[File:WmHHarrison-poster.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.95|Postér anu muji kana sagala prestasi Harrison]] Harrison ngundurkeun diri tina angkatan darat dina taun 1814, teu lami sateuacan réngséna Perang 1812, sarta mulang deui ka kulawarga katut tegalanana di [[North Bend, Ohio]].<ref name="Freehling"/> Freehling nyebatkeun yén pengeluaranana harita jauh langkung ageung batan panghasilanana sahingga anjeunna kabeulit hutang, yén Harrison langkung milih "popularitas batan kawajiban" ku cara milarian pujian dina pésta-pésta di New York, Washington, sarta Philadelphia, sarta janten jalma anu moro jabatan.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna kapilih dina taun 1816 pikeun ngaréngsékeun masa jabatan [[John McLean]] di DPR AS, ngawakilan [[distrik kongrés ka-1 Ohio]] dugi ka taun 1819. Anjeunna nyobian kéngingkeun jabatan Sekretaris Perang di handapeun Présidén Monroe dina taun 1817 nanging éléh ku [[John C. Calhoun]]. Anjeunna ogé teu kabagéan jabatan diplomatik ka Rusia.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna kapilih janten anggota [[Sénat Ohio]] dina taun 1819 sarta ngabdi dugi ka taun 1821, saatos éléh dina pamilihan gubernur Ohio taun 1820.<ref name="cb" /> Anjeunna maju dina [[Pamilihan DPR Amérika Sarikat di Ohio 1822|pamilihan 1822]] pikeun DPR Amérika Sarikat, nanging éléh ku [[James W. Gazlay]].<ref name="Freehling"/><ref>{{cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/pg15bf880 |website=Tufts Digital Collections and Archives |access-date=March 5, 2022 |date=January 11, 2012}}</ref> Anjeunna kapilih janten anggota Sénat AS dina taun 1824, sarta janten pamilih présidén (elector) Ohio dina taun 1820 pikeun [[James Monroe]]{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|1899|p=102}} sarta pikeun [[Henry Clay]] dina taun 1824.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|1899|p=145}} Harrison diangkat dina taun 1828 salaku [[menteri plenipotentiary]] (utusan pinuh) ka [[Gran Kolombia]], sahingga anjeunna ngundurkeun diri ti Kongrés sarta ngabdi dina jabatan anyarna dugi ka ping 8 Maret 1829.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} Anjeunna dugi ka [[Bogotá]] dina ping 22 Désémber 1828, sarta mendakan kaayaan Kolombia anu matak sedih. Anjeunna ngalaporkeun ka Sekretaris Nagara yén éta nagara nuju aya dina bangbaluh anarki, sarta [[Simón Bolívar]] badé janten diktator militer.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} Anjeunna nyerat serat teguran anu sopan ka Bolívar, nyatakeun yén "pamaréntahan anu pangkuatna nyaéta anu paling bébas" sarta ngajurung Bolívar pikeun ngarojong kamekaran démokrasi. Salaku jawabanana, Bolívar nyerat yén Amérika Sarikat "sigana parantos ditakdirkeun ku Gusti pikeun nyusahkeun Amérika (Latin) kalayan sagala kasangsaraan dina nami kabébasan", hiji ungkapan anu janten kacida kasohorna di Amérika Latin.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} Freehling nunjukkeun yén léngkah Harrison di Kolombia téh "goréng sarta mindeng salah", yén anjeunna gagal ngajaga posisi nétral dina urusan Kolombia ku cara sacara kabuka nentang Bolivar, sahingga Kolombia ménta sangkan anjeunna diganti. [[Andrew Jackson]] mimiti ngajabat dina Maret 1829, sarta narik deui Harrison supados tiasa nempatkeun jalma pilihanana sorangan dina éta jabatan.<ref name="Freehling"/> Penulis biografi James Hall ngaklaim yén Harrison mendakan ayana despotisme militer di Kolombia sarta yén "pamandangan liberalna, integritas républikna anu teguh, sarta saderhanana papakéan katut paripolahna, kacida kontrasna sareng pamandangan sawenang-wenang sarta paripolah méwah para pajabat publik, sahingga moal mungkin anjeunna janten paporit pikeun maranéhna anu tos ngarebut kakawasaan éta pamaréntahan. Maranéhna sieun yén rahayat bakal ningali bédana antara patriot sajati sareng patriot anu ngan saukur pura-pura, sarta ngamimitian runtuyan intimidasi ka menteri urang, anu ngajantenkeun situasina kacida teu genahna."{{sfn|Hall|1836|p=301}} Pamadegan anu sarupa ngeunaan kaayaan ieu ogé ditepikeun ku panulis biografi Samuel Burr. Harrison, saatos ninggalkeun jabatanana nanging masih kénéh aya di [[Gran Kolombia|nagara éta]], nyerat serat sakitar sapuluh kaca ka Bolivar, anu dimuat sacara lengkep dina biografi Hall sarta Burr. Éta serat matak ngahéman Hall alatan "prinsip kabébasan anu jero" ti Harrison. Burr ngajelaskeun éta serat salaku "pinuh ku kawijaksanaan, kahadéan, sarta patriotisme... sarta prinsip anu pangmurnina".{{sfn|Hall|1836|p=301}}{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=256}} ===Rahayat biasa=== Harrison mulang ka Amérika Sarikat sarta ka tegalanana di North Bend, hirup dina katenangan saatos ampir opat dasawarsa ngabdi ka pamaréntah. Anjeunna henteu ngumpulkeun kabeungharan anu loba salami hirupna, sarta hirup tina tabungan, mancén anu teu sabaraha, sarta panghasilan tina tegalanana. Burr nyutat M. Chavalier, anu pendak sareng Harrison di [[Cincinnati]] harita, sarta ngagambarkeun Harrison salaku jalma anu "miskin, gaduh kulawarga anu seueur jumlahna, ditingalkeun ku pamaréntah féderal, nanging jagjag kalayan pamikiran anu merdéka".{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=Appendix}} Dina bulan Méi 1817, Harrison janten salah saurang anggota pangadeg [[vestry]] jemaah [[Garéja Épiskopal (Amérika Sarikat)|Episcopal]], [[Katedral Christ Church (Cincinnati)|Christ Church]] di puseur kota [[Cincinnati]] (ayeuna [[Katedral Christ Church (Cincinnati)|Christ Church Cathedral]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Morris |first=J. W. |title=Christ Church Cincinnati, 1817–1967 |publisher=Cincinnati Lithographing Ohio Press |year=1969}}</ref> Anjeunna terus ngabdi salaku anggota vestry dugi ka taun 1819, sarta deui dina taun 1824.<ref name=":0" /> Para pangrojong lokal datang mantuan Harrison ku cara ngangkat anjeunna janten [[Panitera Pangadilan]] pikeun [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]], di mana anjeunna damel ti taun 1836 dugi ka 1840.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Clerk of Courts Office|publisher=Hamilton County Clerk of Courts|url=http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp|access-date=December 6, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614052246/http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp|archive-date=June 14, 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614052246/http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp |date=June 14, 2007 }}</ref> Chevalier nyarios, "Rencanganana di bagian wétan nyarioskeun badé ngajantenkeun anjeunna Présidén, sedengkeun di dieu urang ngajantenkeun anjeunna panitera di pangadilan handap."{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=Appendix}} Anjeunna ogé melak jagong sarta ngadegkeun panyatuaan (distillery) pikeun ngahasilkeun wiski, nanging anjeunna nutup éta usaha saatos anjeunna ngaraos kaganggu ku pangaruh buruk alkohol ka para palangganna. Dina biantara payuneun Déwan Pertanian [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]] dina taun 1831, anjeunna nyebatkeun yén anjeunna parantos dosa margi ngadamel wiski sarta miharep batur tiasa diajar tina kasalahanana sarta ngeureunkeun produksi inuman keras.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=257–258}} Sakitar waktos ieu, anjeunna pendak sareng tokoh abolisionis sarta konduktor [[Underground Railroad]] [[George DeBaptiste]] anu linggih di deukeut [[Madison, Indiana|Madison]], sarta duanana janten sobat. Harrison nyerat harita, "urang tiasa ngarep-ngarep datangna hiji poé nalika panonpoé Amérika Kalér moal ningali deui ayana budak beulian."<ref>{{cite book|title=A Patriot's History of the United States|first1=Larry|last1=Schweikart|first2=Michael|last2=Allen|publisher=Easton Press|location=Norwalk, Conn.|year=2004|page=233|isbn=1-59523-001-7}}</ref> DeBaptiste janten palayan pribadina, sarta saatosna janten pangurus (steward) di Gedong Bodas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tobin|first=Jacqueline L.|title=From Midnight to Dawn: The Last Tracks of the Underground Railroad|url=https://archive.org/details/frommidnighttoda0000tobi|publisher=Anchor|location=Detroit|year=2008|pages=[https://archive.org/details/frommidnighttoda0000tobi/page/200 200]–209|isbn=978-1-4001-0354-6}}</ref> Sanajan dibantah ku sababaraha réngréngan Harrison, Burr nutup catetanana ngeunaan Harrison ku cara ngagambarkeun hiji kajadian, nyaéta resepsi kanggé jenderal éta di Philadelphia dina taun 1836, anu nunjukkeun kumaha populérna Harrison harita. Numutkeun Burr, "Rébuan jalma minuhan darmaga jalan Chesnut nalika anjeunna sumping, sarta ngabagéakeun anjeunna ku surak anu terus-terusan nalika anjeunna mendarat. Anjeunna naék kana [[barouche]] (keréta kuda) nanging jalma-jalma maresek ka hareup kalayan kacida sumangetna, sahingga kuda-kudana janten sarieuneun. Aya gerakan pikeun ngaleupaskeun tali kuda nalika Jenderal nyarios ka sababaraha urang sarta nyobian nyegahna; nanging kuda-kuda éta gancang pisan teu kaurus, sahingga kedah dileupaskeun. Aya tali anu dibawa, sarta ditalikeun kana karéta, anu tuluy ditarik ku jalma-jalma ka Marshall House. Ieu tindakan mangrupikeun cetusan spontan ti sapuluh rébu haté anu nganuhunkeun. Urang Pennsylvania kantos perang di handapeun éta pahlawan, sarta maranéhna micinta anjeunna. Urang nyarioskeun hal ieu sacara husus, margi urang janten saksi mata kana sagala anu lumangsung."{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=264–265}} ===Kampanye présidén 1836=== {{main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836}} Harrison mangrupa calon présidén Whig ti bagian kulon dina taun 1836, salah sahiji ti opat calon régional partéy Whig. Calon sanésna nyaéta [[Daniel Webster]], [[Hugh Lawson White]], sareng [[Willie P. Mangum]]. Munculna leuwih ti hiji calon Whig téh mangrupikeun upaya pikeun ngéléhkeun Wakil Présidén petahana, [[Martin Van Buren]], anu mangrupa calon Démokrat populér pilihan Jackson.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Campaigns and Elections|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/campaigns-and-elections| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=January 20, 2022| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Urang Démokrat nuduh yén ku cara majukeun sababaraha calon, Whig sabenerna hayang nyegah kameunangan Van Buren dina "electoral college", sarta maksa pamilihan sangkan diputuskeun ku DPR.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1836|title=U.S. Presidential Election of 1836|publisher=Britannica|access-date=January 20, 2022}}</ref> Upami enya aya rencana kitu, nanging éta rencana téh gagal. Harrison nempatan urutan kadua, sarta unggul di salapan ti dua puluh genep nagara bagian dina Uni.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/><ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="shp">{{cite web|title=How Close Were The Presidential Elections?|last=Shepperd|first=Michael|publisher=Michigan State University|url=https://www.msu.edu/~sheppa28/elections.html#1836|access-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref> Harrison maju di sakabéh nagara bagian non-perbudakan iwal ti Massachusetts, sarta di nagara bagian perbudakan sapertos Delaware, Maryland, sarta Kentucky. White maju di sésa nagara bagian perbudakan lianna iwal ti South Carolina. [[Daniel Webster]] maju di Massachusetts, sarta Mangum di South Carolina.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ershkowitz|first=Herbert B.|title=American Presidential Campaigns and Elections|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2020|isbn=978-1-3154-9713-6}}</ref> Van Buren meunangkeun pamilihan kalayan 170 sora éléktoral.<ref name="Britannica"/> Parobahan ngan sakitar 4.000 sora di Pennsylvania sabenerna bisa mikeun 30 sora éléktoral nagara bagian éta ka Harrison, sarta pamilihan téh bakal diputuskeun ku DPR.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=42&year=1836&f=0&off=0&elect=0 |title=USA Election Polls-Pennsylvania 1836 |publisher=Pennsylvania Election Results Home |access-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081117062058/http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=42&year=1836&f=0&off=0&elect=0 |archive-date=November 17, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="shp"/> ===Kampanye présidén 1840=== {{main|Kampanye présidén William Henry Harrison 1840}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1840.svg|thumb|upright=0.85|right|Peta Sora Éléktoral 1840]] Harrison nyanghareupan petahana Van Buren salaku calon tunggal ti Whig dina pamilihan taun 1840. Partéy Whig ningali Harrison salaku urang kidul pituin sarta pahlawan perang, anu bakal kontras pisan sareng Van Buren anu katingalna angkuh, teu paduli, sarta aristokratik.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> Anjeunna dipilih ngéléhkeun anggota partéy séjén anu langkung kontroversial, sapertos Clay sareng Webster; kampanyéna nonjolkeun catetan militérna sarta museur kana lemahna ékonomi AS anu diakibatkeun ku [[Panik 1837]].{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=39}} Urang Whig nyalahkeun Van Buren atas masalah ékonomi sarta néléhkeunana "Van Ruin" (Van Tukang Ruksak).{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=39}} Sabalikna, urang Démokrat ngaléléwé Harrison anu tos sepuh ku sebutan "Granny Harrison, the petticoat general" (Nini Harrison, jenderal samping), jalaran anjeunna ngundurkeun diri tina angkatan darat sateuacan Perang 1812 réngsé. Maranéhna ogé nunjukkeun ka para pamilih yén upami nami Harrison diéjah tibalik bakal janten: "No Sirrah" (Moal, Dunungan). Maranéhna ngagambarkeun anjeunna salaku lalaki sepuh ti kampung anu tinggaleun jaman, anu langkung milih "[[Kampanye gubug kai|calik di gubug kaina bari nginum sari apel (hard cider)]]" batan ngurus pamaréntahan nagara. Ieu strategi téh kalah malik janten pakarang makan tuan nalika Harrison sareng pasanganana, [[John Tyler]], ngajantenkeun gubug kai (log cabin) sarta sari apel (hard cider) salaku simbol kampanye. Kampanyéna ngagunakeun éta simbol dina spanduk sarta postér, malah nyieun botol sari apel anu bentukna sapertos gubug kai, sadayana kanggé ngaitkeun éta calon sareng "rahayat biasa".{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|pp=39–40}} Freehling nyerat yén, "Hiji koran pro-Van Buren anu kuciwa nyerat saatos kéléhanana, 'Urang parantos ditalukkeun ku nyanyian, ditalukkeun ku kabohongan, sarta ditalukkeun ku inuman.' Dina hiji kalimah, ieu ngagambarkeun prosés pulitik Amérika anu anyar."<ref name= "WHH - American Franchise">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/the-american-franchise|first=William|last=Freehling|title=William Harrison: The American Franchise|publisher=University of Virginia Miller Center|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|date=October 4, 2016|access-date=January 22, 2022}}</ref> Harrison sabenerna asalna ti kulawarga jegud di Virginia anu miboga budak beulian, nanging kampanyéna mintonkeun anjeunna salaku urang wates leuweung anu saderhana dumasar kana gaya anu dipopulérkeun ku [[Andrew Jackson]], bari ngagambarkeun Van Buren salaku elitist jegud.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|pp=39–40}} Conto anu paling diinget nyaéta [[Biantara Séndok Emas]] (Gold Spoon Oration) anu ditepikeun ku wawakil Whig ti Pennsylvania, [[Charles Ogle (politikus)|Charles Ogle]], di DPR, anu ngaléléwé gaya hirup méwah Van Buren di Gedong Bodas sarta pengeluaranana anu hambur.<ref name=Bradley-70-71>{{cite book|author=Bradley, Elizabeth L.|title=Knickerbocker: The Myth behind New York|url=https://archive.org/details/knickerbockermyt0000brad |url-access=registration|location=New Brunswick, NJ|publisher=Rivergate|pages=[https://archive.org/details/knickerbockermyt0000brad/page/70 70]–71|isbn=978-0-8135-4516-5|year=2009|access-date=November 9, 2021}}</ref> Urang Whig ogé nyiptakeun hiji yel-yel di mana jalma-jalma bakal nyiduhkeun ciduh bako bari ngagorowok "wirt-wirt", sarta hal ieu ogé nunjukkeun bédana antara para calon dina mangsa pamilihan harita:<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> {{poemquote| Si Tip maké baju tinun saderhana, teu maké kaméja rumbai: wirt-wirt, Tapi si Matt boga piring emas, manéhna mah budak leutik bau kénéh jéngkol: wirt-wirt!}} Urang Whig ngagulkeun catetan militer Harrison sarta reputasina salaku pahlawan dina Perang Tippecanoe. Slogan kampanye "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler too|Tippecanoe and Tyler, Too]]" janten salah sahiji anu pangterahna dina sajarah pulitik Amérika.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=41}} Nalika Van Buren kampanye ti jero Gedong Bodas, Harrison mah turun langsung ka lapangan, ngahibur rahayat ku cara nirukeun gorowok perang Indindia, sarta hasil ngalihkeun perhatian masarakat tina kasisitan ékonomi nagara. Dina Juni 1840, rapat akbar Harrison di lokasi urut perang Tippecanoe dihadiran ku 60.000 urang.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> Désa North Bend, Ohio, sarta para alumni [[Universitas Negeri Ohio]] (OSU) ngaklaim yén landihan nagara bagian "Buckeyes" asalna tina pesen kampanye Harrison.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northbendohio.org/Buckeyes.html|title=Buckeyes?|publisher=Village of North Bend}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251102175457/https://www.northbendohio.org/Buckeyes.html |date=2025-11-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528074916/https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too/|archive-date=May 28, 2022|url-status=dead|title=Tippecanoe and Buckeyes Too|date=August 29, 2016|publisher=Ohio State University|access-date=January 21, 2022}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528074916/https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too/ |date=May 28, 2022 }}</ref> Kampanye Harrison ogé janten korban tina naon anu disebut salaku "[[Kejutan Oktober]]" munggaran di éta nagara. Sababaraha poé sateuacan pamilihan, Departemén Kaadilan Van Buren nuduh yén pajabat Partéy Whig parantos ngalakukeun "penipuan anu kacida gedéna sarta jahat," nyaéta ku cara mayar urang Pennsylvania sangkan indit ka New York pikeun milih calon ti Whig dua taun sateuacanana.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://jonathanturley.org/2024/10/07/jack-smiths-october-surprise-was-not-that-surprising-and-that-is-the-problem/#more-224035|title=Jack Smith's October Surprise|last=Turley|first=Jonathan|date=October 7, 2024|website=Res Ipsa Loquitur|publisher=Jonathan Turley|access-date=October 7, 2024}}</ref> [[Tingkat partisipasi pamilih]] naék drastis ka angka 80%, 20 poin langkung luhur batan pamilihan sateuacanana.<ref name= "WHH - American Franchise"/> Harrison meunang mutlak dina Electoral College, 234 sora éléktoral ngalawan 60 sora pikeun Van Buren. Selisih sora rahayat (popular vote) mah langkung heureut, nyaéta kirang ti 150.000 sora, sanajan anjeunna unggul di salapan belas ti dua puluh genep nagara bagian.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=41}}{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=25}} ==Jabatan Présidén (1841)== ===Pelantikan=== {{Infobox administration | name = Mangsa Jabatan Présidén William Henry Harrison | term_start = 4 Maret 1841 | term_end = 4 April 1841 | vicepresident = [[John Tyler]] | cabinet = ''[[#Tekanan_patronase|Tingali daptar]]'' | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] | seat = [[Gedong Bodas]] | predecessor = [[Mangsa Jabatan Présidén Martin Van Buren|Martin Van Buren]] | successor = [[Mangsa Jabatan Présidén John Tyler|John Tyler]] | seal = 1840s US presidential seal.png | seal_caption = Segel présidén<br />(1840–1850) }} [[File:Harrison inauguration.jpg|thumb|Pelantikan taun 1841]] Nalika Harrison sumping ka Washington, anjeunna hoyong némbongkeun yén anjeunna masih kénéh pahlawan Tippecanoe anu tangguh sarta mangrupa lalaki anu langkung terdidik sarta wijaksana batan karikatur urang kampung anu digambarkeun salami kampanye. Anjeunna [[Pelantikan William Henry Harrison|ngucapkeun sumpah jabatan]] dina ping 4 Maret 1841, hiji poé anu tiris sarta baseuh.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration">{{cite web |title= American Treasures–Harrison's Inauguration|date=August 2007|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr22a.html#obj14|publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=September 21, 2009}}</ref> Anjeunna nahan hawa tiris sarta milih kanggé henteu nganggo japo (overcoat) atanapi topi, naék kuda nuju ka upacara agung, sarta tuluy nepikeun biantara pelantikan pangpanjangna dina sajarah Amérika<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> kalayan jumlah 8.445 kecap. Anjeunna meryogikeun waktos ampir dua jam kanggé macakeunana, sanajan sobatna anu sasama urang Whig, [[Daniel Webster]], parantos ngédit éta téks sangkan henteu panjang teuing.<ref name = iap/> Freehling boga pamadegan yén biantara sapertos kieu téh sabenerna mah lumrah harita, sarta ironina téh kacida jero, margi Harrison, "saurang nu saumur hirup moro jabatan, kapilih ku pulitik anu kacida partisan, nanging malah nyawad kadua prakték éta sacara pedes".<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/> Éta biantara pelantikan mangrupa pernyataan lengkep ngeunaan agénda Partéy [[Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]], panolakan kana kawijakan Jackson sarta Van Buren, sarta hiji-hijina artikulasi formal ti Harrison ngeunaan pendekatanna kana jabatan présidén.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/domestic-affairs|last=Freehling|first=William|title=William Harrison: Domestic Affairs|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|access-date=January 22, 2022|date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Éta biantara dimimitian ku rasa hormat Harrison kana kapercayaan anu dipasrahkeun ka anjeunna: {{blockquote|Sakiyeu kuatna maksad sim kuring ayeuna kanggé ngawujudkeun harepan rahayat anu luhur budina sarta pinuh kapercayaan, sim kuring terang pisan kana gogoda anu picilakaeun tina ageungna kakuasaan anu parantos dipasrahkeun ku rahayat ka panangan sim kuring... nanging sim kuring masrahkeun kapercayaan utama sim kuring kana pitulung Pangawasa Nu Maha Kawasa anu salami ieu parantos ngajaga sim kuring.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}} Harrison jangji bakal ngadegkeun deui [[Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat]] sarta ngalegaan kapasitas kiréditna ku cara ngaluarkeun mata uang kertas dina [[Sistem Amérika (rencana ékonomi)|Sistem Amérika]] tatanan [[Henry Clay]].<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> Anjeunna boga maksud kanggé gumantung kana tinimbangan Kongrés dina urusan législatif, sarta ngan bakal ngagunakeun hak véto upami hiji undang-undang dianggap inkonstitusional, sarta bakal ngarobah [[sistem spoils]] (pembagian jabatan) gaya Jackson.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/> Anjeunna jangji bakal ngagunakeun kakawasaan kanggé milih staf anu mumpuni, sanés kanggé nguatkeun posisina di pamaréntahan, sarta dina kaayaan naon waé ogé anjeunna moal maju kanggé masa jabatan kadua. Anjeunna nyawad pemborosan kauangan ti pamaréntahan sateuacanana sarta jangji moal pipilueun kana kawijakan kauangan Kongrés. Sacara umum, Harrison jangji kanggé janten présidén anu "lemah", masrahkeun kaputusan ka Kongrés salaku "Cabang Utama", saluyu sareng prinsip Whig.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/><ref name = iap>{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison Inaugural Address|work=Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States|publisher=Bartleby|url=http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres26.html|access-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé nyabit ngeunaan masalah [[Perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|perbudakan]] anu nuju panas. Salaku jalma anu miboga budak beulian, Harrison satuju yén nagara bagian gaduh hak kanggé ngatur éta urusan sorangan: {{blockquote|Garis anu misahkeun kakawasaan warga nagara hiji nagara bagian sareng nagara bagian sanésna katingalina parantos ditarik sacara écés... Upaya warga hiji nagara bagian kanggé ngatur lembaga domestik nagara bagian sanésna ngan bakal ngakibatkeun rasa teu percaya sarta timburu, anu janten tanda bakal ayana perpecahan, kekerasan, sarta perang sadulur.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}} Nalika badé mungkas biantarana, anjeunna nyelapkeun kapercayaanana kana [[kabébasan beragama]] bari nyobian mintonkeun dirina salaku bagian tina aliran kaagamaan utama sanés panyimpang atanapi anggota minoritas: {{blockquote|Sim kuring nganggap kasempetan ieu cukup penting sarta suci kanggé nganyatakeun ka sasama warga nagara ngeunaan rasa hormat anu jero kana agama Kristen sarta kapercayaan anu kuat yén moral anu saé, kabébasan beragama, sarta rasa tanggung jawab kaagamaan anu adil téh kacida raketna sareng kabagjaan anu sajati.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}} Biantara Harrison anu panjang éta méré gambaran anu rada samar ngeunaan naon anu bakal ditawarkeun ku pamaréntahanana ka rahayat Amérika Sarikat. Anjeunna nyatakeun ngan bakal ngajabat hiji périodeu sarta moal nyalahgunakeun hak véto. Harrison nolak nyiptakeun skéma kauangan sorangan kanggé nagara; sabalikna, anjeunna masrahkeun éta sapinuhna ka Kongrés. Anjeunna nolak ngaganggu wilayah [[Amérika Sarikat Bagian Kidul]] dina urusan perbudakan. Anjeunna henteu ngabahas ngeunaan tarif sarta distribusi. Anjeunna sakedik pisan nyabit ngeunaan bank nasional, iwal ti nyatakeun yén anjeunna kabuka kana mata uang kertas batan koin logam. Konsép Harrison ngeunaan jabatan présidén téh kacida kawatesna, saluyu sareng idéologi pulitik Whig.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=140}} Saatos biantara, anjeunna milu dina parade pelantikan nyorang jalanan,<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> nangtung salami tilu jam kanggé sasalaman di Gedong Bodas, sarta ngahadiran tilu pésta dansa (ball) pelantikan dina peuting éta,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |title=Inaugural Ball |publisher=Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies |date=June 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225184825/http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |archive-date=February 25, 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225184825/http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |date=February 25, 2016 }}</ref> kalebet pésta di [[Carusi's Saloon]] anu dingaranan pésta "Tippecanoe" kalayan 1.000 tamu anu mayar $10 per urang (sarua sareng $371 dina taun 2025).<ref>{{cite web |title=Current Value of $10 from 1841 |url=https://www.officialdata.org/us/inflation/1841?amount=10 |access-date=September 16, 2025 |publisher=CPI Inflation Calculator}}</ref> ===Tekanan patronase=== Clay mangrupa pamingpin urang Whig sarta législator anu kawasa, ogé saurang calon présidén anu gagal, sahingga anjeunna miharep boga pangaruh anu ageung dina pamaréntahan Harrison. Anjeunna poho kana jangji partéyna sorangan kanggé ngaleungitkeun sistem "spoils" sarta nyobian mangaruhan tindakan Harrison sateuacan sarta salami jabatanana anu sakedap, utamana dina nyorong jalma-jalma pilihanna kanggé nempatan posisi Kabinét sarta jabatan présidén lianna. Harrison nolak éta tekanan bari nyarios, "Pa Clay, anjeun poho yén ''sim kuring'' anu janten Présidén."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HXFIAAAAYAAJ&q=%22%20%22Mr.%20Clay,%20you%20forget%20%22|page=379|journal=Magazine of American History|volume=VIII|issue=6|date=June 1882|title=The annexation of Texas}}</ref> Ieu pacogrégan beuki panas nalika Harrison milih [[Daniel Webster]] salaku Sekretaris Nagara, saingan utama Clay dina ngawasa Partéy Whig. Harrison ogé katingalina masihan sababaraha posisi penting ka para pangrojong Webster. Hiji-hijina konsési kanggé Clay nyaéta milih anak didiuna, [[John J. Crittenden]], kanggé posisi Jaksa Agung. Sanajan kitu, ieu guntreng téh terus nuluy dugi ka pupusna sang présidén.{{sfn|Remini|1997|pp=511–515}} {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | align = right | Name = Harrison | President = William Henry Harrison | President date = 1841 | Vice President = [[John Tyler]] | Vice President date = 1841 | State = [[Daniel Webster]] | State date = 1841 | War = [[John Bell (politikus Tennessee)|John Bell]] | War date = 1841 | Treasury = [[Thomas Ewing]] | Treasury date = 1841 | Justice = [[John J. Crittenden]] | Justice date = 1841 | Post = [[Francis Granger]] | Post date = 1841 | Navy = [[George Edmund Badger]] | Navy date = 1841 }} Clay sanés hiji-hijina jalma anu miharep kauntungan tina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|kapilihna Harrison]]. Réwu jalma anu moro jabatan daratang ka Gedong Bodas, anu harita kabuka kanggé saha waé anu hoyong pendak sareng présidén. Sabagéan ageung padamelan Harrison salami sabulan janten présidén téh nyaéta kawajiban sosial sarta nampi tamu di Gedong Bodas. Anjeunna parantos dibilayan kanggé nyusun administrasi sateuacan pelantikan, nanging anjeunna nolak margi hoyong fokus kana acara perayaan. Hasilna, para panyiar damel ngantosan anjeunna unggal waktos sarta minuhan Gedong Eksekutif, bari teu aya prosés kanggé ngatur sarta milih maranéhna.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> Dina serat anu kaping 10 Maret, Harrison nyerat, "Sim kuring kacida diganggu ku lobana jalma anu sumping ka sim kuring sahingga sim kuring teu tiasa masihan perhatian anu merenah kana urusan sim kuring sorangan."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?175070|title=Letter from Harrison to R. Buchanan, Esq., March 10, 1841|publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation|access-date=November 9, 2021|archive-date=June 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618235507/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?175070|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Layanan Marshal Amérika Sarikat|Marshal AS]] pikeun [[Washington, D.C.|Distrik Columbia]], Alexander Hunter, nginget hiji kajadian nalika Harrison dikepung ku para pamuru jabatan anu ngahalangan anjeunna nuju ka rapat kabinét; nalika pamentana sangkan maranéhna méré jalan teu dipaliré, Harrison ahirna "nampi petisi maranéhna, anu minuhan leungeun sarta saku bajuna".<ref name="Whitcomb">{{cite book |last=Whitcomb |first=John & Claire|title=Real Life at the White House: 200 Years of Daily Life at America's Most Famous Residence|publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2002|page=81|isbn=978-0-415-93951-5}}</ref> Carita séjénna nyebutkeun yén lorong-lorong harita kacida pinuhna sahingga kanggé pindah ti hiji rohangan ka rohangan sanésna, Harrison kedah dibantuan kaluar tina jandéla, leumpang di luar gedong, tuluy diasupkeun deui tina jandéla sanésna.<ref name="Whitcomb"/> Harrison daria pisan kana jangjina kanggé ngoméan sistem pangangkatan éksekutif, nganjang ka unggal genep departemén kabinét kanggé ningali operasina sarta ngaluarkeun paréntah ngaliwatan Webster yén [[kampanye]] ku pagawé bakal dianggap salaku alesan kanggé pamecatanna.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> Anjeunna nahan tekanan ti sasama urang Whig ngeunaan patronase partisan. Sakelompok jalma sumping ka kantorna dina 16 Maret kanggé nungtut pamecatan sakabéh urang Démokrat tina jabatan anu diangkat, sarta Harrison nyatakeun, "Demi Allah, sim kuring langkung milih ngundurkeun diri tina jabatan batan kedah ngalakukeun kajahatan sapertos kitu!"<ref>{{cite book |last=Woollen |first=William Wesley|title=Biographical and historical sketches of early Indiana|publisher=Ayer Publishing |year=1975|location=New York|page=51|isbn=978-0-405-06896-6}}</ref> Kabinétna sorangan nyobian ngabolaykeun pangangkatan [[John Chambers (politikus)|John Chambers]] salaku Gubernur Téritori Iowa demi sobat Webster, [[James Wilson II (politikus New Hampshire)|James Wilson]]. Webster nyobian nahan éta kaputusan dina rapat kabinét 25 Maret, sarta Harrison ménta anjeunna macakeun tarik hiji catetan tulis leungeun anu unina saukur "William Henry Harrison, Présidén Amérika Sarikat". Harrison tuluy nangtung sarta nyatakeun: "William Henry Harrison, Présidén Amérika Sarikat, ngawartosan ka aranjeun, para jandral, yén demi Allah, John Chambers bakal janten gubernur Iowa!"{{sfn|Remini|1997|pp=520–521}} Hiji-hijina kaputusan resmi Harrison sanésna anu penting nyaéta naha kedah ngayakeun sidang istiméwa Kongrés. Anjeunna sareng Clay teu sapamadegan ngeunaan perluna éta sidang, sarta kabinét Harrison kabagi dua, sahingga mimitina présidén nolak éta ide. Clay neken deui dina 13 Maret, nanging Harrison nolak sarta ngawartosan anjeunna sangkan ulah nganjang ka Gedong Bodas deui, sarta kedah ngahubungi anjeunna ngan ngaliwatan tulisan.<ref>{{cite web|title=American History Series: The Brief Presidency of William Henry Harrison|publisher=Voice of America News|url=http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/2009-01-28-voa3.cfm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131082639/http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/2009-01-28-voa3.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 31, 2009|access-date=June 21, 2009}}</ref> Nanging, sababaraha poé saatosna, Sekretaris Perbendaharaan [[Thomas Ewing]] ngalaporkeun yén dana féderal nuju dina kaayaan sesah sahingga pamaréntah moal tiasa beroperasi dugi ka sidang rutin Kongrés dina bulan Désémber; Harrison ahirna satuju, sarta ngumumkeun sidang istiméwa dina 17 Maret. Éta sidang sabenerna dijadwalkeun dimimitian ping 31 Méi upami Harrison masih kénéh hirup.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brinkley|first1=Alan|last2=Dyer|first2=Davis|year=2004|title=The American Presidency|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-618-38273-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3djEYV3R7oIC&pg=PA120 |access-date=June 21, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-45b-convening-extra-session-the-congress|title=Pres. W.H. Harrison, Proclamation 45B–Convening an Extra Session of the Congress|publisher=American Presidency Project|access-date=November 9, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103100710/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-45b-convening-extra-session-the-congress |date=January 3, 2021 }}</ref> ==Pupusna sarta panguburan== [[File:Death of Harrison, April 4 A.D. 1841 LCCN91794698.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Ilustrasi anu ngagambarkeun pupusna Harrison, 4 April 1841]] Harrison ngarasa lungse sacara fisik alatan lobana pamuru jabatan sarta jadwal sosial anu padet.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=140}} Anjeunna ogé sering teu maliré kana hawa tiris tungtung usum tiris, mindeng kaluar tanpa nganggo papakéan anu merenah. Saatos nepikeun biantara pelantikan dua jam dina hujan ping 4 Maret tanpa topi atanapi japo, Harrison terus negrakeun dirina kana hawa tiris. Tilu minggu saatosna, dina 24 Maret 1841, Harrison jalan-jalan isuk-isuk ka pasar lokal, deui-deui tanpa japo atanapi topi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Henry Harrison |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/william-henry-harrison#:~:text=The%20president-elect,%20however,,just%2031%20days%20in%20office. |access-date=March 8, 2025 |publisher=American Battlefield Trust}}</ref> Sanajan katarajang hujan dadakan, anjeunna henteu ganti baju nalika mulang ka Gedong Bodas.<ref name = Shafer>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/10/06/william-henry-harrison-pneumonia-death-trump-coronavirus|title=In 1841 pneumonia killed the president|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=October 6, 2020|access-date=December 13, 2021|last=Shafer|first=Ronald G.}}</ref> Dina 26 Maret, Harrison mimiti gering muriang sarta manggil dokterna, Thomas Miller, sanajan anjeunna nyarios ka dokter yén anjeunna ngaraos langkung saé saatos nginum ubar kanggé "kacapéan sarta kahariwang méntal".<ref name = Shafer/> Isukna, dinten Saptu, dokter dipanggil deui sarta mendakan Harrison di ranjang kalayan "muriang parna", saatos jalan-jalan isuk-isuk deui. Miller nerapkeun [[param mustar]] kana beuteungna sarta masihan ubar [[pancahar]] hampang, sarta anjeunna ngaraos langkung saé soréna.<ref name = Shafer/> Jam 4:00 isuk-isuk ping 28 Maret, Harrison ngarasa nyeri parna dina lambungna sarta dokter ngalakukeun [[bekam]] (bloodletting); prosésna dieureunkeun nalika denyut nadina turun. Miller ogé nerapkeun gelas panas (cop) kana kulit présidén kanggé ningkatkeun aliran getih.<ref name = Shafer/> Dokter tuluy masihan [[minyak jarak]] sarta ubar kanggé utah, sarta ngadiagnosis anjeunna katarajang pneumonia dina paru-paru katuhu.<ref name = Shafer/> Tim dokter dipanggil dinten Senén, 29 Maret, sarta mastikeun ayana [[pneumonia]] lobus handap katuhu.<ref name=WHHDOTP>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Death of the President| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/death-of-the-president| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison tuluy dipasihan [[laudanum]], [[opium]], sarta [[kamper]], bareng jeung anggur sarta brendi.{{sfn|Collins|2012|p=123}} Teu aya béwara resmi ngeunaan panyakit Harrison, anu nyababkeun spekulasi masarakat. Masarakat Washington mimiti sadar nalika anjeunna henteu katingal angkat ka garéja dinten Minggu.<ref name=Whitcomb /> Laporan koran anu tumpang tindih dumasar kana bocoran ti jalma-jalma di Gedong Bodas.<ref name = Shafer/> Hiji koran Washington ngalaporkeun dina 1 April yén kaséhatan Harrison parantos saé. Padahal sabenerna, kaayaan Harrison beuki parna, sarta anggota Kabinét katut kulawarga dipanggil ka Gedong Bodas—pamajidanna, Anna, masih kénéh aya di Ohio alatan gering.<ref name = Shafer/> Numutkeun koran di Washington dinten Jumaah, Harrison parantos rada jagjag, sanajan laporan ti ''Baltimore Sun'' nyebutkeun kaayaanana "langkung bahaya".<ref name = Shafer/> Saurang wartawan ''New York Commercial'' nyebutkeun yén "rahayat nagara kacida sedihna sarta loba anu ceurik."<ref name = Shafer/> Dina wengi 3 April, Harrison katarajang diaré parna sarta mimiti igir-igiran, sarta jam 8:30 peuting anjeunna ngucapkeun kekecapan terakhirna ka dokterna, anu dianggap ditujukeun kanggé Wakil Présidén John Tyler:<ref name = Shafer/> "Pa, sim kuring hoyong anjeun ngartos kana prinsip sajati pamaréntahan ieu. Sim kuring hoyong éta dilaksanakeun. Sim kuring teu ménta nanaon deui."<ref>{{Cite web| title=William Henry Harrison: Key Events| url=https://millercenter.org/president/william-harrison/key-events| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 7, 2016}}</ref> Harrison pupus dina jam 12:30 isuk-isuk ping 4 April 1841, salapan poé saatos gering sarta pas sabulan saatos sumpah jabatan;<ref name = Shafer/> anjeunna janten présidén munggaran anu pupus nalika nuju ngajabat.<ref name=WHHDOTP/> Pamajidanna, Anna, masih di Ohio nuju mereskeun barang kanggé indit ka Washington nalika nampi béwara salakina pupus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/first-families/anna-tuthill-symmes-harrison/|title=Anna T. S. Harrison|publisher=The White House|access-date=December 13, 2021}}</ref> Anjeunna henteu kantos pindah ka Gedong Bodas. Minantuna, Jane Irwin Harrison, janten inang (hostess) Gedong Bodas ngagentos Anna salami Harrison janten présidén.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Téori anu kuat harita nyaéta panyakitna disababkeun ku hawa tiris nalika pelantikan tilu minggu sateuacanana.{{sfn|Cleaves|1939|p=152}} Nanging, Jane McHugh sarta Philip A. Mackowiak ngalakukeun analisis dina ''Clinical Infectious Diseases'' (2014), marios catetan Miller anu nunjukkeun yén pasokan cai Gedong Bodas aya di hilireun pembuangan limbah umum, sarta maranéhna nyimpulkeun yén anjeunna kamungkinan ageung pupus alatan [[syok séptik]] lantaran "demam enterik" ([[tipus]] atanapi [[paratipus]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/01/science/what-really-killed-william-henry-harrison.html|title=What Really Killed William Henry Harrison?|newspaper=The New York Times|first1=Jane|last1=McHugh|first2=Philip A.|last2=Mackowiak|date=March 31, 2014|access-date=August 27, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Death in the White House: President William Henry Harrison's Atypical Pneumonia|first1=Jane|last1=McHugh|first2=Philip A.|last2=Mackowiak|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|pmid=24962997|date=June 23, 2014|doi=10.1093/cid/ciu470|volume=59|issue=7|pages=990–995|doi-access=free |issn=1058-4838 }}</ref> Mangsa sungkawa salami 30 poé dimimitian saatos pupusna présidén. Gedong Bodas ngayakeun rupa-rupa upacara publik. Upacara panguburan husus undangan ogé dilaksanakeun dina 7 April di [[East Room]] Gedong Bodas, saatosna peti Harrison dibawa ka [[Makam Kongrés]] di Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web| title=William Henry Harrison Funeral: April 7, 1841| url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/william-henry-harrison-funeral| publisher=White House Historical Association| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=March 9, 2019}}</ref> [[Solomon Northup]] nyaritakeun éta prosési dina buku ''[[Twelve Years a Slave]]'': {{blockquote|Isukna aya parade ageung di Washington. Sora mariem sarta dentang loncéng minuhan hawa, sedengkeun imah-imah ditutup ku lawon hideung, sarta jalanan hideung ku jalma-jalma. Prosési katingal lalaunan ngalangkungan jalan Avenue, karéta demi karéta, bari rébuan jalma nuturkeun ku suku—sadayana gerak dibarengan ku musik anu sedih. Maranéhna mawa jasad Harrison ka kuburan.... Sim kuring inget pisan kumaha kaca jandéla oyag sarta peupeus ka taneuh saatos unggal sora mariem anu ditémbakkeun di tempat pamakaman.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/northup/northup.html|title=Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northup|publisher=Library, UNC-Chapel Hill|year=1997|access-date=November 10, 2021}}</ref>}} Dina bulan Juni éta, jasad Harrison dibawa ku karéta api sarta tongkang walungan ka [[North Bend, Ohio]], sarta dikurebkeun dina 7 Juli di puncak Gunung Nebo, anu ayeuna janten [[William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial]].<ref>{{cite web| title=William Henry Harrison Memorial| url=https://www.ohiohistory.org/visit/museum-and-site-locator/william-henry-harrison-tomb| publisher= Ohio History Connection| location=Columbus Ohio| access-date=March 9, 2019}}</ref> ===Tyler naék jabatan=== Dina ping 5 April, [[Fletcher Webster]], putra ti Sekretaris Nagara [[Daniel Webster]], méré nyaho ka Tyler yén Harrison parantos pupus nalika nuju ngajabat. Tyler nuju nganjang ka kulawargana di [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]] sarta mulang ka Washington dina isuk-isuk ping 6 April.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession]]</ref> Dina dinten anu sami, Tyler [[Sumpah jabatan présidén Amérika Sarikat|disumpah kanggé ngajabat]] di payuneun kabinét Harrison, anu sacara resmi ngamimitian [[Mangsa jabatan présidén John Tyler|masa jabatan présidénna]]. Dina ping 9 April, Tyler nepikeun biantara pelantikan anu singget. Dina biantara kanggé éta nagara, Tyler henteu masihan ucapan béla sungkawa sacara pribadi ka randa Harrison, Anna, atanapi ka anggota kulawargana. Tyler kalah muji Harrison ku cara nyebatkeun yén Harrison parantos kapilih kanggé "tugas anu agung" nyaéta meresihan pamaréntah féderal tina korupsi.<ref name="John Tyler 1841">[[#John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States]]</ref> Tyler sareng kulawargana pindah ka Gedong Bodas saminggu saatos pamakaman Harrison, sateuacan mangsa sungkawa 30 poé kanggé Harrison réngsé. Rohangan utama Gedong Bodas harita masih kénéh dipinuhan ku lawon [[Crêpe (tekstil)|hideung]] tanda sungkawa.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{sfn|McCormick|2002|pp=141–142}}<ref name="ReferenceB">[[#The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison|The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison]]</ref> ===Dampak tina pupusna Harrison=== [[File:William Henry Harrison Memorial.jpg|thumb|Monumén William Henry Harrison di [[North Bend, Ohio]]]] Pupusna Harrison narik perhatian kana ayana kerancuan (ambiguitas) dina [[Pasal Dua Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat#Bagian 1, Ayat 6|Pasal II, Bagian 1, Ayat 6]] tina [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] ngeunaan [[Garis suksési présidén Amérika Sarikat|suksési jabatan présidén]]. Konstitusi sacara spésifik nangtukeun yén wakil présidén bakal nyokot alih "Wewenang sarta Tugas ti éta Jabatan" upami présidén ditéwak, pupus, ngundurkeun diri, atanapi teu sanggup ngajabat, nanging henteu écés naha wakil présidén sacara resmi janten présidén Amérika Sarikat, atanapi saukur samentara ngajalankeun wewenang sarta tugas éta jabatan dina kasus suksési.<ref>{{cite web| last=Feerick| first=John| title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession| work=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution| url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession| url-status=unfit| archive-date=April 21, 2012| publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]| access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> Kabinét Harrison negeskeun yén Tyler téh "Wakil Présidén anu ngalakukeun tugas salaku Présidén". Tyler tetep pengkuh dina klaimna kana gelar Présidén sarta tekadna kanggé ngagunakeun kakawasaan pinuh tina jabatan présidén.<ref name=ConstitutionDailyNCC>{{cite web|author=|title=A controversial President who established presidential succession|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/john-tyler-americas-most-unusual-president|date=March 29, 2017|work=Constitution Daily|publisher=National Constitution Center|access-date=March 11, 2019}}</ref> Kabinét ngayakeun konsultasi sareng Ketua Mahkamah Agung [[Roger Taney]] sarta mutuskeun yén, upami Tyler ngucapkeun sumpah jabatan présidén, anjeunna bakal janten présidén. Tyler nurut sarta disumpah dina ping 6 April 1841. Kongrés ngayakeun sidang, sarta dina ping 31 Méi 1841, saatos debat singget di kadua kamar (DPR sarta Sénat), ngaluarkeun résolusi gabungan anu mastikeun Tyler salaku présidén kanggé sésa masa jabatan Harrison.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rankin |first=Robert S. |title=Presidential Succession in the United States |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=Feb 1946 |volume=8 |issue=1 |jstor=2125607 |pages=44–56 |doi=10.2307/2125607|s2cid=153441210 }}</ref> Ieu suksési janten [[Preséden Tyler]], anu diturutan dina tujuh kajadian nalika présidén petahana pupus sateuacan ahirna diasupkeun kana Konstitusi dina taun 1967 ngaliwatan Bagian Hiji tina [[Amandemen ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2005.00269.x |last=Abbott |first=Philip |title=Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |date=Dec 2005 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=627–645 |jstor=27552721}}</ref> ==Warisan== ===Reputasi sajarah=== [[File:Tecumseh in Lafayette IN.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Harrison (kénca) di [[Gedong Pangadilan Tippecanoe County]], Lafayette, Indiana]] Salah sahiji warisan Harrison anu paling langgeng nyaéta rangkuyan perjangjian anu dirundingkeun sarta ditarandatangan ku anjeunna sareng para pamingpin Indindia salami janten [[Gubernur Indiana|gubernur téritorial Indiana]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}} Salaku bagian tina rundingan éta, suku-suku asli masrahkeun lahan anu lega di bagian kulon anu nyadiakeun lahan tambahan kanggé dipésér sarta dicicingan ku warga nagara.<ref name="cb"/>{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=47}} Dampak jangka panjang Harrison dina [[Pulitik Amérika Sarikat|pulitik Amérika]] kalebet metode kampanyéna, anu neundeun pondasi kanggé taktik kampanye présidén modéren.{{sfn|Greene|2007|p=100}} Harrison pupus dina kaayaan ampir teu boga harta, sahingga Kongrés méré sora kanggé masihan mancén randa présidén ka pamajidanna, Anna, gedéna $25.000,<ref name="Damon 1974-06">{{cite journal |last=Damon |first=Allan L. |title=Presidential Expenses |journal=American Heritage |date=June 1974 |volume=25 |issue=4 |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |access-date=February 10, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107145645/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |archive-date=January 7, 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107145645/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |date=January 7, 2009 }}</ref> nyaéta sagedé gajih sataun Harrison (sarua sareng sakitar $936.000 dina taun 2025). Anjeunna ogé nampi hak kanggé ngintunkeun serat sacara haratis.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Lady Biography: Anna Harrison|year=2009|publisher=National First Ladies Library|url=http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9|access-date=February 11, 2009|archive-date=October 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009221313/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009221313/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9 |date=October 9, 2018 }}</ref> Freehling nyebut Harrison salaku "tokoh anu paling dominan dina évolusi téritori Northwest janten wilayah Upper Midwest ayeuna".<ref>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Impact and Legacy| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/impact-and-legacy| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison, anu yuswana 68 taun nalika [[Pelantikan William Henry Harrison|dilantik]], mangrupa jalma pangsepuhna anu ngajabat présidén AS harita, hiji catetan anu dicepeng ku anjeunna dugi ka taun 1981, nalika [[Pelantikan munggaran Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan]] dilantik dina yuswa 69 taun.<ref>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Life In Brief| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-in-brief| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 8, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Putra Harrison, [[John Scott Harrison]], ngawakilan Ohio di DPR AS antara taun 1853 sarta 1857.<ref name="bioguide.congress">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Harrison, John Scott, (1804–1878)|dictionary=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000272|access-date=June 18, 2008}}</ref> Putu Harrison, Benjamin Harrison ti Indiana, ngajabat salaku présidén ka-23 ti taun 1889 dugi ka 1893, anu ngajantenkeun William sareng Benjamin Harrison hiji-hijina pasangan aki sareng putu anu janten présidén.{{sfn|Calhoun|2005|pp=43–49}} ===Pangajén sarta pangéling-ngéling=== {{main|Daptar pangéling-ngéling kanggé William Henry Harrison}} Rupa-rupa monumén sarta patung pangéling-ngéling parantos diadegkeun salaku pangajén kanggé Harrison. Aya patung publik anjeunna di puseur kota [[Indianapolis]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|pp=12, 164}} [[Taman Piatt]] di [[Cincinnati]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=July 1896|title=The Harrison Monument, Cincinnati|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Mc7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA422|journal=The Monumental News|volume=8|issue=7}}</ref> [[Gedong Pangadilan Tippecanoe County]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=243}} [[Harrison County, Indiana]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=131}} sarta [[Owen County, Indiana]].{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=206}} Seueur ogé distrik (county) sarta kota anu nganggo namina. Désa [[North Bend, Ohio]], masihan pangajén ka Harrison unggal taun ku ngayakeun [[parade]] kanggé ngarayakeun dinten ambal warsihna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northbendohio.org/HarrisonBirthday08.html|title=William Henry Harrison Birthday Tribute|publisher=Village of North Bend, Ohio|access-date=November 10, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250624071523/https://www.northbendohio.org/HarrisonBirthday08.html |date=June 24, 2025 }}</ref> Markas Besar Jenderal William Henry Harrison di [[Franklinton (Columbus, Ohio)|Franklinton, Ohio]], ogé diadegkeun kanggé nginget anjeunna. Éta imah téh mangrupa markas militer anjeunna ti taun 1813 dugi ka 1814.<ref name="nrhpdoc">{{cite book|url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/71988611|title=National Register of Historic Places Registration Form|series=File Unit: National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks Program Records: Ohio, 1964 – 2013|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|access-date=May 17, 2020|archive-date=February 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225030545/https://catalog.archives.gov/id/71988611|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dina ping 19 Pébruari 2009, [[United States Mint]] ngaluarkeun koin kasalapan dina [[Program Koin $1 Présidén]], anu mintonkeun gambar Harrison.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison|title=The United States Mint Coins and Medals Program|publisher=United States Mint|access-date=July 28, 2016|archive-date=August 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808050850/http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808050850/http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison |date=August 8, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usmint.gov/about_the_mint/index.cfm?action=productionFigures&presYear=2009&reportSelected#starthere&CFID=122577291&CFTOKEN=56436795|title=Circulating Coins Production Figures|publisher=U.S. Mint|access-date=July 28, 2016}}</ref> {| style="margin:auto" | [[File:Cincinnati-harrison-statue, cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Patung kuda William Henry Harrison|Patung kuda Harrison di Cincinnati, karya [[Louis Rebisso]] ]] | [[File:William Henry Harrison Presidential $1 Coin obverse.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Koin [[dollar présidén]] taun 2009]] | [[File:William Henry Harrison. Indiana statehood stamp, 1950 issue.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Perangko taun 1950 kanggé pangéling-ngéling ngadegna nagara bagian Indiana]] |} ==Tingali ogé== * [[Supata Tippecanoe]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanana]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat anu pupus nalika ngajabat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat anu miboga budak beulian]] ==Rujukan== ===Sitiran=== {{reflist}} ===Bibliografi=== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book|last=Calhoun|first=Charles William|title=Benjamin Harrison: The 23rd President 1889–1893|series=The American Presidents|volume=23|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8050-6952-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Carnes|first1=Mark C.|last2=Mieczkowski|first2=Yanek|title=The Routledge Historical Atlas of Presidential Campaigns|url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehistori0000miec|series=Routledge Atlases of American History|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2001|isbn=978-0-415-92139-8}} *{{cite book|last=Cleaves|first=Freeman|title=Old Tippecanoe: William Henry Harrison and His Time|url=https://archive.org/details/oldtippecanoewil00clea|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York|year=1939|isbn= 978-0-9457-0701-1}} *{{cite book|first=Gail|last=Collins|title=William Henry Harrison: The 9th President, 1841|url=https://archive.org/details/williamhenryharr0000coll|publisher=Henry Holt and Co.|year=2012|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8050-9118-2}} *{{cite book|last=Greene|first=Meg|title=William H. Harrison|url=https://archive.org/details/williamhharrison0000gree|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|location=Breckenridge, CO|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8225-1511-1}} *{{cite book|last=Greiff|first=Glory-June|title=Remembrance, Faith and Fancy: Outdoor Public Sculpture in Indiana|url=https://archive.org/details/remembrancefaith0000unse|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press|year=2005|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87195-180-9}} *{{cite book|editor-last1=Gugin|editor-first1=Linda C.|editor-last2=St. Clair|editor-first2=James E.|title=The Governors of Indiana|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780871951960|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press and the Indiana Historical Bureau|year=2006|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87195-196-0}} *{{cite book |last=McCormick |first=Richard P. |chapter=William Henry Harrison and John Tyler |editor-last=Graff |editor-first=Henry |title=The Presidents: A Reference History |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentsrefere0000unse_d5m4 |edition=7th |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/presidentsrefere0000unse_d5m4/page/139 139]–151 |publisher=Macmillan Library Reference USA |isbn=978-0-684-80551-1}} *{{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |date=1997 |title=Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time |url=https://archive.org/details/danielwebsterman00remi |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-04552-8}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat|Harrison, William Henry]] [[Kategori:Inohong dunya]] [[Kategori:Inohong militer Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Indiana]] idx4czeg27xdox2wpcu9d9r28kecbl9 0 107819 711517 708585 2026-08-06T22:08:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711517 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti taun 1841 dugi ka 1845}} {{Use American English|date=November 2025}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = John Tyler | image = Tyler, John, by Healy (1842, NPG 2019 13).jpg | caption = Potrét, 1842 | order = 10 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | term_start = 4 April 1841 | term_end = 4 Maret 1845 | vicepresident = Kosong{{efn|Tyler mangrupa wakil présidén di handapeun Présidén William Henry Harrison sarta janten présidén saatos Harrison pupus dina 4 April 1841. Kajadian ieu lumangsung sateuacan diadopsina [[Amandemen ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] dina taun 1967, sarta kakosongan dina jabatan wakil présidén teu tiasa dieusi dugi ka pamilihan sarta pelantikan salajengna.}} | predecessor = [[William Henry Harrison]] | successor = [[James K. Polk]] | order2 = ka-10 | office2 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat | president2 = William Henry Harrison | term_start2 = 4 Maret 1841 | term_end2 = 4 April 1841 | predecessor2 = [[Richard Mentor Johnson]] | successor2 = [[George M. Dallas]] | jr/sr3 = Sénator Amérika Sarikat | state3 = [[Virginia]] | term_start3 = 4 Maret 1827 | term_end3 = 29 Pébruari 1836 | predecessor3 = [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]] | successor3 = [[William Cabell Rives]] | order5 = ka-23 | office5 = Gubernur Virginia | term_start5 = 10 Désémber 1825 | term_end5 = 4 Maret 1827 | predecessor5 = [[James Pleasants]] | successor5 = [[William Branch Giles]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1790|3|29}} | birth_place = [[Greenway Plantation]], Charles City County, Virginia, AS. | death_date = {{death date and age|1862|1|18|1790|3|29}} | death_place = [[Exchange Hotel (Richmond, Virginia)|Ballard House]], Richmond, Virginia | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] (1834–1841) | otherparty = {{plainlist| * [[Partéy Démokratik-Républik|Démokratik-Républik]] (1811–1828) * [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] (1828–1834) * [[Partéy Tyler]] (1844) * [[Politikus indepénden|Indepénden]] (1841–1844, 1844–1862) }} | alma_mater = [[College of William & Mary]] | profession = {{flatlist| * Politikus * ahli hukum }} | signature = John Tyler Signature 2.svg | allegiance = Amérika Sarikat | branch = [[Milisi Virginia]] | unit = [[Charles City Rifles]] | serviceyears = 1813 | rank = [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|Kaptén]] | battles = [[Perang 1812]] }} '''John Tyler''' (29 [[Maret]] 1790 – 18 [[Januari]] 1862) nyaéta [[présidén Amérika Sarikat]] anu ka-10, ngajabat ti taun 1841 dugi ka 1845, saatos sateuacanana ngajabat sakedap salaku [[wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat]] anu ka-10 dina taun 1841. Anjeunna kapilih janten wakil présidén tina tikét [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|pamilihan 1840]] bareng sareng [[William Henry Harrison]], sarta naék jabatan janten présidén saatos Harrison pupus 31 dinten saatos dilantik. Tyler mangrupa pangrojong kuat [[hak-hak nagara bagian]], kalebet ngeunaan ''[[Perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|perbudakan]]'', sarta anjeunna ngan ukur nerapkeun kawijakan [[nasionalistik]] nalika hal éta henteu ngalanggar kakawasaan nagara bagian. Naékna Tyler anu teu disangka-sangka janten présidén dianggap ancaman kanggé ambisi présidén Sénator [[Henry Clay]] sarta politikus Whig sanésna, anu antukna ngajantenkeun Tyler papisah ti dua partéy pulitik utama harita: Whig sarta [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]]. Tyler dilahirkeun dina kulawarga nu miboga budak beulian (sababaraha budak belian) anu kawentar di [[Virginia]]. Anjeunna janten [[inohong]] nasional dina mangsa nggolakna pulitik. Dina taun 1820-an, [[Partéy Démokratik-Républik]], anu harita mangrupa hiji-hijina partéy pulitik di nagara éta, beulah janten sababaraha faksi. Mimitina Tyler mangrupa saurang [[Démokrat Jacksonian]], nanging anjeunna nentang Présidén [[Andrew Jackson]] nalika [[krisis nullifikasi]] margi anjeunna nganggap tindakan Jackson ngalanggar hak-hak nagara bagian. Hal ieu nyababkeun Tyler ngagabung sareng faksi kidul Partéy Whig. Anjeunna kantos ngajabat salaku anggota législatif nagara bagian Virginia, gubernur, anggota [[DPR Amérika Sarikat|DPR AS]], sarta [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat|Sénator AS]]. Tyler mangrupa calon wakil présidén regional Whig dina pamilihan 1836, anu dimeunangkeun ku [[Martin Van Buren]]. Dina pamilihan 1840, anjeunna janten hiji-hijina calon wakil présidén Whig sarta hasil ngéléhkeun Van Buren kalayan ''slogan'' kampanye "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]". Saatos Harrison pupus, Tyler janten wakil présidén munggaran anu [[Garis suksési présidén Amérika Sarikat|ngagantikeun présidén]]. Di tengah teuayana kacindekan naha wakil présidén leres-leres janten présidén atanapi saukur ngajalankeun tugasna, Tyler langsung ngucapkeun [[Sumpah jabatan présidén Amérika Sarikat|sumpah jabatan présidén]], anu antukna nyiptakeun [[Preséden Tyler]]. Sanajan anjeunna nandatanganan sababaraha RUU ti Kongrés anu dikawasa ku Whig, Tyler salaku saurang [[konstruksionis ketat]] ngavéto RUU partéyna sorangan kanggé ngadegkeun bank nasional sarta naékeun tarif. Hal ieu nyababkeun ampir sakabéh kabinétna malundur, sarta anjeunna dipecat tina Partéy Whig kalayan jujuluk "His Accidency" (Présidén Kabeneran). Sanajan kawijakan domestikna macét, anjeunna hasil dina urusan luar nagri, kalebet [[Perjangjian Webster–Ashburton]] sareng Inggris sarta [[Perjangjian Wanghia]] sareng Cina. Tyler ogé ngarojong [[Texas annexation|aneksasi Texas]] sarta nandatanganan RUU kanggé ngajantenkeun Texas nagara bagian sateuacan anjeunna lungsur jabatan. Nalika [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] dimimitian dina taun 1861, Tyler mimitina ngarojong [[Konférénsi Perdamaian 1861]]. Saatos éta gagal, anjeunna mihak ka [[Konféderasi Amérika Sarikat|Konféderasi]]. Anjeunna ngajabat salaku anggota [[Kongrés Provisori Konféderasi]] sarta kapilih janten anggota [[DPR Konféderasi]], nanging pupus sateuacan sidang dimimitian. Sanajan sababaraha sarjana muji pangaruh pulitikna, seueur sajarahwan nempatkeun anjeunna dina réngking handap dina [[Réngking sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|réngking présidén AS]]. ==Kahirupan awal sarta atikan== John Tyler dilahirkeun dina 29 [[Maret]] 1790, dina kulawarga miboga budak beulian anu punjul di Virginia. Tyler asalna ti [[Charles City County, Virginia]], sarta mangrupa turunan ti [[Kulawarga Munggaran Virginia]]. Bapana, [[John Tyler Sr.]], anu katelah Hakim Tyler, mangrupa réntén sarta réngréngan pulitik [[Thomas Jefferson]]. Tyler digedékeun di [[Greenway Plantation]], hiji perkebunan anu legana sakitar 1.200 héktar (5 km²). ==Tuan tanah sarta ahli hukum== Tyler diaku janten anggota bar (ahli hukum) Virginia dina yuswa 19 taun. Harita, bapana ngajabat salaku gubernur Virginia, sarta Tyler ngamimitian prakték hukumna di Richmond. Dumasar sénsus taun 1820, Tyler miboga 24 jalma budak beulian di Woodburn, saatos nampi warisan 13 urang ti bapana. ==Naékna karir pulitik== ===Awal di pulitik Virginia=== [[File:Greenway, State Route 5 vicinity, Charles City vicinity (Charles City County, Virginia).jpg|thumb|Tempat lahir Tyler, [[Greenway Plantation]]]] Dina taun 1811, dina yuswa 21 taun, Tyler kapilih ngawakilan Charles City County di House of Delegates (DPR nagara bagian). Posisi-posisina parantos katingal ti mimiti: rojongan kuat kana [[hak-hak nagara bagian]] sarta nentang bank nasional. ===Perang 1812=== Saperti kalolobaan urang Amérika di bagian Kidul harita, Tyler miboga sikep [[anti-Inggris]]. Dina awal [[Perang 1812]], anjeunna ngadesek dukungan pikeun tindakan militer ngaliwatan biantara di payuneun House of Delegates. Saatos Inggris hasil ngarebut [[Hampton, Virginia]], dina usum panas taun 1813, Tyler kalayan sumanget ngawangun hiji kompi milisi, [[Charles City Rifles]], pikeun ngabéla Richmond. Anjeunna mingpin éta pasukan kalayan pangkat [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|kaptén]]. Sanajan kitu, taya serangan anu lumangsung, sarta anjeunna ngabubarkeun éta kompi dua bulan ti harita. Pikeun jasa militerna, Tyler nampi hibah tanah di deukeut wilayah anu engkéna janten [[Sioux City, Iowa]]. Nalika ramana pupus dina taun 1813, Tyler ngawaris 13 urang budak beulian sarta perkebunan milik ramana. Dina taun 1816, anjeunna ngundurkeun diri tina korsi législatif pikeun ngabdi di [[Déwan Nagara]] Gubernur, nyaéta hiji kelompok anu diwangun ku dalapan panaséhat anu dipilih ku Majelis Umum. ===DPR Amérika Sarikat=== [[File:Woodburn Plantation in Charles City County, VA.jpg|thumb|Perkebunan Woodburn, tempat cicing Tyler taun 1813–1821]] Pupusna Perwakilan AS [[John Clopton]] dina Séptémber 1816 nyababkeun kakosongan korsi di [[distrik kongrés ka-23 Virginia]]. Tyler narékahan pikeun nempatan éta korsi, kitu ogé baturna sarta batur sapulitikna, [[Andrew Stevenson]]. Kusabab duanana miboga pamikiran pulitik anu sarupa, éta pamilihan téh saenyana mah saukur kontés popularitas. Ku pangaruh pulitik sarta kamampuh kampanyéna, Tyler meunang tipis dina éta pamilihan. Anjeunna dilantik janten anggota [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-14]] dina 17 Désémber 1816, salaku anggota faksi [[Partéy Démokratik-Républik]], partéy utama dina mangsa [[Era of Good Feelings]]. Sanajan Partéy Démokratik-Républik ngarojong hak-hak nagara bagian, seueur anggotana anu ngadesek pamaréntah puseur anu leuwih kuat saatos Perang 1812. Mayoritas di Kongrés hoyong ningali pamaréntah féderal mantuan ngabiayaan [[pangwangunan internal]] saperti palabuhan sarta jalan raya. Tyler tetep pengkuh kana kapercayaan [[konstruksionis ketat]]-na, sarta nolak usulan-usulan kasebut dumasar kana alesan konstitusional sarta pribadi. Anjeunna yakin yén unggal nagara bagian kedah ngawangun proyék-proyék anu diperyogikeun di jero wilayahna sorangan ngagunakeun dana lokal. Virginia henteu "dina kaayaan miskin pisan nepi ka kudu ménta sumbangan 'amal' ti Kongrés", ceuk anjeunna negeskeun. Anjeunna dipilih pikeun ilubiung dina audit [[Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat]] dina taun 1818 salaku bagian tina komite lima urang, sarta anjeunna ngarasa reuwas ku korupsi anu katingal ku anjeunna di jero éta bank. Anjeunna ngusulkeun sangkan piagam bank kasebut dicabut, sanajan Kongrés nolak usulan éta. Bentrokan munggaranna sareng Jenderal [[Andrew Jackson]] lumangsung saatos [[Invasi Jackson ka Florida]] dina taun 1818 salila [[Perang Seminole Kahiji]]. Sanajan muji karakter Jackson, Tyler ngutuk tindakanana anu dianggap kaleuleuwihi lantaran [[Insidén Arbuthnot sarta Ambrister|ngaéksekusi dua warga nagara Inggris]]. Tyler kapilih deui pikeun hiji mangsa jabatan pinuh tanpa lawan dina awal taun 1819. Isu utama dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-16]] (1819–1821) nyaéta naha [[Missouri]] kedah ditarima janten bagian ti Uni sarta naha perbudakan bakal diidinan di éta nagara bagian anyar.<ref name="missouricomp" /> Bari ngaku yén perbudakan téh miboga dampak buruk, anjeunna miharep yén ku cara ngantepkeunana ngalegaan (ka kulon), jumlah budak di bagian Wétan bakal ngurangan nalika para budak sarta dununganana lunta ka kulon, sahingga méré kasempetan pikeun mimbangkeun panyabutan éta lembaga (perbudakan) di Virginia. Ku kituna, perbudakan bakal dihapus ngaliwatan tindakan masing-masing nagara bagian nalika prakték kasebut beuki langka, sakumaha anu parantos lumangsung di sababaraha nagara bagian di Kalér.<ref name="missouricomp" /> Tyler yakin yén Kongrés henteu miboga kakuasaan pikeun ngatur perbudakan sarta nampa nagara bagian dumasar kana naha maranéhna "bébas" atawa "miboga budak" téh mangrupa bibit konflik régional.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 69.</ref> Lantaran éta, [[Kompromi Missouri]] disahkeun tanpa dukungan ti anjeunna. Éta kompromi nampa Missouri salaku [[nagara bagian perbudakan]] sarta Maine salaku nagara bagian bébas, sarta ogé ngalarang perbudakan di nagara bagian anu dibentuk tina bagian kalér [[Téritori Amérika Sarikat]]. Salami janten anggota Kongrés, anjeunna sok méré sora nolak RUU anu bakal ngawatesan perbudakan di téritori-téritori.<ref name="missouricomp">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 47–50; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 37–38.</ref> Tyler mutuskeun pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui dina ahir taun 1820 kusabab kaséhatanana anu sering kaganggu. Anjeunna sacara pribadi ngaku teu sugema ku éta jabatan, lantaran sora "tolak"-na salila ieu lolobana saukur simbolis sarta saeutik pisan pangaruhna kana parobahan budaya pulitik di Washington. Tyler ogé ningali yén ngabiayaan pendidikan barudakna bakal hésé upami ngan ngandelkeun gajih anggota Kongrés anu harita mah leutik pisan. Anjeunna lungsur jabatan dina 3 Maret 1821, ngarojong urut lawanana, Stevenson, pikeun éta korsi, sarta balik deui janten praktisi hukum swasta sacara pinuh.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 58–59; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 39.</ref> ===Mulang deui ka pulitik nagara bagian=== Ngarasa teu tenang sarta bosen saatos dua taun di bumi janten praktisi hukum, Tyler nyalonkeun diri janten anggota House of Delegates dina taun 1823. Kabeneran taya anggota ti Charles City County anu nyalonkeun deui, sahingga Tyler kapilih kalayan gampang dina April éta, janten juara kahiji di antara tilu kandidat anu ngarebutkeun dua korsi.<ref>[[#Leahy|Leahy]], pp. 339–40.</ref> Nalika législatur ngayakeun sidang dina Désémber, Tyler mendakan yén majelis nuju debat ngeunaan [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1824|pamilihan présidén 1824]] anu bakal datang. Sistim ''[[Kaukus nominasi kongrés|caucus]]'', hiji sistim awal pikeun milih calon présidén, masih kénéh dianggo sanajan beuki teu dipikaresep ku masarakat. Tyler nyobian ngayakinkeun majelis handap pikeun ngarojong sistim kaukus sarta milih [[William H. Crawford]] salaku calon ti Démokratik-Républik. Crawford memang nampi rojongan législatur, nanging usulan Tyler sorangan mah ditélikung (diéléhkeun). Usahana anu paling langgeng dina mangsa jabatan kaduana ieu nyaéta nyalametkeun College of William and Mary, anu ampir ditutup alatan kakirangan murid. Tinimbang mindahkeun éta sakola ti Williamsburg anu désa ka Richmond anu langkung ramé sakumaha usulan batur, Tyler ngusulkeun réformasi administrasi sarta kauangan. Ieu usulan disahkeun janten undang-undang sarta hasil; dina taun 1840, éta sakola ngahontal jumlah murid panglobana dina sajarahna.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 60–62.</ref> [[File:John Tyler - Governor of Virginia (c. 1826).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Ukiran Tyler.|Ukiran Tyler ({{circa|1826}}) salaku gubernur Virginia]] Nasib pulitik Tyler beuki nanjak; anjeunna dianggap salaku kandidat anu kuat dina tinimbangan législatif pikeun pamilihan Sénat AS taun 1824.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 76.</ref> Anjeunna dicalonkeun dina Désémber 1825 pikeun janten gubernur Virginia, hiji jabatan anu harita mah ditunjuk ku législatur. Tyler kapilih kalayan sora 131–81 ngéléhkeun [[John Floyd (politikus Virginia)|John Floyd]]. Jabatan gubernur harita mah teu miboga kakuasaan dina handapeun [[Konstitusi Virginia]] asli (1776–1830), malah teu miboga hak véto-véto acan. Tyler ngagunakeun panggung éta pikeun biantara, nanging sakedik pisan anu tiasa dilakukeun pikeun mangaruhan législatur. Tindakanana anu paling katingal salaku gubernur nyaéta nalika masihan biantara panglayad pikeun urut présidén Jefferson, urang Virginia sarta urut gubernur, anu pupus dina 4 Juli 1826. Tyler kacida hormatna ka Jefferson, sarta biantara eulogi (puji-pujian) anu ditepikeun ku anjeunna nampi sambutan anu saé pisan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 64–67; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 39–40.</ref> Mangsa jabatan gubernur Tyler saterusna mah biasa-biasa waé. Anjeunna ngamajukeun hak-hak nagara bagian sarta sacara tegas nentang sagala bentuk konséntrasi kakuasaan féderal. Pikeun ngahalangan usulan infrastruktur féderal, anjeunna ngusulkeun sangkan Virginia sacara aktip ngalegaan sistim jalanna sorangan. Aya usulan pikeun ngalegaan sistim sakola umum anu kirang dana, nanging taya tindakan nyata anu dilakukeun.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 67–69.</ref> Tyler kapilih deui sacara sora buled (unanimous) pikeun mangsa jabatan kadua sataun dina Désémber 1826.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 72.</ref> Dina taun 1829, Tyler kapilih janten utusan dina [[Konvénsi Konstitusi Virginia 1829–1830]] ti distrik anu ngawengku kota Richmond sarta Williamsburg. Di dinya, anjeunna ngabdi bareng sareng Hakim Agung [[John Marshall]], Philip N. Nicholas, sarta John B. Clopton. Pamingpin konvénsi nempatkeun anjeunna dina Komite Législatur. Pangabdian Tyler dina rupa-rupa kapasitas di tingkat nagara bagian kalebet janten présidén Virginia [[Colonization Society]] sarta sababaraha lami saatosna janten réktor sarta kansélir di [[College of William and Mary]].<ref>[[#pulliam|Pulliam 1901]], pp. 67, 72.</ref> ===Sénat Amérika Sarikat=== Dina Januari 1827, Majelis Umum mimbangkeun naha bakal milih deui Sénator AS [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]] pikeun mangsa jabatan pinuh genep taun. Randolph mangrupa inohong anu kontroversial; sanajan anjeunna miboga pandangan anu sarua ngeunaan hak-hak nagara bagian sakumaha kalolobaan anggota législatur Virginia, anjeunna kawentar ku rétorika anu seukeut sarta paripolah anu teu diteda (erratic) di sidang Sénat, anu matak ngajantenkeun sekutu-sekutuna dina posisi anu serba salah. Salajengna, anjeunna parantos nyiptakeun seueur musuh lantaran nentang pisan ka Présidén [[John Quincy Adams]] sarta Sénator Kentucky, Henry Clay. Kaum nasionalis ti Partéy Démokratik-Républik, anu ngarojong Adams sarta Clay, mangrupa minoritas anu cukup badag di législatur Virginia. Maranéhna miharep tiasa ngaléngsérkeun Randolph ku cara narik sora ti para pangrojong hak-hak nagara bagian anu ngarasa teu merenah ku reputasi éta sénator. Maranéhna ngadeukeutan Tyler sarta jangji bakal masihan dukungan upami anjeunna kersa nyalonkeun diri. Tyler sababaraha kali nolak éta tawaran sarta tetep ngarojong Randolph salaku kandidat anu pangsaéna, nanging tekenan pulitik beuki lami beuki kuat. Antukna, anjeunna sapuk pikeun nampi éta korsi upami kapilih. Dina dinten pamilihan, saurang anggota majelis nyatakeun yén saenyana taya bédana pandangan pulitik antara kadua kandidat—ngan Tyler mah langkung tiasa ditarima (agreeable) tinimbang Randolph. Pangrojong Randolph negeskeun yén milih Tyler téh sacara teu langsung mangrupa dukungan ka administrasi Adams. législatur antukna milih Tyler kalayan sora 115–110, sarta anjeunna ngundurkeun diri tina jabatan gubernur dina 4 Maret 1827, nalika mangsa jabatanna di Sénat dimimitian.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 73–81.</ref> ====Maverick Démokratik==== Nalika Tyler kapilih janten sénator, kampanye [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1828|pamilihan présidén 1828]] nuju lumangsung. Adams, présidén petahana, ditangtang ku Andrew Jackson. Faksi Démokratik-Républik parantos peupeus janten [[Partéy Républik Nasional]] di pihak Adams sarta [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] di pihak Jackson. Tyler sabenerna teu resep ka duanana kandidat lantaran maranéhna dianggap miboga kersa pikeun ningkatkeun kakuasaan pamaréntah féderal. Nanging, anjeunna beuki katarik ka Jackson, bari miharep yén Jackson moal méspentaskeun seueur dana féderal pikeun pangwangunan internal sakumaha Adams. Ngeunaan Jackson, anjeunna nyerat, "Mihak ka anjeunna sahenteuna kuring tiasa ngagaduhan harepan; ningali Adams kuring kedah putus asa."<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 83–84; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 41.</ref> Nalika [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-20]] dimimitian dina Désémber 1827, Tyler ngabdi bareng sareng batur sarta rénjang sapulitikna ti Virginia, [[Littleton Waller Tazewell]], anu miboga pandangan [[konstruksionis ketat]] sarta dukungan anu satengah haté ka Jackson. Salami mangsa jabatanna, Tyler sacara sakuat tanaga nentang RUU infrastruktur nasional, margi anjeunna ngarasa yén urusan éta téh hak masing-masing nagara bagian. Anjeunna sarta rénjang-rénjangna ti Kidul nentang [[Tarif 1828]] anu sipatna protéksionis, anu ku para pangritikna disebut "Tarif Kanista" (Tariff of Abominations). Tyler ngusulkeun yén hiji-hijina hasil positip tina éta tarif téh nyaéta bakal ayana réaksi pulitik nasional anu malik, sahingga mulangkeun deui rasa hormat kana hak-hak nagara bagian.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 86–88.</ref> Anjeunna tetep janten pangrojong kuat hak-hak nagara bagian, bari nyarios yén maranéhna "tiasa ngancurkeun Pamaréntah Féderal ngan ku sakecap; ngabubarkeun Konstitusi sarta nyebarkeun fragmén-fragménna kana angin".<ref name = "kleber698">[[#Kleber|Kleber]], p. 698.</ref> Teu lami ti harita, Tyler mimiti teu akur sareng Présidén Jackson. Anjeunna ngarasa kuciwa ku [[sistim rampasan]] (spoils system) anu nembé muncul dina jaman Jackson, sarta nyebutna salaku "pakarang kanggé kampanye". Anjeunna masihan sora nolak seueur nominasi pilihan Jackson nalika éta dianggap teu konstitusional atanapi dumasar kana kapentingan paronase. Nentang nominasi ti présidén anu sapartéy dianggap salaku "tindakan pemberontakan" ka partéyna sorangan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 86–87, 99–106.</ref> Tyler ogé ngarasa kacida kasinggung ku cara Jackson ngagunakeun kakuasaan [[penunjukan resés]] pikeun nunjuk tilu komisaris perjangjian pikeun pendak sareng utusan ti [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]], sarta Tyler ngajukeun RUU kanggé negur Jackson ngeunaan hal ieu.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 41.</ref> Sanajan kitu, dina sababaraha urusan, Tyler miboga hubungan anu saé sareng Jackson. Anjeunna ngabéla Jackson nalika [[Veto Jalan Maysville|ngavéto proyék pendanaan Jalan Maysville]], anu dianggap ku Jackson salaku hal anu teu konstitusional.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 99–100; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 41.</ref> Anjeunna ogé méré sora pikeun negaskeun sababaraha penunjukan Jackson, kalebet calon wakil présidén Jackson ka payunna, [[Martin Van Buren]], salaku [[Menteri Amérika Sarikat ka Inggris]]. Isu utama dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1832|pamilihan présidén 1832]] nyaéta perpanjangan piagam Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat, anu duanana (Tyler sarta Jackson) sami-sami nentang. Kongrés méré sora pikeun memperpanjang piagam bank dina Juli 1832, sarta Jackson ngavéto éta RUU dumasar kana alesan konstitusional sarta praktis. Tyler méré sora kanggé ngarojong éta véto sarta ngadukung Jackson dina usahana pikeun kapilih deui.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 124–25.</ref> ====Peupeus sareng Partéy Démokrat==== Hubungan Tyler anu teu merenah sareng partéyna muncak nalika [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-22]], nalika [[krisis nullifikasi]] taun 1832–1833 dimimitian. South Carolina, anu ngancam bakal [[Separatisme di Amérika Sarikat|misahkeun diri]], ngesahkeun [[Ordinansi Nullifikasi]] dina Nopémber 1832, anu nyatakeun yén "Tarif Kanista" téh batal sarta teu lumaku di wilayahna. Hal ieu ngahudangkeun patarosan konstitusional naha nagara bagian tiasa ngabatalkeun hukum féderal. Jackson, anu nolak hak kasebut, nyiapkeun kanggé nandatanganan [[RUU Kakuatan Militer]] (Force Bill) anu ngamungkinkeun pamaréntah féderal ngagunakeun tindakan militer kanggé nerapkeun éta tarif. Tyler, anu simpati kana alesan South Carolina, nolak pamakéan kakuatan militer Jackson ka nagara bagian sarta masihan biantara dina Pébruari 1833 anu ngajelaskeun pandanganana. Anjeunna ngarojong [[Tarif Kompromi 1833]] anu diajukeun ku Clay, anu disahkeun dina taun éta, kanggé ngirangan tarif sacara bertahap salami sapuluh taun, sahingga ngurangan tegangan antara nagara bagian sarta pamaréntah féderal.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 112–20.</ref> Ku méré sora nolak Force Bill, Tyler terang yén anjeunna bakal salamina dipisahkeun tina faksi pro-Jackson di législatur Virginia, kalebet maranéhna anu salami ieu masih toléran kana sikepna anu "maverick". Hal ieu ngabahayakeun [[Pamilihan Sénat Amérika Sarikat 1832|pamilihan deui anjeunna dina Pébruari 1833]], nalika anjeunna nyanghareupan Démokrat pro-administrasi [[James McDowell]]. Nanging, kalayan dukungan Clay, Tyler kapilih deui kalayan selisih 12 sora.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 120–23.</ref> Jackson beuki nyieun Tyler kasinggung ku cara ngabubarkeun Bank ngaliwatan paréntah éksekutif. Dina Séptémber 1833, Jackson ngaluarkeun paréntah éksekutif ka Sekretaris Hazanah [[Roger B. Taney]] kanggé mindahkeun dana féderal ti Bank ka bank-bank nagara bagian sacara langsung. Tyler ningali ieu salaku "tindakan ngerabut kakuasaan anu nyata", palanggaran kontrak, sarta ancaman kanggé ékonomi. Saatos sababaraha bulan mikir jero, anjeunna mutuskeun kanggé ngagabung sareng lawan-lawan Jackson. Salaku anggota [[Komite Kauangan Sénat Amérika Sarikat|Komite Kauangan Sénat]], anjeunna méré sora kanggé dua résolusi kacindekan (censure) ngalawan présidén dina Maret 1834.<ref name = "Chitwood125plus">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 125–28.</ref> Harita, Tyler parantos gabung sareng [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]] anu nembé dibentuk ku Clay, anu ngawasa Sénat. Dina 3 Maret 1835, ngan sababaraha jam sateuacan [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-23]] lekasan, kaum Whig milih Tyler janten [[Présidén pro tempore Sénat Amérika Sarikat|Présidén ''pro tempore'' Sénat]] salaku simbol pangakuatna.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 132.</ref> Anjeunna mangrupa hiji-hijina présidén AS anu kantos nyepeng jabatan ieu.<ref>{{cite web|title=President pro tempore|author=U.S. Senate|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/President_Pro_Tempore.htm|access-date=April 27, 2014}}</ref> Teu lami ti harita, kaum Démokrat ngawasa DPR Virginia. Tyler ditawaran jabatan hakim salaku imbalan upami anjeunna mundur tina Sénat, nanging anjeunna nolak. Anjeunna ngartos naon anu bakal lumangsung: législatur bakal maksa anjeunna méré sora anu nentang kapercayaan konstitusionalna. Sénator [[Thomas Hart Benton (politikus)|Thomas Hart Benton]] ti Missouri parantos ngajukeun RUU kanggé mupus kacindekan (censure) Jackson. Ngaliwatan résolusi législatur anu dikawasa ku Démokrat, Tyler tiasa diparéntahkeun kanggé milih éta RUU. Upami anjeunna ngabaékeun paréntah éta, anjeunna bakal ngalanggar prinsipna sorangan: "tindakan munggaran dina kahirupan pulitik kuring nyaéta negur Giles sarta Brent lantaran nentang paréntah législatur," ceuk anjeunna nyatet.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 138.</ref> Salami sababaraha bulan ka payun, anjeunna ménta nasehat ti babaturanana, anu masihan saran anu silih berlawanan. Dina pertengahan Pébruari, anjeunna ngrasa yén karirna di Sénat sigana bakal lekasan. Anjeunna ngirimkeun surat pangunduran diri ka Wakil Présidén Van Buren dina 29 Pébruari 1836, anu saurang ungelna kieu:<ref name = "chitwood134">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 134.</ref> {{blockquote|Kuring bakal mawa prinsip-prinsip anu kuring bawa nalika lebet ka dunya publik kana mangsa pangsiun kuring, sarta ku cara nyerahkeun jabatan luhur anu dipercayakeun ku sora rahayat Virginia, kuring bakal masihan conto ka barudak kuring anu bakal ngajarkeun maranéhna kanggé henteu nganggap jabatan sarta korsi téh aya hartosna, nalika salah sahijina kedah dihontal atanapi dipertahankeun ku cara ngorbankeun kahormatan.}} ===Pamilihan présidén 1836=== {{See also|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836}} [[File:John Tyler, 1835.jpg|thumb|Lukisan Tyler nalika ngajabat salaku Présidén pro-tempore Sénat, 1835]] Sanajan Tyler hoyong museurkeun perhatian kana kahirupan pribadi sarta kulawargana, anjeunna énggal-énggal kalibet deui dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836|pamilihan présidén 1836]]. Anjeunna parantos diusulkeun salaku calon wakil présidén ti mimiti taun 1835, sarta dina dinten anu sami nalika Démokrat Virginia ngaluarkeun paréntah pamupusan (expunging), kaum Whig Virginia nyalonkeun anjeunna salaku kandidat maranéhna. Partéy Whig anu nembé kabentuk harita tacan cukup kaorganisir kanggé ngayakeun konvénsi nasional sarta nangtukeun hiji tikét tunggal kanggé ngalawan Van Buren, panerus pilihan Jackson. Sabalikna, kaum Whig di rupa-rupa daérah ngajukeun tikét pilihan maranéhna sorangan, anu ngagambarkeun koalisi partéy anu masih kénéh rapuh: Whig Massachusetts nyalonkeun [[Daniel Webster]] sarta [[Francis Granger]], [[Partéy Anti-Masonik]] di nagara bagian Kalér sarta wates ngarojong William Henry Harrison sarta Granger, sarta para pangrojong hak-hak nagara bagian di bagian tengah sarta kidul nyalonkeun [[Hugh Lawson White]] sarta John Tyler.<ref name = "chitwood147plus" /> Di Maryland, tikét Whig nyaéta Harrison sarta Tyler, sedengkeun di South Carolina nyaéta [[Willie P. Mangum]] sarta Tyler. Kaum Whig hoyong ngahalangan Van Buren supados teu nampi mayoritas di Kolegeu Éléktoral, sahingga pamilihan bakal dialihkeun ka DPR, dimana perjangjian pulitik tiasa dilakukeun. Tyler miharep para éléktor moal tiasa milih wakil présidén, sahingga anjeunna janten salah sahiji tina dua anu nampi sora panglobana, anu satuluyna Sénat, dumasar kana [[Amandemen ka-12 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], kedah milih salah sahijina.<ref name = "seager119plus">[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 119–21.</ref> Nurutkeun kabiasaan jaman harita—yén calon teu kedah katingal milarian jabatan—Tyler tetep di bumi salami kampanye sarta henteu masihan biantara nanaon.<ref name = "seager119plus" /> Anjeunna ngan nampi 47 sora éléktoral ti Georgia, South Carolina, sarta Tennessee dina pamilihan Nopémber 1836, aya di handapeun Granger sarta kandidat Démokrat, [[Richard Mentor Johnson]] ti Kentucky. Harrison mangrupa kandidat présidén Whig anu pangunggulna, nanging anjeunna éléh ku Van Buren.<ref name = "chitwood147plus">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 147–51.</ref> Pamilihan présidén diputuskeun ku Kolegeu Éléktoral, nanging kanggé hiji-hijina waktos dina sajarah Amérika, pamilihan wakil présidén diputuskeun ku Sénat, anu milih Johnson tinimbang Granger dina sora munggaran.<ref>[[#Hatch|Hatch]], p. 189.</ref> ===Inohong pulitik nasional=== Tyler parantos ditarik kana pulitik Virginia nalika janten Sénator AS. Ti Oktober 1829 dugi ka Januari 1830, anjeunna ngabdi salaku anggota [[Konvénsi Konstitusi Virginia|konvénsi konstitusi nagara bagian]], hiji peran anu sabenerna mah anjeunna rada wegah nampina. [[Konstitusi Virginia]] anu asli masihan pangaruh anu kaleuleuwihi ka wilayah-wilayah wétan anu langkung konsérpatip, margi nangtukeun jumlah anggota législatif anu sami pikeun unggal county tanpa ningali jumlah pangeusina, sarta ngan masihan hak pilih ka nu gaduh lahan (property owners). Ieu konvénsi masihan kasempetan ka wilayah-wilayah kulon Virginia anu langkung padet pangeusina sarta libéral pikeun ngalegaan pangaruh maranéhna. Salaku saurang nu gaduh budak beulian ti Virginia wétan, Tyler ngarojong sistim anu parantos aya, nanging anjeunna milih kénéh cicing di sisi salila debat, margi teu hoyong ngajauhkeun faksi pulitik mana waé di éta nagara bagian. Anjeunna langkung fokus kana karirna di Sénat anu peryogi dukungan anu lega, sarta masihan biantara salila konvénsi anu ngajurung kana kompromi sarta persatuan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 88–98.</ref> Saatos pamilihan 1836, Tyler ngira yén karir pulitikna parantos lekasan, sarta ngarencanakeun pikeun balik deui janten praktisi hukum swasta. Dina usum gugur taun 1837, saurang réntén ngajual lahan anu cukup lega ka anjeunna di Williamsburg. Kusabab teu tiasa lami tebih ti dunya pulitik, Tyler hasil kapilih janten anggota House of Delegates sarta nempatan korsina dina taun 1838. Harita anjeunna parantos janten inohong pulitik nasional, sarta pangabdian katiluna di législatur nagara bagian ieu parantos ngambah kana isu-isu nasional sapertos penjualan lahan publik.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 152–53.</ref> Panggentos Tyler di Sénat nyaéta [[William Cabell Rives]], saurang Démokrat konsérpatip. Dina Pébruari 1839, Majelis Umum mimbangkeun saha anu bakal nempatan éta korsi, anu mangsa jabatanna bakal lekasan dina sasih payun. Rives parantos mimiti ngajauhan partéyna, méré sinyal kamungkinan aliansi sareng kaum Whig. Kusabab Tyler parantos sacara pinuh nolak Démokrat, anjeunna miharep kaum Whig bakal ngarojong anjeunna. Nanging, seueur kaum Whig anu nganggap Rives salaku pilihan anu langkung nguntungkeun sacara pulitik, margi maranéhna miharep tiasa berkoalisi sareng sayap konsérpatip Partéy Démokrat dina pamilihan présidén 1840. Strategi ieu dirojong ku pamimpin Whig, Henry Clay, anu harita mah masih kénéh mikahormat ka Tyler. Kusabab sora kabagi di antara tilu kandidat, kalebet Rives sarta Tyler, korsi Sénat éta kosong salami ampir dua taun, dugi ka Januari 1841.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 157–63.</ref> ==Pamilihan présidén 1840== {{See also|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|Kampanye présidén William Henry Harrison 1840|Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1839}} ===Nambahkeun Tyler kana tikét=== [[File:Tiptoo crop.jpg|thumb|alt=Sheet music|"[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]"]] Nalika [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1839]] lumangsung di [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]], kanggé milih pasangan calon ti partéy éta, Amérika nuju aya dina taun katilu résési anu parah saatos [[Panik 1837]]. Usaha Van Buren anu teu éféktif kanggé nanganan éta kaayaan ngajantenkeun anjeunna kaleungitan dukungan publik. Kusabab Partéy Démokrat parantos peupeus janten sababaraha faksi, pamingpin tikét Whig kamungkinan ageung bakal janten présidén salajengna. Harrison, Clay, sarta Jenderal [[Winfield Scott]] sadayana narékahan kanggé nampi nominasi. Tyler sumping ka konvénsi sarta ngagabung sareng délégasi Virginia, sanajan anjeunna teu miboga status resmi. Kusabab ayana rasa pait alatan pamilihan Sénat anu tacan réngsé, délégasi Virginia nolak kanggé ngajantenkeun Tyler salaku kandidat [[favorite son]] pikeun wakil présidén. Tyler sorangan henteu ngalakukeun nanaon kanggé ngaronjatkeun kasempetanna. Upami kandidat présidén karesepna, nyaéta Clay, hasil meunang, Tyler kamungkinan ageung moal dipilih kanggé nempatan posisi kadua dina tikét, margi éta posisi biasana bakal dipasihan ka urang Kalér kanggé mastikeun kasaimbangan géografis.<ref name = "seager132plus" /> Éta konvénsi ngalaman jalan buntu (deadlock) di antara tilu kandidat utama, dimana sora Virginia mimitina dipasihan ka Clay. Seueur kaum Whig di Kalér anu nentang Clay, sarta sababaraha urang, kalebet [[Thaddeus Stevens]] ti Pennsylvania, némbongkeun surat ti Scott ka delegasi Virginia anu eusina saolah-olah Scott miboga sikep abolisionis (anti-perbudakan). Délégasi Virginia anu boga pangaruh kuat harita ngumumkeun yén Harrison mangrupa pilihan kaduana, anu nyababkeun kalolobaan pangrojong Scott pindah ka Harrison, sahingga Harrison nampi nominasi présidén.<ref name = "seager132plus">[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 132–33.</ref> Nominasi wakil présidén harita dianggap salaku hal anu [[wikt:immaterial|teu pati penting]]; tacan aya présidén anu gagal ngaréngsékeun mangsa jabatanna. Teu seueur perhatian anu dipasihan kana ieu pilihan, sarta rinci ngeunaan kumaha Tyler tiasa nampi posisi éta masih kénéh tacan jelas. Chitwood nyebutkeun yén Tyler mangrupa kandidat anu logis: salaku saurang nu gaduh budak ti Kidul, anjeunna nyaimbangkeun tikét sarta ogé nenangkeun kasieun urang Kidul anu nganggap Harrison miboga kacenderungan abolisionis. Tyler parantos janten kandidat wakil présidén dina taun 1836, sarta ku ayana anjeunna dina tikét, Whig tiasa meunang di Virginia, nagara bagian anu panglobana pangeusina di Kidul. Salah saurang pangurus konvénsi, penerbit ti New York [[Thurlow Weed]], nyatakeun yén "Tyler antukna dipilih lantaran urang teu mendakan deui jalma sanés anu kersa nampi"—sanajan anjeunna nembé nyarios kieu saatos ayana papaséaan antara Présidén Tyler sarta Partéy Whig ka payunna.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], pp. 26–27.</ref> Musuh-musuh Tyler sanésna ngaklaim yén anjeunna "ceurik" nepi ka tiasa asup ka Gedong Bodas saatos ceurik ningali kaéléhan Clay; hal ieu sigana mah teu leres, margi Clay sorangan kantos ngarojong lawan Tyler, Rives, dina pamilihan Sénat.<ref>[[#Hatch|Hatch]], p. 192.</ref> Ngaran Tyler diajukeun dina sora, sarta sanajan Virginia milih ''abstain'' (teu méré sora), anjeunna nampi mayoritas anu diperyogikeun. Nalika janten présidén, Tyler dituduh kanggé nampi nominasi ku cara nyumputkeun pandanganana, sarta anjeunna ngajawab yén taya saurang ogé anu naroskeun ngeunaan hal éta. Biografina, Robert Seager II, miboga pamandangan yén Tyler dipilih kusabab kurangna kandidat alternatif sanésna. Seager nyimpulkeun, "Anjeunna diasupkeun kana tikét kanggé narik sora Kidul ka Harrison. Teu kirang, teu langkung."<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 134–35.</ref> ===Pamilihan Umum=== Taya [[platform partéy]] Whig—para pamingpin partéy mutuskeun yén nyobian nyusun platform malah bakal ngabubarkeun partéy. Janten, kaum Whig kampanye dumasar kana perlawanan maranéhna ka Van Buren, nyalahkeun anjeunna sarta kaum Démokrat pikeun résési anu lumangsung.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], p. 27.</ref> Dina matéri kampanye, Tyler dipuji lantaran integritasna nalika mundur tina Sénat alatan paréntah législatur nagara bagian.<ref>[[#Leahy|Leahy]], p. 350.</ref> Kaum Whig mimitina miharep kanggé "ngajempékeun" Harrison sarta Tyler, supados maranéhna teu ngaluarkeun pernyataan kawijakan anu tiasa ngajauhkeun sabagian faksi partéy. Nanging, saatos saingan Démokrat Tyler, Wakil Présidén Johnson, suksés ngayakeun tur biantara, Tyler dipénta kanggé indit ti Williamsburg ka [[Columbus, Ohio]], sarta di dinya biantara dina konvénsi lokal kanggé ngayakinkeun urang Kalér yén anjeunna miboga pandangan anu sami sareng Harrison. Dina lalampahan ampir dua bulan, Tyler masihan biantara dina rupa-rupa rapat umum. Anjeunna teu tiasa nyingkahan patarosan, sarta saatos diteken nepi ka ngaku yén anjeunna ngarojong Tarif Kompromi (anu sabenerna teu dipikaresep ku seueur kaum Whig), Tyler milih ngadugikeun deui cutatan tina biantara Harrison anu sipatna samar. Dina biantara dua jam di Columbus, Tyler leres-leres nyingkahan isu Bank Amérika Sarikat, anu mangrupa salah sahiji patarosan utama harita.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 137–39.</ref> {{quote box | align = left | width = 17em | salign = right | quote =  <poem> Naon anu nyababkeun ribut-ribut ieu, Di sakuliah nagara urang? Ieu téh bal anu nuju ngagulitik, Kanggé Tippecanoe sarta Tyler ogé, Tippecanoe sarta Tyler ogé. Sareng maranéhna, urang bakal ngéléhkeun Van anu leutik, Van, Van Van téh lalaki anu parantos béak. </poem> | source = — Lagu kampanye tina pamilihan 1840<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 140.</ref> }} Pikeun meunangkeun pamilihan, pamingpin Whig mutuskeun maranéhna kedah ngagerakkeun jalma-jalma di sakuliah nagara, kalebet kaum awéwé, anu harita mah tacan tiasa méré sora. Ieu mangrupa munggaranana partéy pulitik Amérika ngalibetkeun kaum awéwé dina kagiatan kampanye sacara lega, sarta kaum awéwé di Virginia (tempat asal Tyler) aktip bajoang kanggé anjeunna.<ref>[[#Varon|Varon]]</ref><ref>[[#Gunderson|Gunderson]], pp. 134–139.</ref> Partéy miharep kanggé nyingkahan isu-isu beurat sarta meunang ngaliwatan antusiasme publik, kalayan ngayakeun ara-arakan obor sarta rapat umum pulitik anu pinuh ku inuman keras.<ref name="Seager, p. 135">[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 135.</ref> Minat kana kampanye ieu taya tandingna sateuacanna. Nalika pers Démokrat ngagambarkeun Harrison salaku prajurit sepuh anu bakal eureun kampanye upami dipasihan sato mémang (barrel) [[hard cider]] (saripati apel beralkohol) kanggé diinum di jero [[gubug kai]]-na (log cabin), kaum Whig malah nyandak éta gambar kalayan sumanget, sahingga lahirna "kampanye gubug kai". Kanyataan yén Harrison sabenerna cicing di perkebunan méwah sarta Tyler téh jalma jegud mah dipaliré waé, sedengkeun gambar gubug kai muncul di mana-mana, ti mimiti spanduk dugi ka botol wiski. ''Cider'' mangrupa inuman karesep seueur patani sarta padagang, sarta kaum Whig ngaklaim yén Harrison langkung resep kana inuman rahayat leutik éta.<ref name = "crapol17plus" /> [[File:ElectoralCollege1840.svg|thumb|alt=Péta AS taun 1840, némbongkeun sora éléktoral|Péta sora éléktoral 1840]] Jasa militer sang calon présidén kacida ditekenna, sahingga muncul slogan kampanye anu kawentar, "**[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]**", anu ngarujuk kana kameunangan Harrison dina [[Pertempuran Tippecanoe]]. [[Glee club]] (kelompok nembang) muncul di sakuliah nagara, nembangkeun lagu-lagu patriotik: saurang éditor Démokrat nyatakeun yén anjeunna ngarasa festival lagu kanggé ngarojong Partéy Whig téh moal tiasa dipohokeun. Di antara lirik anu ditepikeun nyaéta "Urang bakal milih Tyler ku kituna/Tanpa nanya naha atawa ku sabab naon".<ref name = "crapol17plus">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 17–19.</ref> Louis Hatch, dina sajarah wakil présidénna, nyatet, "kaum Whig ngagorowok, nembang, sarta ngagunakeun 'hard-cider' kanggé mawa 'pahlawan Tippecanoe' ka Gedong Bodas".<ref name = "Hatch193">[[#Hatch|Hatch]], p. 193.</ref> Clay, sanajan ngarasa pait ku kaéléhanana anu sakian kalina, bisa ditenangkeun ku munduruna Tyler tina pamilihan Sénat anu masih tacan réngsé (supados Rives tiasa kapilih), sarta Clay antukna kampanye di Virginia kanggé tikét Harrison/Tyler.<ref name="Seager, p. 135"/> Tyler ngaramalkeun yén kaum Whig bakal meunang gampang di Virginia; anjeunna ngarasa éra nalika ramalanana salah,<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 141.</ref> nanging kahibur ku kameunangan sacara umum—Harrison sarta Tyler meunang sora éléktoral 234–60 kalayan 53% sora rahayat (popular vote). Van Buren ngan meunang di tujuh nagara bagian tina 26. Kaum Whig hasil ngawasa kadua majelis di Kongrés.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], pp. 29–30.</ref> ==Wakil présidén (1841)== Salaku [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat kapilih]], Tyler tetep cicing kalayan tenang di bumina di Williamsburg. Anjeunna sacara pribadi ngungkabkeun harepan yén Harrison bakal miboga sikep anu tegas sarta moal ngantepkeun ayana intrik dina Kabinét, utamana dina dinten-dinten awal pamaréntahan.<ref name = "peterson34">[[#Peterson|Peterson]], p. 34.</ref> Tyler henteu aub dina milih anggota Kabinét, sarta henteu ngusulkeun sasaha kanggé nempatan jabatan féderal dina pamaréntahan Whig anu énggal. Kusabab ditarajang ku jalma-jalma anu milari jabatan sarta tungtutan ti Sénator Clay, Harrison dua kali ngirim surat ka Tyler kanggé ménta nasehat naha pejabat anu ditunjuk ku Van Buren kedah diberhentikeun atanapi henteu. Dina kadua kasus éta, Tyler nyarankeun supados ulah diberhentikeun, sarta Harrison nyerat, "Pa Tyler nyarios yén maranéhna teu kedah dicopot, janten kuring moal nyopot maranéhna."<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 143.</ref> Kadua inohong ieu pendak sakedap di Richmond dina bulan Pébruari, sarta marios parade bareng,<ref name = "peterson34" /> sanajan maranéhna henteu ngabahas ngeunaan pulitik.<ref name = "seager144" /> [[File:Tyler receives news.jpg|thumb|alt=Ilustrasi: Tyler nangtung di tepas imahna di Virginia, didatangan ku saurang lalaki anu mawa amplop. Tulisanana: "Tyler nampi béja pupusna Harrison."|Ilustrasi taun 1888 ngeunaan Présidén Tyler nampi béja pupusna Présidén [[William Henry Harrison]] ti [[Kapala Kerani (Departemén Luar Negeri AS)|Kapala Kerani Departemén Luar Negeri]], [[Fletcher Webster]]]] Tyler dilantik dina 4 Maret 1841, di [[Old Senate Chamber|rohangan Sénat lami]], sarta masihan biantara tilu menit ngeunaan [[hak-hak nagara bagian]] sateuacan ngalantik para sénator énggal, anu satuluyna ngahadiran [[Palantikan William Henry Harrison]]. Saatos biantara dua jam présidén énggal di payuneun balaréa dina cuaca anu tiris pisan, Tyler balik deui ka Sénat kanggé nampi nominasi Kabinét présidén, sarta mingpin konfirmasi dina dinten salajengna—totalna ngan dua jam anjeunna janten présidén Sénat. Kusabab nganggap moal seueur tanggung jawab, anjeunna teras mios ti Washington sarta balik deui kalayan tenang ka bumina di [[Williamsburg, Virginia]].<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 200–02; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 144–45.</ref> Seager engkéna nyerat, "Upami William Henry Harrison terus hirup, John Tyler pastina bakal janten wakil présidén anu teu dipikawanoh sakumaha wakil présidén sanésna dina sajarah Amérika."<ref name = "seager144">[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 144.</ref> Samentawis éta, Harrison bajoang kanggé nangkis sagala rupa paménta ti Clay sarta pihak sanésna anu milari jabatan sarta pangaruh dina pamaréntahanana. Umur Harrison anu parantos sepuh sarta kaséhatanana anu mimiti nyirorot sanés mangrupa rusiah salila kampanye, sarta patarosan ngeunaan suksési présidén aya dina pikiran unggal politikus. Sababaraha minggu munggaran janten présidén leres-leres méspentaskeun tanaga Harrison, sarta saatos kabaseuhan ku hujan dina ahir Maret, anjeunna katarajang [[pneumonia]] (paru-paru baseuh) sarta [[pleurisy]].<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 201–02; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 142–47.</ref> Sekretaris Nagara Daniel Webster ngirim béja ka Tyler ngeunaan panyakit Harrison dina 1 April; dua dinten saatosna, pengacara ti Richmond James Lyons nyerat béja yén kaayaan présidén beuki parah, bari nyarios, "Kuring moal reuwas upami ngadangu tina surat énjing yén Jéndral Harrison parantos taya dikieuna."<ref name="Crapol 8">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 8.</ref> Tyler mutuskeun kanggé henteu angkat ka Washington, margi teu hoyong katingal teu pantes saolah-olah nuju ngantosan pupusna Harrison. Dina subuh kaping 5 April, putra Webster, [[Fletcher Webster]], kapala kerani Departemén Luar Negeri, sumping ka bumi Tyler di Williamsburg kanggé sacara resmi nginpokeun pupusna Harrison dina énjing sateuacanna.<ref name = "Crapol 8" /><ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession]]</ref> Tyler geuwat mios ti Williamsburg sarta dugi ka Washington dina subuh dinten salajengna.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ==Jabatan Présidén (1841–1845)== {{Main|Jabatan Présidén John Tyler}} [[File:John Tyler I.png|thumb|{{center|Présidén John Tyler, 1841}}]] Pupusna Harrison nalika nuju ngajabat mangrupa kajadian anu tacan kantos lumangsung sateuacanna, anu nyababkeun kateupastian ngeunaan suksési présidén. [[Pasal Dua Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Pasal II, Bagian 1, Ayat 6]] tina Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat, anu ngatur suksési présidén dina mangsa jabatan harita (ayeuna parantos digentos ku [[Amandemen ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]]), nyatakeun: {{Blockquote|Dina hal Présidén ditéwak tina Jabatanana, atanapi Pupus, Ngundurkeun Diri, atanapi Teu Sanggup ngajalankeun Wewenang sarta Tugas ti éta Jabatan, hal anu Sami bakal dipasrahkeun ka Wakil Présidén ....<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articleii|title=U.S. Constitution: Article II|publisher=Cornell University Law School|access-date=January 29, 2017}}</ref>}} Napsirkeun katangtuan Konstitusi ieu nimbulkeun patarosan naha jabatan présidén sacara nyata pindah ka Tyler, atanapi saukur wewenang sarta tugasna wungkul.<ref name = "chitwood202plus" /> Kabinét ngayakeun rapat sajam saatos pupusna Harrison sarta, numutkeun laporan engkéna, mutuskeun yén Tyler bakal janten "wakil présidén anu [[Pelaksana tugas présidén Amérika Sarikat|ngajalankeun tugas présidén]]".<ref>[[#Dinnerstein|Dinnerstein]], p. 447.</ref> Nanging, Tyler sacara tegas sarta mutus negeskeun yén Konstitusi masihan anjeunna wewenang pinuh sarta tanpa sarat tina éta jabatan. Ku kituna, anjeunna langsung nyandak sumpah jabatan salaku présidén, pindah ka Gedong Bodas sarta ngajalankeun kakuasaan présidén sapinuhna. Hal ieu nyiptakeun **[[Preséden Tyler]]** kanggé mindahkeun kakuasaan sacara teratur saatos présidén pupus, sanajan hal ieu nembé dibukukeun (kodifikasi) saatos disahkeunana Amandemen ka-25 dina taun 1967.<ref name="MillerCenterTyler">{{cite web|url=http://millercenter.org/president/biography/tyler-life-in-brief|title=John Tyler: Life in Brief|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia|access-date=January 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131195651/http://millercenter.org/president/biography/tyler-life-in-brief|archive-date=January 31, 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131195651/http://millercenter.org/president/biography/tyler-life-in-brief |date=January 31, 2017 }}</ref> Hakim [[William Cranch]] mingpin [[Sumpah jabatan Présidén Amérika Sarikat|sumpah présidén]] di kamar hotél Tyler. Tyler nganggap éta sumpah sabenerna mah teu perlu (redundant) margi anjeunna parantos sumpah salaku wakil présidén, nanging anjeunna hoyong ngaleungitkeun sagala karagu-raguan ngeunaan jabatanana.<ref name = "chitwood202plus">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 202–03.</ref> Nalika mimiti ngajabat, Tyler, dina yuswa 51 taun, janten présidén [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar yuswa|pangngorana]] dugi ka mangsa harita.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/presidents/john_tyler_sherwood_forest.html |title=John Tyler Home |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=December 14, 2017}}</ref> Rékorna satuluyna ditélikung ku panerusna, [[James K. Polk]], anu mimiti ngajabat dina yuswa 49 taun. "Kusabab sieun bakal ngajauhan para pangrojong Harrison, Tyler mutuskeun kanggé mertahankeun sakabéh kabinét Harrison sanajan sababaraha anggotana sacara terang-terangan némbongkeun rasa teu resep ka anjeunna sarta nolak jabatanana."<ref name="MillerCenterTyler"/> Dina rapat kabinét kahijina, Webster nginpokeun ka anjeunna ngeunaan kabiasaan Harrison anu nangtukeun kawijakan dumasar sora mayoritas. (Ieu mangrupa klaim anu rada diragukeun, margi Harrison ngan sakedik ngayakeun rapat kabinét sarta kantos sacara tegas némbongkeun otoritasna ka kabinét sahenteuna sakali.<ref>{{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert |title=Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time|url=https://archive.org/details/danielwebsterman00remi |url-access=registration |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co.|year=1997|pages=[https://archive.org/details/danielwebsterman00remi/page/520 520–521]|isbn=978-0-393-04552-9 }}</ref>) Kabinét pinuh harepan yén présidén énggal bakal neraskeun éta kabiasaan. Tyler kacida kagetna sarta langsung ngoréksi maranéhna: {{Blockquote|Hampura, para jandral; sim kuring kacida bingahna gaduh negarawan anu mumpuni sapertos aranjeun dina Kabinét sim kuring. Sarta sim kuring bakal bingah nampi nasehat sarta saran ti aranjeun. Nanging, sim kuring moal tiasa satuju upami dikatidikkeun (didikté) ngeunaan naon anu kedah atanapi teu kedah sim kuring lakukeun. Sim kuring, salaku présidén, bakal tanggung jawab kana administrasi sim kuring. Sim kuring miharep gawé bareng anu tulus ti aranjeun dina ngajalankeun léngkah-léngkahna. Salami aranjeun kersa ngalakukeun hal ieu, sim kuring bakal bingah aranjeun aya sareng sim kuring. Nalika aranjeun miboga pamandangan sanés, surat pangunduran diri aranjeun bakal ditampi.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 270, [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 149.</ref>}} Tyler nepikeun biantara pelantikan tinulis anu informal ka [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat]] dina 9 April, dimana anjeunna negeskeun deui kapercayaanana kana prinsip dasar [[Démokrasi Jeffersonian]] sarta kakuasaan féderal anu kawates. Klaim Tyler salaku présidén teu langsung ditampi ku anggota [[Oposisi (parlemén)|oposisi]] di Kongrés sapertos [[John Quincy Adams]], anu ngarasa yén Tyler kedahna janten [[Pamaréntah saheulaanan|pangurus samentara]] kalayan jujuluk "pelaksana tugas présidén", atanapi tetep janten wakil présidén sacara ngaran.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 203–07.</ref> Di antara maranéhna anu mamang kana otoritas Tyler nyaéta Clay, anu parantos ngarencanakeun janten "kakuasaan nyata di balik tahta anu ringkih" nalika Harrison masih hirup, sarta miboga maksud anu sami ka Tyler.<ref name = "seager142plus" /> Clay ningali Tyler saukur salaku "wakil présidén" sarta jabatan présidénna ngan ukur "[[wali raja]]" (regency).<ref name = "seager142plus">[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 142, 151.</ref> Ratifikasi kaputusan éta ku Kongrés sumping ngaliwatan béwara biasa yén Kongrés parantos ngayakeun sidang sarta siap nampi pesen-pesen. Di kadua majelis (DPR sarta Sénat), aya usulan amandemen anu gagal kanggé mupus kecap "présidén" sarta diganti ku basa anu ngawengku istilah "wakil présidén" kanggé nyebut Tyler. Sénator Mississippi [[Robert J. Walker]], dina panyatana, nyebatkeun yén ide yén Tyler masih kénéh wakil présidén sarta tiasa mingpin Sénat téh mangrupa hal anu absurd.<ref name="ReferenceB">[[#Dinnerstein|Dinnerstein]], pp. 451–53.</ref> Dina 31 Méi 1841, DPR ngaluarkeun résolusi gabungan anu mastikeun Tyler salaku "Présidén Amérika Sarikat" kanggé sésa mangsa jabatanna.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rankin |first=Robert S. |title=Presidential Succession in the United States |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=Feb 1946 |volume=8 |issue=1 |jstor=2125607 |pages=44–56 |doi=10.2307/2125607|s2cid=153441210 }}</ref> Dina 1 Juni 1841, Sénat méré sora ngarojong résolusi éta. Anu pangpentingna, Sénator Clay sarta [[John C. Calhoun]] milih bareng sareng mayoritas kanggé nolak amandemen Walker.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Para lawan Tyler henteu kantos sapinuhna nampi anjeunna salaku présidén. Anjeunna sacara éksékan dijulukan "**His Accidency**" (Présidén Kabeneran/Kacilakaan) di antara hinaan-hinaan sanésna.<ref>{{cite web|title='His Accidency', John Tyler, Jokes of 'Being an Accident Himself'|url=http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?john-tyler-president-jokes|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130717082602/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?john-tyler-president-jokes|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2013|work=Shapell Manuscript Collection|publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation|access-date=April 28, 2014}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Tyler teu kantos goyah tina kapercayaanana yén anjeunna mangrupa présidén anu sah. Nalika lawan-lawan pulitikna ngirim surat ka Gedong Bodas anu ditujukeun ka "wakil présidén" atanapi "pelaksana tugas présidén", anjeunna milih kanggé mulangkeun éta surat tanpa dibuka.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 10.</ref> Tyler dianggap salaku pamingpin anu kuat alatan tindakanana anu mutus nalika naék jabatan janten présidén. Nanging, sacara umum anjeunna miboga pandangan anu kawates ngeunaan kakuasaan présidén, yén undang-undang kedah dimimitian ku Kongrés, sarta véto présidén ngan kedah dianggo nalika hiji hukum dianggap inkonstitusional atanapi nentang kapentingan nasional.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|pp=141-142}} ===Kawijakan ékonomi sarta konflik partéy=== Sapertos Harrison, Tyler parantos diarep-arep kanggé patuh kana kawijakan publik Kongrés Partéy Whig sarta nurut ka pamingpin partéy, Henry Clay. Kaum Whig utamana nungtut supados Tyler ngawatesan kakuasaan véto, salaku réspon kana kapimpinan Jackson anu dianggap mawakarep soranga.{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=142}} Clay parantos ngabayangkeun Kongrés anu dimodélkeun dumasar kana sistim tipe [[parleménter]] dimana anjeunna janten pamingpina.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=142}} Mimitina, Tyler satuju sareng Kongrés Whig anu énggal ku cara nandatanganan undang-undang sapertos RUU ''preemption'' (hak miboga lahan ti heula) anu masihan "kedaulatan pangeusi liar" ka para padumuk di lahan publik, Undang-Undang Distribusi, undang-undang kabangkrutan anu énggal, sarta panyabutan Sistim [[Perbendaharaan Independen]]. Nanging, nalika dugi kana patarosan ageung ngeunaan perbankan, Tyler énggal-énggal béda pamandangan sareng kaum Whig di Kongrés, sarta dua kali ngavéto undang-undang Clay ngeunaan pendirian bank nasional. Sanajan RUU anu kadua mimitina parantos dirancang kanggé nyumponan kabutuhan Tyler tina véto munggaran, vérsi finalna mah tétéla henteu luyu. Ieu prakték, anu sabenerna dirancang kanggé nyegah Tyler janten saingan Clay dina nominasi Whig taun 1844, janten kawentar ku istilah "**heading Captain Tyler**" (ngahalangan Kaptén Tyler), hiji istilah anu diciptakeun ku Perwakilan Whig [[John Minor Botts]] ti Virginia. Tyler ngusulkeun rencana fiskal alternatif anu katelah "Exchequer", nanging réntén-réntén Clay anu ngawasa Kongrés nolak pisan kana éta usulan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 217–51 sarta lampiran anu ngabandingkeun struktur rupa-rupa RUU bank anu disusun ku Kongrés.</ref> Dina 11 Séptémber 1841, saatos véto bank anu kadua, anggota kabinét asup ka kantor Tyler hiji-hiji sarta ngundurkeun diri—hiji skénario anu disusun ku Clay kanggé maksa Tyler mundur supados tiasa nempatkeun leungeun katuhuna, Présidén ''pro tempore'' Sénat [[Samuel L. Southard]], di Gedong Bodas. Hiji-hijina iwal (pengecualian) nyaéta Webster, anu milih tetep ngajabat kanggé ngaréngsékeun naon anu engkéna janten [[Perjangjian Webster–Ashburton]] 1842, sarta kanggé némbongkeun kamerdékaanana tina pangaruh Clay.<ref>[[#Roseboom|Roseboom]], p. 124.</ref> Nalika dibéjaan ku Webster yén anjeunna kersa tetep ngajabat, Tyler dilaporkeun nyarios, "Pasihan panangan anjeun kanggé hal éta, sarta ayeuna sim kuring bakal nyarios ka anjeun yén Henry Clay téh lalaki anu parantos tumpur nasibna."<ref name = "kleber699" /> Dina 13 [[Séptémber]], nalika présidén henteu mundur atanapi nyerah, kaum Whig di Kongrés miceun Tyler tina partéy. Tyler dihina ku surat kabar Whig sarta nampi ratusan surat anu ngancam bakal nelasan/maéhan anjeunna.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 249–51.</ref> Kaum Whig di Kongrés kacida ambekna ka Tyler sahingga maranéhna nolak kanggé nyadiakeun dana kanggé ngoméan Gedong Bodas, anu harita kaayaanana parantos ruksak.<ref name = "kleber699">[[#Kleber|Kleber]], p. 699.</ref> ====Debat tarif sarta distribusi==== Dina pertengahan taun 1841, pamaréntah féderal nyanghareupan proyéksi defisit anggaran sagedé $11 juta. Tyler sadar yén diperyogikeun tarif anu langkung luhur, nanging anjeunna hoyong tetep aya dina wates 20% sakumaha anu parantos ditetepkeun dina [[Tarif Kompromi 1833]]. Anjeunna ogé ngarojong rencana kanggé ngadistribusikeun pendapatan tina penjualan lahan publik ka nagara-nagara bagian salaku léngkah darurat kanggé nanganan hutang nagara bagian anu beuki numpuk, sanajan hal ieu bakal ngirangan pendapatan féderal. Kaum Whig ngarojong tarif protéksionis anu luhur sarta pendanaan nasional kanggé infrastruktur nagara bagian, sahingga aya titik temu kanggé nyiptakeun kompromi. Undang-Undang Distribusi 1841 nyiptakeun program distribusi kalayan wates tarif 20%; RUU kadua ningkatkeun tarif kana angka éta kanggé barang-barang anu sateuacanna pajegna rendah. Sanajan kitu, dina Maret 1842 janten jelas yén pamaréntah féderal masih kénéh aya dina kaayaan kauangan anu sakarat.<ref name="Dire Straits">Solman, Paul – {{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/making-sense/lessons-from-the-political-gri/ |title=''Lessons from the Political Gridlock of 1842'' |publisher=PBS Newshour, February 28, 2013 |access-date= March 30, 2015|date=February 28, 2013 }}</ref> [[File:panic1837 crop.jpg|thumb|Kartun [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] anu ngagambarkeun dampak pangangguran ka hiji kulawarga anu masang potrét Jackson sarta Van Buren dina témbokna]] Akar masalahna nyaéta krisis ékonomi—anu dimimitian ku [[Panik 1837]]—anu nuju nincak taun kagenepna dina 1842. Hiji [[gelembung spékulatif]] parantos bitu dina taun 1836–39, nyababkeun runtuhna séktor kauangan sarta depresi satuluyna. Nagara janten papasah pisan ngeunaan cara anu pangsaéna kanggé nanganan éta krisis. Kaayaan beuki parah dina awal 1842 margi aya wates waktu (deadline) anu beuki deukeut. Sapuluh taun sateuacanna, nalika ékonomi masih kuat, Kongrés parantos jangji ka nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul yén bakal aya pangirangan tarif féderal anu kacida dipikageuleuhna. Nagara bagian di Kalér mah narima pisan kana tarif, anu ngajagi industri maranéhna anu nembé tumuwuh, nanging nagara bagian di Kidul teu miboga dasar industri sarta gumantung pisan kana aksés kabuka ka pasar Inggris kanggé kapas maranéhna.<ref name="Dire Straits"/> Dina rekomendasi ka Kongrés, Tyler nyatakeun yén diperyogikeun kanggé ngalangkungan Tarif Kompromi 1833 sarta ningkatkeun tarif saluhureun wates 20 persén. Dina kasapukan sateuacanna, hal ieu bakal ngeureunkeun program distribusi, dimana sakabéh pendapatan bakal asup ka pamaréntah féderal.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 293–97; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 166–67.</ref> Kongrés Whig anu nentang embung ningkatkeun tarif upami éta hal mangaruhan distribusi dana ka nagara-nagara bagian. Dina Juni 1842, maranéhna ngesahkeun dua RUU anu bakal ningkatkeun tarif sarta memperpanjang program distribusi tanpa sarat. Kusabab yakin yén teu pantes neraskeun distribusi nalika kakirangan pendapatan féderal merlukeun paningkatan tarif, Tyler ngavéto kadua RUU kasebut, sahingga mutuskeun sakabéh sasak hubungan anu masih aya antara anjeunna sareng kaum Whig.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 297–300; [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 167.</ref> Kongrés nyobian deui ku cara ngahijikeun duanana janten hiji RUU; Tyler ngavétona deui, anu matak kuciwa seueur anggota Kongrés, nanging maranéhna gagal ngabatalkeun (override) éta véto. Kusabab diperyogikeun hiji tindakan nyata, kaum Whig di Kongrés, anu dipingpin ku pupuhu [[Komite Urusan Keuangan DPR]] [[Millard Fillmore]], ngesahkeun hiji RUU di masing-masing majelis (ngan béda hiji sora) anu mulangkeun tarif ka tingkat taun 1832 sarta ngeureunkeun program distribusi. Tyler nandatanganan [[Tarif 1842]] dina 30 Agustus, bari ngalakukeun [[véto saku]] (pocket veto) kana RUU anu misah kanggé mulangkeun program distribusi.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], pp. 103–08.</ref> ====Réformasi Kantor Béa Cukai New York==== Dina Méi 1841, Présidén Tyler nunjuk tilu warga sipil kanggé nalungtik dugaan ayana kacurangan ''(fraud)'' di Kantor Béa Cukai New York anu cenah lumangsung dina mangsa Présidén [[Martin Van Buren]]. Komisi ieu dipingpin ku [[George Poindexter]], urut gubernur sarta Sénator AS ti Mississippi. Ieu komisi hasil ngabongkar rupa-rupa kagiatan curang anu dilakukeun ku Jesse D. Hoyt, Kolektor New York dina mangsa Van Buren. Pamariksaan komisi ieu nimbulkeun kontrovérsi sareng Kongrés anu dikawasa ku Whig, anu nungtut hoyong ningali laporan panalungtikan sarta ngarasa ambek margi Tyler mayar éta komisi tanpa persetujuan Kongrés. Tyler ngaréspon sarta nyatakeun yén éta téh mangrupa kawajiban konstitusionalna kanggé nerapkeun hukum. Nalika laporan éta réngsé dina 29 April 1842, DPR ménta éta laporan, sarta Tyler nyumponan paménta kasebut. Laporan Poindexter tétéla matak éra pikeun Kolektor New York ti kaum Whig sarta ogé pikeun Hoyt. Pikeun ngawatesan kakuasaan Tyler, Kongrés ngesahkeun undang-undang anggaran anu nyatakeun yén présidén dilarang ngagunakeun dana kanggé para panalungtik (investigator) tanpa aya persetujuan ti Kongrés.{{sfn|Holt|1974|pages=62-63}} ====Petisi pamakzulan di DPR==== Teu lami saatos véto-véto tarif kasebut, kaum Whig di DPR (House of Representatives) ngamimitian prosés [[Pamakzulan féderal di Amérika Sarikat|pamakzulan]] (impeachment) munggaran ngalawan saurang présidén. Rasa teu resep Kongrés ka Tyler dumasar kana alesan véto-vétona; dugi ka mangsa jabatan musuh buyutan kaum Whig, Andrew Jackson, para présidén jarang pisan ngavéto RUU, sarta upami ngalakukeun ogé ngan dumasar kana alesan konstitusionalitas. Tindakan Tyler dianggap nentang otoritas Kongrés dina nangtukeun kawijakan.<ref>''The Presidents: A Reference History'', éditan Henry F. Graff, édisi ka-2 (1996), g. 115 (ésai ku Richard B. Latner).</ref>{{efn|Tyler parantos ngavéto total sapuluh RUU Kongrés, genep véto biasa sarta dua véto saku. Salaku babandingan, [[Andrew Jackson]], anu kacida dipikageuleuhna ku kaum Whig, ngavéto total dua belas RUU Kongrés, lima véto biasa sarta tujuh véto saku. [[Martin Van Buren]] ngan ukur sakali ngalakukeun véto saku ka hiji RUU.<ref>[[#Vetoes, 1789 to Present United States Senate|Vetoes, 1789 to Present United States Senate]]</ref>}} Anggota Kongrés [[John Botts]], anu nentang Tyler, ngajukeun résolusi pamakzulan dina 10 Juli 1842. Botts nepikeun salapan pasal pamakzulan resmi kanggé "kejahatan sarta palanggaran beurat" (high crimes and misdemeanors) ngalawan Tyler.<ref name="Holt 2021">[[#Holt (February/March 2021)|Holt (February/March 2021)]]</ref> Genep tina dakwaan kasebut patali sareng panyalahgunaan kakuasaan pulitik, sedengkeun tilu sanésna ngeunaan dugaan kalakuan nu teu pantes salami ngajabat.<ref name="Holt 2021"/> Salajengna, Botts ménta dibentukna komite salapan anggota kanggé nalungtik paripolah Tyler, kalayan harepan bakal aya rekomendasi pamakzulan resmi. Clay nganggap léngkah ieu teuing agrésif sarta langkung milih prosés anu langkung moderat nuju pamakzulan Tyler anu dianggapna "moal tiasa nyingkah". Résolusi Botts ditunda dugi ka Januari 1843 nalika éta usulan antukna ditolak ku sora 127 ngalawan 83.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 303; [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 169.</ref> Hiji [[Komite husus (Kongrés Amérika Sarikat)|komite husus]] DPR anu dipingpin ku John Quincy Adams, saurang abolisionis fanatik anu teu resep ka juragan budak sapertos Tyler, ngutuk pamakéan véto ku Tyler sarta nyerang kapribadianana. Sanajan laporan komite éta henteu sacara resmi nyarankeun pamakzulan, laporan éta sacara jelas netepkeun ayana kamungkinan kasebut, sarta dina Agustus 1842 DPR ngarojong laporan komite éta. Adams ngusulkeun amandemen konstitusi kanggé ngarobah sarat dua per tilu sora di kadua majelis kanggé ngabatalkeun (override) véto janten saukur mayoritas basajan, nanging taya hiji ogé majelis anu nyatujuan éta usulan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 300–01; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 167–68.</ref> Kaum Whig teu tiasa neraskeun deui prosés pamakzulan dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-28]] salajengna—dina pamilihan taun 1842, maranéhna mertahankeun mayoritas di Sénat nanging kaleungitan kontrol di DPR. Dina dinten pinuh terakhir mangsa jabatan Tyler, 3 Maret 1845, Kongrés hasil ngabatalkeun vétona kana [[Undang-undang ngeunaan kapal béa cukai sarta kapal uap|hiji RUU leutik]] patali sareng [[Layanan Kapal Béa Cukai Amérika Sarikat]]—ieu mangrupa munggaranana dina sajarah Amérika hiji véto présidén hasil dibatalkeun ku Kongrés.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 283.</ref> Tyler sanés hartosna teu gaduh dukungan di Kongrés, kalebet ti rénjang sasama anggota Kongrés ti Virginia, [[Henry A. Wise]]. Sajumlah leutik anggota DPR, anu katelah "**Corporal's Guard**" (Penjaga Kopral), dipingpin ku Wise, terus ngarojong Tyler salami anjeunna pasea sareng kaum Whig. Salaku bales budi, Tyler nunjuk Wise janten Menteri AS ka Brasil dina taun 1844.{{sfn|Richards|2007|pages=35-36}} ===Urusan luar nagri=== Kasusah Tyler dina kawijakan jero nagri kontras pisan sareng pencapaianana dina kawijakan luar nagri. Anjeunna parantos lami janten pangrojong **[[ékspansionisme]]** nuju ka Pasifik sarta **[[perdagangan bébas]]**, sarta resep ngangkat téma ngeunaan takdir nasional sarta sumebarna kabébasan kanggé ngarojong kawijakan-kawijakan ieu.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Berkin|first1=Carol| last2=Miller|first2=Christopher|last3=Cherny|first3=Robert|last4=Gormly|first4=James|title=Making America: A History of the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/makingamericahis0000unse_s0b0|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2011|isbn=978-0-495-90979-8}}</ref> Posisi-posisi anjeunna sabagian ageung luyu sareng usaha-usaha Jackson sateuacanna kanggé ngamajukeun perdagangan Amérika di sakuliah Pasifik.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 41–43.</ref> Kusabab hayang pisan bersaing sareng Britania Raya di pasar internasional, anjeunna ngutus pengacara [[Caleb Cushing]] ka Tiongkok, dimana Cushing hasil negosiasi sarat-sarat dina **[[Perjangjian Wanghia]]** (1844).<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 330–32; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 210–11.</ref> Dina taun anu sami, anjeunna ngutus [[Henry Wheaton]] salaku menteri ka [[Bérlin]], dimana Wheaton negosiasi sarta nandatanganan perjangjian dagang sareng ''[[Zollverein]]'', hiji koalisi nagara-nagara Jérman anu ngatur tarif. Ieu perjangjian ditolak ku kaum Whig, utamana salaku bentuk mumusuhan ka pamaréntahan Tyler. Tyler ogé ngajurung kana paningkatan kakuatan militer sarta hal ieu nampi pujian ti para pamingpin angkatan laut, anu ningali ayana paningkatan nyata dina jumlah kapal perang.<ref name=UoVTwo>"[http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/tyler/essays/biography/5 John Tyler: Foreign Affairs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207180531/http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/tyler/essays/biography/5|date=December 7, 2008}} dina [[#Freehling|Freehling]], ''American President''. Diaksés 1 Juni 2014.</ref> Dina pesen husus ka Kongrés taun 1842, Tyler ogé nerapkeun [[Doktrin Monroe]] ka Hawaii (anu dijulukan "**Doktrin Tyler**"),<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4GVKXN8SWYC&pg=PA112|title=The Monroe Doctrine|isbn=978-1-4299-2928-8|last=Sexton|first=Jay|date=March 15, 2011|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux}}</ref> bari ngingetkeun Britania supados ulah pipilueun di dinya, sarta ngamimitian prosés anu antukna ngarah kana anéksasi Hawaii ku Amérika Sarikat ka payunna.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 332–34; [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 211.</ref> ====Florida==== Dina dinten pinuh terakhir Tyler ngajabat, nyaéta 3 Maret 1845, Florida resmi ditarima kana Uni salaku nagara bagian ka-27.<ref>"[http://millercenter.org/president/keyevents/tyler Key Events in the Presidency of John Tyler] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811193533/http://millercenter.org/president/keyevents/tyler|date=August 11, 2011}}" dina [[#Miller Center|Miller Center]], ''American President''. Diaksés 1 Juni 2014.</ref> ===Pemberontakan Dorr=== [[File:Thomas Wilson Dorr engraving.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Thomas Dorr]]]] Dina Méi 1842, nalika **[[Pemberontakan Dorr]]** di Rhode Island nuju muncak, Tyler mimbangkeun paménta gubernur sarta législatur kanggé ngirimkeun pasukan féderal guna mantuan numpes éta pemberontakan. Para pemberontak di handapeun pimpinan [[Thomas Wilson Dorr|Thomas Dorr]] parantos nyepeng sanjata sarta boga maksud kanggé nerapkeun konstitusi nagara bagian anu énggal. Sateuacan kajadian ieu, Rhode Island masih kénéh nuturkeun struktur konstitusional anu parantos ditetepkeun ti taun 1663. Tyler ngajurung sangkan kadua pihak tenang sarta nyarankeun ka gubernur supados ngalegaan hak pilih (franchise) sangkan kalolobaan lalaki tiasa méré sora. Tyler jangji yén upami bener-bener bitu pemberontakan di Rhode Island, anjeunna bakal ngagunakeun kakuatan kanggé mantuan pamaréntahan anu sah (Charter government). Anjeunna negeskeun yén bantuan féderal ngan bakal dipasihan kanggé numpes pemberontakan anu parantos lumangsung, sarta moal sayagi dugi ka ayana tindakan kekerasan. Saatos ngadangukeun laporan ti agén rusiahna, Tyler mutuskeun yén "kumpulan jalma anu ngalanggar hukum" éta parantos bubar, sarta anjeunna yakin kana "sumangat perdamaian sarta kaputusan anu tegas" tanpa kedah ngagunakeun kakuatan féderal. Para pemberontak kabur ti éta nagara bagian nalika milisi nagara bagian maju ka arah maranéhna, nanging éta kajadian ngabalukarkeun hak pilih anu langkung lega di Rhode Island.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 326–30.</ref> ===Urusan Indian=== Suku Seminole mangrupa urang Indian terakhir di Kidul anu kantos dipaksa nandatanganan perjangjian palsu dina taun 1833, anu ngarampas lahan-lahan maranéhna anu sésa. Di handapeun Kapala Suku [[Osceola]], suku Seminole salami dasawarsa nolak pamindahan sarta terus diganggu ku pasukan AS.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=146}} Tyler ngaréngsékeun **[[Perang Seminole Kadua]]** anu lami, getih, sarta teu manusiawi dina Méi 1842, ngaliwatan hiji pesen ka Kongrés. Tyler ogé ngungkabkeun minatna kana [[asimilasi budaya]] paksa ka [[Padumuk asli Amérika|urang Indian]].<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 330.</ref>{{sfn|McCormick|p=146|2002}} Dina Méi 1842, DPR nungtut ka Sekretaris Perang Présidén Tyler, [[John Canfield Spencer|John Spencer]], supados masrahkeun inpormasi ngeunaan panalungtikan Angkatan Darat AS kana pasalia dugaan kacurangan ka suku Cherokee. Dina sasih Juni, Tyler maréntahkeun Spencer supados ulah nyumponan éta paménta. Tyler, anu hak istiméwa éksékutifna (executive privilege) nuju diuji, negeskeun yén éta masalah téh sipatna ''[[ex parte]]'' sarta nentang kapentingan umum. DPR ngaréspon ku tilu résolusi, anu sabagian nyatakeun yén DPR miboga hak kanggé nungtut inpormasi ti kabinét Tyler. DPR ogé maréntahkeun perwira Angkatan Darat anu tanggung jawab kana éta panalungtikan supados masrahkeun inpormasina. Tyler henteu nyobian ngaréspon dugi ka Kongrés balik deui tina mangsa résés dina sasih Januari.{{sfn|Holt|1974|pages=63-64}} ===Administrasi sarta kabinét=== [[File:WHOportTyler.jpg|thumb|Potrét resmi Présidén Tyler karya [[George Peter Alexander Healy]], {{circa|1864}}]] {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet |align=right |Name=Tyler |source=<ref>[[#Miller Center|Miller Center]].</ref> |President=John Tyler |President start=1841 |President end=1845 |Vice President=''Teu aya'' |Vice President start=1841 |Vice President end=1845 |State=[[Daniel Webster]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |State start=1841 |State end=1843 |State 2=[[Abel P. Upshur]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |State start 2=1843 |State end 2=1844 |State 3=[[John C. Calhoun]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |State start 3=1844 |State end 3=1845 |Treasury=[[Thomas Ewing]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Treasury date=1841 |Treasury 2=[[Walter Forward]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Treasury start 2=1841 |Treasury end 2=1843 |Treasury 3=[[John Canfield Spencer]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Treasury start 3=1843 |Treasury end 3=1844 |Treasury 4=[[George M. Bibb]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Treasury start 4=1844 |Treasury end 4=1845 |War=[[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |War date=1841 |War 2=[[John Canfield Spencer]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |War start 2=1841 |War end 2=1843 |War 3=[[James Madison Porter]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |War start 3=1843 |War end 3=1844 |War 4=[[William Wilkins (American politician)|William Wilkins]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |War start 4=1844 |War end 4=1845 |Justice=[[John J. Crittenden]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Justice date=1841 |Justice 2=[[Hugh S. Legaré]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Justice start 2=1841 |Justice end 2=1843 |Justice 3=[[John Nelson (lawyer)|John Nelson]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Justice start 3=1843 |Justice end 3=1845 |Post=[[Francis Granger]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Post date=1841 |Post 2=[[Charles A. Wickliffe]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Post start 2=1841 |Post end 2=1845 |Navy=[[George Edmund Badger]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Navy date=1841 |Navy 2=[[Abel P. Upshur]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Navy start 2=1841 |Navy end 2=1843 |Navy 3=[[David Henshaw (American politician)|David Henshaw]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Navy start 3=1843 |Navy end 3=1844 |Navy 4=[[Thomas Walker Gilmer]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Navy date 4=1844 |Navy 5=[[John Y. Mason]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Navy start 5=1844 |Navy end 5=1845 }} Papaséaan antara Tyler sarta kaum Whig di Kongrés ngabalukarkeun sajumlah calon kabinétna ditolak. Anjeunna nampi sakedik pisan dukungan ti kaum Démokrat, sarta tanpa dukungan kuat ti salah sahiji partéy utama di Kongrés, sajumlah nominasina ditolak tanpa maut deuleu kana kualifikasi si calon. Harita, mangrupa hal anu tacan kantos lumangsung ayana panolakan ka calon-calon kabinét présidén (sanajan dina taun 1809, [[James Madison]] kantos nahan nominasi [[Albert Gallatin]] salaku Sekretaris Nagara alatan ayana oposisi di Sénat). Opat tina calon kabinét Tyler ditolak ku Sénat, jumlah panglobana dibandingkeun présidén sanésna. Maranéhna nyaéta [[Caleb Cushing]] (Keuangan), [[David Henshaw (American politician)|David Henshaw]] (Angkatan Laut), [[James Madison Porter|James Porter]] (Perang), sarta [[James S. Green (attorney)|James S. Green]] (Keuangan). Henshaw sarta Porter kantos ngajabat salaku pajabat samentara (recess appointees) sateuacan maranéhna ditolak. Tyler sababaraha kali nyalonkeun deui Cushing, anu antukna ditolak nepi ka tilu kali dina sapoé, nyaéta 3 Maret 1843, dinten pamungkas [[Kongrés ka-27]].<ref name="senate.gov"/> Teu aya deui nominasi kabinét anu gagal saatos mangsa jabatan Tyler dugi ka nominasi [[Henry Stanbery]] salaku Jaksa Agung ditolak ku Sénat dina taun 1868.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Advice and Consent of the Senate: A Study of the Confirmation of Appointments by the United States Senate|first=Joseph Pratt|last=Harris|location=Berkeley, CA|publisher=University of California Press|year=1953|pages=48, 66|oclc= 499448}}</ref> {{clear}} ===Pangangkatan yudisial=== {{main|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku John Tyler}} {| class="floatright" style="font-size:90%; width:auto; text-align:left; white-space:nowrap; margin-left:1em; margin-right:0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; border-spacing: 3px; background-color: #f8f9fa;" |+ Pangangkatan Yudisial<ref name="SCOTUSnom" /><ref name="FedJudges" /> |- ! scope="col" | Pangadilan ! scope="col" | Nami ! scope="col" | Mangsa Jabatan |- ! style="background:#000;" colspan="3" | |- | [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat|U.S.S.C.]] ! [[Samuel Nelson]] | {{abbr|1845–1872|14 Pébruari 1845 – 28 Nopémber 1872}} |- ! style="background:#D1D1D1;" colspan="3" | |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Wétan Virginia|E.D. Va.]] ! [[James Dandridge Halyburton]] | {{abbr|1844–1861|15 Juni 1844 – 24 April 1861}} |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Indiana|D. Ind.]] ! [[Elisha Mills Huntington]] | {{abbr|1842–1862|2 Méi 1842 – 10 Oktober 1862}} |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Wétan Louisiana|E.D. La.]]<br />[[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Kulon Louisiana|W.D. La.]]<ref group="lower-alpha">McCaleb ditugaskeun salaku hakim kanggé Distrik Wétan sarta Kulon Louisiana, hiji prakték umum dina mangsa harita.</ref> ! [[Theodore Howard McCaleb]] | {{abbr|1841–1861|3 Séptémber 1841 – 28 Januari 1861}}<ref group="lower-alpha">Dina 13 Pébruari 1845, dua distrik di Louisiana dihijikeun; McCaleb janten hakim di éta pangadilan dumasar [[aturan hukum]]; dina 3 Maret 1849, distrikna dipisah deui, sarta McCaleb ditugaskeun di Distrik Wétan wungkul.</ref> |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Vermont|D. Vt.]] ! [[Samuel Prentiss]] | {{abbr|1842–1857|8 April 1842 – 15 Januari 1857}} |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Wétan Pennsylvania|E.D. Pa.]] ! [[Archibald Randall]] | {{abbr|1842–1846|8 Maret 1842 – 8 Juni 1846}} |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Massachusetts|D. Mass.]] ! [[Peleg Sprague (politisi Maine)|Peleg Sprague]] | {{abbr|1841–1865|16 Juli 1841 – 13 Maret 1865}} |} Aya dua kakosongan dina Mahkamah Agung salami mangsa jabatan Tyler, nalika Hakim [[Smith Thompson]] sarta [[Henry Baldwin (judge)|Henry Baldwin]] pupus, masing-masing dina taun 1843 sarta 1844. Tyler, anu terus-terusan papaséaan sareng Kongrés—kalebet Sénat anu dikawasa ku Whig—nyalonkeun sababaraha urang ka Mahkamah Agung kanggé ngeusian éta korsi. Nanging, Sénat sacara berturut-turut milih kanggé nolak konfirmasi [[John C. Spencer]], [[Reuben Walworth]], [[Edward King (jurist)|Edward King]] sarta [[John M. Read]] (Walworth ditolak nepi ka tilu kali, King ditolak dua kali). Salah sahiji alesan anu disebutkeun nyaéta harepan Sénat yén Clay bakal ngeusian éta kakosongan saatos meunang dina pamilihan présidén 1844.<ref name="senate.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Nominations.htm |title=Powers and Procedures: Nominations |work=Origins & Development of the United States Senate |publisher=[[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]] |access-date=1 Juni 2014}}</ref> Opat calon Tyler anu gagal mangrupa jumlah panglobana anu kantos dialaman ku saurang présidén.<ref name="SCOTUSnom" /> Antukna, dina Pébruari 1845, kurang ti sabulan sateuacan mangsa jabatanna béak, nominasi Tyler pikeun [[Samuel Nelson]] dina korsi Thompson hasil dikonfirmasi ku Sénat—Nelson, saurang Démokrat, miboga reputasi salaku ahli hukum anu taliti sarta henteu kontrovérsial. Sanajan kitu, konfirmasina dianggap mangrupa hiji kejutan. Korsi Baldwin tetep kosong dugi ka calon ti [[James K. Polk]], nyaéta [[Robert Cooper Grier]], dikonfirmasi dina taun 1846.<ref name="SCOTUSnom">{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm |title=Supreme Court Nominations, present–1789 |work=United States Senate Reference |access-date=27 April 2014|publisher=[[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]]}}</ref> Tyler ngan ukur tiasa nunjuk genep hakim féderal sanésna, sakabéhna kanggé [[Pangadilan distrik Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="FedJudges">{{cite web |url=http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/judges.html |work=History of the Federal Judiciary |access-date=27 April 2014|title=Biographical Directory of Federal Judges |publisher=[[Federal Judicial Center]]}}</ref> ===Anéksasi Téxas=== {{See also|Anéksasi Téxas}} Tyler ngajadikeun anéksasi **[[Républik Téxas]]** salaku bagian tina agénda utamana teu lami saatos janten présidén. Tyler terang yén anjeunna téh présidén tanpa partéy, sarta anjeunna miboga kawani kanggé nangtang para pamingpin partéy sapertos Clay sarta Van Buren, tanpa paduli kumaha pangaruh anéksasi Téxas ka kaum Whig atanapi Démokrat.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=147}} Téxas parantos nyatakeun kamerdékaanana ti [[Méksiko]] dina [[Révolusi Téxas]] taun 1836, sanajan Méksiko masih kénéh nolak ngaku kana kedaulatanana. Rahayat Téxas sacara aktip nyobian gabung ka Uni (AS), nanging Jackson sarta Van Buren mimitina horéam margi sieun nyulut tegangan ngeunaan masalah perbudakan ku cara nambihan nagara bagian Kidul sanésna. Sanajan Tyler boga maksud ngajadikeun anéksasi salaku titik fokus pamaréntahanana, Sekretaris Webster nentang hal éta, sarta ngayakinkeun Tyler kanggé konséntrasi kana inisiatif Pasifik dugi ka ahir mangsa jabatanna.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 176–78.</ref> Kahoyong Tyler kanggé ékspansionisme ka kulon diaku ku para sajarawan, nanging pandangan maranéhna béda-béda ngeunaan motivasi di balikna. Biografer Edward C. Crapol nyatet yén salila mangsa présidén [[James Monroe]], Tyler (harita di DPR) kantos nyebatkeun yén perbudakan téh mangrupa "mega poék" anu ngagantung di luhur Uni, sarta bakal "saé upami éta mega téh dibuyarkeun" sangkan ku sakedikna urang hideung di nagara bagian lami, prosés émansipasi bertahap tiasa dimimitian di Virginia sarta nagara bagian Kidul luhur sanésna.<ref>Crapol, 2006, p. 5: "Solusi Tyler nyaéta ékspansi perbudakan anu langkung lega sarta pangakuan Missouri salaku nagara bagian perbudakan. Anjeunna ningali ékspansi wilayah salaku cara kanggé ngipiskeun sarta nyebarkeun populasi budak."</ref> Nanging, sajarawan [[William W. Freehling]] nyerat yén motivasi resmi Tyler dina nganéksasi Téxas nyaéta kanggé ngéléhkeun usaha-usaha [[Britania Raya]] anu dicurigai nuju ngamajukeun émansipasi budak di Téxas, anu tiasa ngalemahkeun institusi perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat.<ref>Freehling, 1991, p. 398: "Tyler sarta [Sekretaris Nagara] Upshur milih anéksasi ngan saatos aya parobahan parleménter anu mastikeun... yén Inggris parantos 'sacara sungguh-sungguh' neken Méksiko supados neken Téxas nuju ka abolisi [penghapusan perbudakan]."</ref> ====Usaha-usaha awal==== [[File:United States 1842-1845-03.png|thumb|alt=Peta sajarah AS, 1843. Kalolobaan nagara bagian wétan parantos kabentuk, samentawis bagian kulon masih dibagi-bagi janten wilayah téritori. Méksiko sarta Républik Téxas miboga wates anu masih sengketa.|Wates-wates Amérika Sarikat sarta nagara-nagara tatangga sakumaha anu katingal dina taun 1843. [[Perjangjian Webster–Ashburton]] parantos ngaresmikeun wates [[Maine]] di timur laut, samentawis [[Républik Téxas]] di barat daya miboga wates anu masih dipaséakeun sareng [[Méksiko]].]] Dina awal taun 1843, saatos ngaréngsékeun perjangjian Webster–Ashburton sarta usaha diplomatik sanésna, Tyler ngarasa siap kanggé ngudag Téxas. Kusabab ayeuna teu gaduh basis partéy, anjeunna ningali anéksasi Téxas salaku hiji-hijina jalan nuju pamilihan mandiri dina taun 1844. Pikeun munggaranana dina karirna, anjeunna kersa maén "**political hardball**" (pulitik kasar/tegas) kanggé ngawujudkeunana. Salaku [[balon percobaan]] (trial balloon), anjeunna ngutus sekutuna [[Thomas Walker Gilmer]], harita anggota DPR AS ti Virginia, kanggé nyebarkeun surat anu ngabéla anéksasi, anu tétéla ditarima kalayan saé. Sanajan hubunganana sareng Webster suksés, Tyler terang yén anjeunna peryogi Sekretaris Nagara anu ngarojong inisiatif Téxas. Saatos padamelan perjangjian Britania réngsé, anjeunna maksa Webster mundur sarta masang [[Hugh S. Legaré]] ti South Carolina salaku gaganti samentara.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 180–83, 186.</ref> Kalayan bantosan Sekretaris Keuangan anu nembé diangkat, [[John C. Spencer]], Tyler "ngaberesihan" sajumlah pajabat sarta ngagentos maranéhna ku para pangrojong anéksasi, hiji parobahan sikep tina pandangan sateuacanna anu nentang sistim patronase. Anjeunna ménta bantosan pangatur pulitik [[Michael Walsh (politisi New York)|Michael Walsh]] kanggé ngawangun [[mesin pulitik]] di New York. Salaku imbalan kanggé jabatan [[Menteri Amérika Sarikat ka Hawaii|konsul ka Hawaii]], wartawan [[Alexander G. Abell]] nyerat biografi anu muji-muji, ''Life of John Tyler'', anu dicitak dina jumlah ageung sarta dipasrahkeun ka para kapala pos kanggé disebarkeun.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 183–85.</ref> Dina usaha ngoméan citra publikna, Tyler ngayakeun tur ka sakuliah nagara dina musim semi taun 1843. Pangbagéa anu positip ti masarakat dina acara-acara ieu kontras pisan sareng dikucilkeunana anjeunna di Washington. Éta tur museur kana peresmian **[[Monumén Bunker Hill]]** di Boston, Massachusetts. Teu lami saatos peresmian, Tyler nampi béja yén Legaré pupus ngadadak, anu matak ngaganggu suasana hajatan sarta nyababkeun anjeunna ngabolatkeun sésa turna.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 185–94.</ref> Tyler nunjuk [[Abel P. Upshur]], saurang [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] anu populér sarta panaséhat caketna, salaku Sekretaris Nagara énggal, sarta nyalonkeun Gilmer kanggé ngeusian jabatan lami Upshur. Tyler sarta Upshur mimiti ngayakeun negosiasi rusiah sareng pamaréntahan Téxas, bari jangji bakal masihan perlindungan militer ti Méksiko salaku imbalan kanggé komitmen anéksasi. Karusiah ieu diperyogikeun margi Konstitusi merlukeun persetujuan Kongrés kanggé komitmen militer sapertos kitu. Upshur nyebarkeun gosip ngeunaan kamungkinan rencana Britania ka Téxas kanggé milarian dukungan ti para pamilih di Kalér, anu harita masih waspada kanggé nampi nagara bagian perbudakan anu anyar.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 194–97.</ref> Dina Januari 1844, Upshur nyarios ka pamaréntahan Téxas yén anjeunna parantos mendakan mayoritas ageung sénator anu satuju kana perjangjian anéksasi. Républik Téxas tetep mamang, sarta finalisasi perjangjian nembé réngsé dina ahir bulan Pébruari.<ref name="Crapolpp">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 202–10.</ref> ====Musibah USS ''Princeton''==== {{See also|Musibah USS Princeton 1844}} [[File:Explosion aboard USS Princeton.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Ilustrasi sajarah bituna mariem Princeton, kalayan puluhan tamu di luhur kapal. Tulisanana unina "Bituna Peace-Maker anu matak ngeri di luhur kapal uap frégat AS Princeton".|Litograf musibah ''Princeton'' (1844)]] Hiji pelayaran seremonial nyusur Walungan Potomac dilaksanakeun di luhur kapal {{USS|Princeton|1843|6}} anu nembé réngsé diwangun dina 28 Pébruari 1844, sapoé saatos perjangjian anéksasi réngsé disusun. Di luhur kapal aya 400 tamu, kalebet Tyler sarta kabinétna, ogé mariem laut pangbadagna di dunya harita, "Peacemaker". Éta mariem ditembakkeun sababaraha kali dina waktu soré kalayan dipirig ku rasa bungah para tamu, anu saterusna lungsur ka handap kanggé ngayakeun ''toast'' (nginum babarengan). Sababaraha jam ti harita, Kaptén [[Robert F. Stockton]] dibujuk ku balaréa kanggé némbakkeun sakali deui. Nalika para tamu maraju ka dék luhur, Tyler eureun sakedap kanggé ningali minantuna, William Waller, nuju ngawih.<ref name="Princeton">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 207–09; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 204–06.</ref> Sakedapan, sora bitu ngageleger ti luhur: mariemna ruksak parah (malfunction). Tyler salamet margi masih kénéh aya di dék handap, nanging sajumlah jalma sanésna tiwas saketika, kalebet anggota kabinét anu krusial kanggé anjeunna, nyaéta Gilmer sarta Upshur. Nu sanésna anu tiwas atanapi tatu parah nyaéta [[Virgil Maxcy]] ti Maryland, anggota DPR [[David Gardiner (politisi)|David Gardiner]] ti New York, Komodor [[Beverley Kennon]], Kapala Konstruksi [[Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat]], sarta Armistead, saurang budak hideung sarta palayan pribadi Tyler. Pupusna David Gardiner matak nyéréséh haté putrana, [[Julia Gardiner Tyler|Julia]], anu kapiuhan sarta dipangku ka tempat aman ku présidén nyalira.<ref name="Princeton" /> Julia engkéna pulih tina rasa duka sarta nikah sareng Tyler dina 26 Juni.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 208.</ref> Kanggé Tyler, harepan kanggé ngaréngsékeun rencana Téxas sateuacan Nopémber (sarta harepan kanggé kapilih deui) langsung sirna. Sajarawan Edward P. Crapol engkéna nyerat yén "Sateuacan Perang Sipil sarta pembunuhan Abraham Lincoln", musibah ''Princeton'' téh "tanpa ragu mangrupa tragédi pangparahna sarta paling ngalemahkeun anu kantos disanghareupan ku saurang Présidén Amérika Sarikat".<ref name="Crapolpp" /> ====Masalah ratifikasi==== [[File:Uncle Sam and his servants.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Kartun pulitik sajarah. Tulisanana unina "Mamang Sam sarta para palayanna."|Hiji sindiran anti-Tyler anu ngalunikeun usahana kanggé ménta mangsa jabatan kadua. Tyler nyurung panto kanggé nutup jalan lawanna sapertos Clay, Polk, Calhoun, sarta Jackson, samentawis [[Mamang Sam]] nungtut supados anjeunna ngantepkeun Clay lebet.]] Dina naon anu dianggap ku **[[Miller Center of Public Affairs]]** salaku "kasalahan taktis serius anu ngancurkeun skéma [kanggé ngawangun citra pulitikna]",<ref name=UoVThree>"[http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/tyler/essays/biography/4 John Tyler: Domestic Affairs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127000903/http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/tyler/essays/biography/4 |date=27 Nopémber 2010 }}" dina [[#Miller Center|Miller Center]], ''American President''. Diaksés 1 Juni 2014.</ref> Tyler nunjuk urut Wakil Présidén [[John C. Calhoun]] dina awal Maret 1844 salaku Sekretaris Nagara énggalna. Rénjang caket Tyler, Perwakilan Virginia [[Henry A. Wise]], nyerat yén saatos musibah ''Princeton'', Wise ku karep sorangan nawarkeun éta jabatan ka Calhoun salaku utusan présidén, sarta Calhoun nampi. Nalika Wise ngawartosan Tyler ngeunaan naon anu parantos dilakukeunana, présidén ambek nanging ngarasa yén éta tindakan parantos kasep kanggé dibolaykeun. Calhoun mangrupa tokoh utama anu ngarojong perbudakan, sarta usaha-usahana kanggé ngaluluskeun perjangjian anéksasi antukna ditentang ku kaum abolisionis. Nalika téks perjangjian bocor ka publik, hal ieu nampi oposisi pulitik ti kaum Whig, anu nolak naon waé anu tiasa ningkatkeun status Tyler, ogé ti musuh-musuh perbudakan sarta jalma-jalma anu sieun ku konfrontasi sareng Méksiko. Méksiko parantos ngumumkeun yén maranéhna bakal nganggap anéksasi salaku tindakan mumusuhan ti Amérika Sarikat. Boh Clay sarta Van Buren, calon kuat ti Whig sarta Démokrat, mutuskeun dina hiji rapat pribadi di bumi Van Buren kanggé nolak anéksasi.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 212–17.</ref> Kusabab terang hal ieu, Tyler ngarasa pesimis nalika anjeunna ngirimkeun éta perjangjian ka Sénat kanggé diratifikasi dina April 1844.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 218.</ref> Sekretaris Nagara Calhoun ngirimkeun hiji surat kontrovérsial anu ngawartosan menteri Britania kanggé AS yén motivasi anéksasi Téxas téh nyaéta kanggé ngajaga perbudakan Amérika tina campur tangan Britania. Éta surat ogé ngaklaim yén budak di Kidul hirupna langkung saé dibandingkeun urang hideung bébas di Kalér sarta pagawé bodas di Inggris.{{sfn|White|2016|p=53}} ===Pamilihan 1844=== {{main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1844}} {{further|Partéy Tyler}} Saatos Tyler papisah sareng kaum Whig dina taun 1841, anjeunna nyobian uih deui ka partéy lami na, Démokrat, nanging para anggotana, utamana para pangikut Van Buren, henteu siap nampi anjeunna. Nalika pamilihan taun 1844 beuki caket, Van Buren katingalina parantos ngonci nominasi Démokrat, samentawis Clay parantos pasti janten calon ti Whig.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=148}} Kalayan sakedik pisan lolongkrang kanggé kapilih, hiji-hijina cara kanggé nyalametkeun warisan présidénna nyaéta ku cara ngancam bakal maju janten présidén sarta maksa publik kanggé nampi anéksasi Téxas.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=148}} Tyler ngagunakeun kakuatan patronase présidénna anu kacida lega,{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=148}} sarta ngabentuk partéy katilu, nyaéta **[[Partéy Tyler]]**, kalayan ngagunakeun para pajabat sarta jaringan pulitik anu parantos diwangun ku anjeunna salami sataun sateuacanna. Sababaraha surat kabar anu ngarojong di sakuliah nagara ngaluarkeun tajuk rencana anu ngamajukeun pencalonanana salami bulan-bulan awal taun 1844. Laporan tina rapat-rapat anu diayakeun di sakuliah nagara nembongkeun yén dukungan kanggé présidén henteu ngan kawates ka para pajabat wungkul, sakumaha anu sering dianggap ku jalma réa. Pas pisan nalika Partéy Démokrat ngayakeun konvénsi nominasi présidén di Baltimore, Maryland, para pangrojong Tyler ogé ngayakeun acara di kota anu sami kalayan mawa poster bertuliskeun "**Tyler and Texas!**" (Tyler sarta Téxas!). Kalayan sumangat sarta énergi anu luhur, maranéhna masihan nominasi ka Tyler. Partéyna sacara resmi nyalonkeun Tyler kanggé korsi présidén dina 27 Méi 1844.<ref name="auto">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 218; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 228–29.</ref> Nanging, partéy Tyler ieu organisasina rada logor, gagal nyalonkeun wakil présidén, sarta teu gaduh platform anu jelas.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|pp=148-149}} Kaum Démokrat biasa antukna kapaksa ngasupkeun anéksasi Téxas kana platform maranéhna, nanging aya pertempuran sengit kanggé nominasi présidén. Dina sababaraha kali sora (ballot), Van Buren gagal kéngingkeun mayoritas mutlak sora Démokrat, sarta lalaunan posisina turun dina réngking. Kakara dina sora kasalapan, kaum Démokrat ngalihkeun perhatian ka **[[James K. Polk]]**, saurang calon anu kurang kawentar nanging ngarojong anéksasi. Maranéhna nganggap Polk kacida cocogna sareng platform partéy, sarta anjeunna dicalonkeun kalayan dua per tilu sora. Tyler ngarasa usahana parantos kabuktian bener (vindicated), sarta dina surat panampianana anjeunna nyatakeun yén anéksasi mangrupa prioritas utamana tinimbang kapilih deui janten présidén.<ref name="auto"/> Dina musim semi taun 1844, Tyler maréntahkeun Sekretaris Nagara [[John C. Calhoun]] kanggé ngamimitian negosiasi sareng présidén Téxas, [[Sam Houston]], kanggé anéksasi Téxas. Pikeun nguatkeun posisi anéksasi sarta ngajaga Méksiko supados teu campur tangan, Tyler kalayan wanian maréntahkeun Angkatan Darat AS nuju ka wates Téxas di Louisiana kulon. Anjeunna kacida ngarojongna kana anéksasi Téxas.{{sfn|Smith|2001|p=35}}{{sfn|Brands|2012|p=17}} ====Pencapaian anéksasi==== Tyler teu galéong nalika Sénat anu dikawasa ku Whig nolak perjangjianana ku sora 16–35 dina Juni 1844; anjeunna ngarasa yén anéksasi ayeuna bisa kahontal ngaliwatan résolusi gabungan tinimbang perjangjian, sarta ngajukeun paménta éta ka Kongrés. Mantan Présidén Andrew Jackson, pangrojong kuat anéksasi, ngayakinkeun Polk kanggé nampi deui Tyler ka Partéy Démokrat sarta maréntahkeun para éditor Démokrat kanggé ngeureunkeun serangan ka anjeunna. Sugema ku kamekaran ieu, Tyler mundur tina saimbara dina sasih Agustus sarta ngarojong Polk kanggé korsi présidén. Kameunangan tipis Polk ngalawan Clay dina pamilihan Nopémber dianggap ku administrasi Tyler salaku hiji [[mandat (pulitik)|mandat]] kanggé ngaréngsékeun résolusi kasebut. Tyler ngumumkeun dina pesen taunan ka Kongrés yén "mayoritas rahayat sarta sabagéan ageung nagara bagian parantos nyatakeun satuju kana anéksasi saénggalna".<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 218–220; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 236–241, 246.</ref> Dina 26 Pébruari 1845, résolusi gabungan anu diperjuangkeun pisan ku Tyler, salaku présidén **[[lame-duck]]** (anu téréh béak mangsa jabatanana), lulus di Kongrés.{{sfn|Chernow|2017|p=39}} DPR nyatujuan résolusi gabungan anu nawarkeun anéksasi ka Téxas kalayan selisih sora anu cukup ageung, sarta Sénat nyatujuanana ku mayoritas tipis 27–25. Dina dinten terakhirna ngajabat, 3 Maret 1845, Tyler nandatanganan éta RUU janten undang-undang.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 220; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 282–283.</ref>{{sfn|Smith|2001|p=38}} Teu lami saatosna, Méksiko mutuskeun hubungan diplomatik sareng AS, nyiapkeun kakuatan perang, sarta ngan bakal ngaku Téxas upami Téxas tetep merdéka.{{sfn|Smith|2001|p=38}}{{sfn|Chernow|2017|p=39}} Nanging, saatos sababaraha debat, Téxas nampi sarat-sarat kasebut sarta asup ka Uni dina 29 Désémber 1845 salaku nagara bagian ka-28.<ref>{{cite web|title=Joint Resolution of the Congress of the United States, December 29, 1845|access-date=May 14, 2014|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/texan04.asp|publisher=[[Yale Law School]]}}</ref> ==Pasca-kapersidénan (1845–1862)== [[File:John Tyler (cropped 3x4) (cropped)(2).png|thumb|Tyler dina mangsa sepuhna; {{circa}} 1860–1862]] [[File:Tyler Daguerreotype (restoration).jpg|thumb|Tyler dina mangsa sepuhna; {{circa}} 1861]] Tyler ninggalkan Washington kalayan kapercayaan yén Présidén Polk anu nembé dilantik miboga kapentingan anu pangsaéna kanggé nagara.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=150}} Tyler pangsiun ka hiji **[[perkebunan]]** di Virginia, anu asalna namina Walnut Grove (atanapi "the Grove"), anu aya dina sisi [[Walungan James]] di Charles City County. Anjeunna ngagentos namina janten **[[Perkebunan Sherwood Forest]]**, dumasar kana legenda rahayat [[Robin Hood]], kanggé nandakeun yén anjeunna parantos dianggap "di luar hukum" (outlawed) ku Partéy Whig.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 408–410; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 179–180.</ref> Anjeunna henteu sagawayah dina urusan tatanén sarta digawé capé kanggé ngajaga hasil panén anu luhur.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 414–415.</ref> Tatanggana, anu kalolobaanana urang Whig, nunjuk anjeunna ka jabatan leutik salaku pangawas jalan dina taun 1847 kalayan maksud kanggé ngalunikeun anjeunna. Nanging, anu matak kuciwa maranéhna, Tyler migawé éta jabatan sacara serius, sering manggil tatanggana supados ngirimkeun budak-budak maranéhna kanggé damel jalan, sarta tetep keukeuh ngalaksanakeun tugasna sanajan tatanggana parantos ménta supados anjeunna ngeureunkeunana.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 413; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 390–391.</ref> Mantan présidén ieu ngagunakeun waktuna sakumaha biasa kabiasaan **[[kulawarga terpandang di Virginia]]**, ngayakeun pésta, nganjang atanapi didatangan ku bangsawan sanésna, sarta ngalangkungkeun usum panas di bumi sisi laut kulawarga, "Villa Margaret".<ref name="kleber703">[[#Kleber|Kleber]], p. 703.</ref> Dina taun 1852, Tyler kalayan bungah ngagabung deui kana jajaran Partéy Démokrat Virginia sarta saprak harita terus merhatoskeun urusan pulitik.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=150}} Nanging, Tyler jarang didatangan ku mantan sakutuna sarta henteu ditéang salaku panaséhat. Sakali-kali dipénta kanggé masihan biantara publik, Tyler nyarios nalika peresmian monumén kanggé Henry Clay. Anjeunna ngaku kana pertempuran pulitik maranéhna nanging muji pisan ka mantan batur sapawonanna éta, anu parantos dikagum ku anjeunna margi hasil nyiptakeun Tarif Kompromi 1833.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 423–425.</ref> Dina ambang **[[Perang Sipil Amérika]]**, Tyler uih deui ka dunya publik salaku sponsor sarta pupuhu **[[Konvénsi Perdamaian Virginia 1861]]**, anu diayakeun di Washington, D.C., dina Pébruari 1861 salaku usaha kanggé nyegah perang. Éta konvénsi nyobian milarian kompromi kanggé nyingkahan perang sipil sanajan harita [[Konstitusi Nagara Konfédérasi]] nuju disusun di [[Konvénsi Montgomery]]. Nalika usulan konvénsi éta ditolak ku Kongrés, Tyler kaleungitan harepan kana kompromi sarta ningali sésési (misahkeun diri) salaku hiji-hijina pilihan, bari ngaramalkeun yén papisahan bersih sakabéh nagara bagian Kidul moal ngabalukarkeun perang.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 435–447; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 449–461.</ref> Nalika perang antukna bitu, Tyler tanpa mamang milih mihak ka Virginia, anu antukna ngagabung ka Konfédérasi; mantan présidén Amérika ieu dikirim salaku utusan ka **[[Kongrés Konfédérasi Samentara]]**. Julia Tyler janten pangrojong kuat gerakan Kidul sanajan anjeunna lahir di Kalér. Salakina kapilih janten anggota **[[DPR Konfédérasi]]**. Dina 5 Januari 1862, anjeunna angkat ka ibukota Konfédérasi, Richmond, kanggé ngamimitian tugasna di kongrés, nanging anjeunna henteu kabujeng ningali sidang pambuka.<ref name = "kleber703" /><ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 460–464; [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 469.</ref> ===Pupusna=== [[File:John Tyler's grave.JPG|upright|thumb|right|alt=Hiji obelisk ageung di pamakaman, kalayan patung dada Tyler, sarta kandang beusi hideung katingal sawaréh di tukangeunana.|Hiji obelisk nandaan makam Tyler di [[Pamakaman Hollywood (Richmond, Virginia)|Pamakaman Hollywood]].]] Salami hirupna, Tyler sering ngalaman kaséhatan anu kurang saé. Nalika anjeunna beuki sepuh, anjeunna beuki sering katarajang salesma salami usum tiris. Dina 12 Januari 1862, saatos ngaluhunkeun muriang sarta lieur, anjeunna utah sarta kapiuhan. Sanajan parantos dimumulé, kaséhatanana teu nembongkeun kamajuan, sarta anjeunna ngarencanakeun kanggé mulang ka Sherwood Forest dina tanggal 18. Nalika anjeunna ngedeng di ranjang dina wengi sateuacan mulang, anjeunna mimiti ngarasa eungap, sarta Julia gagancangan manggil dokter. Teu lami saatos tengah wengi, Tyler ngaleueut sakedik [[brandy]], sarta nyarios ka dokterna, "Dokter, sim kuring badé angkat," anu diwaler ku dokterna, "Mugi ulah kitu, Juragan."<ref name=":0" /> Tyler saterusna nyarios, "Mungkin ieu anu pangsaéna."<ref name=":0">[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 469–71.</ref> Tyler pupus di kamarna di Hotél Exchange di Richmond teu lami ti harita, kamungkinan ageung alatan stroke. Anjeunna yuswa 71 taun.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnsspectrums.com/aspx/articledetail.aspx?articleid=605|title=Presidential Stroke: United States Presidents and Cerebrovascular Disease (John Tyler)|last1=Jones|first1=Jeffrey M.|last2=Jones|first2=Joni L.|work=Journal CMEs|publisher=CNS Spectrums (The International Journal of Neuropsychiatric Medicine)|access-date=July 20, 2011}}</ref>{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=150}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Tyler, 10th United States President, dies in his hotel room in Richmond, Virginia, aged 71 {{!}} House Divided |url=https://hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu/node/38575 |access-date=2024-07-25 |website=hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu}}</ref> Pupusna Tyler mangrupa hiji-hijina dina sajarah kapersidénan anu henteu diaku sacara resmi di Washington, alatan kasatiaanana ka **[[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]]**. Anjeunna sabenerna ménta pamakaman anu basajan, nanging Présidén Konfédérasi **[[Jefferson Davis]]** ngarancang hiji upacara pamakaman anu megah sarta boga muatan pulitik, kalayan nembongkeun Tyler salaku pahlawan kanggé éta nagara anyar. Luyu jeung hal éta, dina upacara pamakamanana, peti mati présidén ka-10 Amérika Sarikat éta ditutupan ku **[[Bandéra Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika|bandéra Konfédérasi]]**; anjeunna tetep janten hiji-hijina présidén AS anu kantos dimakamkeun di handapeun bandéra anu sanés bandéra Amérika Sarikat.<ref name="Seager" /> Tyler katingal langkung satia ka Virginia sarta prinsip-prinsip pribadina tinimbang ka Uni dimana anjeunna kantos janten présidénna.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=150}} Tyler dimakamkeun di **[[Pamakaman Hollywood (Richmond, Virginia)|Pamakaman Hollywood]]** di Richmond, Virginia, deukeut jeung **[[Makam James Monroe|makam]]** Présidén [[James Monroe]].<ref name="Seager">[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 472.</ref> Saprak harita, namina diabadikeun janten nami sababaraha lokasi di AS, kalebet kota **[[Tyler, Texas]]**, anu dingaranan dumasar nami anjeunna alatan peranna dina anéksasi Téxas.<ref name="cityoftyler">{{cite web |url=http://www.cityoftyler.org/Mobile/AboutTyler/TylerTexasHistory.aspx |title=Tyler Texas – History |access-date=27 April 2014 |publisher=[[Tyler, Texas|Kota Tyler, Téxas]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427233545/http://www.cityoftyler.org/Mobile/AboutTyler/TylerTexasHistory.aspx |archive-date=27 April 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331071700/http://www.cityoftyler.org/Mobile/AboutTyler/TylerTexasHistory.aspx |date=March 31, 2019 }}</ref> ==Reputasi sajarah sarta warisan== {{Main|Daptar mémorial kanggé John Tyler}} Jabatan présidén Tyler parantos ngabalukarkeun réspon anu kacida pipaséaanana di kalangan koméntator pulitik. Tyler umumna dianggap kurang saé ku para sajarawan; Edward P. Crapol ngamimitian biografi anjeunna, ''John Tyler, the Accidental President'' (2006) ku nyatet: "Biografer sarta sajarawan sanésna parantos ngabantah yén John Tyler mangrupa saurang pupuhu éksékutif anu apes sarta teu mampuh, anu kapersidénanana cacad parah."<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 2–3.</ref> Dina ''The Republican Vision of John Tyler'' (2003), Dan Monroe niténan yén mangsa kapersidénan Tyler "umumna diréngkingkeun salaku salah sahiji anu pangkurangna suksés".<ref>[[#Monroe|Monroe]], p. 3.</ref> Seager nyerat yén Tyler "lain présidén anu hébat ogé lain intelektual anu hébat", bari nambahan yén sanajan aya sababaraha pencapaian, "pamaréntahanana parantos sarta kedah dianggap salaku anu gagal dumasar kana ukuran modern naon waé".<ref name="legacy" /> Hiji survéy sajarawan anu dilaksanakeun ku [[C-SPAN]] dina taun 2021 nempatkeun Tyler dina réngking ka-39 tina 44 lalaki anu kantos nyepeng éta jabatan.<ref>[https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/?page=overall Presidential Historians Survey 2021: Total Scores/Overall Rankings], C-SPAN.</ref> Dina taun 2002, nolak tren évaluasi sajarah anu goréng ngeunaan kapersidénan Tyler, sajarawan [[Richard P. McCormick]] nyebutkeun yén "[sabalikna] tina kamandang anu ditarima umum, John Tyler mangrupa Présidén anu kuat. Anjeunna netepkeun précedén yén wakil présidén, nalika ngagantikeun korsi présidén, kedah janten présidén (anu sah). Anjeunna miboga gagasan anu pengkuh ngeunaan kawijakan publik, sarta anjeunna leuwih ngagunakeun ''otoritas'' pinuh tina jabatanna." McCormick nyebatkeun yén Tyler "ngajalankeun pamaréntahanana kalayan martabat sarta éféktivitas anu cukup hadé."{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=149}} [[File:John Tyler 1938 Issue-10c.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Prangko sapuluh sén sajarah kalayan profil Tyler|Tyler dina prangko AS, [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat dina prangko AS|Édisi 1938]]]] Tindakan Tyler anu nyepeng kakawasaan présidén sacara lengkep "netepkeun précedén anu kacida pentingna", dumasar kana skétsa biografi ku **[[Miller Center of Public Affairs]]** Universitas Virginia.<ref name="legacy"/> Sikepna anu suksés negeskeun yén anjeunna téh présidén, sanés ngan saukur pangurus samentara atanapi pelaksana tugas présidén, janten modél kanggé suksési tujuh wakil présidén sanésna ([[Millard Fillmore]], [[Andrew Johnson]], [[Chester A. Arthur]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Calvin Coolidge]], [[Harry S. Truman]], sarta [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]) nuju ka korsi présidén salami abad ka-19 sarta ka-20 nalika présidénna pupus. Kaabsahan tindakan Tyler dina nyandak gelar kapersidénan sarta kakawasaan pinuhna dikuatkeun sacara hukum dina taun 1967, nalika hal éta dikodifikasi dina **[[Amandemén ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]]**.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 13.</ref> Sababaraha sarjana parantos muji kawijakan luar nagri Tyler. Monroe masihan kiridit ka anjeunna pikeun "pencapaian sapertos perjangjian Webster–Ashburton anu nandakeun harepan hubungan anu langkung saé sareng Britania Raya, sarta anéksasi Téxas, anu nambihan jutaan héktar lahan ka wilayah nasional". Crapol ngabantah yén Tyler "mangrupa présidén anu langkung kuat sarta langkung éféktif tinimbang anu diinget umumna", samentawis Seager nyerat, "Sim kuring mendakan anjeunna salaku lalaki anu wanian, boga prinsip, sarta petarung anu adil sarta jujur kanggé kapercayaanana. Anjeunna mangrupa présidén tanpa partéy."<ref name="legacy" /> Panulis **[[Ivan Eland]]**, dina pembaruan buku taun 2008 na ''[[Recarving Rushmore]]'', méré peunteun ka sakabéh 44 présidén AS dumasar kriteria perdamaian, kamakmuran, sarta kabébasan; kalayan hasilna, John Tyler diréngkingkeun salaku présidén pangsaéna sapanjang mangsa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eland|first=Ivan|year=2009|title=Recarving Rushmore|url=https://archive.org/details/recarvingrushmor0000elan|publisher=The Independent Institute|location=Oakland, CA|isbn=978-1-59813-022-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/recarvingrushmor0000elan/page/14 14], 77–82}}</ref> Dina hiji artikel ''[[History Today]]'', Louis Kleber nyerat yén Tyler mawa integritas ka Gedong Bodas dina mangsa nalika seueur jalma dina dunya pulitik kakirangan hal éta, sarta nolak kanggé ngakompromikeun prinsipna demi nyingkahan amarah lawan-lawanna.<ref name="kleber703"/> Crapol ngabantah yén kasatiaan Tyler ka Konfédérasi nutupan seueur hal saé anu dilakukeunana salaku présidén: "Reputasi sajarah Tyler tacan sapinuhna pulih tina kaputusan tragis kanggé ngahianatan kasatiaan sarta komitmenna kana naon anu kantos ku anjeunna dihartikeun salaku 'kapentingan utama Amérika'—nyaéta pangjaga Uni (Persatuan)."<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 283.</ref> Dina bukuna ngeunaan kapersidénan Tyler, Norma Lois Peterson nyarankeun yén kurangna kasuksésan Tyler sacara umum salaku présidén téh disababkeun ku faktor éksternal anu bakal mangaruhan saha waé anu aya di Gedong Bodas harita. Anu utama di antarana nyaéta Henry Clay, anu teu kersa nampi oposisi kana [[Sistim Amérika (rencana ékonomi)|visi ékonomi ageungna kanggé Amérika]]. Salaku balukar tina pamakéan kakawasaan éksékutif anu kuat ku Jackson sateuacanna, kaum Whig hoyong présidén didominasi ku Kongrés, sarta Clay nganggap Tyler salaku bawahan. Tyler teu narima kana hal ieu, anu antukna nimbulkeun konflik antar cabang kakawasaan anu ngadominasi mangsa jabatanna.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], pp. 263–64.</ref> Bari nunjuk kana kamajuan dina kawijakan luar nagri, anjeunna nganggap kapersidénan Tyler "cacad ... nanging ... sanés mangrupa kagagalan".<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], p. 265.</ref> Samentawis para akademisi parantos muji sarta ngritik Tyler, masarakat umum Amérika miboga sakedik pisan kasadaran ngeunaan anjeunna. Sababaraha panulis parantos ngagambarkeun Tyler salaku salah sahiji présidén anu pangasingna (obscure). Sakumaha anu dinyatakeun ku Seager: "Baturna sanagara umumna nginget anjeunna, upami maranéhna kantos nguping namina, ngan saukur salaku [[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too|tungtung sajak tina slogan kampanye anu matak napel dina ingetan]]."<ref name="legacy" /> ==Kulawarga, kahirupan pribadi, sarta perbudakan== [[File:Letitia Tyler2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|alt=Potrét Letitia Christian Tyler|Potrét cet minyak pamajikan munggaran Tyler, [[Letitia Christian Tyler]], ku seniman anu teu dipikawanoh]] Tyler boga anak panglobana dibandingkeun présidén Amérika lianna.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 4.</ref> Pamajikan munggaranna nyaéta [[Letitia Christian Tyler|Letitia Christian]] (12 Nopémber 1790 – 10 Séptémber 1842), sarta gaduh dalapan anak: Mary (1815–1847), [[Robert Tyler (Confederate Register of the Treasury)|Robert]] (1816–1877), [[John Tyler Jr.|John]] (1819–1896), [[Letitia Semple|Letitia]] (1821–1907), Elizabeth (1823–1850), Anne (1825–1825), Alice (1827–1854), sarta Tazewell (1830–1874).<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 478.</ref> [[File:Julia Tyler.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=Potrét Julia Gardiner Tyler|Potrét cet minyak pamajikan kadua Tyler, [[Julia Gardiner Tyler]], karya [[Francesco Anelli]]]] Letitia pupus alatan stroke di Gedong Bodas dina Séptémber 1842. Dina 26 Juni 1844, Tyler nikah ka [[Julia Gardiner Tyler|Julia Gardiner]] (23 Juli 1820 – 10 Juli 1889), sarta gaduh tujuh anak: [[David Gardiner Tyler|David]] (1846–1927), [[John Alexander Tyler|John Alexander]] (1848–1883), Julia (1849–1871), Lachlan (1851–1902), [[Lyon Gardiner Tyler|Lyon]] (1853–1935), Robert Fitzwalter (1856–1927), sarta Margaret Pearl (1860–1947).<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 479.</ref> Sanajan kulawargana kacida dipikaasihna, salami karir pulitikna Tyler mindeng pajauh jeung imah dina jangka waktu anu lila. Nalika anjeunna milih teu nyalonkeun deui ka DPR dina taun 1821 alatan gering, anjeunna nyerat yén anjeunna bakal énggal-énggal dipanggil kanggé ngadidik kulawargana anu nuju tumuwuh. Hésé pisan pikeun praktek hukum bari kudu aya di Washington sababaraha bulan dina sataun, sarta perkebunanana langkung nguntungkeun nalika Tyler tiasa ngokolakeunana nyalira.<ref>[[#Leahy|Leahy]], pp. 323–24.</ref> Nalika anjeunna asup ka Sénat dina taun 1827, anjeunna parantos pasrah kanggé méspentakeun sabagian waktos sataun jauh ti kulawargana. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna tetep nyobian deukeut sareng anak-anakna ngaliwatan surat.<ref>[[#Leahy|Leahy]], p. 340.</ref> Tyler mangrupa saurang **[[perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|nu boga budak]]**, dina hiji mangsa anjeunna gaduh 40 budak di Greenway.<ref name="may22seager300" /> Sanajan anjeunna nganggap perbudakan salaku hiji kajahatan sarta henteu nyobian menerkeunana, anjeunna henteu kantos ngabébaskeun sahiji-hiji acan budakna. Tyler nganggap perbudakan salaku bagian tina **[[hak-hak nagara bagian]]**, ku kituna pamaréntah féderal teu gaduh wewenang kanggé ngahapusna. Kaayaan hirup budak-budakna henteu kadokumentasikeun kalayan jéntré, nanging para sajarawan nyimpulkeun yén anjeunna merhatoskeun kasajahtraan maranéhna sarta henteu ngagunakeun kekerasan fisik ka maranéhna.<ref name="may22seager300">[[#May|May]], pp. 22–24; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 300–01; [[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 143.</ref> Dina Désémber 1841, Tyler ditarajang ku penerbit abolisionis [[Joshua Leavitt]], kalayan dugaan anu teu kabuktian yén Tyler gaduh sababaraha anak lalaki ti budakna, sarta engkéna dijual. Sajumlah kulawarga hideung ayeuna masih percaya yén maranéhna téh katurunan Tyler, nanging teu aya bukti sacara silsilah (genealogy) ngeunaan hal éta.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 62–67.</ref> Sahenteuna opat anak lalaki Tyler ngabakti di pamaréntahan atanapi pasukan militer Konfédérasi; Robert Tyler Jones, incuna ti anakna Mary, ngagabung ka Kompi K tina [[Réjimén Infanteri ka-53 Virginia]] dina 25 Juni 1861, sarta tatu dina 3 Juli 1863 nalika milu dina [[Serangan Pickett]] salaku pangasuh bandéra di [[Angkatan Darat Virginia Kalér]] salami [[Patempuran Gettysburg]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Wert |first=Jeffry D. |author-link=Jeffry D. Wert |date=2002 |title=Gettysburg, Day Three |url=https://archive.org/details/gettysburgdaythr0000jeff |location=New York |publisher=Touchstone |page=[https://archive.org/details/gettysburgdaythr0000jeff/page/226 226] |isbn=0-684-85915-7}}</ref> **[[Kabeungharan bersih]]** pribadi Tyler diperkirakeun langkung ti $50 juta upami disaluyukeun sareng inflasi dumasar standar modern (nurutkeun valuasi puncak kira-kira taun 2020), nanging anjeunna kabeulit hutang salami Perang Sipil, sarta pupus kalayan harta anu parantos nyirorot pisan.<ref>[[#The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump]]</ref> Tyler sarta anakna, Lyon, nikah deui ka awéwé anu langkung anom sarta gaduh anak dina yuswa anu parantos sepuh, nepi ka anak awéwé Tyler anu namina Pearl nembé pupus dina taun 1947. Ngaliwatan Lyon, Tyler gaduh incu, **[[Harrison Ruffin Tyler]]**, anu nembé pupus dina taun 2025. Anjeunna parantos ngajaga imah kulawarga, **[[Perkebunan Sherwood Forest]]**, di [[Charles City County, Virginia]].<ref name="Genealogy of John Tyler">{{cite web | title=Genealogy of John Tyler at Sherwood Forest Plantation | website=Home of President John Tyler | date=January 27, 2009 | url=http://www.sherwoodforest.org/Genealogy.html | access-date=May 9, 2019 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001001457/http://www.sherwoodforest.org/Genealogy.html |date=October 1, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.stategazette.com/story/2022587.html| title=A living history: Grandson of 10th US President John Tyler speaks to DAR | work=Dyersburg State Gazette | date=November 9, 2013 | access-date=June 17, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1= Amira|first1= Dan|title= President John Tyler's Grandson, Harrison Tyler, on Still Being Alive|url=https://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2012/01/president-tyler-grandson-alive.html |website=New York Magazine|date= January 27, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.richmonder.org/harrison-ruffin-tyler-grandson-of-10th-u-s-president-and-longtime-richmonder-dies-at-96/ | title=Harrison Ruffin Tyler, grandson of 10th U.S. President and longtime Richmonder, dies at 96 | date=May 28, 2025 }}</ref> {{clear}} |ref=Seager |url=https://archive.org/details/andtylertooabiog013722mbp}} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jean Edward |author-link=Jean Edward Smith |title=Grant |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-684-84927-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/grant00smit |url-access=registration }} * {{cite book |title=American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant |last=White |first=Ronald C. |author-link=Ronald C. White |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-58836-992-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPNRCwAAQBAJ }} ===Artikel=== * {{cite journal|last=Bybee|first=Jay S.|author-link=Jay Bybee|date =Usum Tiris 1997|title=Ulysses at the Mast: Democracy, Federalism, and the Sirens' Song of the Seventeenth Amendment|journal=Northwestern University Law Review|volume=91|issue=2|pages=500–572|url=http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/facpub/350|access-date=1 Juni 2014|ref=Bybee}} * Cash, Jordan T. "The isolated presidency: John Tyler and unilateral presidential power." ''American Political Thought'' 7.1 (2018): 26–56. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jordan-Cash/publication/322606308_The_Isolated_Presidency_John_Tyler_and_Unilateral_Presidential_Power/links/5a85bafd0f7e9b1a95485d5c/The-Isolated-Presidency-John-Tyler-and-Unilateral-Presidential-Power.pdf online] * Crapol, Edward P. "President John Tyler, Henry Clay, and the Whig Party." dina ''A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861'' (2014): 173–194. * {{cite journal |last=Crapol |first=Edward P. |title=John Tyler and the Pursuit of National Destiny |journal=[[Journal of the Early Republic]] |year=1997 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=467–491 |issn=0275-1275 |doi=10.2307/3123944|jstor=3123944 }} * {{cite journal|author-link1=Leonard Dinnerstein|last=Dinnerstein|first=Leonard|title=The Accession of John Tyler to the Presidency|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|volume=70|number=4|date=Oktober 1962|pages=447–458|jstor=4246893|ref=Dinnerstein}} * {{cite web |editor-last=Freehling |editor-first=William W. |editor-link=William W. Freehling |title=American President: John Tyler |url=http://millercenter.org/president/tyler |publisher=[[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] (Universitas Virginia) |access-date=16 Nopémber 2008 |ref=Miller Center}} * {{cite journal|last=Holt|first=Michael F.|title=Attempts to Impeach John Tyler|url=https://www.americanheritage.com/attempts-impeach-john-tyler|publisher=American Heritage (Pébruari/Maret 2021)|website=americanheritage.com|volume=66|issue=2|access-date=3 Oktober 2022|ref=Holt (Pébruari/Maret 2021)}} * {{cite web|last=Hopkins|first=Callie|title=John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/john-tyler-and-presidential-succession|website=whitehousehistory.org|access-date=16 Agustus 2022|ref=Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession}} * Kesilman, Sylvan H. "John Tyler as President: An Old School Republican in Search of Vindication", dina ''The Moment of Decision: Biographical Essays on American Character and Regional Identity'', R. M. Miller and J. R. McGivigan, eds. Westport. CT: Greenwood Press, 1994. {{ISSN|0084-9219}} * {{cite journal|last=Kleber|first=Louis C.| date = Oktober 1975| title = John Tyler| journal = History Today|pages=697–703|ref = Kleber| volume = 25| issue = 10}} * {{cite journal|last=Leahy|first=Christopher|title=Torn Between Family and Politics: John Tyler's Struggle for Balance|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|volume=114|number=3|year=2006|pages=323–355|ref=Leahy}} * McCormick, Richard P. "William Henry Harrison and John Tyler" dina [http://www.presidentprofiles.com/Washington-Johnson/Harrison-William-Henry-and-Tyler-John.html Henry Graff, ''The Presidents: A Reference History'' 2d ed. (1996) pp 143–154. ] * {{cite web|title=Presidents of the United States from Virginia|url=https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/presidents-of-the-united-states-from-virginia/|website=encyclopediavirginia.org|publisher=Encyclopedia Virginia|ref=Encyclopedia Virginia|access-date=5 Oktober 2022}} * {{cite web|last1=Sauter|first1=Michael B.|last2=Suneson|first2=Grant|title=The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|url=https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/3/|publisher=24/7 Wall St|website=247wallst.com|ref=The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|date=20 Maret 2020|access-date=11 Nopémber 2022}} * Tyler, Lyon G. "President John Tyler and the Ashburton Treaty." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 25.1 (1916): 1–8. [https://archive.org/details/jstor-1915096 online] * {{cite journal|last=Varon|first=Elizabeth R.|title=Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too: White Women and Party Politics in Antebellum Virginia|journal=The Journal of American History|volume=82|issue=2|date= Séptémber 1995|pages=494–521|ref=Varon|doi=10.2307/2082184|jstor=2082184}} ===Sumber primér=== * {{cite book|last1=Frémont|first1=John C.|last2=Torrey|first2=John|title=Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGJ5AAAAMAAJ&q=Report+of+the+exploring+expedition+to+the+rocky+mountains|publisher=Ann Arbor University of Microfilms|year=1966|isbn=978-0-598-18981-3 |ref=Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1845)}} * Lyon Gardiner Tyler, ed. ''The Letters and Times of the Tylers'' (3 jilid. 1884–1896). [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%27The%20Letters%20and%20Times%20of%20the%20Tylers%27%27%20%29 online] * Dokumén pribadi kulawarga Tyler, kalebet John Tyler, tiasa dipendakan di [[Special Collections Research Center (Earl Gregg Swem Library)|Puseur Panalungtikan Koléksi Husus]] di [[College of William and Mary]]: {{cite web|title=Tyler Family Papers, Group A|url=http://scrc.swem.wm.edu/index.php?p=collections/controlcard&id=6999|publisher=Special Collections Research Center, Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary|access-date=22 Januari 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728052645/http://scrc.swem.wm.edu/index.php?p=collections%2Fcontrolcard&id=6999|archive-date=28 Juli 2011}} * Dokumén éksékutif John Tyler nalika anjeunna janten [[Gubernur Virginia]] tiasa dipendakan di [[Library of Virginia]]: {{cite web|title=A Guide to the Governor John Tyler Executive Papers, 1825–1827|url=http://ead.lib.virginia.edu/vivaxtf/view?docId=lva/vi00885.xml|publisher=Virginia Heritage|access-date=8 Méi 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713053954/http://ead.lib.virginia.edu/vivaxtf/view?docId=lva/vi00885.xml |date=July 13, 2014 }} * {{cite web|title=Vetoes, 1789 to Present|url=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/vetoes/vetoCounts.htm|website=senate.gov|publisher=Sénat Amérika Sarikat|ref=Vetoes, 1789 to Present United States Senate|access-date=10 Nopémber 2022}} {{Refend}} {{Div col end}} ==Tautan luar== {{sister project links|d=Q11881|n=no|s=Author:John Tyler|wikt=Tylerism|v=no|voy=no|species=no|m=no|mw=no}} * [https://millercenter.org/president/tyler John Tyler di Miller Center, U Virginia] * {{CongBio|T000450}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/tyler/index.html John Tyler: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress) * [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/john_tyler.pdf Kantor Sajarawan Sénat AS: Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat – John Tyler] * [http://www.virginiamemory.com/online_classroom/union_or_secession/people/john_tyler John Tyler dina "Union or Secession: Virginians Decide"] di [[Library of Virginia]] * [http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Tyler_John_1790-1862 Biografi] di [[Encyclopedia Virginia]] * {{Gutenberg author |id=1643| name=John Tyler}} * {{Librivox author |id=11284}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=John Tyler}} * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?123380-1/life-portrait-john-tyler "Life Portrait of John Tyler"], ti [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'' * [https://www.c-span.org/video/?306305-1/john-tyler-accidental-president "John Tyler: The Accidental President"], presentasi ku [[Edward Crapol]] * {{cite web|last=Chip|first=Reid|title=Kumaha dua incu Présidén John Tyler masih kénéh hirup, 174 taun saatosna|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/how-two-of-president-john-tylers-grandsons-are-still-alive/|website=cbsnew.com|publisher=CBS News|type=video|date=6 Maret 2018|access-date=1 Nopémber 2022}} {{John Tyler|state=expanded}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghormatan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Clopton]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti Virginia|DPR Amérika Sarikat]]<br />ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-23 Virginia]]|years=1816–1821}} {{s-aft|after=[[Andrew Stevenson]]}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Richard Henry Wilde|Richard Wilde]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar anggota pangora Kongrés Amérika Sarikat|Baby of the House]]|years=1816–1817}} {{s-aft|after=[[George Robertson (politisi)|George Robertson]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James Pleasants]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Gubernur Virginia]]|years=1825–1827}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Branch Giles]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[George Poindexter]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President pro tempore Sénat Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1835}} {{s-aft|after=[[William R. King]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Richard Mentor Johnson]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1841}} {{s-aft|after=[[George M. Dallas]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William Henry Harrison]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1841–1845}} {{s-aft|after=[[James K. Polk]]}} {{s-par|us-sen}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Virginia|Sénator AS (Kelas 1) ti Virginia]]|years=1827–1836 |alongside=[[Littleton Waller Tazewell]], [[William Cabell Rives]], [[Benjamin W. Leigh]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Cabell Rives]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-new|party}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] kanggé Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836|1836]],¹ [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|1840]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Theodore Frelinghuysen]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Lee (ékonom)|Henry Lee]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Nullifier]] kanggé [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]<br />{{small|Didukung}}|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836|1836]]}} {{s-non|reason=Partéy bubar}} {{s-aca}} {{s-bef|before=[[George Washington]] (1799)}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Rektor College of William & Mary]]|years=1859–1862}} {{s-aft|after=[[Hugh Blair Grigsby]] (1871)}} {{s-ref|Partéy Whig ngajalankeun calon régional dina taun 1836. Tyler maju di nagara bagian Kidul, sarta [[Francis Granger]] maju di nagara bagian Kalér.}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tyler, John}} [[Kategori:John Tyler| ]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran 1790]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1862]] [[Kategori:Calon wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836]] [[Kategori:Calon wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840]] [[Kategori:Episkopalian Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Perwira milisi Amérika]] [[Kategori:Anggota milisi Amérika dina Perang 1812]] [[Kategori:Urang Amérika turunan Inggris]] [[Kategori:Aktivis pro-perbudakan Amérika]] [[Kategori:Makam di Pamakaman Hollywood (Richmond, Virginia)]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1844]] [[Kategori:Rektor College of William & Mary]] [[Kategori:Alumni College of William & Mary]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Démokrat ti Virginia]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Démokrat-Républik]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Démokrat-Républik ti Virginia]] [[Kategori:Gubernur nagara bagian ti Partéy Démokrat-Républik]] [[Kategori:Delegasi Kongrés Konfédérasi Samentara]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Virginia]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga John Tyler| ]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Konfédérasi ti Virginia]] [[Kategori:Anggota Majelis Delegasi Virginia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Charles City County, Virginia]] [[Kategori:Urang Virginia dina Perang 1812]] [[Kategori:Politisi anu dipecat tina partéy]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu gaduh budak]] [[Kategori:President pro tempore Sénat Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu gaduh budak]] [[Kategori:Démokrat Virginia]] [[Kategori:Whig Virginia]] [[Kategori:Ahli hukum Virginia]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Whig]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Whig]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat anu gaduh budak]] [[Kategori:Gubernur nagara bagian anu gaduh budak]] od94pk0w1y5h0nvg0f35uhessk3i1mp 0 107822 711583 705493 2026-08-06T23:35:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711583 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Zachary Taylor | image = Zachary Taylor restored and cropped (3.5x4.5 cropped).jpg | caption = Taylor {{Circa|1843–45}} | alt = Poto sirah Taylor hideung-bodas | order = 12 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = [[Millard Fillmore]] | term_start = 4 Maret 1849<ref name="Tolson"/> Mangsa jabatan Taylor dijadwalkeun dimimitian dina jam 12 beurang EST tanggal 4 Maret 1849, nanging ku margi dinten ieu ragrag dina dinten Minggu, Taylor nolak sumpah dugi ka dinten salajengna. Wakil Présidén Millard Fillmore ogé henteu disumpah dina dinten éta. Kalolobaan ahli hukum sapuk yén, nurutkeun [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], mangsa jabatan Taylor dimimitian dina tanggal 4 Maret, henteu paduli naha anjeunna parantos sumpah atanapi henteu.</ref> | term_end = 9 Juli 1850 | predecessor = [[James K. Polk]] | successor = [[Millard Fillmore]] | order1 = 1 | office1 = Panglima Tentara Pangandikan (Méksiko) | appointer1 = James K. Polk | term_start1 = 23 April 1845 | term_end1 = 23 Juli 1848 | predecessor1 = ''Jabatan anyar'' | successor1 = William Davenport | birth_date = {{birth date|1784|11|24}} | birth_place = [[Barboursville, Virginia]], AS | death_date = {{death date and age|1850|7|9|1784|11|24}} | death_place = [[Washington, D.C.]], AS | resting_place = [[Makam Nasional Zachary Taylor]] | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Margaret Taylor|Margaret Smith]]|21 Juni 1810}} | children = 6, kalebet [[Sarah Knox Taylor|Sarah]], [[Mary Elizabeth Bliss|Mary]], sarta [[Richard Taylor (jenderal Konfédérasi)|Richard]] | father = [[Richard Taylor (kolonél)|Richard Taylor]] | mother = [[Sarah Dabney Strother]] | awards = {{plainlist| * [[Medali Emas Kongrés]] (3) * [[Nuhun ti Kongrés]] }} | profession = Perwira militer | signature = Zachary Taylor Signature-2.svg | signature_alt = Tanda tangan kursif nganggo mangsi | allegiance = Amérika Sarikat | branch = [[Tentara Amérika Sarikat]] | serviceyears = 1808–1849 | rank = [[Mayor Jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor Jenderal]] | commands = [[Tentara Pangandikan (Méksiko)|Tentara Pangandikan]] | battles = {{tree list}} * [[Perang 1812]] ** [[Pengepungan Bénténg Harrison]] ** [[Patempuran Pulo Credit]] * [[Perang Black Hawk]] * [[Perang Seminole Kadua]] ** [[Patempuran Tasik Okeechobee]] * [[Perang Méksiko–Amérika]] ** [[Patempuran Palo Alto]] ** [[Patempuran Resaca de la Palma]] ** [[Patempuran Monterrey]] ** [[Patempuran Buena Vista]]{{tree list/end}} }} '''Zachary Taylor''' (24 Nopémber 1784 – 9 Juli 1850) nyaéta saurang [[perwira]] [[militér]] sarta politisi Amérika anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-12, ti taun 1849 dugi ka pupusna dina taun 1850. Taylor mangrupa perwira karir di [[Tentara Amérika Sarikat]], naék pangkat dugi ka [[Mayor jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|mayor jenderal]] sarta janten pahlawan nasional alatan kameunanganana dina [[Perang Méksiko–Amérika]]. Hasilna, anjeunna meunangkeun pamilihan ka [[Gedong Bodas]] sanajan pamadegan pulitikna kurang écés. ''Prioritas'' utamana salaku présidén nyaéta kanggé ngajaga Persatuan ''(Union)''. Anjeunna pupus 16 sasih saatos ngajabat alatan panyakit beuteung. Taylor miboga mangsa jabatan présidén pangpondokna katilu dina sajarah AS. Taylor mangrupa katurunan ti [[kulawarga Lee|Kulawarga Lee ti Virginia]], sarta dilahirkeun dina kulawarga nu gaduh perkebunan anu pinujul anu pindah ka beulah kulon ti [[Virginia]] ka [[Louisville, Kentucky]], dina mangsa ngora. Anjeunna mangrupa présidén panungtung anu dilahirkeun sateuacan [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] disahkeun. Anjeunna diangkat janten perwira di Tentara AS dina taun 1808 sarta mimiti kasohor salaku [[kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|kaptén]] dina [[Perang 1812]]. Anjeunna naék pangkat dina militer, ngadegkeun bénténg-bénténg militer sapanjang [[Walungan Mississippi]] sarta aub dina [[Perang Black Hawk]] salaku [[kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|kolonél]] dina taun 1832. Kasuksésanana dina [[Perang Seminole Kadua]] narik perhatian nasional sarta ngajantenkeun anjeunna meunang jujuluk "Old Rough and Ready". Dina taun 1845, salami [[anéksasi Téxas]], Présidén [[James K. Polk]] ngirim Taylor ka [[Rio Grande]] kanggé antisipasi patempuran sareng [[Républik Séntralis Méksiko|Méksiko]] ngeunaan pacéngkadan wates [[Wates Méksiko–Amérika Sarikat|wates Téxas–Méksiko]]. Perang Méksiko–Amérika peupeus dina April 1846, sarta Taylor ngéléhkeun pasukan Méksiko anu dipingpin ku Jenderal [[Mariano Arista]] dina patempuran [[Patempuran Palo Alto|Palo Alto]] sarta [[Resaca de la Palma]], ngusir pasukan Arista ti [[Téxas]]. Taylor saterusna mingpin pasukanna ka Méksiko, dimana maranéhna ngéléhkeun pasukan Méksiko anu dipingpin ku [[Pedro de Ampudia]] dina [[Patempuran Monterrey]]. Nentang paréntah, Taylor mingpin pasukanna langkung jauh ka kidul sarta, sanajan jumlah pasukanna éléh jauh, anjeunna hasil nahan pasukan Méksiko di handapeun Jenderal [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] dina [[Patempuran Buena Vista]], maksa maranéhna mundur sanajan tanpa kameunangan anu mutlak. Pasukan Taylor saterusna dipindahkeun ka handapeun komando Mayor Jenderal [[Winfield Scott]], nanging Taylor tetep populer di masarakat. [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]] ngayakinkeun Taylor anu mimitina horéam kanggé mingpin tikét partéy dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|pamilihan présidén 1848]], sanajan prinsip pulitikna teu écés sarta kurangna minat kana pulitik. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1848]], Taylor ngéléhkeun Winfield Scott sarta mantan sénator [[Henry Clay]] kanggé pencalonan partéy. Anjeunna meunang dina pamilihan umum bareng jeung politisi New York [[Millard Fillmore]], ngéléhkeun calon Partéy Démokrat [[Lewis Cass]] sarta [[William Orlando Butler]], sarta usaha pihak katilu anu dipingpin ku mantan présidén [[Martin Van Buren]] sarta [[Charles Francis Adams Sr.]] ti [[Partéy Free Soil]]. Taylor janten présidén munggaran anu dipilih tanpa sateuacanna kungsi nyepeng jabatan pulitik. Salaku présidén, anjeunna ngajaga jarak ti [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat]] sarta [[Kabinét Amérika Sarikat|Kabinétna]], sanajan tegangan partisan ngancam bakal ngabagi Persatuan. Perdebatan ngeunaan status perbudakan di [[Cessi Méksiko]] ngadominasi agenda pulitik nasional sarta nyababkeun ancaman [[Sésési di Amérika Sarikat|misahkeun diri]] (secession) ti urang Kidul. Sanajan anjeunna téh urang Kidul sarta nu gaduh budak sorangan, Taylor henteu ngadorong ékspansi perbudakan, sarta narékahan kanggé nyiptakeun kaharmonisan antar-wilayah di luhur sagala kapentingan sanésna. Kanggé nyingkahan masalah perbudakan, anjeunna ngadesek para pamukim di [[New Mexico]] sarta California kanggé ngaliwatan tahap téritorial sarta nyusun konstitusi kanggé janten [[Nagara bagian AS|nagara bagian]], anu saterusna nyiapkeun jalan kanggé [[Kompromi 1850]]. Taylor pupus ngadadak alatan panyakit beuteung dina 9 Juli 1850, kalayan pamaréntahanana ngan sakedik ngahontal hasil salian ti ratifikasi [[Traktat Clayton–Bulwer]] sarta henteu miboga kamajuan dina masalah anu paling matak pecat-nyéred di Kongrés sarta nagara: [[perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|perbudakan]]. Wakil Présidén Fillmore [[Garis suksési présidén Amérika Sarikat|ngagantikeun jabatan présidén]] sarta ngaréngsékeun sésa mangsa jabatanna. Para sajarawan sarta sarjana parantos [[Réngking sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Taylor dina kuartil handap présidén AS, sabagian alatan mangsa jabatanna anu pondok (16 sasih), sanajan anjeunna parantos digambarkeun salaku "présidén anu leuwih gampang poho batan présidén anu gagal".<ref name="Tolson">{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/special-reports/the-worst-presidents/articles/2014/12/17/worst-presidents-zachary-taylor-1849-1850|title=Worst Presidents: Zachary Taylor (1849–1850)|last=Tolson|first=Jay|work=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|date=February 16, 2007}}</ref> == Mangsa ngora == [[File:Zachary Taylor House 1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|right|Imah mangsa leutik Taylor di [[Louisville, Kentucky]]]] Zachary Taylor dilahirkeun dina 24 Nopémber 1784,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/grant-taylor/ |title=Zachary Taylor |website=[[PBS]]}}</ref> di hiji [[perkebunan di Amérika Kidul|perkebunan]] di [[Orange County, Virginia]], ti kulawarga [[Kelas pekebun|pekebun]] anu nonjol katurunan [[Urang Inggris|Inggris]]. Tempat lahirna mungkin di [[Hare Forest Farm]], imah aki ti pihak ibuna, William Strother, nanging ieu can pasti.<ref name="vaNRHPnom">{{cite web |url=http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Orange/068-0124_HareForest_Final_Nomination.pdf |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Hare Forest Farm |publisher=Virginia Department of Historic Resources}}</ref> Kamungkinan sanésna, anu diakuan ku tetengger sajarah, nyaéta Montebello, perkebunan sanésna di Orange County.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=John |title=A Guide to Virginia's Presidential Estates and Plantation |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/virginias-presidential-estates-a-planning-guide/2015/05/14/9d9bbf80-f7ee-11e4-9ef4-1bb7ce3b3fb7_story.html |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref> Anjeunna mangrupa anak katilu ti lima putra anu salamet dina kulawargana (anak kagenep pupus nalika orok) sarta miboga tilu adi awéwé. Ibuna nyaéta Sarah Dabney (née Strother) Taylor. Ramana, [[Richard Taylor (kolonél)|Richard Taylor]], ngabakti salaku létnan kolonél dina [[Révolusi Amérika]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=1–2}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=21–24, 261–262}} Buyutna, [[James Taylor (politisi Virginia)|James Taylor]], mangrupa anggota [[Déwan Burgesses]] Virginia.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Biographical Cyclopedia of the Commonwealth of Kentucky |year=1896 |pages=392–394 |via=[[Archive.org]]}}</ref> Taylor mangrupa katurunan ka-4 ti Sepuh [[William Brewster (Pilgrim)|William Brewster]], saurang pamimpin [[Pilgrim (Koloni Plymouth)|Pilgrim]] ti [[Koloni Plymouth]], imigran kapal ''[[Mayflower]]'', sarta anu nandatanganan [[Mayflower Compact]]. Anjeunna ogé katurunan ka-2 ti [[Isaac Allerton Jr.]], saurang sudagar [[Amérika Kolonial|kolonial]] sarta putra ti Pilgrim ''Mayflower'' [[Isaac Allerton]] sareng [[Fear Brewster]], anu mangrupa putri William Brewster.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Family relationship of William Brewster and Zachary Taylor|url=https://famouskin.com/famous-kin-chart.php?name=7872+zachary+taylor&kin=6335+william+brewster|website=famouskin.com}}</ref> Dulur misan kadua Taylor tina garis katurunan éta nyaéta [[James Madison]], présidén kaopat.{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=22, 259}} Anjeunna ogé anggota [[kulawarga Lee]] Virginia anu kawentar, sarta dulur misan katiga ti Jenderal [[Amérika Konfédérasi|Konfédérasi]] [[Robert E. Lee]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Family relationship of General Robert E. Lee and Zachary Taylor via Richard Lee|url=https://famouskin.com/famous-kin-chart.php?name=4640+robert+e+lee&kin=7872+zachary+taylor&via=4758+richard+lee|website=famouskin.com}}</ref> Kulawargana ninggalkeun lahan [[Virginia]] anu parantos teu subur, ngiringan migrasi kalebah kulon, sarta netep caket tempat anu bakal janten [[Louisville, Kentucky]], dina sisi [[Walungan Ohio]]. Taylor ageung di hiji saung kai leutik dugi ka kulawargana pindah ka imah bata nalika janten langkung makmur. Salami mangsa budak, anjeunna cicing di daérah perang [[Perang India Northwest]], malah engkéna anjeunna ngaku kantos ningali [[Urang Amérika Asli|Urang Indian]] nyulik sarta [[scalping|''nguliti'' sirah]] babaturan sakolana nalika nuju leumpang babarengan di jalan.<ref name="Cohen-2019-51">{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Jared |title=Accidental Presidents: Eight Men Who Changed America |url=https://archive.org/details/accidentalpresid0000cohe_i0y0 |year=2019 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/accidentalpresid0000cohe_i0y0/page/51 51]}}</ref>Ku gancang mekarna kota Louisville janten berkah kanggé ramana Taylor, anu dina awal abad ka-19 parantos miboga 10.000 héktar (40 km²) di sakuliah [[Kentucky]], sarta 26 budak belian kanggé ngokolakeun bagian pangmajuna tina lahanana. Atikan formal Taylor henteu teratur margi sistem atikan Kentucky nuju nembé kabentuk dina mangsa anjeunna tumuwuh.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=4}} Ibu Taylor ngajar anjeunna maca sarta nulis,<ref>{{cite book |last=Nowlan |first=Robert A. |date=2016 |title=The American Presidents From Polk to Hayes |page=79}}</ref> sarta anjeunna saterusna sakola di sakola anu dikokolakeun ku Elisha Ayer, saurang guru asal Connecticut.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=4}} Anjeunna ogé sakola di akademi [[Middletown, Kentucky]] anu dipingpin ku Kean O'Hara, saurang sarjana didikan klasik ti [[Irlandia]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Johnston |first=J. Stoddard |date=1913 |title=Sketch of Theodore O'Hara |magazine=The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society |page=67}}</ref> Ayer nginget Taylor salaku murid anu sabar sarta gancang diajar, nanging serat-serat awalna némbongkeun kamampuan éjahan sarta tata basa anu lemah,{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=2–4}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=25–29}} pon kitu deui tulisan leungeunna anu goréng. Sakabéhna ningkat sairing jalanna waktos, nanging tulisan leungeunna tetep hésé dibaca.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=2–4}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=25–29}} == Kahirupan kulawarga sarta harta kakayaan == === Pernikahan sarta putra-putra === Nalika anjeunna nuju ditempatkeun caket [[New Orleans]] dina usum panas taun 1809, Taylor katarajang panyakit [[diséntri]] sarta mulang ka [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]] kanggé pamulihan. Di Louisville, kasehatanana gancang pulih sarta anjeunna mimiti ngiringan deui rupa-rupa kagiatan umum. Dina hiji acara pésta (ball) dina usum gugur, anjeunna pendak sareng [[Margaret Taylor|Margaret Mackall Smith]], adi awéwé salah saurang rérénjanganna. "Peggy" Smith asalna ti kulawarga pekebun [[Maryland]] anu nonjol—ramana nyaéta Mayor Walter Smith, anu kantos ngabakti dina [[Perang Révolusi Amérika|Perang Révolusi]] sarta pupus dina taun 1804.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=8–9}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|p=37}} Teu lami ti dinya, duanana mimiti bobogohan, sarta saterusna nikah dina 21 Juni 1810. Ramana Taylor masihan hadiah pernikahan mangrupa lahan legana 324 ékar di muara [[Beargrass Creek (Kentucky)|Beargrass Creek]]. Pasangan ieu miboga genep putra: * Ann Mackall Taylor (1811–1875),<ref name="miller-facts">{{cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/president/taylor |title=Zachary Taylor: Facts at a Glance |publisher=Miller Center ([[Universitas Virginia]])}}</ref> nikah sareng Robert C. Wood, saurang dokter bedah Tentara AS di Fort Snelling, dina taun 1829.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=48–49}} Putra maranéhna, [[John Taylor Wood]], ngabakti di [[Angkatan Laut AS]] sarta [[Angkatan Laut Konfédérasi]]. Wood mangrupa bapa ti: ** [[Zachary Taylor Wood]], pajabat Komisaris [[Pulisi North-West Mounted]] sarta Komisaris [[Téritori Yukon]]. ** [[Charles Carroll Wood]], Létnan di [[Tentara Britania]]. * [[Sarah Knox Taylor|Sarah Knox "Knoxie" Taylor]] (1814–1835),<ref name="miller-facts" /> nikah sareng [[Jefferson Davis]] dina taun 1835, saurang perwira bawahan anu dipendakan ku anjeunna ngaliwatan ramana dina tungtung Perang Black Hawk; anjeunna pupus dina yuswa 21 taun alatan [[malaria]] di [[St. Francisville, Louisiana]], tilu sasih saatos pernikahanna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=69–70}} * Octavia Pannell Taylor (1816–1820),<ref name="miller-facts" /> pupus nalika nuju budak leutik.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=38}} * Margaret Smith Taylor (1819–1820),<ref name="miller-facts" /> pupus nalika masih orok bareng sareng Octavia nalika kulawarga Taylor katarajang "demam bilious" (muriang parna).{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=38}} * [[Mary Elizabeth Bliss|Mary Elizabeth "Betty" Taylor]] (1824–1909),<ref name="miller-facts" /> nikah sareng [[William Wallace Smith Bliss]] dina taun 1848 (Bliss pupus dina taun 1853);{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=243}} saterusna nikah sareng Philip Pendleton Dandridge dina taun 1858.<ref>Underwood (2002), p. 47.</ref> * [[Richard Taylor (jenderal Konfédérasi)|Richard Taylor]] (1826–1879),<ref name="miller-facts" /> saurang jenderal [[Tentara Konfédérasi]];{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=138–139}} nikah sareng Louise Marie Myrthe Bringier dina taun 1851.<ref>Wead (2003), p. 165.</ref> === Harta sarta kapamilikan budak === [[File:General Taylors Plantation, by Henry Lewis.jpg|thumb|right|Ilustrasi [[Perkebunan Cypress Grove]] milik Taylor dina sisi Walungan Mississippi]] Saatos pernikahanana, Taylor sarta istrina mésér hiji saung kai anu parantos bobo di [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]], anu réngsé dirénovasi sakedap sateuacan Perang 1812 peupeus.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=153}} Kira-kira dina waktos anu sami, anjeunna mimiti mésér sajumlah ageung saham bank di Louisville.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=5–10}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=35–37}} Anjeunna ogé mimiti mésér lahan di sisi [[Walungan Mississippi]], kalebet lahan di [[West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana]], sarta [[Wilkinson County, Mississippi]], anu kabuktian janten investasi anu nguntungkeun.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=145}} Ti pertengahan taun 1820-an, anjeunna ngajantenkeun Baton Rouge salaku padumukan utama sarta bumi kulawargana, sanajan anjeunna sering angkat kanggé tugas militer. Ti taun 1841 dugi ka 1844, anjeunna mindahkeun kulawargana ka [[Fort Smith, Arkansas]], supados langkung caket kana pos militer tempat anjeunna ditugaskeun.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=149}} Dina April 1842, Taylor mésér [[Perkebunan Cypress Grove]] di [[Jefferson County, Mississippi]], kéngingkeun lahan legana {{convert|1823|acre|ha|adj=on}} sarta 81 budak belian kalayan harga $95.000. Nalika anjeunna pupus dina taun 1850, aya 127 budak belian di perkebunan kasebut,{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=145}} sanajan majalah ''[[Anti-Slavery Reporter]]'' ngalaporkeun harita yén Taylor sahenteuna gaduh 200 budak belian.<ref name="ANTI-SLAVERY REPORTER VOL III 1848, p 194-5">ANTI-SLAVERY REPORTER VOL III, NO XXXVI, December 1, 1848, p 194-5</ref> Sanajan aya di salah sahiji wilayah panghasil kapas panghadéna di nagara bagian éta, Cypress Grove gagal masihan kauntungan kanggé Taylor alatan harga kapas anu handap, [[Daptar caah Walungan Mississippi|caah anu sering kajantenan]], cuaca anu goréng, sarta masalah hama. Taylor sarta manajerna, Thomas Ringgold, narékahan supados perkebunan éta tiasa mandiri ku cara ngical kai kanggé nutupan biaya sarta ngawangun sistem tanggul sarta panto cai anu lega.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=146}} Anjeunna tetep janten nu gaduh anu jarang aya di tempat sanajan dina mangsa damai, sarta istrina katingalna henteu kantos nganjang ka perkebunan éta. Anjeunna nunjuk putrana, [[Richard Taylor (jenderal Konfédérasi)|Richard]], salaku asistén manajer.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=153}} == Karir militer == === Pangangkatan awal === Saatos ngabakti sakedap dina [[Milisi (Amérika Sarikat)|milisi Kentucky]] dina taun 1806, Taylor lebet ka Tentara AS dina 3 Méi 1808, nampi [[Perwira|pangangkatan]] ti Présidén [[Thomas Jefferson]] salaku [[létnan hiji]] dina [[Réjimén Infanteri ka-7 (Amérika Sarikat)|Réjimén Infanteri Katujuh Kentucky]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/zachary-taylor-papers/articles-and-essays/timeline/1784-to-1815/ |title=Timeline, 1784–1815 |work=Zachary Taylor Papers |publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref> Anjeunna mangrupa salah sahiji perwira anyar anu diangkat ku Kongrés kanggé nanggapi kajadian ''[[Insidén Chesapeake–Leopard|Chesapeake–Leopard]]'', dimana awak kapal perang [[Angkatan Laut Karajaan]] Britania parantos naék ka kapal frigat [[Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat]], anu nyababkeun ayana sauran kanggé perang.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=5}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|p=33}} Taylor nyéépkeun sabagéan ageung taun 1809 di camp anu parantos bobo di [[New Orleans]] sarta caket [[St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana|Terre aux Boeufs]], di [[Téritori Orleans]]. Di handapeun komando [[James Wilkinson]], para prajurit di Terre aux Boeufs sangsara pisan alatan panyakit sarta kurangna pasokan, sahingga Taylor dibéré cuti panjang sarta mulang ka [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]] kanggé pamulihan.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=4–6}} Saatos pulih, Taylor indit ka kidul kanggé ngagabung deui sareng [[Réjimén Infanteri ka-7 (Amérika Sarikat)|réjiménna]], nanging anjeunna terang yén teu aya penugasan kanggé anjeunna, sahingga anjeunna ngantosan di Louisville. Taylor naék pangkat janten [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|kaptén]] dina Nopémber 1810. Dina Juli 1811, anjeunna dicalukan ka [[Téritori Indiana]], dimana anjeunna ngagabung sareng Jenderal [[William Henry Harrison]], gubernur Téritori Indiana, sarta dina 10 Juli, anjeunna nyepeng kadali [[Fort Knox (Vincennes)|Fort Knox]] saatos komandanna kabur. Taylor gancang nyerat surat ka Sekretaris Perang [[William Eustis]], ngajelaskeun kurangna papakéan sarta pasokan di éta bénténg. Dina sababaraha minggu, anjeunna parantos hasil mulangkeun katertiban di garnisun éta, anu matak anjeunna dipuji ku Gubernur Harrison.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=10}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=37–38}} Taylor sakedap dicalukan ka [[Washington, D.C.]], kanggé janten saksi kanggé Wilkinson dina hiji [[pangadilan militer]], sahingga anjeunna henteu ngiringan dina [[Patempuran Tippecanoe]] Nopémber 1811 ngalawan pasukan [[Tecumseh]], saurang [[Pamingpin suku|kapala suku]] [[Shawnee]].{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=7–8}} === Perang 1812 === Salami [[Perang 1812]], dimana pasukan AS perang ngalawan Kakaisaran Britania sarta babaturan satia [[Urang Amérika Asli|India]]-na, Taylor hasil nahan [[Patempuran Bénténg Harrison|Fort Harrison]] di Téritori Indiana tina serangan urang India anu dipingpin ku Tecumseh. Patempuran dina Séptémber 1812 ieu mangrupa kameunangan darat munggaran kanggé pasukan Amérika dina éta perang, anu nyababkeun Taylor nampi pujian anu lega, sarta promosi [[brevet (militer)|brevet]] (samentara) janten pangkat mayor. Numutkeun sajarawan [[John Eisenhower]], ieu mangrupa pangkat brevet munggaran anu dibikeun dina sajarah AS.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=10–11}} Saterusna dina taun éta, Taylor ngagabung sareng Jenderal [[Samuel Hopkins (anggota kongrés)|Samuel Hopkins]] salaku ajudan dina dua ékspédisi—hiji ka [[Téritori Illinois]] sarta hiji deui ka lokasi patempuran Tippecanoe, dimana maranéhna kapaksa mundur dina [[Patempuran Wild Cat Creek]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=13–19}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=39–46}} Taylor mindahkeun kulawargana ka Fort Knox saatos kakacauan mimiti reda.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=20–24}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pages=47–53}} Dina usum semi taun 1814, Taylor dicalukan deui kanggé tugas aktif di handapeun Brigadir Jenderal [[Benjamin Howard (politisi Missouri)|Benjamin Howard]]. Saatos Howard gering, Taylor mingpin ékspédisi 430 urang ti [[St. Louis]], nyusuri Walungan Mississippi. Dina [[Patempuran Pulo Credit]], Taylor ngéléhkeun pasukan India, nanging saterusna mundur saatos urang India dibantuan ku babaturan satia Britania-na.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=13–15}} Dina sasih Oktober, anjeunna ngawasan pangwangunan [[Fort Johnson]] caket [[Warsaw, Illinois]], titik pertahanan terakhir Tentara AS di Lebak Walungan Mississippi luhur. Nalika Howard pupus sababaraha minggu ti harita, Taylor diparéntahkeun kanggé ninggalkan bénténg éta sarta mundur ka St. Louis. Nalika perang réngsé dina taun 1815, pangkatna diturunkeun deui janten kaptén, sahingga anjeunna milih mundur ti tentara. Anjeunna asup deui sataun saatosna saatos nampi pangangkatan salaku mayor.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=20–30}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=47–59}} === Komando Fort Howard === Komando réjiménna pusatna di [[Fort Mackinac]]; nanging, kolonél anu mingpinna dibéré cuti sakedap saatos Taylor sumping, sarta diganti ku saurang kaptén, anu matak Taylor kacida kasinggungna. Anjeunna saterusna ménta supados komando dipindahkeun ka [[Fort Howard (Wisconsin)|Fort Howard]] sarta ditempatkeun di handapeun otoritasna. Taylor mingpin Fort Howard di padumukan [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]], [[Téritori Michigan]], salami dua taun, saterusna mulang ka Louisville sareng kulawargana. Dina April 1819, anjeunna naék pangkat janten létnan kolonél sarta kungsi tuang sareng Présidén [[James Monroe]] sarta Jenderal [[Andrew Jackson]].{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=17–19}} Dina tungtung taun 1820, Taylor mawa Infanteri ka-7 ka [[Natchitoches, Louisiana|Natchitoches]], [[Louisiana]], dina sisi [[Walungan Red (Kidul)|Walungan Red]]. Anjeunna saterusna ngadegkeun [[Fort Selden (Louisiana)|Fort Selden]] di muara [[Walungan Sulphur]] sarta Walungan Red. Atas paréntah Jenderal [[Edmund P. Gaines]], anjeunna saterusna milari pos énggal anu langkung merenah kanggé wates Walungan Sabine. Dina Maret 1822, Taylor parantos ngadegkeun [[Fort Jesup]] di lokasi Shield's Spring, kidul-kulon Natchitoches.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=40–41}} Dina Nopémber 1822, Taylor dipindahkeun ka Réjimén Infanteri Kahiji, sarta dikirim ka [[Barak Pentagon|Baton Rouge]] dina sisi [[Walungan Mississippi]] di [[Louisiana]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=40–47}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=70–77}} Nalika di Baton Rouge, Taylor mésér perkebunan anu legana 40 mil ka kalér dina taun 1823. Saatos ningali kauntunganana henteu cekap, Taylor mésér 22 budak belian kanggé usaha milarian artos langkung seueur; nanging, anjeunna dikirim deui ka Louisville dina Pébruari 1824. Di Louisville, Taylor janten pangawas jasa rékrutmen kanggé tentara anu pusatna di Amérika Sarikat bagian kulon. Dina tungtung taun 1826, anjeunna dicalukan ka Washington, D.C., kanggé digawé dina komite Angkatan Darat guna ngahijikeun sarta ningkatkeun organisasi militer. Samentara éta, anjeunna kéngingkeun perkebunan kahijina di Louisiana sarta mutuskeun kanggé pindah sareng kulawargana ka perkebunanana di [[Baton Rouge]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=40–47}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=70–77}} === Perang Black Hawk === Dina Méi 1828, Taylor dicalukan deui kanggé tugas aktif, mingpin [[Fort Snelling]] di [[Téritori Michigan]] (ayeuna [[Minnesota]]) dina sisi [[Walungan Mississippi Luhur]] salami sataun, saterusna mindah ka [[Fort Crawford]] caket dinya, ogé di Téritori Michigan (ayeuna [[Wisconsin]]), kanggé ngawangun deui bénténg sateuacanna anu ruksak parna alatan caah. Saatos cuti sakedap kanggé ngalegaan lahanana, Taylor naék pangkat janten kolonél tina [[Réjimén Infanteri ka-1 (Amérika Sarikat)|Réjimén Infanteri ka-1]] dina April 1832, nalika [[Perang Black Hawk]] dimimitian di bagian Kulon.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=47–49}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=77–82}} Taylor kampanye di handapeun Jenderal [[Henry Atkinson (prajurit)|Henry Atkinson]] kanggé ngudag sarta saterusna nahan serangan pasukan Kapala [[Black Hawk (pamingpin Sauk)|Black Hawk]] salami usum panas éta. Réngséna perang dina Agustus 1832 nandaan perlawanan terakhir urang India ka ékspansi AS di daérah éta.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=59–65}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=83–99}} Salami période ieu, Taylor nolak hubungan asmara putrina anu yuswa 17 taun, Sarah Knox Taylor, sareng Létnan Jefferson Davis, anu engkéna janten [[Présidén Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]]. Anjeunna ngahormatan Davis, nanging henteu hoyong putrina janten pamajikan prajurit, margi anjeunna terang yén éta téh kahirupan anu beurat kanggé kulawarga. Davis sarta Sarah Taylor tungtungna nikah dina Juni 1835 (nalika Sarah yuswa 21 taun), nanging Sarah pupus tilu sasih saatosna alatan [[malaria]] anu katarajang nalika nganjang ka bumi adi awéwé Davis di [[St. Francisville, Louisiana]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=59–74}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=83–109}} [[File:ZacharyTaylorMonmouthBalize.jpg|thumb|Kapal uap AS ''Monmouth'' mawa mulang Jenderal AS Zachary Taylor saatos kameunangan dina perang sareng Méksiko di [[La Balize, Louisiana|Balize, Louisiana]], Nopémber 1847]] Taylor tetep cicing di [[Monterrey]] dugi ka akhir Nopémber 1847, nalika anjeunna balayar mulang ka bumina. Sanajan anjeunna nyéépkeun taun salajengna salaku panglima sakabéh divisi barat Angkatan Darat, karir militer aktifna sabenerna parantos réngsé. Dina sasih Désémber, anjeunna nampi pangbagéa pahlawan di New Orleans sarta Baton Rouge, anu nyiapkeun jalan kanggé pamilihan présidén 1848.{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=248–255}} [[Ulysses S. Grant]] ngabakti di handapeun Taylor dina ieu perang sarta nyarioskeun ngeunaan gaya kapamingpinanana: "Saurang prajurit demi prajurit, panginten moal aya tentara anu langkung saé anu kantos nyanghareupan musuh batan anu dipingpin ku Jenderal Taylor dina dua patempuran awal Perang Méksiko."{{sfn|Smith|2011|p=83}} {{blockquote|Jenderal Taylor sanés perwira anu sok ngariron hulu pameunteu administrasi (pamaréntah) ku rupa-rupa pamundutna, nanging anjeunna condong ngalakukeun anu pangsaéna kalayan sarana anu dipaparinkeun ka anjeunna. Anjeunna ngarasa tanggung jawabna henteu langkung ti éta. Upami anjeunna ngaraos yén anjeunna dikintun kanggé ngalaksanakeun hal anu mustahil ku sarana anu aya, anjeunna panginten bakal masihan terang ka pihak berwenang ngeunaan pamadeganana sarta ngantepkeun maranéhna mutuskeun naon anu kedah dilakukeun. Upami putusanana nentang anjeunna, anjeunna bakal teras maju sarta ngalakukeun anu pangsaéna kalayan sarana anu aya tanpa mintonkeun keluhanana ka publik. Teu aya prajurit anu tiasa nyanghareupan bahaya atanapi tanggung jawab kalayan langkung tenang batan anjeunna. Ieu mangrupa sipat anu langkung jarang kapendak batan genius atanapi kawani fisik. Jenderal Taylor henteu kantos mintonkeun kaméhakan atanapi parade, boh tina saragam atanapi pangiringna. Dina dangdanan, anjeunna panginten teuing polos, jarang nganggo nanaon di medan perang anu némbongkeun pangkatna, atanapi malah yén anjeunna téh saurang perwira; nanging anjeunna dipikawanoh ku unggal prajurit dina tentarana, sarta dipihormat ku sararéa.<ref>Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant Vol 1. pg 36 Kindle Android Version, 2012</ref>}} == Titimangsa pangkat == {| class="wikitable" |+ ! Insignia !! Pangkat !! Komponén !! Titimangsa |- |[[File:Union army 1st lt rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Létnan Hiji (Amérika Sarikat)|Létnan 1]] || [[Tentara Régulér (Amérika Sarikat)|Tentara Régulér]] || 3 Méi 1808 |- |[[File:Union army cpt rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|Kaptén]] || Tentara Régulér || 30 Nopémber 1810 |- |[[File:Union army maj rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Brevet (militer)|Brevet]] [[Mayor (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor]] || Tentara Régulér || 5 Séptémber 1812 |- |[[File:Union army maj rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Mayor (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor]] || Tentara Régulér || 15 Méi 1814 |- |[[File:Union Army LTC rank insignia.png|75px]] || [[Létnan Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|Létnan Kolonél]] || Tentara Régulér || 20 April 1819 |- |[[File:Union Army colonel rank insignia.png|75px]] || [[Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|Kolonél]] || Tentara Régulér || 4 April 1832 |- |[[File:Union army brig gen rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Brevet (militer)|Brevet]] [[Brigadir Jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|Brigadir Jenderal]] || Tentara Régulér || 25 Désémber 1837 |- |[[File:Union army maj gen rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Brevet (militer)|Brevet]] [[Mayor Jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor Jenderal]] || Tentara Régulér || 28 Méi 1846 |- |[[File:Union army maj gen rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Mayor Jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor Jenderal]] || Tentara Régulér || 29 Juni 1846 |} Catetan - Mayor Jenderal Taylor ngundurkeun diri tina jabatanna di [[Tentara Amérika Sarikat]] dina 31 Januari 1849, sakedap sateuacan anjeunna janten présidén. == Pamilihan 1848 == {{Utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848}} [[File:TaylorFillmore.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Poster kampanye Taylor/Fillmore 1848]] Salaku perwira karir, Taylor henteu kantos mintonkeun kapercayaan pulitikna ka publik sateuacan taun 1848, malah henteu kantos milih (nyoblos) sateuacan waktos éta. Anjeunna saurang anu [[apolitik]] sarta miboga sawangan négatif ka kalolobaan politisi. Anjeunna nganggap dirina salaku [[Indepénden (pamilih)|indepénden]], percaya kana sistem perbankan anu kuat kanggé nagara, sarta nganggap yén Présidén [[Andrew Jackson]] sakuduna henteu ngantepkeun [[Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat]] rugrug dina taun 1836. Anjeunna percaya yén ékspansi perbudakan ka [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kulon]] téh henteu praktis, margi boh kapas atanapi gula (duanana dihasilkeun sacara masif tina perbudakan) moal tiasa gampang dipelak di ditu ngalalui [[ékonomi perkebunan]]. Anjeunna ogé saurang [[Nasionalis Amérika]] anu teguh, sarta dumasar pangalamanana ningali seueur jalma pupus alatan perang, anjeunna percaya yén [[sésési]] (misahkeun diri) mangrupa cara anu goréng kanggé ngaréngsékeun masalah nasional. Sateuacan kameunangan Amérika di Buena Vista, parantos kabentuk klub-klub pulitik anu ngarojong Taylor janten présidén. Pangrojongna asalna ti rupa-rupa golongan pulitik, kalebet [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] sarta Démokrat, urang Kalér sarta urang Kidul, babaturan sarta lawan pamingpin nasional sapertos Polk sarta Henry Clay. Dina tungtung taun 1846, panolakan Taylor kanggé nyalonkeun diri janten présidén mimiti ngendoran, sarta janten écés yén prinsip-prinsipna sarua sareng paham ortodoks Whig.{{sfn|Hamilton|1951|pp=38–44}} Taylor ijid ka Polk sarta kawijakanana, samentara urang Whig nuju nimbang-nimbang kanggé nyalonkeun pahlawan perang sanésna saatos kasuksésan calon sateuacanna, [[William Henry Harrison]], dina taun 1840. Nalika pangrojong kanggé pencalonanana ningkat, Taylor tetep ngajaga jarak ti kadua partéy, nanging anjeunna nétélakeun yén anjeunna bakal milih tokoh Whig [[Henry Clay]] dina taun 1844 upami harita anjeunna milih. Dina hiji serat Séptémber 1847 anu dikaluarkeun sacara lega, Taylor nétélakeun posisi pribadina. Anjeunna henteu satuju kana pangadegan deui bank nasional, milih [[tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|tarif]] anu rendah, sarta percaya yén présidén sakuduna henteu milu campur dina nyusun undang-undang. Taylor percaya yén présidén tiasa ngavéto undang-undang, nanging ngan upami undang-undang éta écés-écés nentang konstitusi.{{sfn|Smith|1988|pp=40–42}} Seueur urang Kidul percaya yén Taylor ngarojong perbudakan sarta ékspansina ka wilayah anyar anu dicandak ti Méksiko. Sababaraha urang Kidul ambek nalika Taylor nyarankeun yén upami kapilih jadi présidén, anjeunna moal ngavéto [[Proviso Wilmot]], anu ngusulkeun larangan ékspansi perbudakan. Posisi ieu henteu ningkatkeun pangrojong ti golongan anti-perbudakan di [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kalér]], margi maranéhna hoyong Taylor nyarios sacara teges ngarojong Proviso éta, sanés ngan ukur "moal ngavéto". Kalolobaan tokoh [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|abolisionis]] henteu ngarojong Taylor margi anjeunna sorangan saurang nu gaduh budak belian. [[File:ElectoralCollege1848.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Hasil sora éléktoral 1848]] Dina Pébruari 1848, Taylor nétélakeun deui yén anjeunna moal nampi pencalonan présidén ti partéy mana waé. Sikepna anu horéam ngaku dirina salaku urang Whig ampir ngajantenkeun anjeunna kaleungitan kasempetan dicalonkeun, nanging Sénator [[John J. Crittenden]] ti Kentucky sarta nu ngarojong sanésna tungtungna hasil ngayakinkeun Taylor kanggé nyatakeun dirina salaku urang Whig.{{sfn|Smith|1988|pp=40–42}} Sanajan Clay masih miboga seueur pangiring di Whig, pamingpin partéy sapertos [[William H. Seward]] sarta [[Abraham Lincoln]] sumanget pisan ngarojong saurang pahlawan perang anu tiasa ngulang kasuksésan William Henry Harrison. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1848]], Taylor ngéléhkeun Clay sarta Winfield Scott. Kanggé calon wakil présidén, konvénsi milih [[Millard Fillmore]], saurang inohong Whig ti [[New York (nagara bagian)|New York]] anu kantos janten ketua [[Komite Cara sarta Sarana DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komite Ways and Means DPR]]. Dipilihna Fillmore mangrupa usaha kanggé ngadaméykeun urang Whig Kalér anu ambek alatan dicalonkeunana saurang nu gaduh budak ti Kidul. Mimitina mah can écés naha Taylor bakal nampi pencalonan éta atanapi henteu, margi anjeunna henteu ngabales serat bewara hasil konvénsi. Hal ieu lumangsung margi anjeunna maréntahkeun kantor pos satempat kanggé henteu nganteurkeun suratna sangkan henteu kedah mayar biaya kirim. Taylor tetep ngawatesan peranna dina kampanye, milih henteu pendak langsung sareng pamilih atanapi surat-suratan ngeunaan pandangan pulitikna. Di tingkat nasional, Taylor ngéléhkeun Cass sarta Van Buren, kéngingkeun 163 tina 290 [[Kolege Eléktoral (Amérika Sarikat)|sora éléktoral]]. Dina sora populér, anjeunna kéngingkeun 47,3%, samentara Cass 42,5% sarta Van Buren 10,1%. Taylor nyatana teu paduli kana platform Partéy Whig, sakumaha anu dijelaskeun ku sajarawan Michael F. Holt: {{blockquote|Taylor ogé teu paduli kana program-program anu parantos lami dianggap vital ku urang Whig. Sacara publik, anjeunna pinter nyumputkeun maksudna, nolak ngajawab patarosan ngeunaan pandanganana ngeunaan perbankan, tarif, sarta pangwangunan internal. Sacara pribadi, anjeunna langkung teges. Ide ngeunaan bank nasional "parantos maot, sarta moal dihirupkeun deui dina jaman kuring." Ka payunna, tarif "bakal ditaékeun ngan kanggé pendapatan nagara"; dina kecap sanésna, harepan Whig kanggé mulangkeun [[tarif 1842]] anu boga sipat nangtayungan téh percumah. Moal aya deui kaleuwihan dana fédéral tina penjualan lahan publik kanggé dibagikeun ka nagara bagian, sarta pangwangunan internal "bakal teras jalan sanajan aya véto présidén." Dina sababaraha kecap waé, Taylor parantos nyusun prasasti pati kanggé sakabéh program ékonomi Whig. }} == Mangsa jabatan présidén (1849–1850) == {{Infobox administration | image = Zachary Taylor by Joseph Henry Bush, c1848.jpg | caption = Taylor ku [[Joseph Henry Bush]], {{circa|1848}} | name = Mangsa Jabatan Présidén Zachary Taylor | term_start = 4 Maret 1849 | term_end = 9 Juli 1850 | vicepresident = [[Millard Fillmore]] | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] | election = [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|1848]] | seat = [[Gedong Bodas]] | predecessor = [[James K. Polk]] | successor = [[Millard Fillmore]] | seal = US presidential seal 1850.png | seal_caption = Segel présidén<br />(1850–1894) }} === Transisi === Salaku présidén terpilih, Taylor ngajaga jarak ti Washington, sarta nembé ngundurkeun diri tina komando Divisi Kulonna dina akhir Januari 1849. Anjeunna nyéépkeun sasih-sasih saatos pamilihan kanggé nyusun pilihan kabinétna. Anjeunna milih kalayan taliti sarta cicingeun, anu matak ngahudang rasa hanjelu ti rénjang-rénjangna di Partéy Whig. Sanajan anjeunna ijid kana [[patronage]] (bagi-bagi jabatan) sarta kaulinan pulitik, anjeunna tetep kudu nyanghareupan rupa-rupa pamundut ti jalma-jalma anu milari jabatan dina administrasi anyarna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=248–251}} Sanajan anjeunna moal nunjuk urang Démokrat, Taylor hoyong kabinétna ngagambarkeun rupa-rupa kapentingan nasional, sahingga anjeunna ngabagi korsi kabinét dumasar wilayah géografis. Anjeunna ogé nyingkahan milih inohong Whig anu kawentar teuing, sapertos Clay. Anjeunna nganggap Crittenden salaku pondasi administrasina, sarta nawarkeun posisi penting [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Nagara]], nanging Crittenden milih kanggé ngaréngsékeun jabatanana salaku gubernur Kentucky. Taylor tungtungna milih Sénator [[John M. Clayton]] ti Delaware, rérénjangan caket Crittenden.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=248–251}} {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | align=right | Name=Taylor | President=Zachary Taylor | President start=1849 | President end=1850 | Vice President=[[Millard Fillmore]] | Vice President start=1849 | Vice President end=1850 | State=[[John M. Clayton]] | State start=1849 | State end=1850 | Treasury=[[William M. Meredith]] | Treasury start=1849 | Treasury end=1850 | War=[[George W. Crawford]] | War start=1849 | War end=1850 | Justice=[[Reverdy Johnson]] | Justice start=1849 | Justice end=1850 | Post=[[Jacob Collamer]] | Post start=1849 | Post end=1850 | Navy=[[William Ballard Preston]] | Navy start=1849 | Navy end=1850 | Interior=[[Thomas Ewing]] | Interior start=1849 | Interior end=1850 }} Kalayan bantuan Clayton, Taylor milih genep anggota kabinét sésana. Salah sahiji tindakan munggaran Kongrés anu bakal sumping nyaéta ngadegkeun [[Departemén Dalam Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Dalam Negeri]], sahingga Taylor bakal nunjuk sekretaris munggaran kanggé éta departemén. [[Thomas Ewing]], anu sateuacanna ngabakti salaku sénator ti Ohio sarta [[Sekretaris Perbendaharaan]] di handapeun William Henry Harrison, nampi jabatan [[Sekretaris Dalam Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Dalam Negeri]] anu beunghar ku posisi patronage. Kanggé posisi [[Diréktur Jenderal Pos Amérika Sarikat|Diréktur Jenderal Pos]], anu ogé janten pusat patronage, Taylor milih anggota Kongrés [[Jacob Collamer]] ti Vermont.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=90–94, 128}} Saatos [[Horace Binney]] nolak diangkat janten Sekretaris Perbendaharaan, Taylor milih tokoh séjén ti Philadelphia, [[William M. Meredith]]. [[George W. Crawford]], mantan gubernur Georgia, nampi posisi [[Sekretaris Perang Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Perang]], samentara anggota Kongrés [[William B. Preston]] ti Virginia janten [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]]. Sénator [[Reverdy Johnson]] ti Maryland nampi pangangkatan salaku [[Jaksa Agung Amérika Sarikat|Jaksa Agung]], sarta janten salah sahiji anggota kabinét Taylor anu paling boga pangaruh. Fillmore sorangan henteu pati dipikareset ku Taylor, sarta sabagéan ageung disisihkeun salami mangsa jabatan Taylor.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=90–94, 128}} Taylor ngamimitian lalampahanana ka Washington dina akhir Januari, hiji lalampahan anu pinuh ku cuaca goréng, reureuh, cidera, panyakit—malah kungsi aya kajadian [[Ashland, Jefferson County, Mississippi#Deception of President Taylor|disasabkeun]] ku rérénjangan kulawargana. Taylor tungtungna dugi ka ibukota nagara dina 24 Pébruari sarta langsung pendak sareng Présidén Polk anu badé lungsur jabatan. Polk miboga sawangan rendah ka Taylor, sacara pribadi anjeunna nganggap Taylor "teu gaduh inpormasi pulitik" sarta "sama sakali henteu mumpuni" kanggé janten présidén. Taylor nyéépkeun minggu salajengna pendak sareng para elit pulitik, anu sababaraha di antarana henteu pati katarik ku penampilan sarta sikepna. Kalayan waktos kirang ti dua minggu sateuacan pelantikan, anjeunna pendak sareng Clayton sarta gagancangan ngaréngsékeun susunan kabinétna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=253–255, 260–262}} === Pelantikan === {{Utama|Pelantikan Zachary Taylor}} Mangsa jabatan Taylor salaku présidén dimimitian dina dinten Minggu, 4 Maret, nanging pelantikanana nembé dilaksanakeun dinten énjingna alatan urusan kapercayaan agamana.{{efn|Aya carita rakyat yén [[David Rice Atchison]], salaku ''president pro tempore'' Sénat, sacara teu sadar janten présidén dina dinten éta, nanging teu aya sumber utama anu nampi sawangan ieu.}} Dina biantara pelantikanana, anjeunna ngabahas rupa-rupa tugas anu disanghareupan ku nagara, nanging anjeunna némbongkeun gaya kapamingpinan anu leuwih masrahkeun kaputusan ka Kongrés sarta ngutamakeun kompromi wilayah batan tindakan éksékutif anu agrésif.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=256–258}} Biantarana ogé nekenkeun pentingna nuturkeun [[Doktrin Washington ngeunaan Aliansi Teu Stabil|tuladan Présidén Washington kanggé nyingkahan aliansi anu ngabeungkeut]].{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=94–95}} Salami période saatos pelantikanana, Taylor nyayogikeun waktos kanggé pendak sareng seueur jalma anu milari jabatan sarta warga biasa sanésna anu hoyong nampi perhatianana. Anjeunna ogé ngiringan sajumlah upacara pamakaman anu teu biasa seueurna, kalebet kanggé Polk sarta [[Dolley Madison]]. Numutkeun Eisenhower, Taylor nyiptakeun istilah "[[Ibu Nagara Amérika Sarikat|First Lady]]" dina biantara pangéling-ngélingna kanggé Madison.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=96–97}} Dina usum panas 1849, Taylor ngayakeun lalampahan ka [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kalér-Wétan]] kanggé mikawanoh wilayah anu sateuacanna jarang ditingali ku anjeunna. Sabagéan ageung lalampahanana kaganggu ku panyakit pencernaan sarta anjeunna nembé mulang ka Washington dina sasih Séptémber.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=268–270}} === Krisis wilayah === [[File:Zachary Taylor 12th US President.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Daguerreotype]] Taylor ku [[Mathew Brady]], 1849]] Nalika Taylor ngamimitian jabatanna, Kongrés nyanghareupan rupa-rupa patarosan patali [[Cessi Méksiko]], wilayah anu dicandak ku AS saatos Perang Méksiko sarta dibagi janten distrik-distrik militer. Harita can écés distrik mana anu bakal dijantenkeun nagara bagian sarta mana anu bakal janten téritori fédéral, samentara patarosan ngeunaan status perbudakan di ditu ngancam bakal ngabagi Kongrés kalayan parna. Urang Kidul nolak pangakuana [[Sajarah California|Téritori California]], [[Téritori New Mexico]], sarta [[Téritori Utah]] ka jero Uni salaku [[Nagara bagian bébas sarta nagara bagian budak|nagara bagian bébas]] sanajan kamekaran démografi sarta ékonomi California kacida gancangna. Salian ti éta, urang Kidul beuki ambek alatan bantuan anu dibikeun ku urang Kalér ka [[budak belian anu kabur]] saatos kaputusan ''[[Prigg v. Pennsylvania]]'' ngidinan [[pangudag budak]] kanggé néwak jalma anu dituduh budak kabur di nagara bagian bébas, sarta otoritas Kalér sering nolak ngalaksanakeun [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur 1793]]. Dina waktos anu sami, urang Kalér nungtut panyabutan [[perdagangan budak doméstik]] di Washington, D.C. Akhirna, Téxas ngaku sabagéan wilayah New Mexico wétan sarta ngancam bakal ngirim [[Milisi Téxas|milisi nagara bagianna]] kanggé maksakeun klaim téritorialna sacara militer.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=101–102}} Sanajan anjeunna sorangan saurang nu gaduh budak ti Kidul, Taylor percaya yén perbudakan sacara ékonomi henteu meujeuhna dilaksanakeun di Cessi Méksiko, sahingga anjeunna nentang perbudakan di téritori éta salaku sumber kontrovérsi anu teu perlu.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=101–102}} Tujuan utamana nyaéta katengtreman antar-wilayah sarta ngajaga Uni ngalalui kompromi législatif.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=289–290}} Nalika ancaman sésési (misahkeun diri) ti Kidul ningkat, anjeunna beuki milih pihak ka urang Kalér anu anti-perbudakan sapertos Sénator [[William H. Seward]] ti New York, malah nyarankeun yén anjeunna bakal nandatanganan [[Proviso Wilmot]] kanggé nyaram perbudakan di téritori fédéral upami RUU éta dugi ka méjana.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=295–298}} Dina pandangan Taylor, cara pangsaéna kanggé maju nyaéta ngaku California salaku nagara bagian batan téritori fédéral, margi hal éta bakal ngaleupaskeun masalah perbudakan tina panangan Kongrés. Waktos kanggé janten nagara bagian keur nguntungkeun Taylor, margi [[Demam Emas California]] nuju lumangsung nalika pelantikanana, sarta populasi California nuju ngabeledug.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=290–291}} Administrasina ngintun Perwakilan [[Thomas Butler King]] ka California kanggé mariksa kaayaan sarta ngarojong pangadegan nagara bagian, terang yén urang California pasti bakal ngadopsi konstitusi anti-perbudakan. King mendakan yén [[Konvénsi Konstitusional California]] parantos lumangsung, sarta dina Oktober 1849, konvénsi éta sapuk sacara buleud kanggé ngagabung ka Uni—sarta nyaram perbudakan di jero watesna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=291–292}} [[File:United States 1849-1850.png|thumb|upright=1.35|left|Nagara bagian (wates Téxas can anggeus, California ditarima taun 1850) sarta téritori Amérika Sarikat salami mangsa jabatan Taylor]] Masalah wates New Mexico–Téxas tacan réngsé nalika pelantikan Taylor. Téritori anu nembé dimeunangkeun ti Méksiko aya di handapeun yurisdiksi fédéral, nanging urang Téxas ngaku lahan lega di kalér [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] sarta teguh hayang ngasupkeunana ka jero watesna, sanajan teu gaduh ayana anu signifikan di ditu. Taylor milih mihak ka klaim New Mexico, mimitina ngadorong kanggé tetep janten téritori fédéral, nanging tungtungna ngarojong pangadegan nagara bagian supados tiasa ngirangan perdebatan perbudakan di Kongrés. Pamaréntah Téxas, di handapeun gubernur anyar [[P. Hansborough Bell]], narékahan kanggé ningkatkeun tindakan militer kanggé mertahankeun téritori éta ngalawan pamaréntah fédéral, nanging henteu hasil.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=292–294}} Para pamukim [[Latter Day Saint]] (Mormon) di Utah ayeuna parantos ngadegkeun hiji [[Nagara bagian Deseret]] samentara, hiji wilayah anu kacida legana anu sakedik harepanana kanggé diakuan ku Kongrés. Administrasi Taylor nimbang-nimbang kanggé ngahijikeun téritori California sarta Utah, nanging tungtungna milih kanggé ngatur [[Téritori Utah]]. Kanggé ngurangan kahariwang urang Mormon ngeunaan kabébasan ageman, Taylor jangji yén maranéhna bakal miboga kamerdékaan relatif ti Kongrés sanajan janten téritori fédéral.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=294}} Taylor ngirim hiji-hijina [[Biantara Nagara Amérika Sarikat|laporan State of the Union]] ka Kongrés dina sasih Désémber 1849. Anjeunna ngarangkum kajadian internasional sarta ngusulkeun sababaraha panyaluyuan kana kawijakan tarif sarta organisasi éksékutif, nanging krisis wilayah anu disanghareupan ku Kongrés ngaleuwihan masalah-masalah éta. Anjeunna ngalaporkeun ngeunaan pamundut California sarta New Mexico kanggé janten nagara bagian, sarta nyarankeun supados Kongrés nyatujuanana sakumaha anu parantos disusun sarta "sakuduna nyingkahan bubuka topik-topik anu ngahudang amarah anu miboga sipat kawilayahan".{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=298–299}} Laporan kawijakanana miboga sipat lugas sarta henteu émosional, nanging ditutup ku kacindekan anu teges anu ngutuk para sésésionis (anu hoyong misahkeun diri). Hal ieu teu miboga pangaruh ka anggota législatif Kidul, anu nganggap pangadegan dua nagara bagian bébas salaku ancaman éksisténsial, sarta Kongrés tetep macét.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=299–300}} === Uransan luar nagara === {{Lajengkeun|Sajarah kawijakan luar nagara AS, 1829–1861}} [[File:President Taylor and his cabinet.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Présidén Zachary Taylor nangtung di payuneun Kabinétna. Calik ti kénca: [[Reverdy Johnson]] (Jaksa Agung), [[William M. Meredith]] (Sekretaris Perbendaharaan), [[William B. Preston]] (Sekretaris Angkatan Laut), [[George W. Crawford]] (Sekretaris Perang), [[Jacob Collamer]] (Diréktur Jenderal Pos), [[Thomas Ewing]] (Sekretaris Dalam Negeri), sarta [[John M. Clayton]] (Sekretaris Nagara).]] Taylor sarta Sekretaris Nagarana, [[John M. Clayton]], duanana kurang miboga pangalaman diplomatik sarta mimiti ngajabat dina mangsa anu relatif tenang dina pulitik internasional Amérika. Sumangat nasionalisme anu sarua ngabalukarkeun Taylor masrahkeun urusan kawijakan luar nagara ka Clayton kalayan pangawasan anu minimal, sanajan taya kawijakan luar nagara anu kacida nangtukeunana anu dihasilkeun dina mangsa administrasi maranéhna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=273–274, 288}} Salaku lawan ti tatanan Éropa anu otokratis, maranéhna sacara vokal ngarojong [[Révolusi Jérman 1848–1849|kaum liberal Jérman]] sarta [[Révolusi Hungaria 1848|Hungaria]] dina [[révolusi 1848]], sanajan teu méré bantuan naon-naon.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=274–275}} Aya anggapan panghinaan ti menteri Perancis [[Guillaume Tell Poussin]] ampir ngabalukarkeun pegatna hubungan diplomatik nepi ka Poussin diganti. Aya ogé sengkéta [[réparasi (hukum)|réparasi]] sareng Portugal anu ngabalukarkeun kaluar ucapan-ucapan teugas ti administrasi Taylor. Dina usaha anu leuwih positif, administrasina nyadiakeun dua kapal kanggé ngabantu Britania Raya milarian tim penjelajah Inggris anu dipingpin ku [[John Franklin]], anu leungit di Arktik.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=275–278}} Sanajan administrasi Whig sateuacanna nekenkeun perdagangan Pasifik salaku hal anu penting pisan sacara ékonomi, administrasi Taylor henteu nyandak inisiatif utama di Wétan Jauh.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=287–288}} Salami taun 1849 sarta 1850, maranéhna nyanghareupan [[Narciso López]], radikal [[Vénézuéla]] anu mingpin ékspédisi [[Filibuster (militer)|filibuster]] anu sababaraha kali dilakukeun kanggé nalukkeun [[Kapténsi Jenderal Kuba]] milik Spanyol. Anéksasi Kuba janten hal anu matak panasaran kanggé seueur urang Kidul, anu ningali Kuba salaku calon nagara bagian budak anu anyar, sarta López miboga sababaraha pangrojong penting ti urang Kidul.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=113–114}} López nawarkeun imbalan anu gedé ka para pamingpin [[Angkatan Pakarang Amérika Sarikat]] kanggé ngarojong anjeunna, nanging Taylor sarta Clayton nganggap usaha éta téh haram. Maranéhna ngayakeun blokade, sarta saterusna, maréntahkeun penangkapan massal ka López sarta baladna, sanajan tungtungna grup éta dibébaskeun ku pangadilan.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=278–280}} Maranéhna ogé nyanghareupan Spanyol anu parantos néwak sababaraha urang Amérika kalayan tuduhan bajak laut, nanging urang Spanyol tungtungna masrahkeun maranéhna kanggé ngajaga hubungan hadé sareng AS.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=280–281}} Bisa dibilang préstasi utama administrasi Taylor dina kawijakan luar nagara nyaéta [[Traktat Clayton–Bulwer]] taun 1850, ngeunaan rencana terusan antar-samudra ngalalui [[Amérika Tengah]]. Nalika AS sarta Britania nuju dina hubungan anu hadé, sarta pangwangunan terusan kitu téh masih mangpuluh-puluh taun deui kanggé janten kanyataan, kamungkinan éta waé parantos ngajantenkeun dua nagara ieu dina posisi anu teu genah.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=281}} Salami sababaraha taun, Britania parantos ngarebut titik-titik stratégis, utamana [[Basisir Mosquito]] dina basisir wétan [[Nikaragua]] ayeuna. Perundingan dilaksanakeun sareng Britania anu ngahasilkeun Traktat Clayton–Bulwer anu bersejarah. Kadua nagara sapuk kanggé henteu ngaku kadali kana terusan mana waé anu mungkin diwangun di Nikaragua. Traktat ieu ngadorong kamekaran aliansi Anglo-Amérika; réngséna traktat ieu mangrupa tindakan terakhir Taylor salaku présidén.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=281–287}} === Usaha kompromi sarta poé-poé pamungkas === [[File:Zachary Taylor at the White House daguerreotype by Mathew Brady 1849 (edited).jpg|thumb|upright|Daguerrotype Taylor ku [[Mathew Brady]], {{circa|1849}}]] Clay nyandak peran sentral nalika Kongrés debat ngeunaan perbudakan. Sanajan posisina rada sarua sareng Taylor, présidén tetep ngajaga jarak ti Clay. Para sajarawan béda pamadegan ngeunaan alesanana.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=301, 307–308}} Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun Taylor janten kasingkur sacara pulitik margi urang Kidul teu satuju kana pilihanana kanggé ngaku téritori Cessi Méksiko salaku nagara bagian bébas, samentara urang Kalér teu satuju kana panolakanana kana agenda législatif Clay. Akibatna, Kongrés beuki teu maliré ka Taylor nalika nyusun hiji kompromi. Sarta kalayan bantuan Daniel Webster, Clay nyusun usulan bersejarahna, nyaéta [[Kompromi 1850]]. Usulan éta ngidinan California janten nagara bagian, méré kamerdékaan dina masalah perbudakan, samentara téritori sanésna bakal tetep di handapeun yurisdiksi fédéral. Ieu kalebet bagian New Mexico anu dipaséakeun, sanajan Téxas bakal dibéré ganti rugi kanggé téritori éta.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=301}} Perbudakan bakal tetep diayakeun di Distrik Columbia, nanging perdagangan budak bakal dilarang. Samentara éta, [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur]] anu ketat bakal diberlakukeun, nyingkahan panerapan urang Kalér anu parantos ngawatesan urang Kidul kanggé nyandak deui budak anu kabur.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=301}} Tegangan ningkat nalika Kongrés ngayakeun rundingan sarta obrolan sésési (misahkeun diri) beuki tarik, anu puncanna ku ancaman ti Taylor kanggé ngirim pasukan ka New Mexico guna ngajaga watesna ti Téxas, kalayan anjeunna sorangan anu bakal mingpin tentarana. Krisis ieu beuki parna saatos para utusan di New Mexico ngusulkeun konstitusi nagara bagian anyar anu bakal nyaram perbudakan, sarta [[Peter Hansborough Bell]] meunang dina [[Pamilihan gubernur Téxas 1849]] kalayan jangji bakal maréntahkeun invasi milisi ka New Mexico. Para sénator Kidul nuduh Taylor sacara silih-simpen ngirim Tentara AS ka New Mexico; Taylor nolak tuduhan éta nanging nekenkeun yén anjeunna hayang pisan ngalakukeunana. Anjeunna ogé nyatakeun yén saha waé anu "kacandak barontak ngalawan Uni, anjeunna bakal ngagantung ... kalayan sakedik rasa horéam batan nalika anjeunna ngagantung para desertir sarta mata-mata di Méksiko." RUU omnibus éta mangrupa léngkah maju anu gedé dina masalah-masalah ieu, nanging tungtungna teu tiasa disahkeun, alatan aya kelompok [[Pulitik radikal|radikal]] di kadua pihak sarta panolakan ti Taylor.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=301–312}} Dina titik ieu, Taylor mimiti nampi panolakan malah ti babaturan pulitikna sorangan. Sekretaris Perang Crawford ngingetkeun Taylor yén anjeunna moal nyatujuan panyebaran militer ka New Mexico, sanajan Taylor nyatakeun yén anjeunna bakal méré paréntah éta sorangan. Penaséhat caket Taylor, [[Robert Toombs]] sarta [[Alexander Stephens]], duanana urang [[Partéy Whig Kidul (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig Kidul]] anu engkéna janten pajabat dina pamaréntahan Konfédérasi, ngingetkeun anjeunna yén rétorika ngeunaan New Mexico bakal ngabalukarkeun urang Kidul kaluar ti partéy. Teu aya kompromi gedé anu dugi ka méja Taylor salami mangsa jabatanana; sabalikna, poé-poé terakhirna kageugeuy ku [[Skandal Galphin]]. Sateuacan gabung ka kabinét Taylor, Crawford kantos janten pengacara. Anjeunna kalibet dina kasus salami 15 taun, ngawakilan turunan saurang padagang kolonial anu jasana ka karajaan Britania tacan dibayar nalika Perang Révolusi Amérika. Hutang Britania ka George Galphin kedahna ditanggung ku pamaréntah fédéral, nanging ahli waris Galphin nembé nampi pamayaran poko hutang saatos mangtaun-taun litigasi, sarta henteu hasil kéngingkeun pamayaran bunga tina administrasi Polk.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=312–313}} [[William M. Meredith|Sekretaris Perbendaharaan Meredith]], kalayan rojongan ti Jaksa Agung Johnson, tungtungna nandatanganan pamayaran éta dina April 1850. Anu matak Taylor éra, pamayaran éta kalebet kompénsasi hukum ampir $100.000 kanggé Crawford; dua anggota kabinét parantos sacara éféktif masihan sajumlah ageung artos nagara ka anggota kabinét sanésna. Panalungtikan DPR nyatakeun Crawford henteu salah sacara hukum, nanging tetep nyatakeun teu satuju kana tindakanana nampi pamayaran éta. Taylor, anu parantos ngarencanakeun rombakan kabinétna, ayeuna miboga skandal anu beuki ngahesekeun kaayaan.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=312–313}} Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat milih kanggé méré sénsur (tegoran keras) ka Taylor, sarta koran-koran ti kadua partéy mimiti nyuarakeun kanggé ngayakeun ''impeachment'' (pamécatan) ka anjeunna. Sésa-sésa jasadna diékshumasi (dikali deui) sarta dibawa ka Kantor Kapala Pamariksa Médis [[Kentucky]] dina 17 Juni 1991. Sampel buuk, kuku, sarta jaringan sanésna dicandak, sarta studi radiologi dilaksanakeun. Jasadna saterusna dipulangkeun deui ka makam sarta dimakamkeun deui kalayan penghormatan anu pantes di jero mausoleum.<ref name="Marriott"/> [[Analisis aktivasina neutron]] anu dilaksanakeun di [[Laboratorium Nasional Oak Ridge]] némbongkeun yén teu aya bukti karacunan, margi tingkat [[arsén]] dina jasadna ratusan kali langkung rendah batan anu diperyogikeun kanggé maéhan jalma.<ref name="Marriott">{{cite news|last=Marriott|first=Michel|title=Verdict In: 12th President Was Not Assassinated|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/27/us/verdict-in-12th-president-was-not-assassinated.html?ref=zacharytaylor17841850|access-date=October 17, 2011|date=June 27, 2011}}</ref><ref name="ORNL">{{cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev27-12/text/ansside6.html |title=President Zachary Taylor and the Laboratory: Presidential Visit from the Grave |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=November 2, 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100728065612/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev27-12/text/ansside6.html |date=July 28, 2010 }}</ref> Analisis éta nyimpulkeun yén Taylor parantos katarajang "cholera morbus, atanapi gastroenteritis akut", margi harita Washington miboga sistem solokan anu kabuka, sarta kadaharan atanapi inumanana mungkin parantos kacemar. Kasempetan kanggé pulih beuki ipis alatan tindakan para dokterna, anu ngubaran anjeunna nganggo "[[ipecac]], [[Merkuri(I) klorida|kalomél]], [[opium]], sarta [[kuinin]]" saloba 40 graine per dosis (kira-kira 2,6 gram), sarta ogé ngalakukeun métode "[[bekam|pendarahan (bleeding)]] sarta lepuh."<ref name="Sampas">{{cite news|last=Sampas|first=Jim|title=Scandal and the Heat Did Zachary Taylor In|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/04/opinion/l-scandal-and-the-heat-did-zachary-taylor-in-998691.html|access-date=October 17, 2011|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 1991}}</ref> Hiji tinjauan taun 2010 nyimpulkeun: "teu aya bukti definitif yén Taylor dipaéhan, nanging sigana ogé teu aya bukti definitif yén anjeunna henteu dipaéhan."<ref>{{cite book|last=Willard and Marion|title=Killing the President|year=2010|page=189}}</ref> == Reputasi sajarah sarta panginget-nginget == [[File:Zachary Taylor Grave.JPG|thumb|right|Mausoleum Taylor di [[Makam Nasional Zachary Taylor]] di Louisville, Kentucky]] Alatan mangsa jabatanna anu pondok, Taylor dianggap henteu méré pangaruh anu kuat kana jabatan présidén atanapi ka Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|MCIL}} Sababaraha sajarawan percaya yén anjeunna teuing kurang pangalaman dina dunya pulitik dina mangsa dimana para pajabat merlukeun hubungan caket sareng para operator pulitik.{{sfn|MCIL}} Sanajan miboga kakurangan, [[Traktat Clayton–Bulwer]] anu mangaruhan hubungan sareng Britania Raya di Amérika Tengah "diakuan salaku léngkah penting dina ngurangan komitmen nagara kana kawijakan [[Manifest Destiny]]."{{sfn|MCIL}} [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]] umumna nempatkeun Taylor dina saparapat bagian panghandapna. Taylor mangrupa présidén terakhir anu [[Perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|gaduh budak belian]] nalika nuju ngajabat. Anjeunna mangrupa présidén katilu tina opat présidén Whig, anu terakhir nyaéta Fillmore, panerusna. Taylor ogé mangrupa présidén kadua anu pupus nalika nuju ngajabat, tiheula ku [[William Henry Harrison]], anu pupus salapan taun sateuacanna. Dina taun 1883, [[Pasamakmuran Kentucky]] nempatkeun monumén saluhur 50 suku anu luhurna aya patung Taylor saluyu ukuran asli caket makamna. Dina taun 1920-an, kulawarga Taylor ngamimitian usaha kanggé ngarobah lahan pamakaman kulawarga Taylor janten makam nasional. Pasamakmuran Kentucky nyumbangkeun dua kapling lahan di gigireunana kanggé proyék ieu, ngarobah makam kulawarga Taylor anu legana satengah héktar janten 16 héktar. Dina 5 Méi 1926, sésa-sésa jasad Taylor sarta pamajikanana (nu pupus taun 1852) dipindahkeun ka mausoleum Taylor anu nembé diwangun tina batu kapur kalayan dasar granit sarta interior marmer di caket dinya. Lahan pamakaman éta ditetepkeun salaku [[Makam Nasional Zachary Taylor]] ku [[Sekretaris Perang]] [[Dwight F. Davis]] dina 12 Maret 1928. [[Departemén Kantor Pos AS]] ngaluarkeun [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat dina perangko AS|perangko munggaran kanggé ngahormatan Taylor]] dina 21 Juni 1875, 25 taun saatos pupusna. Dina taun 1938, Taylor némbongan deui dina perangko AS, waktos ieu dina [[Edisi Présidén 1938]] harga 12 sén. Penampilan terakhirna (dugi ka taun 2010) dina perangko AS lumangsung dina taun 1986, nalika anjeunna dihormat dina édisi présidén AMERIPEX. Saatos Washington, Jefferson, Jackson sarta Lincoln, Taylor mangrupa présidén Amérika kalima anu némbongan dina perangko AS. Lagu pelaut ([[sea shanty]]) "General Taylor" nyaritakeun ngeunaan kameunangan Taylor dina [[Patempuran Buena Vista]] salami Perang Méksiko-Amérika. Lagu ieu parantos dirékam ku grup sapertos [[Steeleye Span]] dina album ''[[Ten Man Mop, or Mr. Reservoir Butler Rides Again]]''; [[Fairport Convention]] dina ''[[The Bonny Bunch of Roses (album)|The Bonny Bunch of Roses]]''; [[Great Big Sea]] dina ''[[Play (Great Big Sea album)|Play]]''; sarta [[The Longest Johns]] dina ''Between Wind and Water''. === Sajarah pulitik sarta militer === * Birkner, Michael J. "Zachary Taylor in Office: Clay, the Whig Party, and the Sectional Crisis". dina ''A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861'' (2014): 291–308. * {{cite book |first1= David M. |last1= Kennedy |first2= Thomas Andrew |last2= Bailey |first3= Lizabeth |last3= Cohen |name-list-style= amp |year= 2006 |title= The American Pageant |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618958962 |location= Boston |publisher= Houghton Mifflin |isbn= 0618479279 |edition= 13th |oclc= 846067545 }} * {{cite book |last=Dyer |first=Brainerd |title=Zachary Taylor |url=https://archive.org/details/technicolortimem0000harr_u6k5 |url-access=registration |series=Southern Biography series |publisher=[[Louisiana State University Press]] |year=1946 }} * {{cite book |last=Holt |first=Michael F |title=The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War |url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofameric0000holt |year=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-505544-3 |ref=Holt}} * Lewis, Felice Flanery. ''Trailing Clouds of Glory: Zachary Taylor's Mexican War Campaign and His Emerging Civil War Leaders,'' (2010). * {{cite book |last=Lossing |first=Benson J |title=The American nation: its executive, legislative, political, financial, judicial and industrial history |url=https://archive.org/details/amnationexec01clevrich |year=1888 |publisher=Williams Publishing Co. |ref=Lossing }} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Elbert B. |title=The Presidencies of Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore |url=https://archive.org/details/presidenciesofza0000smit |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-7006-0362-6}} == Bacaan salajengna == === Umum === * {{cite journal|first=Stephen|last=Currie|title=Zachary Taylor, Plantation Owner|journal=Civil War History|year=1984|pages=144–156|volume=30|number=2}} * {{cite book |last1=McKinley |first1=Silas B. |last2=Bent |first2=Silas |title=Old Rough and Ready: The Life and Times of Zachary Taylor |url=https://archive.org/details/oldroughreadyzac0000mcki |location=New York |publisher=[[Vanguard Press]] |year=1946}} * {{cite book |last=Silbey |first=Joel H. |title=Party Over Section: The Rough and Ready Presidential Election of 1848 |url=https://archive.org/details/partyoversection0000silb |year=2009 |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]]}} === Genealogis (Silsilah) === * {{cite book |title=The Brewster Genealogy, 1566–1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/brewstergenealog01jone |last=Jones |first=Emma C. Brewster |location=New York |publisher=Grafton Press |year=1908}} * {{cite book |last1=Otto |first1=Julie Helen |last2=Roberts |first2=Gary Boyd |year=1995 |title=Ancestors of American Presidents |publisher=New England Historic Genealogical Society}} == Tumbu luar == {{wikisource|works=or}} {{wikiquote}} {{Commons}} * [https://millercenter.org/president/taylor Zachary Taylor] ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] di [[Universitas Virginia]]. * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/taylor/index.html Zachary Taylor: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress). * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Zachary Taylor |birth=1784 |death=1850}} * [https://www.c-span.org/video/?123944-1/life-portrait-zachary-taylor "Life Portrait of Zachary Taylor"], ti [[C-SPAN]]. {{Zachary Taylor}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghargaan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-mil}} {{s-new|office}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Tentara Pandudukan (Méksiko)|Panglima Tentara Pandudukan]]|years=1845–1848}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Davenport (militer AS)|William Davenport]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Clay]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] kanggé Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|1848]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Winfield Scott]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James K. Polk]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1849–1850}} {{s-aft|after=[[Millard Fillmore]]}} {{s-end}} }} [[Kategori:Zachary Taylor| ]] [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1784]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1850]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Nasionalis Amérika]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Amérika turunan Inggris]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat nu pupus nalika ngajabat]] [[Kategori:Jenderal Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Véteran Perang Méksiko-Amérika]] [[Kategori:Véteran Perang 1812]] d7wngdtuu4g9a205vt7n1rryw21hglh 0 107823 711540 705456 2026-08-06T22:44:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711540 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Millard Fillmore | image = Millard Fillmore Better Crop.jpg | caption = Potrét {{circa|1855–1865}} | order = 13 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | term_start = 9 Juli 1850 | term_end = 4 Maret 1853 | vicepresident = Kosong{{Efn|Fillmore téh Wakil Présidén di handapeun Présidén Zachary Taylor sarta janten Présidén saatos Taylor pupus dina 9 Juli 1850. Sateuacan diadopsina [[Amandemén ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén ka-25]] (1967), kekosongan dina jabatan wakil présidén moal dieusi dugi ka pamilihan sarta pelantikan salajengna.}} | predecessor = [[Zachary Taylor]] | successor = [[Franklin Pierce]] | order2 = 12 | office2 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat | president2 = Zachary Taylor | term_start2 = 4 Maret 1849 | term_end2 = 9 Juli 1850 | predecessor2 = [[George M. Dallas]] | successor2 = [[William R. King]] | order3 = 14 | office3 = Pengawas Keuangan (Comptroller) New York | governor3 = {{Plainlist| * [[John Young (gubernur)|John Young]] * [[Hamilton Fish]] }} | term_start3 = 1 Januari 1848 | term_end3 = 20 Pébruari 1849 | predecessor3 = [[Azariah C. Flagg]] | successor3 = [[Washington Hunt]] | office4 = Ketua {{avoid wrap|[[Komite Cara sarta Sarana DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komite Ways and Means DPR]]}} | term_start4 = 4 Maret 1841 | term_end4 = 3 Maret 1843 | predecessor4 = [[John Winston Jones]] | successor4 = [[James I. McKay]] | state5 = New York | district5 = {{ushr|NY|32|ka-32}} | term_start5 = 4 Maret 1837 | term_end5 = 3 Maret 1843 | predecessor5 = [[Thomas C. Love]] | successor5 = [[William A. Moseley]] | term_start6 = 4 Maret 1833 | term_end6 = 3 Maret 1835 | predecessor6 = Daérah pamilihan dibentuk | successor6 = Thomas C. Love | birth_date = {{Birth date|1800|1|7}} | birth_place = [[Moravia, New York]], AS | death_date = {{death date and age|1874|3|8|1800|1|7}} | death_place = [[Buffalo, New York]], AS | resting_place = [[Makam Forest Lawn (Buffalo)|Makam Forest Lawn]] | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] (1832–1855) | otherparty = {{plainlist| * [[Partéy Anti-Masonic|Anti-Masonic]] (1828–1832) * [[Know Nothing|Amérika]] (1855–1856) * [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] (ti saprak 1857) }} | parents = {{ubl|[[Nathaniel Fillmore]]|Phoebe Millard}} | spouse = {{Plainlist| * {{Marriage|[[Abigail Fillmore|Abigail Powers]]|5 Pébruari 1826|30 Maret 1853|end=pupus}} * {{Marriage|[[Caroline C. Fillmore|Caroline McIntosh]]|10 Pébruari 1858}} }} | children = {{Flatlist| * [[Millard Powers Fillmore|Millard]] * [[Mary Abigail Fillmore|Mary]] }} | occupation = {{Hlist|Politisi|pengacara}} | signature = Millard Fillmore Signature-2.svg | signature_alt = Tanda tangan kursif nganggo mangsi | branch = {{Plainlist| * [[Garda Nasional Angkatan Darat New York|Milisi New York]] * [[Garda New York]] }} | serviceyears = {{Plainlist| * 1820-an–1830-an (Milisi) * 1860-an–1870-an (Garda) }} | rank = {{Plainlist| * [[Mayor (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor]] (Milisi) * [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|Kaptén]] (Garda) }} | commands = [[Union Continentals]] (Garda) | battles = [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] }} '''Millard Fillmore''' (7 Januari 1800 – 8 Maret 1874) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-13, anu ngajabat ti taun 1850 dugi ka 1853. Anjeunna mangrupa présidén panungtung anu janten anggota [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]] nalika di [[Gedong Bodas]],{{efn|[[Abraham Lincoln]] mangrupa saurang Whig sateuacan anjeunna janten présidén.}} sarta anu panungtung anu sanés urang [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] atanapi [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]]. Tilas anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Amérika Sarikat|DPR AS]], Fillmore kapilih janten [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat|wakil présidén]] dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|1848]], sarta naék janten présidén nalika [[Zachary Taylor]] pupus dina taun 1850. Fillmore miboga peran penting dina ngaluluskeun [[Kompromi 1850]], anu ngabalukarkeun ''gencatan senjata'' sakeudeung dina perang ngeunaan ékspansi [[Perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|perbudakan]]. Fillmore babar dina kaayaan miskin di daérah [[Finger Lakes]] di [[New York bagian luhur]]. Anjeunna sakedik nampi atikan ''formal'', nanging diajar soson-soson dugi ka janten [[pengacara]]. Fillmore janten inohong anu kawentar di daérah [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] salaku pengacara sarta pulitisi, ogé kapilih janten anggota [[Majelis New York]] dina taun 1828 sarta DPR AS dina taun 1832. Fillmore mimitina ngagabung ka [[Partéy Anti-Masonic]], nanging janten anggota Partéy Whig nalika partéy éta diadegkeun dina pertengahan 1830-an. Anjeunna mangrupa saingan kanggé kapamingpinan partéy tingkat nagara bagian sareng ''[[Thurlow Weed]]'' sarta anak didikna, [[William H. Seward]]. Salami karirna, Fillmore nyatakeun yén perbudakan téh jahat, nanging anjeunna nyebatkeun yén hal éta saluareun kakuatan pamaréntah fédéral kanggé ngeureunkeunana. Sabalikna, Seward boga pamadegan yén pamaréntah fédéral miboga peran kanggé ngalakukeun hal éta. Fillmore janten calon anu henteu hasil kanggé jabatan [[Ketua Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Amérika Sarikat|Ketua DPR AS]] nalika Whig ngawasa parlemén dina taun 1841, nanging diangkat janten ketua [[Komite Cara sarta Sarana DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komite Ways and Means]]. Saatos éléh dina usahana milari pencalonan Whig kanggé wakil présidén sarta [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1844|gubernur New York]] dina taun 1844, Fillmore kapilih janten [[Pengawas Keuangan Nagara Bagian New York|Comptroller New York]] dina taun 1847, jalma munggaran anu nyekel jabatan éta ngalalui pamilihan umum. Salaku wakil présidén, Fillmore sabagéan ageung teu dipaliré ku Taylor; malah dina urusan bagi-bagi jabatan (patronage) di New York, Taylor langkung milih diskusi sareng Weed sarta Seward. Dina kapasitasna salaku présidén Sénat, Fillmore mingpin perdebatan anu panas nalika [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-31]] mutuskeun naha bakal ngidinan perbudakan di [[Cessi Méksiko]]. Béda sareng Taylor, Fillmore ngarojong [[RUU omnibus]] [[Henry Clay]], anu janten dasar tina kasaluyuan 1850. Saatos janten présidén dina Juli 1850, anjeunna ngabubarkeun kabinét Taylor sarta ngadorong Kongrés supados ngaluluskeun kompromi éta. [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur 1850]], anu ngagancangan pamulangan budak anu kabur ka jalma anu ngaku nu gaduhna, mangrupa bagian kontrovérsial tina kompromi éta. Fillmore ngarasa kabeungkeut ku kawajiban kanggé ngalaksanakeunana, sanajan hal éta ngarusak popularitasna sarta ogé ngarusak Partéy Whig, anu kabagi antara faksi Kalér sarta Kidul. Dina kawijakan luar nagara, anjeunna ngarojong [[Ékspédisi Perry|ékspédisi Angkatan Laut AS kanggé muka perdagangan di Jepang]], nentang rencana [[Kaisar Perancis Kadua|Perancis]] ka [[Karajaan Hawaii]], sarta ngarasa éra ku ékspédisi [[Filibuster (militer)|filibuster]] [[Narciso López]] ka [[Kapténsi Jenderal Kuba]]. Fillmore gagal kéngingkeun [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1852|pencalonan présidén ti Whig dina taun 1852]]. Nalika Partéy Whig bubar saatos mangsa jabatanna, Fillmore sarta seueur anggota sayap konservatifna ngagabung ka kelompok [[Know Nothing]] sarta ngabentuk Partéy Amérika. Sanajan partéyna nekenkeun kawijakan [[anti-imigrasi]] sarta [[anti-Katolik]], salami [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856|pamilihan présidén 1856]] anjeunna sakedik nyarioskeun ngeunaan imigrasi, langkung museur kana pelestarian Uni, sarta éléh ku urang Démokrat [[James Buchanan]]. Salami [[Perang Sipil Amérika]], Fillmore ngutuk sésési (misahkeun diri) sarta sapuk yén Uni kedah dijaga ku kakuatan upami diperyogikeun, nanging anjeunna kritis kana kawijakan perang [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Saatos perdamaian disimpen deui, anjeunna ngarojong kawijakan [[Éra Rékonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]] Présidén [[Andrew Johnson]]. Fillmore tetep kalibet dina kapentingan sipil saatos janten présidén, kalebet salaku kanselir [[Universitas Buffalo]], anu parantos dibantuan pangadeganna ku anjeunna dina taun 1846. Para sajarawan biasana [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Fillmore di antara présidén anu paling goréng dina sajarah Amérika, utamana alatan kawijakanana ngeunaan perbudakan, sarta kalebet présidén anu [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat#Memorability of the presidents|paling kirang diémut]]. == Awal kahirupan sarta karir == [[File:Fillmorebirth.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Tanda sajarah di lokasi kalahiran Fillmore|Tanda sajarah di lokasi kalahiran Fillmore di Cayuga County, New York]] {{Millard Fillmore series}} Millard Fillmore babar dina ping 7 Januari 1800, di hiji [[saung log]] (imah tina tangkal kai), di hiji kebon anu ayeuna janten [[Moravia, New York|Moravia]], di daérah [[Finger Lakes]], [[New York (nagara bagian)|New York]]. Kolotna nyaéta Phoebe Millard sarta [[Nathaniel Fillmore]];{{sfn|American National Biography}} anjeunna mangrupa anak kadua tina dalapan duduluran sarta putra cikal. Kulawarga Fillmore téh turunan Inggris; John Fillmore sumping ka [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]], salami éra kolonial. Nathaniel Fillmore nyaéta putra ti Nathaniel Fillmore Sr., urang asli [[Franklin, Connecticut]], anu janten salah sahiji pamukim awal di [[Bennington, Vermont]]. Nathaniel Fillmore sarta Phoebe Millard pindah ti Vermont dina taun 1799 kanggé milari kasempetan anu langkung saé batan anu aya di kebon Nathaniel anu pinuh ku batu, nanging surat bukti hak milik lahan maranéhna di Cayuga County tétéla cacat hukum. Kulawarga Fillmore saterusna pindah ka deukeut [[Sempronius, New York|Sempronius]], dimana maranéhna nyéwa lahan salaku [[petani panyéwa]], sarta Nathaniel sakapeung ngajar sakola.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=191–197}} Sajarawan [[Tyler Anbinder]] ngagambarkeun mangsa budak Fillmore salaku "mangsa digawé teuas, sering kakurangan, sarta ampir teu miboga pendidikan formal."{{sfn|American National Biography}} Lila-lila Nathaniel janten langkung suksés di Sempronius, nanging salami taun-taun kamekaran Millard, kulawargana ngalaman kamiskinan anu parna.{{efn|Nathaniel Fillmore, bapa présidén munggaran anu nganjang ka putrana di Gedong Bodas, kantos nyarios ka nu nanya ngeunaan cara ngadidik anak supados janten présidén: "Ayunkun anjeunna dina wadah cider."}} Nathaniel janten cukup dipihormat dugi ka anjeunna kapilih kanggé nyekel jabatan lokal, kalebet hakim perdamaian. Kalayan harepan yén putra cikalna bakal diajar hiji kaahlian dagang, anjeunna ngayakinkeun Millard, anu harita yuswana 14 taun, supados henteu daptar milu [[Perang 1812]]{{sfn|Scarry|loc=18}} sarta ngajantenkeun anjeunna [[magang]] ka tukang kaén Benjamin Hungerford di [[Sparta, New York|Sparta]]. Fillmore ngan ukur dipasihan padamelan kasar, sarta kusabab anjeunna teu betah margi teu diajar kaahlian naon-naon, anjeunna tungtungna kaluar ti padamelan Hungerford.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=19}} Ramana nempatkeun anjeunna dina widang padamelan anu sami di hiji pabrik di [[Niles, New York|New Hope]].{{sfn|Scarry|loc=20}} Kanggé ningkatkeun kamampuan dirina, Millard mésér saham di hiji [[perpustakaan kuriling]] sarta maca sakabéh buku anu tiasa ditarima ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=20}} Dina taun 1819, anjeunna ngamangpaatkeun waktos sela di pabrik kanggé daptar di hiji akademi énggal di kota éta, dimana anjeunna pendak sarta bogo ka babaturan sakelasna, [[Abigail Fillmore|Abigail Powers]].{{sfn|Rayback|loc=224–258}} Dina ahir taun 1819, Nathaniel mindahkeun kulawargana ka Montville, hiji dusun di Moravia.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=22}} Ngahargaan kana bakat putrana, Nathaniel nuturkeun naséhat pamajikanana sarta ngayakinkeun Hakim Walter Wood, nu gaduh lahan kulawarga Fillmore sakaligus jalma pangbeungharna di daérah éta, supados ngantepkeun Millard janten panitera hukum (law clerk) kanggé masa percobaan.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=23}} Wood sapuk kanggé méré padamelan ka Fillmore ngora sarta ngawaskeun anjeunna nalika anjeunna [[diajar hukum]].{{sfn|Scarry|loc=23}} Fillmore kéngingkeun artos tina ngajar sakola salami tilu sasih sarta mésér kabébasanana tina kontrak magang di pabrik.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=24}} Anjeunna ninggalkeun Wood saatos dalapan belas sasih; hakim éta ampir teu méré bayaran naon-naon, sarta duanana paséa saatos Fillmore, tanpa dibantuan, kéngingkeun sajumlah leutik artos tina méré naséhat ka saurang patani dina hiji gugatan hukum leutik.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=25}} Alatan nolak jangji moal ngalakukeun hal éta deui, Fillmore milih kaluar tina magangna.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=258–308}} Nathaniel mindahkeun deui kulawargana, sarta Millard marengan maranéhna ka kulon ka [[East Aurora, New York|East Aurora]], deukeut [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]],{{sfn|Finkelman|p=5}} dimana Nathaniel mésér hiji kebon anu saterusna janten suksés. Dina ping 7 Januari 1821, Fillmore nincak yuswa 21 taun, asup kana [[Usia déwasa|mangsa déwasa]].{{sfn|Scarry|loc=26}} Anjeunna ngajar sakola di East Aurora sarta nampi sababaraha kasus di pangadilan hakim perdamaian, anu harita mah teu merlukeun praktisi hukum miboga lisénsi pengacara resmi.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=26}} Anjeunna pindah ka Buffalo dina taun salajengna sarta neraskeun studi hukumna, mimitina bari ngajar sakola saterusna di kantor hukum Asa Rice sarta Joseph Clary. Samentara éta, anjeunna papacangan sareng Abigail Powers.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=26}} Dina taun 1823, anjeunna [[Pangakuan kana bar di Amérika Sarikat|diaku salaku pengacara (admitted to the bar)]], nolak tawaran ti firma hukum di Buffalo, sarta mulang ka East Aurora kanggé muka prakték salaku hiji-hijina pengacara anu cicing di kota éta.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=5}}{{sfn|Scarry|loc=528–34}} Dina ahir hayatna, Fillmore nyatakeun yén mimitina anjeunna kurang kapercayaan diri kanggé muka prakték di kota anu langkung ageung sapertos Buffalo. Biograferna, [[Paul Finkelman]], nyarankeun yén saatos hirup dina pangawasa batur salami hirupna, Fillmore mikaresep kamerdékaan tina praktékna di East Aurora.{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=5–6}} Millard sarta Abigail nikah dina ping 5 Pébruari 1826. Harita anjeunna yuswa 26 taun, sarta Abigail 27 taun. Maranéhna dipaparin dua putra, [[Millard Powers Fillmore]] sarta [[Mary Abigail Fillmore]].{{sfn|Scarry|loc=128–134}} == Politisi Buffalo == Anggota kulawarga Fillmore sanésna ogé aktif dina widang pulitik sarta pamaréntahan salian ti jasa Nathaniel salaku hakim perdamaian.{{efn|Mamang Fillmore, [[Calvin Fillmore]], ngajabat di [[Majelis Nagara Bagian New York]]; mamang sanésna, Simeon Fillmore, ngajabat salaku [[pengawas kota]] di [[Clarence, New York]].}} Millard mimiti katarik ku dunya pulitik, sarta naékna [[Partéy Anti-Masonic]] dina ahir taun 1820-an janten jalan asupna.{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=12–13}} [[File:Millard Fillmore House Sep 12.jpg |thumb|alt=Poto imah héjo kalayan pilar téras bodas sarta panto tengah kalayan jandéla dina kadua sisina|Millard Fillmore ngabantosan ngawangun [[Imah Fillmore|imah ieu]] di [[East Aurora, New York]], sarta cicing di dinya ti taun 1826 dugi ka 1830.]] Seueur anggota Anti-Mason nentang pencalonan présidén Jenderal [[Andrew Jackson]], anu mangrupa saurang [[Mason (Freemasonry)|Mason]]. Fillmore janten utusan dina konvénsi New York anu ngadukung Présidén [[John Quincy Adams]] kanggé kapilih deui, sarta anjeunna ogé ngajabat dina dua konvénsi Anti-Masonic dina usum panas taun 1828.{{sfn|American National Biography}} Dina konvénsi éta, Fillmore munggaran pendak sareng bos pulitik sakaligus calon sainganna di mangsa payun, [[Thurlow Weed]], anu harita janten éditor koran; maranéhna dikabarkan silih kataji ku kamampuan masing-masing.{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=12–13}} Fillmore janten warga nonjol di East Aurora saatos hasil kapilih janten anggota [[Majelis Nagara Bagian New York]], sarta ngajabat di [[Albany, New York|Albany]] salami tilu périodeu sataun (1829 dugi ka 1831).{{sfn|American National Biography}} Kapilihna Fillmore dina taun 1828 kacida kontrasna sareng kameunangan umum kaum Démokrat Jacksonian (nu engkéna janten [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]]), anu milih Jackson janten Présidén sarta kéngingkeun mayoritas di Albany. Ku kituna, Fillmore aya dina posisi minoritas di Majelis.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=42}} Sanajan kitu, anjeunna kabuktian éféktif ku cara ngamajukeun panerapan kanggé masihan pilihan sumpah non-agama ka saksi di pangadilan, sarta dina taun 1830, hasil ngahapus kawijakan [[panjara alatan hutang]].{{sfn|Scarry|loc=18}} Harita, sabagéan ageung prakték hukum Fillmore aya di Buffalo, sarta dina ahir taun éta, anjeunna pindah ka dinya sareng kulawargana. Anjeunna henteu nyalonkeun deui dina taun 1831.{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=12–13}}{{sfn|Smith|p=45}} Fillmore suksés pisan salaku pengacara. Buffalo nuju ngalaman kamekaran anu gancang, pulih saatos [[Patempuran Buffalo|diduruk ku pasukan Britania]] salami [[Perang 1812]], sarta janten titik tungtung kulon tina [[Terusan Erie]]. Kasus-kasus pangadilan ti luar Erie County mimiti asup ka Fillmore, sarta anjeunna janten pengacara kawentar di Buffalo sateuacan anjeunna pindah ka dinya. Anjeunna ngajantenkeun sahabat hirupna, [[Nathan K. Hall]], salaku panitera hukum di East Aurora. Hall engkéna janten pasangan (partner) Fillmore di Buffalo. Buffalo sacara hukum masih kénéh mangrupa désa nalika Fillmore sumping; sanajan RUU kanggé ngajantenkeunana kota lulus di législatif saatos anjeunna kaluar ti Majelis, Fillmore ngabantosan nyusun piagam kota (city charter) éta. Fillmore ngiring ngadegkeun Asosiasi Sakola Menengah Buffalo, ngagabung ka gerakan [[Lyceum]], sumping ka geréja [[Unitarianisme|Unitarian]] lokal, sarta janten warga kelas luhur di Buffalo.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=314, 750–810}} Anjeunna ogé aktif dina [[Garda Nasional Angkatan Darat New York|Milisi New York]] sarta ngahontal pangkat [[Mayor (Amérika Sarikat)|mayor]] salaku inspéktur Brigade ka-47. == Anggota Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat == === Mangsa jabatan munggaran sarta mulang ka Buffalo === Dina taun 1832, Fillmore hasil kapilih janten anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Amérika Sarikat|DPR AS]]. Calon présidén ti Anti-Masonic, [[William Wirt (Jaksa Agung)|William Wirt]], saurang mantan jaksa agung, mung kéngingkeun kameunangan di Vermont, sarta Présidén Jackson kalayan gampang kapilih deui. Harita, Kongrés ngayakeun sési taunanna dina sasih Désémber, ku kituna Fillmore kedah ngantosan langkung ti sataun saatos pamilihan kanggé nempatan korsi jabatanna. Fillmore, Weed, sarta nu sanésna sadar yén oposisi kana Masonry téh pondasi anu teuing heureut kanggé ngawangun hiji partéy nasional. Maranéhna saterusna ngabentuk [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]] anu langkung lega tina gabungan urang [[Partéy Républik Nasional|Républik Nasional]], Anti-Mason, sarta urang Démokrat anu kuciwa. Whig mimitina ngahiji alatan oposisi ka Jackson, nanging janten partéy gedé ku cara ngalegaan platformna kanggé ngarojong kamekaran ékonomi ngaliwatan panganyaran piagam [[Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat]] sarta [[pangwangunan internal]] anu dibiayaan ku fédéral, kalebet jalan, sasak, sarta terusan.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=936–940, 993–999}} Weed parantos ngagabung ka Whig sateuacan Fillmore sarta janten kakuatan di jero partéy. Pamadegan anti-perbudakan Weed langkung kuat batan Fillmore, anu teu resep kana perbudakan nanging nganggap pamaréntah fédéral teu miboga kakuatan kanggé ngaturna. Pamadegan Weed langkung caket ka tokoh Whig New York sanésna, [[William H. Seward]] ti [[Auburn, New York|Auburn]], anu dianggap salaku anak didik Weed. Di Washington, Fillmore ngadorong ékspansi palabuhan Buffalo, hiji kaputusan anu aya di handapeun yurisdiksi fédéral, sarta sacara pribadi anjeunna ngalobi Albany (pamaréntah nagara bagian) kanggé ékspansi Terusan Erie milik nagara bagian.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=878–905}} Malah salami kampanye taun 1832, apiliasi Fillmore salaku urang Anti-Mason parantos kateuteu, sarta anjeunna gancang ngaleupaskeun labél éta saatos dilantik. Fillmore narik perhatian Sénator Massachusetts anu miboga pangaruh, [[Daniel Webster]], anu saterusna ngabingbing wakil rahayat anyar éta. Fillmore janten pangrojong satia, sarta maranéhna neraskeun hubungan caket éta dugi ka Webster pupus dina ahir mangsa jabatan présidén Fillmore.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=13}} Sanajan Fillmore ngarojong Bank Kadua salaku sarana pangwangunan nasional, anjeunna henteu nyarios dina debat kongrés dimana sababaraha pihak ngajukeun panganyaran piagamna sanajan Jackson parantos ngavéto undang-undang éta. Fillmore ngarojong pangwangunan infrastruktur ku cara milih satuju kana perbaikan navigasi di [[Walungan Hudson]] sarta pangwangunan sasak meuntasan [[Walungan Potomac]].{{sfn|Scarry|loc=999}} Anti-Masonry masih kuat di New York Kulon sanajan mimiti luntur di tingkat nasional. Nalika Anti-Mason henteu nyalonkeun deui anjeunna kanggé mangsa jabatan kadua dina taun 1834, Fillmore nolak pencalonan ti Whig, margi anjeunna ningali yén kadua partéy éta bakal ngabagi sora anti-Jackson sarta malah bakal milih urang Démokrat. Sanajan Fillmore kaluar tina jabatan, anjeunna tetep janten saingan kanggé kapamingpinan partéy tingkat nagara bagian sareng Seward, calon gubernur Whig taun 1834 anu henteu hasil.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=14}} Fillmore ngagunakeun waktosna saluareun jabatan kanggé ngawangun prakték hukumna sarta ngamajukeun Partéy Whig, anu sacara bertahap nyerep sabagéan ageung anggota Anti-Mason.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=1079}} Dina taun 1836, Fillmore ngarasa yakin pisan kana persatuan anti-Jackson sahingga anjeunna nampi pencalonan Whig kanggé Kongrés. Kaum Démokrat, anu dipingpin ku calon présidénna, Wakil Présidén [[Martin Van Buren]], meunang di sakuliah nagara sarta di nagara bagian asal Van Buren, New York, nanging New York Kulon milih Whig sarta ngirimkeun deui Fillmore ka Washington.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=1495–1508}} === Mangsa jabatan kadua dugi ka kaopat === Van Buren, nalika nyanghareupan krisis ékonomi [[Panik 1837]]—anu sabagian disababkeun ku kurangna kapercayaan kana duit keretas swasta saatos Jackson maréntahkeun pamaréntah kanggé ngan nampi emas atanapi pérak ([[Specie Circular]])—ngayakeun sési husus Kongrés. Duit pamaréntah parantos disimpen dina anu disebut "[[pet banks]]" (bank-bank babaturan) saprak Jackson narik duit éta ti Bank Kadua. Van Buren ngajukeun kanggé nunda dana dina sub-treasuries, nyaéta tempat neundeun duit pamaréntah anu moal nginjeumkeun duitna. Alatan boga kapercayaan yén dana pamaréntah kedah diinjeumkeun kanggé ngawangun nagara, Fillmore ngarasa yén kawijakan éta bakal ngonci pasokan emas nagara anu kawates tina dunya perdagangan. Sub-perbendaharaan Van Buren sarta usulan ékonomi sanésna lulus, nanging kusabab mangsa susah terus lumangsung, Whig ningali kanaékan sora dina pamilihan taun 1837 sarta hasil ngawasa Majelis New York, anu saterusna janten rebutan kanggé pencalonan gubernur taun 1838. Fillmore ngarojong calon wakil présidén Whig unggulan ti taun 1836, [[Francis Granger]], nanging Weed langkung milih Seward. Fillmore ngarasa hanjelu nalika Weed hasil kéngingkeun pencalonan kanggé Seward, nanging anjeunna tetep kampanye kalayan satia. Seward kapilih, sarta Fillmore meunang deui mangsa jabatan di DPR.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=1556–1679}} Persaingan antara Fillmore sarta Seward dipangaruhan ku tumuwuhna gerakan anti-perbudakan. Sanajan Fillmore teu resep kana perbudakan, anjeunna ningali teu aya alesan kanggé ngajantenkeun hal éta salaku masalah pulitik. Seward, sabalikna, némbongkeun sikep musuhna kana perbudakan sacara jelas nalika janten gubernur ku cara nolak mulangkeun budak anu diklaim ku urang Kidul.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=1556–1679}} Nalika asosiasi hukum Buffalo ngajukeun Fillmore kanggé jabatan wakil kanselir distrik yudisial kadalapan dina taun 1839, Seward nolak, malah nyalonkeun [[Frederick Whittlesey]], sarta nyatakeun yén upami [[Sénat New York]] nolak Whittlesey, anjeunna tetep moal nunjuk Fillmore.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=1326–1331}} Fillmore aktif dina diskusi calon présidén sateuacan [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1839]] kanggé pamilihan taun 1840. Mimitina anjeunna ngarojong Jenderal [[Winfield Scott]], nanging tujuan utamana nyaéta kanggé ngéléhkeun Sénator Kentucky [[Henry Clay]], saurang nu gaduh budak belian anu dianggap ku anjeunna moal tiasa meunang di Nagara Bagian New York. Fillmore henteu sumping ka konvénsi, nanging anjeunna ngarasa sugema nalika konvénsi milih Jenderal [[William Henry Harrison]] janten présidén, sareng mantan Sénator Virginia [[John Tyler]] salaku pasanganna.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=1356–1361}} Fillmore ngatur New York Kulon kanggé kampanye Harrison, sarta tikét nasional éta kapilih, sedengkeun Fillmore kalayan gampang kéngingkeun mangsa jabatan kaopat di DPR. Atas dorongan Clay, Harrison gancang ngayakeun sési husus Kongrés. Kalayan kamampuan Whig kanggé ngatur DPR kanggé munggaranana, Fillmore milari jabatan Ketua (Speaker), nanging jabatan éta ragrag ka panganut satia Clay, [[John White (politisi Kentucky)|John White]]. Fillmore saterusna diangkat janten ketua [[Komite Cara sarta Sarana DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komite Ways and Means]].{{sfn|American National Biography}} Harrison diperkirakeun bakal nuturkeun naon waé anu diajukeun ku Clay sarta pamimpin Whig sanésna, nanging Harrison pupus dina 4 April 1841. Wakil Présidén Tyler naék janten présidén; mantan urang Démokrat anu bangkang éta paséa sareng Clay ngeunaan usulan bank nasional kanggé nyetabilkeun mata uang, anu divéto ku anjeunna dua kali sahingga anjeunna dikaluarkeun tina Partéy Whig. Fillmore tetep aya dina sisi konflik éta kalayan umumna ngarojong posisi Whig di Kongrés, nanging préstasi utamana salaku ketua Ways and Means nyaéta [[Tarif 1842]]. Tarif anu aya harita henteu ngajaga industri manufaktur, sarta sabagian pendapatan didistribusikeun ka nagara-nagara bagian, hiji kaputusan anu dilakukeun dina mangsa jaya anu ayeuna malah méakkeun perbendaharaan nagara. Fillmore nyusun RUU anu naékeun tingkat tarif anu populer di masarakat, nanging ayana distribusi mastikeun véto ti Tyler sarta méré kauntungan pulitik kanggé Whig. Hiji komite DPR anu dipingpin ku [[John Quincy Adams]] ngutuk tindakan Tyler. Fillmore nyusun RUU kadua, ayeuna tanpa distribusi dana. Nalika dugi ka méja Tyler, anjeunna nandatangananana nanging dina prosésna malah nyinggung sakutu Démokratna. Ku kituna, Fillmore henteu ngan ukur ngahontal tujuan législatifna nanging ogé hasil ngasingkeun Tyler sacara pulitik.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=1957–2186}} Fillmore nampi pujian alatan tarif éta, nanging dina Juli 1842, dina yuswa 42 taun, anjeunna ngumumkeun moal nyalonkeun deui. Whig tetep nyalonkeun anjeunna, nanging anjeunna nolak. Bakatna ku kahirupan Washington sarta konflik anu terus-terusan ngeunaan Tyler, Fillmore milih mulang ka kahirupan sarta prakték hukumna di Buffalo. Anjeunna tetep aktif dina [[sési lame duck]] Kongrés saatos pamilihan 1842 sarta mulang ka Buffalo dina April 1843, dina yuswa 43 taun. Numutkeun biograferna, Scarry, "Fillmore mungkas karir Kongrésna dina titik dimana anjeunna parantos janten inohong anu kuat, saurang negarawan anu mampuh dina puncak popularitasna."{{sfn|Scarry|loc=1729–1776}} Weed nganggap Fillmore salaku jalma anu "mampuh dina debat, bijaksana dina déwan, sarta teu tiasa dirobah dina kapercayaan pulitikna".{{sfn|Scarry|loc=1766}} == Inohong nasional == Nalika teu nyekel jabatan, Fillmore neraskeun prakték hukumna sarta ngalereskeun imahna di Buffalo anu parantos lami teu kaurus. Anjeunna tetep janten inohong pulitik utama sarta mingpin komite anu ng nebagéakeun John Quincy Adams ka Buffalo. Mantan présidén éta nyatakeun hanjelu alatan absenna Fillmore ti Kongrés. Sababaraha pihak ngadorong Fillmore supados nyalonkeun janten wakil présidén sareng Clay, pilihan konsénsus Whig kanggé présidén dina taun 1844. [[Horace Greeley]] nyerat sacara pribadi yén "pilihan munggaran kuring sorangan parantos lami nyaéta Millard Fillmore," sarta anu sanésna nganggap Fillmore kedah nyobian ngarebut deui korsi gubernur kanggé Whig.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=1776–1820}} Alatan hoyong mulang ka Washington, Fillmore milih ngudag jabatan wakil présidén.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2417}} [[File:Unidentified Artist - Millard Fillmore - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|alt=Potrét Millard Fillmore nganggo baju hideung nyanghareupan palukis|Fillmore {{circa|1843}}, pelukis teu kanyahoan]] Fillmore ngaharepkeun kéngingkeun dukungan ti utusan New York ka konvénsi nasional, nanging Weed hoyong jabatan wakil présidén kanggé Seward, kalayan Fillmore salaku gubernur. Nanging, Seward mundur sateuacan [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1844]]. Nalika calon wakil présidén gaganti pilihan Weed, [[Willis Hall (politisi New York)|Willis Hall]], teu damang, Weed nyobian ngéléhkeun pencalonan Fillmore supados maksa anjeunna nyalonkeun janten gubernur. Usaha Weed kanggé naékeun Fillmore salaku calon gubernur ngabalukarkeun Fillmore nyerat, "Kuring teu daék dipaéhan sacara licik ku kahadéan anu pura-pura ieu... ulah nyangka sakedap ogé yén kuring mikir maranéhna hayang kuring dicalonkeun janten gubernur."{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2425–2471}} New York ngirimkeun utusan ka konvénsi di Baltimore kalayan jangji ngadukung Clay nanging tanpa paréntah ngeunaan saha anu kedah dipilih janten wakil présidén. Weed nyarios ka utusan ti luar nagara bagian yén partéy di New York langkung milih Fillmore salaku calon gubernurna, sarta saatos Clay dicalonkeun janten présidén, posisi kadua dina tikét éta ragrag ka mantan sénator New Jersey, [[Theodore Frelinghuysen]].{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2471–2486}} Némbongkeun sikep anu hadé sanajan éléh, Fillmore pendak sarta némbongan di payuneun umum sareng Frelinghuysen, bari sacara cicingeun nolak tawaran Weed kanggé dicalonkeun janten gubernur dina konvénsi nagara bagian. Posisi Fillmore anu nentang perbudakan ngan di tingkat nagara bagian ngajantenkeun anjeunna tiasa ditarima salaku calon Whig tingkat nagara bagian, sarta Weed mastikeun yén tekanan ka Fillmore ningkat. Fillmore parantos nyatakeun yén hiji konvénsi gaduh hak kanggé milih saha waé kanggé palayanan pulitik, sarta Weed hasil ngajantenkeun konvénsi milih Fillmore, anu miboga dukungan lega, sanajan anjeunna hoream.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2486–2536}} Kaum Démokrat nyalonkeun Sénator [[Silas Wright]] salaku calon gubernurna sarta mantan Gubernur Tennessee [[James K. Polk]] kanggé présidén. Sanajan Fillmore digawé teuas kanggé kéngingkeun dukungan di kalangan urang [[Jerman-Amérika]], hiji konstituén utama, anjeunna kacepet ku sentimén imigran alatan kanyataan yén di Kota New York, urang Whig parantos ngadukung calon [[Nativisme (pulitik)|nativis]] dina pamilihan walikota awal taun 1844, sahingga Fillmore sarta partéyna dianggap miboga sentimén anu sami.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2536–2562}} Anjeunna mémang henteu ramah ka imigran sarta nyalahkeun "umat Katolik asing" atas kaéléhanana.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=24}} Clay ogé éléh. Biografer Fillmore, Paul Finkelman, nyarankeun yén sikep musuhan Fillmore ka imigran sarta posisina anu lemah ngeunaan perbudakan parantos ngéléhkeun anjeunna dina pamilihan gubernur.{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=23–24}} Dina taun 1846, Fillmore kalibet dina pangadegan Universitas Buffalo (ayeuna [[Universitas di Buffalo]]), janten [[Kanselir (pendidikan)|kanselir]] munggaranna, sarta ngajabat dugi ka pupusna dina taun 1874. Anjeunna nentang [[aneksasi Texas]], nyarios ngalawan [[Perang Méksiko–Amérika]] saterusna, sarta ningali perang éta salaku trik kanggé ngalegaan daérah perbudakan. Fillmore ambek nalika Présidén Polk ngavéto RUU walungan sarta palabuhan anu bakal nguntungkeun Buffalo,{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=35, 152}} sarta anjeunna nyerat, "Muga Gusti nyalametkeun nagara ieu, sabab tétéla rahayat mah moal."{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2620}} Harita, gubernur New York ngajabat salami dua taun, sarta Fillmore tiasa kéngingkeun pencalonan Whig dina taun 1846 upami anjeunna hoyong. Anjeunna ampir kéngingkeun pencalonan éta nalika anjeunna nyusun strategi supados pencalonan ragrag ka pangrojongna, [[John Young (gubernur)|John Young]], anu ahirna kapilih. Konstitusi anyar kanggé Nagara Bagian New York netepkeun yén jabatan [[Pengawas Keuangan Nagara Bagian New York|comptroller]] kedah dipilih ngaliwatan pamilihan, sakumaha ogé [[Jaksa Agung New York]] sarta sababaraha jabatan sanésna anu sateuacanna dipilih ku législatif nagara bagian. Padamelan Fillmore dina widang kauangan salaku ketua Ways and Means ngajantenkeun anjeunna calon anu pantes kanggé jabatan comptroller, sarta anjeunna hasil kéngingkeun pencalonan Whig kanggé pamilihan taun 1847.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2735–2763}} Kalayan partéy anu ngahiji, Fillmore meunang ku salisih 38.000 sora, salisih pangageungna anu kantos dihontal ku calon Whig kanggé jabatan tingkat nagara bagian di New York.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=25}} Sateuacan pindah ka Albany kanggé ngajabat dina 1 Januari 1848, genep dinten sateuacan ulang taun ka-48 na, anjeunna parantos ninggalkeun firma hukumna sarta nyéwakeun imahna. Fillmore nampi ulasan positip kanggé jasana salaku comptroller. Dina jabatan éta, anjeunna janten anggota déwan terusan nagara bagian, ngarojong ékspansina, sarta mastikeun yén éta dikelola kalayan kompetén. Anjeunna hasil ngamankeun perluasan fasilitas terusan Buffalo. Comptroller ngatur bank-bank, sarta Fillmore nyetabilkeun mata uang ku cara ngawajibkeun bank-bank anu boga piagam nagara bagian supados neundeun obligasi New York sarta fédéral saluyu sareng nilai duit keretas anu dikaluarkeunana. [[Undang-Undang Bank Nasional|Rencana anu sarupa]] diadopsi ku Kongrés dina taun 1864.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2769–2799}} == Pamilihan 1848 == {{Utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848}} === Pencalonan === [[File:MFillmore-congressman.jpg|thumb|alt=Potrét ukiran hideung bodas Fillmore|Ukiran Fillmore]] Présidén Polk parantos jangji moal nyalonkeun deui kanggé mangsa jabatan kadua, sarta kalayan kanaékan korsi di Kongrés salami siklus pamilihan 1846, Whig ngarasa miboga harepan kanggé ngawasa Gedong Bodas dina taun 1848. Calon langganan partéy, Henry Clay sarta Daniel Webster, duanana hoyong dicalonkeun sarta ngumpulkeun dukungan ti batur-baturna di Kongrés. Seueur anggota Whig biasa ngadukung pahlawan Perang Méksiko, Jenderal [[Zachary Taylor]], kanggé présidén. Sanajan Taylor kacida populérna, seueur urang Kalér anu hariwang ngeunaan milih saurang nu gaduh budak ti Louisiana dina mangsa tegangan [[Sektarianisme|sektoral]] ngeunaan naha perbudakan kedah diidinan di wilayah-wilayah anu parantos dibikeun ku Méksiko. Pandangan pulitik Taylor anu teu tangtu ogé ngajantenkeun batur ragu: karirna di Angkatan Darat ngahalangan anjeunna kanggé kantos milih dina pamilihan présidén, sanajan anjeunna nyatakeun yén anjeunna mangrupa pangrojong Whig. Sababaraha pihak sieun yén maranéhna bakal milih deui saurang Tyler sanésna, atanapi Harrison sanésna.{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=43–45}} [[File:TaylorFillmore.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Spanduk kampanye warna kalayan potrét Zachary Taylor di kénca sarta Fillmore di katuhu|Spanduk kampanye Taylor (kénca) – Fillmore ku [[Nathaniel Currier]]]] Nalika pencalonan tacan diputuskeun, Weed nyusun strategi supados New York ngirimkeun delegasi anu henteu kabeungkeut (uncommitted) ka [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1848]] kalayan harepan tiasa nempatkeun Seward dina tikét atanapi kéngingkeun jabatan Kabinét kanggé anjeunna. Anjeunna ngayakinkeun Fillmore supados ngadukung tikét anu henteu kabeungkeut éta nanging henteu ngungkabkeun harepanana kanggé Seward. Weed mangrupa éditor anu boga pangaruh sarta Fillmore condong gawé bareng sareng anjeunna demi kahadéan Partéy Whig. Nanging, Weed miboga lawan anu langkung keras, sapertos Gubernur Young, anu teu resep ka Seward sarta henteu hoyong ningali anjeunna kéngingkeun jabatan luhur.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=2902–2955}} Sanajan usaha Weed parantos maksimal, Taylor dicalonkeun dina sora kaopat, anu ngabalukarkeun amarah para pangrojong Clay sarta urang [[Whig Nurani]] ti Wétan Kalér. Nalika kaayaan parantos tenang, [[John A. Collier]], saurang urang New York anu nentang Weed, nyarios dina konvénsi éta. Utusan sanésna merhatoskeun unggal kecapna nalika anjeunna ngagambarkeun dirina salaku partisan Clay; anjeunna parantos milih Clay dina unggal sora. Anjeunna kalayan tapis ngagambarkeun kasedih para pangrojong Clay anu sakali deui frustrasi dina usahana ngajantenkeun Clay présidén. Collier ngingetkeun ngeunaan perpecahan fatal dina partéy sarta nyatakeun yén ngan hiji hal anu tiasa nyegahna: pencalonan wakil présidén kanggé Fillmore, anu digambarkeun ku anjeunna salaku pangrojong kuat Clay. Fillmore sabenerna sapuk sareng seueur posisi Clay, nanging henteu ngadukung anjeunna kanggé présidén sarta harita henteu aya di Philadelphia. Para utusan teu terang yén naon anu diomongkeun ku Collier téh bohong atanapi sahenteuna kaleuleuwihi pisan, sahingga aya réaksi ageung anu nguntungkeun Fillmore.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=3001–3008}} [[Abbott Lawrence]] ti Massachusetts mangrupa pangrojong utama Taylor sarta diperkirakeun bakal dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén. Ketua delegasi Vermont, mantan Anggota DPR [[Solomon Foot]], mimitina ngadukung Lawrence, anu dianggap langkung narima perbudakan batan Fillmore. Sadar yén Whig kamungkinan bakal bubar upami Lawrence dicalonkeun sarta utusan anti-perbudakan ti Kalér kaluar tina partéy, Foot sapuk kanggé mindahkeun dukunganana ka Fillmore. Utusan sanésna saterusna nuturkeun, sarta Fillmore meunangkeun pencalonan dina sora kadua. Dumasar kana adat pulitik harita, upami Taylor sarta Fillmore kapilih, moal aya deui jalma ti New York anu tiasa diangkat janten anggota Kabinét, anu hartosna ambisi Weed kanggé Seward kedah frustrasi, sahenteuna kanggé samentara waktu. Fillmore dituduh kalibet dina tindakan Collier, nanging hal éta henteu kantos kabuktian. Sanajan kitu, aya alesan anu kuat kanggé milih Fillmore, sabab anjeunna mangrupa jalma anu parantos kabukti tiasa ngumpulkeun sora ti New York anu kacida krusialna dina pamilihan, sarta catetan karirna di Kongrés sarta salaku calon némbongkeun kumawulana kana doktrin Whig, anu ngaleungitkeun kasieun yén anjeunna bakal janten "Tyler sanésna" upami aya naon-naon ka Taylor. Para utusan émut ka anjeunna alatan peranna dina Tarif 1842, sarta anjeunna parantos disebat-sebat salaku calon wakil présidén anu poténsial, sasarengan sareng Lawrence sarta urang Ohio [[Thomas Ewing]]. Persainganana sareng Seward, anu saterusna kapilih janten Sénat AS sarta parantos dipikawanoh ku pandangan anti-perbudakanana, ngajantenkeun Fillmore langkung tiasa ditarima di wewengkon Kidul. === Pamilihan umum === [[File:ElectoralCollege1848.svg|thumb|left|alt=Peta warna némbongkeun hasil pamilihan dumasar nagara bagian]] Dina pertengahan abad ka-19, geus janten kabiasaan yén saurang calon kanggé jabatan luhur ulah katingal milari jabatan éta sacara terang-terangan. Ku kituna, Fillmore tetep aya di kantor comptroller di Albany sarta henteu ngayakeun biantara naon-naon. Kampanye taun 1848 dilaksanakeun ngaliwatan koran-koran sarta biantara-biantara anu ditepikeun ku para gaganti (surrogates) dina rapat-rapat umum. Kaum Démokrat nyalonkeun Sénator [[Lewis Cass]] ti Michigan kanggé présidén sarta Jenderal [[William O. Butler]] salaku pasanganna, nanging pamilihan ieu janten persaingan tilu pihak saatos [[Partéy Free Soil]], anu nentang panyebaran perbudakan, milih mantan Présidén Van Buren.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=3138–3150}} Aya krisis di kalangan urang Whig nalika Taylor ogé nampi pencalonan présidén ti sakelompok urang Démokrat South Carolina anu bangkang. Dina ahir Agustus, alatan sieun yén Taylor bakal janten saurang [[Apostasi|murtad]] (khianat) ka partéy sapertos Tyler, Weed ngarencanakeun rapat umum di Albany kalayan tujuan milih daptar pamilih présidén (electors) anu henteu kabeungkeut. Fillmore turun tangan ka Weed sarta ngayakinkeun anjeunna yén Taylor satia ka partéy.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=53}}{{sfn|Scarry|loc=3188–3245}} Urang Kalér nganggap yén Fillmore, anu asalna ti nagara bagian bébas (sanés wilayah perbudakan), nentang panyebaran perbudakan. Urang Kidul nuding anjeunna salaku saurang abolisionis (nu hayang ngahapus perbudakan), anu saterusna dibantah keras ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=51}} Fillmore ngawaler ka salah saurang warga Alabama dina surat anu diterbitkeun sacara lega yén perbudakan téh jahat, nanging pamaréntah fédéral teu miboga wewenang pikeun ngatur hal éta.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=53}} Taylor sarta Fillmore silih kintun surat dua kali dina sasih Séptémber, dimana Taylor ngarasa bungah yén krisis ngeunaan urang South Carolina parantos réngsé. Fillmore ngayakinkeun pasangan kampanyena yén prospek pamilihan kanggé tikét maranéhna katingal saé, utamana di Wétan Kalér.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=3245–3258}} Dina ahirna, pasangan Taylor-Fillmore meunang tipis, kalayan sora éléktoral New York sakali deui janten konci kameunangan.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=3090}} Tikét Whig meunang sora rahayat (popular vote) saloba 1.361.393 (47,3%) ngéléhkeun 1.223.460 (42,5%) sarta unggul 163 ngalawan 127 dina [[Kolege Éléktoral Amérika Sarikat|Kolege Éléktoral]].{{efn|South Carolina harita tacan ngagunakeun sora rahayat kanggé milih pamilih (electors), nanging dipilih ku législatifna.}} Calon partéy minor henteu kéngingkeun sora éléktoral naon-naon,{{sfn|Scarry|loc=3283}} nanging kakuatan gerakan anti-perbudakan anu nuju tumuwuh némbongan tina sora kanggé Van Buren, anu sanajan teu meunang di nagara bagian mana waé, hasil kéngingkeun 291.501 sora (10,1%) sarta nempatan urutan kadua di New York, Vermont, sarta Massachusetts.{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=51–52}} == Wakil présidén (1849–1850) == {{Lajengkeun|Kompromi 1850}} [[File:Millard Fillmore crop.jpg|alt=Potrét daguerreotype Fillmore dina taun 1849|thumb|Fillmore dipoto dina taun 1849 ku [[Mathew Brady]]]] Fillmore dilantik janten wakil présidén dina ping 5 Maret 1849, di [[Ruang Sénat Heubeul]]. Kusabab ping 4 Maret (anu harita mangrupa [[Poé Pelantikan]]) ragrag dina dinten Minggu, pelantikan diundur ka dinten salajengna. Fillmore nyandak sumpah ti [[Ketua Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat|Ketua Mahkamah Agung]] [[Roger B. Taney]] sarta, saterusna, ngalantik para sénator anu mimiti ngajabat, kalebet Seward, anu parantos [[Pamilihan Sénat Amérika Sarikat di New York, 1849|dipilih ku législatif New York]] dina sasih Pébruari.{{efn|Dugi ka taun 1913, sénator dipilih ku législatif nagara bagian, sanés ku rahayat langsung.}}{{sfn|Rayback|loc=3101–3307}} Fillmore ngagunakeun waktu opat sasih antara pamilihan sarta pelantikan kanggé ngahadiran rupa-rupa hajatan ti urang Whig New York sarta ngabéréskeun urusan di kantor comptroller. Taylor parantos nyerat ka anjeunna sarta jangji bakal méré pangaruh dina administrasi énggal. [[Présidén-kapilih Amérika Sarikat|Présidén-kapilih]] éta salah sangka yén wakil présidén téh anggota kabinét, padahal dina abad ka-19 mah henteu kitu. Fillmore, Seward, sarta Weed parantos pendak sarta satuju sacara umum ngeunaan kumaha cara ngabagi jabatan fédéral di New York. Nanging, saatos anjeunna angkat ka Washington, Seward cicingeun ngayakeun kontak sareng calon kabinét Taylor, para panaséhat, sarta dulur sang jenderal. Hiji aliansi antara administrasi énggal sarta "mesin pulitik" Weed kabentuk di tukangeun Fillmore. Salaku imbalan tina dukunganana, Seward sarta Weed diidinan nunjuk saha waé anu bakal ngeusi jabatan fédéral di New York, sarta Fillmore dipasihan pangaruh anu jauh langkung sakedik batan anu parantos disatujuan. Nalika Fillmore terang hal éta saatos pamilihan, anjeunna nyanghareup ka Taylor, anu malah ngajantenkeun perang ngalawan pangaruh Fillmore beuki kabuka. Para pangrojong Fillmore sapertos Collier, anu parantos nyalonkeun anjeunna di konvénsi, dileuwihan demi calon anu dirojong ku Weed, anu meunang mutlak sanajan di Buffalo. Hal éta kacida ningkatkeun pangaruh Weed dina pulitik New York sarta ngirangan pangaruh Fillmore. Numutkeun Rayback, "dina pertengahan 1849, kaayaan Fillmore parantos janten putus asa."{{sfn|Rayback|loc=3101–3307}} Sanajan kurang pangaruh, para pamilari jabatan terus ngaganggu anjeunna, kitu ogé jalma-jalma anu hoyong nyéwakeun atanapi ngical imah margi harita mah tacan aya padumukan resmi kanggé wakil présidén. Anjeunna mikaresep hiji aspék tina jabatanna alatan karesepna kana diajar: anjeunna janten kalibet pisan dina administrasi [[Institusi Smithsonian]] salaku anggota ''[[ex officio]]'' tina Déwan Bupati.{{sfn|Smith|pp=160–162}} Salami taun 1849, perbudakan mangrupa masalah anu tacan bérés di wilayah-wilayah énggal. Taylor ngajukeun supados California sarta New Mexico ditarima janten nagara bagian,{{efn|Ayeuna janten nagara bagian New Mexico sarta Arizona, minus [[Pameséan Gadsden]].}} anu duanana kamungkinan badé ngalarang perbudakan. Urang Kidul kaget terang yén présidén, sanajan saurang nu gaduh budak ti Kidul, henteu ngarojong asupna perbudakan ka wilayah énggal, margi anjeunna yakin lembaga éta moal tiasa tumuwuh di wilayah Kulon Kidul anu garing. Aya amarah di sakuliah garis partéy di Kidul, dimana ngajantenkeun wilayah éta bébas tina perbudakan dianggap salaku pangasingan urang Kidul tina warisan nasional. Nalika Kongrés patepang dina Désémber 1849, kategangan éta némbongan dina pamilihan Ketua DPR, anu merlukeun waktu mangminggu-minggu sarta puluhan sora kanggé réngsé, margi DPR kabagi dumasar garis wilayah.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=3307–3367}}{{sfn|Smith|pp=93–94}} Fillmore ngalawan mesin pulitik Weed ku cara ngawangun jaringan urang Whig anu sapamadegan di Nagara Bagian New York. Kalayan dukungan ti urang New York anu beunghar, posisi maranéhna dipublikasikeun ngaliwatan pangadegan koran saingan kanggé ''Albany Evening Journal'' milik Weed. Sakabéh akting silaturahmi antara Fillmore sarta Weed musna dina Nopémber 1849 nalika maranéhna teu kahaja patepang di Kota New York sarta silih tuduh.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=3367–3399}} [[File:Henry Clay Senate3 crop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Ukiran Henry Clay nuju biantara di Ruang Sénat Heubeul kalayan Fillmore calik di katuhu luhur|Tina ukiran [[Peter F. Rothermel]]: Wakil Présidén Fillmore (katuhu luhur) mingpin debat Kompromi nalika [[Henry Clay]] nuju biantara di [[Ruang Sénat Heubeul]]. [[John C. Calhoun]] (katingal sabagian nangtung di katuhu Fillmore) sarta [[Daniel Webster]] (calik di kénca Clay) nuju merhatoskeun.]] Fillmore mingpin{{efn|Konstitusi AS netepkeun wakil présidén salaku lulugu sidang Sénat.}} sababaraha debat anu paling penting sarta pinuh ku émosi dina sajarah Amérika nalika Sénat mitembeyan naha bakal ngidinan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah kasebut. Konflik wilayah anu lumangsung parantos ngahasilkeun seueur diskusi nalika dina 21 Januari 1850, Présidén Taylor ngirimkeun pesen husus ka Kongrés anu ngadorong supados California ditarima geura-giru sarta New Mexico saterusna, sarta supados Mahkamah Agung ngabéréskeun sengketa wates dimana nagara bagian Texas ngaku sabagéan ageung wilayah anu ayeuna janten nagara bagian New Mexico.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=3445–3467}} Dina 29 Januari, Clay ngenalkeun "[[RUU Omnibus]]" na,{{efn|Istilah ieu asalna tina kandaraan transportasi, margi RUU ieu mawa sakabéh usulan anu aya hubunganana salaku "panumpang".}} anu bakal masihan kameunangan kanggé Kalér sarta Kidul ku cara narima California salaku nagara bagian bébas, ngabentuk pamaréntahan wilayah di New Mexico sarta [[Wilayah Utah|Utah]], sarta ngalarang perdagangan budak di [[Distrik Columbia]]. RUU éta ogé bakal nguatkeun [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur 1793]], margi résistansi kana palaksanaanana di sababaraha bagian di Kalér parantos lami janten keluhan urang Kidul. RUU Clay ogé nyadiakeun panyelesaian sengketa wates Texas–New Mexico, sarta status perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah éta bakal diputuskeun ku jalma-jalma anu cicing di dinya ([[kadaulatan rahayat]]). Taylor henteu pati sumanget kana RUU éta, anu ahirna teu aya kamajuan di Kongrés. Saatos debat mangminggu-minggu, Fillmore nginpokeun ka anjeunna dina Méi 1850 yén upami sora para sénator saimbang (tie), anjeunna bakal masihan sora nangtukeun kanggé ngadukung RUU éta.{{sfn|American National Biography}} Fillmore ngalakukeun anu pangsaéna kanggé ngajaga perdamaian di antara para sénator sarta ngingetkeun maranéhna ngeunaan kakuatan wakil présidén kanggé nyebut maranéhna "out of order" (ngalanggar aturan), nanging anjeunna disalahkeun alatan gagal ngajaga katengtreman nalika kajadian adu fisik antara [[Henry S. Foote]] ti Mississippi sarta [[Thomas Hart Benton (politisi)|Thomas Hart Benton]] ti Missouri peupeus dina 17 April. Sateuacan sénator sanésna turun tangan kanggé misahkeun maranéhna, Foote parantos ngarahkeun pestol ka batur sapawonana nalika Benton maju nyampeurkeun anjeunna.{{sfn|Smith|pp=138–139, 163–165}} == Kapersidénan (1850–1853) == {{Utama|Kapersidénan Millard Fillmore}} === Kasuksésan di tengah krisis === {{CSS image crop|Image = FILLMORE, Millard-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize = 325|cWidth = 230|cHeight = 295|oTop = 50|oLeft = 43|Location = right|Description = Potrét ukiran [[Biro Ukiran sarta Percetakan|BEP]] Fillmore salaku présidén }} Ping 4 Juli 1850 mangrupa dinten anu kacida panasna di Washington, sarta Présidén Taylor, anu ngahadiran upacara [[Kaopat Juli]] kanggé neundeun batu munggaran [[Monumén Washington]], ngaleueut susu tiis sarta ngadahar céri kanggé nyegerkeun diri. Naon anu dikonsumsi ku anjeunna kamungkinan ngabalukarkeun [[gastroénteritis]] sarta anjeunna pupus dina ping 9 Juli dina yuswa 65 taun. Alatan jujulukna "Old Rough and Ready", Taylor parantos kéngingkeun reputasi salaku jalma tangguh dina kampanye militer di tempat panas, sahingga pupusna anu ngadadak ngajempolan sakuliah nagara.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=1}} Fillmore parantos dicalukan tina korsi pamingpin Sénat dina ping 8 Juli sarta calik sareng anggota kabinét kanggé ngajagi di luar kamar Taylor di Gedong Bodas. Anjeunna nampi bewara resmi ngeunaan pupusna présidén dina malem ping 9 Juli di padumukanana di [[Hotél Willard]]. Saatos ngawaler surat éta sarta ngaliwatan sapeuting tanpa saré, Fillmore angkat ka Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat, dimana dina [[sési gabungan Kongrés Amérika Sarikat]], anjeunna nyandak sumpah salaku présidén ti [[William Cranch]], hakim ketua [[Pangadilan Sirkuit Amérika Sarikat Distrik Columbia]], jalma anu sami anu ngalantik Présidén Tyler. Para pajabat kabinét, sakumaha biasana nalika présidén anyar ngajabat, masrahkeun pangunduran diri maranéhna nanging ngaharepkeun Fillmore bakal nolak sarta ngantepkeun maranéhna neraskeun jabatan. Nanging, kusabab Fillmore parantos lami dikucilkeun ku para anggota kabinét éta, anjeunna nampi pangunduran diri maranéhna sanajan anjeunna ménta maranéhna kanggé cicing salami sasasih deui, anu kalolobaanana nolak. Fillmore mangrupa hiji-hijina présidén gaganti (alatan pupusna présidén sateuacanna atanapi pangunduran diri) anu henteu nahan, sahenteuna dina mimitina, kabinét miheulaanna. Anjeunna parantos ngayakeun diskusi sareng para pamingpin Whig sarta, dina ping 20 Juli, mimiti ngirimkeun nominasi anyar ka Sénat, dimana Kabinét Fillmore bakal dipingpin ku Webster salaku Sekretaris Nagara. Webster parantos ngajantenkeun konstituénna di Massachusetts ambek alatan ngadukung RUU Clay, sarta kusabab mangsa jabatan Sénatna bakal réngsé dina taun 1851, anjeunna teu gaduh deui masa depan pulitik di nagara bagian asalna. Fillmore nunjuk mantan pasangan hukumna, Nathan Hall, salaku Direktur Jenderal Pos (Postmaster General), hiji jabatan kabinét anu ngatur seueur pangangkatan jabatan (patronage).{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=72–77}} Para kapala departemén anu anyar ieu lolobana mangrupa pangrojong Kompromi, sapertos Fillmore.{{sfn|Greenstein & Anderson|p=48}} Reureuh sakedap tina dunya pulitik alatan duka nasional pupusna Taylor henteu ngurangan krisis anu aya. Texas parantos nyobian negeskeun otoritasna di New Mexico, sarta gubernur nagara bagian éta, [[Peter H. Bell]], parantos ngirimkeun surat-surat anu némbongan sikep hayang perang ka Présidén Taylor. Fillmore nampi surat sanésna saatos anjeunna janten présidén. Anjeunna nguatkeun pasukan fédéral di daérah éta sarta ngingetkeun Bell supados ngajaga perdamaian.{{sfn|Greenstein & Anderson|p=48}} Dina ping 31 Juli, RUU Clay sacara éféktif parantos "paéh", margi sakabéh katangtuan penting salian ti pangaturan Wilayah Utah parantos dihapus ku amandémén. Sakumaha anu diomongkeun ku saurang tukang heureuy, urang "Mormon" mangrupa hiji-hijina panumpang anu nyésa dina beus omnibus éta. Sénator Illinois [[Stephen A. Douglas]] saterusna maju ka hareup, kalayan persatujuan ti Clay, ngajukeun kanggé ngabagi RUU omnibus éta janten sababaraha RUU individu anu tiasa dilarapkeun sakedik-sakedik. Fillmore ngadukung strategi éta, anu tungtungna ngabagi kompromi janten lima RUU.{{sfn|American National Biography}} Fillmore ngirimkeun pesen husus ka Kongrés dina ping 6 Agustus 1850; ngungkabkeun surat ti Gubernur Bell sarta waleranana; ngingetkeun yén urang Texas anu mawa pakarang bakal dianggap salaku panyusup; sarta ngadorong Kongrés supados ngirangan kategangan wilayah ku cara ngaluluskeun Kompromi. Tanpa ayana "[[Triumvirat Agung]]" (John C. Calhoun, Webster, sarta Clay) anu parantos lami ngawasa Sénat,{{efn|Calhoun parantos pupus, Webster janten Sekretaris Nagara, sarta Clay nuju istirahat di [[Newport, Rhode Island]] kanggé pamulihan saatos bajoang kanggé RUU éta.}} Douglas sarta anu sanésna mampuh mingpin Sénat nuju kana pakét RUU anu dirojong ku administrasi. Unggal RUU lulus di Sénat kalayan dukungan ti wilayah anu hoyong éta RUU lulus, ditambah ku sababaraha anggota anu boga tékad supados sakabéh RUU éta lulus. Perjuangan saterusna pindah ka DPR, anu miboga mayoritas urang Kalér alatan jumlah pangeusi. Anu paling kontrovérsial nyaéta [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur 1850]], anu katangtuanana kacida dipikaceuceubna ku para abolisionis. Fillmore masihan tekanan ka urang Whig Kalér, kalebet urang New York, supados milih "abstain" batan nentang RUU éta. Melalui prosés législatif, parobahan parantos dilakukeun, kalebet netepkeun wates antara [[Wilayah New Mexico]] sarta Texas, dimana nagara bagian éta dipasihan bayaran kanggé nyelasékeun sagala klaimna. [[Undang-Undang kanggé Pangakuan Nagara Bagian California|California ditarima]] salaku nagara bagian bébas, perdagangan budak di Distrik Columbia diureunkeun, sarta status ahir perbudakan di New Mexico sarta Utah bakal diputuskeun engké. Fillmore nandatanganan RUU-RUU éta nalika dugi ka méjana sarta nahan RUU Budak Kabur salami dua dinten dugi ka anjeunna nampi pamadegan anu positip ngeunaan konstitusionalitasna ti Jaksa Agung anu anyar, [[John J. Crittenden]]. Sanajan sababaraha urang Kalér henteu sugema kana Undang-Undang Budak Kabur, rasa lega sumebar kalayan harepan yén masalah perbudakan ieu tiasa réngsé.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=4025–4102}}{{sfn|Finkelman|pp=82–85}} === Urusan domestik === [[File:Slave kidnap post 1851 boston.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Poster ngingetkeun yén pulisi Boston ngalaksanakeun Undang-Undang Budak Kabur|Poster 1851 anu ngingetkeun warga Boston ngeunaan bahaya Undang-Undang Budak Kabur.]] Undang-Undang Budak Kabur tetep janten kontrovérsi saatos disahkeun. Urang Kidul humandeuar keras ngeunaan kalemahan dina palaksanaanana, nanging palaksanaanana kacida nyinggung parasaan seueur urang Kalér. Kaum abolisionis nyabit-nyabit kateuadilan dina undang-undang éta margi saha waé anu ngabantosan budak anu kabur bakal dihukum beurat, sarta undang-undang éta henteu masihan hak prosés hukum (due process) ka anu kabur, anu teu tiasa masihan kasaksian di payuneun hakim. Undang-undang éta ogé ngijinkeun bayaran anu langkung luhur ka hakim sési upami mutuskeun yén jalma anu kabur éta mémang saurang budak. Sanajan kitu, Fillmore ngarasa kabeungkeut ku sumpahna salaku présidén sarta ku kasapukan anu parantos dijieun dina Kompromi kanggé ngalaksanakeun Undang-Undang Budak Kabur. Anjeunna tetep ngalakukeunana sanajan sababaraha gugatan atanapi usaha kanggé mulangkeun budak réngsé kalayan goréng kanggé pamaréntah; aya anu dibébaskeun ku pangadilan, sarta dina hiji kajadian saurang budak, [[Shadrach Minkins]], [[diandeg tina tahanan fédéral]] sarta dibébaskeun ku massa di Boston. Kasus-kasus sapertos kitu dipublikasikeun sacara lega di Kalér sarta Kidul, nyéundut amarah di kadua tempat, sarta ngaruksak rasa tenang anu tadina sumebar saatos ayana Kompromi.{{sfn|Smith|pp=208–13}} Dina Agustus 1850, saurang réformis sosial, [[Dorothea Dix]], nyerat ka Fillmore kanggé ngadorong dukungan kana usulanana di Kongrés ngeunaan hibah lahan kanggé ngabiayaan panti-panti kanggé jalma anu miskin sarta ngalaman gangguan jiwa. Sanajan usulanana henteu lulus, maranéhna janten sahabat, pendak sacara langsung, sarta terus silih kintun surat dugi ka saatos mangsa kapersidénan Fillmore réngsé.{{sfn|Snyder|pp=80–82}} Dina Séptémber 1850, Fillmore nunjuk pamingpin [[Geréja Yesus Kristus tina Jalma-jalma Suci Zaman Ahir]] (LDS), [[Brigham Young]], salaku gubernur munggaran di [[Wilayah Utah]]. Salaku tanda nganuhunkeun, Young namian ibukota wilayah munggaran ku nami "[[Fillmore, Utah|Fillmore]]" sarta daérah sakurilingna ku nami "[[County Millard, Utah|Millard]]". Salaku pangrojong lami pangwangunan infrastruktur nasional, Fillmore nandatanganan RUU kanggé nyubsidi jalan karéta [[Illinois Central]] ti Chicago ka [[Mobile, Alabama]], sarta [[Sasuakan Soo|hiji terusan]] di [[Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan]]. Réngséna pangwangunan jalan karéta [[Erie Railroad]] di New York dina taun 1851 ngadorong Fillmore sarta kabinétna kanggé naék karéta munggaran ti Kota New York ka Tasik Erie, bareng sareng seueur inohong sanésna. Fillmore ngayakeun seueur biantara di sapanjang jalan tina panggung tukang karéta, ngadorong masarakat supados nampi Kompromi, sarta engkéna ngayakeun perjalanan ka New England sareng anggota kabinétna anu asalna ti Kidul. Sanajan Fillmore ngadorong Kongrés supados masihan wewenang pangwangunan [[jalan karéta transkontinental]], hal éta kakara laksana dasawarsa saterusna.{{sfn|Smith|pp=199–200}} Fillmore nunjuk hiji hakim ka [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]] sarta opat hakim ka pangadilan distrik AS, kalebet pasangan hukumna sarta pajabat kabinétna, Nathan Hall, ka [[Pangadilan Distrik Amérika Sarikat kanggé Distrik Kalér New York]] di Buffalo. Nalika Hakim Mahkamah Agung [[Levi Woodbury]] pupus dina Séptémber 1851 nalika Kongrés nuju libur (not in session), Fillmore ngayakeun [[pangangkatan mangsa résés]] kanggé [[Benjamin Robbins Curtis]] ka Mahkamah Agung. Dina Désémber, nalika Kongrés mitembeyan deui, Fillmore sacara resmi nyalonkeun Curtis, anu saterusna disatujuan. Dina taun 1857, Hakim Curtis méré pandangan béda (dissent) tina putusan Mahkamah dina kasus perbudakan ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' sarta ngundurkeun diri salaku bentuk prinsip teu lila saatosna.{{sfn|Smith|pp=218, 247}} Pupusna Hakim [[John McKinley]] dina taun 1852 ngabalukarkeun sababaraha usaha anu gagal tina présidén kanggé ngeusian korsi anu kosong. Sénat teu méré tindakan naon-naon kana pencalonan pengacara New Orleans, [[Edward A. Bradford]]. Pilihan kadua Fillmore, [[George Edmund Badger]], ménta supados namina ditarik. Sénator-kapilih [[Judah P. Benjamin]] nolak kanggé ngajabat. Pencalonan [[William C. Micou]], saurang pengacara New Orleans anu dirékomendasikeun ku Benjamin, henteu ditindaklanjuti ku Sénat. Korsi kosong éta kakara kaeusian saatos mangsa jabatan Fillmore réngsé, nalika Présidén [[Franklin Pierce]] nyalonkeun [[John Archibald Campbell]], anu saterusna disahkeun ku Sénat. === Hubungan luar nagri === [[File:Mfillmore.jpeg|thumb|alt=Potrét Resmi Gedong Bodas Fillmore, nangtung sarta ningali ka katuhu|Potrét resmi Fillmore ku [[George Peter Alexander Healy]], {{circa|1857}}]] Fillmore ngawas dua Sekretaris Nagara anu kacida kompeténna: Daniel Webster, sarta saatos Webster pupus dina taun 1852, [[Edward Everett]]. Fillmore nyalira anu nyandak sakabéh kaputusan utama.{{sfn|Smith|p=233}} Anjeunna kacida aktifna di Asia sarta Pasifik, utamana ngeunaan Jepang, anu harita masih kénéh ngajalankeun kawijakan [[sakoku]] (nutup diri tina kontak asing). Para padagang sarta nu gaduh kapal Amérika hoyong Jepang "dibuka", anu bakal ngijinkeun perdagangan sarta ngamungkinkeun kapal-kapal Amérika singgah di dinya kanggé milari perbekalan atanapi dina kaayaan darurat tanpa dihukum. Maranéhna ogé hariwang yén pelaut Amérika anu kapalna titeuleum di basisir Jepang bakal dipanjara. Fillmore sarta Webster ngintunkeun [[Komodor (USN)|Komodor]] [[Matthew Perry (perwira angkatan laut)|Matthew C. Perry]] dina [[Ékspédisi Perry]] kanggé muka Jepang ka dunya luar. Perry sarta kapal-kapalna dugi ka Jepang dina sasih Juli 1853, opat sasih saatos mangsa jabatan Fillmore réngsé. Fillmore mangrupa lawan tangguh tina pangaruh Éropa di Hawaii. Perancis, di handapeun Kaisar [[Napoleon III]], nyobian nganéksasi Hawaii nanging ahirna mundur saatos Fillmore ngaluarkeun pesen anu tegas yén "Amérika Sarikat moal cicingeun ningali tindakan sapertos kitu." Taylor sateuacanna parantos neken Portugal kanggé mayar klaim Amérika anu asalna ti jaman [[Perang 1812]] sarta parantos nolak tawaran arbitrase, nanging Fillmore hasil kéngingkeun panyelesaian anu nguntungkeun.{{sfn|Smith|pp=72–73}} Fillmore nyanghareupan kasusah ngeunaan koloni Spanyol di [[Kaptén Jenderal Kuba|Kuba]] margi seueur urang Kidul anu ngaharepkeun pulo éta janten wilayah perbudakan Amérika. Petualang asal Vénézuéla, [[Narciso López]], ngarékrut urang Amérika kanggé tilu ékspédisi [[filibuster (militer)|filibustering]] ka Kuba kalayan harepan tiasa ngagulingkeun kakawasaan Spanyol. Saatos usaha kadua dina taun 1850, López sarta sababaraha panganutna didakwa alatan ngalanggar [[Undang-Undang Nétralitas 1794]], nanging gancang dibébaskeun ku juri di Kidul anu simpati ka maranéhna. Ékspédisi terakhir López réngsé kalayan hukuman pati kanggé anjeunna ku pihak Spanyol, anu ogé némbak mati sababaraha urang Amérika, kalebet alo ti Jaksa Agung Crittenden. Hal éta ngabalukarkeun karusuhan ngalawan Spanyol di New Orleans, anu ngajantenkeun konsul maranéhna kabur. Sajarawan [[Elbert B. Smith]] nyarankeun yén Fillmore sabenerna tiasa waé ngayakeun perang ngalawan Spanyol upami anjeunna hoyong. Sabalikna, Fillmore, Webster, sarta pihak Spanyol gawé bareng nyusun sababaraha léngkah kanggé ngajaga wibawa masing-masing (face-saving measures) anu ahirna ngaréngsékeun krisis tanpa konflik pakarang. Seueur urang Kidul, kalebet urang Whig, ngadukung para filibuster éta, sarta réspon Fillmore ieu ngiring ngabagi partéyna nalika pamilihan 1852 nuju deukeut.{{sfn|Smith|p=228}} Kajadian anu kacida dipublikasikeunana salami kapersidénan Fillmore nyaéta sumpingna [[Lajos Kossuth]] dina ahir taun 1851, pamingpin buangan tina [[Révolusi Hungaria 1848]] anu gagal. Kossuth hoyong Amérika Sarikat ngaku kamerdékaan Hungaria. Seueur urang Amérika anu simpati ka para pamberontak Hungaria, utamana imigran Jerman anu anyar sumping dina jumlah ageung sarta janten kakuatan pulitik utama. Kossuth disambut ku Kongrés, sarta Fillmore ngijinkeun pertemuan di Gedong Bodas saatos nampi jangji yén Kossuth moal nyobian ngapulitikkeun pertemuan éta. Sanajan parantos jangji, Kossuth tetep ngayakeun biantara kanggé kapentingan perjuanganana. Antusiasme urang Amérika ka Kossuth lami-lami luntur, sarta anjeunna angkat ka Éropa. Fillmore nolak kanggé ngarobah kawijakan Amérika anu tetep nétral.{{sfn|Smith|pp=230–232}} === Pamilihan 1852 sarta mungkas mangsa jabatan === {{Utama|Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1852}} Nalika [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852]] beuki deukeut, Fillmore tacan mutuskeun naha bakal nyalonkeun deui kanggé mangsa jabatan pinuh salaku présidén. Sekretaris Webster parantos lami mikahayang jabatan présidén sarta sanaos yuswana parantos langkung ti 70 taun, anjeunna ngarencanakeun usaha terakhir kanggé kéngingkeun Gedong Bodas. Fillmore, anu simpati kana ambisi sahabat lamina éta, ngaluarkeun surat dina ahir taun 1851 anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna henteu milari mangsa jabatan pinuh. Nanging, Fillmore hoream kanggé leres-leres nolak pencalonan alatan sieun partéy bakal dikawasa ku kelompok pangrojong Seward (Sewardites). Ku kituna, nalika nyanghareupan [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1852]] di Baltimore anu diayakeun dina sasih Juni 1852, calon-calon utamana nyaéta Fillmore, Webster, sarta Jenderal Scott. Weed sarta Seward ngadukung Scott. Dina ahir Méi, kaum Démokrat nyalonkeun mantan sénator New Hampshire, [[Franklin Pierce]], anu parantos lami teu kalibet dina pulitik fédéral nanging namina naék saatos palayanan militer salami Perang Méksiko. Pencalonan Pierce salaku urang Kalér anu simpati ka pandangan Kidul ngeunaan perbudakan hasil ngahijikeun urang Démokrat, anu hartosna calon ti Whig bakal nyanghareupan perjuangan anu beurat.{{sfn|Smith|pp=238–244}} Fillmore janten henteu populer di kalangan Whig Kalér alatan nandatanganan sarta ngalaksanakeun Undang-Undang Budak Kabur, nanging anjeunna masih miboga dukungan ageung ti Kidul, dimana anjeunna dianggap salaku hiji-hijina calon anu mampuh ngahijikeun partéy. Saatos konvénsi ngaluluskeun [[platform partéy]] anu ngadukung Kompromi salaku panyelesaian akhir tina masalah perbudakan, Fillmore sabenerna daék mundur. Nanging, anjeunna mendakan yén seueur pangrojongna anu teu tiasa nampi Webster, sarta upami anjeunna mundur, Scott anu bakal dicalonkeun. Konvénsi éta macét (deadlocked) dugi ka dinten Saptu, 19 Juni, saatos 46 kali sora dilaksanakeun, sarta para utusan nunda sidang dugi ka dinten Senén. Para pamingpin partéy ngajukeun deal ka Fillmore sarta Webster: upami Webster tiasa ningkatkeun jumlah sorana dina sababaraha sési sora salajengna, pangrojong Fillmore anu cukup bakal pindah ka anjeunna supados anjeunna meunang. Upami henteu, Webster kedah mundur kanggé ngadukung Fillmore. Présidén gancang nyatujuana, nanging Webster nembé sapuk dina Senén énjingna. Dina sora ka-48, para utusan Webster mimiti pindah ka Scott, sarta sang jenderal kéngingkeun pencalonan dina sora ka-53. Webster langkung kuciwa kana hasil éta batan Fillmore, anu nolak pangunduran diri sang sekretaris. Tanpa sora ti sabagéan ageung wilayah Kidul sarta ogé urang Kalér anu gumantung kana perdagangan antar-wilayah anu daméy, Scott kalayan gampang dikaonkeun ku Pierce dina sasih Nopémber. Smith nyarankeun yén Whig kamungkinan bakal miboga hasil anu langkung saé upami nyalonkeun Fillmore.{{sfn|Smith|pp=244–247}} Sasih-sasih terakhir mangsa jabatan Fillmore lumangsung tenang. Webster pupus dina Oktober 1852, nanging salami masa geringna, Fillmore sacara éféktif janten Sekretaris Nagara kanggé dirina sorangan tanpa aya masalah, sarta Everett saterusna ngagentos posisi Webster kalayan kompetén. Fillmore mimitina hayang méré nasehat ka Kongrés ngeunaan perbudakan dina [[Amanat Présidén (Amérika Sarikat)|pesen taunan]] terakhirna dina sasih Désémber, nanging anjeunna dibatalkeun ku kabinétna. Anjeunna ahirna ngan saukur nunjukkeun kamakmuran nagara sarta ngébréhkeun rasa nganuhunkeun atas kasempetan kanggé ngabakti. Teu seueur diskusi ngeunaan perbudakan salami [[sési lame-duck]] Kongrés. Fillmore ninggalkeun jabatan dina ping 4 Maret 1853, sarta diganti ku Pierce.{{sfn|Smith|pp=247–249}} == Pasca-kapersidénan (1853–1874) == === Tragedi pribadi === Fillmore mangrupa présidén munggaran anu mulang ka kahirupan pribadi tanpa kabeungharan mandiri atanapi kapamilikan tanah anu lega. Kusabab harita tacan aya béaya pangsiun (pension), anjeunna kedah milari napakah sarta ngarasa yén cara milari napakahna kedah ngajaga martabat mantan jabatanna. Sahabatna, Hakim Hall, ngayakinkeun yén pantes kanggé anjeunna kanggé prakték hukum di pangadilan luhur New York, sarta Fillmore mémang boga niat kitu.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=5726–5745}} Kulawarga Fillmore parantos ngarencanakeun perjalanan ka wilayah Kidul saatos ninggalkeun Gedong Bodas, nanging Abigail kakeunaan salesma nalika pelantikan Présidén Pierce, anu saterusna janten pneumonia, sarta pupus di Washington dina ping 30 Maret 1853. Fillmore anu nuju duka mulang ka Buffalo kanggé pamakamanana.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=5858–5865}} Kanyataan yén anjeunna nuju masa duka ngawatesan kagiatan sosialna, sarta anjeunna nyukupan pangabutuh hirupna tina panghasilan investasi.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6025–6031}} Anjeunna deui-deui duka dina ping 26 Juli 1854, nalika putri tunggalna, Mary, pupus alatan [[koléra]]. === Kagiatan pulitik saterusna === Mantan présidén éta mungkas masa "nyepi"-na dina awal taun 1854, nalika debat ngeunaan [[Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska]] usulan Sénator Douglas ngageunjleungkeun nagara. RUU éta bakal muka bagian kalér ti wilayah [[Pameséan Louisiana]] kanggé pamukiman sarta mungkas wates kalér perbudakan dumasar kana [[Kompromi Missouri]] 1820. Fillmore masih miboga seueur pangrojong, ngarencanakeun tur nasional anu katingalna non-pulitik, sarta sacara pribadi ngumpulkeun politisi Whig anu kuciwa kanggé ngajaga Persatuan (Union) sarta ngadukung anjeunna nyalonkeun deui janten présidén. Fillmore némbongan di payuneun umum dina acara peresmian jalan karéta sarta nganjang ka makam Sénator Clay, nanging anjeunna ogé pendak sareng para politisi sacara cicingeun salami ahir usum tiis sarta usum semi taun 1854.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6038–6057}} Usaha kanggé "bangkit" deui éta moal tiasa dilakukeun di handapeun bandéra Partéy Whig, anu sésa-sésana parantos kabagi ku panerapan undang-undang Kansas-Nebraska anu lulus kalayan dukungan Pierce. Seueur musuh perbudakan di Kalér, sapertos Seward, pindah ka [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]] anu anyar, nanging Fillmore ngarasa teu cocog di dinya. Dina awal taun 1850-an, aya sentimén musuhan anu kuat ka imigran, utamana umat [[Katolik]], anu harita nembé sumping ka AS dina jumlah anu ageung. Sababaraha organisasi nativis, kalebet [[Order of the Star Spangled Banner]], mucunghul salaku réaksi kana hal éta. Dina taun 1854, organisasi éta robah janten Partéy Amérika, anu dipikawanoh salaku [[Know Nothings]]. Dina mangsa awalna, para anggotana disumpah kanggé ngajaga rahasia diskusi internalna, sarta upami ditaros, maranéhna kedah ngajawab yén maranéhna "teu terang naon-naon" (know nothing).{{sfn|Rayback|loc=5900–5966}} Seueur jalma tina faksi "Whig Nasional" Fillmore anu parantos gabung sareng Know Nothings dina taun 1854 sarta mangaruhan organisasi éta supados nyandak isu-isu sanés salian ti nativisme.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=5952–5959}} Fillmore ngarasa kadorong ku kasuksésan Know Nothings dina pamilihan sela taun 1854 dimana maranéhna meunang di sababaraha nagara bagian di Wétan Kalér sarta némbongkeun kakuatan di Kidul. Dina ping 1 Januari 1855, anjeunna ngirimkeun surat kanggé diterbitkeun anu ngingetkeun ngeunaan pangaruh imigran dina pamilihan Amérika, sarta teu lila ti harita anjeunna gabung sareng organisasi éta.{{sfn|Smith|pp=252–253}} Dina ahir taun éta, Fillmore angkat ka luar nagri, sarta nyatakeun sacara kabuka yén kusabab anjeunna teu gaduh jabatan, langkung saé anjeunna jalan-jalan. Perjalanan éta mangrupa bongbolongan ti réngréngan pulitikna, anu ngarasa yén ku cara jalan-jalan, anjeunna bakal nyingkahan papaséaan ngeunaan masalah-masalah anu nuju haneut harita. Anjeunna nyéépkeun waktos ti Maret 1855 dugi ka Juni 1856 di Éropa sarta Wétan Tengah. [[Ratu Victoria]] dikabarkeun nyebatkeun yén mantan présidén éta mangrupa lalaki pangkasépna anu kantos katingal ku anjeunna. Salajengna, munculna Fillmore sarta Van Buren sacara barengan di galéri [[Majelis Handap Britania Raya|House of Commons]] ngabalukarkeun komentar ti anggota parlemén [[John Bright]].{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6191–6234}} [[Dorothea Dix]] parantos miheulaan anjeunna ka Éropa sarta nuju lobi kanggé ningkatkeun kaayaan jalma anu ngalami gangguan jiwa. Maranéhna terus silih kintun surat sarta pendak sababaraha kali.{{sfn|Snyder|pp=217–218}} Di Roma, Fillmore nampi [[audiénsi Papal]] sareng [[Paus Pius IX]]. Anjeunna sacara ati-ati nimbang-nimbang untung rugi sacara pulitik tina pertemuan sareng Paus éta. Anjeunna ampir waé ngabatalkeun pertemuan nalika dibéjaan yén anjeunna kedah deku sarta nyium panangan Paus. Kanggé nyingkahan hal éta, Paus Pius IX tetep calik sapanjang pertemuan lumangsung.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6248}}{{sfn|Finkelman|p=132}} === Kampanye 1856 === {{Utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856|Konvénsi Nasional Amérika 1856|Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1856}} [[File:Appletons' Donelson Andrew Jackson.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Potrét Andrew Donelson|[[Andrew Donelson]]]] Para sakutu Fillmore nyekel kadali pinuh ku Partéy Amérika sarta ngatur supados anjeunna kéngingkeun pencalonan présidén nalika anjeunna nuju di Éropa. [[Konvénsi Nasional Amérika 1856|Konvénsi Know Nothing]] milih pasangan Fillmore: [[Andrew Donelson]] ti Kentucky, alo ti pamajikan sarta mantan anak asuh Présidén Jackson. Fillmore ngayakeun "mulang anu dirayakeun" dina sasih Juni 1856 ku cara biantara dina sababaraha acara panyambutan, dimimitian tina sumpingna dina resepsi ageung di Kota New York sarta diteruskeun ka sakuliah nagara bagian dugi ka Buffalo. Biantara-biantara éta digambarkeun salaku ungkapan rasa nganuhunkeun atas panyambutanana, sanés salaku biantara kampanye, anu harita dianggap teu pantes (illicit) upami dilakukeun ku saurang calon présidén. Fillmore ngingetkeun yén milih calon Républik, mantan sénator California [[John C. Frémont]], anu teu gaduh dukungan di Kidul, bakal ngabalukarkeun perang dulur. Duanana, Fillmore sarta calon Démokrat, mantan sénator Pennsylvania [[James Buchanan]], sapuk yén perbudakan mangrupa urusan nagara bagian, sanés pamaréntah fédéral. Fillmore jarang nyarita ngeunaan masalah imigrasi, anjeunna langkung fokus kana perpecahan wilayah sarta ngadorong kanggé ngajaga Persatuan (Union).{{sfn|Scarry|loc=6650–6699}}{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6326–6411}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1856.svg|thumb|alt=Peta némbongkeun hasil pamilihan 1856|Fillmore ngan meunang di Maryland (warna pink). Saatos Fillmore mulang ka imahna di Buffalo, anjeunna teu gaduh alesan deui kanggé ngayakeun biantara, sahingga kampanyena stagnan sapanjang usum panas sarta usum gugur taun 1856. Para "pengatur" pulitik (political fixers) anu tadina urang Whig, sapertos Weed, condong gabung ka Partéy Républik, sarta urang Know Nothings kurang pangalaman dina ngajual naon waé salian ti nativisme. Ku kituna, sikep pro-Persatuan Fillmore lolobana teu kadéngé ku masarakat. Sanajan wilayah Kidul ramah ka Fillmore, seueur jalma anu sieun yén kameunangan Frémont bakal ngabalukarkeun sécési (misahkeun diri), sahingga sababaraha jalma anu tadina simpati ka Fillmore pindah ka kubu Buchanan alatan sieun sora anti-Frémont bakal kabagi. Scarry nyarankeun yén kajadian-kajadian dina taun 1856, kalebet [[Bleeding Kansas|konflik di Wilayah Kansas]] sarta [[panyiksa Charles Sumner]] ku iteuk di rohang Sénat, parantos ngakutubkeun (polarized) bangsa sarta ngajantenkeun sikep modérat Fillmore tinggaleun jaman.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=6918}} Buchanan meunang kalayan 1.836.072 sora (45,3%) sarta 174 sora éléktoral ngalawan Frémont anu kéngingkeun 1.342.345 sora (33,1%) sarta 114 sora éléktoral. Fillmore sarta Donelson nempatan urutan katilu ku cara kéngingkeun 873.053 sora (21,6%) sarta meunang di nagara bagian Maryland kalayan dalapan sora éléktoralna.{{efn|Fillmore janten mantan présidén munggaran anu nampi sora éléktoral, hiji préstasi anu engké ogé dihontal ku [[Grover Cleveland]] (1892), [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1912), sarta [[Donald Trump]] (2024).}} Tikét Partéy Amérika kalah tipis di sababaraha nagara bagian Kidul: parobahan kurang ti 8.000 sora di Louisiana, Kentucky, sarta Tennessee bakal ngalungkeun pamilihan ka DPR, dimana perpecahan wilayah bakal ngajantenkeun hasilna teu tangtu.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6458–6473}} Sajarawan [[Allan Nevins]] nyerat yén Fillmore sabenerna sanés saurang Know Nothing atanapi saurang nativis, kalayan bukti yén Fillmore nuju di luar nagri nalika pencalonan éta sumping sarta henteu ditaros sateuacanna ngeunaan nyalonkeun diri. Nevins nyerat ngeunaan Fillmore, "teu aya hiji ogé kecap anu diucapkeun atanapi diserat anu némbongkeun yén anjeunna sapuk kana prinsip-prinsip (nativis) Amérika." Nanging, surat Fillmore taun 1855 sacara éksplisit ngecam pangaruh imigran dina pamilihan, sarta Fillmore nyatakeun yén Partéy Amérika mangrupa "hiji-hijina harepan kanggé ngabentuk partéy nasional anu sajati, anu bakal maliré gangguan terus-terusan tina agitasi perbudakan ieu."{{sfn|American National Biography}} === Nikah deui, masa sepuh, sarta pupusna === [[File:Caroline Carmichael McIntosh Fillmore (1865) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Potrét Caroline Fillmore nuju ningali ka payun|Caroline Fillmore {{Circa|1865|lk=no}}]] Fillmore nganggap karir pulitikna parantos réngsé saatos kekéléhanana dina taun 1856. Anjeunna sakali deui ngarasa beurat kanggé mulang janten pengacara. Nanging, masalah kauanganana réngsé dina ping 10 Pébruari 1858, nalika anjeunna nikah ka [[Caroline C. Fillmore|Caroline McIntosh]], saurang randa anu beunghar. Kabeungharan gabungan maranéhna ngamungkinkeun maranéhna kanggé mésér bumi ageung di [[Niagara Square]] di Buffalo, dimana maranéhna cicing sapanjang sésa hirupna.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6476–6518}} Di dinya, kulawarga Fillmore ngabdikeun diri kana kagiatan hiburan sarta filantropi. Numutkeun sajarawan Smith, "Maranéhna kalayan loma ngarojong ampir unggal kagiatan anu mangpaat."{{sfn|Smith|pp=254–255}} Salah sahijina nyaéta [[Kaleida Health|Rumah Sakit Umum Buffalo]], anu milu diadegkeun ku anjeunna. [[File:Millard Fillmore. Waist length, seated - NARA - 530497.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Poto Fillmore tina cangkéng ka luhur|Fillmore salami Perang Dulur]] Dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860]], Fillmore milih Sénator Douglas, salah sahiji calon ti Démokrat. Saatos pamilihan dimana calon Républik, mantan Anggota DPR Illinois [[Abraham Lincoln]], kapilih, seueur jalma anu naroskeun pandangan Fillmore, nanging anjeunna nolak kalibet dina krisis sécési anu nuturkeunana, margi ngarasa teu gaduh deui pangaruh.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=7285–7297}} Anjeunna ngecam sikep Buchanan anu teu nindak naon-naon nalika nagara-nagara bagian mimiti misahkeun diri tina Persatuan (Union), sarta nyerat yén sanajan pamaréntah fédéral teu tiasa maksa hiji nagara bagian, jalma-jalma anu ngadorong sécési kedah dianggap salaku panghianat. Nalika Lincoln sumping ka Buffalo dina perjalanan nuju pelantikanana, Fillmore mingpin komite panyambutan, ngabagéakeun Lincoln di bumina, sarta marengan anjeunna ka geréja. Saatos Perang Dulur dimimitian, Fillmore ngarojong usaha Lincoln kanggé ngajaga Persatuan.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6578–6600}} Anjeunna mingpin [[Union Continentals]], hiji korps [[Milisi|jaga imah]] (home guards) anu diwangun ku lalaki anu yuswana di luhur 45 taun ti wilayah New York bagian luhur. Pasukan Continentals ieu dilatih kanggé ngajaga daérah Buffalo bisi aya serangan Konfédérasi ti Kanada. Maranéhna ngayakeun latihan militer sarta fungsi seremonial dina parade, pamakaman, sarta acara sanésna. Union Continentals ogé ngajaga karéta jenazah Lincoln nalika ngaliwat ka Buffalo. Maranéhna terus beroperasi saatos perang, sarta Fillmore tetep aktif sareng maranéhna ampir dugi ka pupusna.{{sfn|Smith|pp=264–265}} Sanajan sumanget Fillmore dina ngarojong perang, anjeunna ngayakeun biantara dina awal taun 1864 anu nyarankeun sikep loma (magnanimity) ka wilayah Kidul saatos perang sarta nyabit-nyabit béaya perang anu kacida badagna dina hal kauangan sarta nyawa. Administrasi Lincoln nganggap biantara éta salaku serangan anu teu tiasa diantepkeun dina taun pamilihan. Fillmore dikritik dina seueur koran sarta disebut salaku saurang [[Copperhead (pulitik)|Copperhead]] (pangrojong perdamaian anu dianggap khianat) sarta malah disebut panghianat. Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun rasa teu resep anu lami ka Fillmore di sababaraha kalangan.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6667–6706}} Dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864]], Fillmore ngadukung calon Démokrat, [[George B. McClellan]], margi anjeunna yakin yén rencana Partéy Démokrat kanggé geura-giru ngeureunkeun perang sarta ngijinkeun nagara bagian anu misahkeun diri mulang kalayan kaayaan perbudakan tetep aya mangrupa jalan pangsaéna kanggé mulangkeun Persatuan. Saatos kajadian [[pamatéhan Abraham Lincoln]] dina April 1865, bumi Fillmore diképréten ku mangsi hideung alatan bumina teu dipasangan lawon duka sapertos bumi batur. Fillmore harita nuju aya di luar kota sarta langsung masang lawon duka hideung dina jandélana saatos anjeunna mulang. Anjeunna tetep nyepeng posisi salaku warga utama Buffalo sarta janten salah sahiji jalma anu dipilih kanggé ngawal jenazah Lincoln nalika karéta pamakamanana ngaliwat ka Buffalo, nanging seueur jalma anu masih ambek ka anjeunna alatan sikepna salami perang.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6706}} Fillmore ngadukung kawijakan [[Éra Rékonstruksi Amérika Sarikat|Rékonstruksi]] Présidén [[Andrew Johnson]] margi anjeunna ngarasa nagara kedah geura-giru didaméykeun deui.{{sfn|Finkelman|p=154}} Anjeunna nyéépkeun sabagéan ageung waktosna kanggé kagiatan kamasarakatan. Anjeunna ngabantosan Buffalo janten kota Amérika katilu anu gaduh galéri seni permanén, nyaéta [[Akadémi Seni Rupa Buffalo]].{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6783–6790}} {{anchor|Death}}Fillmore tetep séhat ampir dugi ka ahir hirupna. Anjeunna kakeunaan stroke dina Pébruari 1874, sarta pupus dina ping 8 Maret dina yuswa 74 taun saatos stroke anu kadua. Dua dinten saterusna, anjeunna dimakamkeun di Pemakaman Forest Lawn di Buffalo saatos iring-iringan pamakaman anu diringkeun ku ratusan jalma.{{sfn|Rayback|loc=6930–6946}} == Warisan sarta pandangan sajarah == [[File:Millard Fillmore $1 Presidential Coin obverse sketch.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Sketsa sisi hareup koin dolar présidén Millard Fillmore|[[Program Koin $1 Présidén|Dolar Présidén 2010]]]] Fillmore parantos [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|diréngking ku para sajarawan sarta élmuwan pulitik]] salaku salah sahiji présidén AS panggoréngna. Cara anjeunna nanganan masalah-masalah pulitik utama, sapertos perbudakan, parantos ngabalukarkeun seueur sajarawan ngajelaskeun anjeunna salaku jalma anu lemah sarta teu mampuh. Numutkeun panulis biografi Scarry: "Teu aya présidén Amérika Sarikat... anu nampi hinaan saloba Millard Fillmore." Scarry nganggap seueur tina hinaan ieu asalna tina kacenderungan kanggé ngarendahkeun para présidén anu ngajabat sateuacan Perang Dulur alatan dianggap kurang kapamingpinan. Contona, Présidén [[Harry S. Truman]] engkéna "ngagambarkeun Fillmore salaku jalma anu lemah, teu penting, sarta tukang ulin jempol anu moal nindak naon-naon kanggé nyingkahan nyinggung parasaan batur" sarta dianggap sabagéan tanggung jawab kana peupeusna perang.{{sfn|Scarry|loc=8157–8161}} Nami Fillmore parantos janten lambang dina budaya populer kanggé présidén anu gampang dipopohokeun sarta teu miboga pangaruh. Dina taun 2010, Anna Prior nyerat dina ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' yén nami Fillmore mémang mawa konotasi médiaokritas (biasa-biasa waé). Finkelman, panulis biografi Fillmore sanésna, méré komentar, "dina masalah utama jaman harita, visina mémang pondok (myopic) sarta warisanna langkung goréng... tungtungna, Fillmore sok aya di sisi anu salah dina masalah moral sarta pulitik anu kacida gedéna."{{sfn|Finkelman|p=137}} Nanging, Rayback muji "kahaneutan sarta kawicaksanan anjeunna dina ngabéla Persatuan", sarta Smith mendakan Fillmore salaku "présidén anu jujur" anu ngahormatan sumpah jabatanna ku cara ngalaksanakeun Undang-Undang Budak Kabur 1850 batan maréntah dumasar kana karesep pribadina. [[Steven G. Calabresi]] sarta [[Christopher S. Yoo]], dina ulikan maranéhna ngeunaan kakuatan présidén, nganggap Fillmore salaku "palaksana undang-undang Amérika Sarikat anu satia, boh dina hal anu hadé atanapi anu goréng." Nanging numutkeun Smith, palaksanaan undang-undang éta parantos méré Fillmore reputasi pro-Kidul anu teu pantes. Posisi Fillmore dina sajarah ogé sangsara margi "malah jalma-jalma anu masihan peunteun luhur kanggé dukunganna kana kompromi ogé ngalakukeunana kalayan beurat haté, kamungkinan alatan pencalonanana ngaliwatan Know-Nothing dina taun 1856." Smith boga pamadegan yén hubungan Fillmore sareng Know Nothings katingal jauh langkung goréng upami ditingali ka tukang, sarta Fillmore sabenerna henteu didorong ku nativisme, sanajan surat taun 1855-na mémang nyababkeun kasieun ngeunaan pangaruh imigran dina pamilihan. [[File:Fillmore Gravesite, Buffalo, NY.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Poto obelisk pink anu nandaan makam Fillmore|Hiji obelisk pink nandaan makam Fillmore di [[Pemakaman Forest Lawn (Buffalo)|Pemakaman Forest Lawn]], Buffalo, New York.]] Benson Lee Grayson nyarankeun yén kamampuh administrasi Fillmore kanggé nyingkahan masalah-masalah poténsial mindeng teuing dipaliré. Perhatian terus-terusan Fillmore ka Méksiko nyingkahan dimimitianna deui Perang Méksiko-Amérika sarta neundeun dasar kanggé [[Pameséan Gadsden|Traktat Gadsden]]. Administrasi Fillmore ogé ngaréngsékeun kontrovérsi sareng Portugal anu ditinggalkeun ku administrasi Taylor, nyelasékeun papaséaan sareng Peru ngeunaan [[Daptar klaim Pulo Guano|pulo-pulo guano]], sarta sacara daméy ngaréngsékeun sengketa sareng Britania, Perancis, sarta Spanyol ngeunaan Kuba, sakabéhna tanpa AS kedah perang atanapi kaleungitan wibawa. Grayson ogé muji sikep tegas Fillmore ngalawan ambisi Texas di New Mexico salami krisis 1850. [[Fred I. Greenstein]] sarta Dale Anderson muji Fillmore kanggé kateguhanana dina sasih-sasih awal jabatanna sarta nyatet yén Fillmore "biasana digambarkeun salaku jalma anu kaku, hambar, sarta konvénsional, nanging istilah-istilah éta ngarendahkeun kakuatan anu ditémbongkeun tina cara anjeunna nanganan krisis wates Texas-New Mexico, kaputusanana kanggé ngagentos sakabéh kabinét Taylor, sarta éféktivitasna dina ngadorong Kompromi 1850." Ilmuwan pulitik [[James E. Campbell (akademik)|James E. Campbell]] ngabéla warisan Fillmore, nyerat, "Para sajarawan parantos ngarendahkeun anjeunna, para nu ngahina anjeunna parantos mitenah anjeunna sacara teu adil, sarta lembaga anu parantos dilayanan ku anjeunna kalayan hormat parantos teu ngahormatan anjeunna". Campbell boga pamadegan yén Kompromi 1850 "leuwih seueur méré mangpaat batan cilaka kanggé nagara sarta kanggé [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|perjuangan anti-perbudakan]]." Fillmore sarta pamajakanna, Abigail, ngadegkeun perpustakaan Gedong Bodas anu munggaran. Bumina di East Aurora masih nangtung, sarta sababaraha situs ngahormatan anjeunna di tempat kalahiran sarta bumi masa leutikna, dimana Asosiasi Peringatan Millard Fillmore ngaresmikeun réplika imah log (log cabin) dina taun 1963. [[Patung Millard Fillmore]] nangtung di luar Balé Kota Buffalo. Dina ping 18 Pébruari 2010, [[United States Mint]] ngaluarkeun koin ka-13 dina Program Koin $1 Présidén, anu mawa gambar Fillmore. Numutkeun [[Pusat Urusan Publik Miller]] di [[Universitas Virginia]]: {{Blockquote|Sakabéh penilaian ngeunaan saurang Présidén anu ngajabat abad satengah ka tukang kedah ditingali tina tinjauan jaman anu metot nalika anjeunna hirup. Karir pulitik Fillmore ngalibetkeun jalan anu rumit nuju sistem dua partéy anu urang kenal ayeuna. Urang Whig henteu cukup padu kanggé salamet tina kakusutan masalah perbudakan, samentawis partéy-partéy sapertos Anti-Masonic sarta Know-Nothings dianggap teuing ékstrém. Nalika, salaku Présidén, Fillmore milih pihak pro-perbudakan dina maréntahkeun palaksanaan Undang-Undang Budak Kabur, anjeunna ampir mastikeun yén anjeunna bakal janten Présidén Whig terakhir. Sistem dua partéy modérn munggaran antara Whig sarta Démokrat ngan ukur hasil ngabagi nagara janten dua dina taun 1850-an, sarta tujuh taun saterusna, terpilihna Présidén Républik munggaran, Abraham Lincoln, bakal mastikeun peupeusna perang dulur.}} {{noprint|1=<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Millard Fillmore by Bryant Baker.jpg|[[Patung Millard Fillmore|Patung]] karya [[Bryant Baker]] di Balé Kota Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, 1930 File:Fillmore Home 2.jpg|Imah Fillmore di East Aurora anu parantos dipindahkeun tina Jalan Utama. File:Fillmore House NHL.jpg|Imah ieu parantos ditetepkeun salaku [[National Historic Landmark|Landmark Sajarah Nasional]]. File:Fillmore DAR.jpg|[[Daughters of the American Revolution]] (DAR) masang plakat ieu dina imahna dina taun 1931. File:Fillmore plot plaque.jpg|Peringatan kanggé Fillmore dina pager anu ngalingkung makamna di Buffalo. File:Fillmore obelisk detail.jpg|Detil tina obelisk Fillmore di Buffalo. </gallery>}} == Tempo ogé == {{Portal|Biography|United States|Politics|New York (state)|Law}} * [[Jalan Fillmore]], San Francisco, anu dingaranan dumasar kana Millard Fillmore * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanna]] * [[Daptar wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat dina perangko AS]] == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Sumber == * {{Cite web|last=Anbinder|first=Tyler|author-link=Tyler Anbinder|title=Fillmore, Millard|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/04/04-00374.html|work=American National Biography Online|date=Pébruari 2000|access-date=Séptémber 27, 2016|ref={{sfnRef|American National Biography}}|url-access=subscription }} * {{Cite book |last1=Brinkley |first1=Alan |last2=Dyer |first2=Davis |date=2004 |title=The American Presidency |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3djEYV3R7oIC |location=New York |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-6183-8273-6 |via=[[Google Books]] |ref={{sfnRef|Brinkley, Dyer}}}} * {{Cite book|title=The Unitary Executive: Presidential Power from Washington to Bush|url=https://archive.org/details/unitaryexecutive0000cala|last1=Calabresi|first1=Steven G.|author-link1=Steven G. Calabresi|last2=Yoo|first2=Christopher S.|author-link2=Christopher S. Yoo|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-300-12126-1|ref={{sfnRef|Calabresi & Yoo}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Finkelman|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Finkelman|title= Millard Fillmore|url=https://archive.org/details/millardfillmore0000fink|publisher=[[Times Books]]|year=2011|series=The American Presidents|isbn=978-0-8050-8715-4|ref={{sfnRef|Finkelman}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Grayson|first=Benson Lee|title=The Unknown President: The Administration of Millard Fillmore|url=https://archive.org/details/unknownpresident0000gray|publisher=[[University Press of America]]|year=1981|isbn=978-0-8191-1457-0|ref={{sfnRef|Grayson}}}} * {{Cite book|title=Presidents and the Dissolution of the Union: Leadership Style from Polk to Lincoln|url=https://archive.org/details/presidentsdissol0000gree|first1=Fred I. |last1=Greenstein|author-link=Fred Greenstein|first2= Dale |last2=Anderson|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4008-4641-2|ref={{sfnRef|Greenstein & Anderson}}}} * {{Cite book |last=Holt |first=Michael F. |date=2003 |title=The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5aGyVFn3VnMC |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1951-6104-5 |via=[[Google Books]] |ref={{sfnRef|Holt}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Rayback|first=Robert J.|title=Millard Fillmore: Biography of a President|publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing|year=2015|orig-year=1959|edition=Kindle|ref={{sfnRef|Rayback}}}}, biografi akademik utama. * {{Cite book|last=Scarry|first=Robert J.|title=Millard Fillmore|publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland & Co.]], Inc.|year=2001|isbn=978-1-4766-1398-7|edition=Kindle|ref={{sfnRef|Scarry}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Elbert B.|author-link=Elbert B. Smith|title=The Presidencies of Zachary Taylor & Millard Fillmore|publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]]|year=1988|series=The American Presidency|isbn=978-0-7006-0362-6|ref={{sfnRef|Smith}}|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700603626}} * {{Cite book|last=Snyder|first=Charles M.|title=The Lady and the President: The Letters of Dorothea Dix and Millard Fillmore|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|year=1975|isbn=978-0-8131-1332-6|ref={{sfnRef|Snyder}}|url=https://archive.org/details/ladypresiden00dixd}} == Bacaan salajengna == * Anbinder, Tyler (1992). ''Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s''. Oxford University Press. * {{Cite book|last=Fazio|first=N. Robert|title=The Forgotten Four: The American Whig Presidents|publisher=Amazon Publishing|year=2021|isbn=979-8722977069}} * {{Cite book|editor-last1=Brinkley|editor-first1=Alan|editor-link1=Alan Brinkley|editor-last2=Dyer|editor-first2=Davis|title=The American Presidency|year=2004|pages=145–151|isbn=978-0-618-38273-6|last1=Holt|first1=Michael F.|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt }} * {{Cite book|last=Overdyke|first=W. Darrell |title=The Know-Nothing Party in the South|location=Baton Rouge|publisher=[[Louisiana State University Press]]|year=1950|oclc=1377033}} * {{Cite thesis |last=Schelin |first=Robert C. |date=1975 |title=Millard Fillmore, Anti-Mason to Know-Nothing: A Moderate in New York Politics, 1828–1856 |url= |degree=PhD |location=Binghamton, NY |publisher=State University of New York at Binghamton }} * {{Cite book |author=Silbey, Joel H. |author-link1=Joel H. Silbey |title=A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgCJAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=[[Wiley (penerbit)|Wiley]]|isbn=978-1-118-60929-3}} pp.{{spaces}}309–344. * {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Van Deusen |first=Glyndon G. |url=http://ap.grolier.com/article?assetid=0156400-00&templatename=/article/article.html |title=Fillmore, Millard |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Americana |access-date=May 9, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040510053310/http://ap.grolier.com/article?assetid=0156400-00&templatename=%2Farticle%2Farticle.html |archive-date=May 10, 2004 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040510053310/http://ap.grolier.com/article?assetid=0156400-00&templatename=%2Farticle%2Farticle.html |date=May 10, 2004 }} == Tumbu kaluar == {{wikisource|works=or}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons}} * {{CongBio|F000115|ref=none}} {{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?301493-1/millard-fillmore Presentasi ngeunaan Millard Fillmore ku Paul Finkelman, 23 Juni 2011], [[C-SPAN]]}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/fillmore/index.html Millard Fillmore: Pituduh Sumberdaya] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés * [http://MillardFillmore.org/ Biografi ku Appleton's sarta Stanley L. Klos] * [[iarchive:guide-to-microfilm-fillmore-papers-rotated-watermark|Pituduh Édisi Mikrofilm tina Makalah Millard Fillmore]] ku [[Museum Sejarah Buffalo]] * [https://www.nysl.nysed.gov/msscfa/vc22280.htm Alat Milari Surat-surat Millard Fillmore, 1829–1859] di [[Perpustakaan Nagara New York]] * [https://archive.org/details/millard-fillmore-residences-and-offices/mode/1up Padumukan sarta Kantor Millard Fillmore]: Pituduh alamat Fillmore di Buffalo, NY, ku jasa [[Museum Sejarah Buffalo]] * {{Gutenberg author |id=1646| name=Millard Fillmore}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Millard Fillmore}} * {{Librivox author |id=10462}} * [https://www.buffaloah.com/h/niagsq/fil/index.html Imah Millard Fillmore, Buffalo, NY] * [https://buffaloah.com/a/EastAur/shearer/mus/hist/ Museum Imah Millard sarta Abigail Fillmore, East Aurora, NY] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070501064646/http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/fillmore Esai ngeunaan Fillmore sarta kapersidénanana] ti Miller Center, U of Virginia * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?124976-1/life-portrait-millard-fillmore "Life Portrait of Millard Fillmore"], ti [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', 11 Juni 1999 {{Millard Fillmore}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghargaan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-new|constituency}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti New York|DPR AS]]<br>ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-32 New York]]|years=1833–1835}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas C. Love]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Thomas C. Love]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti New York|DPR AS]]<br>ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-32 New York]]|years=1837–1843}} {{s-aft|after=[[William A. Moseley]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Winston Jones]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Ketua [[Komite Cara sarta Sarana DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komite Ways and Means DPR]]|years=1841–1843}} {{s-aft|after=[[James Iver McKay]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Luther Bradish]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] kanggé [[Gubernur New York]]|years=[[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1844|1844]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[John Young (gubernur)|John Young]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Theodore Frelinghuysen]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] kanggé Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|1848]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Alexander Graham]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Winfield Scott]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] kanggé Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856|1856]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[John Bell (politisi Tennessee)|John Bell]]<br>{{small|[[Partéy Uni Konstitusional (Amérika Sarikat)|Uni Konstitusional]]}}}} {{s-bef|before=[[Jacob Broom (anggota kongrés)|Jacob Broom]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Know Nothing]] kanggé Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856|1856]]}} {{s-non|reason=Partéy bubar}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Azariah Cutting Flagg]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Komptroler New York]]|years=1848–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[Washington Hunt]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[George M. Dallas]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1849–1850}} {{s-aft|after=[[William R. King]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Zachary Taylor]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1850–1853}} {{s-aft|after=[[Franklin Pierce]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Fillmore, Millard}} [[Kategori:Millard Fillmore| ]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran 1800]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1874]] [[Kategori:1850-an di Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856]] [[Kategori:Kandidat wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848]] [[Kategori:Unitarian abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Whig]] [[Kategori:Wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Whig]] [[Kategori:Anggota kabinét administrasi Taylor]] [[Kategori:Whig New York (nagara bagian)]] [[Kategori:Komptroler nagara bagian New York]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Whig asal New York (nagara bagian)]] [[Kategori:Anggota Majelis Nagara Bagian New York]] [[Kategori:Know Nothings New York (nagara bagian)]] [[Kategori:Politisi Partéy Anti-Masonik ti New York (nagara bagian)]] [[Kategori:Tokoh New York (nagara bagian) dina Perang Dulur Amérika]] [[Kategori:Pamingpin Universitas di Buffalo]] [[Kategori:Pengacara New York (nagara bagian)]] [[Kategori:Pengacara Amérika Sarikat anu mitembeyan karir ku cara maca hukum]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Fillmore|Millard]] [[Kategori:Unitarian Amérika]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti East Aurora, New York]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Moravia, New York]] [[Kategori:Urang Amérika katurunan Inggris]] [[Kategori:Makam di Pemakaman Forest Lawn (Buffalo)]] [[Kategori:Pangadeg universitas sarta koli]] [[Kategori:Pangadeg sakola sarta koli Amérika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Legislatif Nagara Bagian New York abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] d6w07c3usbj5l2on0e333jzbayde71m 0 107824 711534 710003 2026-08-06T22:33:41Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711534 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; width: 300px; font-size: 90%;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; background: #ccddee; font-size: 110%; padding: 5px;" | Franklin Pierce |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: white;" | [[Gambar:Mathew Brady - Franklin Pierce - alternate crop (cropped)(2).jpg|250px]]<br/>''Franklin Pierce {{circa|1855–65}}'' |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #e7e7e7; text-align: center;" | [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-14 |- ! Masa jabatan | 4 Maret 1853 – 4 Maret 1857 |- ! Wakil Présidén | [[William R. King]] (1853)<br/>''Kosong'' (1853–1857) |- ! Ti payun | [[Millard Fillmore]] |- ! Ti pengker | [[James Buchanan]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #e7e7e7; text-align: center;" | Inpormasi Pribadi |- ! Babar | 23 Nopémber 1804<br/>[[Hillsborough, New Hampshire]], A.S. |- ! Pupus | 8 Oktober 1869 (yuswa 64)<br/>[[Concord, New Hampshire]], A.S. |- ! Partéy pulitik | [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] |- ! Garwa | [[Jane Pierce|Jane Appleton]] (nikah 1834) |- ! Atikan | [[Bowdoin College]] |- ! Padamelan | Politikus, Ahli Hukum |- ! Tanda tangan | [[Gambar:Franklin Pierce Signature2.svg|120px]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #e7e7e7; text-align: center;" | Dinas Militer |- ! Kasasatoan | [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] |- ! Pangkat | [[Brigadir Jéndral]] |- ! Perang | [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]] |} '''Franklin Pierce''' (ᮖᮢᮀᮊᮣᮤᮔ᮪ ᮕᮤᮈᮁᮞᮨ; 23 Nopémber 1804{{spnd}}8 Oktober 1869) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] anu ka-14, anu ngajabat ti taun 1853 dugi ka 1857. Anjeunna téh tokoh ti [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]] ti wewengkon kalér anu gaduh kayakinan yén [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|gerakan abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) mangrupa ancaman utama pikeun persatuan nasional. Ku sabab anjeunna nandatanganan [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] sarta ngajalankeun [[Undang-undang Budak Buron]] (''Fugitive Slave Act''), anjeunna dikritik ku kelompok anti-perbudakan. Bangbaluh antawis Kalér sareng Kidul teras lumangsung sabada [[Masa présidén Franklin Pierce|masa jabatan Pierce]], sarta saatos [[Abraham Lincoln]] meunang dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860]], [[Nagara Konpéderasi Amérika|nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul misahkeun diri]] (séksési), anu ngabalukarkeun pecahna [[Perang Sipil Amérika]]. Pierce dibabarkeun di [[New Hampshire]]; ramana nyaéta gubernur nagara bagian [[Benjamin Pierce (gubernur)|Benjamin Pierce]]. Anjeunna ngajabat dina [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat]] ti taun 1833 dugi ka kapilih janten anggota [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]], dimana anjeunna ngajabat ti taun 1837 dugi ka pangunduran dirina dina taun 1842. Karirna salaku ahli hukum swasta kawilang suksés, sarta anjeunna diangkat janten [[Jaksa Amérika Sarikat kanggé Distrik New Hampshire]] dina taun 1845. Pierce ogé milu aub dina [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]] kalayan pangkat [[Brigadir jéndral (Amérika Sarikat)|brigadir jéndral]] dina [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]]. Partéy Démokrat ningal anjeunna salaku kandidat kompromi anu tiasa ngahijikeun kapentingan Kalér sareng Kidul, lajeng nyalonkeun anjeunna janten présidén dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852]]. Anjeunna sareng pasanganana, [[William R. King]], hasil ngéléhkeun pasangan ti [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]], nyaéta [[Winfield Scott]] sareng [[William Alexander Graham]], dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852]]. Salaku présidén, Pierce nyobi nerapkeun standar nétral dina dunya birokrasi, nanging dina waktos anu sasarengan anjeunna ogé nyobian nyugemakeun rupa-rupa elemen Partéy Démokrat ku cara méré jabatan (patronase), hiji tarékah anu tétéla gagal sarta matak malik janten kangéwa ti anggota partéyna sorangan. Anjeunna téh tokoh ékspansionis ti [[Gerakan Young America|Young America]] anu nandatanganan [[Pameselan Gadsden]] kanggé mésér lahan ti Méksiko, sarta mingpin tarékah anu gagal pikeun ngarebut Kuba ti Spanyol. Anjeunna ogé nandatanganan pajangjian dagang sareng Britania sarta Jepang, bari kabinétna ngalakukeun réformasi departemén sarta ngaronjatkeun akuntabilitas; nanging, riribugan pulitik dina mangsa jabatanna ngalelepkeun éta kasuksésan. Popularitas anjeunna nyirorot pisan di nagara-nagara bagian Kalér saatos anjeunna ngadukung [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]], anu ngabatalkeun [[Kompromi Missouri]], sedengkeun warga bule di Kidul mah tetep ngadukung anjeunna. Bijilna éta undang-undang ngabalukarkeun [[Bleeding Kansas|konplik getih]] ngeunaan perluasan perbudakan di Amérika Kulon. Pamaréntahan Pierce beuki ruksak nalika sababaraha diplomatna ngaluarkeun [[Manifésto Ostend]] anu ménta anéksasi Kuba, hiji dokumén anu dikritik béak-béakan. Anjeunna ngarep-ngarep Démokrat bakal nyalonkeun deui anjeunna dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856]], nanging tarékahna téh gagal. Reputasi anjeunna di Kalér beuki ruksak nalika Perang Sipil Amérika jalaran anjeunna janten kritikus anu vokal ka Présidén Lincoln. Sanaos Pierce téh jalma anu dipikaresep sarta gampang campur gaul, kahirupan kulawargana mah kawilang beurat; tilu putrana pupus nuju aralit kénéh, sarta garwana, [[Jane Pierce]], nandangan panyakit sarta déprési méh sapanjang hirupna.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jeffrey W. |last=Coker |title=Presidents from Taylor Through Grant, 1849–1877: Debating the Issues in Pro and Con Primary Documents |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVCVFXG9mqkC&pg=PA54 |year=2002 |publisher=Greenwood |page=54 |isbn=978-0-3133-1551-0 |access-date=2026-02-12 }}</ref> Putra pamungkasna anu masih hirup pupus dina kacilakaan karéta api nalika kulawargana nuju dina perjalanan, sakedap sateuacan [[Pelantikan Franklin Pierce|pelantikan Pierce]]. Salaku jalma anu resep nginum alkohol méh sapanjang hirupna, Pierce pupus dina taun 1869 alatan [[sirosis]]. Jalaran dukunganna ka pihak Kidul, sarta kagagalanna dina ngajaga persatuan (Uni) dina mangsa riribugan, para sajarawan sareng sarjana umumna nempatkeun Pierce salaku salah sahiji [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|présidén anu panggoréngna]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=2021 |title=Presidential Historians Survey 2021 |work=C-SPAN |url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/?page=overall |access-date=2026-02-12 }}</ref> sarta présidén anu paling sakedik diinget dina sajarah A.S.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Franklin Pierce, the tragic president |url=https://www.chieftain.com/story/opinion/2017/11/25/franklin-pierce-tragic-president/9241087007/ |access-date=2025-12-11 |website=Pueblo Chieftain }}</ref> == Kahirupan awal sareng kulawarga == === Mangsa budak sareng atikan === [[File:Pierce Homestead.jpg|jmpl|kénca|[[Franklin Pierce Homestead]] di [[Hillsborough, New Hampshire]], tempat Pierce digedékeun, ayeuna janten [[National Historic Landmark|Titinggal Sajarah Nasional]].<ref name="homestead">{{cite web |url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=29&ResourceType=Building |title=Pierce, Franklin, Homestead |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=2014-06-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309001459/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=29&ResourceType=Building |archive-date=2015-03-09 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309001459/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=29&ResourceType=Building |date=2015-03-09 }}</ref> Anjeunna dibabarkeun di hiji [[saung log|imah panggung (log cabin)]] deukeut dinya nalika imahna nuju diréngsékeun.{{refn|group=note|Sababaraha catetan lokal nyebutkeun yén anjeunna dibabarkeun di Homestead. Nanging, [[National Register of Historic Places]] nyebutkeun yén imah panggung (log cabin) mangrupa tempat babar anu leuwih luyu,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000027_text |title=Nomination Form: Franklin Pierce |publisher=National Register of Historic Places |page=8 |date=1976 |access-date=2014-06-29 }}</ref> sarta sajarawan Peter A. Wallner negeskeun yén hal ieu téh bener pisan.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=3}}</ref>}}]] Franklin Pierce dibabarkeun dina kaping 23 Nopémber 1804, di hiji [[saung log|imah panggung (log cabin)]] di [[Hillsborough, New Hampshire]]. Anjeunna mangrupa turunan kagenep ti Thomas Pierce, anu pindah ka [[Koloni Teluk Massachusetts]] ti [[Norwich, Norfolk]], Inggris, kira-kira dina taun 1634. Ramana, [[Benjamin Pierce (gubernur)|Benjamin]], mangrupa saurang léptnan dina [[Perang Révolusi Amérika]] anu pindah ti [[Chelmsford, Massachusetts]], ka Hillsborough saatos perang, kalayan mésér lahan saluas 50 ékar (20 héktar). Pierce mangrupa putra kalima ti dalapan duduluran anu lahir ti Benjamin sareng garwa kaduana, Anna Kendrick; garwa kahijina, Elizabeth Andrews, pupus nalika ngalahirkeun sarta ninggalkeun saurang putri. Benjamin téh saurang tokoh penting ti [[Partéy Démokratik-Républik|Partéy Démokrat-Républik]], anggota législatif nagara bagian, patani, sarta nu gaduh kedai (tavern). Nalika Pierce masih budak, ramana aub pisan dina pulitik nagara bagian, sedengkeun dua lanceukna perang dina [[Perang 1812]]; ku kituna, urusan publik sarta militér méré pangaruh anu kacida gedéna dina awal kahirupanana.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=1–8}}</ref> Ramana nempatkeun Pierce di hiji sakola di Hillsborough Center nalika keur leutik, sarta ngirim anjeunna ka sakola kota di [[Hancock, New Hampshire|Hancock]] nalika yuswana 12 taun.{{refn|group=note|Gedong sakola dua tingkat éta kahuruan sababaraha taun saatosna, sarta Hancock Academy diadegkeun dina taun 1836 kanggé ngagentosna.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hurd |first1=D. Hamilton |title=History of Hillsborough County, New Hampshire |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofhillsbo00hurdd |date=1885 |publisher=J.W. Lewis & Co. |location=Philadelphia |page=350}}</ref>}} Kusabab teu pati resep sakola, Pierce ngarasa sono ka bumi (''homesick'') sarta leumpang sajauh 12 mil (19 km) balik ka bumina dina hiji poé Minggu. Ramana masihan tuang siang, nanging saatosna anjeunna dijajapkeun nganggo kareta ngan satengah jalan, lajeng dipiwarang leumpang sésana di tengah hujan dordar gelap. Pierce di hareupna nyebutkeun yén ieu kajadian téh mangrupa "titik balik dina hirup kuring".<ref name="turning">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=10–15}}</ref> Dina taun éta kénéh, anjeunna pindah ka [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] kanggé nyiapkeun diri asup kuliah. Harita, anjeunna tos kawéntar salaku murid anu pikaresepeun, nanging sakali-kali sok bangor.<ref name="turning"/> [[File:Nathaniel Hawthorne.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.85|Pangarang novél [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], sobat dalit Pierce sapanjang hirupna, nyerat biografi ''Life of Franklin Pierce'' kanggé ngarojong kampanye présidén Pierce taun 1852.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=35–36}}</ref>]] Dina usum gugur taun 1820, Pierce asup ka [[Bowdoin College]] di [[Brunswick, Maine]], salah saurang ti 19 mahasiswa anyar. Anjeunna gabung sareng Athenian Society, hiji pakumpulan sastra progresif, babarengan sareng [[Jonathan Cilley]] (nu engkéna kapilih janten anggota Kongrés) sarta [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], anu janten sobat dalitna sapanjang hirup. Dina dua taun munggaran, peunteun Pierce téh panghandapna di kelasna, nanging anjeunna soson-soson ngalereskeun peunteunna dugi ka tiasa lulus di peringkat kalima dina taun 1824<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=16–21}}</ref> ti 14 lulusan.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=229}}</ref> [[John P. Hale]] asup ka Bowdoin nalika Pierce nuju di tingkat tilu; anjeunna janten batur sapancakaki dina pulitik, nanging engkéna janten saingan utama. Nalika di tingkat tilu, Pierce ngadegkeun sarta mingpin hiji unit milisi teu resmi anu dingaranan "Bowdoin Cadets", anu anggotana kalebet Cilley sareng Hawthorne. Ieu unit sok ngayakeun latihan baris-berbaris di kampus deukeut imah réktor, dugi ka kaributanna matak réktor ménta éta kagiatan dieureunkeun. Para mahasiswa barontak sarta ngayakeun mogok (''strike''), hiji kajadian dimana Pierce disangka janten pamingpinna.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wallner |first=Peter A. |date=Spring 2005 |title=Franklin Pierce and Bowdoin College Associates Hawthorne and Hale |url=https://www.nhhistory.org/publications/Revealing_RelationShips_Franklin_Pierce.pdf |journal=Historical New Hampshire |publisher=New Hampshire Historical Society |page=24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817151324/http://www.nhhistory.org/publications/Revealing_RelationShips_Franklin_Pierce.pdf |archive-date=2015-08-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817151324/http://www.nhhistory.org/publications/Revealing_RelationShips_Franklin_Pierce.pdf |date=2015-08-17 }}</ref> Dina taun pamungkasna di Bowdoin, anjeunna méakkeun sababaraha bulan ngajar di [[Hebron Academy]] di padésaan [[Hebron, Maine]], dimana anjeunna kenging gajih munggaranana; salah sahiji muridna nyaéta [[John J. Perry]], anu engkéna janten anggota Kongrés.<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|p=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Waterman |first=Charles E. |date=March 7, 1918 |title=The Red Schoolhouse in Action |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzc6AQAAMAAJ |journal=The Journal of Education |volume=87–88 |issue=10 |page=265 }}</ref> Pierce [[diajar hukum]] sakedap sareng tilas Gubernur New Hampshire, [[Levi Woodbury]], anu mangrupa sobat kulawargana di [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=230}}</ref> Saatos éta, anjeunna méakkeun saseméster di [[Sakola Hukum Northampton]] di [[Northampton, Massachusetts]], lajeng diteraskeun ku mangsa diajar dina taun 1826 sareng 1827 di handapeun Hakim Edmund Parker di [[Amherst, New Hampshire]]. Anjeunna resmi janten pengacara (''admitted to the bar'') di New Hampshire dina ahir taun 1827 sarta mimiti muka prakték hukum di Hillsborough.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=28–32}}</ref> Sanaos anjeunna kawon dina kasus munggaranana, Pierce tétéla sanggup ngabuktikeun kamampuhna salaku pengacara. Sanajan anjeunna sanés saurang sarjana hukum anu jero élmuna, kamampuhna dina nginget nami sarta raray jalma kacida ngabantuna, kitu ogé ku ayana sipatna anu pikaresepeun sarta sorana anu beurat (bass).<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=258}}</ref> Di Hillsborough, batur sapraktekna nyaéta Albert Baker, anu kantos diajar hukum ka Pierce sarta mangrupa lanceuk ti [[Mary Baker Eddy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=56}}</ref> === Hillsborough sareng pulitik nagara bagian === Dina taun 1824, New Hampshire janten puseur riribugan partéy, kalayan inohong sapertos Woodbury sareng [[Isaac Hill]] anu neundeun dasar kanggé Partéy Démokrat pikeun ngadukung Jéndral [[Andrew Jackson]]. Aranjeunna nentang kelompok [[Partéy Péderalis|Péderalis]] (sareng panerusna, [[Partéy Républik Nasional]]), anu dipingpin ku Présidén [[John Quincy Adams]]. Hasil gawé Partéy Démokrat New Hampshire mimiti katingal dina Maret 1827, nalika calon anu pro-Jackson, Benjamin Pierce, kenging pangrojong ti faksi pro-Adams sarta kapilih janten gubernur New Hampshire tanpa aya lawan anu hartosna. Nalika Pierce ngora nuju ngawangun karirna salaku pengacara, anjeunna mimiti kabetot kana dunya pulitik nalika [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1828]] antawis Adams sareng Jackson beuki deukeut. Dina pamilihan nagara bagian Maret 1828, faksi Adams narik deui pangrojongna ka Benjamin Pierce sahingga anjeunna éléh jabatan,{{refn|group=note|Gubernur New Hampshire harita mah kapilihna unggal taun; tingali ogé [[Daptar gubernur New Hampshire]].}} nanging Franklin Pierce sorangan hasil meunang dina pamilihan munggaranana, nyaéta jabatan sataun salaku moderator [[Rapat kota|rapat kota]] (''town meeting moderator'') di Hillsborough, hiji jabatan anu dicepeng ku anjeunna dugi ka genep kali berturut-turut.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=28–33}}</ref> Pierce aktip ngayakeun kampanye di distrikna kanggé ngadukung Jackson, anu tétéla unggul di distrik kasebut sarta di tingkat nasional kalayan sora anu kacida loba dina pamilihan Nopémber 1828, sanaos Jackson [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1828 di New Hampshire|kawon di New Hampshire]]. Ieu hasil beuki nguatkeun Partéy Démokrat, sarta Pierce kenging korsi législatif munggaranana dina taun saterusna, ngawakilan Hillsborough dina [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat New Hampshire]]. Ramana Pierce ogé kapilih deui janten gubernur, lajeng pangsiun saatos masa jabatan éta réngsé. Pierce ngora diangkat janten pupuhu Komisi Atikan Déwan dina taun 1829 sarta Komisi Kasundaan (''Committee on Towns'') dina taun saterusna. Dina taun 1831, Partéy Démokrat kenging mayoritas di législatif, sarta Pierce kapilih janten Spéker (Pupuhu) Déwan. Spéker ngora ieu ngagunakeun jabatanna kanggé nentang perluasan perbankan, ngajaga milisi nagara bagian, sarta méré pangrojong ka Partéy Démokrat nasional sarta tarékah kapilihna deui Jackson. Dina yuswa 27 taun, anjeunna parantos janten "béntang" dina Partéy Démokrat New Hampshire. Sanaos parantos kenging kasuksésan pulitik sarta profésional di yuswa ngora, dina serat-serat pribadina anjeunna tetep ngarasa sedih jalaran masih kénéh nyalira (léléngkan/bujangan) sarta mikahayang kahirupan anu langkung lega saluareun Hillsborough.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=33–43}}</ref> Sakumaha sakumna lalaki bule di New Hampshire anu yuswana antawis 18 dugi ka 45 taun, Pierce téh mangrupa anggota [[Milisi Nagara Bagian New Hampshire|milisi nagara bagian]], sarta diangkat janten [[aide-de-camp]] (ajudan) kanggé Gubernur [[Samuel Dinsmoor]] dina taun 1831. Anjeunna tetep janten anggota milisi dugi ka taun 1847, sarta kenging pangkat [[Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|kolonél]] sateuacan engkéna janten [[Brigadir Jéndral (Amérika Sarikat)|brigadir jéndral]] dina [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] nalika [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]].<ref>John Farmer, G. Parker Lyon, éditor, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0JEBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53 The New-Hampshire Annual Register, and United States Calendar], 1832, p. 53.</ref><ref>Brian Matthew Jordan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YJULQZ47IBYC&pg=PA31 Triumphant Mourner: The Tragic Dimension of Franklin Pierce], 2003, p. 31.</ref> Pierce kacida kabetotna kana tarékah ngahirupkeun deui sarta ngoméan (réformasi) milisi nagara bagian anu parantos lami teu aktip saatos [[Perang 1812]]. Kanggé ngawujudkeun hal éta, Pierce gawé bareng sareng [[Alden Partridge]], réktor [[Norwich University]] (hiji akadémis militer di [[Vermont]]), sarta [[Truman B. Ransom]] sareng [[Alonzo Jackman]] anu mangrupa dosén Norwich sakaligus perwira milisi. Aranjeunna babarengan ngaronjatkeun tarékah rékrutmen sarta ngaronjatkeun kualitas latihan sarta kasiapsiagaan pasukan.<ref>{{cite book |last= Betros |first= Lance |date= 2004 |title= West Point: Two Centuries and Beyond |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sp7bAAAAMAAJ&q=%22militia+in+the+field%22 |publisher= McWhiney Foundation Press |page= 155 |isbn= 978-1-893114-47-0 |access-date= 2014-08-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Ellis |first= William Arba |date= 1911 |title= Norwich University, 1819–1911; Her History, Her Graduates, Her Roll of Honor, Volume 1 |url= https://archive.org/details/norwichuniversi00dodggoog |publisher= Capital City Press |pages= 87, 99 |access-date= 2014-08-30 }}</ref> Pierce ngajabat salaku wali amanat (''trustee'') Norwich University ti taun 1841 dugi ka 1859, sarta nampi [[Gelar kahormatan|gelar doktor kahormatan]] ([[Legum Doctor|LL.D.]]) ti Norwich dina taun 1853.<ref>{{cite book |last= Ellis |first= William Arba |date= 1911 |title= Norwich University, 1819–1911; Her History, Her Graduates, Her Roll of Honor, Volume 2 |url= https://archive.org/details/norwichuniversit02elli |publisher= Capital City Press |pages= 14–16 |access-date= 2014-08-30 }}</ref> Dina ahir taun 1832, konvénsi Partéy Démokrat nyalonkeun Pierce kanggé salah sahiji ti lima korsi New Hampshire dina [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat]]. Pencalonan ieu téh [[sarua jeung meunang]] (''tantamount to election'') kanggé ieu Démokrat ngora, jalaran kakuatan Partéy Républik Nasional parantos nyirorot, sedengkeun [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]] tacan mimiti narik loba pangrojong. Kakuatan Démokrat di New Hampshire ogé beuki kuat ku ayana [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1832|kameunangan mutlak Jackson dina taun éta]].<ref name="w44plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=44–47}}</ref> New Hampshire anu tadina mangrupa nagara bagian anu kurang diperhitungkeun sacara pulitik, ti mimiti taun 1832 dugi ka pertengahan 1850-an janten nagara bagian anu paling satia ka Démokrat di [[Amérika Sarikat Kalér]], anu satuluyna ngangkat karir pulitik Pierce.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=273–300}}</ref> Masa jabatan Pierce dimimitian dina Maret 1833, nanging anjeunna nembé disumpah nalika Kongrés ngayakeun sidang dina sasih Désémber, sahingga perhatianana harita mah nuju ka sanés tempat. Anjeunna nembé pisan papacangan sarta mésér bumi munggaranana di Hillsborough. Franklin sareng Benjamin Pierce mangrupa sababaraha tokoh penting anu ngabagéakeun Présidén Jackson nalika anjeunna nganjang ka éta nagara bagian dina pertengahan taun 1833.<ref name="w44plus" /> === Pernikahan sareng putra-putra === [[File:Jane Means Appleton Pierce first lady of the USA.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.85|Salaku jalma anu alim sarta resep nyorangan, [[Jane Pierce]] téh sabalikna pisan tina sipat carogéna dina rupa-rupa hal.<ref name="jane">{{harvnb |Wallner|2004 | pp = 31–32, 77–78}}</ref><ref name="jane2">{{harvnb |Gara|1991 | pp = 31–32}}</ref><ref name="jane3">{{cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/president/pierce/essays/biography/2 |title=Franklin Pierce: Life Before the Presidency |work=American President: An Online Reference Resource |publisher=University of Virginia |access-date=2019-01-16 |first=Jean H. |last=Baker |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217140649/http://millercenter.org/president/pierce/essays/biography/2 |archive-date=2010-12-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217140649/http://millercenter.org/president/pierce/essays/biography/2 |date=2010-12-17 }}</ref>]] Dina kaping 19 Nopémber 1834, Pierce nikah sareng [[Jane Pierce|Jane Means Appleton]], putra ti pendéta [[Géréja Kongrégasional|Kongrégasional]] [[Jesse Appleton]] sareng Elizabeth Means. Kulawarga Appleton téh inohong [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]], kontras pisan sareng kulawarga Pierce anu satia ka Démokrat. Jane Pierce téh saurang anu éraan, kacida taatna kana ageman, sarta ngadukung [[gerakan temperance]] (anti-alkohol); anjeunna sering ngajurung Pierce supados lirén nginum alkohol. Jane perawakanna rada kuru (langsir), sarta remen gering alatan [[tuberkulosis]] sarta gangguan psikologis. Anjeunna kacida mikangéwa dunya pulitik, utamana teu resep ka Washington, D.C., anu satuluyna nyiptakeun tegangan sapanjang karir pulitik Pierce.<ref name="jane" /><ref name="jane2" /><ref name="jane3" /> Jane Pierce ogé teu resep cicing di Hillsborough, sahingga dina taun 1838, kulawarga Pierce pindah ka puseur dayeuh nagara bagian, nyaéta [[Concord, New Hampshire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=79–80}}</ref> Aranjeunna gaduh tilu putra, nanging sadayana pupus nalika nuju alit kénéh. Franklin Jr. (2–5 Pébruari 1836) pupus nalika orok kénéh, sedengkeun Frank Robert (27 Agustus 1839 – 14 Nopémber 1843) pupus dina yuswa opat taun alatan [[tipus épidémik]]. Benjamin (13 April 1841 – 6 Januari 1853) pupus dina yuswa 11 taun alatan [[Kacilakaan karéta api Franklin Pierce|kacilakaan karéta api]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=241–244}}</ref> Nalika anggota DPR [[James Henry Hammond]] ti Carolina Kidul narékahan pikeun nyegah surat panyambat (petisi) anti-perbudakan supados teu asup ka sidang Déwan, Pierce mah sabalikna, anjeunna mihak ka hak para abolisionis pikeun ngintunkeun petisi. Sanajan kitu, Pierce ogé ngadukung aturan anu engkéna kawéntar salaku [[Aturan 21|aturan panyumpet]] (''gag rule''), anu ngidinan petisi kasebut ditarima, nanging teu meunang dibaca atanapi dipertimbangkeun. Ieu aturan ditarima ku Déwan dina taun 1836.<ref name="wallner-i-57-59">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=57–59}}</ref> Anjeunna ditarajang ku surat kabar anti-perbudakan ti New Hampshire, ''Herald of Freedom'', sarta dilandi salaku saurang "**[[doughface]]**", hiji istilah anu mibanda dua harti: "lalaki anu borangan" sarta "urang Kalér anu boga simpatik ka urang Kidul".<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=59–61}}</ref> Pierce kantos nyatakeun yén ti 500 warga New Hampshire, moal aya saurang-urang acan anu janten abolisionis; artikel dina ''Herald of Freedom'' lajeng ngétang jumlah tanda tangan dina petisi ti éta nagara bagian, dibagi ku jumlah nu nyicingan dumasar kana sénsus 1830, sarta nyimpulkeun yén jumlah sabenerna mah nyaéta hiji ti unggal 33 jalma. Pierce kacida ambekna nalika Sénator Carolina Kidul, [[John C. Calhoun]], macakeun éta artikel dina sidang Sénat salaku "bukti" yén New Hampshire téh puseur abolisionisme. Calhoun tungtungna ménta hampura saatos Pierce ngawaler dina hiji biantara anu nyatakeun yén kalolobaan nu tanda tangan téh nyaéta kaum awéwé sareng barudak anu teu gaduh hak sora, sahingga angka hiji-tina-33 éta téh matak cangcaya.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=362–375}}</ref> === Sénat Amérika Sarikat === [[File:Franklin Pierce by Southworth & Hawes c1852.png|jmpl|kénca|Pierce dina taun 1852]] Pangunduran diri Sénator Isaac Hill dina sasih Méi 1836, jalaran anjeunna kapilih janten gubernur New Hampshire, nyababkeun ayana lowongan samentis dina Sénat anu kedah dieusi ku législatif nagara bagian. Kusabab masa jabatan Hill salaku sénator bakal réngsé dina Maret 1837, législatif ogé kedah milih jalma kanggé masa jabatan genep taun salajengna. Pencalonan Pierce kanggé Sénat dirojong ku anggota DPR nagara bagian, John P. Hale, réncangna di Athenian Society nalika di Bowdoin. Saatos debat anu panjang, législatif milih [[John Page (politikus New Hampshire)|John Page]] kanggé ngeusi sésa masa jabatan Hill. Dina Désémber 1836, Pierce kapilih kanggé masa jabatan pinuh anu dimimitian dina Maret 1837. Dina yuswa 32 taun, anjeunna harita janten salah sahiji anggota pangngorana dina sajarah Sénat. Ieu pamilihan téh sumping dina mangsa anu beurat kanggé Pierce, jalaran ramana, lanceukna, sarta adina nuju teu damang parna, sedengkeun garwana ogé teras-terasan nandangan kaséhatan anu buruk. Salaku sénator, anjeunna tiasa ngabantosan sobat lami na, Nathaniel Hawthorne, anu sering kasesek sacara ékonomi, ku cara mangnyiarankeun jabatan [[sinékur]] salaku pangukur batubara sareng uyah di Kantor Béa Cukai Boston, anu masihan waktos ka éta panulis pikeun neraskeun karyana.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=64–69}}</ref> Pierce milih luyu sareng garis partéy dina kalolobaan pasualan sarta janten sénator anu parigel, nanging sanés anu punjul pisan; anjeunna kéléhkeun ku wibawa "**[[Triumvirat Agung]]**" anu diwangun ku Calhoun, [[Henry Clay]], sareng [[Daniel Webster]], anu ngadominasi Sénat harita.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=68, 91–92}}</ref> Pierce asup ka Sénat dina mangsa krisis ékonomi, nalika [[Panik 1837]] dimimitian. Anjeunna nganggap yén déprési ieu téh mangrupa balukar tina kamekaran sistem perbankan anu gancang teuing, di tengah-tengah "kaleuwihan dina dagang sarta spékulasi anu liar".<ref name="w6972" /> Supados artos féderal henteu dianggo kanggé ngarojong injeuman bank anu spékulatif, anjeunna ngadukung présidén Démokrat anu nembé kapilih, [[Martin Van Buren]], sarta rencanana kanggé ngadegkeun [[Perbendaharaan Indepénden|perbendaharaan indepénden]], hiji usulan anu méré sela (pepecahan) dina Partéy Démokrat. Debat ngeunaan perbudakan teras lumangsung di Kongrés, sarta para abolisionis ngusulkeun supados perbudakan dilarang di Distrik Columbia, di mana Kongrés gaduh wewenang hukum. Pierce ngadukung résolusi ti Calhoun anu nentang ieu usulan, anu dianggap ku Pierce salaku léngkah bahaya anu tiasa nungtun kana émansipasi (pambébasan budak) di sakuliah nagara.<ref name="w6972">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=69–72}}</ref> Samentis éta, kakuatan Partéy Whig di Kongrés beuki nguat, anu nyababkeun partéy Pierce ngan ukur gaduh mayoritas leutik dina ahir dékadé éta.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=80}}</ref> Salah sahiji jejer anu kacida pentingna kanggé Pierce nyaéta widang militér. Anjeunna méré perhatian husus kana tunjangan (pansiun) militér, jalaran ningal lobana prakték curang (panylewengan) dina éta sistem. Satuluyna, anjeunna diangkat janten pupuhu Komisi Sénat ngeunaan Pansiun Militér dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-26]] (1839–1841). Dina jabatanna, anjeunna ngadesek ayana modérenisasi sarta perluasan Angkatan Darat, kalayan pokus kana milisi sarta mobilitas pasukan tinimbang ngawangun benténg-benténg di basisir anu dianggapna parantos katinggaleun jaman.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=78–84}}</ref> Pierce ngayakeun kampanye anu kacida sumangetna di nagara bagian asalna kanggé ngarojong kapilihna deui Van Buren dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840]]. Van Buren mémang unggul di New Hampshire, nanging kawon dina pamilihan nasional ku kandidat ti Partéy Whig, nyaéta pahlawan militér [[William Henry Harrison]]. Partéy Whig hasil kenging mayoritas korsi dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-27]]. Harrison pupus saatos sabulan ngajabat, sarta Wakil Présidén [[John Tyler]] ngagentos anjeunna. Pierce sareng para Démokrat langsung nangtang pamaréntahan énggal kasebut, ku cara marios panyabutan jabatan para pajabat féderal sarta nentang rencana Whig kanggé ngadegkeun bank nasional. Dina Désémber 1841, Pierce mutuskeun pikeun mundur tina Kongrés, hiji hal anu tos dirancanakeun ku anjeunna ti sateuacanna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=84–90}}</ref> Para Démokrat di New Hampshire negeskeun yén sénator A.S. ti nagara bagianna kedah diwatesanan mung sataun masa jabatan (genep taun), sahingga Pierce alit kamungkinanana kanggé kapilih deui. Salian ti éta, anjeunna ogé ngarasa frustasi janten anggota minoritas di législatif sarta hoyong nyéépkeun waktosna kanggé kulawarga sarta prakték hukum.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=419}}</ref> Tindakan terakhirna di Sénat dina Pébruari 1842 nyaéta nentang undang-undang distribusi dana féderal ka nagara-nagara bagian—jalaran anjeunna yakin yén éta artos langkung saé dialokasikeun kanggé militér—sarta nangtang Partéy Whig supados muka hasil panalungtikanana ngeunaan Kantor Béa Cukai New York, di mana Whig parantos marios dugaan korupsi Démokrat salami méh sataun nanging teu mendakan bukti nanaon.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=91–92}}</ref> == Pamimpin partéy == === Ahli hukum sareng politikus === [[File:Piercemanse.JPG|jmpl|upright=1.1|Imah di [[Concord, New Hampshire]] tempat Pierce matuh ti taun 1842 dugi ka 1848; ayeuna kawéntar salaku [[Pierce Manse]], ieu gedong parantos dirénovasi dina taun 1970-an sarta dijagi salaku objék wisata sajarah.<ref name="manse">{{cite web |url=http://www.piercemanse.org/Learn.html |title=The Pierce Manse |access-date=2014-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816064656/http://www.piercemanse.org/Learn.html |archive-date=2010-08-16 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331221736/http://www.piercemanse.org/learn.html |date=2021-03-31 }}</ref>]] Sanaos parantos mundur ti Sénat, Pierce tacan aya niat kanggé liren tina dunya publik. Pindahna ka Concord masihan anjeunna langkung seueur lolongkrang kanggé nanganan kasus-kasus hukum, sarta masihan kasempetan ka Jane Pierce kanggé hirup di lingkungan masarakat anu langkung merenah.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=79}}</ref> Jane tetep matuh di Concord sareng putra alitna, Frank, sarta Benjamin anu nembé lahir nalika bagian ahir masa jabatan Pierce di Sénat; ieu papisahan téh mémang beurat karasana kanggé kulawarga. Samentis éta, Pierce parantos ngamimitian gawé bareng hukum anu nguntungkeun pisan sareng [[Asa Fowler]] nalika masa réhat (''recess'') Kongrés.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=86}}</ref> Pierce mulang ka Concord dina awal taun 1842, sarta reputasina salaku pengacara teras nanjak. Kawéntar ku kapribadianana anu soméah, kaahlianana dina biantara, sarta daya émutna anu luar biasa, Pierce sering narik perhatian loba pamiarsa di pangadilan. Anjeunna ogé sering ngabéla masarakat miskin kalayan nampi bayaran anu sakedik atanapi malah haratis pisan.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=98–101}}</ref> Pierce tetep aub dina Partéy Démokrat nagara bagian anu nuju karepék ku sababaraha pasualan. Gubernur Hill, anu ngawakilan faksi komérsial sarta kota dina partéy, ngadukung pamakéan piagam pamaréntah kanggé ngarojong korporasi, méré hak husus sapertos tanggung jawab kawates (''limited liability'') sarta hak [[domain punjul]] kanggé ngawangun jalan karéta api. Faksi radikal "**[[Locofocos|Locofoco]]**" dina partéyna ngawakilan para patani sarta pamilih di padésaan, anu mikahayang perluasan program sosial sarta regulasi tanaga gawé, sarta pangwatesan kana hak husus korporasi. Budaya pulitik di éta nagara bagian janten kirang toleran ka bank sareng korporasi saatos Panik 1837, sahingga Hill tungtungna éléh dina pamilihan. Pierce sacara filosofis langkung caket ka faksi radikal, sarta kalayan asa-asa anjeunna kersa janten pengacara kanggé lawan Hill dina sengketa hukum ngeunaan kapamilikan hiji surat kabar—Hill kawon, lajeng ngadegkeun surat kabar sorangan anu sering ngajantenkeun Pierce salaku sasaran seranganna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=93–95}}</ref> Dina Juni 1842, Pierce diangkat janten pupuhu Komite Démokrat Nagara Bagian, sarta dina pamilihan nagara bagian taun saterusna, anjeunna ngabantosan faksi radikal kanggé ngawasa législatif nagara bagian. Partéy tetep karepék ku sababaraha pasualan, kalebet pangwangunan jalan karéta api sareng [[gerakan temperance]] (anti-alkohol), sarta Pierce nyepeng peran utama dina mantuan législatif nagara bagian kanggé ngaréngsékeun éta bédana pamandangan. Prioritas anjeunna nyaéta "tartib, moderasi, kompromi, sareng kahijian partéy", anu ku anjeunna diusahakeun supados langkung diutamakeun tinimbang pamandangan pribadina ngeunaan pasualan pulitik.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=103–110}}</ref> Sakumaha engkéna nalika janten présidén, Pierce kacida ngajénan pisan kana kahijian Partéy Démokrat, sarta ningal yén oposisi kana perbudakan téh mangrupa ancaman kanggé hal éta.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=431}}</ref> Kameunangan [[James K. Polk]] anu teu disangka-sangka (''[[kuda hitam (pulitik)|dark horse]]'') dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1844]] mangrupa warta anu pikabagéakeun kanggé Pierce, anu parantos sosobatan sareng tilas [[Pupuhu Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat|Pupuhu Déwan]] kasebut nalika duanana ngajabat di Kongrés. Pierce ngayakeun kampanye badag kanggé Polk salila pamilihan, sarta salaku balesanna, Polk ngangkat anjeunna janten [[Jaksa Amérika Sarikat kanggé Distrik New Hampshire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=131–132}}</ref> Tujuan utama Polk anu pangnonjolna nyaéta [[aneksasi Texas]], hiji pasualan anu nyababkeun papaséaan kacida jero antawis Pierce sareng tilas batur sapancakakina, Hale, anu harita janten anggota DPR A.S. Hale kacida nentangna kana nambihan nagara bagian budak anyar, sahingga anjeunna nyerat serat kabuka ka konstituénna anu nétélakeun panolakanana kana éta léngkah.<ref>{{harvnb|Wadleigh|1913|p=249}}</ref> Pierce ngawaler ku cara ngayakeun deui konvénsi Démokrat nagara bagian kanggé ngabatalkeun pencalonan Hale dina masa jabatan Kongrés salajengna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wadleigh|1913|p=249}}</ref> Ieu "badai pulitik" ngabalukarkeun Pierce megatkeun hubungan sareng sobat laminana, kitu ogé sareng batur sapraktekna dina hukum, Fowler, anu mangrupa pangrojong Hale.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=111–122}}</ref> Hale nolak mundur, sarta kusabab diperyogikeun sora mayoritas kanggé kapilih di New Hampshire, peupeusna partéy ngabalukarkeun ''deadlock'' (jalan buntu) sarta korsi DPR janten kosong. Tungtungna, Partéy Whig sareng faksi [[Démokrat Indepénden]] Hale hasil ngawasa législatif, milih [[Anthony Colby]] ti Whig janten gubernur, sarta ngirim Hale ka Sénat, hiji hal anu matak ngambek pisan ka Pierce.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=447}}</ref> === Perang Méksiko-Amérika === [[File:Franklin Pierce - 1852.jpg|jmpl|upright|Pierce nganggo seragam brigadir jéndralna, {{Kira-kira|1852}}]] Aub dina dunya militér téh mangrupa impian lami kanggé Pierce, anu saprak rumaja kacida mikareueusna kana jasa-jasa rama sarta para lanceukna, utamana lanceukna [[Benjamin Kendrick Pierce|Benjamin]], ogé [[John McNeil Jr.]], carogé ti lanceuk sabapana, Elizabeth. Salaku anggota législatif, anjeunna téh mangrupa pangrojong anu vokal kanggé milisi sukaréla. Salaku perwira milisi, anjeunna gaduh pangalaman dina ngumpulkeun sarta ngalatih pasukan. Nalika Kongrés ngumumkeun perang ngalawan Méksiko dina Méi 1846, Pierce langsung daptar janten sukarélawan, sanaos harita tacan aya régimén ti New England. Harepanana kanggé milu perang dina [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]] mangrupa salah sahiji alesan anjeunna nolak tawaran ti Polk kanggé janten [[Jaksa Agung Amérika Sarikat]]. Gerakan maju Jéndral [[Zachary Taylor]] mimiti kendor di Méksiko kalér, sarta Jéndral [[Winfield Scott]] ngusulkeun kanggé ngarebut palabuan [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Vera Cruz]] sarta neruskeun perjalanan darat ka Kota Méksiko. Kongrés ngaluarkeun undang-undang anu ngidinan dibentukna sapuluh régimén, sarta Pierce diangkat janten komandan sarta kolonél [[Régimén Infanteri ka-9 (Amérika Sarikat)|Régimén Infanteri ka-9]] dina Pébruari 1847, kalayan Truman B. Ransom salaku [[Léptnan Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|léptnan kolonél]] sarta wakil komandanna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=131–135}}</ref> [[File:FrankP-mounted.jpg|jmpl|kénca|upright=0.9|Mangsa jabatan Pierce anu sakedap salaku [[perwira jéndral|jéndral]] dina Perang Méksiko-Amérika ningkatkeun citra publikna.<ref name="war-reception" />]] Dina 3 Maret 1847, Pierce ditaékkeun pangkatna janten [[Brigadir jéndral (Amérika Sarikat)|brigadir jéndral]], sarta nyepeng paréntah pikeun hiji [[brigade]] pasukan tambahan kanggé angkatan darat Jéndral Scott, sedengkeun Ransom ngagentos anjeunna janten komandan régimén. Sabada méakkeun waktos kanggé ngumpulkeun brigadena, Pierce dugi ka palabuan Vera Cruz anu parantos ditéwak dina ahir Juni. Di dinya, anjeunna nyiapkeun perjalanan 2.500 pasukan anu ngawal logistik kanggé Scott. Perjalanan tilu minggu ka darat téh kacida bahayana, sarta pasukanna kedah sababaraha kali ngalawan serangan sateuacan tungtungna ngahiji sareng pasukan Scott dina awal Agustus, pas pisan nalika badé lumangsungna [[Pertempuran Contreras]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=490}}</ref> Ieu pertempuran téh mangrupa musibah kanggé Pierce: kudana ujug-ujug reuwas nalika nuju narajang, anu ngabalukarkeun awakna kabetot sarta palangkakanana kagejret kana sela kuda. Éta kuda lajeng tikait kana sela batu sarta labuh, nu ngabalukarkeun Pierce kakeueum ku kudana sorangan sarta tuurna tatu parna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=144–147}}</ref> Ieu kajadian ngajantenkeun anjeunna katingal sapertos anu kapiuhan, sahingga salah saurang prajurit ngagorowok menta batur kanggé nyepeng komando bari nyebutkeun, "Jéndral Pierce téh saurang jalma borangan anu dibendo."<ref name="h505">{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=505}}</ref> Pierce mulang deui kanggé aksi dinten salajengna, nanging tuurna tatu deui sahingga anjeunna kedah luluncatan (pincang) nuturkeun pasukanna; nalika anjeunna dugi ka lokasi, pertempuran téh ampir réngsé.<ref name="h505" /> Nalika [[Pertempuran Churubusco]] beuki deukeut, Scott maréntahkeun Pierce supados ka tukang kanggé cageur heula (konvalésénsi). Anjeunna ngawaler, "Demi Allah, Jéndral, ieu téh pertempuran badag anu terakhir, sarta kuring kedah mingpin brigade kuring." Scott tungtungna ngijinan, sarta Pierce asup ka médan perang bari awakna ditalian kana sela kuda, nanging kanyeri dina sukuna beuki parna sahingga anjeunna kapiuhan di lapangan. Amérika meunang dina éta pertempuran sarta Pierce mantuan rundayan gencatan sanjata. Anjeunna lajeng mulang deui nyepeng komando sarta mingpin brigadena sapanjang sésa kampanye, anu tungtungna aub dina [[Pertempuran kanggé Kota Méksiko|panéwakan Kota Méksiko]] dina pertengahan Séptémber, sanaos brigadena langkung seueur dijantenkeun cadangan salila pertempuran. Salila pertempuran Kota Méksiko, anjeunna langkung seueur cicing di tenda gering alatan nandangan diaré akut.<ref name="h505" /> Pierce tetep nyepeng komando brigadena salila tilu sasih masa pendudukan kota; sanaos ngarasa frustasi ku macétna rundayan perdamaian, anjeunna ogé nyobian ngajaga jarak tina konplik anu terus-terusan lumangsung antawis Scott sareng para jéndral sanésna.<ref name="w147plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=147–154}}</ref> Pierce tungtungna diijinkeun kanggé mulang ka Concord dina ahir Désémber 1847. Anjeunna dibagakeun salaku pahlawan di nagara bagian asalna, sarta ngintunkeun serat pangunduran diri tina Angkatan Darat, anu satuluyna disatujuan dina kaping 20 Maret 1848. Jasa-jasa militérna ningkatkeun popularitas anjeunna di New Hampshire, nanging tatu sarta bangbaluh anu tumiba ka anjeunna di médan perang ngabalukarkeun ayana tuduhan "borangan" anu bakal terus ngabayang-bayang saumur hirupna. Anjeunna parantos némbongkeun kamampuh anu hadé salaku jéndral, utamana nalika mingpin perjalanan awal ti Vera Cruz, nanging mangsa jabatanna anu sakedap sarta tatu anu ditalandanganana nyababkeun para sajarawan teu gaduh seueur bahan kanggé meunteun kamampuhna salaku komandan militér.<ref name="war-reception">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=154–157}}</ref> [[Ulysses S. Grant]], anu gaduh kasempetan kanggé ningal langsung kinerja Pierce salila perang, nolak sagala tuduhan borangan kasebut dina mémoarna anu diserat sababaraha taun saatos Pierce pupus: "Naon waé kualifikasi Jéndral Pierce kanggé kapersidénan, anjeunna téh saurang ''gentleman'' sarta jalma anu gaduh kawani. Kuring sanés pangrojong anjeunna sacara pulitik, nanging kuring terang ka anjeunna langkung jero tinimbang ka jéndral-jéndral sukaréla sanésna."<ref>{{cite book |first=Ulysses S. |last=Grant |author-link=Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fxwTAAAAYAAJ |title=Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant |volume=1 |year=1892 |orig-year=1885 |pages=146–147 |publisher=C. L. Webster}}</ref> === Mulang ka New Hampshire === [[File:Frank-Pierce.jpg|jmpl|upright|Dina taun 1850-an, Pierce parantos janten pamimpin Partéy Démokrat New Hampshire.<ref name="leadership" />]] Mulang ka Concord, Pierce neraskeun deui prakték hukumna; dina hiji kasus anu kawéntar, anjeunna ngabéla kabébasan ageman kelompok [[Shakers]], hiji sékte anu katutup sarta kaancam ku tindakan hukum alatan tuduhan panyiksaan. Nanging, peranna salaku pamimpin partéy tetep nyéépkeun kalolobaan perhatianana. Anjeunna terus riribugan sareng Hale, anu anti-perbudakan sarta nentang perang, sikep anu dianggap ku Pierce salaku provokasi anu teu perlu.<ref name="leadership">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=157–161}}</ref> Wilayah [[Sési Méksiko]] anu kacida legana ngabagi AS sacara pulitik, kalayan loba pihak di Kalér anu negeskeun yén perbudakan teu meunang aya di dinya (sarta ngajukeun [[Wilmot Proviso]] kanggé mastikeunana), sedengkeun anu sanésna hoyong perbudakan dilarang di kalér garis [[Kompromi Missouri]] dina [[Paralel 36°30′ kalér|36°30′ N]]. Duanana usulan éta dianggap haram ku loba urang Kidul, sarta kontrovérsi ieu meulah Partéy Démokrat. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1848]], mayoritas nyalonkeun tilas sénator Michigan [[Lewis Cass]] janten présidén, sedengkeun minoritas misahkeun diri janten [[Partéy Free Soil]], anu ngadukung tilas présidén Van Buren. Partéy Whig milih Jéndral [[Zachary Taylor]], urang Louisiana, anu pamandanganana ngeunaan kalolobaan pasualan pulitik tacan kanyahoan. Sanaos sateuacanna ngadukung Van Buren, Pierce milih ngadukung Cass, sarta nolak tawaran cicingeun kanggé janten calon wakil présidén dina [[tikét (pulitik)|tikét]] Free Soil. Gawé Pierce kacida éféktifna sahingga Taylor, anu ahirna [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|kapilih janten présidén]], kenging perséntase sora panghandapna di New Hampshire dibandingkeun sareng nagara bagian sanésna.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|pp=549–565}}</ref> Sénator Henry Clay, saurang Whig, ngaharepkeun tiasa ngaréngsékeun pasualan perbudakan ku sababaraha usulan anu engkéna kawéntar salaku [[Kompromi 1850]]. Ieu kompromi bakal méré kameunangan boh ka Kalér boh ka Kidul, sarta kenging pangrojong ti sasama urang Whig, Webster. Nalika draf undang-undang éta macét di Sénat, Sénator Illinois [[Stephen A. Douglas]] mingpin tarékah anu hasil kanggé meulahna janten sababaraha bagian anu misah, supados unggal anggota législatif tiasa milih nolak bagian anu teu disatujuan ku nagara bagianna tanpa ngabahayakeun sakabéh pakét aturan éta. Éta undang-undang lulus sarta ditandatanganan ku Présidén [[Millard Fillmore]] (anu ngagentos Taylor saatos sang présidén pupus dina awal 1850).<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=21–22}}</ref> Pierce kacida ngadukungna kana éta kompromi, sarta masihan biantara anu ditarima kalayan saé dina Désémber 1850, di mana anjeunna sumpah satia ka "Uni! Uni Abadi!"<ref name="autogenerated1">{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=608}}</ref> Dina sasih anu sami, calon gubernur ti Démokrat, John Atwood, ngaluarkeun surat anu nentang éta Kompromi, sarta Pierce mantuan ngayakeun deui konvénsi nagara bagian kanggé ngabatalkeun pencalonan Atwood tina tikét partéy.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Ieu kajadian ngaganggu pamilihan kanggé Démokrat, anu ahirna kawon dina sababaraha korsi; sanajan kitu, partéyna Pierce tetep nyepeng kadali ka éta nagara bagian, sarta aya dina posisi anu kuat kanggé pamilihan présidén anu badé sumping.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=173–180}}</ref> == Pamilihan 1852 == {{Utama|Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852}} [[File:1852DemocraticCampaignPoster.png|jmpl|upright|Postér kampanye kanggé tikét Pierce/King]] Nalika [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852]] beuki deukeut, Partéy Démokrat nuju karepék ku pasualan perbudakan, sanaos kalolobaan kelompok "**[[Barnburners sarta Hunkers#Barnburners|Barnburners]]**" (faksi radikal) anu kantos ninggalkan partéy sareng Van Buren kanggé ngawangun Partéy Free Soil parantos mulang deui. Harita aya harepan yén [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852]] bakal manggihan jalan buntu (''deadlock''), di mana moal aya calon anu sanggup kenging sora mayoritas dua per tilu sakumaha anu diperyogikeun. Para Démokrat New Hampshire, kalebet Pierce, tadina ngadukung tilas guruna, [[Levi Woodbury]], anu harita janten [[Hakim Agung Amérika Sarikat|Hakim Agung]], salaku calon kompromi. Nanging, pupusna Woodbury dina Séptémber 1851 muka lolongkrang kanggé sakutu-sakutu Pierce pikeun nampilkeun anjeunna salaku calon "**[[kuda hitam (pulitik)|kuda hideung]]**" (''dark horse'') nuturkeun tapak lacak Polk. Para Démokrat New Hampshire ngarasa yén, salaku nagara bagian anu paling konsistén méré kameunangan kanggé Partéy Démokrat, aranjeunna pantes nyadiakeun calon présidén. Tokoh sanésna anu dianggap bakal maju nyaéta Douglas, Cass, [[William Marcy]] ti New York, [[James Buchanan]] ti Pennsylvania, [[Sam Houston]] ti Texas, sarta [[Thomas Hart Benton (politikus)|Thomas Hart Benton]] ti Missouri.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=181–184}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=23–29}}</ref> Sanaos kenging pangrojong ti nagara bagian asalna, Pierce nyanghareupan rupa-rupa hahalang kanggé pencalonanana, jalaran anjeunna parantos sapuluh taun teu nyepeng jabatan publik sarta teu gaduh reputasi nasional sakumaha para calon utama sanésna. Anjeunna sacara kabuka nyatakeun yén pencalonan sapertos kitu bakal "kacida nolakna kana karesep sarta kahayang kuring", nanging ningal kahayang para Démokrat New Hampshire kanggé ningal salah saurang wargana kapilih, anjeunna terang yén pangaruhna di mangsa payun gumantung kana kasadiaanana kanggé maju.<ref name="w184plus" /> Ku kituna, anjeunna cicingeun ngidinan para pangrojongna kanggé ngayakeun lobi, kalayan pamahaman yén namina moal diasupkeun kana konvénsi kacipta upami parantos jelas yén taya sahiji calon utama anu tiasa meunang. Kanggé ngalegaan basis pangrojongna di Kidul, anjeunna nyerat serat anu negeskeun deui dukunganna kana Kompromi 1850, kalebet [[Undang-Undang Budak Buron]] anu kontrovérsial.<ref name="w184plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=184–197}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=32–33}}</ref> Konvénsi dikumpulkeun dina 1 Juni di Baltimore, sarta sakumaha anu parantos duga, jalan buntu (''deadlock'') lumangsung. Dina sora munggaran (''ballot'') ti 288 delegasi dina 3 Juni, Cass kenging 116 sora, Buchanan 93, sarta sésana papencar, kalayan taya hiji sora ogé kanggé Pierce. 34 sora salajengna ogé liwat tanpa aya calon anu caket kana kameunangan, sarta tetep taya sora kanggé Pierce. Tim Buchanan lajeng maréntahkeun delegasina kanggé milih calon-calon leutik, kalebet Pierce, kanggé némbongkeun yén Buchanan téh moal tiasa dibendung sarta kanggé ngahijikeun konvénsi di tukangeunana. Ieu taktik anyar téh kalah janten pakéwuh (''backfired''); saatos sababaraha sora, Virginia, New Hampshire, sarta Maine kalah malik milih Pierce. Sésa kakuatan Buchanan mimiti pecah ka Marcy, sarta Pierce geuwat nempatan posisi katilu. Saatos sora ka-48, anggota Kongrés ti Carolina Kalér [[James C. Dobbin]] masihan dukungan anu teu disangka-sangka sarta kacida sumangetna ka Pierce, anu satuluyna nyiptakeun gelombang pangrojong badag kanggé anjeunna. Dina sora ka-49, Pierce kenging ampir sakabéh sora (iwal genep sora), sahingga resmi janten calon présidén. Para delegasi milih Sénator Alabama [[William R. King]], saurang pangrojong Buchanan, salaku calon wakil présidén, sarta ngadopsi platform anu nolak "riribugan" salajengna ngeunaan perbudakan sarta ngadukung Kompromi 1850.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=197–202}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=33–34}}</ref> Nalika béja hasil konvénsi dugi ka New Hampshire, Pierce ampir teu percaya, sarta garwana dugi ka kapiuhan. Putra aranjeunna, Benjamin, nyerat serat ka ibuna bari ngaharepkeun yén Franklin moal hasil meunang dina pamilihan, jalaran anjeunna terang yén ibuna moal resepeun upami kedah matuh di Washington.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=34}}</ref> [[File:Scott vs Pierce campaign.jpg|jmpl|kénca|upright=1.3|Kartun pulitik anti-Pierce ieu ngagambarkeun anjeunna salaku jalma anu lemah sarta borangan.]] Calon ti Partéy Whig nyaéta Jéndral Scott, urut komandanna Pierce di Méksiko; pasanganana nyaéta [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] [[William Alexander Graham]]. Partéy Whig teu bisa ngahijikeun faksi-faksina sakumaha anu dilakukeun ku Démokrat, sarta konvénsi maranéhna ngadopsi platform anu ampir teu aya bédana jeung Démokrat, kaasup pangrojong kana Kompromi 1850. Hal ieu nyababkeun faksi Free Soilers majukeun calon sorangan, Sénator Hale, anu satuluyna ngarugikeun sora Whig. Kurangna bédana pandangan pulitik ngajadikeun kampanye ieu ngan saukur paséa ngeunaan kapribadian anu pait sarta nyababkeun [[tingkat partisipasi pamilih]] turun ka tingkat panghandapna ti saprak [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836|1836]]; nurutkeun biografer Peter A. Wallner, ieu téh "salah sahiji kampanye anu paling teu matak gumbira dina sajarah kapersidénan."<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=210–213}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=36–38}}</ref> Scott dirugikeun ku kurangna sumangat ti urang Whig kalér anu anti-perbudakan; éditor ''[[New-York Tribune]]'' [[Horace Greeley]] nyimpulkeun éta sikep nalika nyarita ngeunaan platform Whig, "urang nentang, mikangéwa, sarta nyiduhan éta platform."<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=724}}</ref> [[File:ElectoralCollege1852.svg|jmpl|upright=1.3|Peta éléktoral [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852]]]] Pierce milih cicingeun supados teu ngaganggu kahijian partéyna anu rapuh, sarta ngantepkeun para sakutuna anu ngajalankeun kampanye. Geus jadi adat harita yén calon présidén teu meunang katingal teuing ambisius néangan jabatan, sarta anjeunna mémang teu ngayakeun kampanye pribadi.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=231}}</ref><ref name="Gara1991 p38">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=38}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=725}}</ref> Lawan-lawan Pierce nyieun karikaturna salaku jalma borangan anu anti-Katolik sarta tukang mabok ("pahlawan tina loba botol inuman").<ref name="caricature">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=206}}</ref><ref name="Gara1991 p38"/> Samentis éta, Scott ngan kenging pangrojong lemah ti urang Whig anu nuju peupeus ku platform pro-Kompromi, sarta Scott ogé dianggap orator publik anu parah sarta osok salah ucap (''gaffe-prone'').<ref name="Gara1991 p38"/> Para Démokrat kacida yakin meunangna; salah sahiji slogan anu kawéntar nyaéta yén para Démokrat "bakal ''pierce'' (nubles) musuh-musuhna dina 1852 sakumaha maranéhna geus ''poked'' (nyundut/[[James K. Polk|Polked]]) musuhna dina 1844."<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=203}}</ref> Hal ieu kabuktian bener, Scott ngan bisa unggul di Kentucky, Tennessee, Massachusetts, jeung Vermont, kalayan kenging 42 sora éléktoral, sedengkeun Pierce kenging 254 sora. Kalayan total 3,2 juta sora anu asup, Pierce meunang sora rahayat (''popular vote''), 50,9% ngalawan 44,1%. Sakelompok badag Free Soilers milih rival Pierce ti nagara bagian anu sarua, Hale, anu kenging 4,9% sora rahayat.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=229–230}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=39}}</ref> Partéy Démokrat ogé hasil ngawasa mayoritas badag di Kongrés.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=740}}</ref> == Kapersidénan (1853–1857) == {{Utama|Kapersidénan Franklin Pierce}} === Masa transisi sareng kacilakaan karéta api === {{Tempo ogé|Kacilakaan karéta api Franklin Pierce}} [[File:First ladies-pierce.jpg|jmpl|upright|Jane Pierce sareng "Benny", anu pupusna masihan kalangkang duka sapanjang masa jabatan Pierce.<ref name="benny" />]] Pierce ngamimitian kapersidénanana dina kaayaan duka. Sababaraha minggu saatos pamilihan, dina kaping 6 Januari 1853, anjeunna sareng kulawargana nuju angkat ti Boston nganggo karéta api nalika gerbongna anjlog sarta ngaguling ka lamping deukeut [[Andover, Massachusetts]]. Franklin sareng Jane Pierce salamet, nanging putra tunggal aranjeunna anu yuswana 11 taun, Benjamin, pupus alatan kakeueum ku ruruntuhan gerbong, kalayan kaayaan mastaka anu ampir sapat. Pierce teu tiasa nyumputkeun éta tetempoan ti garwana. Duanana nandangan déprési anu kacida parna saatos éta kajadian, anu kamungkinan ageung mangaruhan kinerjana salaku présidén.<ref name="benny">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=241–249}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=43–44}}</ref> Jane Pierce sempet mikir naha éta kajadian téh mangrupa hukuman ti Gusti alatan salakina kacida ambisiusna ngudag sarta narima jabatan luhur. Anjeunna nyerat serat panjang anu eusina ménta hampura ka "Benny" alatan ngarasa gagal janten indung.<ref name="benny"/> Jane nyingkahan rupa-rupa acara sosial salila ampir dua taun munggaranana salaku [[Ibu Nagara Amérika Sarikat]], sarta nembé némbongan deui ka publik dina acara resépsi taunan di Gedong Bodas dina Poé Taun Anyar 1855, anu harita nampi rasa simpati anu kacida gedéna ti masarakat.<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|p=55}}</ref> Nalika Franklin Pierce angkat ti New Hampshire kanggé diidtrénan, Jane milih teu marengan. Pierce, anu harita janten lalaki pangngorana anu kapilih janten présidén, milih kanggé [[Ikrar (hukum)|ngikrarkeun]] (''affirm'') sumpah jabatanna dina buku hukum tinimbang dina Alkitab, sakumaha anu dilakukeun ku sakabéh présidén sateuacanna iwal John Quincy Adams.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Liptak|first=Adam|date=January 17, 2009|title=The Oath|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/18/weekinreview/18oath.html|access-date=2022-01-01}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé janten présidén munggaran anu nepikeun biantara pelantikanana dumasar kana ingetan (tanpa téks).<ref>{{cite book |last=Hurja |first=Emil |date=1933 |title=History of Presidential Inaugurations |publisher=New York Democrat |page=49}}</ref> Dina biantara éta, anjeunna ngabagéakeun éra katengtreman sarta kamakmuran di jero nagara sarta ngadesek kanggé negeskeun kapentingan A.S. dina hubungan internasional, kalebet akuisisi wilayah-wilayah énggal anu "kacida pentingna". "Kawijakan Pamaréntahan kuring", saurna, "moal bakal kendor ku ayana kasieun kana balukar buruk tina ékspansi." Bari nyingkahan kecap "perbudakan", anjeunna negeskeun kahayangna kanggé ngaréngsékeun éta "pasualan penting" sarta ngajaga persatuan anu tengtrem. Anjeunna ogé nyabit ngeunaan tragédi pribadina, kalayan nyarios ka balaréa, "Anjeun parantos manggil kuring dina mangsa kuring lemah, anjeun kedah ngarojong kuring ku kakuatan anjeun."<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=249–255}}</ref> === Pamaréntahan sareng papaséaan pulitik === {{Tempo ogé|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku Franklin Pierce}} {{CSS image crop|Image=PIERCE, Franklin-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize=250|cWidth=170|cHeight=240|oTop=40|oLeft=40|Description=Potrét ukiran [[Biro Ukiran sarta Percetakan|BEP]] Pierce salaku présidén.}} Dina nangtukeun pajabat [[Kabinet Amérika Sarikat|Kabinetna]], Pierce narékahan kanggé ngahijikeun partéy anu nuju paséa marebutkeun "buah" kameunangan. Kalolobaan anggota partéy mimitina mah teu ngadukung anjeunna dina pencalonan, malah sawatara aya anu kungsi sakutu sareng Partéy Free Soil kanggé kenging kameunangan dina pamilihan lokal. Pierce mutuskeun kanggé masihan jatah korsi ka unggal faksi partéy, kalebet faksi-faksi anu sateuacanna nentang Kompromi 1850.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=767}}</ref> Sénat kalayan sora buleud langsung nyatujuan sakabéh nominasi Kabinet Pierce.<ref name="wall5plus" /> Pierce méakkeun sababaraha minggu munggaran jabatanna kanggé milih ratusan posisi féderal tingkat handap anu kedah dieusi. Ieu téh mangrupa pagawéan anu beurat, jalaran anjeunna hoyong ngawakilan sakabéh faksi partéy, nanging tungtungna teu aya sahiji ogé faksi anu sugema pinuh. Para pangrojong partéy ngarasa hésé kanggé ngamankeun posisi keur babaturanana, anu satuluyna ngajantenkeun Partéy Démokrat tegang sarta numbuhkeun rasa pait antawis faksi. Teu lami ti dinya, surat kabar di Kalér nuduh Pierce ngeusian pamaréntahanana ku jalma-jalma pro-perbudakan anu hoyong misahkeun diri (''secessionists''), sedengkeun surat kabar di Kidul nuduh anjeunna salaku abolisionis.<ref name="wall5plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=5–24}}</ref> Papaséaan antawis Démokrat anu pro sarta anti-pamaréntahan beuki panas, utamana di jero Partéy Démokrat New York. Kelompok Démokrat "Hardshell" (''Hards'') anu langkung konsérvatif di New York kacida cangcayana ka administrasi Pierce, anu dianggap langkung raket sareng Marcy (anu janten Sekretaris Nagara) sarta faksi New York anu langkung moderat, nyaéta Démokrat "Softshell" (''Softs'').<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=15–18}}</ref> [[File:William R. D. King Vice President.jpg|jmpl|kénca|upright=0.7|Wakil Présidén [[William R. King]] pupus sakedap saatos sabulan ngajabat, anu nyababkeun lowongan jabatan anu teu tiasa dieusi harita.]] Buchanan kantos ngadesek Pierce supados konsultasi sareng Wakil Présidén terpilih, King, dina milih Kabinet, nanging Pierce teu ngalakukeun hal éta—Pierce sareng King mémang teu kantos ngayakeun komunikasi deui saprak dicalonkeun dina Juni 1852. Dina awal taun 1853, King nandangan panyakit tuberkulosis anu parna, sarta angkat ka Kuba kanggé tatamba. Kaayaanana beuki buruk, sahingga Kongrés ngaluarkeun undang-undang husus anu ngidinan anjeunna disumpah di payuneun konsul Amérika di Havana dina 24 Maret. Jalaran hoyong pupus di bumina sorangan, anjeunna mulang ka perkebunanana di Alabama dina 17 April sarta pupus dina dinten énjingna. Jabatan wakil présidén tetep kosong sapanjang sésa masa jabatan Pierce, jalaran Konstitusi harita tacan gaduh katangtuan kanggé ngeusi éta lowongan. Ieu kakosongan hartosna sapanjang kapersidénan Pierce, [[Présidén pro tempore Sénat Amérika Sarikat|Présidén pro tempore Sénat]], anu mimitina dijabat ku [[David Atchison]] ti Missouri, janten jalma munggaran dina garis suksési kapersidénan.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=21–22}}</ref> Pierce narékahan kanggé ngajalankeun pamaréntahan anu langkung éfisién sarta akuntabel tinimbang para miheulaanna.<ref name="wallner-20" /> Para anggota Kabinetna nerapkeun sistem awal ujian [[Layanan sipil féderal Amérika Sarikat|layanan sipil]], anu janten prékursor (mimitina) tina [[Undang-Undang Pendleton]] anu nembé lulus tilu dékadé saatosna, di mana posisi-posisi di pamaréntahan A.S. kedah dileler dumasar kana préstasi (''merit system''), sanés dumasar kana sistem ''patronase'' (balas jasa pulitik).<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=35–36}}</ref> Sékretaris [[Robert McClelland (pulitikus Amérika)|Robert McClelland]] ngayakeun réformasi dina [[Departemén Dalam Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Dalam Negeri]], ku cara nyistematiskeun operasina, ngalegaan panggunaan rékaman keretas (arsip), sarta merangan prakték curang (korupsi).<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=36–39}}</ref> Réformasi Pierce sanésna nyaéta ngalegaan peran jaksa agung A.S. dina nangtukeun hakim sarta jaksa féderal, hiji léngkah penting dina prosés kabentukna [[Departemén Kaadilan Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Kaadilan]] di mangsa payun.<ref name="wallner-20">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=20}}</ref> Harita aya lowongan di Mahkamah Agung—Fillmore, saatos gagal kenging konpirmasi ti Sénat kanggé calon-calonna, sempet nawarkeun éta posisi ka Sénator Louisiana anu nembé kapilih, [[Judah P. Benjamin]], nanging anjeunna nolak. Pierce ogé nawarkeun éta korsi ka Benjamin, nanging anjeunna tetep nolak.<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|1908|pp=118–119}}</ref> Saatos éta, Pierce nyalonkeun [[John Archibald Campbell]], saurang pangrojong hak-hak nagara bagian (''states' rights''); ieu mangrupa hiji-hijina pajabat Mahkamah Agung anu diangkat ku Pierce sapanjang jabatanna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=10}}</ref> === Kawijakan ékonomi sareng pangwangunan internal === [[File:Pierce Indian Peace Medal.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.7|[[Medali Perdaméan Indon|Medali Perdaméan Indian]] anu ngagambarkeun Pierce]] Pierce nganitah [[Sekretaris Perbendaharaan Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Perbendaharaan]] [[James Guthrie (politikus Kentucky)|James Guthrie]] kanggé ngaropéa [[Departemén Perbendaharaan Amérika Sarikat|Perbendaharaan]], anu harita dikokolakeun sacara teu éfisién sarta mibanda seueur rekening anu tacan bérés. Guthrie ningkatkeun pangawasan ka para pagawé Perbendaharaan sarta para penagih tarif (béa), anu kalolobaanana nahan artos nagara kanggé kapentingan pribadi. Sanaos aya undang-undang anu ngawajibkeun dana nagara disimpen di Perbendaharaan, deposit anu kacida badagna masih kénéh nyangsang di bank-bank swasta salami pamaréntahan Whig sateuacanna. Guthrie narik deui éta dana sarta nyoba nungtut para pajabat anu korup sacara hukum, sanajan hasilna rupa-rupa.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=32–36}}</ref> [[Sekretaris Perang Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Perang]] [[Jefferson Davis]], dumasar kana paménta Pierce, mingpin survey ku [[Korps Insinyur Topografi]] kanggé milari ruteu jalan karéta api transkontinéntal (meulah buana) di sakuliah nagara. Partéy Démokrat mémang parantos lami nolak alokasi dana féderal kanggé pangwangunan internal, nanging Davis ngarasa yén proyék sapertos kitu tiasa dibenerkeun sacara Konstitusional salaku tujuan kaamanan nasional. Davis ogé ngeragkeun [[Korps Insinyur Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] kanggé ngawas proyék-proyék konstruksi di Distrik Columbia, kalebet perluasan [[Gedong Capitol Amérika Sarikat]] sarta pangwangunan [[Monumén Washington]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=40–41, 52}}</ref> === Urusan luar nagri sareng militér === Pamaréntahan Pierce sajalan sareng gerakan ékspansionis ''[[Young America movement|Young America]'', kalayan Marcy mingpin ieu gerakan salaku sekretaris nagara. Marcy narékahan kanggé némbongkeun citra républik Amérika anu béda ka dunya. Anjeunna ngaluarkeun surat édanan (sirkular) anu nyarankeun supados para diplomat A.S. nganggé "papakéan saderhana warga nagara Amérika" tinimbang [[seragam diplomatik]] anu méwah sakumaha anu dianggo di karajaan-karajaan Éropa, sarta nyarankeun supados aranjeunna mung ngerahkeun warga nagara Amérika kanggé damel di konsulat.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=25–32}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=128}}</ref> Marcy nampi pujian internasional alatan seratna anu panjangna 73 kaca kanggé ngabéla pangungsi [[Austria]] [[Martin Koszta]], anu ditéwak di luar nagri dina pertengahan 1853 ku pamaréntah Austria sanaos anjeunna parantos gaduh niat janten warga nagara A.S.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=61–63}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=128–129}}</ref> Salaku pangrojong ruteu transkontinéntal Kidul, Davis ngayakinkeun Pierce kanggé ngintunkeun pangusaha jalan karéta api [[James Gadsden]] ka Méksiko kanggé mésér lahan anu bakal dijantenkeun ruteu jalan karéta api. Gadsden ogé dititah kanggé ngayakeun rundayan deui ngeunaan katangtuan dina [[Perjangjian Guadalupe Hidalgo]], anu ngawajibkeun A.S. kanggé nyegah serangan sélér asli Amérika (Indian) ka Méksiko ti Wilayah New Mexico. Gadsden hasil ngayakeun perjangjian sareng Présidén Méksiko [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] dina Désémber 1853, kalayan mésér lahan anu kacida legana di kidul-kulon. Ieu rundayan téh ampir waé gagal alatan ékspédisi [[filibuster (militér)|tanpa idin]] [[William Walker (filibuster)|William Walker]] ka Méksiko, sahingga hiji klausa diasupkeun kanggé merangan usaha-usaha sapertos kitu di mangsa payun.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=75–81}}</ref><ref name="Gara 1991 pp.129–133">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=129–133}}</ref> Kongrés ngirangan wilayah [[Pameselan Gadsden]] janten wilayah anu ayeuna ngawengku bagian kidul [[Arizona]] sarta sabagian kidul New Mexico; hargana ogé dipotong tina $15 juta janten $10 juta. Kongrés ogé ngasupkeun klausa panyalindungan kanggé saurang warga swasta, Albert G. Sloo, anu kapentinganana kasinggung ku éta pameselan. Pierce nentang panggunaan pamaréntah féderal kanggé nyokong industri swasta sarta henteu nyatujuan vérsi ahir tina éta perjangjian, nanging perjangjian kasebut tetep diratifikasi.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=106–108}}</ref><ref name="Gara 1991 pp.129–133" /> Ieu akuisisi wilayah téh ngajantenkeun [[wilayah Amérika Sarikat anu ngahiji]] dugi ka wates-watesna anu ayeuna, iwal sababaraha panyaluyuan leutik di mangsa salajengna.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=872}}</ref> {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet |align=left |Name=Pierce |President=Franklin Pierce |President start=1853 |President end=1857 |Vice President=[[William R. King]] |Vice President date=1853 |Vice President 2=''Teu aya'' |Vice President start 2=1853 |Vice President end 2=1857 |State=[[William L. Marcy]] |State start=1853 |State end=1857 |Treasury=[[James Guthrie (politikus Kentucky)|James Guthrie]] |Treasury start=1853 |Treasury end=1857 |War=[[Jefferson Davis]] |War start=1853 |War end=1857 |Justice=[[Caleb Cushing]] |Justice start=1853 |Justice end=1857 |Post=[[James Campbell (postmaster general)|James Campbell]] |Post start=1853 |Post end=1857 |Navy=[[James C. Dobbin]] |Navy start=1853 |Navy end=1857 |Interior=[[Robert McClelland (politikus Amérika)|Robert McClelland]] |Interior start=1853 |Interior end=1857 }} Hubungan sareng [[Britania Raya]] peryogi diréngsékeun, jalaran para pamayang Amérika ngarasa kaganggu ku beuki réképna pangawasan [[Angkatan Laut Karajaan]] (Inggris) di wilayah [[perairan téréritorial]] Kanada. Marcy hasil ngaréngsékeun perjangjian timbal balik (''reciprocity'') padagangan sareng menteri Inggris kanggé Washington, [[Sir John Crampton, 2nd Baronet|John Crampton]], anu ngirangan kabutuhan pangawasan di basisir ku pihak Inggris. Buchanan diutus janten menteri ka London kanggé neken pamaréntah Inggris anu dianggap lambat dina ngarojong perjangjian énggal. Hiji perjangjian timbal balik anu nguntungkeun tungtungna diratifikasi dina Agustus 1854, anu ku Pierce dianggap salaku léngkah munggaran nuju anéksasi Kanada ku Amérika.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=27–30, 63–66, 125–126}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=133}}</ref> Nalika pamaréntahanana ngayakeun rundayan sareng Inggris ngeunaan [[wates Kanada–Amérika Sarikat]], kapentingan A.S. ogé janten pasualan di Amérika Tengah, di mana [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]] taun 1850 gagal nyegah Inggris kanggé ngalegaan pangaruhna di éta wewengkon. Kénging kaunggulan tina Inggris di éta wilayah mangrupa bagian utama tina tujuan ékspansionis Pierce.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=26–27}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=139–140}}</ref> Para konsul Inggris di A.S. narékahan kanggé ngarékrut urang Amérika milu kana [[Perang Krimea]] dina taun 1854, anu mangrupa palanggaran kana undang-undang nétralitas. Pierce tungtungna ngusir Crampton sarta tilu konsul lianna. Pierce ngarasa héran jalaran Inggris henteu ngusir balik Buchanan salaku balesan. Dina talatah ''State of the Union'' Désémber 1855 ka Kongrés, Pierce nétélakeun argumén Amérika yén Inggris parantos ngalanggar Perjangjian Clayton-Bulwer. Nurutkeun Buchanan, pihak Inggris ngarasa katarik ku éta talatah sarta mimiti mikirkeun deui kawijakanana. Sanajan kitu, Buchanan tetep teu tiasa maksa maranéhna kanggé ninggalkeun wilayah jajahanana di Amérika Tengah. [[Perjangjian Timbal Balik Kanada-Amérika]] tungtungna diratifikasi ku Kongrés, parlemén Inggris, sarta législatif kolonial Kanada.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=902–917}}</ref> Pamaréntahan Pierce nimbulkeun kahariwang antar-wilayah (séksional) nalika tilu diplomat A.S. di Éropa nyusun usulan ka présidén kanggé mésér Kuba ti Spanyol kalayan harga $120 juta, sarta menerkeun tindakan "ngarebut" éta wilayah ti Spanyol upami éta tawaran ditolak. Publikasi [[Manifesto Ostend]], anu disusun dumasar kana pamenta Sekretaris Nagara Marcy, ngondang hinaan ti urang Kalér anu ningal éta hal salaku usaha kanggé nganéksasi wilayah nu gaduh budak demi nguatkeun kapentingan Kidul. Hal ieu milu ngaruksak kapercayaan kana kawijakan ékspansionis "[[Manifest Destiny]]" anu sering didukung ku Partéy Démokrat.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=131–157}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=149–155}}</ref> Pierce milih ngarojong ékspansi sarta réorganisasi militér sacara badag. Sekretaris Perang Davis sarta Sekretaris Angkatan Laut James C. Dobbin manggihan kaayaan Angkatan Darat sarta Angkatan Laut anu kurang manceg, kalayan jumlah pasukan anu teu cekap, ayana rasa horéam kanggé ngadopsi téknologi anyar, sarta manajémén anu teu éfisién.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=40–43}}</ref> Dina mangsa pamaréntahan Pierce, Komodor [[Matthew C. Perry]] [[Ékspédisi Perry|ngadatangan Jepang]] (hiji tarékah anu mimitina direncanakeun dina jaman Fillmore) dina raraga ngalegaan padagangan ka Wétan. Perry hoyong maksa asup ka Asia ku kakuatan militér, nanging Pierce sarta Dobbin ngadesek anjeunna supados tetep ngagunakeun jalur diplomatik. Perry tungtungna nandatanganan perjangjian padagangan anu saderhana sareng [[Shogun Tokugawa|Sogun Tokugawa]] Jepang anu hasil diratifikasi.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=172}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=134–135}}</ref> Peluncuran [[USS Merrimack (1855)|USS ''Merrimac'']] dina taun 1856, salah sahiji tina genep [[frigat uap]] anu nembé dipesen, mangrupa salah sahiji dinten anu "paling nyugemakeun sacara pribadi" kanggé Pierce salila ngajabat.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=256}}</ref> === Bleeding Kansas (Getih di Kansas) === {{Utama|Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska|Bleeding Kansas}} [[File:1855 Colton Map of Kansas and Nebraska (first edition) - Geographicus - NebraskaKansas-colton-1855.jpg|jmpl|upright=1.6|[[Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska]] ngatur wilayah [[Wilayah Kansas|Kansas]] (warna fink) sarta [[Wilayah Nebraska]] (konéng).]] Tantangan pangbadagna pikeun kasaimbangan nagara salila pamaréntahan Pierce nyaéta lulusna [[Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska]]. [[Wilayah anu diatur|Ngaréngsékeun administrasi]] [[Wilayah Nebraska]] anu kalolobaanana tacan dicicingan—anu ngampar ti [[Missouri]] nepi ka [[Pagunungan Rocky]], sarta ti Texas kalér nepi ka wates Kanada–Amérika Sarikat ayeuna—mangrupa bagian penting tina rencana Douglas pikeun ékspansi ka kulon. Anjeunna hoyong jalan karéta api transkontinéntal anu nyambung ti Chicago ka California, ngaliwatan éta wilayah kulon anu lega. Pangaturan wilayah diperlukeun pisan pikeun pamukiman, jalaran éta lahan moal bisa ditalungtik (disurvey) atawa dijual nepi ka pamaréntahan wilayahna resmi dibentuk. Pihak-pihak ti nagara bagian nu gaduh budak tacan pernah sugema ku ayana watesan perbudakan di wilayah kulon. Aranjeunna ngarasa yén perbudakan kudu bisa dimekarkeun ka wilayah-wilayah anu dimeunangkeun ku "getih sarta harta" anu sabagianana asalna ti Kidul. Douglas sarta para sakutuna boga rencana pikeun ngatur éta wilayah sarta ngantepkeun para pamukim lokal [[Kadaulatan rahayat di Amérika Sarikat|nangtukeun sorangan naha bakal ngidinan perbudakan atawa henteu]]. Hal ieu sacara otomatis bakal ngabolaskeun Kompromi Missouri 1820, jalaran kalolobaan éta wilayah perenahna di kalér garis 36°30′ N anu ku Kompromi Missouri dinyatakeun salaku wilayah "bébas" (tanpa budak). Éta wilayah bakal dibagi jadi dua: bagian kalér (Nebraska) jeung bagian kidul ([[Wilayah Kansas|Kansas]]), kalayan harepan yén Kansas bakal ngidinan perbudakan sedengkeun Nebraska moal.<ref name="kansas">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=90–102, 119–122}}</ref><ref name="kansas 2">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=88–100}}</ref><ref name="kansas 3">{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=1097–1240}}</ref> Nurutkeun pamandangan para politikus [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kidul|Kidul]] anu pro-perbudakan, Kompromi 1850 sabenerna geus ngabatalkeun Kompromi Missouri ku cara narima nagara bagian California (kaasup wilayah di kiduleun garis kompromi) salaku nagara bagian bébas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Jefferson |title=The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government |date=1881 |isbn=978-0-306-80418-2 |page=25|title-link=The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government |publisher=Hachette Books }}</ref> Pierce mimitina hoyong ngatur Wilayah Nebraska tanpa sacara éksplisit nyabit-nyabit sual perbudakan, nanging Douglas teu bisa meunangkeun cukup sora ti Kidul upami cara éta anu dianggo.<ref>{{harvnb|Etchison|2004|p=14}}</ref> Pierce sorangan cangcaya kana éta rangkay undang-undang, sabab anjeunna terang yén hal éta bakal ngabalukarkeun oposisi anu pait ti Kalér. Sanajan kitu, Douglas jeung Davis hasil ngayakinkeun anjeunna pikeun tetep ngadukung éta undang-undang. Ieu aturan nampi panolakan keras ti tokoh-tokoh Kalér sapertos Sénator Ohio [[Salmon P. Chase]] jeung Sénator Massachusetts [[Charles Sumner]], anu ngagerakkeun opini publik di Kalér pikeun ngalawan éta undang-undang. Urang Kalér geus ti baheula curiga kana Pameselan Gadsden, usaha anéksasi Kuba, sarta pangaruh para menteri nu gaduh budak sapertos Davis. Maranéhna ningal undang-undang Nebraska ieu salaku bagian tina pola agrési urang Kidul. Hasilna nyaéta "badai pulitik" (''political firestorm'') anu ngabalukarkeun karuksakan badag kana kapersidénan Pierce.<ref name="kansas" /><ref name="kansas 2"/><ref name="kansas 3"/> Pierce sarta pamaréntahanana ngagunakeun rupa-rupa ancaman sarta jangji kanggé ngajaga supados kalolobaan urang Démokrat tetep satuju kana éta undang-undang. Partéy Whig peupeus dumasar kana wates wilayah (Kalér-Kidul); ieu konplik ngancurkeun maranéhna salaku partéy nasional. Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska lulus dina Méi 1854 sarta ahirna janten ciri utama kapersidénan Pierce. Karubuan pulitik saatos lulusna éta aturan nyababkeun naékna kakuatan saheulaanan ti Partéy Amérika anu nativis sarta anti-Katolik (sering disebut kelompok [[Know Nothing]]), sarta ngabalukarkeun ngadegna [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]].<ref name="kansas" /><ref name="kansas 2"/><ref name="kansas 3"/> [[File:Forcing slavery down the throat of a freesoiler (1856) (cropped).tif|jmpl|kénca|upright|Urang Kalér mikangéwa tarékah Pierce kanggé ngalegaan perbudakan ngaliwatan Kansas–Nebraska sarta Kuba.<ref name="resentment" /><ref name="resentment 2"/> Dina kartun taun 1856 ieu, saurang anggota [[Partéy Free Soil]] dicekelan ku Pierce, Buchanan, sarta Cass, sedengkeun Douglas maksa ngasupkeun "Perbudakan" (digambarkeun salaku urang kulit hideung) kana sungutna.]] Nalika éta undang-undang nuju didebatkeun, para pamukim ti dua pihak (anu pro sarta anti-perbudakan) budal ka éta wilayah kanggé mastikeun hasil sora anu dipiharep. Lulusna éta aturan ngabalukarkeun kitu lobana kekerasan antawis kelompok sahingga éta wilayah katelah salaku **[[Bleeding Kansas]]** (Kansas Nu Ngagetih). Rébuan urang pro-perbudakan anu disebut [[Border Ruffians]] datang ti Missouri kanggé milih dina pamilihan wilayah sanaos maranéhna sanés warga asli Kansas, sahingga méré kameunangan ka faksi pro-perbudakan. Pierce ngadukung hasil éta pamilihan sanaos loba kajadian anu teu bérés (irégulér). Nalika kelompok [[Free-Stater (Kansas)|Free-Stater]] (anti-perbudakan) ngawangun pamaréntahan tandingan sarta nyusun [[Konstitusi Topeka]], Pierce nyebut tindakan maranéhna salaku pemberontakan. Présidén tetep ngaku ka législatif pro-perbudakan anu didominasi ku Démokrat, sanaos komisi panalungtik Kongrés manggihan yén pamilihanana henteu sah. Anjeunna ngeragkeun pasukan féderal kanggé ngabubarkeun rapat pamaréntahan Topeka.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=195–209}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=111–120}}</ref> Lulusna éta undang-undang ogé bareng sareng ditéwakna budak anu kabur, [[Anthony Burns]], di Boston. Urang Kalér ngahiji kanggé ngadukung Burns, nanging Pierce manceg kanggé ngajalankeun Undang-Undang Budak Buron sacara kaku, sarta ngeragkeun pasukan féderal kanggé mastikeun Burns mulang ka nu gaduhna di Virginia sanaos dihalangan ku balaréa anu ambek.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=122–125}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=107–109}}</ref> Pamilihan sela Kongrés taun 1854 sarta 1855 janten musibah kanggé Démokrat (ogé kanggé Partéy Whig anu ampir runtag). Démokrat kawon di ampir unggal nagara bagian di luar Kidul. Di New Hampshire, nagara bagian asalna Pierce anu tadina satia ka Démokrat, kelompok Know-Nothing hasil milih gubernur, sakabéh tilu wawakil, ngawasa législatif, sarta mulangkeun John P. Hale ka Sénat. Sumangat anti-imigran mawa kelompok Know-Nothing kenging sora panglobana, sarta sababaraha urang Kalér kapilih di handapeun bandéra Partéy Républik anu nembé diadegkeun.<ref name="resentment">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=158–167}}</ref><ref name="resentment 2">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=99–100}}</ref> === Pamilihan 1856 === {{Utama|Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1856}} [[File:Southern Chivalry.jpg|jmpl|katuhu|upright=1.35|Kekerasan faksi sumebar ka Kongrés dina Méi 1856 nalika Sénator Free Soil [[Charles Sumner]] [[panyerangan ka Charles Sumner|digebug ku iteuk]] ku wawakil ti Démokrat [[Preston Brooks]] di jero rohangan Sénat.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=120–121}}</ref>]] Pierce kacida ngaharepkeun kanggé dicalonkeun deui ku Partéy Démokrat. Nanging kanyataanana, lolongkrang anjeunna kanggé kenging pencalonan (komo deui kanggé meunang dina pamilihan umum) kacida ipisna. Pamaréntahanana dipikangéwa ku balaréa di Kalér alatan sikepna kana Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska, sarta para pamingpin Démokrat sadar yén Pierce kacida lemahna dina sora éléktoral. Sanajan kitu, para pangrojongna mimiti nyusun rencana kanggé beraliansi sareng Douglas supados James Buchanan teu kenging pencalonan. Buchanan gaduh koneksi pulitik anu kuat sarta "aman" di luar nagri sapanjang masa jabatan Pierce, sahingga anjeunna teu kakeueum ku karuksakan pulitik Kansas.<ref name="1856-convention">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=266–270}}</ref><ref name="1856-convention 2">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=157–167}}</ref><ref name="1856-convention 3">{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=1515–1558}}</ref> Nalika pamilihan sora (''balloting'') dimimitian dina 5 Juni di konvénsi di [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], Pierce ngaharepkeun kenging sora mayoritas, atanapi sora dua per tilu anu diperyogikeun. Dina sora munggaran, anjeunna mung kenging 122 sora, anu kalolobaanana ti Kidul, sedengkeun Buchanan kenging 135 sora, sarta sésana ka Douglas sarta Cass. Nepi ka énjingna, opat belas kali pamilihan sora parantos réngsé, nanging taya sahiji tina tilu calon utama anu tiasa kenging dua per tilu sora. Pierce, anu pangrojongna beuki lami beuki ngurangan, tungtungna nitah para pangrojongna kanggé ngalih milih Douglas; anjeunna narik namina salaku tarékah pamungkas kanggé ngéléhkeun Buchanan. Douglas, anu harita nembé yuswa 43 taun, yakin yén anjeunna tiasa dicalonkeun dina taun 1860 upami ngantepkeun Buchanan anu langkung sepuh kanggé meunang ayeuna, sarta anjeunna nampi jaminan ti tim Buchanan yén hal éta bakal laksana. Saatos dua kali deui sora anu macét, tim Douglas narik namina, sahingga Buchanan janten juara anu jelas. Kanggé ngubaran kasedih Pierce, konvénsi ngaluarkeun résolusi "aprobasi tanpa sarat" kanggé muji pamaréntahanana sarta milih sakutu Pierce, tilas Wawakil Kentucky [[John C. Breckinridge]], salaku calon wakil présidén.<ref name="1856-convention" /><ref name="1856-convention 2" /><ref name="1856-convention 3" /> Kéléh deui ieu téh janten catetan munggaran dina sajarah A.S. di mana saurang présidén anu keur ngajabat sarta aktip nyalonkeun deui, kalah henteu dicalonkeun ku partéy pulitikna sorangan kanggé période kadua.{{refn|group=note|Opat présidén sanésna—John Tyler, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, sarta Chester Arthur—gagal dicalonkeun deui ku partéyna masing-masing; nanging, masing-masing ti opat présidén éta téh mimitina mah kapilih salaku wakil présidén sarta janten présidén saatos miheulaanna pupus nalika nuju ngajabat.<ref name="krudin"/>}}<ref name="krudin">{{cite news|last1=Rudin|first1=Ken|title=When Has A President Been Denied His Party's Nomination?|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/politicaljunkie/2009/07/a_president_denied_renominatio.html|access-date=2017-02-15|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=July 22, 2009}}</ref> Pierce méré dukungan ka Buchanan, sanaos hubungan duanana tetep tiis; anjeunna ngaharepkeun tiasa ngabéréskeun kaayaan di Kansas dina bulan Novémber kanggé ningkatkeun lolongkrang kameunangan Démokrat dina pamilihan umum. Anjeunna ngangkat [[John W. Geary]] salaku gubernur wilayah, anu satuluyna ngondang amarah para législator pro-perbudakan.<ref name="w272plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=272–280}}</ref> Geary hasil mulangkeun katengtreman di Kansas, nanging karuksakan sacara éléktoral parantos lumangsung—Partéy Républik ngagunakeun slogan "Bleeding Kansas" sarta "Bleeding Sumner" (kajadian [[panyerangan ka Charles Sumner|Charles Sumner digebugan ku iteuk]] sacara brutal ku Perwakilan Carolina Kidul [[Preston Brooks]] di rohangan Sénat) salaku slogan kampanye.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=1610}}</ref> Tikét Buchanan/Breckinridge ahirna kapilih, nanging perséntase sora rahayat Démokrat di Kalér anjlog tina 49,8 persén dina taun 1852 janten 41,4 dina taun 1856. Buchanan mung kenging kameunangan di lima tina genep belas nagara bagian bébas (sedengkeun Pierce kapungkur kenging opat belas); malah di tilu nagara bagian mah Buchanan tiasa meunang téh alatan ayana sora anu peupeus antawis calon Républik, tilas sénator California [[John C. Frémont]], sareng calon ti Know Nothing, tilas présidén Fillmore.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=1610–24}}</ref> Pierce henteu ngalemahkeun rétorikana sanaos parantos gagal kenging pencalonan deui. Dina talatah pamungkasna ka Kongrés anu ditepikeun dina Désémber 1856, anjeunna sacara teuas nyerang urang Républik sarta para abolisionis. Anjeunna ngagunakeun éta kasempetan kanggé ngabéla catetan prestasina dina kawijakan fiskal sarta dina ngahontal hubungan anu tengtrem sareng nagara-nagara sanés.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=292–296}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=177–179}}</ref> Dina dinten-dinten terakhir pamaréntahan Pierce, Kongrés ngaluluskeun undang-undang kanggé naékeun gajih perwira angkatan darat sarta ngawangun kapal-kapal angkatan laut anyar, ogé nambahan jumlah pelaut anu diderék. Kongrés ogé ngaluluskeun undang-undang pangirangan tarif anu parantos lami dipiharep ku anjeunna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=303–304}}</ref> Pierce sareng kabinétna ninggalkan jabatan dina 4 Maret 1857, anu janten hiji-hijina sajarah di A.S. di mana sakabéh anggota kabinét asli tetep ngajabat sagemblengna salami opat taun masa jabatan.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=305}}</ref> == Pasca-kapersidénan (1857–1869) == [[File:George P.A. Healy - Franklin Pierce - Google Art Project.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.9|Potrét karya [[George Peter Alexander Healy]]. Pierce, anu katingal di dieu dina taun 1858, tetep janten tokoh pulitik anu vokal saatos masa jabatanna réngsé.<ref name="postpres" />]] Saatos ninggalkan Gedong Bodas, kulawarga Pierce tetep cicing di Washington salami langkung ti dua bulan, matuh di bumi tilas Sekretaris Nagara [[William L. Marcy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|p=20}}</ref> Buchanan ngarobah haluan ti pamaréntahan Pierce ku cara ngaganti sakabéh pajabat anu kungsi diangkat ku Pierce. Kulawarga Pierce ahirna ngalih ka Portsmouth, New Hampshire, di mana Pierce mimiti investasi dina widang properti. Kanggé milari hawa anu langkung haneut, anjeunna sarta Jane méakkeun tilu taun salajengna kanggé ngumbara, dimimitian ku cicing di [[Madeira]] sarta dituluykeun ku tur ka Éropa sarta [[Bahamas]].<ref name="postpres" /> Di Roma, anjeunna nganjang ka Nathaniel Hawthorne; duanana méakkeun seueur waktos babarengan sarta Hawthorne ningal yén tilas présidén éta tetep sumanget sapertos biasana.<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|pp=55–56}}</ref> Pierce henteu kantos ngaleupaskeun paneuteupna tina dunya pulitik salami pangumbaraanana, anjeunna rutin méré koméntar ngeunaan konplik antar-wilayah (séksional) anu beuki rongkah. Anjeunna negeskeun yén para abolisionis Kalér kedah mundur supados nyegah Kidul misahkeun diri (séksési). Anjeunna nyerat yén pertumpahan getih tina perang sadulur "moal mung lumangsung di sapanjang garis Mason sarta Dixon", nanging "di jero wates urang sorangan, di jalan-jalan urang sorangan".<ref name="postpres" /> Anjeunna ogé nyempad para pendéta Protéstan New England, anu kalolobaanana ngarojong abolisi sarta calon-calon Républik, salaku tindakan "bidah sarta hianat".<ref name="postpres">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=309–327}}</ref> Naékna Partéy Républik maksa urang Démokrat kanggé ngabéla Pierce; salila [[Debat Lincoln-Douglas|debatna]] sareng calon Sénat Républik [[Abraham Lincoln]] dina taun 1858, Douglas nyebut tilas présidén éta salaku "lalaki anu gaduh integritas sarta kahormatan".<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|pp=65–66}}</ref> Nalika Konvénsi Démokrat 1860 beuki deukeut, sababaraha pihak ménta Pierce kanggé maju salaku calon kompromi anu tiasa ngahijikeun partéy anu nuju peupeus, nanging Pierce nolak. Nalika Douglas bajoang kanggé kenging pangrojong ti Kidul, Pierce ngadukung Cushing sarta Breckinridge salaku altérnatif, nanging prioritas utamana nyaéta kahijian Partéy Démokrat. Partéy Démokrat anu peupeus ahirna [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|éléh mutlak]] ku calon ti Républik, Lincoln. Dina bulan-bulan antawis kapilihna Lincoln sarta pelantikanana dina 4 Maret 1861, Pierce nyaksian sababaraha nagara bagian Kidul mimiti nyusun rencana kanggé misahkeun diri (séksési). Anjeunna dipénta ku Hakim Campbell kanggé angkat ka Alabama sarta nepikeun biantara dina konvénsi séksési di dinya. Alatan nuju teu damang anjeunna nolak, nanging anjeunna ngintunkeun serat anu ngajak rahayat Alabama supados tetep satia ka Uni (Sarekat), sarta méré waktu ka Kalér kanggé ngabatalkeun undang-undang anu ngarugikeun Kidul sarta milari jalan tengah.<ref name="secede">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=327–338}}</ref> === Perang Sadulur === Saatos tarékah kanggé nyegah [[Perang Sadulur Amérika|Perang Sadulur]] gagal ku ayana serangan ka [[Benténg Sumter]], urang Démokrat Kalér, kalebet Douglas, ngarojong rencana Lincoln kanggé mawa deui nagara-nagara bagian Kidul ka Uni ku jalan kekerasan. Pierce hoyong nyingkahan perang ku cara naon waé, sarta nyerat ka Van Buren kanggé ngusulkeun ayana pasamoan tilas présidén A.S. kanggé ngaréngsékeun éta pasualan, nanging usulan ieu teu dipaliré. "Kuring moal pernah menerkeun, ngarojong, atanapi ku cara naon waé sarta nepi ka tingkat mana waé ngabela ieu perang anu telenges, teu boga haté, teu boga tujuan, sarta teu perlu," serat Pierce ka garwana.<ref name="secede" /> Pierce sacara kabuka nentang paréntah Présidén Lincoln kanggé nunda hulu (''suspension'') surat paréntah **[[habeas corpus di Amérika Sarikat|''habeas corpus'']]**, kalayan alesan yén sanajan dina mangsa perang, nagara teu meunang ninggalkan panyalindungan kana kabébasan sipil. Sikep ieu ngajantenkeun anjeunna dikagumi ku kelompok [[Copperheads (pulitik)|Démokrat Kalér anu Pro-Perdaméan]] (''Copperheads'') anu nuju mekar, nanging pihak sanés ningal éta sikep salaku bukti salajengna yén Pierce mémang condong ka Kidul.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=337–343}}</ref> Dina Séptémber 1861, Pierce angkat ka Michigan, nganjang ka tilas Sekretaris Jero Nagara, McClelland, tilas sénator Cass, sarta tokoh sanésna. Saurang tukang buku di Detroit, J. A. Roys, ngirimkeun serat ka Sekretaris Nagara Lincoln, [[William H. Seward]], anu nuduh yén tilas présidén éta ngayakeun pasamoan sareng jalma-jalma anu teu satia, sarta nyarios yén anjeunna nguping aya rencana kanggé ngagulingkeun pamaréntahan sarta ngangkat Pierce janten présidén. Dina bulan anu sami, surat kabar pro-pamaréntah ''[[Detroit Tribune]]'' nyitak hiji tulisan anu nyebut Pierce salaku "mata-mata hianat anu keur kukulampangan", sarta nyebutkeun yén anjeunna téh anggota kelompok pro-Konpédérasi, [[Knights of the Golden Circle]]. Sabenerna mah éta konspirasi téh teu aya, nanging saurang pangrojong Pierce, Guy S. Hopkins, ngirimkeun serat ka ''Tribune'' anu saolah-olah asalna ti anggota Knights of the Golden Circle, anu nyebutkeun yén "Présidén P." mangrupa bagian tina rencana ngalawan Uni.<ref name="michigan">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=341–343}}</ref><ref name="michigan 2">{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|pp=85–100}}</ref> Mimitina Hopkins hoyong supados ''Tribune'' nyebarkeun éta tuduhan, anu satuluyna Hopkins bakal ngaku yén anjeunna anu nyeratna, kanggé némbongkeun yén éditor ''Tribune'' téh kacida partisan sarta babari dibobodo (''gullible''). Sabalikna, éditor ''Tribune'' kalah ngirimkeun éta serat Hopkins ka pajabat pamaréntahan. Seward satuluyna maréntahkeun kanggé néwak jalma-jalma anu dianggap "tukang hianat" di Michigan, kalebet Hopkins. Hopkins ahirna ngaku yén éta serat téh jieunanana sarta ngan saukur bobodoran (''hoax''), nanging sanaos kitu, Seward tetep nyerat ka Pierce kanggé naroskeun naha éta tuduhan téh leres. Pierce nolak sacara teuas, sarta Seward gancang-gancang narik deui ucapanna. Ti saprak harita, surat kabar Républik tetep nyitak éta serat Hopkins sanaos Hopkins parantos ngaku yén éta téh ''hoax'', sahingga Pierce mutuskeun yén anjeunna kedah ngabersihkeun namina sacara kabuka. Nalika Seward nolak kanggé nyebarkeun surat-suratan maranéhna ka publik, Pierce némbongkeun amarahna ku cara ménta sakutu Sénatna, [[Milton Latham]] ti California, kanggé macakeun surat-surat antawis Seward sarta Pierce kana catetan resmi Kongrés, anu satuluyna ngajantenkeun pamaréntahan Lincoln éra.<ref name="michigan" /><ref name="michigan 2"/> Ayana kawijakan wajib militer (''draft'') sarta ditéwakna tokoh Démokrat anti-pamaréntahan [[Clement Vallandigham]] mingkin ngahurungkeun amarah Pierce. Dina bulan Juli 1863, anjeunna nepikeun biantara di payuneun urang Démokrat New Hampshire anu isina nyempad pisan ka Lincoln. "Saha, kuring nanya, anu parantos méré kakawasaan ka Présidén kanggé ngatur saha waé di antawis urang ngeunaan iraha urang kedah atanapi meunang nyarita, atanapi kedah jempe kana sagala pasualan, utamana anu patalina sareng paripolah saurang palayan publik?", tanya anjeunna.<ref name="speech">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=343–357}}</ref><ref name="speech2">{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|pp=109–123}}</ref> Koméntar Pierce ieu ditampa kalayan goréng di sabagian ageung wilayah Kalér, utamana jalaran kritikna ka Lincoln bareng sareng dua kameunangan Uni di [[Patempuran Gettysburg]] sarta [[Pengepungan Vicksburg]]. Reputasi Pierce di Kalér mingkin ruksak dina bulan salajengna nalika perkebunan Présidén Konpédérasi, Jefferson Davis, di Mississippi dikoas ku prajurit Uni. Surat-suratan Pierce sareng Davis (sakabéhna ti mangsa sateuacan perang) anu némbongkeun silaturahmi anu jero sarta ramalan yén perang sadulur bakal ngakibatkeun pemberontakan di Kalér, sumebar ka média massa. Ucapan Pierce ieu mingkin nguatkeun sentimén para abolisionis kanggé ngalawan anjeunna.<ref name="speech" /><ref name="speech2"/> Jane Pierce pupus alatan tuberkulosis di Andover, Massachusetts dina Désémber 1863; anjeunna dikureubkeun di Makam Old North di Concord, New Hampshire. Pierce mingkin nandang duka nalika sahabatna, Nathaniel Hawthorne, pupus dina Méi 1864; Pierce nuju sareng Hawthorne nalika panyerat éta pupus sacara dadakan. Hawthorne sateuacanna parantos ngadédikasikeun buku terakhirna kanggé Pierce, hiji hal anu harita dianggap kontrovérsial. Sababaraha urang Démokrat nyobian deui ngajukeun nami Pierce kanggé dicalonkeun dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864]], nanging anjeunna milih ngajaga jarak; Lincoln tungtungna kenging deui période kadua kalayan sora anu mutlak. Nalika warta ngeunaan [[Rajapati Abraham Lincoln]] sumebar dina April 1865, sakumpulan massa ngumpul di luar bumi Pierce di Concord, nungtut penjelasan naha anjeunna henteu masang bandéra salaku tanda duka publik. Pierce janten ambek, anjeunna nyatakeun rasa sedihna atas pupusna Lincoln nanging nolak yén anjeunna kedah némbongkeun sikep publik sapertos kitu. Anjeunna nyarios ka balaréa yén catetan sajarah jasa militér sarta jasa publikna parantos cukup ngabuktikeun rasa patriotismeuna, anu tungtungna tiasa ngajémpékeun éta massa.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=357–362}}</ref> === Taun-taun terakhir sareng pupusna === [[File:Franklin Pierce Gravesite.jpg|jmpl|Tetengger makam Pierce di Makam Old North, di Concord, New Hampshire.]] Kabiasaan nginum alkohol Pierce ngarusak kasehatanana dina taun-taun terakhirna, sarta anjeunna janten langkung religius. Anjeunna kungsi gaduh hubungan sakedap sareng saurang awéwé anu teu dipikanyaho dina pertengahan taun 1865. Salami mangsa ieu, anjeunna ngagunakeun pangaruhna kanggé ngaronjatkeun palayanan ka Davis, anu harita janten tahanan di [[Benténg Monroe]] di Virginia. Anjeunna ogé nawarkeun bantuan kauangan ka putra Hawthorne, [[Julian Hawthorne]], sarta ka para ponakanana sorangan. Dina pangéling-ngéling dua taun pupusna Jane, Pierce dibaptis kana kapercayaan garwana, nyaéta [[Géréja Épiskopal (Amérika Sarikat)|Épiskopal]] di Géréja St. Paul di Concord. Anjeunna ngarasa ieu géréja téh kurang pulitikna tinimbang dénominasi Kongrégasionalna anu kapungkur, anu dianggap parantos ngajauhkeun urang Démokrat ku rétorika anti-perbudakan. Anjeunna ngajalanan hirup salaku "patani sepuh", sakumaha anjeunna nyebut dirina sorangan, ku cara mésér lahan, ngirangan nginum alkohol, tani ku sorangan, sarta narima kunjungan dulur-dulurna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=363–366}}</ref> Anjeunna méakkeun lolobana waktosna di Concord sarta di pondokna di [[Little Boar's Head Historic District|Little Boar's Head]] di basisir, sakali-kali nganjang ka kulawarga Jane di Massachusetts. Sanaos masih kénéh mikaresep dunya pulitik, anjeunna nyatakeun dukungan kana kawijakan [[Era Rékonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]] [[Andrew Johnson]] sarta ngarojong pembebasan présidén éta dina [[Impeachment Andrew Johnson|sidang pamakzulanana]]; anjeunna ogé engkéna nyatakeun optimismeu ka gaganti Johnson, [[Ulysses S. Grant]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=366–371}}</ref> {{anchor|Death}} Kasehatan Pierce mimiti nyirorot deui dina pertengahan taun 1869; anjeunna deui-deui nginum alkohol sacara kaleuleuwihi sanaos kaayaan fisikna beuki buruk. Anjeunna mulang ka Concord dina Séptémber éta kalayan nandangan panyakit [[sirosis]] ati anu parna, sarta sadar yén anjeunna moal tiasa cageur deui. Saurang pangurus (''caretaker'') diséwa kanggé ngurus anjeunna; teu aya hiji ogé anggota kulawargana anu hadir dina dinten-dinten terakhirna. Anjeunna pupus dina jam 04:35 énjing-énjing dina dinten Jumaah, 8 Oktober 1869, dina yuswa 64 taun. Présidén Grant, anu engkéna ngabéla jasa-jasa Pierce dina Perang Méksiko-Amérika, netepkeun dinten duka nasional. Surat kabar di sakuliah nagara muat carita panjang dina kaca hareup anu medar karir Pierce anu rupa-rupa sarta kontrovérsial. Pierce dikureubkeun di gigireun garwana sarta dua putrana di komplek Minot di [[Makam Old North (Concord, New Hampshire)|Makam Old North]] Concord.<ref name="burial">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=369–373}}</ref> Dina [[wasiat]] terakhirna, anu ditandatanganan dina 22 Januari 1868, Pierce ninggalkeun sajumlah badag barang-barang wasiat sapertos lukisan, pedang, kuda, sarta barang sanésna kanggé réngréngan babaturan, kulawarga, sarta tatanggana. Sabagian badag tina kakayaanana anu ajénna $72.000 (sarua jeung kira-kira $1,5 juta ayeuna) dipasrahkeun ka kulawarga lanceukna, Henry, sarta ka barudak Hawthorne ogé ka nu gaduh imah pondokan Pierce. Putra Henry, Frank Pierce, nampi bagian anu pangbadagna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=374}}</ref> == Situs, pangéling-ngéling, sareng kahormatan == [[File:Pierce Statue Concord NH.jpg|jmpl|kénca|[[Patung Franklin Pierce]] di [[Gedong Nagara New Hampshire]] di [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]]]] Salian ti gelar LL.D. ti Universitas Norwich, Pierce nampi gelar doktor kahormatan ti Bowdoin College (1853) sarta [[Dartmouth College]] (1860).<ref>{{cite book |last= Dartmouth College |date= 1900 |title= General Catalogue |url= https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_sKM4AAAAYAAJ |quote= Franklin Pierce LL.D. dartmouth. |publisher= Dartmouth College |page= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_sKM4AAAAYAAJ/page/n432 405]|access-date= August 30, 2014}}</ref> Aya dua tempat di New Hampshire anu kadaptar dina [[Daptar Tempat Bersejarah Nasional]] sacara husus alatan patalina sareng Pierce. **[[Franklin Pierce Homestead]]** di Hillsborough mangrupa taman nagara sarta [[Tanda Sajarah Nasional]], anu kabuka kanggé umum.<ref name="homestead" /> [[Imah Franklin Pierce (South Main Street, Concord, New Hampshire)|Imah Franklin Pierce]] di Concord, tempat Pierce pupus, parantos hancur ku kahuruan dina taun 1981, nanging tetep kadaptar dina daptar bersejarah kasebut.<ref>{{cite web |url={{NRHP url|id=79000318}} |title=Franklin Pierce House |publisher=National Register of Historic Places |access-date=June 29, 2014}} <br /> {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/09/18/us/franklin-pierce-home-burns.html |title=Franklin Pierce Home Burns |agency=Associated Press |date=September 18, 1981 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> **[[Pierce Manse]]**, imahna di Concord ti taun 1842 dugi ka 1848, kabuka sacara musiman sarta dikokolakeun ku kelompok relawan, "**The Pierce Brigade**".<ref name="manse" /> [[Patung Franklin Pierce]] karya [[Henry Augustus Lukeman|Augustus Lukeman]], anu diresmikeun dina taun 1914,<ref>Pride, Mike. [https://www.concordmonitor.com/Franklin-Pierce-statue-34783278 “Franklin Pierce statue was criticized even before its creation”]. ''Concord Monitor.'' Published June 16, 2020. Accessed March 20, 2023.</ref> nangtung di palataran [[Gedong Nagara New Hampshire]]. Sababaraha [[tanda sajarah New Hampshire]] ogé dipasang kanggé miéling Pierce sarta kulawargana di sabudeureun wilayah New Hampshire.<ref>[https://www.nh.gov/nhdhr/markers/documents/markers%20bynumber.pdf ”New Hampshire Highway Historical Markers”]. ''New Hampshire Division of Historical Resources.'' Published January 18, 2023. Accessed March 20, 2023.</ref> Sababaraha lembaga sarta tempat parantos dingaranan dumasar kana nami Pierce, kalolobaanana aya di New Hampshire: * [[Universitas Franklin Pierce]] di [[Rindge, New Hampshire]], diadegkeun dina taun 1962.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.franklinpierce.edu/about/history.htm |title=History |publisher=Franklin Pierce University |access-date=June 29, 2014}}</ref> * [[Sakola Hukum Universitas New Hampshire]] diadegkeun dina taun 1973 kalayan nami Franklin Pierce Law Center. Nalika nami sakola éta dirobih dina taun 2010, hiji Puseur Franklin Pierce kanggé Hak Kakayaan Intelektual diadegkeun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://law.unh.edu/franklin-pierce-ip-center |title=Franklin Pierce Center for IP |publisher=University of New Hampshire |access-date=June 29, 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102061902/http://law.unh.edu/franklin-pierce-ip-center |date=November 2, 2015 }}</ref> * Aya hiji puncak nu namina [[Gunung Pierce]] dina [[Jajaran Présidén]] di [[Pagunungan Bodas (New Hampshire)|Pagunungan Bodas]] New Hampshire, anu diganti namina tina Gunung Clinton dina taun 1913.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mountwashington.org/about/visitor/mountains.php |title=Mountains of the Presidential Range |publisher=Mount Washington Observatory |access-date=June 29, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105070612/http://www.mountwashington.org/about/visitor/mountains.php |archive-date=November 5, 2013 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714204141/https://www.mountwashington.org/about/visitor/mountains.php |date=July 14, 2014 }}</ref> * Kota leutik [[Pierceton, Indiana]], diadegkeun dina taun 1850-an kanggé ngahormatan Présidén Pierce.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pierceton.us/history/ |title=History |publisher=Pierceton, Indiana |access-date=June 29, 2014 |archive-date=July 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714164746/http://pierceton.us/history/ |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714164746/http://pierceton.us/history/ |date=July 14, 2014 }}</ref> * [[County Pierce, Washington]], county kadua panglobana pangeusina di éta nagara bagian, dingaranan kanggé ngahormatan Présidén Pierce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historylink.org/File/314|title=King County, Founding of|publisher=HistoryLink.org|last=Rochester|first=Junius|date=November 10, 1998|access-date=January 31, 2017}}</ref> * [[County Pierce, Georgia]], anu diadegkeun dina taun 1857, ogé dingaranan kanggé ngahormatan Présidén Pierce.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guss |first=John Walter |date=2001 |title=Pierce County, Georgia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FWuHBiQ1GoMC&pg=PA9 |location=Charleston, SC |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |page=9 |isbn=978-0-7385-1387-4}}</ref> == Warisan == {{multiple image | footer = Gambar Pierce parantos dianggo dina [[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps|perangko A.S.]] (1938) sarta [[Presidential $1 Coin Program|Koin Dolar Présidén]] (2010). | total_width = 220 | image_gap = 10 | image2 = Franklin Pierce $1 Presidential Coin obverse sketch.jpg | alt2 = Koin hiji dolar anu nampilkeun Pierce | image1 = Franklin Pierce 1938 Issue-14c.jpg | alt1 = Perangko anu nampilkeun Pierce }} Saatos pupusna, Pierce kalolobaanana leungit tina kasadaran rahayat Amérika, iwal ti dianggap salaku salah sahiji tina séri présidén anu masa jabatanna janten musibah anu ngarah kana perang sadulur.<ref name="g180">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=180}}</ref> Masa kapersidénanana sacara lega dianggap salaku kagagalan; anjeunna sering digambarkeun salaku salah sahiji [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|présidén panggoréngna dina sajarah Amérika]].{{refn|group=note|Wallner nyerat: "Aya karaguan naha aya tilas présidén sanés anu kitu dipikangéwa dina mangsa sepuhna sapertos Franklin Pierce, sarta reputasina ampir taya parobahan dina abad satengah saatos pupusna. Malah mah, anjeunna parantos dipopohokeun sarta ukur janten catetan suku dina buku sajarah—salaku jalma biasa anu ramah nanging teu gaduh kamampuan kanggé janten présidén sarta ngan saukur kenging éta posisi luhur alatan kabeneran nasib."<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=377–379}}</ref><ref name="legacy">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=xi–xii}}: "Sajarah parantos méré bagian kasalahan ka administrasi Pierce kanggé kawijakan anu ngahurungkeun deui pasualan perbudakan, ngagancangkeun runtagna sistem dua partéy, sarta ngabalukarkeun Perang Sadulur. ... Ieu mangrupa penilaian anu teu akurat sarta teu adil. Pierce salawasna janten saurang nasionalis anu narékahan milari jalan tengah kanggé ngajaga Uni tetep ngahiji. ... Alternatif tina ngajalankeun jalur modérat nyaéta pecahna Uni, Perang Sadulur, sarta pupusna langkung ti genep ratus rébu urang Amérika. Pierce teu kedah disalahkeun alatan narékahan sapanjang karir pulitikna kanggé nyingkahan takdir ieu."</ref><ref name="legacy 2">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=180–184}}: "Maranéhna anu maénkeun kaulinan peringkat présidén salawasna masihan skor di handapeun rata-rata ka Franklin Pierce. ... Ningal kana kajadian-kajadian satuluyna, administrasi Pierce mung tiasa ditingal salaku musibah kanggé bangsa. Kagagalanana mangrupa kagagalan sistem sakumaha kagagalan Pierce sorangan, anu ku Roy Franklin Nichols parantos digambarkeun kalayan parigel salaku tokoh anu kompléks sarta tragis."</ref><ref name="legacy 3">''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'', "[https://www.usnews.com/news/history/articles/2007/02/16/worst-presidents-franklin-pierce Worst Presidents: Franklin Pierce]" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002031707/http://www.usnews.com/news/history/articles/2007/02/16/worst-presidents-franklin-pierce |date=October 2, 2013 }} (2007): "Semangatna kanggé ngalegaan wates wilayah milu nyiapkeun jalan kanggé Perang Sadulur."</ref>}} Publik nempatkeun anjeunna dina urutan katilu panghandapna di antawis para présidén sanésna dina survéi [[C-SPAN]] (2000 sarta 2009).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://legacy.c-span.org/PresidentialSurvey/Overall-Ranking.aspx |publisher=[[C-SPAN]] |title=C-SPAN Survey |date=2009 |access-date=June 30, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140722122306/http://legacy.c-span.org/PresidentialSurvey/Overall-Ranking.aspx |archive-date=July 22, 2014 }}</ref> Sabagian tina kagagalanana nyaéta alatan ngantepkeun Kongrés anu parantos peupeus kanggé nyandak inisiatif, anu paling fatal nyaéta dina Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska. Sanaos anjeunna henteu mingpin éta perjoangan—sabab dipingpin ku Sénator Douglas—nanging Pierce anu kedah mayar hargana ku ruksakna reputasi anjeunna.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=182}}</ref> Kagagalan Pierce, salaku présidén, kanggé ngahontal perdamaian antar-wilayah (séksional) milu mungkas dominasi Partéy Démokrat anu dimimitian ku Jackson, sarta ngarah kana période salila tujuh puluh taun di mana urang Républik kalolobaanana ngawasa pulitik nasional.<ref name="crockett">{{cite journal|title=The Historical Presidency: The Perils of Restoration Politics: Nineteenth-Century Antecedents|last=Crockett|first=David A.|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|volume=42|issue=4|date=December 2012|pages=881–902|doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2012.04023.x}}</ref> Ahli sajarah [[Eric Foner]] nyatakeun, "Pamaréntahanana tétéla janten salah sahiji anu pangparahna (disastrous) dina sajarah Amérika. Ieu nyaksian runtagna sistem partéy anu diwariskeun ti Jaman Jackson".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Foner |first1=Eric |title=Give Me Liberty!: An American History |date=2006 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |page=413 |volume=1}}</ref> Penulis biografi [[Roy Franklin Nichols|Roy F. Nichols]] boga pamandangan:<ref>Roy F. Nichols, "Franklin Pierce", ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934) {{cite book|last=Capace|first=Nancy|title=Encyclopedia of New Hampshire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyCVd_nCYl8C&pg=PA268|year=2001|pages=268–69|publisher=Somerset Publishers |isbn=978-0-403-09601-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Flagel|first=Thomas R. |date=2012 |title=History Buff's Guide to the Presidents |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FY7fAAAAQBAJ&q=%22franklin+pierce%22&pg=PA157 |location= Nashville, Tennessee|publisher= Cumberland House|page= 404|isbn=978-1-4022-7142-7}}</ref> > Salaku pamingpin pulitik nasional, Pierce téh mangrupa hiji "kabeneran" (accident). Anjeunna jujur sarta manceg kana pandanganana, nanging, jalaran anjeunna hésé dina nyandak kaputusan sarta sering robah pikiran sateuacan mutuskeun hal anu ahir, anjeunna méré gambaran umum ngeunaan kateustabilan. Jalmi anu bageur, sopan, sarta berehan, anjeunna narik ati loba jalma, nanging usahana kanggé nyugemakeun sakabéh faksi kalah gagal sarta ngajantenkeun anjeunna gaduh seueur musuh. Dina ngajalankeun prinsip konstruksi hukum anu ketat, anjeunna langkung sapuk sareng urang Kidul, anu umumna gaduh dasar hukum anu kuat dina pihak maranéhna. Anjeunna gagal pisan dina nyadar jero sarta ihlasna parasaan urang Kalér kanggé ngalawan Kidul, sarta anjeunna ngarasa bingung ku ayana palanggaran umum kana hukum sarta Konstitusi, sakumaha anu ku anjeunna digambarkeun, ku rahayat ti New England-na sorangan. Teu kantos sakali-kali ogé anjeunna hasil narik imajinasi rahayat. Kateumampuanana kanggé nungkulan masalah-masalah hésé anu muncul dina awal pamaréntahanana ngabalukarkeun anjeunna kaleungitan hormat ti loba jalma, utamana di Kalér, sarta sababaraha kasuksésanana gagal mulangkeun kapercayaan publik. Anjeunna mangrupa jalmi anu kurang pangalaman, anu ujug-ujug dipénta kanggé nanggung tanggung jawab anu kacida badagna, anu kalayan jujur nyobian ngalakukeun anu pangsaéna tanpa pelatihan atanapi kasesuaian watek anu nyukupan. Sanaos gaduh reputasi salaku politikus anu parigel sarta jalmi anu dipikaresep, salami kapersidénanana Pierce mung janten modérator di antawis faksi-faksi anu beuki pait anu nuju mawa bangsa kana perang sadulur.<ref>Robert Muccigrosso, ed., ''Research Guide to American Historical Biography'' (1988) 3:1237</ref> Kanggé Pierce, anu ningal perbudakan salaku pasualan hak milik (properti) tinimbang moralitas,<ref name="crockett" /> Uni téh mangrupa hal anu sakral; alatan hal ieu, anjeunna ningal tindakan para abolisionis sarta kelompok Free Soiler anu langkung modérat salaku hal anu ngadu domba sarta janten ancaman kana hak-hak urang Kidul anu dijamin ku konstitusi.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=181}}</ref> Sanaos anjeunna nyempad jalma-jalma anu narékahan kanggé ngawatesan atanapi mungkas perbudakan, anjeunna jarang negur politikus Kidul anu nyandak posisi ékstrim atanapi nentang kapentingan Kalér.<ref>{{cite journal|title=''Franklin Pierce: New Hampshire's Favorite Son'' [book review]|last=Gara|first=Larry|journal=Journal of American History|date=September 2005|volume=92|number=2|page=612|doi=10.2307/3659320|jstor=3659320}}</ref> Ahli sajarah [[David Potter]] nyimpulkeun yén Manifesto Ostend sarta Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska mangrupa "dua musibah badag tina pamaréntahan Franklin Pierce... Duanana ngadatangkeun badai kritik publik."<ref name="potter">{{harvnb|Potter|1976|p=192}}</ref> Anu langkung penting, ceuk Potter, éta dua hal sacara permanén ngaruksak kapercayaan kana "Manifest Destiny" sarta "kadaulatan rahayat" salaku doktrin pulitik.<ref name="potter" /> Ahli sajarah Kenneth Nivison, dina tulisanna taun 2010, miboga sawangan anu langkung saé kana kawijakan luar nagri Pierce. Anjeunna nyatakeun yén ékspansionisme Pierce janten bubuka kanggé présidén-présidén saatosna sapertos [[William McKinley]] sarta [[Theodore Roosevelt]], anu ngajabat nalika Amérika parantos gaduh kakuatan militér kanggé ngawujudkeun ambisina. "Kawijakan luar nagri sarta komérsial Amérika anu dimimitian dina taun 1890-an, anu ahirna ngagentos kolonialisme Éropa dina pertengahan abad ka-20, seueur ngahutang budi kana paternalisme Démokrasi Jacksonian anu dikulawartakeun dina aréna internasional ku kapersidénan Franklin Pierce."<ref>{{cite journal | title=Purposes Just and Pacific: Franklin Pierce and the American Empire | last=Nivison | first=Kenneth | journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft | date=March 2010 | volume=21 | number=1 | page=17| doi=10.1080/09592290903577668 | s2cid=154406060 }}</ref> Ahli sajarah sarta panulis biografi Peter A. Wallner nyatet yén:{{sfn|Wallner|2007|pp=xi–xii}} Sajarah parantos méré bagian kasalahan ka administrasi Pierce kanggé kawijakan anu ngahurungkeun deui pasualan perbudakan, ngagancangkeun runtagna sistem dua partéy, sarta ngabalukarkeun Perang Sadulur. ... Ieu mangrupa penilaian anu teu akurat sarta teu adil. Pierce salawasna janten saurang nasionalis anu narékahan milari jalan tengah kanggé ngajaga Uni tetep ngahiji. ... Alternatif tina ngajalankeun jalur modérat nyaéta pecahna Uni, Perang Sadulur, sarta pupusna langkung ti genep ratus rébu urang Amérika. Pierce teu kedah disalahkeun alatan narékahan sapanjang karir pulitikna kanggé nyingkahan takdir ieu. Ahli sajarah Larry Gara, anu nyerat buku ngeunaan kapersidénan Pierce, nyerat dina éntri tilas présidén kasebut dina ''American National Biography Online'':<ref>{{cite web|last=Gara|first=Larry|title=Pierce, Franklin|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/04/04-00788.html|work= American National Biography Online|date=February 2000}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Anjeunna janten présidén dina mangsa anu merlukeun kaahlian anu ampir luar biasa (superhuman), nanging anjeunna teu gaduh kaahlian sapertos kitu sarta teu kantos tiasa mekarkeun diri dina jabatan anu parantos dipercayakeun ka anjeunna. Sawanganana ngeunaan [[Konstitusi]] sarta Uni asalna tina jaman Jacksonian di mangsa katukang. Anjeunna teu kantos sapinuhna ngartos kana sipat sarta jerona sentimén Free Soil di Kalér. Anjeunna hasil badami ngeunaan perjangjian dagang timbal-balik sareng Kanada, ngamimitian bubuka Jepang kana perdagangan barat, nambihan lahan di Kulon Kidul, sarta nandatanganan undang-undang kanggé nyiptakeun kakaisaran di luar nagri [[Undang-Undang Kapuloan Guano]]. Kawijakan Kuba sarta Kansas-na mung ngakibatkeun papaséaan antar-wilayah ''(séksional)'' anu langkung jero. Dukunganana kana Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska sarta tekadna kanggé ngajalankeun Undang-Undang Budak Buron milu nyiptakeun polarisasi antar wilayah. Pierce mangrupa jalmi anu getol digawé sarta pamaréntahanana kalolobaanana bersih tina prakték suap (graft), nanging warisan tina opat taun anu pinuh ku kaributan éta milu nyumbang kana tragédi misahkeun diri (séksési) sarta perang sadulur. == Tempo ogé == {{portal|New Hampshire}} * [[Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire (51–75)#65|Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire]]: Pierce Homestead, No. 65 * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanna]] * [[Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire (76–100)#80|Tanda sajarah New Hampshire no. 80]]: Franklin Pierce 1804–1869 * [[Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire (101–125)#125|Tanda sajarah New Hampshire no. 125]]: The Pierce Manse * [[Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire (201–225)#216|Tanda sajarah New Hampshire no. 216]]: Pierce Shops == Catetan == {{Reflist|group="note"}} {{notelist}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} === Karya anu dicutat === {{Refbegin|60em}} * {{cite book|last=Boulard|first=Garry|year=2006|title=The Expatriation of Franklin Pierce: The Story of a President and the Civil War|url=https://archive.org/details/expatriationoffr0000boul|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-40367-7}} * {{cite book|last=Gara|first=Larry|year=1991|title=The Presidency of Franklin Pierce|url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyoffran0000gara|publisher=University Press of Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-0494-4}} * {{cite book|last=Holt|first=Michael F.|year=2010|title=Franklin Pierce|url=https://archive.org/details/franklinpierce0000holt|publisher=Times Books|isbn=978-0-8050-8719-2}} * {{cite book|last=Potter|first=David M.|year=1976|title=The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861|url=https://archive.org/details/impendingcrisis00pott|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=978-0-06-013403-7}} * {{cite book|last=Wallner|first=Peter A.|year=2004|title=Franklin Pierce: New Hampshire's Favorite Son|publisher=Guildhall Press|isbn=978-0-9707961-1-0}} * {{cite book|last=Wallner|first=Peter A.|year=2007|title=Franklin Pierce: Martyr for the Union|publisher=Guildhall Press|isbn=978-0-9707961-5-8}} {{Refend}} 9xjtszmbxklsdr6mmeewyqjmn5axoe2 0 107851 711530 711499 2026-08-06T22:27:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 16 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711530 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width:25em; float:right; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0.5em; font-size: 90%;" |+ style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold; margin-bottom:0.2em;" | James Buchanan |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:James Buchanan.jpg|230px]]<br /><small>Daguerreotype sakira taun 1850–1868</small> |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;" | Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-15 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Masa jabatan | 4 Maret 1857 – 4 Maret 1861 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Wakil Présidén | [[John C. Breckinridge]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ti payun | [[Franklin Pierce]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ti pengker | [[Abraham Lincoln]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;" | Mentri Luar Nagri AS ka-17 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Masa jabatan | 10 Maret 1845 – 7 Maret 1849 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Présidén | [[James K. Polk]], [[Zachary Taylor]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;" | Inpormasi Pribadi |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Wedal | 23 April 1791<br />[[Cove Gap, Pennsylvania]], AS |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Pupus | 1 Juni 1868 (yuswa 77)<br />[[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]], AS |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Partéi pulitik | [[Federalist Party|Federalist]] (1814–1824)<br />[[Democratic Party (United States)|Démokrat]] (ti 1828) |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Almamater | [[Dickinson College]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Padamelan | [[Ahli hukum]], pulitikus |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Tanda tangan | [[File:James Buchanan Signature2.svg|120px]] |} '''James Buchanan Jr.''' (wedal 23 April 1791 – pupus 1 Juni 1868) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-15 anu ngajabat ti taun 1857 dugi ka 1861. Sateuacanna, anjeunna ogé ngajabat salaku Mentri Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat ka-17 (1845–1849) sarta ngawakilan nagara bagian [[Pennsylvania]] di dua lembaga [[Kongrés AS]] (Sénat sarta DPR). Buchanan mangrupa nu ngarojong hak-hak nagara bagian, utamana ngeunaan masalah [[perbudakan]], sarta ngawatesan ''peran'' pamaréntah féderal dina mangsa sateuacan [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]].<ref name="oxford">{{cite book|last1=Olausson|first1=Lena|last2=Sangster|first2=Catherine|year=2006|title=Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordbbcguideto0000olau|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordbbcguideto0000olau/page/56 56]|isbn=0-19-280710-2}}</ref> == Mangsa keur leutik == Mangsa keur leutik sarta atikan == [[File:Buchanan Home Mercersburg.jpg|thumb|Tempat babar Buchanan|left]] James Buchanan Jr. dibabarkeun dina kulawarga [[Scotch-Irish Americans|Scotch-Irish]] kaping 23 April 1791, di hiji saung kai (''log cabin'') di kebon anu dingaranan [[Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|Stony Batter]], deukeut [[Cove Gap, Pennsylvania|Cove Gap]] di Pagunungan Allegheny, Pennsylvania kidul.<ref name="whitehouse">{{cite web | url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/the-presidents-timeline | title=The Presidents Timeline |access-date=17 Pébruari 2026 }}</ref> Anjeunna téh anak kadua ti sabelas sadulur, sarta putra cikal ti pasangan James Buchanan Sr. sarta Elizabeth Speer. Ramana nyaéta imigran ti [[County Donegal]], Irlandia, anu pindah ka Amérika dina taun 1783.<ref name="ulster">{{cite web|url=https://discoverulsterscots.com/emigration-influence/america/1718-migration-east-donegal/ulster-and-white-house|title=Ulster and the White House|publisher=Discover Ulster-Scots|access-date=17 Pébruari 2026}}</ref> Saatos Buchanan lahir, kulawargana pindah ka [[Mercersburg, Pennsylvania]] dina taun 1794. Ramana janten jalma beunghar di éta wewengkon salaku padagang sarta investor. Buchanan ngarasa yén indungna miboga pangaruh badag kana kacerdasanana, sabab sering ngajak diskusi pulitik sarta maca karya [[William Shakespeare]]. Buchanan kuliah di [[Dickinson College]] di Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Dina taun 1808, anjeunna ampir-ampiran dikaluarkeun alatan polahna anu badung sarta sering mabok di tavern, nanging anjeunna lulus kalayan hasil saé dina taun 1809. Saterusna anjeunna pindah ka [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]] pikeun diajar hukum salami dua satengah taun ka James Hopkins. Di dinya anjeunna neuleuman [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] sarta dasar-dasar hukum Inggris ti [[William Blackstone]]. === Karir awal hukum sarta DPR Pennsylvania === Dina taun 1812, [[James Buchanan]] lulus ujian kaanggotaan advokat (''bar exam'') sarta tetep cicing di [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] saatos diaku salaku ahli hukum. Anjeunna gancang jadi salah sahiji wawakil hukum anu kawéntar di éta kota. Panghasilanana naék drastis saatos muka prakték sorangan; dina taun 1821, anjeunna parantos miboga panghasilan langkung ti $11,000 per taun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=13–16}} Dina mangsa ieu ogé, Buchanan janten saurang [[Freemasonry|Freemason]], sarta ngajabat salaku ''Worshipful Master'' di Loge Masonik No. 43 di Lancaster.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=27}} Anjeunna ogé ngajabat salaku pupuhu cabang [[Federalist Party|Partéi Féderalist]] di Lancaster. Buchanan ngarojong program pulitik partéina saperti pangadegan deui bank sentral. Anjeunna janten kritikus anu kacida vocalna ka Présidén [[James Madison]] nalika [[Perang 1812]]. Sanajan henteu ngagabung sacara resmi kana milisi, Buchanan kungsi milu jeung sakelompok pamuda pikeun maling kuda pikeun kabutuhan [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat|Angkatan Darat AS]] di Baltimore nalika aya penjajahan Inggris. Buchanan nyaéta présidén panungtungan anu kungsi kalibet dina Perang 1812.<ref name="moody">{{cite book |last=Moody |first=Wesley |title=The Battle of Fort Sumter |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |page=23}}</ref> Dina taun 1814, anjeunna kapilih salaku wakil ti Féderalist ka [[DPR Pennsylvania]] sarta janten anggota pangmudana harita (ngajabat dugi ka 1816). Dina taun 1815, anjeunna hasil ngabéla Hakim Distrik [[Walter Franklin (judge)|Walter Franklin]] dina sidang pamakzulan (''impeachment'') di hareupen [[Sénat Pennsylvania]]. Buchanan hasil ngayakinkeun para sénator yén pamakzulan mung tiasa dilakukeun upami aya palanggaran hukum anu jelas.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=17–18}} == Karir di Kongrés == {{utama|Sajarah pamilihan James Buchanan}} === DPR Amérika Sarikat === Dina pamilihan kongrés taun 1820, [[James Buchanan]] nyalonkeun diri pikeun korsi di [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Amérika Sarikat|DPR AS]]. Teu lami saatos kameunanganana, ramana pupus alatan kacilakaan karéta kuda.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=22}} Salaku anggota Déwan anu anom, Buchanan janten salah sahiji pamingpin anu kawéntar dina faksi pulitik "Amalgamator" di Pennsylvania, dingaranan kitu margi anggotana diwangun ku gabungan urang Démokratik-Républik sarta urang tilas Féderalist dina mangsa transisi tina [[Sistem Partéi Kahiji]] ka [[Éra Perasaan Saé]] (''Era of Good Feelings''). Dina éra ieu, Démokratik-Républik janten partéi anu pangmangaruhna. Kayakinan Buchanan ka partéi Féderalist mimiti luntur, saterusna anjeunna pindah partéi saatos nolak hiji rarancang undang-undang Féderalist anu boga sipat nativis.<ref name=":0">Etcheson, Nicole. (2013). "General Jackson Is Dead: James Buchanan, Stephen A. Douglas, and Kansas Policy". ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 88–90.</ref> Dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1824|Pilihan Raya 1856]], Buchanan mimitina ngadukung [[Henry Clay]], nanging saterusna pindah ngadukung [[Andrew Jackson]] nalika katingal yén masarakat Pennsylvania leuwih milih Jackson.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Philip Shriver |title=A History of Pennsylvania |year=1980 |pages=135–136}}</ref> Saatos Jackson éléh dina pamilihan 1824, Buchanan ngagabung ka faksina, nanging Jackson miboga rasa teu resep ka Buchanan alatan salah harti dina upaya Buchanan janten médiator antara pihak Clay sarta Jackson.<ref name=":0" /> Di Washington, Buchanan janten anu bébéla kana hak-hak nagara bagian ([[states' rights]]) anu kacida kuatna, sarta raket jeung seueur anggota Kongrés ti bagian Kidul. Anjeunna nganggap sababaraha anggota Kongrés ti New England salaku [[Radikalisme|radikal]] anu bahaya. Kamampuh Buchanan dina ngajaga hubungan sareng daérah pamilihanana ngamungkinkeun anjeunna ngawangun koalisi Démokrat di Pennsylvania anu diwangun ku patani tilas Féderalist sarta imigran Ulster-Scots. Dina pamilihan présidén 1828, anjeunna hasil ngamankeun sora Pennsylvania pikeun Jackson.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=24–27}} Buchanan ogé meunang perhatian nalika mingpin prosés hukum dina sidang pamakzulan hakim distrik féderal [[James H. Peck]], sanajan ahirna Sénat mutuskeun hakim éta bébas. Anjeunna diangkat janten anggota Komite Pertanian dina taun munggaranna, sarta lila-lila janten pupuhu Komite Yudisial DPR AS. Dina taun 1831, Buchanan nolak dicalonkeun deui pikeun Kongrés ka-22 ti daérah pamilihanana. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna masih miboga ambisi pulitik, malah sababaraha urang Démokrat Pennsylvania ngajukeun anjeunna salaku calon wakil présidén dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1832|pamilihan 1832]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=28–30}} === Duta Besar pikeun Rusia === Saatos Jackson kapilih deui dina taun 1832, anjeunna nawarkeun jabatan [[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat pikeun Rusia]] ka [[James Buchanan]]. Buchanan saleresna horéam ninggalkan nagarana, margi nganggap kota [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] anu tebih téh salaku tempat pangbuangan pulitik, nanging ahirna anjeunna nyaluyuan. Éta memang maksud Jackson, jalaran anjeunna nganggap Buchanan salaku jalma anu "teu parigel sarta resep pipilueun" (''incompetent busybody'') sarta kurang dipercaya.<ref name=":0" /> Tugas utama Buchanan di ditu nyaéta nyieun perjangjian dagang sarta pelayaran jeung Rusia. Sanajan Buchanan hasil dina urusan dagang, prosés negosiasi ngeunaan kabébasan pelayaran kapal dagang jeung Mentri Luar Nagri Rusia, [[Karl Nesselrode]], tétéla kacida héséna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=30–31}} Sataun sateuacanna nalika masih di Kongrés, Buchanan kantos nyebat Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] salaku saurang ''despot'' (pamingpin diktator); harita seueur urang Amérika anu méré réaksi négatif kana tindakan Rusia dina numpes [[Pemberontakan Nopémber|pemberontakan Polandia 1830]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Leary |first=Derek Kane |date=6 Maret 2023 |title=James Buchanan's 1832 Mission to the Tsar... |url=https://ageofrevolutions.com/2023/03/06/james-buchanans-1832-mission-to-the-tsar-the-plight-of-poland-and-the-limits-of-americas-revolutionary-legacy-in-jacksonian-foreign-policy/ |access-date=17 Pébruari 2026 |publisher=Age of Revolutions}}</ref> === Sénator Amérika Sarikat === [[File:James Buchanan painted by J. Eichholtz.jpg|thumb|Lukisan Buchanan taun 1834 ku [[Jacob Eichholtz]]|right]] Saatos mulang ka lemburna, [[James Buchanan]] kapilih ku legislatif nagara bagian Pennsylvania pikeun ngaganti [[William Wilkins (U.S. politician)|William Wilkins]] di Sénat AS. Sabalikna, Wilkins ngaganti posisi Buchanan salaku duta besar di Rusia. Salaku pangrojong Jackson (Jacksonian), Buchanan anu kapilih deui dina taun 1836 sarta 1842, nolak ayana [[Second Bank of the United States]] sarta narékahan pikeun ngahapus kacawadan (''censure'') Kongrés ka Jackson alatan [[Bank War]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=30}} Buchanan ngajabat di Sénat nepi ka Maret 1845.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=32}} Pikeun ngahijikeun urang Démokrat Pennsylvania, anjeunna dipilih janten calon maranéhna dina Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat. Buchanan kacida patuhna kana tungtunan legislatif nagara bagianana, malah sakapeung mah anjeunna milih nolak hiji posisi di Kongrés anu saleresna dirojong ku anjeunna dina biantara pribadina, demi ambisi pulitikna ka Gedong Bodas.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}} Buchanan dipikawanoh ku komitmenna kana hak-hak nagara bagian (**[[states' rights]]**) sarta doktrin ékspansi wilayah (oʻ[[manifest destiny]]). Anjeunna nolak tawaran Présidén [[Martin Van Buren]] pikeun janten Jaksa Agung AS sarta kalah milih janten pupuhu komite-komite bergengsi di Sénat saperti Komite Yudisial sarta Komite Hubungan Luar Nagri.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=33–34}} Buchanan mangrupa salah sahiji ti saeutik sénator anu nolak [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]] sabab dianggap "nyerahkeun" lahan ka Britania Raya. Dina sengketa wates Oregon, anjeunna nungtut garis 54°40′ salaku wates kalér sarta satuju kana anéksasi [[Républik Texas]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}} Sajaba ti éta, Buchanan nolak aturan pembungkaman ([[Gag rule (United States)|gag rule]]) anu diajukeun ku [[John C. Calhoun]] anu tujuanna pikeun ngeureunkeun petisi anti-perbudakan. Buchanan nyebutkeun, "Urang boga hak anu kacida saeutikna pikeun pipilueun kana urusan perbudakan di Kidul, sarua jeung saeutikna hak urang pikeun ngaganggu hak petisi." Anjeunna boga pamandangan yén masalah perbudakan téh mangrupa urusan masing-masing nagara bagian sarta nyalahkeun kaum [[abolisionis]] anu dianggapna ngan saukur manas-manasan kaayaan. Dina mangsa méméh Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1844, Buchanan nyiapkeun diri janten alternatif pikeun Martin Van Buren, nanging nominasi éta ahirna murag ka [[James K. Polk]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}} == Karir Diplomasi == === Mentri Luar Nagri === [[File:Polkcabinet1849edited.png|left|thumb|Buchanan (kadua ti kenca) dina kabinét Polk, 1849]] [[James Buchanan]] ditawaran jabatan [[Mentri Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat]] dina administrasi Polk atanapi, salaku pilihan séjén, korsi di [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]]. Ieu tawaran mangrupa bales budi kana rojonganana nalika kampanye, nanging ogé tujuanna pikeun nyingkirkeun Buchanan salaku saingan internal dina partéi. Anjeunna milih jabatan di Departemén Luar Nagri sarta ngajabat salami mangsa jabatan Polk. Nalika anjeunna ngajabat, Amérika Sarikat kacatet miboga panambahan wilayah panggedéna dina sajarah ngaliwatan [[Perjangjian Oregon]] sarta [[Perjangjian Guadalupe Hidalgo]], anu ngawengku wilayah anu ayeuna janten Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, sarta Colorado.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=38–40}} Dina negosiasi jeung Britania ngeunaan Oregon, Buchanan mimitina satuju kana garis [[paralel ka-49 kalér]] salaku wates Wilayah Oregon, sedengkeun Polk hayang garis wates anu leuwih ka kalér. Nalika urang Démokrat Kalér ngagunakeun semboyan populér [[Fifty-Four Forty or Fight]] ("54°40′ atanapi perang") dina kampanye 1844, anjeunna milu satuju, nanging ahirna nuturkeun arahan Polk anu ngahasilkeun Kompromi Oregon 1846, anu netepkeun paralel ka-49 salaku wates di [[Pacific Northwest]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=40–41}} Buchanan percaya yén serangan Méksiko ka pasukan Amérika di peuntas [[Rio Grande]] dina April 1846 mangrupa palanggaran wates sarta alesan anu sah pikeun perang. Nalika [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]], mimitina anjeunna mamatahan sangkan ulah nungtut wilayah di kiduleun Rio Grande alatan sieun perang jeung Britania sarta Perancis. Nanging, nalika perang rék bérés, Buchanan robah pamandangan sarta ngarojong anéksasi wilayah anu leuwih lega, kalayan alesan yén Méksiko anu salah mitembean perang sarta kompensasi pikeun karugian Amérika dianggap leutik teuing. Buchanan nyoba nyalonkeun diri dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1848]], margi Polk parantos jangji ngan bakal ngajabat sakali, nanging anjeunna mung meunang rojongan ti delegasi Pennsylvania sarta Virginia, sahingga Sénator [[Lewis Cass]] ti Michigan anu ahirna dicalonkeun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=41–43}} === Kahirupan sipil sarta pilihan raya présidén 1852 === [[File:James Buchanan sculpture at National Portrait Gallery IMG 4538.JPG|right|thumb|Patung dada James Buchanan ku [[Henry Dexter (sculptor)|Henry Dexter]]]] Saatos [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|pamilihan 1848]] anu dimeunangkeun ku [[Zachary Taylor]] ti Partéi Whig, [[James Buchanan]] balik deui kana kahirupan pribadi. Buchanan mingkin sepuh sarta masih kénéh dangdos nganggo gaya katinggaleun jaman sapertos mangsa anomna, sahingga anjeunna meunang jujulukan "[[Old Public Functionary]]" ti média massa. Para nu nolak perbudakan di bagian Kalér ogé ngéyék anjeunna salaku "titinggal manusa purba" alatan ajén-inajén moralna.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=46–48}} Anjeunna mésér bumi [[Wheatland (James Buchanan House)|Wheatland]] di sisi kota [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] sarta sering nampi tamu bari terus ngawas kaayaan pulitik.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=43–46}} Dina mangsa ieu, Buchanan janten puseur kulawarga anu diwangun ku 22 alon-alon (''nieces/nephews'') sarta katurunanana, tujuh di antarana budak yatim. Anjeunna milarian padamelan umum pikeun sawatara baraya ngaliwatan jalu (''patronage''). Hubungan émosional anu pangkuatna nyaéta sareng alon-alonna, [[Harriet Lane]], anu engkéna janten Ibu Nagara (''First Lady'') pikeun Buchanan di Gedong Bodas.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=46–48}} Dina taun 1852, anjeunna diangkat janten présidén Déwan Pangurus [[Franklin and Marshall College]] di Lancaster, sarta ngajabat dugi ka taun 1866.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=210, 415}} Buchanan teu sagemblengna ninggalkeun dunya pulitik. Anjeunna ancrub deui dina kampanye siluman pikeun nominasi présidén ti Partéi Démokrat taun 1852. Alatan ayana [[Kompromi 1850]], Buchanan ayeuna nolak [[Kompromi Missouri]] sarta ngadukung panolakan Kongrés kana [[Wilmot Proviso]] (anu ngalarang perbudakan di wilayah meunang perang ti Méksiko). Buchanan ngritik [[Abolisionisme|abolisionisme]] salaku sikep fanatik sarta percaya yén urusan perbudakan kedah diputuskeun ku legislatif nagara bagian, sanés ku Kongrés. Anjeunna janten kawéntar salaku saurang "**[[doughface]]**" alatan rasa simpatina ka pihak Kidul.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=52–56}} Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852]], anjeunna meunang rojongan ti loba delegasi Kidul nanging gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu sora anu diperyogikeun. Nominasi éta ahirna murag ka [[Franklin Pierce]]. Buchanan nolak dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén, sahingga konvénsi milih sobat deukeutna, [[William R. King]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=57–59}} === Duta Besar pikeun Britania Raya === Pierce meunangkeun pamilihan dina taun [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852|1852]], sarta genep sasih saatosna, [[James Buchanan]] nampi jabatan salaku [[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat pikeun Britania Raya]]. Jabatan ieu sabenerna mangrupa léngkah mundur dina karirna sarta sateuacanna kantos ditolak dua kali ku anjeunna.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=57–59}} Buchanan balayar ka Inggris dina usum panas taun 1853 sarta netep di ditu salami tilu taun. Dina taun 1850, Amérika Sarikat sarta Britania Raya parantos nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]], anu ngabeungkeut kadua nagara pikeun ngokolakeun babarengan sagala terusan (kanal) anu bakal diwangun pikeun nyambungkeun Samudra Atlantik sarta Pasifik ngaliwatan Amérika Tengah. Buchanan sababaraha kali ngayakeun riungan sareng [[George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon|Lord Clarendon]], mentri luar nagri Britania, kalayan harepan bisa neken Britania sangkan kaluar tina Amérika Tengah. Anjeunna hasil ngurangan pangaruh Britania di [[Honduras]] sarta [[Nicaragua]]. Sajaba ti éta, anjeunna ogé museurkeun perhatian kana rencana anéksasi [[Kuba]], anu parantos lami dipikaresep ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=58–64}} Atas paréntah Pierce, Buchanan ngayakeun riungan di [[Ostend|Ostend, Bélgia]], sareng Duta Besar AS pikeun Spanyol [[Pierre Soulé]] sarta Duta Besar AS pikeun Perancis [[John Y. Mason|John Mason]], pikeun ngararancang rencana panyokotan Kuba. Hasilna nyaéta draf mémorandum anu disebut [[Manifésto Osténd]], anu ngusulkeun sangkan AS mésér Kuba ti Spanyol anu harita nuju krisis ekonomi alatan révolusi. Éta dokumén nyatakeun yén pulo Kuba téh "sarua pentingna pikeun républik Amérika Kalér jiga nagara-nagara bagian séjénna". Sanajan Buchanan kurang panuju, draf ahir manifésto kasebut nyarankeun yén upami Spanyol nolak ngajual, tindakan "ngarebut paksa ti Spanyol" dianggap sah "sacara hukum manusa sarta Ilahi".{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=110}} Manifésto ieu nampi réaksi anu papaséan sarta henteu kungsi dilaksanakeun. Ieu hal malah ngaleuseuhkeun administrasi Pierce sarta ngurangan rojongan kana doktrin [[Manifest Destiny]].{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=110}} Dina taun 1855, nalika Buchanan hayang pisan mulang ka lemburna, Pierce ménta anjeunna sangkan tetep aya di [[London]] alatan ayana perpindahan armada laut Britania ka [[Karibia]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=65–67}} == Pilihan Raya 1856 == {{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1856.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Peta sora élektoral taun 1856]] Tugas Buchanan di luar nagri nguntungkeun anjeunna sabab anjeunna bisa nyingkahan padu jédog ngeunaan [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] anu nuju nyérot perhatian nagara dina sengketa perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=67–68}} Sanajan anjeunna henteu sacara terang-terangan nyiar jabatan présidén, anjeunna nyaluyuan gerakan anu diayakeun ku para pangrojongna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=248–252}} Nalika masih di Inggris, anjeunna kampanye ku cara muji [[John Hughes (archbishop)|John Joseph Hughes]], saurang Uskup Agung Katolik di New York. Hal ieu ngalantarankeun anjeunna nampi rojongan ti kalangan luhur umat [[Katolik]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=67–68}} Nalika Buchanan mulang ka lemburna dina ahir April 1856, anjeunna unggul dina sora munggaran kalayan dironjong ku sénator kawéntar sapertos [[John Slidell]], [[Jesse Bright]], sarta [[Thomas F. Bayard]]. Maranéhna némbongkeun Buchanan salaku pamingpin anu boga pangalaman sarta bisa ditarima ku urang Kalér ogé urang Kidul. [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1856]] anu diayakeun dina bulan Juni ngahasilkeun platform anu saluyu jeung pamandangan Buchanan, kaasup rojongan kana [[Undang-undang Budak Buron]] (''Fugitive Slave Law''). Buchanan ahirna meunangkeun nominasi saatos [[Stephen A. Douglas]] ngundurkeun diri. Anjeunna papasangan sareng [[John C. Breckinridge]] ti Kentucky salaku calon wakil présidén pikeun ngajaga kasaimbangan wilayah.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=69–70}} Dina pilihan raya umum, Buchanan nyanghareupan dua saingan: tilas Présidén [[Millard Fillmore]] ti Partéi Amérika (''Know-Nothing'') anu anti-imigran sarta anti-Katolik, sarta [[John C. Frémont]] ti [[Partéi Républik Amérika Sarikat|Partéi Républik]]. Buchanan henteu aktip kampanye sacara langsung, nanging anjeunna nyuratan sarta jangji bakal nyekel delegasi Démokrat. Dina poéan pamilihan, anjeunna unggul di sakabéh nagara bagian anu ngalegalkeun perbudakan (iwal Maryland), sarta lima nagara bagian anu bébas perbudakan, kaasup nagara bagian asalna, Pennsylvania.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=69–70}} Buchanan meunang 45 persén sora rahayat sarta unggul mutlak dina sora élektoral (174 ti 296 sora). Kameunangan ieu ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran ti Pennsylvania. Dina biantara kameunanganana, Buchanan nyebat Partéi Républik salaku partéi anu "bahaya" sarta "geografis" (ngan sakelompok wilayah) sabab dianggap geus narajang pihak Kidul sacara teu adil. Anjeunna ogé nyatakeun yén tujuan pamaréntahanana nyaéta pikeun "ngancurkeun partéi sektoral, boh di Kalér atanapi di Kidul, sarta mulangkeun kaharmonisan Uni di handapeun pamaréntahan nasional anu konservatif."{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=261–262}} == Masa Kaprésidénan (1857–1861) == {{utama|Masa kaprésidénan James Buchanan}} === Pelantikan === {{utama|Pelantikan James Buchanan}} [[James Buchanan]] dilantik dina kaping 4 Maret 1857, kalayan sumpah jabatan anu dipingpin ku Hakim Agung [[Roger B. Taney]]. Dina biantara pelantikanana anu panjang, Buchanan jangji ngan bakal ngajabat salami sakali mangsa jabatan. Anjeunna kacida teu resepna kana perpecahan anu mingkin parna ngeunaan perbudakan, sarta nyatakeun yén Kongrés sakuduna teu boga peran dina nangtukeun status perbudakan di nagara bagian atanapi wilayah-wilayah énggal.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=80–83, 85}} Anjeunna ngajukeun solusi dumasar kana [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]], anu nyatakeun yén prinsip [[Popular sovereignty in the United States|kadaulatan rahayat]] téh nangtukeun, sarta Kongrés teu boga hak pipilueun. Buchanan ogé nyabit-nyabit kasus anu harita nuju diprosés di Mahkamah Agung, nyaéta ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'', anu ceuk anjeunna bakal mutuskeun masalah perbudakan salilana. Dred Scott nyaéta saurang budak anu dibawa ku dunyana, [[John F. A. Sanford]], ti nagara bagian perbudakan ka wilayah bébas. Saatos Scott mulang ka nagara bagian perbudakan, anjeunna ngajukeun petisi pikeun kabébasan dirina dumasar kana mangsa hirupna di wilayah bébas kasebut.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=80–83, 85}} Hakim Agung [[Robert C. Grier]] bocor saénggalna ngeunaan putusan kasus ''Dred Scott'' ka Buchanan. Dina biantara pelantikanana, Buchanan nyatakeun yén masalah perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah AS bakal "saénggalna sarta sacara final diputuskeun" ku Mahkamah Agung.<ref>James Buchanan, "Inaugural Address," Washington, D.C., March 4, 1857.</ref> Numutkeun sajarawan [[Paul Finkelman]]: {{kutipan|Buchanan ''parantos'' terang naon anu bakal diputuskeun ku Mahkamah. Dina palanggaran étika Mahkamah anu gedé, Hakim Grier, anu asalna ti Pennsylvania jiga Buchanan, parantos méré nyaho ka Présidén-pilih ngeunaan kamekaran kasus sarta debat internal di jero Mahkamah. Nalika Buchanan ngajak sakuliah nagara pikeun ngarojong putusan kasebut, anjeunna parantos terang naon anu bakal diomongkeun ku Taney. Kacurigaan urang Républik ngeunaan ayana kacurangan tétéla kabuktian bener.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Paul |last1=Finkelman |title=Scott v. Sandford: The Court's most dreadful case and how it changed history |journal=Chicago-Kent Law Review |volume=82 |date=2007 |pages=46}}</ref>}} Para sajarawan sapuk yén putusan mahkamah kasebut mangrupa bencana gedé sabab kacida manas-manasan kaayaan, anu ahirna ngabalukarkeun Perang Sadulur. Dina taun 2022, sajarawan [[David W. Blight]] nyatakeun yén taun 1857 mangrupa "titik balik utama dina jalan nuju perpecahan... utamana alatan kasus Dred Scott, anu méré rasa sieun, teu percaya, sarta kabéngis di Kalér ogé di Kidul nepi ka tingkat anu kacida parnana."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Blight |first1=David W. |title=Was the Civil War Inevitable? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/magazine/civil-war-jan-6.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=21 Désémber 2022}}</ref> ==== Jalu yudisial ==== {{utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku James Buchanan}} [[James Buchanan]] ngangkat hiji Hakim Agung, nyaéta [[Nathan Clifford]], ka [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Nathan Clifford, 1858–1881 |url=https://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court-timeline-of-the-justices-nathan-clifford-1858-1881/ |publisher=The Supreme Court Historical Society}}</ref> Sajaba ti éta, anjeunna ngangkat tujuh hakim féderal séjénna pikeun pangadilan distrik AS sarta dua hakim pikeun Pangadilan Klaim AS.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=83–84}} === Campur tangan dina kasus ''Dred Scott'' === Kasus ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'', anu disebut ku Buchanan dina biantara pelantikanana, parantos dimimitian ti taun 1846. Dred Scott ngagugat pikeun kabébasan dirina di [[Missouri]], kalayan alesan yén anjeunna kantos hirup ngabakti ka dunyana di wilayah bébas [[Illinois]] sarta [[Teritori Wisconsin]]. Kasus ieu nepi ka Mahkamah Agung sarta jadi perhatian nasional dina taun 1856. Dina Januari 1857, Buchanan ngayakeun konsultasi sareng Hakim [[John Catron]], nanyakeun ngeunaan hasil kasus kasebut sarta nyarankeun sangkan Mahkamah ngaluarkeun putusan anu leuwih lega (teu ngan saukur urusan Scott wungkul) supados masalah perbudakan bisa réngsé salilana.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=271–272}} Buchanan boga harepan yén putusan anu ngajaga hak perbudakan di sakabéh wilayah bisa ngabéréskeun parépat nasional, sahingga anjeunna bisa fokus kana urusan nagara séjénna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=83–84}} Catron ngawaler dina 10 Pébruari, nyebutkeun yén mayoritas hakim ti Kidul bakal mutuskeun ngalawan Scott, nanging maranéhna butuh dukungan ti hakim asal Pennsylvania, [[Robert Cooper Grier]], sangkan putusanana boga pangaruh anu kuat sarta lega. Buchanan saterusna nyuratan Grier sarta hasil mangaruhan anjeunna sangkan gabung jeung mayoritas hakim Kidul. Hal ieu méré kakuatan ka Mahkamah pikeun nyatakeun yén [[Kompromi Missouri 1820]] téh teu luyu jeung konstitusi (inkonstitusional).{{sfn|Potter|1976|p=287}}{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=85}} Dua poé saatos Buchanan dilantik, Hakim Agung Taney ngumumkeun putusan ''Dred Scott'', anu nolak paménta kabébasan Scott. Putusan kasebut sacara lega negeskeun yén Kongrés teu boga kakawasaan konstitusional pikeun ngalarang perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah AS. Numutkeun ieu putusan, budak téh salilana mangrupa harta banda nu bogana, sarta euweuh urang Afrika-Amérika anu bisa jadi warga nagara Amérika Sarikat anu sah. Sanajan surat-surat Buchanan harita teu dipublikasikeun, masarakat nempo anjeunna ngobrol ricit sareng Hakim Agung nalika pelantikan. Hal ieu ngahudang amarah urang Kalér sarta malah mingkin nguatkeun Partéi Républik anu dikutuk ku Buchanan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=85–86}} === Panik 1857 === Krisis finansial anu disebut **[[Panik 1857]]** dimimitian dina usum panas taun kasebut, nalika cabang New York tina ''Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company'' ngumumkeun bangkrut (insolvénsi).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sobel |first=Robert |title=Panic on Wall Street: A History of America's Financial Disasters |year=1999 |publisher=Beard Books}}</ref> Ieu krisis nyebar kacida gancangna, sarta dina usum gugur, 1.400 bank nagara bagian sarta 5.000 pausahaan parantos bangkrut. Pangangguran sarta kalaparan janten hal anu lumrah di kota-kota bagian Kalér, nanging wilayah Kidul anu ngandelkeun tatanén leuwih kuat nahan kaayaan. Buchanan sapamadegan sareng urang Kidul yén ieu karuksakan ékonomi téh disababkeun ku spékulasi anu kaleuleuwihi.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}} Buchanan nindak dumasar kana prinsip [[Jacksonian democracy|Démokrasi Jacksonian]], nyaéta ngawatesan pamedalan duit kertas sarta ngeureunkeun (''freeze'') dana féderal pikeun proyék pangwangunan umum. Hal ieu ngahudang rasa teu resep ti masarakat alatan anjeunna nolak ngajalankeun program [[Stimulus ékonomi|stimulus ékonomi]].<ref>Morrison, Michael A. (2013). "President James Buchanan, Executive Leadership and the Crisis of the Democracy". ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 151.</ref> Sanajan pamaréntah dirasa "teu miboga kakuatan pikeun méré bantuan",{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}} pamaréntahanana tetep mayar hutang nganggo koin emas/pérak (''specie''). Kalayan harepan bisa ngurangan jumlah duit kertas sarta neken inflasi, anjeunna ngadesek nagara-nagara bagian sangkan ngawatesan krédit bank sarta ulah ngagunakeun obligasi féderal salaku jaminan duit bank. Ékonomi ahirna pulih dina sababaraha taun, nanging loba urang Amérika anu sangsara alatan ieu krisis. Buchanan tadina hayang ngurangan defisit, nanging nalika anjeunna lungsur tina jabatanna, anggaran féderal kalah naék 15%.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}} === Perang Utah === {{utama|Perang Utah|Pajabat nu Kabur taun 1851}} Dina usum semi taun 1857, kelompok [[Gereja Yesus Kristus ti Jalma-jalma Suci Zaman Akhir|Jalma-jalma Suci Zaman Akhir]] sarta pamingpinna, [[Brigham Young]], parantos nangtang wawakil féderal di [[Wilayah Utah]], anu ngabalukarkeun ayana gangguan sarta kekerasan ka warga non-Mormon. Young ogé ngalarang urang luar pikeun netep di wewengkon [[Salt Lake City]]. Dina Séptémber 1857, [[Milisi Wilayah Utah]] anu aya patalina jeung kelompok Mormon ngalakukeun [[Bantéyan Mountain Meadows]], dimana milisi lokal narajang rombongan karéta kuda sarta maéhan 125 urang padumuk. Buchanan ngarasa kaganggu ku sikep militeristik sarta prakték [[Mormonisme sarta poligami|poligami]] anu dilakukeun ku Young.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=90–92}} Alatan laporan kekerasan kasebut, Buchanan ngidinan ékspédisi militer ka Wilayah Utah dina ahir Maret 1857 pikeun ngaganti Young tina jabatan gubernur. Pasukan ieu diwangun ku 2.500 prajurit, kaasup [[Alfred Cumming (gubernur)|Alfred Cumming]] sarta stafna, anu dipingpin ku Jéndral [[William S. Harney]]. Masalah mingkin pabeulit sabab béwara ngeunaan panggantian gubernur henteu nepi ka Young alatan administrasi Pierce parantos mutuskeun kontrak pos ka Utah. Young nganggap pasukan anu datang téh salaku upaya kudéta anu teu sah.<ref>MacKinnon, William P. (2013). "Prelude to Armageddon: James Buchanan, Brigham Young, and a President’s Initiation to Bloodshed". ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 52–59.</ref>{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=316}} Sikep Buchanan ieu ngahudang perlawanan ti urang Mormon di sabudeureun Young, utamana sabab Harney dipikawanoh salaku jalma anu telenges. Dina Agustus 1857, [[Albert Sidney Johnston|Albert S. Johnston]] ngaganti Harney alatan urusan organisasi.<ref>MacKinnon, William P. (2013). pp 59–62.</ref> Young ngaréaksi ku cara ngancurkeun rombongan logistik sarta harta banda Angkatan Darat. Buchanan saterusna ngirimkeun [[Thomas L. Kane]] salaku agén pribadi pikeun negosiasi perdamaian. Éta misi hasil; Gubernur Young daék diganti ku Cumming, sarta [[Perang Utah]] réngsé sacara daméy. Présidén méré amnésti ka sakabéh padumuk anu satia ka pamaréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=317}} Buchanan teu méré koméntar deui ngeunaan ieu konflik nepi ka biantara ''State of the Union'' dina Désémber 1857. Salah sahiji tindakan resmi panungtungan Buchanan dina Maret 1861 nyaéta ngurangan legana Wilayah Utah pikeun dibikeun ka [[Nevada]], [[Colorado]], sarta [[Nebraska]]. Sanajan kelompok Mormon sering nangtang otoritas féderal, sababaraha sajarawan nganggap yén tindakan Buchanan téh mangrupa réspons anu kaleuleuwihi dumasar kana laporan anu can kabuktian benerna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=316}} === Kabel telegraf transatlantik === Buchanan mangrupa jalma munggaran anu nampi [[telegraf]] resmi anu dikirimkeun meuntasan Samudra Atlantik. Saatos sababaraha tés sarta konfigurasi, dina kaping 16 Agustus 1858, [[Ratu Victoria]] ngirimkeun pesen saloba 98 kecap ka Buchanan anu nuju aya di kediaman usum panasna di [[Bedford Springs Hotel]], [[Pennsylvania]]. Dina éta pesen, Ratu Victoria ngaharepkeun yén kabel anu nembé dipasang éta bisa janten "beungkeut tambahan antara bangsa-bangsa anu sosobatanana dumasar kana kapentingan babarengan sarta silih hargaan". Pesen ti Ratu Victoria kasebut merlukeun waktu 16 jam pikeun nepi.<ref name="Trade1861">{{cite book |title=Report of the Joint Committee... |access-date=1 Maret 2018 |year=1861 |publisher=Eyre}}</ref> Buchanan ngawaler: "Ieu mangrupa kameunangan anu leuwih mulya, sabab jauh leuwih mangpaat pikeun umat manusa, batan kameunangan anu kantos dimeunangkeun ku nu nalukkeun di médan perang. Muga-muga telegraf Atlantik, kalayan berkah ti Langit, bisa janten beungkeut perdamaian sarta sosobatan anu langgeng antara bangsa-bangsa anu sarumpun, sarta janten alat anu ditangtukeun ku Takdir Ilahi pikeun nyebarkeun agama, peradaban, kabébasan, sarta hukum ka sakuliah dunya."<ref name="spencer-vol3">{{cite book |title='THE QUEEN'S MESSAGE' and 'THE PRESIDENT'S REPLY' |volume=3 |author=Jesse Ames Spencer |publisher=Johnson, Fry |year=1866 |page=542}}</ref> === Bleeding Kansas sarta sengketa konstitusional === {{utama|Bleeding Kansas}} [[File:US SlaveFree1858.gif|thumb|upright=1.6|Kasaimbangan nagara bagian bébas sarta perbudakan dina taun 1858, saatos [[Minnesota]] ngagabung.]] [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] taun 1854 nyieun [[Teritori Kansas]] sarta ngidinan para padumuk di dinya pikeun nangtukeun naha bakal ngidinan ayana perbudakan atanapi henteu. Hal ieu ngakibatkeun kekerasan antara kelompok "[[Free-Soil]]" (anti-perbudakan) sarta kelompok pro-perbudakan, anu saterusna janten mangsa "[[Bleeding Kansas]]" (Kansas nu Getihan). Kelompok anti-perbudakan ngawangun pamaréntahan sorangan di [[Topeka]], sedengkeun kelompok pro-perbudakan ngadegkeun pamaréntahan di [[Lecompton, Kansas|Lecompton]]. Buchanan milih pikeun ngarojong pamaréntahan Lecompton anu pro-perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=93–98}} Buchanan ngangkat [[Robert J. Walker]] pikeun ngaganti John W. Geary salaku Gubernur Teritori. Dina Oktober 1857, pamaréntahan Lecompton nyusun [[Konstitusi Lecompton]] anu pro-perbudakan. Nanging, referendum anu diayakeun ngan masihan pilihan anu kacida heureutna, sahingga kelompok mayoritas anu anti-perbudakan milih pikeun boikot éta sora.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=97–100}} Sanajan diténtang ku Walker, Buchanan tetep narima Konstitusi Lecompton. Dina Désémber 1857, Buchanan papanggih jeung [[Stephen A. Douglas]] sarta maksa sangkan sakabéh urang Démokrat ngarojong anjeunna. Buchanan ngagunakeun sagala cara, kaasup nawarkeun jabatan sarta duit pikeun meunangkeun sora di Kongrés. Konstitusi Lecompton hasil ditarima ku Sénat dina bulan Maret, nanging ahirna éléh di DPR ku gabungan kakuatan Partéi Républik sarta urang Démokrat Kalér.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|pp=100–105}} Buchanan teu kungsi ngahampura Douglas. Anjeunna miceun sakabéh pangrojong Douglas tina jabatan pamaréntahan di Illinois sarta Washington, D.C. Salaku ganti tina éléhna Konstitusi Lecompton, Buchanan ngadukung [[English Bill (1858)|English Bill]] taun 1858, anu nawarkeun taneuh anu lega pikeun Kansas upami maranéhna narima Konstitusi Lecompton. Nanging, dina Agustus 1858, rahayat Kansas tetep nolak éta konstitusi sacara mutlak. Kansas ahirna nampi konstitusi anti-perbudakan, nanging diténtang pisan ku urang Kidul di Kongrés dugi ka Kansas kakara bisa jadi nagara bagian dina Januari 1861.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|pp=100–105}} Ieu parépat di Kansas janten médan perang pikeun rebutan kakawasaan di jero Partéi Démokrat. Di hiji sisi aya Buchanan sarta urang Démokrat Kidul, sedengkeun di sisi séjén aya Douglas sarta mayoritas urang Démokrat Kalér. Douglas tetep ngadukung kadaulatan rahayat, sedengkeun Buchanan keukeuh yén Partéi Démokrat kedah hormat kana putusan ''Dred Scott'' anu ngalarang campur tangan féderal kana urusan perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=120–121}} === Pilihan raya sela 1858 === Mangsa jabatan Sénat Stephen A. Douglas bakal réngsé dina taun 1859, sarta legislatif Illinois hasil pilihan raya 1858 anu bakal nangtukeun naha Douglas kapilih deui atanapi henteu. Korsi Sénat ieu janten pasualan utama dina pamilihan legislatif kasebut, anu dicirian ku perdebatan kawéntar antara Douglas sarta lawan Républikna, [[Abraham Lincoln]] (''[[Lincoln–Douglas debates]]''). Buchanan, ngaliwatan kakuatan jalu (''patronage'') di Illinois, ngajukeun calon-calon legislatif sorangan pikeun nyerang pihak Républik sakaligus pihak Douglas. Hal ieu némbongkeun sakumaha jerona rasa ceuceub Buchanan ka Douglas.{{sfn|Chadwick|2008|p=117}} Ahirna, urang Démokrat Douglas meunang sarta Douglas kapilih deui ka Sénat. Dina pamilihan taun éta, kakuatan Douglas ngawasa ampir sakuliah Kalér, iwal di Pennsylvania, nagara bagian asal Buchanan. Rojongan pikeun Buchanan mingkin ngeret, ngan sésa di wilayah Kidul wungkul.{{sfn|Potter|1976|pp=297–327}}{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=286–299}} Perpecahan antara urang Démokrat Kalér sarta Kidul ngamungkinkeun Partéi Républik meunangkeun sora panglobana (pluralitas) di DPR dina [[Pilihan raya Amérika Sarikat 1858|pamilihan 1858]]. Hal ieu ngalantarankeun maranéhna bisa ngahalangan ampir sakabéh agenda Buchanan. Sabalikna, Buchanan ogé némbongkeun mumusuhan ku cara ngagunakeun hak véto kana genep undang-undang penting anu diajukeun ku urang Républik.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=312}} Di antarana nyaéta [[Homestead Acts|Homestead Act]], anu bakal méré lahan 160 héktar ka para padumuk, sarta [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts|Morrill Act]] pikeun ngadegkeun paguron luhur tatanén. Buchanan boga pamandangan yén undang-undang ieu téh inkonstitusional. Di wilayah kulon, malah seueur urang Démokrat anu ngutuk kawijakan présidén ieu, sedengkeun masarakat anu nganggap pendidikan salaku aset penting ngarasa kuciwa ku véto Buchanan kana pangwangunan universitas.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=117–118}} === Kawijakan luar nagri === Buchanan ngamimitian jabatanna kalayan kawijakan luar nagri anu ambisius, anu dirarancang pikeun ngukuhkeun [[Hégémoni]] AS di Amérika Tengah sarta ngurangan pangaruh Britania Raya.{{sfn|Smith|1975|pp=69–70}} Buchanan narékahan pikeun ngahirupkeun deui doktrin [[Manifest Destiny]]** sarta negeskeun [[Doktrin Monroe]], anu harita nuju ditarajang ku Spanyol, Perancis, sarta utamana Britania dina taun 1850-an.<ref>Belohlavek, John M. (2013). "In Defense of Doughface Diplomacy...". ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp. 112–114.</ref> Anjeunna boga harepan pikeun negosiasi deui [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]] pikeun nolak [[Imperialisme Éropa]] di Hémisfér Kulon. Buchanan ogé hayang ngadegkeun protéktorat AS di nagara bagian Méksiko sapertos [[Chihuahua (nagara bagian)|Chihuahua]] sarta [[Sonora]], sarta anu paling utama, anjeunna masih kénéh miboga ambisi jangka panjang pikeun miboga Kuba. Nanging, ambisi Buchanan di Kuba sarta Méksiko kalolobaanana dihalangan ku DPR AS. Saatos negosiasi panjang sareng Britania, anjeunna hasil ngayakinkeun maranéhna pikeun nyerahkeun [[Departemén Kapuloan Bay|Kapuloan Bay]] ka [[Honduras]] sarta [[Basisir Mosquito]] ka [[Nicaragua]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}} Dina taun 1858, Buchanan maréntahkeun [[Ékspédisi Paraguay]] pikeun ngahukum [[Paraguay]] alatan némbakan kapal {{USS|Water Witch|1851|6}}. Ékspédisi anu méakkeun waragad gedé ieu hasil meunangkeun paménta hampura sarta pamayaran ganti rugi ti Paraguay.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}} Buchanan ogé kantos mikirkeun pikeun mésér Alaska ti [[Kaisar Rusia]], margi kagiatan moro paus di ditu kacida pentingna pikeun ékonomi AS. Dina usum tiris taun 1859, tawaran awal sajumlah $5.000.000 parantos diajukeun. Sanajan proyék ieu ahirna gagal harita, obrolan ieu janten dadasar pikeun pameulian Alaska dina mangsa nu bakal datang.<ref>Belohlavek, John M. (2013). pp. 124–126.</ref> Di Asia, Buchanan nyiar perjangjian dagang sareng [[Dinasti Qing]] di Cina sarta Jepang. Di Cina, utusanana [[William Bradford Reed]] hasil ngasupkeun AS salaku pihak dina [[Perjangjian Tientsin]]. Dina Méi 1860, Buchanan nampi delegasi Jepang anu mawa Perjangjian Harris pikeun diratifikasi babarengan.<ref>Belohlavek, John M. (2013). pp. 126–128.</ref> Buchanan ogé kantos ditawaran sakandang [[Gajah]] ku Raja [[Rama IV]] ti [[Thailand|Siam]], nanging suratna kakara nepi saatos Buchanan lungsur tina jabatanana, sarta panerusna, Abraham Lincoln, nolak éta tawaran alatan kaayaan iklim di AS anu teu cocog.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lincoln Rejects the King of Siam's Offer of Elephants|url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/lincoln-rejects-king-siams-offer-elephants|publisher=American Battlefield Trust}}</ref> Sato piaraan présidén lianna kalebet sapasang dadali botak (''bald eagles'') sarta anjing Newfoundland.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}} === Pilihan Raya 1860 === {{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860}} [[File:John C Breckinridge-04775-restored.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[John C. Breckinridge]], [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] dina mangsa Buchanan]] Sakumaha anu parantos dijangjikeun dina biantara pelantikanana, [[James Buchanan]] henteu nyalonkeun deui. Anjeunna malah kantos nyarios ka panerusna, "Upami anjeun ngarasa bagja nalika lebet ka Gedong Bodas sapertos kabagjaan kuring nalika mulang ka Wheatland, hartosna anjeun téh jalma anu bagja pisan."{{sfn|Klein|1962}} Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1860]] di Charleston, Partéi Démokrat peupeus alatan urusan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Hal ieu ngaruksak reputasi Buchanan anu dianggap salaku jalma anu paling tanggung jawab kana ieu pasualan. Sanajan [[Stephen A. Douglas]] unggul dina unggal pamilihan sora, anjeunna gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu mayoritas anu diperyogikeun. Ahirna, urang Kidul nolak hasil konvénsi sarta nyalonkeun Wakil Présidén [[John C. Breckinridge]] salaku calon maranéhna sorangan. Buchanan, anu masih miboga dendam ka Douglas, henteu nyoba ngahijikeun deui partéina sarta kalah ngarojong Breckinridge sacara satengah haté. Alatan beulahna Partéi Démokrat, calon ti Partéi Républik, [[Abraham Lincoln]], hasil meunangkeun pamilihan. Buchanan janten urang Démokrat panungtungan anu meunang pilihan raya présidén dugi ka [[Grover Cleveland]] dina taun 1884.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=118–120}} Ti mimiti bulan Oktober kénéh, Panglima Angkatan Darat [[Winfield Scott]] parantos ngingetan Buchanan yén kameunangan Lincoln bakal ngabalukarkeun saeutikna tujuh nagara bagian misahkeun diri tina Uni ([[Secession in the United States|secession]]). Scott nyarankeun sangkan pasukan féderal sarta artileri dikirimkeun ka nagara-nagara bagian kasebut pikeun ngajaga aset pamaréntah. Nanging, saprak taun 1857, Kongrés parantos ngabaheulakeun kaayaan militer sahingga kakuatanana kacida lemahna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} Buchanan teu percaya ka Scott sarta maliré kana saran-saranna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=76, 133}} Saatos Lincoln kapilih, Buchanan sabenerna maréntahkeun Mentri Perang [[John B. Floyd]] pikeun nguatkeun bénténg-bénténg di Kidul, nanging Floyd hasil ngayakinkeun Buchanan pikeun ngabatalkeun éta paréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} === Pilihan Raya 1860 === {{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860}} [[File:John C Breckinridge-04775-restored.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[John C. Breckinridge]], [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] dina mangsa Buchanan]] Sakumaha anu parantos dijangjikeun dina biantara pelantikanana, [[James Buchanan]] henteu nyalonkeun deui. Anjeunna malah kantos nyarios ka panerusna, "Upami anjeun ngarasa bagja nalika lebet ka Gedong Bodas sapertos kabagjaan kuring nalika mulang ka Wheatland, hartosna anjeun téh jalma anu bagja pisan."{{sfn|Klein|1962}} Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1860]] di Charleston, Partéi Démokrat peupeus alatan urusan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Hal ieu ngaruksak reputasi Buchanan anu dianggap salaku jalma anu paling tanggung jawab kana ieu pasualan. Sanajan [[Stephen A. Douglas]] unggul dina unggal pamilihan sora, anjeunna gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu mayoritas anu diperyogikeun. Ahirna, urang Kidul nolak hasil konvénsi sarta nyalonkeun Wakil Présidén [[John C. Breckinridge]] salaku calon maranéhna sorangan. Buchanan, anu masih miboga dendam ka Douglas, henteu nyoba ngahijikeun deui partéina sarta kalah ngarojong Breckinridge sacara satengah haté. Alatan beulahna Partéi Démokrat, calon ti Partéi Républik, [[Abraham Lincoln]], hasil meunangkeun pamilihan. Buchanan janten urang Démokrat panungtungan anu meunang pilihan raya présidén dugi ka [[Grover Cleveland]] dina taun 1884.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=118–120}} Ti mimiti bulan Oktober kénéh, Panglima Angkatan Darat [[Winfield Scott]] parantos ngingetan Buchanan yén kameunangan Lincoln bakal ngabalukarkeun saeutikna tujuh nagara bagian misahkeun diri tina Uni ([[Secession in the United States|secession]]). Scott nyarankeun sangkan pasukan féderal sarta artileri dikirimkeun ka nagara-nagara bagian kasebut pikeun ngajaga aset pamaréntah. Nanging, saprak taun 1857, Kongrés parantos ngabaheulakeun kaayaan militer sahingga kakuatanana kacida lemahna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} Buchanan teu percaya ka Scott sarta maliré kana saran-saranna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=76, 133}} Saatos Lincoln kapilih, Buchanan sabenerna maréntahkeun Mentri Perang [[John B. Floyd]] pikeun nguatkeun bénténg-bénténg di Kidul, nanging Floyd hasil ngayakinkeun Buchanan pikeun ngabatalkeun éta paréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} === Pemisahan Diri (Sekesi) === Kameunangan Lincoln ngajantenkeun obrolan ngeunaan pemisahan diri ([[Secession in the United States|sekesi]]) sarta perpecahan Uni nepi ka titik puncak. Dina biantara panungtungna ka Kongrés kaping 10 Désémber, [[James Buchanan]] nolak hak nagara bagian pikeun misahkeun diri, nanging anjeunna ogé negeskeun yén pamaréntah féderal teu boga kakuatan pikeun nyegah hal éta. Anjeunna kalah nyalahkeun urang Kalér atas "campur tangan anu kaleuleuwihi kana urusan perbudakan di nagara bagian Kidul."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=363}} Hiji-hijina solusi anu diajukeun ku Buchanan nyaéta "amandemen guaran" pikeun ngukuhkeun legalitas perbudakan sarta [[Kadaulatan rahayat|kadaulatan rahayat]] di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Biantara ieu dikritik ku dua pihak: urang Kalér ambek sabab Buchanan dianggap memble teu bisa ngeureunkeun sekesi, sedengkeun urang Kidul ambek sabab hak maranéhna pikeun misahkeun diri ditolak. Lima poé saatosna, Mentri Kauangan [[Howell Cobb]] ngundurkeun diri alatan parantos teu sapamadegan deui sareng Présidén.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}} [[File:US Secession map 1861.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|{{center|'''Status nagara bagian, 1861'''}} {{legend|#A40000| Nagara bagian anu misahkeun diri méméh 15 April 1861}} {{legend|#EF2929| Nagara bagian anu misahkeun diri saatos 15 April 1861}} {{legend|#FCE94F| Nagara bagian Uni anu ngidinan perbudakan}} {{legend|#204A87| Nagara bagian Uni anu ngalarang perbudakan}} {{legend|#D3D7CF| Wilayah Teritori}}]] [[South Carolina]] janten nagara bagian munggaran anu misahkeun diri dina 20 Désémber 1860. Buchanan narékahan pikeun ngayakinkeun kelompok moderat di Kidul sangkan nagara bagian séjén teu milu misah. Anjeunna ngayakeun riungan sareng komisioner South Carolina pikeun ngaréngsékeun masalah di [[Fort Sumter]], bénténg féderal anu aya di wilayah maranéhna. Buchanan nganggap yén Kongrés, sanés dirina, anu tanggung jawab milarian solusi pikeun krisis sekesi ieu.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}} Buchanan nolak miceun Mentri Jero Nagri [[Jacob Thompson]] sanajan Thompson janten agén Mississippi pikeun ngabahas sekesi. Anjeunna ogé nolak miceun Mentri Perang **[[John B. Floyd]]** sanajan aya skandal korupsi. Floyd ahirna mundur, nanging sateuacanna anjeunna parantos ngirimkeun rébuan pakarang ka nagara-nagara bagian Kidul anu engkéna ragrag ka leungeun Konfédérasi. Malah, sobat Buchanan, [[Rose O'Neal Greenhow]], ngamangpaatkeun hubungan deukeutna sareng présidén pikeun janten mata-mata pikeun pihak Kidul.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}} Sawatara upaya kompromi sapertos anu diajukeun ku Sénator [[John J. Crittenden]] sarta tilas présidén [[John Tyler]] tétéla gagal. Buchanan sacara rusiah ménta présidén-pilih Lincoln pikeun ngayakeun referendum nasional ngeunaan perbudakan, nanging Lincoln nolak. Usaha sanésna nyaéta [[Amandemen Corwin]], anu bakal ngalarang Kongrés campur tangan kana perbudakan di nagara bagian, nanging ieu ogé teu kungsi diratifikasi ku jumlah nagara bagian anu cukup.{{Sfn|Smith|1975|p=152–160}} Dugi ka ahir Januari 1861, genep nagara bagian perbudakan séjénna milu misahkeun diri. Buchanan saterusna ngaganti anggota kabinét asal Kidul ku urang Kalér anu satia ka Uni, saperti [[Edwin M. Stanton]] sarta [[Joseph Holt]]. Nalika Buchanan mikir badé nyerahkeun Fort Sumter, kabinét anyarna ngancem badé mundur, sahingga Buchanan ngabatalkeun éta niat. Dina 5 Januari, anjeunna ngirim kapal ''[[Star of the West]]'' mawa 250 prajurit sarta logistik ka Fort Sumter, nanging éta kapal ditémbakan sarta kapaksa balik deui ka Kalér. Buchanan milih pikeun henteu ngaréaksi kana éta tindakan perang. Dina 3 Maret, Buchanan nampi pesen yén logistik di Fort Sumter parantos méh béak, nanging urusan éta ahirna janten tanggung jawab Lincoln anu dilantik isukna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=135–140}} === Nagara bagian anu ngagabung ka Uni === Aya tilu nagara bagian anyar anu [[Admission to the Union|ngagabung ka Uni]] nalika Buchanan ngajabat: * [[Minnesota]] – 11 Méi 1858 * [[Oregon]] – 14 Pébruari 1859 * [[Kansas]] – 29 Januari 1861 == Taun-taun panungtung sarta wafat (1861–1868) == [[File:James Buchanan - post presidency.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Buchanan dina mangsa sepuhna, kira-kira pertengahan 1860-an.]] Saatos lungsur tina jabatanna, **[[James Buchanan]]** milih hirup tenang di Wheatland. Di dinya, anjeunna méakkeun waktosna pikeun maca buku sarta nyuratan babaturanana. Perang Sadulur peupeus dua sasih saatos Buchanan pangsiun. Sanajan loba nu nyawad, Buchanan sabenerna ngarojong Uni sarta usaha perang kasebut. Anjeunna nyerat yén panarajangan ka Sumter mangrupa awal perang ku nagara-nagara bagian Konfédérasi, sarta euweuh pilihan séjén iwal ti kudu dilawan kalayan parancah.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}} Buchanan ngarojong kawijakan wajib militer (''conscription'') Lincoln di nagara bagian Kalér, nanging anjeunna nolak **[[Proklamasi Émansipasi]]** (kabébasan budak). Anjeunna ogé ngadesek para pamuda di Pennsylvania sangkan milu daptar janten relawan tentara Uni. Nanging, Buchanan kudu nyanghareupan amarah masarakat anu nyebut Perang Sadulur téh salaku "Perang Buchanan". Anjeunna sering nampi surat anceman unggal dinten. Di toko-toko di Lancaster, poto Buchanan dipulas beureum panonuna, digambaran tali gantung dina beuheungna, sarta ditulisan "PANGHIANAT" (''TRAITOR'') dina tarangna. Koran-koran nuduh anjeunna parantos sakongkol sareng pihak Kidul. Tilas anggota kabinétna ogé kalolobaanana alim ngabela anjeunna sacara terang-terangan di hareupeun umum.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=408–413}} Alatan serangan mental kasebut, Buchanan janten gering sarta depresi. Dina taun 1866, sataun saatos perang réngsé, anjeunna medalkeun mémoar nu judulna ''Mr. Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of Rebellion'' pikeun ngabela sagala tindakanna. Dina éta buku, anjeunna nyalahkeun urang Républik sarta gerakan [[abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) salaku cukang lantaran sekesi.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}} Dina Méi 1868, Buchanan kakeunaan panyakit salesma (flu) anu mingkin parna alatan faktor yuswa. Anjeunna wafat dina kaping 1 Juni 1868 alatan gagal napas dina yuswa 77 taun di bumina, Wheatland. Jasadna dikureubkeun di **Woodward Hill Cemetery**, Lancaster.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}} == Sawangan pulitik == [[File:George Peter Alexander Healy - James Buchanan - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|James Buchanan (1859) ku [[George Healy]] sakumaha anu katingali di [[Galéri Potrét Nasional (Amérika Sarikat)|Galéri Potrét Nasional]], Washington, D.C.]] Buchanan sering dianggap ku urang Kalér anu anti-perbudakan salaku saurang "[[doughface]]", nyaéta urang Kalér anu boga prinsip pro-Kidul.{{sfn|Stampp|1990|p=48}} Rasa simpati Buchanan ka nagara-nagara bagian Kidul téh sanés ngan saukur strategi pulitik pikeun nuju ka Gedong Bodas. Anjeunna ngarasa cocok sareng ajén-inajén budaya sarta sosial kelas juragan (''planter class'') di Kidul.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=137–138}} Teu lami saatos kapilih, anjeunna nyatakeun yén "tujuan utama" administrasi anjeunna nyaéta pikeun ngeureunkeun gégér masalah perbudakan di Kalér sarta ngancurkeun partéi-partéi séktoral.{{sfn|Stampp|1990|p=48}} Sanajan sacara pribadi Buchanan nolak perbudakan,{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=30}} anjeunna yakin yén gerakan [[abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) kalah ngahalangan solusi pikeun masalah kasebut. Anjeunna nyatakeun, "Sateuacan [kaum abolisionis] ngamimitian gégér ieu, parantos aya partéi anu mingkin ageung di sababaraha nagara bagian perbudakan anu ngarojong penghapusan perbudakan sacara bertahap; nanging ayeuna teu aya hiji sora ogé anu kadéngé ngarojong hal éta."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=150}} Dina biantara taunan katiluna ka Kongrés, présidén malah ngaku yén para budak téh "diperlakukeun kalayan saé sarta manusiawi." Buchanan yakin yén kadali diri mangrupa inti tina pamaréntahan anu saé. Anjeunna percaya yén konstitusi téh diwangun ku "...watesan-watesan anu ditetepkeun ku rahayat pikeun dirina sorangan sarta wawakilna."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=143}} Ngeunaan perbudakan sarta Konstitusi, anjeunna nyatakeun: "Sanajan di Pennsylvania urang sadaya nolak perbudakan sacara abstrak, urang moal bisa ngalanggar kasapukan konstitusional anu urang boga sareng nagara-nagara bagian dulur urang. Hak-hak maranéhna bakal dijaga sacara suci ku urang."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=150}} [[File:Wheatland - IMG 7694.JPG|alt=James Buchanan House, 1120 Marietta Avenue, Lancaster Township|thumb|Imah James Buchanan, Wheatland]] Salah sahiji pasualan utama harita nyaéta masalah [[Tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|tarif]].{{sfn|Jurinski|pages=16–17}} Buchanan ngarasa bingung antara [[perdagangan bébas]] sarta tarif pelindung (''protective tariff''), margi salah sahijina pasti bakal nguntungkeun hiji wilayah nanging ngarugikeun wilayah sanésna. Salaku sénator ti Pennsylvania, anjeunna nyarios: "Kuring dianggap salaku pangrojong perlindungan anu pangkuatna di nagara bagian séjén, nanging kuring dikutuk salaku musuhna di Pennsylvania."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=144}} Buchanan ogé cangcaya antara kahayangna pikeun ngalegaan wilayah nagara demi karaharjaan umum, sarta ngajamin hak-hak jalma anu nempatan wilayah kasebut. Ngeunaan ékspansi wilayah, anjeunna nyarios, "Ngeureunkeun rahayat meuntasan [[Pagunungan Rocky]]? Sarua baé jeung marentahkeun [[Niagara Falls|Curug Niagara]] sangkan ulah ngalir. Urang kudu minuhan takdir urang (''manifest destiny'')."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=147}} Nanging, anjeunna ogé nyatakeun yén anjeunna hoream upami ékspansi éta kalah ngalegaan kakawasaan perbudakan.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=147}} {{Clear}} === Kahirupan pribadi === Buchanan kakeunaan panyakit mata [[ésotropia]]. Sajaba ti éta, panon anu sabeulah kakeunaan [[Miopia|panon deukeut]] sarta nu sabeulahna deui [[Hipermetropia|panon jauh]]. Pikeun nutupan hal ieu, anjeunna sering ngadéngdékkeun sirahna ka gigir nalika nuju ngobrol sareng batur.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=19}} Hal ieu mindeng janten bahan lulucon ku musuh pulitikna, kalebet [[Henry Clay]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=28}} Dina taun 1818, Buchanan pendak sareng Anne Caroline Coleman dina hiji pésta di [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]]. Anne mangrupa putra ti Robert Coleman, saurang pangusaha beusi anu beunghar. Dina taun 1819, maranéhna tunangan, nanging jarang patepang sabab Buchanan sibuk teuing ku urusan hukum sarta pulitik nalika kajantenan [[Panik 1819]]. Ayana gosip yén Buchanan caket sareng awéwé séjén ngabalukarkeun Anne mutuskeun hubungan tunanganana. Teu lami saatosna, dina 9 Désémber 1819, Anne pupus sacara misterius alatan dosis kaleuleuwihi (overdosis) [[laudanum]] dina yuswa 23 taun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}} Buchanan ménta idin ka ramana Anne pikeun ngiringan pamakaman, nanging ditolak. Harita, Buchanan nyarios yén "kabagjaan parantos kabur ti kuring salilana." Saatos kajantenan éta, Buchanan ngaku yén anjeunna milih teu nikah salaku tanda kasatiaan ka cinta sajatina anu pupus ngora keneh. Anjeunna janten hiji-hijina présidén Amérika Sarikat anu henteu kantos nikah. [[File:William Rufus King edited..jpg|thumb|upright=.70|[[William R. King|William Rufus DeVane King]], batur sakamar Buchanan sarta anu disangka pasanganna]] Dina taun 1833 sarta 1840-an, anjeunna kantos gaduh rencana badé nikah, nanging teu aya nu laksana. Salah sahijina nyaéta ka Anna Payne, alon-alonna tilas Ibu Nagara [[Dolley Madison]]. Nalika anjeunna janten présidén, alon-alonna anu parantos yatim piatu, **Harriet Lane**, diangkat janten anak sarta janten "hostess" (nu boga imah/pendamping) resmi di Gedong Bodas. Aya ogé gosip anu teu kabuktian yén anjeunna miboga hubungan sareng randa Présidén Polk, nyaéta [[Sarah Childress Polk]]. === Hubungan sareng William R. King === Buchanan miboga hubungan anu kacida raketna sareng [[William R. King|William Rufus DeVane King]], anu janten targét gosip anu populér. King, sapertos Buchanan, teu kantos nikah.<ref>[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/175-year-history-examining-bachelor-president-james-buchanan-close-friendship-william-rufus-king-180972992/ The 175-Year History of Speculating About President James Buchanan’s Bachelorhood], Smithsonian Magazine, 2019</ref> King mangrupa politisi ti Alabama anu kungsi ngajabat janten wakil présidén dina mangsa [[Franklin Pierce]]. Buchanan sareng King hirup babarengan di hiji imah kos (''boardinghouse'') di Washington sarta sering sumping ka acara-acara sosial babarengan ti taun 1834 dugi ka 1844. Susunan hirup sapertos kitu harita mémang lumrah, nanging Buchanan kantos nyebat hubunganana salaku "''communion''" (persekutuan/hubungan batin). Présidén [[Andrew Jackson]] sacara moyok nyebat maranéhna "Miss Nancy" sarta "Aunt Fancy", dimana istilah nu kahiji mangrupa éufémisme dina abad ka-19 pikeun lalaki anu sipatna kawas awéwé (kemayu).{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=75}} Mentri Pos Buchanan, Aaron V. Brown, ogé nyebat King salaku "Aunt Fancy" sarta nyebat anjeunna salaku "pamajikan" atawa "beulahan jiwa" Buchanan. King pupus alatan TBC teu lami saatos pelantikan Pierce, opat taun sateuacan Buchanan janten présidén. Buchanan ngadiskripsikeun King salaku "salah sahiji lalaki publik anu pangsaéna, pangsucina, sarta pang-konsisténna anu kantos kuring kenal." Sajarawan Jean H. Baker miboga pamandangan yén alon-alon ti dua lalaki ieu kamungkinan parantos ngancurkeun surat-surat korespondensi antara maranéhna. Nanging, anjeunna yakin yén surat-surat anu masih aya ngan saukur némbongkeun "rasa mikaasih tina hiji sosobatan anu husus."{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=25–26}} Status Buchanan salaku bujangan saumur hirup saatos pupusna Anne Coleman terus ngondang minat sarta spékulasi. Sababaraha pihak boga anggapan yén carita pupusna Anne ngan saukur dianggo pikeun nyingkahan patarosan ngeunaan séksualitas Buchanan. Sajarawan sapertos [[James W. Loewen]] sarta [[Robert P. Watson]] boga duga yén Buchanan téh [[homoséksual]]. Loewen nyebutkeun yén dina mangsa sepuhna, Buchanan kantos nyerat surat anu ngaku yén anjeunna kamungkinan bakal nikah ka awéwé anu bisa nampi "kurangna rasa asih anu ngagedur atanapi romantis" ti dirina.{{sfn|Ross|1988|pp=86–91}} == Warisan == === Reputasi sajarah === Sanajan Buchanan kantos ngaramal yén "sajarah bakal ngabuktikeun yén kuring bener,"<ref name="state park">{{cite web|url=http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateParks/parks/buchanansbirthplace.aspx|title=Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources}}</ref> para sajarawan kalah nyawad Buchanan alatan anjeunna dianggap horéam atawa teu mampuh nindak nalika nyanghareupan krisis sekesi. ''[[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]]'' ampir sok nempatkeun Buchanan salaku salah sahiji présidén anu paling gagal dina sajarah Amérika. Dina rupa-rupa survéy para ahli, anjeunna nempatii posisi panghandapna dina hal visi, kapamingpinan doméstik, kawijakan luar nagri, sarta otoritas moral. Survéy ti taun 1948 dugi ka 1982 sacara konsistén nempatkeun Buchanan dina jajaran présidén pangburukna, babarengan sareng [[Warren G. Harding]], Millard Fillmore, sarta [[Richard Nixon]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Arthur B. |title=Evaluating the Presidents of the United States |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1984}}</ref> Sajarawan Philip S. Klein dina taun 1962 nyoba méré sawangan anu leuwih obyéktif: {{blockquote|Buchanan nyepeng kapamingpinan... nalika gelombang amarah anu can kungsi aya sateuacanna nuju narajang bangsa. Yén anjeunna mampuh nahan ''faksi-faksi'' anu silih musuhan dina mangsa révolusionér éta téh sabenerna mangrupa hiji préstasi anu luar biasa. Kahéngkéranana dina taun-taun anu pinuh ku prahara mingkin digedé-gedékeun ku para partisan ti Kalér sarta Kidul. Bakatna anu sakuduna bisa ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén hébat dina mangsa anu tenang, kalah kaurugan ku kajadian-kajadian Perang Sadulur sarta ku sosok Abraham Lincoln anu kacida jangkung pangaruhna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=429}}}} Sabalikna, biografer Jean Baker dina taun 2004 méré sawangan anu leuwih peureus: {{blockquote|Kagagalan Buchanan nalika krisis Uni sanés alatan anjeunna cicingeun, nanging alatan sikepna anu condong ka Kidul, hiji hal anu ampir sarua jeung panghianatan pikeun saurang pajabat anu parantos sumpah pikeun ngabela sakuliah Amérika Sarikat. Anjeunna téh pamingpin anu bahaya, saurang [[idéolog]] anu bedegong sarta salah sahiji anu prinsipna teu méré rohangan pikeun kompromi. Dina hianatna anjeunna kana kapercayaan nasional, Buchanan leuwih deukeut kana ngalakukeun tindakan makar batan présidén séjénna dina sajarah Amérika.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=141}}}} Sajarawan lianna saperti Bruce Catton nyebutkeun yén Buchanan sarta kabinétna téh "jalma-jalma anu mumpuni pikeun henteu ngalakukeun nanaon anu penting kalayan gaya anu kacida wibawana." Catton nganggap yén hiji-hijina tindakan Buchanan anu miboga pangaruh badag nyaéta ngahalangan Stephen A. Douglas janten calon tunggal Partéi Démokrat dina taun 1860, anu ahirna kalah nguntungkeun Lincoln. === Monumén sarta Pangéling-ngéling === Hiji [[Monumén James Buchanan|monumén]] tina [[parunggu]] sarta granit di juru kidul-wétan [[Meridian Hill Park]], Washington, D.C., dirarancang ku arsiték William Gorden Beecher sarta dipahat ku seniman Maryland, [[Hans Schuler]]. Sanajan parantos dipesen ti taun 1916, monumén ieu nembé disatujuan ku Kongrés dina taun 1918 sarta réngsé diresmikan dina 26 Juni 1930. Ieu monumén némbongkeun patung Buchanan anu diaping ku inohong klasik lalaki sarta awéwé anu ngalambangkeun hukum sarta diplomasi. Di dinya aya tulisan: "Negarawan anu jujur, anu léngkahna saluyu jeung hukum," mangrupa cutatan ti anggota kabinétna, **[[Jeremiah S. Black]]**.{{sfn|Strauss|2016|p=213}} [[File:BuchananmonmtDC.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|Monumén Buchanan di Washington, D.C.]] Monumén anu leuwih tiheula diwangun dina taun 1907–1908 di tempat gumelarna Buchanan di [[Taman Nagara Tempat Gumelar Buchanan|Stony Batter, Pennsylvania]]. Bagian tina monumén ieu mangrupa struktur piramida beuratna 250 ton anu nangtung di urut lokasi saung leutik (''cabin'') tempat Buchanan dilahirkeun. Ieu monumén dirarancang pikeun némbongkeun tékstur batu asli sarta mortir ti wewengkon kasebut.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/findapark/buchanansbirthplace/index.htm|title=Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources}}</ref> Aya tilu county anu dingaranan pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna, nyaéta di [[Buchanan County, Iowa|Iowa]], [[Buchanan County, Missouri|Missouri]], sarta [[Buchanan County, Virginia|Virginia]]. Aya ogé hiji county di Texas anu dingaranan Buchanan dina taun 1858, nanging dirobah janten [[Stephens County, Texas|Stephens County]] dina taun 1861, dicandak tina ngaran wakil présidén Konfédérasi, [[Alexander Stephens]].{{sfn|Beatty|2001|p=310}} Kota [[Buchanan, Michigan]] ogé dingaranan luyu jeung ngaran anjeunna. Salian ti éta, sawatara komunitas séjén ogé maké ngaran Buchanan, sapertos di Georgia sarta Wisconsin. Di [[Dickinson College]], kampus tempat Buchanan sakola sarta lulus di [[Carlisle, Pennsylvania]], aya hiji asrama anu dingaranan pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dickinson.edu/info/20238/office_of_residence_life_and_housing/1291/traditional_residence_halls/6|title=Traditional Residence Halls|publisher=Dickinson College}}</ref> [[Leuweung Nagara Buchanan]] (''Buchanan State Forest'') anu perenahna di deukeut wates nagara bagian Maryland ogé dingaranan pikeun miéling anjeunna. Salian ti éta, aya ogé SMA James Buchanan (''James Buchanan High School''), hiji sakola di sisi kota tempat anjeunna digedékeun di [[Mercersburg, Pennsylvania]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar skandal séks pulitik féderal di Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanna]] * [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat dina prangko AS]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} === Karya anu dicutat === {{refbegin|35em}} * {{cite book |last=Baker |first=Jean H. |title=James Buchanan |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805069464 |publisher=Times Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8050-6946-4}} * {{cite book |last=Beatty |first=Michael A. |title=County Name Origins of the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/countynameorigin0000beat |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-1025-5 |year=2001}} * {{cite book |last=Chadwick |first=Bruce |title=1858: Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant and the War They Failed to See |url=https://archive.org/details/1858abrahamlinco00chad |year=2008 |publisher=Sourcebooks, Inc. |isbn=978-1402209413}} * {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=George Ticknor |title=Life of James Buchanan: Fifteenth President of the United States |year=1883 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |volume=2 |isbn=978-0-8130-4426-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Flude |first=Anthony G. |title=Manuscript XXIII: A Raiatean Petition for American Protection |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |volume=47 |issue=1 |date=March 2012 |publisher=Australian National University}} * {{cite book |last=Grossman |first=Mark |title=Political Corruption in America: An Encyclopedia of Scandals, Power, and Greed |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalcorrupt0000gros |year=2003 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-060-4}} * {{cite book |last=Hall |first=Timothy L. |title=Supreme Court justices: a biographical dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust00melv |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8153-1176-8}} * {{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Philip Shriver |journal=American Heritage Magazine |title=The Lost Love of a Bachelor President |date=December 1955 |volume=7 |issue=1}} * {{cite book |last=Klein |first=Philip S. |title=President James Buchanan: A Biography |publisher=American Political Biography Press |year=1962 |edition=1995 |isbn=978-0-945707-11-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Philip Shriver |last2=Hoogenboom |first2=Ari |title=A History of Pennsylvania |publisher=Penn State University Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-271-01934-5}} * {{cite book |last=Jurinski |first=James John |date=2012 |title=Tax Reform: A Reference Handbook |url=https://archive.org/details/taxreformreferen0000juri |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-322-4}} * {{cite book |last=McPherson |first=James M. |title=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era |url=https://archive.org/details/battlecryoffreed0000jame |year=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974390-2}} * {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David Morris |title=The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 |year=1976 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-090524-8}} * {{Cite book |title=James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8130-4426-2 |editor-last=Quist |editor-first=John W. |editor-last2=Birkner |editor-first2=Michael J.}} * {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Shelley |date=1988 |title=Fall from Grace: Sex, Scandal, and Corruption in American Politics from 1702 to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/fallfromgracesex00ross |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0-345-35381-8}} * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Elbert |title=The Presidency of James Buchanan |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofjame0000smit_t2i3 |date=1975 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0132-5}} * {{cite book |last1=Stampp |first1=Kenneth M. |title=America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink |url=https://archive.org/details/americain185700kenn |date=1990 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-987947-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Robert |title=Worst. President. Ever.: James Buchanan, the POTUS Rating Game, and the Legacy of the Least of the Lesser Presidents |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-4930-2484-1 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}} * {{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |title=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-952-8}} * {{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Robert P. |title=Affairs of State: The Untold History of Presidential Love, Sex, and Scandal, 1789–1900 |url=https://archive.org/details/affairsofstateun0000wats |date=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-1836-9}} {{refend}} == Bacaan lanjutan == {{refbegin|35em}} === Sumber sekunder === * {{cite book |last1=Balcerski |first1=Thomas J. |title=Bosom Friends: The Intimate World of James Buchanan and William Rufus King |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-091460-8}} * {{cite book |chapter=Harriet Rebecca Lane Johnston |title=A Companion to First Ladies |year=2016 |last1=Balcerski |first1=Thomas J. |pages=197–213 |publisher=Wiley}} * {{cite journal |last1=Binder |first1=Frederick Moore |title=James Buchanan: Jacksonian Expansionist |journal=The Historian |year=1992 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=69–84}} * {{cite book |last=Binder |first=Frederick Moore |title=James Buchanan and the American Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesbuchananame0000bind |year=1994 |publisher=Susquehanna University Press |isbn=978-0-945636-64-9}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Birkner |editor-first=Michael J. |title=James Buchanan and the Political Crisis of the 1850s |year=1996 |publisher=Susquehanna University Press}} * Birkner, Michael J., et al., eds. ''The Worlds of James Buchanan and [[Thaddeus Stevens]]: Place, Personality, and Politics in the Civil War Era'' (Louisiana State University Press, 2019) * Horrocks, Thomas A. ''President James Buchanan and the Crisis of National Leadership'' (Nova Science Publisher's, Inc., 2011) * {{cite journal |last1=Meerse |first1=David E. |title=Buchanan, the Patronage, and the Lecompton Constitution: A Case Study |journal=Civil War History |year=1995 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=291–312}} * {{cite book |last=Nevins |first=Allan |title=The Emergence of Lincoln: Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859 |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-BTU-677 |year=1950 |publisher=Scribner}} * [[Roy Franklin Nichols|Nichols, Roy Franklin]]; ''The Democratic Machine, 1850–1854'' (1923) * Quist, John W. sarta Birkner, Michael J., eds. (2013). ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War'' * {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=James Ford |title=History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the End of the Roosevelt Administration |volume=2 |year=1906 |publisher=Macmillan}} * {{cite journal |last1=Rosenberger |first1=Homer T. |title=Inauguration of President Buchanan a Century Ago |journal=Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. |year=1957}} * {{cite book |title=A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861 |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley |editor-last1=Silbey |editor-first1=Joel H.}} * {{cite book |last=Updike |first=John |title=Buchanan Dying: A Play |url=https://archive.org/details/buchanandyingpla0000updi |year=2013 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group}} (fiksi). * {{cite book |author=Wells, Damon |chapter=Douglas and Goliath |title=Stephen Douglas |url=https://archive.org/details/stephendouglasla0000well |year=1971 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/stephendouglasla0000well/page/12 12]–54 |publisher=University of Texas Press}} === Sumber primér === * Buchanan, James. ''Fourth Annual Message to Congress.'' (3 Désémber 1860). * Buchanan, James. ''[[Mr Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of the Rebellion]]'' (1866) * ''National Intelligencer'' (1859) {{refend}} == Rujukan == <references /> == Tumbu luar == {{wikisource|works=or}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons}} {{EB1911 poster|Buchanan, James}} * {{CongBio|B001005|ref=none}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/buchanan/index.html James Buchanan: Pitunjuk Sumber] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress) * [https://www2.hsp.org/collections/manuscripts/b/Buchanan0091.html Makalah James Buchanan], ngawengku sakuliah karir hukum, pulitik, sarta diplomasi anjeunna, sayogi di [[Historical Society of Pennsylvania]]. * [https://www.wheatland.org/ Wheatland] * [https://www.dcnr.pa.gov/StateParks/FindAPark/BuchanansBirthplaceStatePark/Pages/default.aspx Taman Nagara Tempat Gumelar Buchanan, Franklin County, Pennsylvania] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?125214-1/life-portrait-james-buchanan "Life Portrait of James Buchanan"], ti [[C-SPAN]], 21 Juni 1999. '''Sumber primér''' * {{Gutenberg author |id=1648}} * {{Librivox author |id=11288}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=James Buchanan}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200809152928/http://www.usa-presidents.info/inaugural/buchanan.html Biantara Pelantikan] * [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501 Pesen Taunan Kaopat ka Kongrés, 3 Désémber 1860] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912170953/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501 |date=2018-09-12 }} {{James Buchanan}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghormatan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[Jacob Hibshman]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar wawakil Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania|DPR AS]]<br />ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-3 Pennsylvania]]|years=1821–1823}} {{s-aft|after=[[Daniel H. Miller]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[James S. Mitchell]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar wawakil Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania|DPR AS]]<br />ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-4 Pennsylvania]]|years=1823–1831}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Muhlenberg Hiester]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Philip P. Barbour]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Pupuhu [[Komite Yudisial DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komite Yudisial DPR]]|years=1829–1831}} {{s-aft|after=[[Warren R. Davis]]}} {{s-dip}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat ka Rusia|Menteri Amérika Sarikat ka Rusia]]|years=1832–1833}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Wilkins (American politician)|William Wilkins]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Joseph Reed Ingersoll]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat ka Britania Raya|Menteri Amérika Sarikat ka Britania Raya]]|years=1853–1856}} {{s-aft|after=[[George M. Dallas]]}} {{s-par|us-sen}} {{s-bef|before=[[William Wilkins (U.S. politician)|William Wilkins]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania|Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania]]|years=1834–1845}} {{s-aft|after=[[Simon Cameron]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[John C. Calhoun]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Menteri Luar Negeri Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1845–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[John M. Clayton]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Franklin Pierce]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1857–1861}} {{s-aft|after=[[Abraham Lincoln]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Franklin Pierce]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Partéi Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] [[Daptar calon présidén Partéi Démokrat AS|calon]] Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856|1856]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Stephen A. Douglas]] (Kalér)<br />[[John C. Breckinridge]] (Kidul)}} }} {{Portal bar|Biografi|Perang Sadulur Amérika|Amérika Sarikat|Pulitik|Pennsylvania|Hukum}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Buchanan, James}} [[Kategori:James Buchanan| ]] [[Kategori:Gumelar 1791]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1868]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat ka Kakaisaran Rusia]] [[Kategori:Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat ka Britania Raya]] [[Kategori:Militan Amérika dina Perang 1812]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéi Démokrat]] [[Kategori:Alumni Dickinson College]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Pennsylvania]] [[Kategori:Loya Pennsylvania]] [[Kategori:Menteri Luar Negeri Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Pamingpin pulitik Uni (Perang Sadulur Amérika)]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ogé Freemason]] p544o9vm63yvvrtgbm25buycmv389rc 0 107852 711775 705695 2026-08-07T03:58:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 11 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti taun 1861 dugi ka 1865}} {{Infobox officeholder | image = Abraham Lincoln 1863 Portrait (3x4 cropped).jpg | caption = Lincoln dina taun 1863 | alt = Potrét Abraham Lincoln janggotan némbongkeun sirah sarta taktakna | order = ka-16 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = {{plainlist| * [[Hannibal Hamlin]] (1861–1865) * [[Andrew Johnson]] (Mar–Apr. 1865) }} | term_start = 4 Maret 1861 | term_end = 15 April 1865 | predecessor = [[James Buchanan]] | successor = [[Andrew Johnson]] | state1 = [[Illinois]] | district1 = ka-7 | term_start1 = 4 Maret 1847 | term_end1 = 3 Maret 1849 | predecessor1 = [[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]] | successor1 = [[Thomas L. Harris]] | state_house2 = Illinois | constituency2 = {{nowrap|ti [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]]}} | term_start2 = 1 Désémber 1834 | term_end2 = 4 Désémber 1842 | predecessor2 = [[Achilles Morris]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1809|2|12}} | birth_place = [[LaRue County, Kentucky]], Amérika Sarikat | death_date = {{death date and age|1865|4|15|1809|2|12}} | death_place = Washington, D.C., Amérika Sarikat | death_cause = [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Rajapati ku témbakan]] | occupation = {{hlist|Politikus|loya}} | resting_place = [[Lincoln Tomb|Makam Lincoln]] | party = {{plainlist| * [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (méméh 1856) * [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] (saatos 1856) }} | otherparty = [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] (1864–1865) | height = 193 cm (6 ft 4 in) | spouse = {{marriage|[[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]|4 Nopémber 1842}} | relatives = [[Kulawarga Lincoln]] | signature = Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg | signature_alt = Tanda tangan kursif dina mangsi | allegiance = | branch = [[Milisi Illinois]] | serviceyears = April–Juli 1832 | rank = {{plainlist| * [[Captain (United States O-3)|Kaptén]] * [[Private (United States)|Prajurit]] }} | battles = [[Perang Black Hawk]] | nickname = "Honest Abe" (Abe anu Jujur) }} '''Abraham Lincoln'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɪ|ŋ|k|ən|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Lincoln.wav}} {{Respell|LINK|ən}}}} (12 Pébruari 1809{{snd}}15 April 1865) mangrupa [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-16, anu ngajabat ti taun 1861 dugi ka [[Rajapati Abraham Lincoln|tiwasna alatan rajapati]] dina taun 1865. Anjeunna mingpin Amérika Sarikat ngaliwatan [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]], néléhkeun [[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika|Nagara Konfédérasi]], sarta maénkeun peran utama dina [[Ngahapusna perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|ngahapusna perbudakan]]. Dilahirkeun di [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|saung leutik (log cabin)]] di Kentucky, Lincoln digedékeun di wewengkon [[American frontier|frontier]]. Anjeunna diajar sacara [[autodidaktisme|otodidak]] sarta janten loya (pangacara), [[DPR Illinois|législator]] nagara bagian [[Illinois]], sarta [[DPR Amérika Sarikat|wawakil AS]]. Anjeunna ngarasa ambek ku ayana [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nébraska]] taun 1854 anu méré jalan pikeun ''perbudakan'' di wilayah-wilayah anyar, sahingga anjeunna janten pamingpin [[Sajarah Partéi Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Républik]] anu nembé kabentuk. Anjeunna janten kawentar di tingkat nasional dina [[Debat Lincoln–Douglas|debat kampanye Sénat 1858]] ngalawan [[Stephen A. Douglas]]. Lincoln meunang dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|pilihan raya présidén 1860]], sarta janten présidén munggaran ti Partéi Républik. Kameunanganana nyababkeun sabagéan ageung nagara bagian perbudakan mimiti [[Sekesi di Amérika Sarikat|misahkeun diri (sekesi)]] sarta ngabentuk Nagara Konfédérasi. Sabulan saatos Lincoln ngajabat présidén, pasukan Konfédérasi [[Patempuran Fort Sumter|nyerang Fort Sumter]], anu janten awal Perang Sadulur. Salaku urang Républik anu moderat, Lincoln kedah nganapigasi rupa-rupa sawangan pulitik anu silih lawan ti faksi-faksi anu aya nalika usaha perang. Anjeunna ngawas sacara raket strategi sarta taktik perang, kaasup milih para jénderal sarta ngalaksanakeun [[Blokade Uni|blokade laut]] ka palabuhan-palabuhan Kidul. Anjeunna nunda hak ''[[habeas corpus]]'' dina April 1861, hiji tindakan anu dianggap teu konstitusional ku Hakim Agung [[Roger Taney]] dina kasus ''[[Ex parte Merryman]]'', sarta anjeunna nyegah perang sareng [[Britania Raya]] ku cara ngabéréskeun [[Trent Affair|Urusan ''Trent'']]. Dina 1 Januari 1863, anjeunna ngaluarkeun **[[Proklamasi Émansipasi]]**, anu nyatakeun yén para budak di nagara-nagara bagian anu "barontak" janten merdéka. Dina 19 Nopémber 1863, anjeunna nepikeun [[Biantara Gettysburg]], anu janten salah sahiji biantara anu paling kasohor dina sajarah Amérika. Anjeunna ngamajukeun [[Amandemén ka-13 Konstitusi AS]], anu dina taun 1865 sacara resmi ngahapus [[perbudakan chattel]]. Saatos kapilih deui dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864|pilihan raya 1864]], anjeunna narékahan pikeun nyageurkeun bangsa anu ruksak alatan perang ngaliwatan mangsa [[Éra Rékonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]]. Dina 14 April 1865, lima dinten saatos [[Patempuran Appomattox Court House|pasukan Konfédérasi nyerah di Appomattox]], Lincoln nuju ningali pintonan sandiwara di [[Téater Ford]], Washington, D.C., nalika anjeunna ditémbak dugi ka pupusna ku [[John Wilkes Booth]], saurang simpatisan Konfédérasi. Lincoln diéling-éling salaku [[syuhada]] sarta pahlawan nasional alatan kapamingpinanana dina mangsa perang sarta usaha-usahana pikeun ngajaga Uni sarta ngahapus perbudakan. [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|Anjeunna sacara konsistén nempatan peringkat]] luhur salaku salah sahiji présidén pangpunjulna dina [[Sajarah Amérika Sarikat]].{{TOC limit|5}} {{Abraham Lincoln series}} == Kulawarga sarta mangsa leutik kénéh== === Kahirupan awal === {{Main|Kahirupan awal sarta karir Abraham Lincoln}} Dilahirkeun di [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|saung leutik (log cabin)]] di Kentucky dina 12 Pébruari 1809, Abraham Lincoln digedékeun di [[Sinking Spring Farm]] deukeut [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=20–22}} Anjeunna mangrupa putra kadua ti pasangan [[Thomas Lincoln]] sarta [[Nancy Hanks Lincoln]]. Lincoln mangrupa katurunan ti [[Samuel Lincoln]], urang Inggris anu migrasi ka [[Koloni Teluk Massachusetts]] dina taun 1638,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 1–4}} sarta katurunan ti [[Kulawarga Harrison ti Virginia]].{{efn|group="lower-alpha"|Sanajan can pasti, nini Lincoln dipercaya nyaéta Bathsheba Herring, putri ti Alexander sarta Abigail Herring (néé Harrison).}} Aki ti pihak bapana, anu ngaranna sarua nyaéta [[Kaptén Abraham Lincoln]], mindahkeun kulawargana ti [[Koloni Virginia]] ka Kentucky. Éta kaptén téh tiwas dina [[Perang India Kalér-Kulon|serangan urang pribumi Amérika]] dina taun 1786.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 1–4}} Kulawarga ieu teras cicing di [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], dina mimiti taun 1800-an. Thomas sarta Nancy nikah dina 12 Juni 1806, sarta pindah ka [[Elizabethtown, Kentucky]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 4}} Maranéhna gaduh tilu putra: Sarah, Abraham, sarta Thomas; Thomas (bungsu) pupus nalika masih orok.{{sfn|White|2009|p=18}} Bapa Lincoln mésér sababaraha kebon di Kentucky, nanging henteu kantos kénging [[Sertifikat taneuh|surat hak milik]] anu jelas, sahingga kaleungitan ratusan héktar taneuh alatan sengketa hukum.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=22–24|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 6–8}} Dina taun 1816, kulawarga ieu pindah ka [[Indiana]], dimana surat hak milik taneuh di dinya langkung aman.{{sfn|Winkle|2011|pp=6–7}} Maranéhna nempatan lahan di leuweung di [[Komunitas Little Pigeon Creek]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 22–23}} Di Kentucky sarta Indiana, Thomas damel salaku patani, tukang nyieun lomari, sarta tukang kai. Thomas sarta Nancy mangrupa anggota [[Gereja Baptis Pisah]] (''Separate Baptist Church''), hiji kelompok évangélikal anu taat sarta anggota-anggotana sacara teges nolak ayana perbudakan.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=24}} Ku cara bajoang nyanghareupan masalah waragad, Thomas ahirna kénging surat hak milik anu jelas pikeun lahan sa-80 ékar (32 héktar) di Little Pigeon Creek dina taun 1827.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=24, 104}} Dina 5 Oktober 1818, Nancy (indung Lincoln) pupus alatan [[panyakit susu]] (''milk sickness''), ninggalkeun Sarah (lanceukna) anu yuswana nembe 11 taun pikeun ngurus rumah tangga, kalebet ngurus bapana, Abraham anu yuswana 9 taun, sarta baraya yatim piatu Nancy, Dennis Hanks.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=22–23, 77}} Thomas teras nikah deui sareng [[Sarah Bush Johnston]], saurang randa anu gaduh tilu putra, dina 2 Désémber 1819. Abraham janten caket pisan sareng indung téréna ieu sarta nyebatna "Mama".{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=27–28}} Dina 20 Januari 1828, lanceuk Lincoln (Sarah) pupus nalika ngalahirkeun, hiji kajadian anu kacida nganyerikeun haténa Lincoln.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=34, 116}} === Atikan sarta pindah ka Illinois === Lincoln mah sabagéan ageungna diajar sacara [[otodidaktisme|otodidak]].{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=10, 33}} Atikan formalna ngan saukur ti guru-guru anu ngumbara (''[[itinerant teacher]]''). Éta téh kalebet dua mangsa sakola anu singget di Kentucky, dimana anjeunna diajar maca, nanging kamungkinan mah teu acan diajar nulis. Saatos pindah ka Indiana dina yuswa tujuh taun, anjeunna sakola sacara selang-seling; upami ditotal mah kirang ti 12 sasih dugi ka yuswana 15 taun.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp= 23, 29}} Sanajan kitu, anjeunna téh saurang anu hobi pisan maca sarta miboga karep anu jejem pikeun terus diajar saumur hirupna.{{sfn|Madison|2014|p=110}} Nalika Lincoln masih rumaja, ramana kacida ngandelkeun anjeunna pikeun damel di kebon sarta milari panghasilan tambahan. Lincoln sok diséwakeun ka patani di sabudeureunana, sarta hasilna dicandak ku ramana, sakumaha adat kabiasaan harita.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 30, 41}} Nalika yuswana parantos rada déwasa, Lincoln sarta sababaraha réngrénganana narima padamelan ngangkut barang nganggo parahu datar (''[[flatboat]]'') ka [[New Orleans]], Louisiana. Di dinya, anjeunna ningali [[Pasar budak|pasar-pasar budak]] anu, numutkeun sajarawan [[Michael Burlingame]], "bakal ninggalkeun kesan anu moal bisa poho dina dirina.... Éta mangrupa munggaranana, nanging sanés anu panungtung, anjeunna ngarasa geuleuh nalika ningali sacara langsung prakték perbudakan."{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 44}} Dina Maret 1830, alatan sieun ku ayana deui wabah panyakit susu (''milk sickness''), sababaraha anggota kulawarga badag Lincoln, kalebet Abraham, pindah ka kulon ka Illinois sarta matuh di [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon County]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=36}} Hubungan Abraham sareng Thomas (ramana) mingkin jauh, sabagéan alatan kurangna minat ramana kana dunya atikan;{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|p=71}} Lincoln engkéna nolak sumping nalika ramana nuju sakarat atanapi sumping ka pamakamanana dina taun 1851. === Pernikahan sarta barudak === {{Further|Kulawarga Lincoln|Kaséhatan Abraham Lincoln|Séksualitas Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Mary, Willie, and Tad Lincoln, c1860.jpg|thumb|alt=Poto hideung-bodas saurang awéwé sareng dua murangkalih lalaki|Mary Todd Lincoln sareng Willie sarta Tad]] Sababaraha sajarawan, sapertos Michael Burlingame, ngaidéntifikasi yén cinta munggaran Lincoln nyaéta [[Ann Rutledge]], saurang awéwé ngora ti Kentucky anu pendak sareng anjeunna nalika pindah ka [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 98}} Sanajan kitu, David Herbert Donald nyatakeun yén bukti-bukti ngeunaan hubungan romantis maranéhna hésé disusun deui dumasar catetan sajarah. Rutledge pupus dina 25 Agustus 1835 alatan [[tipes]]. Lincoln ngarasa kacida sedihna ku pupusna Ann, dugi ka anjeunna katerap ku déprési beurat.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=55–58|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 p. 100}} Dina awal taun 1830-an, Lincoln pendak sareng [[Mary Owens (Abraham Lincoln fiancée)|Mary Owens]]. Dina taun 1836, Lincoln satuju pikeun dijodokeun sareng Owens upami anjeunna balik deui ka New Salem. Maranéhna kungsi silih pikawanoh (pendekatan), nanging duanana ragu-ragu. Dina 16 Agustus 1837, Lincoln nyerat surat ka Owens anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna moal nyalahkeun upami Owens mutuskeun hubungan maranéhna, sarta Owens mémang nolak pikeun nikah sareng Lincoln.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=67–69}} Dina taun 1839, Lincoln pendak sareng [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]] di [[Springfield, Illinois]], sarta sataun saatosna maranéhna tunangan.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=80–86|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 174–176}} Mary mangrupa putri ti Robert Smith Todd, saurang loya sarta pangusaha beunghar ti Lexington, Kentucky. Lincoln kungsi mutuskeun papacangan dina awal taun 1841, nanging maranéhna akur deui sarta ahirna nikah dina 4 Nopémber 1842. Dina taun 1844, pasangan ieu mésér [[Situs Sajarah Nasional Imah Lincoln|hiji imah]] di Springfield deukeut kantor hukumna. Hubungan pernikahan maranéhna sering disebut pinuh ku cobaan (''turbulent''); Mary sok kasar dina ucapanna sarta sakapeung hampang leungeun ka salakina.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 202}} Maranéhna gaduh opat putra: # [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] (gumelar 1843), hiji-hijina anak anu hirup dugi ka déwasa. # [[Edward Baker Lincoln|Edward Baker "Eddie" Lincoln]] (gumelar 1846), pupus dina taun 1850 kamungkinan alatan [[TBC]]. # [[William Wallace Lincoln|William Wallace "Willie" Lincoln]] (gumelar 1850), pupus alatan panas tiris di [[Gedong Bodas]] dina 20 Pébruari 1862. # [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas "Tad" Lincoln]] (gumelar 1853), pupus dina yuswa 18 taun alatan [[édéma]]. Lincoln kacida mikanyaahna ka barudak, sarta kulawarga Lincoln dipikanyaho henteu pati teges dina ngadidik anakna. Pupusna Eddie sarta Willie méré pangaruh anu jero pisan ka kadua kolotna. Lincoln nyalira sering katerap ku "[[sajarah déprési|melankolia]]", hiji kaayaan anu ayeuna dianggap salaku [[gangguan déprési mayor]].<ref name="Atlanticoct2005">{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200510/lincolns-clinical-depression |title=Lincoln's great depression |first=Joshua Wolf |last=Shenk |date=October 2005 |work=The Atlantic |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009044732/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/10/lincoln-apos-s-great-depression/4247/ |archivedate=October 9, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Karir munggaran sarta palayanan milisi === {{Further|Kahirupan awal sarta karir Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln dina Perang Black Hawk}} Dina taun 1831, ramana Lincoln mindahkeun kulawargana ka [[Situs Sajarah Nagara Saung Kai Lincoln|padumukan anyar]] di [[Coles County, Illinois]]. Saatos éta, Abraham mimiti hirup mandiri.{{sfn|Manning|2016|p=12}} Anjeunna matuh di [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]], salila genep taun.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=23–53}} Antara taun 1831 sarta 1832, Lincoln damel di hiji toko kelontong di New Salem.{{sfn|Winkle|2001|pp=86–95}} Anjeunna mimiti dipikawanoh ku kakuatan sarta kawantunana saatos meunang dina tanding [[Gulat]] ngalawan pamingpin kelompok jagoan anu katelah "Clary's Grove boys".{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=40–41}} Dina taun 1832, anjeunna nyalonkeun diri pikeun [[DPR Illinois]], nanging kampanyena kapegat alatan anjeunna kedah tugas salaku kaptén dina [[Milisi Illinois]] nalika [[Perang Black Hawk]].{{sfn|Winkle|2001|pp=86–95}} Anjeunna kapilih janten kaptén di kompi milisina nanging henteu kantos ngalaman patempuran langsung.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 67}} Dina kampanye pulitikna, Lincoln ngusulkeun perbaikan navigasi di [[Walungan Sangamon]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 72}} Sanajan anjeunna pinter narik perhatian jalma réa salaku [[raconteur|tukang ngadongéng]] anu hadé, anjeunna masih kénéh kurang kawentar, teu gaduh rérénjang anu kawasa, sarta teu gaduh modal, sahingga anjeunna éléh dina éta pilihan raya.{{sfnm|Winkle|2001|1pp=114–116|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 71–75}} Saatos mulang ti perang, Lincoln ngarencanakeun janten [[tukang panday beusi]], nanging kalah mésér toko kelontong di New Salem gawé bareng sareng William Berry. Alatan harita diperlukeun lisénsi pikeun ngajual inuman alkohol ka palanggan, Berry ngurus lisénsi kasebut, sarta dina taun 1833 [[Toko Kelontong Lincoln-Berry]] ogé janten hiji [[tavérna]] (kedai). Burlingame nyerat yén Berry téh saurang "nu sok mabok sarta teu disiplin", sedengkeun Lincoln "teuing ku hadé haté sahingga sok méré hutang ka saha baé". Sanajan ékonomi harita nuju saé, bisnisna kalah bangkrut sarta loba hutang, anu ngabalukarkeun Lincoln kedah ngajual bagianana.{{sfn|Meacham|2022|p=38}} Lincoln teras ngabakti salaku [[kapala kantor pos]] New Salem sarta saatosna janten [[tukang ukur tanah]] (surveyor) county. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna tetep rajin maca sarta mutuskeun pikeun janten loya.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 77–81, 87}} Tinimbang sakola di kantor pengacara anu parantos aya sakumaha adatna harita, Lincoln kalah [[diajar hukum]] sacara mandiri ku cara nginjeum buku-buku hukum, kalebet ''Commentaries'' karya [[William Blackstone]], ti pengacara [[John Todd Stuart]]. Anjeunna engkéna nyebatkeun ngeunaan atikan hukumna yén anjeunna "diajar sorangan, henteu ka sasaha."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=55}} == Jabatan pulitik munggaran sarta loya padang jukut == === Législatur nagara bagian Illinois (1834–1842) === [[File:Abes House.JPG|thumb|alt=Tampilan hareup imah bersejarah|[[Situs Sajarah Nasional Imah Lincoln|Imah Lincoln]] di [[Springfield, Illinois]], tempat anjeunna matuh ti taun 1844 dugi ka janten présidén dina taun 1861]] Dina kampanye kaduana pikeun DPR nagara bagian dina taun 1834, salaku pangrojong pamimpin [[Partéi Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Whig]], [[Henry Clay]], Lincoln nempatan peringkat kadua ti tilu belas kandidat anu marebutkeun opat korsi.{{sfn|White|2009|p=59}} Lincoln nyaluyuan dukungan Clay kana [[Masarakat Kolonisasi Amérika]], anu ngusulkeun [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|ngahapusna perbudakan]] bareng jeung mindahkeun para budak anu parantos dibébaskeun ka [[Libéria]].{{sfn|Foner|2010|pp=17–19, 67}} Partéi Whig ogé ngarojong modernisasi ékonomi dina widang perbankan, tarif pikeun ngabiayaan [[pangwangunan internal]] sapertos jalan karéta api, sarta urbanisasi.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=137–153}} Lincoln ngajabat salila opat mangsa jabatan di DPR Illinois ngawakilan [[Sangamon County]].{{sfn|Simon|1990|p=283}} Dina peran ieu, anjeunna bajoang pisan pikeun pangwangunan [[Terusan Illinois sarta Michigan]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 102}} Lincoln méré sora pikeun ngalegaan [[hak pilih]] saluareun nu boga lahan kulit bodas ka sakabéh lalaki kulit bodas.{{sfn|Simon|1990|p=130}} Anjeunna ngarojong panyieunan piagam Bank Nagara Illinois, sarta mingpin kampanye anu suksés pikeun mindahkeun puseur dayuh (ibukota) nagara bagian ti [[Vandalia, Illinois|Vandalia]] ka Springfield.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lincoln in the Illinois State Legislature |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/lincoln-in-the-illinois-state-legislature.htm |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=August 24, 2025}}</ref> Dina 27 Januari 1838, Lincoln nepikeun [[Biantara Lyceum Abraham Lincoln|biantara di Lyceum]] di Springfield, saatos kajadian rajapati éditor koran anti-perbudakan, [[Elijah Parish Lovejoy]]. Dina biantara anu saolah-olah non-partisan ieu, Lincoln nyerang [[Stephen A. Douglas]] sarta [[Partéi Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Démokrat]], anu numutkeun urang Whig nuju ngarojong "mobokrasi" (kakawasaan massa anu anarkis). Biantarana ogé nyerang anti-abolisionisme sarta prasangka ras.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 140–142}} Anjeunna kungsi dikritik dina pers alatan rencana [[Duel#Amérika Sarikat|tanding (duel)]] sareng [[James Shields (pulitikus, gumelar 1806)|James Shields]], anu parantos dionyam ku anjeunna dina serat-serat anu dimuat nganggo ngaran samaran "Bibi Rebecca". Sanajan éta duel téh ahirna henteu lumangsung, Burlingame nyatet yén "éta urusan téh kacida ngerakeunana pikeun Lincoln".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 190–194}} === DPR Amérika Sarikat (1847–1849) === [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Nicholas Shepherd, 1846-crop.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|Daguerreotype Lincoln, dicandak sakitar taun 1847, poto pangheulana anu dipikanyaho<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shepherd |first=Nicholas H. |date=1846 |title=Abraham Lincoln, Congressman-elect from Illinois. Three-quarter length portrait, seated, facing front |url=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004664400/ |accessdate=December 23, 2025 |publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref>]] Dina taun 1843, Lincoln narékahan pikeun kéngingkeun nominasi Whig pikeun [[Distrik kongrés ka-7 Illinois]] di [[DPR Amérika Sarikat]]; sanajan [[John J. Hardin]] anu kapilih janten kandidat, Lincoln hasil ngayakinkeun konvénsi partéi pikeun ngawatesan jabatan Hardin ngan ukur hiji mangsa jabatan.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 215–218}} Lincoln henteu ngan saukur kéngingkeun nominasi dina taun 1846, nanging anjeunna ogé suksés meunang dina éta pilihan raya.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 231–241}} Salaku hiji-hijina urang Whig dina délégasi Illinois, anjeunna ditugaskeun dina Komite Kantor Pos sarta Komite Balanja Departemén Perang.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 263–265}} Lincoln gawé bareng sareng [[Joshua R. Giddings]] dina rancangan undang-undang pikeun ngahapus perbudakan di [[Distrik Columbia (dugi ka 1871)|Distrik Columbia]], nanging éta rancangan dibatalkeun alatan kurangna dukungan ti sabagéan ageung anggota Whig sanésna.{{sfnm|Harris|2007|1p=54|Foner|2010|2p=57}} Lincoln sacara teges nyarita ngalawan [[Perang Amérika–Méksiko]] (1846–1848). Anjeunna nyebatkeun yén Présidén [[James K. Polk]] miboga "sababaraha motif anu kuat... pikeun ngalibetkeun dua nagara dina perang, sarta miharep bisa lolos tina pamariksaan ku cara museurkeun paningal publik kana caangna kamulyaan militér—katumbiri anu narik ati, anu mucunghul dina cihujan getih".{{sfnm|1a1=Heidler|1a2=Heidler|1y=2006|1pp=181–183|2a1=Greenberg|2y=2012|2pp=250–251}} Anjeunna ogé ngarojong [[Wilmot Proviso]], hiji usulan taun 1846 pikeun ngalarang perbudakan di sakabéh wilayah AS anu dimeunangkeun ti Méksiko.{{sfn|Holzer|2004|p=63}} Polk negeskeun yén prajurit Méksiko parantos ngamimitian perang ku cara "nyerang wilayah Nagara Bagian Texas... sarta ngocorkeun getih warga urang di tanah urang sorangan". Dina taun 1847, Lincoln ngaluarkeun "[[spot resolutions]]" (résolusi titik lokasi) anu sacara rétoris nungtut Polk pikeun némbongkeun ka Kongrés "titik lokasi" (''spot'') anu pasti dimana éta kajadian lumangsung, nanging administrasi Polk henteu ngawaler.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=123–124}} Sikep Lincoln ieu ngabalukarkeun anjeunna kaleungitan dukungan pulitik di distrikna, sarta surat kabar lokal méré landihan (julukan) anu ngahina, nyaéta "spotty Lincoln". Lincoln parantos janji dina taun 1846 yén anjeunna ngan bakal ngajabat sakali mangsa di DPR.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=124}} Sadar yén Henry Clay hésé meunang jadi présidén, anjeunna ngarojong [[Zachary Taylor]] dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|pilihan raya 1848]]. Taylor meunang, sarta Lincoln miharep bisa diangkat janten komisaris Kantor Taneuh Umum AS, nanging kahayangna henteu kabandungan.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=138–140|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 296–303}} Pamaréntah malah nawarkeun jabatan janten sekretaris [[Wilayah Oregon]]. Alatan éta jabatan bakal ngaganggu karir hukum sarta pulitikna di Illinois, Lincoln nolak sarta milih neruskeun deui prakték hukumna.{{sfn|Harris|2007|pp=55–57}} === Loya padang jukut === {{See also|Daptar kasus hukum anu ngalibetkeun Abraham Lincoln}} Lincoln resmi [[Penerimaan advokat di Amérika Sarikat|diaku salaku loya di Illinois]] dina 9 Séptémber 1836. Anjeunna pindah ka Springfield sarta mimiti muka prakték hukum di handapeun bingbingan [[John T. Stuart]], baraya Mary Todd. Anjeunna gawé bareng salila sababaraha taun sareng [[Stephen T. Logan]], sarta dina taun 1844, mimiti muka [[Situs Sajarah Nagara Kantor Hukum Lincoln-Herndon|kantor hukumna sorangan]] bareng sareng [[William Herndon (loya)|William Herndon]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=88–101}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iardc.org/Lawyer/PrintableDetails/b838e3e7-a864-eb11-b810-000d3a9f4eeb |title=Abraham Lincoln |publisher=Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission |accessdate=July 2, 2023 |archivedate=July 2, 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702123429/https://www.iardc.org/Lawyer/PrintableDetails/b838e3e7-a864-eb11-b810-000d3a9f4eeb |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702123429/https://www.iardc.org/Lawyer/PrintableDetails/b838e3e7-a864-eb11-b810-000d3a9f4eeb |date=July 2, 2023 }}</ref> Dina praktékna di Springfield, numutkeun Donald, Lincoln nanganan "ampir sagala rupa urusan bisnis anu bisa disanghareupan ku saurang loya padang jukut".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=96}} Anjeunna nanganan loba kasus transportasi di tengah ékspansi ka kulon, utamana konflik tongkang walungan dina sasak jalan karéta api anu anyar diwangun. Dina taun 1849, anjeunna nampa [[Paten Abraham Lincoln|patén pikeun alat ngambang]] pikeun ngagerakkeun parahu walungan dina cai deet. Hal ieu ngajadikeun Lincoln hiji-hijina présidén anu miboga hak patén.{{sfn|Emerson|2009|pp=27–28}} Lincoln kungsi ngawakilan perusahaan sasak ngalawan perusahaan parahu walungan dina kasus ''[[Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company]]'', hiji kasus penting ngeunaan parahu terusan anu titeuleum saatos nabrak sasak. Lincoln mucunghul di payuneun [[Mahkamah Agung Illinois]] dina 411 kasus. Salah sahiji klien pangbadagna anjeunna ti taun 1853 dugi ka 1860 nyaéta [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. Salah sahiji kasus anu paling kawentar nyaéta nalika Lincoln ngabéla William "Duff" Armstrong dina sidang rajapati James Preston Metzker taun 1858. Kasus ieu jadi sabiwir hiji alatan cara Lincoln ngagunakeun fakta tina [[Farmers' Almanac]] pikeun ngagugurkeun kasaksian saksi mata. Saatos hiji saksi sumpah yén anjeunna ningali kajadian rajapati éta ku caangna cahaya bulan, Lincoln némbongkeun almanak anu ngabuktikeun yén dina poé éta posisi bulan nuju handap pisan, sahingga mustahil saksi bisa ningali kalayan jelas. Armstrong ahirna dibébaskeun.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|pp=150–151|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 345–346}} Dina kasus rajapati taun 1859, anjeunna ngabéla "Peachy" Quinn Harrison. Harrison didakwa nelasan Greek Crafton. Lincoln sacara teges protés nalika hakim mimitina nolak kasaksian yén Crafton, dina mangsa sakaratna, parantos ngahampura Harrison. Lincoln boga pamadegan yén éta téh mangrupa [[Pernyataan sakarat|dying declaration]] (pernyataan méméh maot) anu sah sacara hukum. Hakim ahirna narima éta bukti, sarta Harrison dibébaskeun.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Mitgang |first1=Herbert |date=February 10, 1989 |title=The law; Lincoln as lawyer: transcript tells murder story |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/10/nyregion/the-law-lincoln-as-lawyer-transcript-tells-murder-story.html}}</ref>{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=150–151|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 p. 560}} == Pulitik Républik (1854–1860) == {{Main|Karir pulitik Abraham Lincoln (1849–1861)}} === Muncul salaku pamimpin Républik === {{Further|Nagara bagian perbudakan sarta nagara bagian merdéka|Abraham Lincoln sarta perbudakan}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Byers, 1858 - crop.jpg|alt=Potrét sirah sarta taktak Lincoln anu teu janggotan|thumb|Lincoln dina taun 1858, taun lumangsungna [[Debat Lincoln–Douglas|debatna]] sareng [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]] ngeunaan perbudakan]] [[Kompromi 1850]] gagal ngurangan katégangan ngeunaan perbudakan antara pihak Kidul (anu ngarojong perbudakan) sarta pihak Kalér (anu merdéka).{{sfn|White|2009|pp=175–176}} Nalika debat perbudakan di wilayah [[Wilayah Nebraska|Nebraska]] sarta [[Wilayah Kansas|Kansas]] mingkin panas, Sénator Illinois Stephen A. Douglas ngusulkeun [[Kadaulatan rahayat di Amérika Sarikat|kadaulatan rahayat]] salaku jalan kompromi; ieu aturan téh ngidinan para pamilih di unggal wilayah pikeun mutuskeun sorangan status perbudakan di daérahna. Ieu undang-undang ngahariwangkeun loba urang Kalér anu hayang nyegah sumebarna perbudakan, nanging [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] karya Douglas ahirna lulus di Kongrés dina Méi 1854.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=188–190}} [[Biantara Peoria Abraham Lincoln|Biantara Peoria]] Lincoln dina Oktober 1854, anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna nolak perbudakan,{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=148–152}} mangrupa salah sahiji ti sakitar 175 biantara anu ditepikeun ku anjeunna dina genep taun ka hareup ngeunaan topik nolak perluasan perbudakan ka wilayah-wilayah anyar.<ref name=anb> The second child of [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Hanks Lincoln]], he was a descendant of [[Samuel Lincoln]], an Englishman who migrated to [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts]] in 1638,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 1–4}} and of the [[Harrison family of Virginia]].{{efn|Though it is uncertain, Lincoln's grandmother is believed to have been Bathsheba Herring, the daughter of Alexander and Abigail Herring (née Harrison).<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=40189910|last=Coleman|first=Charles|title=Lincoln's Lincoln grandmother|journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society|date=1959 |volume=52|issue=1|pages=59–90}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 658, 667}} Lincoln prepared a confidential memorandum pledging that, if he should lose the election, he would "co-operate with the President-elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterwards".<ref name=anb/> Hakim Agung [[Roger B. Taney]] nyerat dina pamadegan hukumna yén Kompromi Missouri téh teu konstitusional alatan ngalanggar hak milik para nu boga budak ku cara ngalarang maranéhna mawa budakna ka wilayah-wilayah anyar. Nalika loba urang Démokrat miharep yén putusan ''Dred Scott'' bakal mungkas sengketa ngeunaan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah anyar, ieu putusan kalah ngahudangkeun amarah anu langkung gedé di Kalér.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=236–238}} Lincoln nyempad ieu putusan salaku hasil tina konspirasi urang Démokrat pikeun ngarojong [[Slave Power]] (Kakuatan nu boga budak).{{sfn|Zarefsky|1993|pp=69–110}} Anjeunna boga pamadegan yén putusan éta patukang tonggong jeung [[Déklarasi Kamardékaan Amérika Sarikat|Déklarasi Kamardékaan]], anu nyatakeun yén "sakabéh manusa diciptakeun sarua (sajatidiri) ... kalayan hak-hak anu teu bisa dicabut", di antarana "hirup, kamerdékaan, sarta ngahontal kabagjaan".{{sfn|Jaffa|2000|pp=299–300}} === Debat Lincoln–Douglas sarta biantara Cooper Union === {{Further|Debat Lincoln–Douglas|Biantara Cooper Union}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln 1860.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|alt=Poto Lincoln tilu parapat awak|''Abraham Lincoln'', potrét karya [[Mathew Brady]] dicandak tanggal 27 Pébruari 1860, poé nalika Lincoln nepikeun [[Biantara Cooper Union]] di New York City.]] Dina taun 1858, Douglas maju deui pikeun kapilih janten Sénat AS, sarta Lincoln miharep bisa néléhkeunana. Loba pihak di partéi ngarasa yén urut urang Whig kudu dicalonkeun dina taun 1858, sarta kampanye Lincoln taun 1856 sarta dukunganna ka Trumbull parantos méré kauntungan pikeun anjeunna.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–248}} Pikeun munggaranana, urang Républik Illinois ngayakeun konvénsi pikeun nyatujuan hiji kandidat Sénat, sarta Lincoln meunangkeun nominasi kasebut kalayan saeutik pisan parlawanan.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–250}} Lincoln nampi éta nominasi kalayan pinuh ku sumanget. Saatos dicalonkeun, anjeunna nepikeun **[[Biantara Imah anu Beulah|Biantara ''House Divided'']]**: <blockquote>"Hiji imah anu papisah (beulah) ngalawan dirina sorangan moal bisa nangtung." Kuring yakin pamaréntahan ieu moal bisa tahan salilana, dina kaayaan satengah ''perbudakan'' sarta satengah ''merdéka''. Kuring henteu ngarepkeun Uni ieu bakal ''bubar''—kuring henteu ngarepkeun imah ieu bakal ''runtuh''—nanging kuring ''mémang'' ngarepkeun Uni ieu moal deui papisah. Ieu bakal jadi hiji hal sagemblengna, atawa sabalikna.{{sfn|White|2009|p=251}}</blockquote> Éta biantara nyiptakeun gambaran anu jelas ngeunaan bahayana perpecahan.{{sfn|Harris|2007|p=98}} Nalika dibéré nyaho ngeunaan pencalonan Lincoln, Douglas nyatakeun, "[Lincoln] téh jalma kuat di partéina... sarta lamun kuring néléhkeun anjeunna, kameunangan kuring bakal dihontal kalayan hésé."{{sfn|White|2009|p=258}} Kampanye Sénat éta diwarnaan ku [[Debat Lincoln–Douglas|tujuh debat]] antara Lincoln sarta Douglas; suasanana mirip jeung tanding tinju sarta narik rébuan jalma.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=214–218|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 487–488}} Lincoln ngingetkeun yén ''Slave Power'' (Kakuatan nu boga budak) nuju ngancam ajén-inajén républikanisme, sarta anjeunna nuduh Douglas parantos nyimpangkeun prédisi Jefferson yén [[sakabéh manusa diciptakeun sarua]]. Dina [[Doktrin Freeport]]-na, Douglas boga pamadegan yén sanajan aya putusan ''Dred Scott'', para pangeusi lokal (dumasar kadaulatan rahayat) kudu bébas milih naha bakal ngidinan perbudakan di wilayahna atawa henteu. Anjeunna ogé nuduh Lincoln parantos ngagabung ka golongan abolisionis.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|pp=201–203, 212–224|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 501–504, 527–531}} Sanajan kandidat législatur Républik meunang sora rahayat anu langkung seueur, urang Démokrat meunang korsi anu langkung seueur dina législatur, sahingga législatur milih deui Douglas. Nanging, cara Lincoln ngajelaskeun masalah-masalah kasebut parantos méré anjeunna tempat dina pulitik nasional.{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=89–90}} Saatos pilihan raya 1858, surat kabar sering nyebutkeun Lincoln salaku kandidat présidén Républik anu poténsial. Dina Pébruari 1860, Lincoln diondang pikeun nepikeun biantara di New York. Dina [[Biantara Cooper Union]] tanggal 27 Pébruari, Lincoln boga pamadegan yén para [[The Founding Fathers|Nu Ngadegkeun Nagara]] teu pati resep kana kadaulatan rahayat sarta parantos ngawatesan perbudakan dina [[Ordinansi Kulon-Kalér]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 585-586}} Anjeunna negeskeun yén moralitas merlukeun parlawanan kana perbudakan sarta nolak usaha "milari jalan tengah antara anu bener jeung anu salah".{{sfn|Jaffa|2000|p=473}} Biantara ieu nunjukkeun kapamingpinan intéléktualna anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna dicalonkeun janten présidén. Sajarawan David Herbert Donald ngagambarkeun biantara kasebut salaku "léngkah pulitik anu hébat pikeun saurang calon présidén anu can diumumkeun sacara resmi."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=240}} === Pilihan raya présidén 1860 === {{Main|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860}} [[File:The Rail Candidate.jpg|alt= Lincoln nuju digotong ku dua lalaki (hiji bodas, hiji hideung) dina papan panjang. |thumb|''The Rail Candidate'', hiji ilustrasi kritis karya [[Currier and Ives]], anu ngagambarkeun platform Lincoln dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|kampanye présidén 1860]] saolah-olah dironjong ku saurang budak sarta Horace Greeley]] Dina 9–10 Méi 1860, Konvénsi Nagara Bagian Républik Illinois lumangsung di [[Decatur, Illinois]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=244}} Ku cara ngamangpaatkeun legenda hirupna salaku jalma leuweung anu sok babat alas sarta meulah kai pager, para pangrojongna mromosikeun Lincoln salaku "The Rail Candidate" (Kandidat Tukang Meulah Kai).{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=244–245}} Dina 18 Méi dina Konvénsi Nasional Républik di Chicago, Lincoln meunangkeun nominasi dina babak sora katilu.<ref name=anb/> Tilas urang Démokrat, [[Hannibal Hamlin]] ti Maine, dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén pikeun nyaruakeun sora (''[[Ticket balance|balance the ticket]]'').{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 625}} Salila taun 1850-an, Lincoln cangcaya yén bakal aya perang sipil (perang baraya), sarta para pangrojongna nolak anggapan yén kapilihna Lincoln bakal nyababkeun nagara-nagara bagian misahkeun diri (sési).{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=10, 13, 18}} Nalika Douglas kapilih janten kandidat Démokrat Kalér, para utusan ti nagara bagian perbudakan di Kidul milih Wakil Présidén [[John C. Breckinridge]] salaku kandidat maranéhna.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=253}} Sakelompok tilas urang Whig sarta Know Nothings ngadegkeun [[Partéi Uni Konstitusional (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Uni Konstitusional]] sarta nyalonkeun [[John Bell (pulitikus Tennessee)|John Bell]]. Lincoln sarta Douglas marebutkeun sora di Kalér, sedengkeun Bell sarta Breckinridge meunang dukungan utamana di Kidul.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–248}} Nalika Douglas sarta kandidat sanésna sibuk kampanye, Lincoln mah henteu nepikeun biantara naon-naon, anjeunna ngan ngandelkeun sumanget ti Partéi Républik. Para juru bicara Républik nekenkeun sajarah budakna Lincoln anu miskin pikeun némbongkeun kakuatan "buruh merdéka" (''free labor''), anu ngamungkinkeun saurang budak tani biasa tiasa naék ka luhur ku usahana sorangan.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=254–256}} Dina mangsa nunggu pilihan raya, anjeunna muka kantor di [[Situs Sajarah Nagara Capitol Nagara Heubeul|capitol nagara bagian Illinois]] pikeun nanganan perhatian publik anu sakitu lobana. Anjeunna ogé nyéwa [[John George Nicolay]] salaku sekretaris pribadi.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=251–252|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 650–652}} Dina 6 Nopémber 1860, Lincoln kapilih janten présidén munggaran ti Partéi Républik. Kameunanganana sagemblengna dumasar kana dukungan di Kalér sarta Kulon. Malah mah, teu aya hiji-hiji acan sora pikeun anjeunna di 10 tina 15 nagara bagian perbudakan di Kidul.{{sfnm|Mansch|2005|1p=61|Donald|1996|2p=256}} Lincoln nampa 1.866.452 sora, atanapi 39,8 persén ti total sora dina persaingan opat kandidat ieu, nanging anjeunna meunang sacara mutlak dina sora éléktoral (''electoral vote'').{{sfn|White|2009|p=350}} == Kaprésidénan (1861–1865) == {{Main|Kaprésidénan Abraham Lincoln}} === Mangsa jabatan munggaran === ==== Sési sarta inagurasi ==== {{Main|Transisi kaprésidénan Abraham Lincoln}} {{Further|Usum tiis sési|Plot Baltimore}} {{Multiple image|total_width=500px|image1=Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Abraham_Lincoln's_First_Inauguration.jpg|alt1=Kumpulan jalma réa di payuneun gedong ageung kalayan seueur tihang.|caption1=[[Biantara munggaran pelantikan Abraham Lincoln|Inagurasi munggaran Lincoln]] di [[Kapitol Amérika Sarikat]] dina 4 Maret 1861, kalayan [[Kubah Kapitol Amérika Sarikat|kubah Kapitol]] di luhureun rotunda anu masih kénéh nuju diwangun.|image2=18610304 Affairs of the Nation - Abraham Lincoln inauguration - The New York Times.jpg|caption2=Judul utama dina ''[[The New York Times]]'' saatos inagurasi munggaran Lincoln anu nandakeun ayana pacogrégan anu bakal lumangsung.}} Saatos Lincoln kapilih, para pendukung sési (''secessionists'') ngalaksanakeun rencana pikeun kaluar ti Uni méméh anjeunna resmi ngajabat dina Maret 1861.{{sfn|Edgar|1998|p=350}}<ref name=anb/> Dina 20 Désémber 1860, South Carolina ngadopsi ordinansi sési; ditéma ku Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, sarta Texas dina 1 Pébruari 1861.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=267|Potter|1977|p2=498}} Genep tina ieu nagara bagian nyatakeun diri salaku nagara daulat, [[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]], sarta milih [[Jefferson Davis]] janten présidén samentarana.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=267|White|2009|2p=369}} Nagara-nagara bagian di wewengkon Kidul-Luhur sarta nagara bagian wates (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, sarta Arkansas) mimitina nolak ajakan sési kasebut.{{sfn|White|2009|p=362}} Présidén Buchanan sarta Présidén-kapilih Lincoln nolak ngaku ayana Konfédérasi, sarta nyatakeun yén sési téh ilegal sacara hukum.{{sfn|Potter|1977|pp=520, 569–570}} Lincoln sarta urang Républik nolak usulan [[Kompromi Crittenden]] alatan dianggap patukang tonggong jeung platform partéi ngeunaan taneuh-merdéka (''free-soil'') di wilayah-wilayah AS.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=360–361}} Lincoln nyatakeun, "Kuring leuwih milih maot tinimbang kudu satuju... kana konsési atawa kompromi naon waé anu katingalina kawas meuli hak istiméwa pikeun nyekel pamaréntahan ieu, anu sabenerna mangrupa hak konstitusional urang".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=268}} [[File:Lincoln LadyPNG.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|alt=Kartun Lincoln nganggo rok kilt sarta topi méwah nuju ngigel|Lincoln dionyam ku koran-koran oposisi anu sacara palsu nyebutkeun yén anjeunna nyulusup ka Washington bari nyamur saatos pilihan raya 1860.]] Alatan ayana plot sési, kaamanan Lincoln sarta karéta anu ditumpakanna ka Washington dijaga kacida ketatna. Anjeunna hasil nyingkahan ancaman rajapati dina [[Plot Baltimore]]. Lincoln indit bari nyamur, nganggo topi laken (''felt hat'') anu lemes tinimbang [[topi luhur]] (''stovepipe hat'') anu biasa dianggo ku anjeunna, sarta nyampaykeun jubah panjang (''overcoat'') dina taktakna bari rada bongkok pikeun nyumputkeun jangkung awakna. Dina 23 Pébruari 1861, anjeunna anjog di Washington, D.C., anu geus dijaga ku militér. Koran-koran oposisi loba anu ngonyam ieu perjalanan rusiah téh ku cara nyieun karikatur Lincoln anu nuju nyulusup ka puseur dayuh.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=273–279|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 2 pp. 32–39}} Dina biantara inagurasina, Lincoln nyoba ngayakinkeun urang Kidul yén anjeunna moal ngahapus perbudakan di nagara bagian anu geus aya: {{Blockquote|Sigana aya kahariwang di kalangan masarakat di Nagara-nagara Bagian Kidul, yén ku naékna Administrasi Républik, harta banda, katengtreman, sarta kaamanan pribadi maranéhna bakal kaancam. Sabenerna mah teu kungsi aya alesan anu logis pikeun éta kahariwang... Kuring deklarasikeun yén "Kuring teu boga maksud, boh sacara langsung atawa teu langsung, pikeun milu campur dina urusan lembaga perbudakan di Nagara-nagara Bagian dimana éta lembaga geus aya. Kuring yakin kuring teu boga hak sah pikeun ngalakukeunana, sarta kuring teu boga niat pikeun ngalakukeunana."|[[Biantara munggaran pelantikan Abraham Lincoln|Biantara inagurasi munggaran]], 4 Maret 1861{{sfnm|Sandburg|2002|1p=212|Lincoln|1953|2p=333}}|source=}} Présidén mungkas biantarana ku panggero ka urang Kidul: "Urang téh lain musuh, tapi babaturan.... Tatali batin (''mystic chords of memory'') anu manteng tina unggal médan perang, sarta kuburan para pahlawan, ka unggal haté sarta kulawarga anu hirup... bakal ngagedékeun deui lagu persatuan (Uni), nalika ditorélak deui... ku malaikat anu langkung saé dina diri urang (''better angels of our nature'')."{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=283–284}} ==== Personél ==== {{Main|Kaprésidénan Abraham Lincoln#Kawijakan luar nagri|Diplomasi Perang Sipil Amérika}} {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | Name = Lincoln | President = Abraham Lincoln | President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] | Vice President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President 2 = [[Andrew Johnson]] | Vice President date 2 = 1865 | State = [[William H. Seward]] | State date = 1861–1865 | Treasury = [[Salmon P. Chase]] | Treasury date = 1861–1864 | Treasury 2 = [[William P. Fessenden]] | Treasury date 2 = 1864–1865 | Treasury 3 = [[Hugh McCulloch]] | Treasury date 3 = 1865 | War = [[Simon Cameron]] | War date = 1861–1862 | War 2 = [[Edwin M. Stanton]] | War date 2 = 1862–1865 | Justice = [[Edward Bates]] | Justice date = 1861–1864 | Justice 2 = [[James Speed]] | Justice date 2 = 1864–1865 | Post = [[Montgomery Blair]] | Post date = 1861–1864 | Post 2 = [[William Dennison Jr.]] | Post date 2 = 1864–1865 | Navy = [[Gideon Welles]] | Navy date = 1861–1865 | Interior = [[Caleb Blood Smith]] | Interior date = 1861–1862 | Interior 2 = [[John Palmer Usher]] | Interior date 2 = 1863–1865 | source =<ref>{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/lincoln/abraham-lincoln-administration|publisher=Miller Center, University of Virginia|title=Abraham Lincoln: administration|date=December 16, 2016 }}</ref> }} Dina milih kabinétna, Lincoln milih jalma-jalma anu dianggapna paling kompetén, sanajan maranéhna téh kungsi jadi lawan anjeunna dina pilihan raya présidén. Lincoln méré koméntar ngeunaan prosés pamikiranana, "Urang butuh jalma-jalma pangkuatna ti partéi di jero Kabinét. Urang kudu ngahijikeun rahayat urang sorangan. Kuring geus mariksa sakuliah partéi sarta nyimpulkeun yén maranéhna téh mémang jalma-jalma pangkuatna. Sahingga kuring teu boga hak pikeun nyabut jasa maranéhna ti nagara ieu."{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|p=319}} [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]] ngagambarkeun ieu kelompok dina biografi Lincoln taun 2005 salaku "**[[Team of Rivals|tim para rival]]**".{{sfn|Goodwin|2005}} Lincoln nujul lawan pulitik utamana, [[William H. Seward]], janten Sekretaris Nagara.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 722}} Lincoln ogé milih lima urang pikeun ngeusian jabatan di Mahkamah Agung. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]], saurang loya korporasi kawentar ti Ohio, ngagentos [[John McLean]] saatos McLean pupus dina April 1861. Saperti McLean, Swayne nolak perbudakan.{{sfn|Silver|1998|p=59}} [[Samuel Freeman Miller]], anu ngagentos [[Peter V. Daniel]], mangrupa saurang abolisionis sarta nampa dukungan lega ti para pulitikus Iowa.{{sfn|Silver|1998|pp=64–65}} [[David Davis (hakim Mahkamah Agung)|David Davis]] mangrupa manajer kampanye Lincoln dina taun 1860 sarta kungsi janten hakim di sirkuit pangadilan Illinois tempat Lincoln prakték.{{sfn|Silver|1998|p=74}} Urang Démokrat [[Stephen Johnson Field]], tilas hakim Mahkamah Agung California, dipilih pikeun nyadiakeun kasaimbangan géografis sarta pulitik.{{sfn|Silver|1998|pp=88–89}} Ahirna, saatos pupusna [[Roger B. Taney]], Lincoln nunjuk tilas sekretaris perbendaharaanana, [[Salmon P. Chase]], pikeun ngagentos Taney salaku hakim agung. Lincoln yakin yén Chase téh saurang yuris anu mampuh sarta bakal ngarojong panerapan undang-undang Rékonstruksi.{{sfn|Blue|1987|p=245}} ==== Panglima Luhur ==== [[File:Abraham Lincoln - NARA - 528325.jpg|thumb|alt=Présidén Abraham Lincoln dina taun 1862|Potrét Lincoln {{circa}} 1862]] Dina awal April 1861, [[Robert Anderson (perwira Uni)|Mayor Robert Anderson]], komandan [[Fort Sumter]] di Charleston, South Carolina, méré nyaho yén stok dahareunana geus ampir béak. Saatos debat anu panjang, Lincoln mutuskeun pikeun ngirimkeun perbekalan; numutkeun Michael Burlingame, Lincoln "teu bisa mastikeun naha kaputusanana bakal nyababkeun perang, sanajan anjeunna boga alesan kuat pikeun percaya yén hal éta bisa lumangsung".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 100–124}} Dina 12 April 1861, pasukan Konfédérasi [[Patempuran Fort Sumter|némbak pasukan Uni di Fort Sumter]], anu nandaan dimimitianana [[Perang Sipil Amérika]].{{sfn|McClintock|2008|pp=246–250}} Donald nyimpulkeun: <blockquote>Usaha anjeunna anu terus-terusan pikeun nyingkahan tabrakan... némbongkeun yén anjeunna nyekel deleg kana sumpahna moal jadi jalma munggaran anu ngocorkeun getih dulur sorangan. Nanging anjeunna ogé parantos sumpah moal masrahkeun bénténg-bénténg éta.... Hiji-hijina jalan kaluar tina ieu posisi anu kontradiktif nyaéta ku cara pihak Konfédérasi anu némbak munggaran.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=293}}</blockquote> Serangan dina 12 sarta 13 April ka Fort Sumter ngahijikeun publik Kalér pikeun nempo yén tindakan militér ka Kidul téh perlu demi ngabéla nagara.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 134–138, 154–155}} Dina 15 April, [[Proklamasi 80|Lincoln nyauran 75.000 milisi]] pikeun ngarebut deui bénténg-bénténg, ngajaga Washington, sarta mertahankeun Uni. Ieu panggero maksa nagara-nagara bagian pikeun milih: misahkeun diri (sési) atawa ngarojong Uni. North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, sarta Arkansas milih sési. Nalika resimén-resimén Kalér dikirim ka kidul, dina 19 April massa di Baltimore anu ngawasa jalur karéta api [[Karusuhan Baltimore 1861|nyerang pasukan Uni]] anu nuju ganti karéta. Para pamingpin lokal teras ngabeuleum sasak-sasak karéta api anu krusial ka puseur dayuh, sarta Angkatan Darat ngaréspon ku cara [[Maryland dina Perang Sipil Amérika#Panetapan hukum darurat militér|néwak para pajabat lokal Maryland]]. Lincoln nangguhkeun hak ''[[Habeas corpus di Amérika Sarikat#Penangguhan salila Perang Sipil|habeas corpus]]'', anu ngidinan panéwakan tanpa dakwaan resmi.{{sfnm|1a1=Heidler|1a2=Heidler|1a3=Coles|1y=2002|1p=174|2a1=Burlingame|2y=2008|2loc=vol. 2 pp. 141, 146–151}} [[John Merryman]], saurang perwira Maryland anu ditéwak alatan ngahambat gerakan pasukan AS, hasil ngajukeun pétisi ka Hakim Agung Taney pikeun ngaluarkeun [[Habeas corpus di Amérika Sarikat|surat ''habeas corpus'']]. Dina opini anu judulna ''[[Ex parte Merryman]]'', Taney nyerat yén Konstitusi ngan ngidinan Kongrés, lain présidén, pikeun nangguhkeun ''habeas corpus''. Nanging Lincoln nolak tunduk sarta tetep ngajalankeun kawijakan penangguhan éta di sababaraha wilayah.{{sfnm|Harris|2011|1pp=59–71|White|2011 |2pp=38–39}} Dina kaayaan penangguhan ieu, 15.000 warga sipil ditahan tanpa sidang; sababaraha urang, kaasup urang Démokrat anti-perang [[Clement L. Vallandigham]], diadili di pangadilan militér alatan tindakan "hianat", anu teras dikecam salaku serangan kana kabébasan nyarita.<ref name=anb/>{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=442–443}} ==== Strategi militér awal Uni ==== {{Main|Téater wétan Perang Sipil Amérika|Téater kulon Perang Sipil Amérika}} {{Further|Téater Trans-Mississippi Perang Sipil Amérika|Téater basisir handap Perang Sipil Amérika}} Lincoln nyepeng kendali éksekutif dina perang sarta ngawangun strategi militér [[Uni (Perang Sipil Amérika)|Uni]]. Salaku [[panglima luhur]], anjeunna ngaréspon krisis pulitik sarta militér anu can kungsi aya saacanna ku cara ngagunakeun otoritas anu taya tandingna. Anjeunna ngalegaan kakawasaan perangna, netepkeun [[Blokade Uni|blokade laut]] ka palabuhan-palabuhan Konfédérasi, ngaluarkeun dana méméh disatujuan ku Kongrés, nangguhkeun ''habeas corpus'', sarta néwak sarta manjarakeun rébuan jalma anu dicurigai salaku simpatisan Konfédérasi. Lincoln nampa rojongan ti Kongrés sarta publik Kalér pikeun ieu tindakan. Lincoln ogé kudu nguatkeun simpati Uni di nagara-nagara bagian perbudakan wates sarta ngajaga sangkan ieu perang teu jadi konflik internasional.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=302–304|Carwardine|2003|2pp=163–164}} Ti mimiti katingal jelas yén rojongan ti dua partéi (bipartisan) téh penting pisan pikeun kasuksésan, sarta yén kompromi naon waé bakal ngajauhkeun faksi-faksi di kadua partéi pulitik. Copperheads (urang Démokrat anti-perang) nyacad Lincoln alatan nolak kompromi ngeunaan perbudakan; sedengkeun urang [[Républik Radikal]], anu nungtut tindakan keras ka pihak sési, nyacad anjeunna alatan dianggap lambat teuing dina ngahapus perbudakan.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=315–339, 417}} Dina 6 Agustus 1861, Lincoln nandatanganan [[Undang-undang Konfiskasi 1861]], anu ngidinan prosés hukum pikeun nyita sarta ngabébaskeun budak anu dipaké pikeun ngarojong Konfédérasi.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=314|Carwardine|2003|2p=178}} [[File:Running the "machine" LCCN2003689257.jpg|thumb|alt=Sakelompok lalaki diuk dina méja nalika lalaki séjénna nyieun duit dina mesin kai.|''Running the Machine'', hiji kartun pulitik taun 1864 anu nyindir Lincoln sarta administrasina, kaasup [[William Fessenden]], [[Edwin Stanton]], [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], sarta [[Gideon Welles]].]] Strategi perang Lincoln miboga dua prioritas: mastikeun Washington dijaga kalayan hadé sarta ngajalankeun usaha perang anu agrésif pikeun meunangkeun kameunangan anu gancang sarta mutlak.{{efn|Koran-koran utama di Kalér ngaramalkeun kameunangan dina waktu 90 poé.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=295–296}}}} Dua kali saminggu, Lincoln ngayakeun rapat sareng kabinétna. Sakali-kali, pamajikanana, Mary, ngolo anjeunna sangkan kersa jalan-jalan nganggo karéta kuda, alatan hariwang anjeunna damel teuing kacapean.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=391–392}} Di awal perang, Lincoln milih jénderal-jénderal sipil tina rupa-rupa latar tukang pulitik sarta étnis pikeun mastikeun yén perang ieu jadi perjuangan nasional.{{sfn|Work|2024|p=2}} Dina Januari 1862, Lincoln ngaganti Simon Cameron ku [[Edwin Stanton]] salaku menteri perang.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 240–244}} Stanton digawé leuwih raket jeung Lincoln tinimbang pajabat sénior séjénna. Lincoln nempo pentingna [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] pikeun ngawasa léngkob [[Walungan Mississippi]] sarta ngarti yén penting pisan pikeun néléhkeun pasukan musuh, lain ngan saukur ngarebut wilayahna.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=432–436}} Dina ngarahkeun strategi perang Uni, Lincoln ngajénan pisan naséhat ti [[Winfield Scott]]. Dina taun 1861, Scott ngusulkeun [[Rancangan Anaconda]], anu ngandelkeun blokade palabuhan sarta maju nyusruk Walungan Mississippi pikeun nalukkeun Kidul.{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=vol. 2 pp. 180, 320|Marvel|2008|2p=68}} Di dunya internasional, Lincoln hayang nyegah bantuan militér asing ka Konfédérasi.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=213–214}} Dina taun 1861, Angkatan Laut AS sacara ilegal ngeureunkeun kapal surat Inggris, ''[[RMS Trent]]'', di laut leupas sarta néwak dua utusan Konfédérasi. Sanajan Kalér ngarayakeun éta penangkapan, Inggris protés keras, sarta [[Insidén Trent]]** ampir nyababkeun perang antara Amérika sarta Inggris. Lincoln mungkas krisis ieu ku cara ngabébaskeun éta dua diplomat.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 222–227}} ==== McClellan ==== [[File:Lincoln and generals at Antietam.jpg|alt=Lincoln di antara sakelompok prajurit di camp militér|thumb|Lincoln nuju rapat sareng para perwira [[Angkatan Darat Uni]] dina 3 Oktober 1862, saatos [[Patempuran Antietam]], kaasup ti kénca ka katuhu: Kol. [[Delos Bennett Sackett|Delos Sackett]]; 4. Jén. [[George W. Morell]]; 5. [[Alexander S. Webb]], Kapala Staf, Korps V; 6. McClellan; 8. [[Jonathan Letterman]]; 10. Lincoln; 11. [[Henry J. Hunt]]; 12. [[Fitz John Porter]]; 15. [[Andrew A. Humphreys]]; 16. Kapt. [[George Armstrong Custer]]]] {{main|George B. McClellan}} Saatos Uni kéléh di [[Patempuran Mimiti Bull Run]] sarta pangsiunna Winfield Scott, Lincoln nunjuk [[George B. McClellan]] janten panglima luhur.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=318–319}} Di awal perang, McClellan ngawangun pertahanan Washington anu kacida kuatna sarta ampir teu bisa ditembus: 48 bénténg sarta [[artileri|batré artileri]], kalayan 480 mariem anu dijaga ku 7.200 prajurit artileri.{{sfn|Sears|1999|p=116}} Anjeunna méakkeun mangbulan-bulan pikeun ngarencanakeun [[Kampanye Samananjung]] Virginia. Nanging, gerakan McClellan anu lambat sarta sikepna anu ati-ati teuing ngajantenkeun Lincoln frustasi. Sabalikna, McClellan nyalahkeun kagagalan kampanye éta ka Lincoln anu dianggapna kacida ati-atina alatan nahan pasukan cadangan pikeun ngajaga puseur dayuh.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=349–352}} Dina taun 1862, Lincoln ngabébastugaskeun McClellan salaku panglima luhur; anjeunna naékkeun Henry Halleck kana éta jabatan sarta nunjuk [[John Pope (jénéral)|John Pope]] salaku kapala [[Angkatan Darat Virginia]] anu anyar.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 303, 320, 368}} Dina usum panas 1862, Pope ditéléhkeun sacara mutlak dina [[Patempuran Kadua Bull Run]], anu maksa anjeunna mundur ka Washington. Teu lila ti harita, Angkatan Darat Virginia dibubarkeun.{{sfn|Work|2024|p=71}} Sanajan Lincoln teu sugema ku kagagalan McClellan dina ngabantu Pope, anjeunna mulikkeun deui jabatan McClellan pikeun mingpin sakabéh kakuatan di sakitar Washington. Dua poé ti harita, pasukan [[Robert E. Lee]] meuntas [[Walungan Potomac]] ka Maryland, anu ngabalukarkeun kajadianana [[Patempuran Antietam]].{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|pp=478–480}} Ieu patempuran, anu dimeunangkeun ku Uni, mangrupa salah sahiji anu panggetihna dina sajarah Amérika.{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|p=481}} Krisis kapamingpinan lumangsung nalika McClellan nolak paménta présidén pikeun ngudag pasukan Lee anu nuju mundur. Lincoln ahirna ngaganti McClellan ku [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Numutkeun Donald, ieu téh mangrupa léngkah pulitik anu "pinter" alatan Burnside mah non-partisan—béda jeung McClellan anu saurang Démokrat.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=390}} Nanging, Burnside ditéléhkeun ku Lee di Fredericksburg dina Désémber.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 445–446}} Ningali sumanget pasukan anu turun, Lincoln ngaganti Burnside ku [[Joseph Hooker]].{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=vol. 2 pp. 484–486|Donald|1996|2pp=411–412}} Hooker nanggung korban jiwa anu kacida lobana dina [[Patempuran Chancellorsville]] bulan Méi, teras mundur dina Juni sarta digantikeun ku [[George Meade]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 498, 503, 510–511}} Meade hasil néléhkeun Lee dina [[Kampanye Gettysburg]] nanging gagal ngahalangan mundurna pasukan Lee ka Virginia, sanajan Lincoln geus maréntahkeun kitu. Dina waktu anu sarua, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] hasil ngarebut Vicksburg sarta ngawasa Walungan Mississippi.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=444–447}} Dina Méi 1863, Lincoln ngaluarkeun [[Lieber Code]], anu ngatur tatakrama perang pikeun Angkatan Darat Uni, sarta netepkeun tanggung jawab komando pikeun kajahatan perang sarta kajahatan kana kamanusaan. ==== Proklamasi Émansipasi ==== {{Main|Abraham Lincoln sarta perbudakan|Proklamasi Émansipasi}} <imagemap> File:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''[[First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln]]'', potrét taun 1864 karya [[Francis Bicknell Carpenter]]<small>'' (gambar bisa diklik)''</small>|alt=Saurang lalaki paruh baya, buuk poék, janggotan, nuju nyekel dokumén di antara tujuh lalaki séjénna. poly 269 892 254 775 193 738 130 723 44 613 19 480 49 453 75 434 58 376 113 344 133 362 143 423 212 531 307 657 357 675 409 876 [[Edwin M. Stanton|Edwin Stanton]] poly 169 282 172 244 244 201 244 148 265 117 292 125 305 166 304 204 321 235 355 296 374 348 338 395 341 469 [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Chase]] poly 569 893 535 708 427 613 357 562 377 456 393 404 468 351 451 317 473 259 520 256 544 283 530 339 526 374 559 401 594 431 639 494 715 542 692 551 693 579 672 546 623 552 596 617 698 629 680 852 [[Abraham Lincoln]] poly 692 514 740 441 788 407 772 350 800 303 831 297 861 329 867 381 868 409 913 430 913 471 847 532 816 533 709 533 [[Gideon Welles]] poly 703 783 752 769 825 627 907 620 929 569 905 538 886 563 833 563 873 502 930 450 1043 407 1043 389 1036 382 1042 363 1058 335 1052 333 1052 324 1081 318 1124 338 1133 374 1116 412 1132 466 1145 509 1117 588 1087 632 1083 706 [[William H. Seward|William Seward]] poly 905 418 941 328 987 295 995 284 982 244 990 206 1036 207 1046 247 1047 284 1066 312 1071 314 1049 327 1044 354 1033 383 1033 407 921 453 [[Caleb Blood Smith|Caleb Smith]] poly 1081 308 1102 255 1095 220 1093 181 1109 161 1145 160 1169 191 1153 227 1153 246 1199 268 1230 310 1239 377 1237 443 1220 486 1125 451 1118 412 1136 378 1124 342 [[Montgomery Blair]] poly 1224 479 1298 416 1304 379 1295 329 1325 310 1360 324 1370 359 1371 385 1371 397 1413 425 1422 497 1440 563 1348 555 1232 517 [[Edward Bates]] poly 625 555 595 620 699 625 730 550 [[Proklamasi Émansipasi]] poly 120 80 120 300 3 300 3 80 [[Simon Cameron|Potrét Simon Cameron]] poly 752 196 961 189 948 8 735 10 [[Andrew Jackson|Potrét Andrew Jackson]] </imagemap> Dua jénderal Uni kungsi ngaluarkeun paréntah émansipasi dina taun 1861 sarta 1862, nanging Lincoln ngabatalkeun duanana: anjeunna ngarasa yén mutuskeun émansipasi téh lain wewenang jénderal, sarta hal éta bisa nyababkeun nagara-nagara bagian wates anu satia milu misahkeun diri (sési).{{sfn|Guelzo|1999|pp=290–291}} Nanging, dina Juni 1862, Kongrés ngaluluskeun undang-undang anu ngalarang perbudakan di sakabéh wilayah féderal, anu teras ditandatanganan ku Lincoln. Dina Juli, [[Undang-undang Konfiskasi 1862]] mimiti lumaku,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 357}} anu ngidinan panyitaan budak ti jalma-jalma anu teu satia ka Amérika Sarikat. Dina 22 Juli 1862, Lincoln mariksa draf Proklamasi Émansipasi sareng kabinétna.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=364–365}} Sabalikna, [[Horace Greeley]], éditor ''[[New-York Tribune]]'', dina serat publikna, "Pangdua Dua Puluh Juta" (''The Prayer of Twenty Millions''), ménta Lincoln sangkan geuwat narima émansipasi.{{sfnm|McPherson|1992|1p=124|Lundberg|2019|2p=116}} Dina serat jawabanana tanggal 22 Agustus 1862, Lincoln nyatakeun yén sanajan sacara pribadi anjeunna hayang sakabéh manusa merdéka, kawajiban utamana salaku présidén nyaéta nyalametkeun Uni (nagara):{{sfn|Guelzo|2004|pp=147–153}} {{Blockquote|Tujuan utama kuring dina perjuangan ieu ''nyaéta'' pikeun nyalametkeun Uni, sarta ''lain'' pikeun nyalametkeun atawa ngancurkeun perbudakan. Upami kuring tiasa nyalametkeun Uni tanpa ngabébaskeun ''hiji-hiji acan'' budak, kuring bakal ngalakukeunana; sarta upami kuring tiasa nyalametkeunana ku cara ngabébaskeun ''sakabéh'' budak, kuring ogé bakal ngalakukeunana; sarta upami kuring tiasa nyalametkeunana ku cara ngabébaskeun sababaraha budak sarta ngantepkeun anu sanésna, kuring ogé bakal ngalakukeun éta hal.<ref name=anb/>}} Dironjong ku béja kameunangan Uni di Antietam, dina 22 Séptémber 1862, Lincoln ngaluarkeun Proklamasi Émansipasi awal. Dina 1 Januari 1863, anjeunna ngaluarkeun vérsi ahir,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 468–469}} anu ngabébaskeun budak di sapuluh nagara bagian anu harita can aya dina kontrol Uni. Lincoln méré koméntar nalika nandatanganan ieu Proklamasi: "Kuring can kungsi, dina hirup kuring, ngarasa leuwih yakin yén kuring boga bener, tinimbang nalika nandatanganan dokumén ieu."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=407}} Sakaligus jeung émansipasi perbudakan di nagara bagian pemberontak anu ayeuna jadi tujuan militér, pasukan Uni anu maju ka kidul ngamungkinkeun rébuan jalma kabur tina perbudakan. Alatan ayana Proklamasi ieu, pangrekrutan jalma-jalma anu nembé merdéka jadi kawijakan resmi. Dina serat ka gubernur militér Tennessee [[Andrew Johnson]], Lincoln nyerat, "Ningali ngan saukur lima puluh rébu prajurit hideung anu pakarangna lengkep sarta katih ku disiplin di sisi Walungan Mississippi, bakal langsung mungkas pemberontakan."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=431}} ==== Biantara Gettysburg (1863) ==== {{Main|Biantara Gettysburg}} [[File:Gettysburg_Address_in_the_Lincoln_Memorial.JPG|alt=Téks Biantara Gettysburg|thumb|Biantara Gettysburg anu diukir dina [[Monumén Lincoln|Lincoln Memorial]]]] Lincoln nepikeun biantara dina upacara panyucian [[Makam Nasional Gettysburg|makam pangperangan Gettysburg]] dina 19 Nopémber 1863.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=453–460}} Anjeunna negeskeun yén nagara ieu téh "dilahirkeun dina kamerdékaan sarta dibaktikeun kana pamadegan yén sakabéh manusa diciptakeun sarua", sarta yén pati para "lalaki wanian... anu parantos bajoang di dieu" moal jadi hal anu mubadir, nanging nagara ieu "bakal miboga kalahiran anyar kamerdékaan—sarta yén pamaréntahan ti rahayat, ku rahayat, pikeun rahayat, moal sirna ti muka bumi".{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=460–466|Wills|2012|2pp=20, 27, 105, 146}} Ieu biantara janten biantara anu paling sering dicutat dina sajarah Amérika.{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=222}} Saatos Laksamana [[David Farragut]] hasil [[Nalukkeun New Orleans|ngarebut New Orleans]] dina taun 1862, sarta saatos kameunangan di Gettysburg sarta Vicksburg, Lincoln méré maklumat pikeun poé libur nasional [[Thanksgiving (Amérika Sarikat)|Thanksgiving]] (Poé Aturan Nuhun), anu dirayakeun dina poé Kemis pamungkas dina bulan Nopémber 1863.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=471}} ==== Ngangkat Jabatan Grant ==== [[File:Ulysses S. Grant by Mathew Brady 1864.jpg|thumb|alt=Potrét Ulysses S. Grant|Ulysses S. Grant dina taun 1864]] Kameunangan [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] dina [[Patempuran Shiloh]] sarta dina [[Kampanye Vicksburg]] ngahudang rasa reueus Lincoln. Nalika ngaréspon kritik ka Grant saatos Shiloh, Lincoln nyatakeun, "Kuring teu bisa kaleungitan ieu jalma. Anjeunna mah daék tarung."{{sfn|Thomas|2008|p=315}} Saatos kagagalan Meade pikeun néwak pasukan Lee sanggeus Gettysburg sarta kasuksésan Grant dina [[Kampanye Chattanooga]], Lincoln ngangkat Grant janten komandan sakabéh angkatan darat Uni.<ref name=anb/> Lincoln ngaréspon kaleungitan pasukan Uni ku cara ngagerakkeun dukungan di sakuliah Kalér.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=422–424}} Pasukan Uni nargétkeun infrastruktur—perkebunan, jalan karéta api, sarta sasak—pikeun ngalempeureuhkeun sumanget sarta kamampuh tarung Kidul.{{sfn|Witt|2013|pp=276–277}} Sanajan Lincoln nyatujuan ieu pendekatan, anjeunna leuwih nekenkeun kana néléhkeun pasukan Konfédérasi tinimbang ngan saukur ngancurkeun harta benda. [[Kampanye Overland]] Grant anu getih pisan{{sfn|McPherson|2009|p=113}} janten kasuksésan strategis pikeun Uni sanajan aya sababaraha kali hambalan. Nanging, ieu kampanye mangrupa anu panggetihna dina sajarah Amérika: kira-kira 55.000 korban di pihak Uni (kaasup 7.600 maot), dibandingkeun jeung kira-kira 33.000 di pihak Konfédérasi (kaasup 4.200 maot). Kaleungitan di pihak Lee, sanajan sacara angka leuwih saeutik, sacara proporsional leuwih luhur (leuwih ti 50%) dibandingkeun jeung Grant (kira-kira 45%).{{sfnm|Young|2013|1pp=242–243|Tucker|2014|2p=159}} Dina awal April, pamaréntah Konfédérasi ninggalkeun Richmond, sarta Lincoln nganjang ka éta puseur dayuh anu geus ditalukkeun.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=589}} Di tengah geunjleungna tindakan militér, dina 30 Juni 1864, Lincoln nandatanganan undang-undang [[Yosemite Grant]], anu méré panangtayungan féderal anu can kungsi aya saacanna pikeun wilayah anu ayeuna katelah [[Taman Nasional Yosemite]].{{sfn|Schaffer|1999|p=48}} Numutkeun Rolf Diamant sarta Ethan Carr, "Yosemite Grant mangrupa balukar langsung tina perang... hiji perwujudan tina prosés anu terus lumangsung dina ngawangun deui pamaréntahan... hiji negeskeun tina kapercayaan anu kuat kana kameunangan Uni ahirna."{{sfn|Diamant|Carr|2022|pp=54–55}} ==== Kabijakan fiskal sarta monétér ==== {{Main|Sajarah ékonomi Perang Sipil Amérika Sarikat}} [[File:US-$1-LT-1862-Fr-16c.jpg|thumb|alt=Dua sisi duit sartaeler|Duit sa-dolar "greenback"]] Lincoln sarta Sekretaris Perbendaharaan Salmon Chase nyanghareupan tangtangan beurat dina ngabiayaan ékonomi mangsa perang. Kongrés gancang nyatujuan paménta Lincoln pikeun ngumpulkeun angkatan darat, malah nambahan jumlah prajurit tina 400.000 janten 500.000 urang, nanging Kongrés sarta Chase mimitina nolak naékkeun pajeg.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=27–28}} Saatos Uni ditéléhkeun dina Patempuran Mimiti Bull Run, anu nyababkeun pasar obligasi runtuh, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-undang Pendapatan 1861]]. Ieu undang-undang netepkeun [[Pajeg panghasilan di Amérika Sarikat|pajeg panghasilan féderal AS]] anu munggaran, kalayan pajeg rata (''flat tax'') tilu persén pikeun panghasilan taunan di luhur $800.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=30–35, 85}} Lincoln ogé nandatanganan kanaékan [[Tarif Morrill]], anu geus jadi hukum dina bulan-bulan panungtung masa jabatan Buchanan. Ieu tarif naékkeun béa impor sacara signifikan pikeun nambahan pendapatan sarta mantuan produsén lokal nanggung beban pajeg anyar.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=113–114}} Ukuran pendapatan taun 1861 tétéla teu mahi pikeun ngabiayaan perang. Dina Pébruari 1862, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-undang Alat Bayar Sah]] (''Legal Tender Act''), anu ngidinan panyitakan $150 juta dina wujud "[[Greenback (duit 1860-an)|greenbacks]]"—duit kertas munggaran anu dikaluarkeun ku pamaréntah AS saprak jaman Révolusi Amérika. Greenback teu dironjong ku emas atawa pérak, tapi dumasar kana jangji pamaréntah pikeun ngajénan nilaina. Dina ahir perang, sakitar $450 juta greenback geus sumebar.{{sfnm|Paludan|1994|1pp=109–110|Weisman|2002|2p=37}} Kongrés ogé ngaluluskeun Undang-undang Pendapatan 1862, anu netepkeun [[pajeg cukai]] pikeun ampir sakabéh komoditas, sarta [[Pajeg warisan di Amérika Sarikat|pajeg warisan]] nasional anu munggaran.{{sfnm|Paludan|1994|1p=111|Weisman|2002|2pp=41–42}} Ieu undang-undang ogé nambahan struktur [[pajeg progrésif]] kana pajeg panghasilan féderal. Pikeun ngumpulkeun ieu pajeg, Kongrés ngadegkeun Kantor Komisaris Pendapatan Internal (cikal bakal IRS).<ref name="pollack1">{{cite journal|last1=Pollack|first1=Sheldon D.|title=The first national income tax, 1861–1872|journal=Tax Lawyer|date=2014|volume=67|issue=2|url=https://udel.edu/~pollack/Downloaded%20SDP%20articles,%20etc/academic%20articles/The%20First%20National%20Income%20Tax%2012-18-2013.pdf}}</ref> Hutang nasional AS tumuwuh tina $65 juta dina taun 1860 janten langkung ti $2 miliar dina taun 1866.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=109–110}} Lincoln ogé nyokot tindakan ngalawan kacurangan mangsa perang ku cara nandatanganan [[Undang-undang Klaim Palsu 1863]] (''False Claims Act''). Kalayan harepan pikeun nyetabilkeun mata uang, Lincoln ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngaluluskeun [[Undang-undang Perbankan Nasional]] dina taun 1863, anu ngadegkeun Kantor Komptroler Mata Uang pikeun ngawas "bank nasional."{{sfn|Weisman|2002|p=82}} Kabijakan ékonomi séjénna anu ditarima dina mangsa Lincoln kaasup: * [[Undang-undang Homestead 1862]]: Nyadiakeun jutaan héktar tanah pamaréntah di Kulon kalayan harga murah pikeun warga. * [[Undang-undang Perguruan Tinggi Morrill Land-Grant]]: Nyadiakeun hibah pamaréntah pikeun ngadegkeun akademi tatanén (pertanian) di unggal nagara bagian. * [[Undang-undang Karéta Api Pasifik]]: Nyadiakeun dukungan féderal pikeun pangwangunan * [[jalan karéta api transkontinéntal munggaran]] Amérika Sarikat, anu réngsé dina taun 1869.{{sfnm|Paludan|1994|1pp=114–116|Reynolds|2020|2p=663}} ==== Kawijakan luar nagri ==== {{Further|Diplomasi Perang Sipil Amérika|Sajarah kawijakan luar nagri AS, 1861–1897}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-116 by Gardner, 1865.png|thumb|Potrét Lincoln dina 5 Pébruari 1865]] Dina awal perang, Rusia mangrupa hiji-hijina [[kakuatan gedé]] anu ngarojong Uni, sedengkeun kakuatan Éropa séjénna miboga rupa-rupa tingkat simpati ka Konfédérasi.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=226–230}} Numutkeun sajarahwan Dean Mahin, Lincoln miboga "pangaweruh anu kawates ngeunaan prakték diplomasi" nanging anjeunna méré "pangaruh anu kacida gedéna kana diplomasi AS" nalika Uni nyoba nyingkahan perang jeung Inggris sarta Perancis.{{sfn|Mahin|1999|pp=2–3}} Lincoln nunjuk para diplomat pikeun ngayakinkeun nagara-nagara Éropa sangkan ulah ngaku kana kadaulatan Konfédérasi.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 93}} Kawijakan Lincoln hasil: sakabéh nagara deungeun tetep nétral sacara resmi salila Perang Sipil, sarta taya hiji ogé anu ngaku kana Konfédérasi.{{sfnm|Herring|2008|1pp=226–230|Mahin|1999|2p=22}} Sababaraha pamingpin Éropa nyoba neangan jalan pikeun ngamangpaatkeun kaayaan AS anu nuju teu mampuh ngajalankeun [[Doktrin Monroe]] (anu nolak pipilueun kolonial Éropa di Amérika): Spanyol nyerang [[Républik Dominika]] dina taun 1861, sedengkeun Perancis ngadegkeun [[Kakaisaran Méksiko Kadua|pamaréntah bonéka]] di Méksiko.{{sfnm|Herring|2008|1pp=224–229|Doyle|2015|2p=8}} Nanging, loba urang Éropa anu miharep perang ieu gancang réngsé, boh alatan alesan kamanusaan atawa alatan gangguan ékonomi anu diakibatkeunana.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=230, 240–241}} Aristokrasi Éropa "kacida bungahna nyebutkeun yén karuksakan Amérika mangrupa bukti yén sakabéh ékspérimén pamaréntahan rahayat téh geus gagal," numutkeun [[Don H. Doyle]]. Para diplomat Uni mimitina kedah ngajelaskeun yén Amérika Sarikat henteu boga komitmen pikeun mungkas perbudakan, sarta sabalikna maranéhna boga argumén yén sési (misahkeun diri) téh ngalawan konstitusi. Di sisi séjén, para utusan Konfédérasi leuwih hasil ku cara teu maliré kana masalah perbudakan sarta fokus kana perjuangan kamerdékaan maranéhna, komitmen kana perdagangan bébas, sarta peran penting kapas (''cotton'') pikeun ékonomi Éropa.{{sfnm|Doyle|2015|1pp=5–8, 55, 69–70|Mahin|1999|2pp=19–21}} Nanging, harepan Konfédérasi yén ékspor kapas bakal maksa Éropa pikeun campur tangan téh tétéla teu ngajadi kanyataan, sabab Inggris manggihan sumber alternatif sarta tetep ngajaga hubungan ékonomi jeung Uni.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=235–236}} Sanajan dikaluarkeunana Proklamasi Émansipasi dina Januari 1863 henteu langsung ngeureunkeun kamungkinan campur tangan Éropa, hal éta ngahudang simpati publik Éropa ka Uni ku cara nambahkeun agenda penghapusan perbudakan salaku tujuan perang Uni. Sakabéh kasempetan pikeun campur tangan Éropa dina perang ahirna musna saatos kameunangan Uni di Gettysburg sarta Vicksburg dina Juli 1863, nalika para pamingpin Éropa mimiti percaya yén pihak Konfédérasi geus pasti bakal tumpur.{{sfnm|Herring|2008|1pp=242–246|Mahin|1999|2pp=22, 209}} ==== Urang Pribumi Amérika ==== Lincoln nunjuk [[William P. Dole]] salaku komisaris [[Biro Urusan India]] sarta ngagunakeun "jabatan Layanan India sacara éksténsif pikeun méré hadiah ka para pangrojong pulitikna," numutkeun sajarahwan Thomas Britten.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 85}}<ref name=native>{{cite journal|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1gq5s34k|title=Abraham Lincoln as Great Father: a look at federal Indian policy, 1861–1865|last=Britten|first=Thomas|journal=American Indian Culture and Research Journal|year=2016|volume=40|issue=3|pages=103–122 |doi=10.17953/aicrj.40.3.britten}}</ref> Kawijakan Lincoln kalolobaanana fokus kana asimilasi urang pribumi Amérika sarta ngurangan kapilikan tanah sélér (tribal), saluyu jeung para présidén sateuacanna, nanging papacanténan langsungna dina urusan urang pribumi Amérika téh teu pati jelas.<ref name=native/> Administrasina nyanghareupan kasusah dina ngajaga para padumuk di Kulon, jalan karéta api, sarta jalur tèlégraf tina serangan urang pribumi. Kategangan timbul jeung [[sélér Dakota]] alatan palanggaran perjangjian ku pihak Amérika, perdagangan anu teu adil, sarta prakték pamaréntahan anu nyababkeun kalaparan.<ref name=chomsky>{{cite journal|last=Chomsky|first=Carol|title=The United States–Dakota war trials: a study in military injustice|journal=Stanford Law Review|date=1990|volume=43|issue=13|pages=13–37|doi=10.2307/1228993 |jstor=1228993 |url=https://scholarship.law.umn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1230&context=faculty_articles}}</ref> Dina Agustus 1862, [[Perang Dakota 1862]] peupeus di Minnesota. Ratusan padumuk palastra sarta 30.000 urang kudu ngungsi tina imahna.{{sfn|Clodfelter|1998|pp=40–41, 61}} Sababaraha pihak hariwang (sanaos tétéla salah) yén ieu téh mangrupa konspirasi Konfédérasi pikeun ngamimitian perang di wates kalér-kulon.{{sfn|Finkelman|2018|p=127}} Lincoln ngutus Jéndéral Pope salaku komandan [[Departemén Kalér-Kulon]] anu anyar. [[Henry Hastings Sibley]] ahirna hasil néléhkeun pupuhu Dakota, [[Little Crow]], dina [[Patempuran Wood Lake]].{{sfn|Clodfelter|1998|pp=49, 53–59}} Hiji [[sidang kajahatan perang]] anu dipingpin ku Sibley mutuskeun hukuman mati pikeun 303 prajurit Dakota;{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 481}} pakar hukum Carol Chomsky ngagambarkeun éta sidang salaku "studi ngeunaan kateuadilan militér."<ref name=chomsky/> Lincoln méré pangampura (paron) ka sakabéh prajurit iwal ti 39 urang; sarta ku sabab hiji éksékusi ditunda, 38 urang sésana digantung dina [[éksékusi massal Mankato 1862]], anu mangrupa éksékusi massal panggedéna dina sajarah AS.<ref name=chomsky/> Anggota Kongrés [[Alexander Ramsey]] nyarios ka Lincoln dina taun 1864 yén anjeunna bakal meunang leuwih loba sora dina pilihan raya di Minnesota upami ngagantung sakabéh éta 303 prajurit. Lincoln ngajawab, "Kuring moal rido ngagantung jalma demi meunangkeun sora."{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 483}} Lincoln nyauran pikeun ayana réformasi dina kawijakan India féderal, nanging anjeunna leuwih mentingkeun perang sarta Rékonstruksi. Parobahan kakara lumangsung salaku réspon kana **[[Bantai Sand Creek]]** Nopémber 1864, nanging hal éta kakara kawujud saatos Lincoln pupus.{{sfn|Green|2021|pp=38–39, 95–99}} === Mangsa jabatan kadua === [[File:Harper's_weekly_(1865)_(14577952769).jpg|thumb|alt=Riungan jalma loba di hareupeun gedong badag kalayan loba pilar|[[Biantara pelantikan kadua Lincoln]] di [[Capitol AS]] anu ampir bérés dina 4 Maret 1865]] ==== Pilihan raya deui ==== {{Main|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864}} Lincoln maju deui dina pilihan raya taun 1864; calon ti Partéi Démokrat nyaéta tilas jéndéralna sorangan, McClellan.<ref name=1864results>{{cite web|title=1864|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/statistics/elections/1864|work=The American Presidency Project|publisher=[[University of California, Santa Barbara]]|accessdate=December 29, 2025}}</ref> Partéi Républik milih [[Andrew Johnson]], saurang "Démokrat Perang", salaku calon wakil présidén. Pikeun ngalegaan koalisi sangkan ngawengku urang Démokrat Perang sarta urang Républik, Lincoln maju dina labél anyar nyaéta [[Partéi Uni Nasional (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Uni Nasional]].{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=494–507|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 2 p. 642}} Kaayaan perang anu stagnan sarta getih pisan dina mangsa Grant, ditambah ku kameunangan Konfédérasi saperti dina [[Patempuran Crater]], sempet ngaruksak prospek Lincoln pikeun kapilih deui. Loba urang Républik anu hariwang bakal kéléh.<ref name=anb/> Lincoln malah sempet nyiapkeun mémorandum rahasia anu eusina jangji yén, upami anjeunna kéléh, anjeunna bakal "digawé bareng jeung Présidén terpilih pikeun nyalametkeun Uni antara mangsa pilihan raya sarta pelantikan; sabab anjeunna (présidén anyar) moal mampuh nyalametkeunana saatos pelantikan."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=529}} Nanging, kameunangan Uni di [[Kampanye Atlanta|Atlanta]] dina Séptémber sarta di [[Kampanye Léngkob Shenandoah 1864|Léngkob Shenandoah]] dina Oktober ngarobah opini publik. Lincoln kapilih deui kalayan 55,1 persén sora rahayat sarta 212 sora éléktoral dibandingkeun McClellan anu ngan meunang 21 sora. Nalika Grant terus ngalempeureuhkeun pasukan Lee, usaha pikeun badami (damai) mimiti lumangsung. Dina 3 Pébruari 1865, [[Alexander H. Stephens]], wakil présidén Konfédérasi, sarta dua pajabat séjénna patepang jeung Lincoln sarta Seward di [[Konferensi Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln nolak pikeun badami jeung Konfédérasi salaku pihak anu sadarajat, sarta hiji-hijina kasapukan anu kacapai ngan saukur ngeunaan pertukaran tawanan perang.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=565|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 2, p. 758}} Pelantikan kadua Lincoln lumangsung dina 4 Maret 1865; sajarahwan [[Mark Noll]] nyebutkeun yén [[biantara pelantikan kadua Abraham Lincoln|biantara pelantikan kaduana]] mangrupa salah sahiji "téks semi-suci anu dipaké ku urang Amérika pikeun mahami posisi maranéhna di dunya"; ieu biantara diukir dina [[Monumén Lincoln]].{{sfn|Noll|2002|p=426}} Lincoln mungkas biantarana ku kekecapan ieu: {{Blockquote|Kalayan rasa teu ijid ka sasaha; kalayan rasa welas asih ka sakabéh; kalayan kateguhan dina bebeneran, sakumaha Gusti maparin urang paningal kana bebeneran éta, hayu urang bajoang pikeun ngabéréskeun pagawéan urang ayeuna; pikeun ngubaran tatu bangsa; pikeun miara sing saha waé anu parantos nanggung beban patempuran, sarta pikeun randa sarta yatim piatuna—pikeun ngalakukeun sagala hal anu tiasa ngahontal sarta ngajaga perdamaian anu adil sarta langgeng, di antara urang sorangan, sarta jeung sakabéh bangsa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/linc/learn/historyculture/lincoln-second-inaugural.htm|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|title=Lincoln's second inaugural address|accessdate=April 27, 2025}}</ref>}} Sabulan ti harita, dina 9 April, Lee [[Patempuran Appomattox Court House|nyerah ka Grant di Appomattox]], nandaan réngséna perang.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=583–589}} Ieu kajadian méré pangaruh kana séri panyerahan diri pasukan Konfédérasi séjénna di sakuliah Kidul. ==== Rékonstruksi ==== {{Main|Éra Rékonstruksi}} Rékonstruksi dimimitian méméh perang réngsé, nalika Lincoln sarta batur-baturna mimiti mikiran ngeunaan panyatuan deui bangsa, sarta nasib para pamingpin Konfédérasi jeung urut budak anu geus merdéka. Nalika saurang jéndéral nanya ka Lincoln kumaha cara nungkulan urang Konfédérasi anu geus kéléh, Lincoln ngajawab, "Let 'em up easy" (Antepkeun maranéhna hudang kalayan hampang);{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=509–512}} anjeunna teu fokus kana nyalahkeun pihak nu kéléh, tapi kana ngawangun deui nagara.{{sfn|Koehn|2017|p=191}} Kalayan tékad pikeun ngahijikeun deui bangsa tanpa ngajauhkeun urang Kidul, Lincoln ngadesek sangkan pilihan raya dilaksanakeun gancang kalayan sarat anu hampang sarta béréhan. [[Rancangan sapuluh persén|Maklumat Amnésti]] tanggal 8 Désémber 1863 nawarkeun pangampura pikeun sakabéh jalma anu henteu nyepeng jabatan sipil Konfédérasi sarta henteu nyiksa tawanan Uni, upami maranéhna nandatanganan sumpah satia. Lincoln mingpin kelompok modérat dina kawijakan Rékonstruksi sarta ditangtang ku kelompok Radikal, di handapeun pamingpin saperti [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Charles Sumner sarta [[Benjamin Wade]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=471–472}} Nalika nagara-nagara bagian Kidul mimiti ditalukkeun, maranéhna butuh pamingpin anyar. Di Louisiana, Lincoln maréntahkeun [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] pikeun ngajalankeun rencana anu bakal mulikkeun status kanagaraan upami 10 persén pamilih satuju, nanging ngan upami nagara bagian éta ngahapus perbudakan. Musuh-musuh ti Démokrat nuduh Lincoln ngagunakeun ieu rencana demi kapentingan pulitikna sarta Partéi Républik. Kelompok Radikal ogé nyacad kawijakanana alatan dianggap lembéh teuing sarta maranéhna ngaluarkeun rencana sorangan, nyaéta [[Rancangan Undang-undang Wade–Davis]] 1864, nanging Lincoln ngalakukeun [[veto saku]] (''pocket veto'') ka éta rancangan. Kelompok Radikal males ku cara nolak ngaku wakil-wakil terpilih ti Louisiana, Arkansas, sarta Tennessee.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=509–511|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 2 pp. 594–600, 659–664}} [[File:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|upright=1.4|alt=Kartun Lincoln sarta Johnson nuju nyoba ngajait Uni anu peupeus|thumb|Kartun pulitik taun 1865, ''The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union'', ngagambarkeun Wakil Présidén [[Andrew Johnson]], tilas tukang jait, nuju ngajait nganggo jarum sarta benang, sarta Lincoln, si "[[Tukang meulah pager|pameulah kayu]]", nuju ngagunakeun tihang kai pikeun ngoméan dunya (Uni Amérika).]] Saatos ngajalankeun Proklamasi Émansipasi, Lincoln ningkatkeun tekenan ka Kongrés pikeun ngalarang perbudakan di sakuliah nagara ngaliwatan amandemén konstitusi. Dina 31 Januari 1865, usaha kadua di DPR ahirna lulus.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=562–563}} Saatos disahkeun ku tilu peropat nagara bagian dina Désémber 1865, ieu resmi janten [[Amandemén Katilu Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], anu ngahapus "perbudakan [sarta] tanaga gawé paksa, iwal ti salaku hukuman pikeun kajahatan".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 751}} Lincoln ogé nandatanganan rancangan undang-undang [[Biro urut Budak]] (''Freedmen's Bureau'') karya Sénator Charles Sumner, nyaéta agénsi féderal samentara anu dirancang pikeun nyumponan kabutuhan poko urut budak. Ieu hukum muka lahan pikeun diséwa salila tilu taun kalayan kasempetan pikeun dipimilik ku urut budak. Numutkeun sajarahwan Richard Carwardine, Lincoln "ngaku yén pamaréntah boga tanggung jawab sahenteuna pikeun kabutuhan matéri jutaan urut budak".{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=238–243}} [[Eric Foner]] boga pamadegan yén upami Lincoln terus hirup dina éra Rékonstruksi, Lincoln sarta Kongrés pasti bakal sapuk pikeun méré panangtayungan féderal pikeun hak-hak sipil dasar sarta hak pilih (voting) anu kawates pikeun warga hideung.{{sfn|Foner|2010|p=335}} == Pamatéhan == {{Main|Pamatéhan Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Lincoln assassination slide c1900 - Restoration.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Lukisan Lincoln ditémbak ku Booth nalika calik di box téater.|Ilustrasi [[Pamatéhan Abraham Lincoln|pamatéhan Lincoln]] dina 14 April 1865, di box kapersidénan di [[Téater Ford]], némbongkeun (ti kénca ka katuhu): nu maténi [[John Wilkes Booth]], Abraham Lincoln, [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], [[Clara Harris]], sarta [[Henry Rathbone]]]] [[John Wilkes Booth]] téh saurang aktor kawentar sarta mata-mata Konfédérasi ti Maryland; sanajan anjeunna teu kungsi asup ka angkatan darat Konfédérasi, anjeunna miboga hubungan jeung dinas rahasia Konfédérasi.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=586–587}} Saatos ngupingkeun biantara publik panungtung Lincoln dina 11 April 1865—dimana Lincoln nyatakeun harepanana sangkan hak pilih (franchise) dibikeun ka sababaraha lalaki warga hideung, hususna "ka anu kacida palinter, sarta ka maranéhna anu parantos ngabantu perjuangan urang salaku prajurit"—Booth teras nyusun rencana pikeun maténi Présidén.{{sfn|Harrison|2010|pp=3–4}} Nalika Booth terang yén Lincoln sakulawarga badé nonton sandiwara sareng Grant, anjeunna ngarencanakeun pikeun maténi Lincoln sarta Grant di [[Téater Ford]].{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|pp=734–735}} Lincoln sarta garwana sumping ka pintonan sandiwara ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' dina malem 14 April. Dina menit-menit panungtung, Grant mutuskeun pikeun angkat ka New Jersey nganjang ka barudakna.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=594–597}} Tabuh 10:15 peuting, Booth asup ka box téater Lincoln, ngarayap ti tukang, sarta némbak bagian tukang sirah Lincoln, anu ngabalukarkeun tatu parna anu fatal. Tamu Lincoln, Mayor [[Henry Rathbone]], sempet gelut sakedap jeung Booth, nanging Booth nyosok anjeunna sarta kabur.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=597}} Saatos dipariksa ku [[Charles Leale]] sarta dua dokter sanésna, Lincoln dicandak ka peuntas jalan ka [[Imah Petersen]]. Anjeunna koma salami salapan jam sarta pupus dina tabuh 7:22 éjing, tanggal 15 April.{{sfn|Steers|2010|p=153}} Layas Lincoln dibungkus ku bandéra sarta diteundeun dina peti, anu teras dibawa nganggo karéta jenazah sarta dikawal ku prajurit Uni ka Gedong Bodas.{{sfn|Craughwell|2009|p=4}} Andrew Johnson dilantik janten présidén dina poé éta kénéh.{{sfn|Trefousse|1989|p=194}} Dua minggu ti harita, Booth kapanggih, ditémbak, sarta palastra di hiji tegalan di Virginia ku Sérsan [[Boston Corbett]].{{sfnm|Steers|2010|1p=153|Donald|1996|2p=599}} ==== Upacara panguburan sarta panyarkéan ==== {{Main|Upacara panguburan nagara Abraham Lincoln}} Ti kaping 19 dugi ka 20 April, layas Lincoln disemahkeun (''lay in state''), mimitina di Gedong Bodas teras di [[Rotunda Capitol Amérika Sarikat|rotunda Capitol]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 820}} Peti anu eusina layas Lincoln sarta layas putra katiluna, Willie, teras dibawa salami dua minggu nganggo **[[karéta jenazah Abraham Lincoln]]** ngaliwatan rute anu muter ti Washington D.C. ka Springfield, Illinois. Ieu karéta eureun di sababaraha kota pikeun upacara pangéling-ngéling anu dihadiran ku ratusan rébu urang.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 822–825}} Loba warga séjénna anu karumpul di sapanjang sisi jalan karéta nalika éta karéta ngaliwat bari dibarengan ku korps musik, durukan api unggun, sarta nyanyian lagu pujian atawa dina kaayaan duka anu jempé.{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=vol. 2 p. 822|Goodrich|2005|2pp=231–238}} Sajarahwan nekenkeun ayana rasa reuwas sarta kasedih anu sumebar luas. [[Walt Whitman]] nyiptakeun opat sajak (élégi) pikeun Lincoln, kaasup "**[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]**" sarta "**[[O Captain! My Captain!]]**".{{sfn|Peck|2015|pp=118–123}} Layas Lincoln dikureubkeun di [[Makam Oak Ridge]] di Springfield sarta ayeuna aya di jero **[[Makam Lincoln]]**. == Filosofi sarta sawangan == [[File:George P.A. Healy - Abraham Lincoln - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|alt=Lincoln calik kalayan pananganna dina gado sarta sikuna dina suku.|''[[Abraham Lincoln (Healy)|Abraham Lincoln]]'' (1869)]] Lincoln nangtukeun deui filosofi pulitik **[[républikanisme di Amérika Sarikat]]**. Alatan Déklarasi Kamerdékaan nyatakeun yén sakabéh manusa miboga hak anu teu bisa diganggu gugat kana hirup, kamerdékaan, sarta ngudag kabagjaan, anjeunna nyebut éta déklarasi salaku "**jangkar utama**" (''sheet anchor'') républikanisme.{{sfnm|1a1=Jaffa|1y=2000|1p=399|2a1=Jividen|2y=2011|2pp=12–15}} Anjeunna midangkeun éta Déklarasi pikeun netepkeun kasaruaan (''equality'') salaku prinsip dasar Amérika Sarikat. Salaku aktivis Whig, Lincoln janten juru bicara pikeun kapentingan bisnis, milih tarif anu luhur, bank, pangwangunan infrastruktur, sarta jalan karéta api, anu lalawanan jeung urang [[Démokrat Jacksonian]].{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=196–198, 229–231, 301}} Sanajan kitu, Lincoln reueus ku kateguhan sarta rasa patriotisme [[Andrew Jackson]], sarta nyoko kapercayaan Jacksonian kana "rahayat jelata".{{sfn|Work|2024|p=8}} [[William C. Harris (sajarahwan)|William C. Harris]] mendakan yén rasa hormat Lincoln ka para *Founding Fathers*, Konstitusi, sarta hukum di handapeunana, parantos nguatkeun sikep konservatismena.{{sfn|Harris|2007|p=2}} Dina biantara pelantikan kahijina, Lincoln nyacad sési (misahkeun diri) salaku anarki sarta boga argumén yén "mayoritas anu dijaga ku aturan konstitusional, sarta salawasna gampang robah luyu jeung parobahan opini sarta parasaan rahayat anu asak, nyaéta hiji-hijina daulat anu bener pikeun rahayat anu merdéka."{{sfnm|1a1=Belz|1y=1998|1p=86|2a1=Lincoln|2y=1953|2pp=256–257}} === Sawangan kaagamaan === {{Main|Sawangan kaagamaan Abraham Lincoln}} Nalika ngora, Lincoln mangrupa saurang anu [[Skeptisisme kaagamaan|skeptis kana agama]].{{sfnm|Carwardine|2003|1p=4|Wilson|1999|2p=84}} Nanging, anjeunna kacida mikawanohna kana Alkitab;{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=48–49, 514–515}} sapanjang karir publikna, anjeunna sering nyutat ayat-ayat suci.{{sfn|Myers|2018|p=21}} Tilu biantara pangmashurna—[[Biantara Imah anu Bengkah|Biantara Imah anu Bengkah]], [[Biantara Gettysburg]], sarta [[Biantara pelantikan kadua Abraham Lincoln|biantara pelantikan kaduana]]—sakabéhna ngandung cutatan-cutatan kasebut. Dina taun 1840-an, Lincoln nganut kana **Doktrin Kabutuhan** (''Doctrine of Necessity''), hiji kapercayaan yén pikiran manusa dikadalikeun ku kakuatan anu leuwih luhur.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Guelzo|2009|pp=27–48}} Saatos pupusna putra anjeunna, Edward, dina taun 1850, Lincoln beuki sering ngedalkeun rasa gumantungna ka Gusti.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Parrillo|first=Nicholas|year=2000|title=Lincoln's Calvinist transformation: emancipation and war|journal=Civil War History|volume=46| issue=3|pages=227–253}}</ref> Anjeunna teu kungsi resmi gabung jeung hiji garéja, sanajan anjeunna sarta garwana mindeng sumping ka [[Garéja Présbitérian Kahiji (Springfield, Illinois)|Garéja Présbitérian Kahiji]] di Springfield, Illinois, ti mimiti taun 1852.{{sfn|White|2009|p=180}} Nalika janten présidén, Lincoln sering sumping ka ibadah di [[Garéja Présbitérian New York Avenue]] di Washington, D.C.{{sfn|Mansfield|2012|pp=125–126}} Pupusna putra anjeunna, Willie, dina Pébruari 1862 kamungkinan janten cukang lantaran anjeunna milari katenangan dina agama.{{sfn|Wilson|1999|pp=251–254}} Seringna Lincoln ngagunakeun siloka sarta basa kaagamaan dina tungtunan hirupna meugun ngagambarkeun kapercayaan pribadina, atawa bisa waé mangrupa pakakas pikeun nyarita ka pamiarsana anu kalolobaanana urang Protéstan [[Évangélikalisme|évangélikal]].{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=27–55}} Sumber-sumber béda-béda dina ngajelaskeun kapercayaan agamana. Mitra hukumna, [[William Herndon (pangacara)|William Herndon]], nyatakeun yén Lincoln téh saurang anu "teu percaya";<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carwardine|first=Richard|title='Simply a theist': Herndon on Lincoln's religion|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|year=2014|volume= 35 |number=2}}</ref> nanging James Smith, pastur di Springfield, negeskeun yén Lincoln "ngaku kapercayaanana kana Otoritas Ilahi".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Reverend Dr. James Smith|first=Robert |last= Havlik|journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society |volume=92|issue= 3|year= 1999}}</ref> Richard Carwardine nyerat yén "Loba élemén tina sisi batin Lincoln, kaasup iman pribadina... tetep janten hiji teka-teki".{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|p=xvi}} Kecap-kecap panungtung Lincoln, sakumaha anu dilaporkeun ku garwana, nyaéta: "Taya tempat anu kacida dipikahayang ku kuring pikeun ditingali salian ti Yerusalem."{{sfn|Mansfield|2012|pp=xvii–xviii}} == Kaséhatan sarta pangawakan == {{Main|Kaséhatan Abraham Lincoln}} Numutkeun Michael Burlingame, Lincoln digambarkeun salaku pamuda anu "kaku" sarta "geledeg".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 41–42}} Dina mangsa rumaja, anjeunna jangkung sarta kuat, sering ngiluan luncat, lémpar, gulat, sarta balap lumpat, sarta némbongkeun kakuatan anu luar biasa.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 33, 41}} Burlingame nyatet yén pakéan Lincoln "biasana kasar sarta cocog pikeun kahirupan di wates leuweung (frontier)", kalayan aya sela antara sapatu, kaos kaki, sarta calanana anu sering némbongkeun genep inci atawa leuwih tina tuncutna; "anjeunna teu pati maliré kana urusan fashion".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 41}} Lincoln miboga pangawakan langsing kalayan jangkung genep kaki opat inci (sakitar 193 cm),{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 41}} sarta sora anu rada luhur (céngéng).{{sfn|Braden|1993|p=99}} Sanajan anjeunna biasana digambarkeun miboga janggot, anjeunna sabenerna mah kakara miara janggot dina taun 1860 dumasar kana saran ti budak awéwé umur 11 taun anu namina [[Grace Bedell]]; anjeunna mangrupa présidén AS munggaran anu miboga janggot.{{sfn|Collea|2018|pp=13–14}} [[William H. Herndon]] ngagambarkeun beungeut Lincoln salaku "panjang, sempit, pias, sarta jiga mayit", kalayan pipi anu "jiga kulit sarta warnana semu konéng".{{sfn|Neely|Holzer|2006|p=35}} Lincoln ngagambarkeun dirina miboga "kulit poék, kalayan buuk hideung anu kasar".{{sfn|Neely|Holzer|2006|p=35}} Di antara panyakit anu didokuméntasikeun atawa dispékulasikeun karandapan ku Lincoln nyaéta déprési,<ref name=Atlanticoct2005/> [[panyakit cacar]],{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 578}} sarta [[malaria]].{{sfn|Bollet|2004|p=36}} Anjeunna ngonsumsi pél "blue mass", anu ngandung [[raksa (unsur)|raksa]] (mérkuri), pikeun ngubaran rasa sedih anu jero (''melancholy'') atawa ''hipokondriasis''; hal ieu kamungkinan ngabalukarkeun karacunan raksa.<ref name=mercury>{{cite journal |last1=Hirschhorn |first1=Norbert |last2=Feldman |first2=Robert G. |last3=Greaves |first3=Ian |date=Summer 2001 |title=Abraham Lincoln's blue pills: did our 16th president suffer from mercury poisoning? |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/26064 |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=315–322 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2001.0048 |pmid=11482002|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sababaraha klaim nyebutkeun yén kaséhatan Lincoln nuju nyirorot sateuacan pamatéhanana, sakumaha anu katingali tina [[daptar poto Abraham Lincoln|poto-poto Lincoln]] anu némbongkeun turunna beurat awak sarta parobahan dina beungeutna. Aya ogé téori yén anjeunna miboga gangguan genétik langka saperti [[Sindrom Marfan]] atawa ''[[multiple endocrine neoplasia tipe 2B]]'' alatan pangawakanana anu jangkung sarta leungeun/suku anu panjangna mahiwal.{{sfnm|Kent|2022|1p=240|Schroeder-Lein|2012|2pp=39–40}} == Warisan == {{CSS image crop|Image=LINCOLN, Abraham-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize= 226|cWidth= 165|cHeight= 195|oTop= 33|oLeft= 31|Location= right|Description= Potrét Lincoln salaku présidén ku [[Biro Ukir sarta Citak]]}} === Reputasi sajarah === Dina [[survei akademisi AS pikeun réngking présidén]], ti mimiti taun 1948, tilu présidén pangluhurna biasana dicepeng ku Lincoln, [[George Washington]], sarta [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], sanajan urutanana sok robah-robah.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lindgren |first=James |date=November 16, 2000 |title=Rating the Presidents of the United States, 1789–2000 |url=https://fedsoc.org/commentary/publications/rating-the-presidents-of-the-united-states-1789-2000-a-survey-of-scholars-in-history-political-science-and-law}}</ref> Hiji studi taun 2004 manggihan yén para ahli sajarah sarta pulitik nempatkeun Lincoln dina urutan kahiji. Antara taun 1999 dugi ka 2011, Lincoln, [[John F. Kennedy]], sarta [[Ronald Reagan]] mangrupa présidén anu pangluhurna réngkingna dina dalapan survei opini publik ku Gallup. Pamatéhan Lincoln ngajadikeun anjeunna saurang martir nasional. Anjeunna dianggap ku para ''abolitionist'' salaku pajoang kamerdékaan manusa. Di dunya luar, Lincoln janten paporit para intéléktual libéral. Sosiolog [[Barry Schwartz (sosiolog)|Barry Schwartz]] nyatakeun yén dina taun 1930-an sarta 1940-an, Lincoln nyadiakeun "simbol moral anu nginspirasi sarta nungtun kahirupan Amérika." Puncakna lumangsung dina taun 1922 nalika diresmikeunana [[Monumén Lincoln]] di Washington, D.C.{{sfn|Schwartz|2000|p=109}} ''Orator'' warga hideung sarta tilas budak, [[Frederick Douglass]], nyatakeun yén "nalika sasarengan sareng anjeunna, kuring teu kungsi diingatkeun kana asal-usul kuring anu hina, atawa warna kulit kuring anu teu populér,"{{sfn|Trefousse|1999|p=97}} sarta Lincoln parantos lami katelah salaku ''Pambébas Agung'' (''Great Emancipator''). Nanging, dina ahir 1960-an, sababaraha intéléktual hideung mimiti nolak éta gelar. [[Lerone Bennett Jr.]] narik perhatian nalika anjeunna nyebut Lincoln salaku "supremasi bodas" dina taun 1968.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Bennett|first=Lerone Jr.|year=1968|title=Was Abe Lincoln a white supremacist?|magazine=Ebony|volume=23|issue=4|pages=35–42}}</ref> Anjeunna nyatet yén Lincoln kantos ngagunakeun sebutan étnis anu ngahina sarta boga argumén yén Lincoln nolak kasaruaan sosial. Sabalikna, para pambéla Lincoln nekenkeun kana kontribusina dina ngahapus perbudakan sarta nganggap rétorika rasialna téh mangrupa konsési (taktik) kabutuhan pulitik harita. Lincoln ogé dicirian salaku pahlawan rahayat kalayan dilandih ''Honest Abe'' (Abe anu Jujur). Dina biografi taun 1996, David Herbert Donald nyebutkeun yén Lincoln miboga sipat kapamingpinan anu luar biasa. Tokoh-tokoh dunya ogé mikahormat Lincoln, kalebet filsuf Jérman [[Karl Marx]], pamingpin Italia [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], tokoh kamerdékaan India [[Mahatma Gandhi]], sarta [[Nelson Mandela]], anu nyaruakeun "lahirna deui kabébasan" anu diucapkeun ku Lincoln dina Biantara Gettysburg sareng réngséna sistem [[apartheid]] di Afrika Kidul.{{sfn|Avlon|2023|pp=270–271}} === Monumén sarta pangéling-ngéling === {{Main|Monumén pikeun Abraham Lincoln}} {{See also|Gambaran budaya Abraham Lincoln}} Potrét Lincoln aya dina dua ''pecahan'' $ [[Mata uang Amérika Sarikat]], nyaéta koin [[Péni (koin Amérika Sarikat)|péni]] sarta [[Artos lima dolar Amérika Sarikat|lembaran $5]]. Anjeunna ogé aya dina perangko di sakuliah dunya, kalebet di [[Ghana]], [[Honduras]], [[Cina]], [[Haiti]], [[Nikaragua]], [[Kolombia]], sarta [[Argéntina]].{{sfn|Peterson|1995|p=368}} Nami Lincoln diabadikeun janten nami seueur kota sarta wilayah, kalebet [[Lincoln, Nebraska|ibu kota]] Nebraska.{{sfn|Dennis|2018|pp=194, 197}} Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat parantos nganami tilu kapal nganggo nami Lincoln, kalebet kapal induk kelas Nimitz {{USS|Abraham Lincoln|CVN-72}}. [[Monumén Lincoln]] di Washington, D.C., mangrupa salah sahiji situs [[Layanan Taman Nasional]] anu panglobana didatangan di AS. Pangéling-ngéling di Springfield, Illinois, ngawengku [[Pabukon sarta Muséum Kapersidénan Abraham Lincoln]], imah Lincoln, sarta makamna. Ukiran beungeut Lincoln ogé aya bareng jeung tilu présidén séjénna di [[Gunung Rushmore]], anu didatangan ku sakitar 3 juta jalma unggal taun. Statu Lincoln karya [[Augustus Saint-Gaudens]] nangtung di [[Taman Lincoln]], Chicago, sarta salinanana dipasihan salaku kado diplomatik anu ayeuna nangtung di [[Parliament Square]], London, sarta [[Parque Lincoln]], Kota Méksiko. Lincoln ogé parantos seueur ditémbongkeun dina média. Karya-karya awal, saperti ''[[Abraham Lincoln's Clemency]]'' (1910), nyoba mitoskeun anjeunna ku cara nekenkeun rasa welas asihna. Dina mangsa Déprési Gedé, pilem saperti ''[[Young Mr. Lincoln]]'' (1939) ngajantenkeun carita perjuangan hirupna leuwih dramatis. Dina taun 2012, [[Daniel Day-Lewis]] kéngingkeun [[Piala Oscar pikeun Aktor Panghadéna]] saatos maénkeun peran dina pilem biografi ''[[Lincoln (pilem)|Lincoln]]'' anu diarahkeun ku [[Steven Spielberg]]. <gallery widths="160" heights="200" class="center"> File:Head of Abraham Lincoln at Mount Rushmore.jpg|alt=Raray Lincoln dina batu|Ukiran Lincoln dina batu di [[Gunung Rushmore]] File:Lincoln 1866 Issue-15c.jpg|alt=Perangko Lincoln|Perangko pangéling-ngéling Lincoln taun 1866 anu dikaluarkeun sataun saatos anjeunna pupus. File:Aerial view of Lincoln Memorial - west side.jpg|alt=Poto hawa monumén bodas|[[Monumén Lincoln]] di Washington, D.C. ditalingakeun ti luhur. File:United States penny, obverse, 2002.png|alt=Koin péni|[[Koin péni Lincoln]], koin Amérika anu némbongkeun potrét Lincoln ti gigir. </gallery> * {{cite book|last=Schaffer|first=Jeffrey P.|title=Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails|url=https://archive.org/details/yosemitenational0000scha|publisher=Wilderness Press|year=1999|isbn=9780899972442}} * {{cite book|last=Schroeder-Lein|first=Glenna R.|year=2012|title=Lincoln and Medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/lincolnmedicine0000schr|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn= 9780809331949}} * {{cite book|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|authorlink=Barry Schwartz (sociologist)|year=2000|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=XZwX9ANHHbUC}}|isbn=9780226741970}} * {{cite book|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|authorlink=Barry Schwartz (sociologist)|year=2008|title=Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=1p9T8drMHeYC}}|isbn=9780226741888}} * {{cite book|last=Sears|first= Stephen W. |title=George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon|publisher= Da Capo Press|orig-date= 1988|year=1999|isbn=9780306809132}} * {{cite book|last=Silver|first=David|title=Lincoln's Supreme Court|url=https://archive.org/details/lincolnssupremec0000silv_p0p6|year=1998|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252067198}} * {{cite book|last=Simon|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Simon (politician)|year=1990|title=Lincoln's Preparation for Greatness: The Legislative Years|publisher=University of Illinois Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=WSm1wQEACAAJ}}|isbn=9780252002038}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Robert C.|author-link=Robert C. Smith (political scientist)|year=2010|title=Conservatism and Racism, and Why in America They Are the Same|publisher=State University of New York Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ueQjmQEACAAJ}}|isbn=9781438432335}} * {{cite book|last=Steers|first=Edward Jr.|author-link=Edward Steers Jr.|year=2010|title=The Lincoln Assassination Encyclopedia|publisher=HarperCollins|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=5XbXsdrLwn8C}}|isbn=9780061787751}} * {{cite book|last=Striner|first=Richard|year=2006|title=Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery|publisher=Oxford University Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EuR2AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=9780195183061}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Taranto|editor1-first=James|editor-link1=James Taranto|editor2-last=Leo|editor2-first=Leonard|editor-link2=Leonard Leo|year=2004|title=Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House|publisher=Free Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=myl2AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=9780743254335}} * {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Benjamin P.|author-link=Benjamin P. Thomas|year=2008|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=fkB_E9GM0XoC}}|isbn=9780809328871}} * {{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=WTGTAAAAIAAJ|page=385}}|title=Stanton: The Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War|last1=Thomas|first1=Benjamin Platt|author-link1=Benjamin P. Thomas|last2=Hyman|first2=Harold Melvin|author-link2=Harold Hyman|date=1962|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf}} * {{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Todd|year=2015|title=The National Joker: Abraham Lincoln and the Politics of Satire|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=9780809334230}} * {{cite book|last1=Trefousse|first1=Hans L.|authorlink=Hans L. Trefousse|title=Andrew Johnson: A Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/andrewjohnson00hans|date=1989|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393317428}} * {{cite book|last1=Trefousse|first1=Hans L.|authorlink=Hans L. Trefousse|chapter=Lincoln and race relations|pages=[https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnhi0000unse_a8u2/page/87 87]–100|editor-last=Hubbard|editor-first=Charles|title=Abraham Lincoln and His Contemporaries|url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnhi0000unse_a8u2|year=1999|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=9780865546271}} * {{cite book|last=Tucker|first=Spencer|authorlink=Spencer C. Tucker|date=2014|title=Battles that Changed American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781440828621|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6BfHEAAAQBAJ}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Vile|first=John R.|year=2003|title=Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865)|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002|edition=2nd|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781851094288}} * {{cite book|last=Vorenberg|first=Michael|year=2001|title=Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=f-UQWNPD5qgC}}|isbn=9780521652674}} * {{cite book |last=Weisman |first=Steven R. |year=2002 |title=The Great Tax Wars: Lincoln to Wilson—The Fierce Battles over Money and Power That Transformed the Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/greattaxwars00weis |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=9780684850689}} * {{cite book|last=White|first=Ronald C.|author-link=Ronald C. White|year=2009|title=A. Lincoln: A Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781400064991|publisher=Random House|isbn=9781588367754}} * {{cite book|last=White|first= Jonathan W.|title=Abraham Lincoln and Treason in the Civil War: The Trials of John Merryman|publisher= Louisiana State University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780807142158}} * {{cite book|last=Wills|first=Garry|author-link=Garry Wills|year=2012|title=Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America|publisher=Simon & Schuster|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=7-aynIQRkYcC}}|isbn=9781439126455}} * {{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Douglas L.|author-link=Douglas L. Wilson |title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|url=https://archive.org/details/honorsvoicetrans00wils|year=1999|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=9780307765819}} * {{cite book|last=Winik|first= Jay|title=April 1865: The Month That Saved America|url=https://archive.org/details/april1865monthth0000jayw|publisher=HarperCollins|year= 2006|isbn=9780060899684|orig-date=2001}} * {{cite book|last=Winkle|first=Kenneth J.|year=2001|title=The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Taylor Trade Publishing|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=JcEVAAAAQBAJ}}|isbn=9781461734369}} * {{cite book|last=Witt|first=John Fabian|authorlink=John Fabian Witt|year=2013|title=Lincoln's Code: The Laws of War in American History|url=https://archive.org/details/lincoln_wit_2012_00_2483|publisher=Free Press|isbn=9781416576174}} * {{cite book|last=Winkle|first=Kenneth J.|year=2011|title=Abraham and Mary Lincoln|url=https://archive.org/details/abrahammarylinco0000wink|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=9780809379996}} * {{cite book|last=Work|first=David|year=2024|title=Lincoln's Political Generals|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252056888}} * {{cite book|last=Young|first= Alfred C. |title=Lee's Army during the Overland Campaign: A Numerical Study|url=https://archive.org/details/leesarmyduringov0000youn|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year= 2013|isbn=9780807151723}} * {{cite book|last=Zarefsky|first=David|author-link=David Zarefsky|year=1993|title=Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=SlCU9PS9VGcC}}|isbn=9780226978765}} {{Refend}} == Tumbu luar == {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Abraham Lincoln |b=no |n=no |q=Abraham Lincoln |s=Author:Abraham Lincoln|v=no|voy=no|species=no|display=Abraham Lincoln|d=Q91}} {{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Abraham Lincoln }} {{Biographical Directory of Congress|L000313|ref=no}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Abraham Lincoln}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=3}} * [https://presidentlincoln.illinois.gov/ Perpustakaan sarta Muséum Kapersidénan Abraham Lincoln] * [https://abrahamlincolnassociation.org/ Asosiasi Abraham Lincoln] * [https://guides.loc.gov/abraham-lincoln-guide Abraham Lincoln: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti [[Library of Congress]] * [https://papersofabrahamlincoln.org/ Perpustakaan Digital Tulisan Abraham Lincoln] ti [[Perpustakaan Kapersidénan Abraham Lincoln]] {{--}} Digitalisasi sakabéh dokumén anu ditulis ku atawa pikeun Abraham Lincoln salami hirupna * [https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ Karya-karya Lengkep Abraham Lincoln – édisi online (1958)] – sayogi ngaliwatan Koléksi Digital Perpustakaan [[Universitas Michigan]] * [https://digital.lib.niu.edu/illinois/lincoln Lincoln/Net: Proyék Digitalisasi Sajarah Abraham Lincoln] – Perpustakaan Digital [[Universitas Illinois Kalér]] * [https://www.loc.gov/collections/alfred-whital-stern-lincolniana/about-this-collection/ Koléksi Alfred Whital Stern ngeunaan Lincolniana] dina [[Divisi Buku Langka sarta Koléksi Husus]] di [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?164439-1/writings-abraham-lincoln "Tulisan-tulisan Abraham Lincoln"] ti C-SPAN, 18 Juni 2001 {{Abraham Lincoln|state=expanded}} {{Navboxes top|title=Jabatan sarta pangajén}} {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Henry (perwakilan)|John Henry]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti Illinois|DPR Amérika Sarikat]]<br />ti [[distrik kongrés ka-7 Illinois]]|years=1847–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. Harris|Thomas Harris]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[John C. Frémont|John Frémont]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Partéi Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] [[Daptar tikét kapersidénan Partéi Républik Amérika Sarikat|nominator]] pikeun Présidén Amérika Sarikat |years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|1860]], [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864|1864]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ulysses S. Grant|Ulysses Grant]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James Buchanan]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=1861–1865}} {{s-aft|after=[[Andrew Johnson]]}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Clay]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Tokoh anu [[disemahkeun sacara resmi|disemahkeun di Capitol]] di [[rotunda Capitol Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1865}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thaddeus Stevens]]}} {{s-end}} {{navboxes bottom}} {{Portal bar|Perang Sipil Amérika|Biografi|Illinois|Hukum|Pulitik|Amérika Sarikat}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lincoln, Abraham}} [[Kategori:Abraham Lincoln| ]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran 1809]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1865]] [[Kategori:Anggota Majelis Umum Illinois abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Perwakilan Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Aktivis hak sipil Afrika-Amérika]] [[Kategori:Pangacara Amérika]] [[Kategori:Personél militer Amérika dina Perang Indian]] [[Kategori:Nasionalis Amérika]] [[Kategori:Urang Amérika turunan Inggris]] [[Kategori:Survéyor Amérika]] [[Kategori:Aforis]] [[Kategori:Aktivis hak sipil Amérika anu ditémbak]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ditémbak]] [[Kategori:Makam di TPU Oak Ridge]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864]] [[Kategori:Pupus ditémbak di Washington, D.C.]] [[Kategori:Pangacara Illinois]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Illinois]] [[Kategori:Tokoh kapersidénan Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Springfield, Illinois]] [[Kategori:Présidén Partéi Républik Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Pamingpin pulitik Uni (Perang Sipil Amérika)]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] == Catetan == {{reflist|group="lower-alpha"}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} qrn2aivf0eax2f579nd6g2q1e72iw8i 0 107854 711648 706899 2026-08-07T00:54:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711648 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = Andrew Johnson photo portrait head and shoulders, c1870-1880-Edit1.jpg | alt = Monochrome photograph of the upper body of Andrew Johnson | caption = Johnson, {{Circa|1870–1875}} | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-17 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | term_start = 15 April 1865 | term_end = 4 Maret 1869 | predecessor = [[Abraham Lincoln]] | successor = [[Ulysses S. Grant]] | vicepresident = Kosong{{Efn|Johnson was vice president under Abraham Lincoln and became president upon [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln's assassination]]. As this was prior to the adoption of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fifth Amendment]] in 1967, a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next ensuing election and inauguration.}} | order2 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-16 | office2 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat | president2 = Abraham Lincoln | term_start2 = 4 Maret 1865 | term_end2 = 15 April 1865 | predecessor2 = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] | successor2 = [[Schuyler Colfax]] | office6 = 15th [[Governor of Tennessee]] | term_start6 = October 17, 1853 | term_end6 = November 3, 1857 | predecessor6 = [[William B. Campbell]] | successor6 = [[Isham G. Harris]] | office5 = [[Governor of Tennessee|Military Governor of Tennessee]] | appointer5 = Abraham Lincoln | term_start5 = March 12, 1862 | term_end5 = March 4, 1865 | predecessor5 = [[Isham G. Harris]]<br/>(as Governor) | successor5 = [[William G. Brownlow]]<br/>(as Governor) | jr/sr3 = United States Senator | state3 = [[Tennessee]] | term_start3 = March 4, 1875 | term_end3 = July 31, 1875 | predecessor3 = [[William G. Brownlow]] | successor3 = [[David M. Key]] | term_start4 = October 8, 1857 | term_end4 = March 4, 1862 | predecessor4 = [[James C. Jones]] | successor4 = [[David T. Patterson]] | state7 = Tennessee | district7 = {{ushr|TN|1|1st}} | term_start7 = March 4, 1843 | term_end7 = March 3, 1853 | predecessor7 = [[Thomas Dickens Arnold]] | successor7 = [[Brookins Campbell]] | birth_date = {{Birth date|1808|12|29}} | birth_place = [[Raleigh, North Carolina]], U.S. | death_date = {{Death date and age|1875|7|31|1808|12|29}} | death_place = [[Elizabethton, Tennessee]], U.S. | resting_place = [[Andrew Johnson National Cemetery]], Greeneville, Tennessee, U.S. | party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (ti taun 1839){{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=38–42}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=39–40}} | otherparty = {{Nowrap|[[Independent politician|Independent]] (saméméh 1839){{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=38–42}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=39–40}}}}<br>[[Working Men's Party (New York)|Mechanics' (Working Men's)]] (1829–1835){{Sfn|Trefousse|p=35}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=33–36}}<br>[[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] (1864–1867) | parents = {{Plainlist| * [[Jacob Johnson (father of Andrew Johnson)|Jacob Johnson]] * Mary McDonough }} | spouse = {{Marriage|[[Eliza McCardle Johnson|Eliza McCardle]]|17 Méi 1827}} | children = {{Hlist|[[Martha Johnson Patterson|Martha]]|[[Charles Johnson (Tennessee)|Charles]]|[[Mary Johnson Stover|Mary]]|[[Robert Johnson (Tennessee)|Robert]]|[[Andrew Johnson Jr.|Andrew Jr.]]}} | profession = {{Hlist|Politikus|Tukang kaput}} | signature = Andrew Johnson Signature.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | branch = [[United States Army]] ([[Union Army]]) | serviceyears = 1862–1865 | rank = Brigadir Jenderal (salaku Gubernur Militer Tennessee) | battles = [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] }} '''Andrew Johnson''' (29 Désémber 1808{{Spaced ndash}}31 Juli 1875) nyaéta Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ka-17, ngajabat ti taun 1865 nepi ka 1869. Saméméhna, anjeunna téh Wakil [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-16 anu naék pangkat janten présidén saatos kajadian [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|ditelasanana Abraham Lincoln]]. Johnson mangrupa saurang [[War Democrat]] (Démokrat Perang) anu nyalonkeun diri bareng jeung Lincoln dina [[National Union Party (United States)|Partéy Uni Nasional]] nalika [[1864 presidential election|Pamilu Présidén 1864]], sarta mimitian ngajabat pas pisan nalika [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] réngsé. Kabijakan Johnson leuwih condong kana malikkeun deui nagara-nagara bagian anu kungsi [[Secession in the United States|misahkeun manéh (séksési)]] kana Uni kalayan gancang, tanpa méré panangtayungan pikeun [[Emancipation Proclamation|jalma-jalma anu kakara leupas tina perbudakan]] (urut [[Slavery in the United States|budak]]), sarta méré pangampura ([[Pardons for ex-Confederates|pangampura pikeun urut Konfédérasi]]). Hal ieu nyababkeun ayana papaséaan jeung [[U.S. Congress|Kongrés AS]] anu didominasi ku [[Republican Party (United States)|Partéy Républik]], anu puncakna nyaéta prosés [[Impeachment of Andrew Johnson|pamancatan (impeachment)]] ka dirina ku [[United States House of Representatives|Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat AS]] dina taun 1868. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna [[Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson|dinyatakeun bébas]] di [[United States Senate|Sénat AS]] ku béda sora anu kacida saeutikna (ukur selisih hiji sora). Johnson lahir dina kaayaan sangsara sarta teu kungsi sakola. Anjeunna kungsi magang jadi [[Tukang kaput]] (penjahit) sarta digawé di sababaraha kota wates sateuacan matuh di [[Greeneville, Tennessee]]. Di dinya, anjeunna ngajabat salaku anggota déwan (alderman) sarta walikota sateuacan kapilih jadi anggota [[Tennessee House of Representatives]] dina taun 1835. Saatos sakedap ngajabat di [[Tennessee Senate]], Johnson kapilih janten anggota DPR AS (U.S. House of Representatives) dina taun 1843, dimana anjeunna ngajabat salila lima périodeu (sapuluh taun). Anjeunna janten gubernur Tennessee salila opat taun, sarta kapilih ku législatif janten anggota Sénat AS dina taun 1857. Nalika ngajabat di kongrés, anjeunna bajoang sangkan [[Homestead Bill]] disahkeun, anu tungtungna laksana teu lila saatos anjeunna ninggalkan korsi Sénat dina taun 1862. Nalika [[Slave states and free states|nagara-nagara bagian nu nganut perbudakan]] di [[Southern U.S.|Amérika Kidul]], kaasup Tennessee, misahkeun manéh (séksési) pikeun ngadegkeun [[Confederate States of America|Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]], Johnson tetep satia ka Uni (Amérika Sarikat). Anjeunna mangrupa hiji-hijina sénator ti nagara bagian Konfédérasi anu teu geuwat mundur tina jabatanna saatos terang yén nagara bagianna misahkeun manéh. Dina taun 1862, Lincoln ngangkat anjeunna janten Gubernur Militer Tennessee saatos sabagian ageung wilayahna parantos direbut deui. Johnson janten pilihan anu logis salaku pasangan Lincoln dina pamilu 1864 margi Lincoln hoyong nepikeun pesen ngeunaan persatuan nasional dina kampanye pamiluna deui. Saatos meunang dina éta pamilu, Johnson resmi janten wakil présidén. Johnson ngalaksanakeun wangun [[Presidential Reconstruction|Rékonstruksi Présidén]] sorangan, nyaéta mangrupa runtuyan proklamasi anu maréntahkeun nagara-nagara bagian anu kungsi misahkeun manéh pikeun ngayakeun konvénsi sarta pamilu guna ngawangun deui pamaréntahan sipilna. Nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul mulikkeun deui loba pamingpin lami maranéhna sarta ngesahkeun [[Black Codes (United States)|Black Codes]] pikeun nyabut hak-hak sipil ti para urut budak (freedmen). Sanajan kitu, anggota Républik di Kongrés nolak narima wakil législatif ti nagara-nagara bagian éta sarta ngajukeun undang-undang pikeun ngabolaykeun léngkah-léngkah ti pihak Kidul. Johnson ngagunakeun hak véto kana éta rangkay undang-undang, tapi anggota Républik di Kongrés hasil ngabolaykeun vétona (override), anu satuyuna jadi pola pikeun sésa mangsa jabatanna.{{efn|Johnson saw 15 of his vetoes overridden by Congress, [[List of United States presidential vetoes|more than any other President]].}} Johnson nolak [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amandemén ka-14]] dina [[U.S. constitution|Konstitusi AS]], anu méré hak [[Citizenship of the United States|kawarganagaraan]] ka para urut budak. Dina taun 1866, anjeunna ngayakeun [[Swing Around the Circle|tur nasional anu tacan kungsi aya saméméhna]] pikeun ngamajukeun kawijakan éksekutifna, bari nyoba ngaruntuhkeun oposisi ti pihak Républik.{{Sfn|Castel|2002|p=231}} Nalika konflik antara cabang pamaréntahan beuki panas, Kongrés ngesahkeun [[Tenure of Office Act (1867)]] anu ngawatesan wewenang Johnson pikeun macat pajabat [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabinet]]. Anjeunna tetep maksa hayang macat [[United States Secretary of War|Menteri Perang]], [[Edwin Stanton]], tapi tungtungna anjeunna [[Impeachment of Andrew Johnson|dimancat (impeached)]] ku Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat sarta ampir waé dinyatakeun bersalah ku Sénat. Anjeunna teu hasil meunangkeun [[1868 Democratic National Convention|nominasi présidén ti Partéy Démokrat taun 1868]] sarta ninggalkeun jabatanna dina taun saterusna. Johnson mulang deui ka Tennessee saatos masa jabatanna salaku présidén réngsé sarta kenging sakedik pangakuan (vindication) nalika anjeunna kapilih janten anggota Sénat dina taun 1875. Hal ieu ngajantenkeun anjeunna hiji-hijina présidén dina sajarah AS anu saatosna ngajabat deui salaku Sénator. Anjeunna pupus lima bulan saatos ngamimitian masa jabatanna éta. Sikep Johnson anu teuas nolak hak-hak anu dijamin sacara féderal pikeun urang [[Aperika-Amérika]] meunang kritik anu kalintang lega, sarta para sajarawan [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States#Notable scholar surveys|ajeg nempatkeun anjeunna]] salaku salah sahiji présidén Amérika Sarikat anu panggoréngna. == Mangsa leutik == === Budak leutik === [[File:Andrew Johnsons First Home 2006.jpg|thumb|Tempat lahir sarta imah mangsa budak Johnson, ayana di [[Mordecai House|Taman Bersejarah Mordecai]] di [[Raleigh, North Carolina]]|left]] Andrew Johnson lahir di [[Raleigh, North Carolina]], dina 29 Désémber 1808, putra ti Jacob Johnson jeung Mary ("Polly") McDonough, saurang tukang nyeuseuh. Anjeunna miboga getih turunan [[English Americans|Inggris]], [[Scotch-Irish Americans|Skot-Irlandia]], sarta [[Scottish Americans|Skotlandia]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robert A. |last=Nowlan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K-nCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA387 |title=The American Presidents From Polk to Hayes: What They Did, What They Said & What Was Said About Them |publisher=Outskirts Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4787-6572-1 |page=387}}</ref> Anjeunna miboga lanceuk lalaki, William, anu opat taun leuwih kolot, sarta hiji lanceuk awéwé, Elizabeth, anu pupus nalika masih kénéh budak. Johnson lahir di hiji ''gubug'' dua kamar anu satuluyna jadi modal pulitik dina pertengahan abad ka-19; anjeunna sering ngingetkeun para pamilih ngeunaan asal-usulna anu hina.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=17–18}}{{Sfn|Castel|2002|p=225}} Jacob Johnson téh jalma miskin, kitu ogé bapana, William Johnson, tapi anjeunna kungsi jadi konstabel (pulisi) kota Raleigh sateuacan kawin sarta ngawangun kulawarga. Jacob Johnson kungsi jadi [[porter (carrier)|porter]] pikeun [[State Bank of North Carolina]], anu diangkat ku [[William Polk (colonel)|William Polk]], baraya ti Présidén [[James K. Polk]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Polk |first=William Harrison |url=http://archive.org/details/polkfamilykinsme00polk |title=Polk family and kinsmen |date=1912 |publisher=Press of the Bradley & Gilbert Co. |others=New York Public Library |location=Louisville, Kentucky |pages=143 |language=en-us |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> Jacob jeung Mary duanana buta huruf (teu bisa maca-nulis), sarta kungsi digawé jadi palayan kedai (tavern), sedengkeun Johnson sorangan teu kungsi sakola{{Sfn|Castel|2002|p=225}} sarta digedékeun dina kaayaan sangsara.{{Sfn|Castel|2002|p=225}} Jacob pupus ku sabab serangan jantung nalika nuju nabeuh loncéng kota, teu lila saatos nyalametkeun tilu jalma anu ampir titeuleum, nalika Andrew yuswana nuju tilu taun.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=20}} Polly Johnson satuluyna digawé jadi tukang nyeuseuh sarta jadi tulang tonggong kulawarga. Pagaweanana harita dianggap hina, sabab mindeng mawa manéhna asup ka imah batur sorangan. Kusabab rupa Andrew teu mirip jeung lanceuk-lanceukna, aya rumor yén anjeunna téh putra ti lalaki séjén. Polly Johnson tungtungna kawin deui ka saurang lalaki nu ngaranna Turner Doughtry, anu sarua miskinna.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=18–22}} Indungna Johnson ngamagangkeun putrana, William, ka saurang tukang kaput (panjahit) nu ngaranna James Selby. Andrew ogé milu magang di bengkel Selby dina yuswa sapuluh taun sarta sacara hukum kabeungkeut pikeun ngabakti nepi ka yuswa 21 taun. Johnson cicing sareng indungna salila sabagian mangsa magangna, sarta salah saurang karyawan Selby ngajarkeun anjeunna dasar-dasar maca jeung nulis.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=22–23}} Pangaweruhna beuki nambahan ku ayana warga anu sering datang ka bengkel Selby pikeun mangmacakeun buku ka para tukang kaput anu nuju digawé. Malah sateuacan janten magang ogé, Johnson parantos sering sumping pikeun ngupingkeun. Éta bacaan téh numuwuhkeun rasa cinta kana diajar saumur hirupna; biograferna, [[Annette Gordon-Reed]], nyebutkeun yén Johnson, anu satuluyna janten orator (tukang pidato) anu jempolan, diajar seni nyarita nalika anjeunna nuju ngasupkeun benang kana jarum sarta neukteukan lawon.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=26}} [[File:Andrew Johnson s Indenture (Asheville News, August 20, 1869, Page 4).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|"Kontrak Magang Andrew Johnson" (''Asheville News'', 20 Agustus 1869, Kaca 4)]] {{Andrew Johnson series}} Johnson teu ngarasa betah di tempat James Selby, sarta saatos sakitar lima taun, anjeunna sareng lanceukna kabur. Selby ngaréspon ku cara ngayakeun sayembara (hadiah) pikeun saha waé anu bisa mawa maranéhna balik: "Hadiah Sapuluh Dollar. Kabur ti nu nandatangan, dua budak magang, kabeungkeut sacara hukum, namina William jeung Andrew Johnson... [bayaran] ka saha waé anu masrahkeun éta budak magang ka kuring di Raleigh, atawa kuring bakal méré hadiah di luhur ngan pikeun Andrew Johnson hungkul."{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=27}} Éta dua sadulur téh angkat ka [[Carthage, North Carolina]], dimana Johnson digawé jadi tukang kaput salila sababaraha bulan. Ku sabab sieun ditéwak sarta dipulangkeun ka Raleigh, Johnson pindah ka [[Laurens, South Carolina]]. Anjeunna gancang meunang pagawéan, panggih jeung cinta munggaranana, Mary Wood, sarta mangnyieunkeun simbut (quilt) salaku kado. Nanging, Mary nolak lamaran kawinna. Anjeunna mulang deui ka Raleigh kalayan harepan bisa nebus kontrak magangna, tapi teu manggih kasapukan jeung Selby. Kusabab teu bisa cicing di Raleigh—bisi ditéwak lantaran ninggalkeun Selby—anjeunna mutuskeun pikeun pindah ka kulon.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=23–26}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=27–29}} === Pindah ka Tennessee === Johnson ninggalkeun North Carolina sarta indit ka Tennessee, kalolobaanana mah ku cara leumpang. Saatos sakedap cicing di [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]], anjeunna pindah ka [[Mooresville, Alabama]].{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=23–26}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=29–30}} Anjeunna satuluyna digawé jadi tukang kaput di [[Columbia, Tennessee]], nanging dicalukan deui ka Raleigh ku indung jeung bapa téréna, anu ngarasa kasempetan di dinya téh kawatesanan sarta boga niat pikeun émigrasi (pindah) ka kulon. Johnson jeung rombonganana indit ngaliwatan [[Pagunungan Blue Ridge]] ka [[Greeneville, Tennessee]]. Andrew Johnson langsung bogoh ka éta kota dina tetempoan munggaran; nalika anjeunna parantos beunghar, anjeunna mésér lahan tempat anjeunna munggaran kémping sarta melak tangkal di dinya salaku pangéling-ngéling.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=28–29}} [[File:Locket_portraits_of_Andrew_and_Eliza_(McCardle)_Johnson_created_1840s.jpg|thumb|Potrét dina [[lokét]] Andrew sarta Eliza (McCardle) Johnson, dijieun taun 1840-an]] Di Greeneville, Johnson ngadegkeun usaha kaput anu suksés di hareup imahna. Dina taun 1827, dina yuswa 18 taun, anjeunna kawin ka [[Eliza McCardle Johnson|Eliza McCardle]] anu yuswana 16 taun, putri saurang tukang sapatu lokal. Éta pasangan téh dikawinkeun ku Hakim Perdamaian [[Mordecai Lincoln]], dulur misan ti [[Thomas Lincoln]], anu putrana (Abraham Lincoln) satuluyna bakal janten présidén. Kulawarga Johnson ngawangun rumah tangga salila ampir 50 taun sarta dipaparin lima putra: [[Martha Johnson Patterson|Martha]] (1828), [[Charles Johnson (Tennessee)|Charles]] (1830), [[Mary Johnson Stover|Mary]] (1832), [[Robert Johnson (Tennessee)|Robert]] (1834), sarta [[Andrew Johnson Jr.|Andrew Jr.]] (1852). Sanajan anjeunna nandangan panyakit [[TBC]] (tuberculosis), Eliza terus ngarojong sagala usaha salakina. Anjeunna ngajarkeun Johnson élmu matematika sarta ngabingbing anjeunna pikeun ngoméan kamampuh nulisna.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=27–29}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=31–32}} Kusabab sipatna anu éraan sarta resep cicing di imah, Eliza Johnson biasana tetep cicing di Greeneville nalika karir pulitik Johnson nuju nanjak. Anjeunna jarang katingal salila mangsa jabatan présidén salakina; putrana, Martha, anu biasana pancén janten [[hostess]] (panyambung tamu) resmi di Gedong Bodas.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=32}} Usaha kaput Johnson beuki maju dina taun-taun munggaran rumah tanggana, anu ngamungkinkeun anjeunna pikeun nyéwa tanaga mantu sarta miboga modal pikeun investasi dina widang perumahan (real estate).{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=32–33}} Di satuluyna, anjeunna mindeng mintonkeun rasa reueus kana bakatna salaku tukang kaput, kalayan nyebatkeun: "pagawéan kuring mah tara pernah ngabedah (soék) atawa coplok jahitanana".{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=3}} Anjeunna mangrupa saurang anu kacida resepna maca. Buku-buku ngeunaan orator (tukang pidato) kawentar geus numuwuhkeun minatna kana dialog pulitik, sarta anjeunna sering ngayakeun débat pribadi ngeunaan masalah-masalah haneut harita jeung para langgananana anu miboga sawangan béda. Anjeunna ogé milu ngadebat dina kagiatan débat di [[Greeneville College]].{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=31}} === Budak beulian === {{main|Andrew Johnson and slavery}} Dina taun 1843, Johnson mésér budak (slaves) munggaranana, [[Dolly Johnson|Dolly]], anu harita yuswana 14 taun. Dolly miboga tilu putra—[[Elizabeth Johnson Forby|Liz]], [[Florence Johnson Smith|Florence]] sarta [[William Andrew Johnson|William]]. Teu lila saatos mésér Dolly, anjeunna mésér dulur sabapa/saindung Dolly nu ngaranna [[Sam Johnson (Tennessee)|Sam]]. Sam Johnson sarta pamajikanana, Margaret, miboga salapan putra. Sam satuluyna janten komisioner [[Freedmen's Bureau]] sarta kawéntar salaku jalma anu miboga harga diri anu luhur, anu sering badami ngeunaan rupa pagawéanana jeung kulawarga Johnson. Malah, anjeunna nampi kompensasi artos tina hasil jerih payahna sarta badami sareng Andrew Johnson pikeun nampi salambar lahan anu tungtungna dipaparinkeun sacara haratis ku Johnson dina taun 1867.<ref name="park"/> [[File:Sam Johnson (Tennessee).jpg|thumb|Dina biografi Andrew Johnson taun 1928, [[Sam Johnson (Tennessee)|Sam Johnson]] (~1830–saatos 1901) digambarkeun salaku "budak paporit" Johnson.<ref name="Winston1928"> {{Cite book |last=Winston |first=Robert W. | author-link=Robert W. Winston |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4432643&seq=133 |title=Andrew Johnson, Plebeian and Patriot |date=1928 |publisher=H. Holt and company |location=New York |page=103 |language=en-us |via=[[HathiTrust]]}}</ref>]] Dina taun 1857, Johnson mésér [[Henry Johnson (Tennessee)|Henry]], anu harita yuswana 13 taun sarta satuluyna milu maturan kulawarga Johnson ka [[Gedong Bodas]]. Dina catetan sajarah, Johnson sahenteuna miboga sapuluh urang budak beulian.<ref name="park">{{Cite web |date=July 24, 2020 |title=Slaves of Andrew Johnson |url=https://www.nps.gov/anjo/learn/historyculture/slaves.htm |access-date=January 21, 2022 |website=Andrew Johnson |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> Andrew Johnson ngabébasan budak-budakna dina tanggal 8 Agustus 1863; maranéhna tetep babarengan jeung anjeunna salaku palayan anu digajih. Sataun ti harita, nalika Johnson janten gubernur militer Tennessee, anjeunna mroklamirkeun kabébasan pikeun sakabéh budak di Tennessee. Sam sarta Margaret, urut budak Johnson, cicing di bengkel kaputna nalika Johnson janten présidén, kalayan teu kudu mayar séwa.<ref name="park" /> Salaku tanda pangajén kana proklamasi kabébasan éta, Andrew Johnson dipasihan jam ku jalma-jalma anu nembé dibébasan di Tennessee kalayan tulisan "pikeun Énergi anu Teu Aya Pegatna dina Merjuangkeun Kabébasan".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Donhardt |first=Gary L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UW32n2HWwRIC&q=%22for+his+untiring+energy+in+the+cause+of+Freedom.%22&pg=PA55 |title=In the Shadow of the Great Rebellion |date=2007 |publisher=Nova Science Publishers |isbn=978-1-60021-086-0 |location=New York |page=55}}</ref> == Karir Pulitik == === Politikus Tennessee === Johnson mantuan ngatur tikét [[Working Men's Party (New York)|Mechanics' (Working Men's)]] dina pamilu munisipal Greeneville taun 1829. Anjeunna kapilih janten anggota déwan (alderman) kota, bareng jeung babaturanana Blackston McDannel sarta Mordecai Lincoln.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=35}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=33–36}} Saatos kajadian [[Nat Turner's slave rebellion|Baruntakna Budak Nat Turner]] dina taun 1831, hiji konvénsi nagara bagian diayakeun pikeun ngesahkeun konstitusi anyar, kaasup katangtuan pikeun [[disfranchisement|nyabut hak pilih]] jalma-jalma nu boga warna kulit (people of color) anu merdéka. Éta konvénsi ogé hayang ngoméan tarif pajeg perumahan sarta nyadiakeun waragad pikeun pangwangunan infrastruktur di Tennessee. Éta konstitusi diajukeun pikeun sora publik, sarta Johnson nyarita sacara lega pikeun ngarojongna; kampanye anu suksés ieu méré anjeunna kasempetan pikeun dipikawanoh di sakuliah nagara bagian. Dina tanggal 4 Januari 1834, babaturan sasama anggota déwan milih anjeunna janten walikota Greeneville.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=33, 36}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=36–37}} Dina taun 1835, Johnson nyalonkeun diri pikeun korsi [[Open seat|"floater" (kabuka)]] anu dibagi ku [[Greene County, Tennessee|Greene County]] jeung tatangganna [[Washington County, Tennessee|Washington County]] di [[Tennessee House of Representatives]] (DPR Tennessee). Nurutkeun biograferna, [[Hans L. Trefousse]], Johnson "ngancurkeun" oposisi dina debat sarta meunangkeun pamilu kalayan sora ampir dua tanding hiji.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=36}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=37}} Salila mangsa di Greeneville, Johnson ngagabung ka [[Tennessee Army National Guard|Milisi Tennessee]] salaku anggota Régimén ka-90. Anjeunna meunang pangkat [[Colonel (United States)|kolonél]], sanajan nalika janten anggota, Johnson kungsi didenda pikeun palanggaran anu teu kanyahoan.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=14, 25}} Saatos éta, anjeunna mindeng dicalukan atanapi disebut dumasar kana pangkatna. Dina masa jabatan munggaranana di législatif anu ngayakeun sidang di ibu kota nagara bagian, [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], Johnson henteu salawasna milih bareng [[Democratic Party (United States)|Partéy Démokrat]] atanapi [[Whig Party (United States)|Partéy Whig]] anu nembé kabentuk, sanajan anjeunna kacida mikahormat ka Présidén [[Andrew Jackson]], saurang Démokrat sarta sasama urang Tennessee. Partéy-partéy utama harita masih kénéh nangtukeun ajén-inajén inti sarta usulan kawijakanana. Partéy Whig diwangun pikeun nangtang Jackson kusabab sieun ku museurna kakawasaan dina Cabang Éksekutif; Johnson béda jeung urang Whig sabab anjeunna nolak pangaluaran anggaran pamaréntah anu kaleuleuwihi sarta nyarita ngalawan bantuan pikeun jalan karéta api, sedengkeun konstituénna mah miharep ayana pangwangunan dina transportasi. Saatos [[Brookins Campbell]] sarta urang Whig ngéléhkeun Johnson dina pamilu 1837, Johnson teu kungsi éléh deui dina balapan pamilu salila tilu puluh taun ka hareup. Dina taun 1839, anjeunna nyoba meunangkeun deui korsina, mimitina mah salaku urang Whig, tapi nalika calon séjén nyiar nominasi Whig, anjeunna lumpat salaku urang Démokrat sarta kapilih. Ti saprak harita, anjeunna ngarojong partéy Démokrat sarta ngawangun mesin pulitik anu kuat di Greene County.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=38–42}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=39–40}} Johnson janten advokat kuat pikeun Partéy Démokrat. Anjeunna kasohor ku oraturna dina mangsa dimana pidato publik téh janten sarana inpormasi sakaligus hiburan pikeun masarakat; jalma-jalma loba anu daratang hayang ngadéngékeun anjeunna nyarita.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=42}} Dina taun 1840, Johnson kapilih janten éléktor présidén pikeun Tennessee, anu méré anjeunna leuwih loba publikasi di sakuliah nagara bagian. Sanajan Présidén Démokrat [[Martin Van Buren]] diéléhkeun ku urut sénator [[Ohio]] [[William Henry Harrison]], Johnson boga peran penting dina ngajaga Greene County tetep dina kubu Démokrat.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=43}} Anjeunna kapilih janten anggota [[Tennessee Senate]] dina taun 1841, dimana anjeunna ngajabat salila dua taun.<ref name="CongBio">{{Biographical Directory of Congress|J000116|inline=1}}</ref> Anjeunna parantos ngahontal kasuksésan finansial dina usaha kaputna, tapi dijual pikeun konséntrasi dina dunya pulitik. Anjeunna ogé parantos miboga lahan tambahan, kaasup imah anu leuwih gedé sarta kebon (tempat indung jeung bapa téréna cicing), sarta di antara asetna téh aya dalapan atawa salapan urang budak beulian.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=45–46}} === Anggota DPR Amérika Sarikat (1843–1853) === {{Anchor|Congressman (1843–1853)}} Saatos ngajabat di dua kamar législatif nagara bagian, Johnson ningal yén kapilih ka Kongrés mangrupa léngkah salajengna dina karir pulitikna. Anjeunna ngalakukeun sababaraha manuver pulitik pikeun meunangkeun pangrojong Démokrat, kaasup ngaganti kapala kantor pos Whig di Greeneville, sarta ngéléhkeun pengacara [[Jonesborough, Tennessee|Jonesborough]] John A. Aiken ku 5.495 sora tanding 4.892.{{Sfn|Schroeder-Lein|Zuczuk|p=55}}{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=51–53}} Di Washington, anjeunna ngagabung jeung mayoritas anyar Démokrat di DPR AS. Johnson bajoang pikeun kapentingan urang miskin, mertahankeun sikep anti-[[Abolitionism in the United States|abolisionis]] (anti panghapusan perbudakan), ngabela pangaluaran pamaréntah anu kawates, sarta nolak tarif pelindung.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=53}} Nalika Eliza tetep cicing di Greeneville, Anggota Déwan Johnson nyingkahan kagiatan sosial sarta leuwih milih diajar di [[Library of Congress]].{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=56}} Sanajan sasama Démokrat Tennessee, [[James K. Polk]], [[1844 United States presidential election|kapilih janten présidén]] dina taun 1844, sarta Johnson parantos kampanye pikeun anjeunna, duanana miboga hubungan anu sesah, sarta Présidén Polk nolak sababaraha usulan jabatan (patronage) ti anjeunna.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=44}} Johnson percaya, saperti loba Démokrat Kidul, yén Konstitusi ngajaga hak milik pribadi, kaasup budak beulian, sahingga pamaréntah féderal jeung nagara bagian dilarang ngahapus perbudakan.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=43–44}} Anjeunna meunangkeun masa jabatan kadua dina taun 1845 ngalawan [[William Gannaway Brownlow|William G. Brownlow]], mintonkeun dirina salaku pembéla urang miskin ngalawan aristokrasi. Dina masa jabatan kaduana, Johnson ngarojong kaputusan administrasi Polk pikeun perang dina [[Mexican–American War|Perang Méksiko]], anu dianggap ku sababaraha urang Kalér salaku usaha pikeun meunangkeun wilayah guna ngalegaan perbudakan ka kulon, sarta nolak [[Wilmot Proviso]], usulan pikeun nyaram perbudakan di wilayah mana waé anu dimeunangkeun ti Méksiko. Anjeunna ngenalkeun pikeun munggaranana Homestead Bill, pikeun méré lahan {{Convert|160|acre}} ka jalma anu kersa matuh sarta miboga hak milikna.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=61–63}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=45–46}} Ieu masalah kacida pentingna pikeun Johnson kusabab asal-usulna anu hina.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=61–63}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=47–49}} Dina [[1848 United States presidential election|pamilu présidén taun 1848]], Partéy Démokrat peupeus alatan masalah perbudakan, sarta kaum abolisionis ngawangun [[Free Soil Party]], kalayan urut présidén Van Buren salaku calonna. Johnson ngarojong calon Démokrat, urut sénator Michigan [[Lewis Cass]]. Ku sabab partéy peupeus, calon Whig Jenderal [[Zachary Taylor]] meunang kalayan gampang, sarta unggul di Tennessee.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=69–71}} Hubungan Johnson jeung Polk tetep goréng; Présidén nyatet dina buku poéanana ngeunaan resepsi Taun Anyar pamungkas dina taun 1849 yén: <blockquote>Di antara nu nganjang anu katingal ku kuring dina balaréa poé ieu nyaéta Hon. Andrew Johnson ti DPR. Sanajan anjeunna ngawakilan Distrik Démokrat di Tennessee (Nagara Bagian kuring sorangan), ieu mangrupa munggaranana kuring ningal anjeunna salila sési Kongrés ayeuna. Ngaku salaku urang Démokrat, anjeunna parantos musuhan ka kuring sacara pulitik, upami henteu sacara pribadi, salila sakabéh masa jabatan kuring. Anjeunna kacida pendendam sarta nekad dina watek jeung kalakuanana. Upami anjeunna miboga kawanian jeung kamerdékaan pikeun nyatakeun oposisina sacara terang-terangan, anjeunna terang yén anjeunna moal kapilih ku konstituénna. Kuring teu ngarasa kantos masihan alesan anu matak nyigeung anjeunna.<ref>{{Cite book |author=James K. Polk |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MBsOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265 |title=The diary of James K. Polk during his presidency, 1845 to 1849: now first printed from the original manuscript in the Collections of the Chicago Historical Society |publisher=A.C. McClurg & Co |year=1910 |isbn=978-1-62376-929-1 |editor=Milo M. Quaife |volume=4 |page=265 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916144031/https://books.google.com/books?id=MBsOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265 |archive-date=September 16, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote> Johnson, alatan minat nasional dina pangwangunan jalan karéta api anyar sarta réspon kana pangabutuh transportasi anu leuwih hadé di distrikna, ogé ngarojong bantuan pamaréntah pikeun [[East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia Railway|Jalan Karéta Api Tennessee Wétan jeung Virginia]].{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=73}} [[File:Andrew-johnson-house-tn1.jpg|thumb|right|Imah Andrew Johnson, diwangun dina taun 1851 di [[Greeneville, Tennessee]]]] Salila kampanye pikeun masa jabatan kaopat, Johnson konséntrasi kana tilu masalah: perbudakan, ''homesteads'', sarta pamilu yudisial. Anjeunna ngéléhkeun lawanna, [[Nathaniel G. Taylor]], dina Agustus 1849, kalayan sora anu leuwih loba dibandingkeun kampanye saméméhna. Nalika DPR ngayakeun sidang dina Désémber, perpecahan partéy alatan Free Soil Party ngahambat kabentukna mayoritas pikeun milih Speaker (Ketua DPR). Johnson ngusulkeun aturan sangkan Speaker tiasa kapilih ku sora terbanyak (pluralitas); sababaraha minggu ti harita batur nyokot usulan anu sarua, sarta urang Démokrat [[Howell Cobb]] kapilih.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=74–75}} Saatos pamilu Speaker réngsé sarta Kongrés siap digawé, masalah perbudakan janten perhatian utama. Urang Kalér hayang narima California, nagara bagian bébas, ka Uni. [[Henry Clay]] ti Kentucky ngenalkeun runtuyan résolusi di Sénat, nyaéta [[Kompromi 1850]], pikeun narima California sarta ngesahkeun undang-undang anu dipiharep ku unggal pihak. Johnson milih pikeun sakabéh katangtuan kecuali panghapusan perdagangan budak di ibu kota nagara.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=75–76}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 15, 2016 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in the Nation's Capital |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/spring/dcslavery.html |access-date=January 31, 2024 |website=National Archives |language=en}}</ref> Anjeunna ngadesek résolusi amandemén konstitusi pikeun pamilu langsung sénator (anu harita dipilih ku législatif nagara bagian) sarta présidén (anu dipilih ku [[Electoral College (United States)|Lembaga Pamilih]]), sarta ngawatesan masa jabatan hakim féderal nepi ka 12 taun. Sadayana usulan ieu ditolak.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=78}} Sagolongan Démokrat nyalonkeun [[Landon Carter Haynes]] pikeun nangtang Johnson nalika anjeunna nyiar masa jabatan kalima; urang Whig kacida bungahna ningal papaséaan di jero Démokrat sahingga maranéhna teu nyalonkeun kandidat sorangan. Kampanye éta diwarnaan ku débat anu sengit: masalah utama Johnson nyaéta pangésahan Homestead Bill; Haynes nganggap yén éta bakal ngagampangkeun abolisi. Johnson meunangkeun pamilu ku leuwih ti 1.600 sora.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=78}} Sanajan anjeunna teu pati resep ka calon présidén partéyna dina [[1852 United States presidential election|taun 1852]], urut sénator New Hampshire [[Franklin Pierce]], Johnson tetep kampanye pikeun anjeunna. Pierce kapilih, tapi éléh di Tennessee.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=81}} Dina taun 1852, Johnson hasil ngajantenkeun DPR ngaluluskeun Homestead Bill-na, tapi gagal di Sénat.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=49}} Urang Whig parantos ngawasa législatif Tennessee, sarta dina kapamingpinan [[Gustavus Adolphus Henry, Sr.|Gustavus Henry]], ngarobah wates-wates Distrik Kahiji Johnson sangkan jadi korsi anu aman pikeun partéyna. ''Nashville Union'' nyebut hal ieu salaku "Henry-mandering";{{Efn|Play on words tina [[gerrymandering]].}}{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=82}} Johnson ngangluh, "Kuring teu boga mangsa hareup dina pulitik."{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=5}} Salila périodeu ieu, Johnson janten saurang [[Freemasonry|Freemason]], diinisiasi di Lodge Greenville No. 119 di Greenville, Tennessee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Masonic Presidents {{!}} Washington Lodge No. 20 |url=https://www.wln20.org/masonic-presidents |access-date=January 26, 2025 |website=WLN20 |language=en}}</ref> === Gubernur Tennessee (1853–1857) === [[File:Andrew Johnson by William Brown Cooper.png|thumb|Potrét Johnson, 1856, karya [[William Brown Cooper]]]] Upami Johnson kungsi mikir badé pangsiun tina dunya pulitik saatos mutuskeun moal nyalonkeun deui ka DPR, anjeunna gancang ngarobah pikiranana.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=51}} Babaturan pulitikna mimiti ngatur siasat pikeun meunangkeun nominasi gubernur pikeun anjeunna. Konvénsi Démokrat sacara buleud milih anjeunna, sanajan sababaraha anggota partéy teu pati bungah ku éta pilihan. Urang Whig parantos meunang dina dua pamilu gubernur saméméhna, sarta masih kénéh ngawasa législatif.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=84–85}} Partéy Whig nyalonkeun Henry, anu ngajantenkeun masalah "Henry-mandering" di Distrik Kahiji janten padungdengan anu haneut.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=84–85}} Éta dua tokoh téh ngayakeun débat di unggal puseur kabupaten di Tennessee sateuacan sési debatna dieureunkeun dua minggu méméh pamilu Agustus 1853 alatan aya kulawarga Henry anu gering.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=51}}{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=87–88}} Johnson meunangkeun pamilu ku 63.413 sora tanding 61.163; sababaraha sora anu asup ka anjeunna téh mangrupa bales budi tina jangjina pikeun ngarojong urang Whig [[Nathaniel Green Taylor|Nathaniel Taylor]] pikeun nempatan urut korsi anjeunna di Kongrés.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=88}}{{Sfn|Schroeder-Lein|Zuczuk|p=119}} Gubernur Tennessee harita mah miboga kakuatan anu saeutik: Johnson tiasa ngusulkeun undang-undang nanging teu tiasa ngavéto, sarta kalolobaan pangangkatan pajabat diputuskeun ku législatif anu dikawasa ku urang Whig. Sanajan kitu, éta jabatan téh janten sajenis "[[bully pulpit]]" (panggung pangaruh) anu ngamungkinkeun anjeunna mintonkeun diri sarta sawangan pulitikna ka masarakat.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=52–53}} Anjeunna hasil meunangkeun pajabat-pajabat anu dipiharep ku anjeunna salaku balesan tina pangrojongna ka [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]], urang Whig, pikeun salah sahiji korsi Sénat AS ti nagara bagian éta. Dina biantara dua taunanna anu munggaran, Johnson ngadesek nyaderhanakeun sistem yudisial nagara bagian, ngabolaykeun Bank of Tennessee, sarta ngadegkeun lembaga pikeun nyadiakeun kasaragaman dina timbangan jeung ukuran; usulan anu pamungkas mah disatujuan. Johnson ogé kritis kana sistem sakola umum di Tennessee sarta ngusulkeun sangkan dana ditingkatkeun liwat pajeg—usulan gabunganana tungtungna disahkeun.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=92}} Reformasi anu dilaksanakeun salila Johnson janten gubernur kaasup ngadegkeun perpustakaan umum nagara bagian (sangkan buku tiasa diakses ku saréréa) sarta sistem sakola umum munggaran, ogé ngayakeun paméran nagara bagian (state fairs) sacara rutin pikeun kapentingan para pengrajin jeung patani.{{sfn|Smalley|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P_s3-82-JusC&pg=PA35 35]}} Sanajan Partéy Whig nuju nyirorot sacara nasional, maranéhna masih kuat di Tennessee, sarta harepan pikeun urang Démokrat dina taun 1855 mah kacida leutikna. Alatan ngarasa yén kapilih deui janten gubernur téh pating pikeun muka jalan ka jabatan anu leuwih luhur, Johnson sapuk pikeun nyalonkeun deui. [[Meredith P. Gentry]] meunangkeun nominasi Whig. Leuwih ti belasan débat anu sengit lumangsung. Masalah utama dina kampanye nyaéta perbudakan, larangan alkohol, sarta posisi [[nativism (politics)|nativis]] ti [[Know Nothing Party]]. Johnson ngarojong anu munggaran, tapi nolak dua anu séjénna. Gentry mah rada bingung dina urusan alkohol, sarta meunang pangrojong ti Know Nothings, hiji kelompok anu ku Johnson digambarkeun salaku masarakat rahasia.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=55–56}} Johnson sacara teu disangka-sangka meunang deui, sanajan selisih sorana leuwih saeutik dibandingkeun taun 1853.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=95–97}} Nalika pamilu présidén [[1856 United States presidential election|taun 1856]] deukeut, Johnson miharep bisa dicalonkeun; sababaraha konvénsi kabupaten di Tennessee nyebut anjeunna salaku "[[favorite son]]" (putra daérah paporit). Posisina anu nyebutkeun yén kapentingan panghadéna pikeun Uni téh dilayanan ku ayana perbudakan di sababaraha wilayah, ngajantenkeun anjeunna calon kompromi anu praktis pikeun présidén. Nanging, anjeunna teu kungsi janten pesaing utama; nominasi ragrag ka urut sénator [[Pennsylvania]] [[James Buchanan]]. Sanajan teu pati katarik ku duanana, Johnson tetep kampanye pikeun Buchanan sarta pasanganna, [[John C. Breckinridge]], anu tungtungna kapilih.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=103–104}} Johnson mutuskeun moal nyalonkeun deui pikeun masa jabatan katilu salaku gubernur, sabab anjeunna hoyong nyasar korsi Sénat AS. Dina taun 1857, nalika mulang ti Washington, karéta apina anjlok, anu ngakibatkeun tatu parna dina leungeun katuhuna. Ieu tatu téh bakal terus nyusahkeun anjeunna dina taun-taun ka hareupna.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=104–105}} == Sénator Amérika Sarikat == ==== Advokat Homestead Bill ==== [[File:Andrew Johnson by Vannerson, 1859.jpg|thumb|Sénator Johnson, 1859]] Pihak anu meunang dina kampanye législatif nagara bagian taun 1857 bakal milih saurang Sénator Amérika Sarikat nalika maranéhna ngayakeun sidang dina bulan Oktober. Urut gubernur Whig [[William B. Campbell]] nulis ka emangna, "Kahariwang pangbadagna urang Whig nyaéta pikeun meunangkeun mayoritas di législatif sangkan bisa ngéléhkeun Andrew Johnson dina pamilu sénator. Upami urang Démokrat miboga mayoritas, anjeunna pasti bakal janten pilihan maranéhna, sarta teu aya jalma hirup anu dipikageuleuh ku urang Amérika{{Efn|Urang Know Nothings, anu harita sacara resmi katelah salaku Partéy Amérika (American Party).}} jeung Whig saluareun Johnson."{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=105–106}} Gubernur (Johnson) nyarita sacara lega salila kampanye, sarta partéyna meunangkeun pamilu gubernur sarta ngawasa législatif.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=106}} Biantara pamungkas Johnson salaku gubernur méré anjeunna kasempetan pikeun mangaruhan para pamilihna, sarta anjeunna ngasongkeun usulan-usulan anu populér di kalangan Démokrat. Dua poé ti harita, législatif milih anjeunna ka Sénat. Pihak oposisi ngarasa kaget, malah surat kabar Richmond ''Whig'' nyebut anjeunna salaku "radikal anu paling jahat sarta demagog anu paling teu miboga rasa éra di Uni".{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=105–107}} Johnson meunangkeun jabatan luhur alatan catetan prestasina salaku jalma anu populér di kalangan patani leutik sarta padagang mandiri anu mangrupa bagian panglobana tina pamilih di Tennessee. Anjeunna nyebut maranéhna salaku "[[plebeians]]" (rahayat jelata); anjeunna kurang populér di kalangan nu boga perkebunan sarta pengacara anu mingpin Partéy Démokrat nagara bagian, nanging teu aya nu bisa nandingan kamampuhna dina ngumpulkeun sora. Saatos pupusna, saurang pamilih Tennessee nulis ngeunaan anjeunna, "Johnson salawasna sarua ka saréréa... kahormatan anu ditumpukkeun ka anjeunna henteu ngajantenkeun anjeunna poho pikeun bageur ka warga anu panghandapna."{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=4}} Salawasna katingal nganggo pakéan kaput anu sampurna, anjeunna mintonkeun sosok anu matak hookeun,{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=111}} sarta miboga stamina pikeun nahan kampanye anu panjang kalayan perjalanan unggal poé ngaliwatan jalan anu goréng demi biantara atawa débat. Sanajan sering teu dibantuan ku mesin partéy, anjeunna ngandelkeun jaringan babaturan, panaséhat, sarta kontak pribadi.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=5}} Saurang babaturanana, Hugh Douglas, nyatakeun dina surat ka anjeunna, "anjeun parantos lila ngahalangan jalan jalma-jalma urang anu hayang jadi hébat. Sabenerna loba di antara urang anu teu kungsi hayang anjeun jadi Gubernur, ngan saukur kusabab euweuh deui di antara urang anu bisa kapilih harita sarta kami ngan hayang ngagunakeun anjeun. Terus kami ogé teu hayang anjeun ka Sénat, tapi ''rahayat anu ngutus anjeun''."{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=54–55}} Sénator anyar ieu nempatan korsina nalika Kongrés ngayakeun sidang dina Désémber 1857. Anjeunna sumping ka Washington saperti biasana tanpa pamajikan sarta kulawargana. Johnson langsung ngenalkeun [[Homestead Bill]] di Sénat, nanging kusabab kalolobaan sénator anu ngarojongna téh urang Kalér (loba nu pakait jeung [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]] anu nembé ngadeg), éta masalah janten kabeulit ku kacurigaan dina urusan perbudakan. Sénator Kidul ngarasa yén jalma anu ngamangpaatkeun Homestead Bill téh leuwih loba urang Kalér anu teu boga budak. Masalah perbudakan beuki pajeut ku ayana putusan Mahkamah Agung dina awal taun éta dina kasus ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' yén perbudakan teu bisa dilarang di wilayah-wilayah téritori. Johnson, saurang sénator anu miboga budak ti nagara bagian Kidul, ngayakeun biantara gedé di Sénat dina bulan Méi satuluyna pikeun ngayakinkeun batur-baturna yén Homestead Bill jeung perbudakan téh henteu papalingpang. Sanajan kitu, oposisi ti Kidul janten konci dina ngéléhkeun éta undang-undang ku sora 30–22.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=110–112}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=58–59}} Dina taun 1860, vérsi anu leuwih "leuleus" lulus di dua kamar Kongrés, nanging tungtungna divéto ku Buchanan alatan desakan urang Kidul.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=116, 121}} Anjeunna ogé nolak waragad pikeun pangwangunan infrastruktur di Washington, D.C., kalayan nyatakeun yén teu adil upami warga nagara bagian kudu mayar jalan-jalan di kota éta, sanajan éta téh puseur pamaréntahan. Anjeunna ogé nolak ngaluarkeun duit pikeun pasukan guna mareuman [[Perang Utah|baruntakna]] urang Mormon di [[Téritori Utah]], kalayan alesan Amérika Sarikat teu meunang boga tentara tetep (standing army).{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=114}} ==== Krisis séksési ==== [[File:Andrew Johnson, seated, facing left 1860.jpg|thumb|Johnson dina taun 1860]] Dina Oktober 1859, tokoh abolisionis [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] sarta para pangrojongna [[John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry|nyerang gudang pakarang féderal]] di [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|Harpers Ferry]], Virginia. Katangtuan di Washington antara pihak anu pro sarta anti perbudakan beuki ningkat. Johnson ngayakeun biantara gedé di Sénat dina bulan Désémber, ngecam urang Kalér anu ngabahayakeun Uni ku cara nyoba nyaram perbudakan. Sénator Tennessee éta nyatakeun yén kalimah "sakabéh manusa diciptakeun sarua" tina [[Déklarasi Kamerdékaan Amérika Sarikat]] henteu lumaku pikeun urang Aperika-Amérika.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=119}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=59}} Johnson, dina mangsa ieu, parantos janten jalma beunghar anu miboga 14 urang budak beulian.{{Sfn|Castel|2002|p=226}} Dina [[1860 United States presidential election|pamilu présidén 1860]], kapilihna [[Abraham Lincoln]], anu dipikanyaho ngalawan sumebarna perbudakan, henteu bisa ditarima ku loba urang di Kidul. Sanajan séksési (misahkeun manéh) ti Uni henteu janten masalah dina kampanye, obrolan ngeunaan éta hal mimiti ramé di nagara-nagara bagian Kidul.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=123–127}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=60–63}} Johnson nyarita di lantai Sénat saatos pamilu, ngayakeun biantara anu ditarima kalayan saé di Kalér, "Kuring moal nyerahkeun pamaréntahan ieu... Henteu; kuring boga niat pikeun tetep nangtung di gigireunana... sarta kuring ngajak unggal jalma anu patriot pikeun... ngariung di sabudeureun altar nagara urang... sarta sumpah demi Gusti urang, yén Konstitusi kedah disalametkeun, sarta Uni kedah dijaga."{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=131}}{{Sfn|Johnson|pp=172–173}} Nalika sénator-sénator Kidul ngumumkeun yén maranéhna bakal mundur upami nagara bagianna misahkeun manéh, anjeunna ngingetkeun Sénator Mississippi [[Jefferson Davis]] yén upami urang Kidul tetep dina korsina, urang Démokrat bakal ngawasa Sénat sarta bisa ngajaga kapentingan Kidul tina sagala rupa tindakan Lincoln.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=134}} Nanging, pamingpin Kidul sanésna parantos ngarasa Johnson téh musuh. Johnson mulang ka imahna nalika nagara bagianna mimiti ngabahas masalah séksési. Sanajan anjeunna kampanye pisan pikeun tetep satia ka Uni, malah nepi ka mindeng nyarita bari neundeun pestol dina méja biantara alatan meunang ancaman dipaténi, Tennessee tungtungna ngagabung ka Konfédérasi dina Juni 1861. Johnson kapaksa kabur ngaliwatan [[Cumberland Gap]] sabab bisi ditandasa, bari ninggalkeun pamajikan sarta kulawargana di Greeneville.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=8}}{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=138–143}} Salaku hiji-hijina anggota ti nagara bagian anu misahkeun manéh anu tetep aya di Sénat sarta salaku [[Southern Unionist]] anu paling nonjol, Johnson janten kapercayaan Lincoln dina bulan-bulan awal perang.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=143}} === Gubernur Militer Tennessee === {{Anchor|General}} [[File:Andy_Johnson,_Military_Gov._of_Tenn_LCCN2003654038.jpg|thumb|Johnson salaku gubernur militer]] Masa jabatan munggaran Johnson di Sénat réngsé dina Maret 1862 nalika Lincoln ngangkat anjeunna janten gubernur militer Tennessee. Sanajan aya anu boga pamikiran yén pamaréntahan sipil kudu langsung dibalikeun deui sanggeus Konfédérasi éléh, Lincoln milih ngagunakeun wewenangna salaku panglima luhur pikeun ngangkat gubernur militer di wilayah Kidul anu dikawasa ku Uni.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=69–70}} Sénat gancang nyatujuan nominasi Johnson kalayan pangkat [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadir jenderal]].{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=153}} Salaku balesan, pihak Konfédérasi nyita lahan sarta budak beulianana, sarta ngarobah imahna jadi rumah sakit militer.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=151}} Salaku gubernur militer, Johnson nyoba mupus pangaruh pemberontak di éta nagara bagian. Anjeunna nungtut sumpah kasatiaan ti para pajabat publik, sarta nutup sakabéh surat kabar anu boga kacindekkan ka Konfédérasi. Pihak Konfédérasi ngidinan pamajikan sarta kulawargana pikeun ngaliwatan garis perang guna ngagabung jeung anjeunna.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=9}}{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=71–72}} Johnson mertahankeun Nashville tina serangan kavaleri anu dipingpin ku Jenderal [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]. Kasuksesan Uni nembé katingal saatos Jenderal [[William S. Rosecrans]] ngéléhkeun Konfédérasi dina [[Battle of Murfreesboro|Pertempuran Murfreesboro]] dina awal 1863.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=162}} Nalika Lincoln ngaluarkeun [[Emancipation Proclamation|Proklamasi Émansipasi]] dina Januari 1863, anjeunna ngabébaskeun Tennessee tina éta aturan dumasar paménta Johnson. Johnson tungtungna satuju yén perbudakan kudu lekasan, nanging anjeunna rada wegah nalika kudu ngasupkeun urut budak ka [[Union army|tentara Uni]]. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna ngawas rekrutmen 20.000 urang kulit hideung ka [[United States Colored Troops]].{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=168–170}} == Wakil Présidén (1865) == {{Main|1864 United States presidential election}} [[File:Republican presidential ticket 1864b.jpg|thumb|Poster kampanye Lincoln sarta Johnson ku [[Currier and Ives]]]] Dina taun 1864, Johnson meunangkeun kasempetan janten pasangan Lincoln dina pamilu [[1864 United States presidential election|taun 1864]].{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=177}} Lincoln milih Johnson, saurang [[War Democrat]] (Démokrat Perang) ti Kidul, pikeun méré talatah yén Uni téh masih bisa ngahiji sarta séksési téh mangrupa kasalahan gedé.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=76}} Pikeun ngusung téma persatuan, Lincoln maju dina naungan [[National Union Party (United States)|Partéy Uni Nasional]], sanés Partéy Républik. Dina konvénsi di Baltimore bulan Juni, Johnson meunangkeun nominasi wakil présidén kalayan sora anu mutlak. Lincoln ngarasa bungah ku hasilna, "Andy Johnson, nurutkeun kuring, nyaéta jalma anu hadé."{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=178–180}} [[File:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|thumb|left|Kartun taun 1865 némbongkeun Lincoln jeung Johnson ngagunakeun bakatna salaku tukang beulah kai jeung tukang kaput pikeun ngoméan Uni]] Sanajan harita teu lumrah pikeun calon nasional ngayakeun kampanye sacara aktip, Johnson ngayakeun sababaraha biantara di Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, sarta Indiana. Pasangan Lincoln-Johnson meunang kalayan gampang dina pamilu kasebut.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=181–185}} Salaku salah sahiji tugas pamungkasna salaku gubernur militer, Johnson ngesahkeun konstitusi anyar Tennessee anu ngahapus perbudakan dina 22 Pébruari 1865.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=183–187}} Johnson indit ka Washington pikeun dilantik, nanging kaayaanana nuju kirang séhat. Dina malem tanggal 3 Maret, Johnson ngahadiran pésta sarta nginum loba teuing alkohol. Isukna di Capitol, dina kaayaan [[hangover]] (muriang saatos mabok), anjeunna ménta wiski ka Wakil Présidén Hamlin pikeun "nambahan kakuatan". Dina [[Andrew Johnson's drunk vice-presidential inaugural address|biantara pelantikanana]], Johnson nyarita ngalantur sarta hésé kaharti di payuneun Lincoln sarta para pajabat tinggi. Lincoln ningali kajadian éta kalayan rasa sedih.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=9–10}} Dina minggu-minggu saatos pelantikan, Johnson nyingkahan masarakat alatan rasa éra. Lincoln nyatakeun pikeun ngabéla Johnson, "Kuring geus wawuh ka Andy Johnson mangtaun-taun; anjeunna ngan saukur salah léngkah poé kamari, tapi aranjeun teu kudu sieun; Andy sanés tukang mabok."{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=191}} == Kaprésidénan (1865–1869) == {{Main|Presidency of Andrew Johnson}} === Naékna Jabatan === {{Main|Assassination of Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Johnson inauguration (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ukiran kai kontémporér nalika Johnson disumpah ku Hakim Agung Chase bari disaksian ku anggota Kabinét, 15 April 1865]] Dina soré tanggal 14 April 1865, Lincoln sarta Johnson papanggih pikeun munggaranana saatos pelantikan. Trefousse nyatakeun yén Johnson hoyong "ngolo Lincoln sangkan ulah lunak teuing ka para panghianat"; Gordon-Reed ogé sapuk kana hal éta.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=87}}{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=192}} Peutingna, Présidén Lincoln ditémbak sarta tatu parna di [[Ford's Theatre]] ku [[John Wilkes Booth]], saurang simpatisan Konfédérasi. Panémbakan Présidén éta mangrupa bagian tina konspirasi pikeun nelasan Lincoln, Johnson, sarta Seward dina peuting anu sarua. Seward salamet sanajan tatu parna, sedengkeun Johnson salamet tina serangan sabab jalma anu ditugaskeun nelasanana, [[George Atzerodt]], malah kalah mabok tinimbang nelasan wakil présidén. [[Leonard J. Farwell]], babaturan sakamar di [[Kirkwood House (Washington, D.C.)|Kirkwood House]], ngahudangkeun Johnson mawa béja ngeunaan panémbakan Lincoln. Johnson rurusuhan ka ranjang maot Présidén, dimana anjeunna cicing sakedap, sarta nalika mulang anjeunna jangji, "Maranéhna kudu sangsara alatan hal ieu. Maranéhna kudu sangsara."{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=193–194}} Lincoln pupus tabuh 7:22 éjingna; [[Inauguration of Andrew Johnson|pelantikan Johnson]] lumangsung antara tabuh 10 sarta 11 éjing kalayan dipingpin ku Hakim Agung [[Salmon P. Chase]] sarta disaksian ku kalolobaan anggota Kabinét. Sikep Johnson digambarkeun ku surat kabar salaku "hidmat sarta miboga martabat".{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=194}} Tabuh dua belas beurang, Johnson ngayakeun rapat Kabinét munggaranana di kantor Sekretaris Kas Nagara, sarta ménta sakabéh anggota sangkan tetep dina jabatanna.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=194–195}} Kajadian rajapati éta ngabalukarkeun spekulasi ngeunaan naon anu sabenerna direncanakeun ku para konspirator pikeun Johnson. Teori konspirasi nunjukkeun fakta yén dina poé rajapati, Booth sumping ka Kirkwood House sarta ninggalkeun kartu namina pikeun sekretaris pribadi Johnson, [[William A. Browning]], kalayan talatah: "Teu hoyong ngaganggu anjeun. Naha anjeun aya di imah? J. Wilkes Booth."{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=90–92}} Johnson mingpin upacara panglayad Lincoln di Washington kalayan hidmat sateuacan jenazah miang ka [[Springfield, Illinois]].{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=93}} Johnson ogé nyadiakeun hadiah $100.000 pikeun saha waé anu bisa néwak Présidén Konfédérasi Jefferson Davis. Anu leuwih kontroversial, anjeunna ngidinan hukuman pati pikeun [[Mary Surratt]] alatan peranna dina konspirasi rajapati Lincoln. Surratt dihukum gantung bareng jeung tilu urang séjénna, kaasup Atzerodt, dina tanggal 7 Juli 1865.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=93–95}} === Rékonstruksi === {{Main|Reconstruction Era}} ==== Kasang Tukang ==== [[File:Andrew Johnson portrait.jpg|thumb|Potrét resmi Présidén Johnson, {{circa|1880}}]] Nalika ngajabat, Johnson nyanghareupan patanya ngeunaan naon anu kudu dilakukeun ka urut nagara bagian Konfédérasi. Présidén Lincoln sateuacanna parantos ngusulkeun [[ten percent plan]] (rencana sapuluh persén) anu bakal ngidinan pamilu saatos sapuluh persén pamilih ngucapkeun sumpah satia ka Uni. Kongrés nganggap hal ieu lunak teuing.{{Sfn|Fitzgerald|p=26}} Johnson miboga tilu tujuan dina [[Rékonstruksi]]. Kahiji, anjeunna hoyong pamulihan nagara bagian anu gancang kalayan alesan yén maranéhna sabenerna teu kungsi kaluar tina Uni. Pikeun Johnson, hak pilih urang Afrika-Amérika téh ngan saukur gangguan; nurutkeun anjeunna, éta mangrupa wewenang nagara bagian pikeun nangtukeun saha nu meunang milih. Kadua, kakuatan pulitik di nagara bagian Kidul kudu pindah ti kelas nu boga perkebunan ka "[[plebeians]]" (rahayat jelata) paporitna. Katilu, Johnson hayang kapilih deui dina pamilu 1868 ku cara ngawangun koalisi anti-Kongrés di Kidul.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=28–29}} Partéy Républik harita peupeus jadi sababaraha faksi. [[Radical Republican]]s (Républik Radikal) hayang hak pilih sarta hak sipil pikeun urang Afrika-Amérika sarta hayang para pamingpin Konfédérasi dihukum. Républik Moderat hayang nyegah urut pemberontak ngawasa deui tapi teu pati sumanget kana hak pilih urang kulit hideung. Sedengkeun Démokrat Kalér hayang pamulihan nagara bagian Kidul tanpa sarat naon waé.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=18–21}} ==== Rékonstruksi Présidén ==== Johnson mimitina dibéré kabébasan pikeun nangtukeun kawijakan Rékonstruksi tanpa pipilueun législatif, sabab Kongrés nembé badé sidang deui dina bulan Désémber 1865.{{Sfn|Fitzgerald|p=28}} Urang Républik Radikal ngadesek Présidén sangkan ngagunakeun pangaruhna pikeun nekenkeun hak-hak urut budak (freedmen) salaku sarat pikeun balik deui ka Uni. Nanging Johnson, kalayan pangrojong ti Seward, negeskeun yén urusan hak pilih téh mangrupa urusan nagara bagian, sanés urusan féderal. Kabinétna sorangan peupeus dina ieu masalah.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=215–216, 234–235}} Léngkah munggaran Johnson nyaéta ngaluarkeun dua proklamasi dina 29 Méi 1863. Kahiji, ngaku pamaréntahan Virginia; kadua, méré amnésti (pangampura) pikeun sakabéh urut pemberontak iwal maranéhna anu miboga harta leuwih ti $20.000. Duanana proklamasi ieu teu miboga katangtuan ngeunaan hak pilih urang kulit hideung.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=216–217}} Nalika nagara bagian Kidul mimiti ngawangun pamaréntahan, maranéhna kalah ngaluarkeun [[Black Codes (United States)|Black Codes]] (Aturan Kulit Hideung), anu ngabeungkeut para pagawé Afrika-Amérika kana perkebunan kalayan kontrak anu teu bisa dibolaykeun sarta ngidinan pulisi néwak maranéhna ku alesan anu dijieun-jieun. Urang Kalér ngarasa ambek ningal para pamingpin Konfédérasi, saperti [[Alexander Stephens]], kapilih deui ka Kongrés sanajan tatu urut perang masih kénéh seger.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=50–59}} ==== Perpecahan jeung urang Républik: 1866 ==== Kongrés mimitina wegah pikeun nangtang Présidén, nanging dina ahir Januari 1866, Johnson yakin yén perang kabuka jeung urang Républik Radikal diperlukeun pikeun rencana pulitikna.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=62–68}} [[File:Nast on Andrew Johnson.jpg|thumb|Kartun [[Thomas Nast]] némbongkeun Johnson miceun [[Freedmen's Bureau]] nepi ka urang Afrika-Amérika laluncatan]] Sénator Illinois [[Lyman Trumbull]], pamingpin Républik Moderat, nyoba ngayakeun badami ku cara ngajukeun undang-undang pikeun manjangan umur [[Freedmen's Bureau]] sarta Undang-Undang Hak Sipil (Civil Rights Bill) munggaran pikeun méré kawarganagaraan ka urut budak. Johnson sacara teu disangka-sangka mivéto kadua undang-undang kasebut dina Pébruari 1866. Urang Républik Moderat ngarasa kaget sarta ambek ku tindakan Présidén ieu.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=62–68}} Dina biantara poé ultah Washington (22 Pébruari 1866), Johnson nyarita salila sajam sarta nyebut dirina sorangan leuwih ti 200 kali. Malah leuwih parna deui, anjeunna nyebut ngaran tokoh saperti [[Thaddeus Stevens]] sarta [[Charles Sumner]] salaku jalma anu sakongkol badé nelasan anjeunna. Urang Républik nganggap biantara ieu salaku déklarasi perang.{{Sfn|Stewart|pp=51–53}} Johnson sacara resmi peupeus hubungan jeung urang moderat nalika mivéto [[Civil Rights Act of 1866]] dina tanggal 27 Maret. Anjeunna nganggap yén méré kawarganagaraan ka urut budak téh "ngadiskriminasi" urang kulit bodas. Dina waktu tilu minggu, Kongrés hasil ngabatalkeun véto présidén (override), anu mangrupa munggaranana dina sajarah Amérika pikeun undang-undang anu kacida pentingna.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=71}} Seueur sejarawan, kalebet [[Eric Foner]], nyebatkeun yén véto ieu mangrupa "kasalahan itungan anu paling parna" dina karir pulitik Johnson.{{Sfn|Stewart|p=53}} Kongrés satuluyna ngajukeun [[Amandemén ka-14 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] anu ngajamin kawarganagaraan pikeun sakabéh jalma anu lahir di AS. Johnson nolak ieu amandemén, tapi nagara bagian asalna, Tennessee, kalahka ngesahkeunana.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=253–254}} Pikeun nyiar pangrojong, Johnson ngayakeun tur biantara anu disebut "**[[Swing Around the Circle]]**". Nanging, tur ieu janten musibah pulitik sabab Johnson sering paséa jeung jalma anu ngagorowok (hecklers) sarta ngabandingkeun dirina jeung [[Yesus]]. Hasilna, dina pamilu sela 1866, urang Républik meunang mutlak sarta miboga kakuatan dua per tilu di Kongrés pikeun ngawasa Rékonstruksi sapinuhna.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=271}} [[File:The Senate as a Court of Impeachment for the Trial of Andrew Johnson (1).jpg|thumb|left|Ilustrasi sidang pamancatan Johnson di [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]], karya [[Theodore R. Davis]]]] [[File:George T. Brown, sergeant-at-arms, serving the summons on President Johnson - sketched by T.R. Davis. LCCN92520335 (1) (3x4).jpg|thumb|left|Ilustrasi George T. Brown nganteurkeun [[summons]] (surat panggilan) sidang ka Johnson di Gedong Bodas, 7 Maret 1868]] [[File:Andrew Johnson consulting with his counsel (Harper's Weekly March 14, 1868).jpg|thumb|Ilustrasi Johnson nuju badami sareng tim pengacarana]] Dina tanggal 5 Maret 1868, sidang pamancatan dimimitian di Sénat sarta lumangsung ampir tilu bulan. Anggota Kongrés [[George S. Boutwell]], Benjamin Butler, sarta Thaddeus Stevens janten manajer DPR (jaksa penuntut), sedengkeun [[William M. Evarts]], [[Benjamin R. Curtis]], sarta urut Jaksa Agung Stanbery janten tim pengacara Johnson. Hakim Agung Chase janten hakim ketua dina éta sidang.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=316, 336}} Tim pembéla Johnson ngagunakeun argumén yén Tenure of Office Act ngan lumaku pikeun pajabat anu diangkat ku administrasi ayeuna. Kusabab Stanton diangkat ku Lincoln, tim pembéla negeskeun yén Johnson teu ngalanggar éta undang-undang. Johnson ogé nuturkeun naséhat pengacarana sangkan ulah sumping ka sidang sarta ulah méré koméntar sacara publik.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=81}} Johnson ogé ngalakukeun manuver di balik layar pikeun meunangkeun putusan bébas. Anjeunna jangji ka Sénator Iowa [[James W. Grimes]] yén anjeunna moal deui ngahalangan usaha Rékonstruksi Kongrés. Anjeunna ogé jangji bakal ngangkat [[John Schofield]] anu dipikahormat janten Sekretaris Perang.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|pp=138–139}} Salah sahiji alesan kunaon para sénator wegah mancénkeun Présidén nyaéta kusabab calon gagantina nyaéta Sénator Wade ti Ohio, saurang tokoh Radikal anu pandanganana dianggap teuing ékstrim (saperti ngarojong hak pilih awéwé) pikeun ukuran harita.{{Sfn|Stewart|p=307}} Salian ti éta, Wade ogé dianggap bisa ngahalangan ambisi [[Ulysses S. Grant]] pikeun janten présidén salajengna.{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=330}} Dina tanggal 16 Méi, Sénat ngayakeun sora pikeun pasal ka-11. Hasilna, 35 sénator nyatakeun "bersalah" sarta 19 nyatakeun "teu bersalah". Ieu hartina kurang **hiji sora** tina sarat dua per tilu mayoritas anu diperlukeun ku Konstitusi. Sapuluh urang Républik milih pikeun ngabébaskeun Présidén. Saatos sora dina pasal kadua sarta katilu ogé némbongkeun hasil anu sarua (35-19), pihak oposisi tungtungna nyerah sarta ngeureunkeun prosés sidang.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=323–328}}{{Sfn|Stewart|pp=340–341}} Harita aya kacurigaan yén aya prakték suap (nyogok) pikeun mangaruhan hasil sidang. Benjamin Butler ngayakeun panalungtikan ngeunaan "Astor House Group" di New York anu disebut-sebut ngumpulkeun duit ti pangusaha wiski pikeun nyogok sénator, nanging Butler gagal ngabuktikeun ayana prakték suap kasebut.{{Sfn|Stewart|pp=240–247, 284–292}} === Kawijakan Luar Nagara === Teu lami saatos janten présidén, Johnson sapuk sareng Sekretaris Nagara [[William H. Seward]] yén moal aya parobahan dina kawijakan luar nagara. Dina praktékna, ieu hartosna Seward bakal terus ngajalankeun sagala rupana sapertos mangsa Lincoln. Nalika Johnson naék jabatan, [[Intervensi Prancis di Méksiko|Prancis parantos campur tangan di Méksiko]] ku cara ngirimkeun pasukan ka dinya. Seward langkung milih diplomasi anu tenang, bari ngingetkeun Prancis yén ayana maranéhna di Méksiko téh teu bisa ditarima ku AS. Dina April 1866, pamaréntah Prancis méré nyaho ka Seward yén pasukanna bakal dipulangkeun sacara bertahap nepi ka Nopémber 1867.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=40–41}} Dina 14 Agustus 1866, Johnson sarta kabinétna ngayakeun resépsi pikeun [[Queen Emma of Hawaii|Ratu Emma ti Hawaii]] anu nuju mulang ka Hawaii saatos perjalanan ti Inggris sarta Éropa. Seward mangrupa saurang [[ékspansionis]] anu sok milari kasempetan pikeun nambahan wilayah Amérika Sarikat. Saatos éléh dina Perang Krim dina taun 1850-an, pamaréntah Rusia nganggap koloni maranéhna di Amérika Kalér (ayeuna Alaska) salaku beban kauangan sarta sieun bakal direbut ku Inggris ti Kanada. Rundingan ngeunaan [[Alaska Purchase|pameseran Alaska]] anu kungsi eureun alatan Perang Sipil, tungtungna dilajengkeun deui. Rusia ngutus menterina di Washington, Baron [[Eduard de Stoeckl]], pikeun badami. Seward hasil negosiasi harga nepi ka $7,2 juta.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=120}} Dina tanggal 30 Maret 1867, de Stoeckl sarta Seward nandatanganan perjangjian kasebut. Sénat ngesahkeun perjangjian éta kalayan sora 37–2 dina tanggal 9 April. Saatos suksés di Alaska, Seward nyobian milarian wilayah sanésna. Hiji-hijina kasuksésan sanésna nyaéta klaim Amérika kana [[Pulo Wake]] anu teu dicicingan di Pasifik. Anjeunna ogé ampir hasil mésér [[Hindia Kulon Dénmark]] (Danish West Indies), nanging Sénat henteu kantos ngayakeun sora pikeun éta perjangjian dugi ka mangsana béak. Perjangjian sanés anu gagal nyaéta konvénsi Johnson-Clarendon, anu dirundingkeun pikeun ngaréngsékeun klaim karugian kapal-kapal Amérika alatan serangan kapal pemberontak Konfédérasi anu diwangun ku Inggris. Ieu perjangjian diculkeun ku Sénat salila sésa masa jabatan Johnson sarta tungtungna ditolak saatos anjeunna lungsur jabatan.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=204–205}}{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=349}} === Administrasi sarta Kabinét === {{CSS image crop|Image= JOHNSON, Andrew-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize= 325|cWidth= 230|cHeight= 270|oTop= 45|oLeft= 45|Location= right|Description= Potrét ukiran Andrew Johnson salaku Présidén}} {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | align = none | Name = Andrew Johnson | President = Andrew Johnson | President start = 1865 | President end = 1869 | Vice President = Teu aya (Kosong) | Vice President start = 1865 | Vice President end = 1869 | State = [[William H. Seward]] | State start = 1865 | State end = 1869 | Treasury = [[Hugh McCulloch]] | Treasury start = 1865 | Treasury end = 1869 | War = [[Edwin Stanton]] | War start = 1865 | War end = 1868{{Efn|Diganti sacara saheulaanan ku [[Ulysses S. Grant]] dina Agustus 1867 sateuacan dibalikeun deui ku Kongrés dina Januari 1868}} | War 2 = [[John Schofield]] | War start 2 = 1868 | War end 2 = 1869 | Justice = [[James Speed]] | Justice start = 1865 | Justice end = 1866 | Justice 2 = [[Henry Stanbery]] | Justice start 2 = 1866 | Justice end 2 = 1868 | Justice 3 = [[William M. Evarts]] | Justice start 3 = 1868 | Justice end 3 = 1869 | Post = [[William Dennison Jr.]] | Post start = 1865 | Post end = 1866 | Post 2 = [[Alexander Randall (Wisconsin politician)|Alexander Randall]] | Post start 2 = 1866 | Post end 2 = 1869 | Navy = [[Gideon Welles]] | Navy start = 1865 | Navy end = 1869 | Interior = [[John Palmer Usher]] | Interior date = 1865 | Interior 2 = [[James Harlan (Iowa politician)|James Harlan]] | Interior start 2 = 1865 | Interior end 2 = 1866 | Interior 3 = [[Orville Hickman Browning]] | Interior start 3 = 1866 | Interior end 3 = 1869 }} ==== Pangangkatan Yudisial ==== {{Main|List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Johnson}} Johnson ngangkat salapan hakim féderal Pasal III salila mangsa jabatanna, sakabéhna pikeun [[United States district court|pangadilan distrik AS]]; anjeunna henteu ngangkat hakim pikeun [[Supreme Court of the United States|Mahkamah Agung]]. Dina April 1866, anjeunna nyalonkeun [[Henry Stanbery]] pikeun ngeusian korsi anu kosong, nanging Kongrés kalah mupus éta korsi pikeun nyegah Johnson ngangkat hakim anyar.{{Sfn|Stewart|p=54}} === Reformasi anu Diinisiasi === Dina Juni 1866, Johnson nandatanganan [[Southern Homestead Act of 1866|Undang-Undang Homestead Kidul]], kalayan kapercayaan yén ieu aturan bakal mantuan urang bodas anu miskin. Sanajan kitu, saeutik pisan urut budak anu meunang mangpaat tina ieu hukum alatan ayana kacurangan anu maceuh.{{Sfn|Zuczek|p=595}} Dina Juni 1868, Johnson ogé nandatanganan undang-undang dalapan jam gawé pikeun para buruh sarta mékanik anu digawé di pamaréntah féderal.{{Sfn|Selcer|p=65}} === Réngséna Mangsa Jabatan === Johnson nyobian nyiar nominasi ti [[1868 Democratic National Convention|Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat]] di New York dina Juli 1868. Anjeunna masih kénéh populér di kalangan urang bodas di Kidul saatos méré pangampura (pardon) ka urut tokoh Konfédérasi. Nanging, dina sora konvénsi, anjeunna éléh ku [[Horatio Seymour]] sarta ngan meunang opat sora, sakabéhna ti Tennessee.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=337–339}} [[File:Andrew Johnson, Farewell to all my greatness cph.3a03724.jpg|thumb|left|"Wilujeung kantun, wilujeung kantun kana sagala kaagungan kuring!": Kartun ''Harper's Weekly'' anu ngahina Johnson nalika lungsur jabatan]] Konflik jeung Kongrés terus lumangsung. Johnson ngasongkeun amandemén pikeun ngawatesan masa jabatan présidén jadi genep taun sarta sangkan Sénat dipilih langsung ku rahayat, nanging Kongrés teu maliré.{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=340–343}} Nalika [[Ulysses S. Grant]] meunang dina pamilu, Johnson ngarasa kuciwa. Grant ogé nembongkeun rasa teu resepna ku cara nolak tumpak karéta anu sarua jeung Johnson dina poé pelantikan, hiji hal anu geus jadi kabiasaan. Alatan hal éta, Johnson nolak sumping ka acara pelantikan Grant. Anjeunna méspendingkeun waktu isukna dina tanggal 4 Maret 1864 pikeun ngaréngsékeun urusan administrasi pamungkas, sarta tabuh dua belas beurang, anjeunna ninggalkan Gedong Bodas pikeun indit ka imah babaturanana.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=211–212}}{{Sfn|Trefousse|pp=350–351}} <blockquote>Johnson meta saluyu jeung sipat dasarna. Anjeunna miboga kakuatan intelektual nanging kakuatan éta ngan lumaku dina hiji jalur anu heureut. Leuwih nekad tinimbang teguh, sigana nurutkeun anjeunna, nuturkeun naséhat sarta méré konsési téh mangrupa némbongkeun kalemahan. Dina sagala kajadian, ti mimiti talatah Désémberna nepi ka véto Undang-Undang Hak Sipil, anjeunna teu méré ampun sakedikit ogé ka Kongrés. Para sénator sarta wawakil rahayat anu moderat (anu mangrupa mayoritas ti partéy Uni) ngan ménta sakedik kompromi; tindakan maranéhna sabenerna mangrupa paménta sangkan anjeunna ngahiji jeung maranéhna pikeun ngajaga Kongrés sarta nagara tina kawijakan radikal... Paseana anjeunna jeung Kongrés nyegah ditarimana deui urut Konfédérasi ka Uni dina sarat anu berehan... Kasombongan pamadeganana, kahayangna pikeun meunang, ngajantenkeun anjeunna lolong kana karaharjaan sabenerna pikeun Kidul sarta pikeun sakabéh nagara.{{Sfn|Rhodes|p=589}}</blockquote> Rhodes nganggap kakulangan Johnson téh asalna tina kalemahan pribadina, sarta nyalahkeun anjeunna alatan masalah-masalah di Kidul saatos perang.{{Sfn|Beale|p=807}} Sejarawan awal abad ka-20 séjénna, saperti [[John Burgess (political scientist)|John Burgess]], présidén masa hareup [[Woodrow Wilson]], sarta [[William Dunning]], sapuk jeung Rhodes, percaya yén Johnson miboga kakulangan sarta teu mampuh sacara pulitik, nanging nyimpulkeun yén anjeunna parantos nyobian ngajalankeun rencana Lincoln pikeun Kidul kalayan niat anu hadé.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=218–219}} [[File:Andrew-johnson-grave-01.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Makam Johnson di Greeneville, Tennessee]] Sanajan Rhodes nulis kitu, sakelompok sejarawan séjénna ([[Dunning School]]) mimiti ngoméan ngaran hadé Johnson, ngagunakeun sumber-sumber primér saperti dokumén-dokumén pribadina sarta diary Sekretaris Angkatan Laut, [[Gideon Welles]]. Hasilna, buku-buku saperti karya [[David M. De Witt|David Miller DeWitt]] (1903) némbongkeun Johnson sacara leuwih positif tinimbang pihak-pihak anu nyoba nurunkeun anjeunna. Karya-karya ieu miboga pangaruh; sanajan para sejarawan terus ningali Johnson miboga kalemahan jero anu ngarusak kaprésidénanana, maranéhna nganggap kawijakan Rékonstruksina sacara dasarna bener.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|p=220}} Castel nulis: <blockquote>dina ahir taun 1920-an, lumangsung révolusi historiografi. Dina waktu tilu taun, mucunghul lima buku anu loba dibaca, sakabéhna kacida pro-Johnson... Nurutkeun para panulis ieu, Johnson mangrupa saurang negarawan anu manusiawi, boga kanyaho, sarta liberal anu ngayakeun perang anu wani demi Konstitusi sarta démokrasi ngalawan urang Radikal anu jahat... Pondokna, tinimbang dianggap jalma kasar, Johnson dianggap salaku martir; tinimbang jadi penjahat, anjeunna janten pahlawan.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=220–21}}</blockquote> Sanajan aya pandangan positif kasebut, ti mimiti taun 1950-an, para sejarawan mimiti museurkeun perhatian kana pangalaman urang Afrika-Amérika salaku puseur tina Rékonstruksi. Maranéhna nolak sakabéh klaim ngeunaan inferioritas kulit hideung sarta ningali Johnson salaku jalma anu teu miboga rasa karunya ka urut budak. Dina sababaraha karya ti taun 1956 ka hareup ku sejarawan saperti [[Fawn Brodie]], Johnson digambarkeun salaku jalma anu hasil ngagagalkeun usaha pikeun ngoméan nasib urang kulit hideung.{{Sfn|Castel|1979|pp=223–225}} Dina awal abad ka-21, Johnson janten salah sahiji présidén anu paling sering disebut salaku présidén panggoréngna dina sajarah AS.{{Sfn|Tolson}} Nurutkeun sejarawan Glenn W. Lafantasie, "Johnson mangrupa paporit husus pikeun nempatan tumpukan panghandapna alatan pamancatanana... salahna dina nanganan kawijakan Rékonstruksi... sipatna anu teuas, sarta rasa penting diri anu kaleuleuwihi."{{Sfn|Lafantasie}} Trefousse nganggap warisan Johnson nyaéta "ngajaga kakuasaan kulit bodas (white supremacy). Doronganana ka urang konservatif Kidul ku cara ngarusak Rékonstruksi mangrupa warisanana pikeun bangsa, anu bakal nganyenyeri nagara pikeun sababaraha generasi ka hareup."{{Sfn|Trefousse|p=352}} Gordon-Reed nyatakeun ngeunaan Johnson: <blockquote>|Urang terang hasil tina kagagalan Johnson—yén kangekeuhanana anu luar biasa, rasismeuna anu kasar, pamahamanana anu primitif ngeunaan Konstitusi ngahalangan kamampuhna pikeun janten pamingpin anu boga kanyaho sarta maju ka hareup nalika sipat-sipat éta kacida diperlukeunana. Dina waktu anu sarua, carita Johnson miboga kualitas anu ajaib: budak miskin anu sacara sistematis naék ka puncak, labuh tina kaagunganana, sarta satuluyna bajoang pikeun balik deui ka posisi anu terhormat di nagara ieu. Pikeun hadé atawa goréng, "ngan di Amérika", sakumaha ceuk batur, carita Johnson bisa lumangsung saperti kitu.{{Sfn|Gordon-Reed|p=144}}</blockquote> * {{cite book |author-link=Robert S. Levine |last=Levine |first=Robert S. |title=The Failed Promise: Reconstruction, Frederick Douglass, and the Impeachment of Andrew Johnson |url=https://archive.org/details/failedpromiserec0000levi |year=2021}} * McGuire, Tom. "Andrew Johnson and the northern revolution" (Tésis PhD, Columbia University, 2007). * Miller, Zachary A. "False Idol: The Memory of Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction in Greeneville, Tennessee 1869–2022" (Tésis MA, East Tennessee State University, 2022). * O'Brien, John J., III. "The Mechanic Statesman and the Military Chieftain: Andrew Johnson, William B. Campbell and the Meaning of Liberty and Union in Antebellum Tennessee" (Tésis PhD, Saint Louis University, 2017). * Wedge, Lucius. "Andrew Johnson and the ministers of Nashville: A study in the relationship between war, politics, and morality" (Tésis PhD, University of Akron, 2013). == Tutumbu luar == {{Sister project links|wikt=no|n=no|s=Author:Andrew Johnson|v=no}} * {{Biographical Directory of Congress|J000116}} * [https://www.nps.gov/anjo/index.htm Situs Sajarah Nasional Andrew Johnson] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/ajohnson/ Andrew Johnson: Pituduh Sumber Daya] – [[Library of Congress]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140526020140/http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/johnson Éséy ngeunaan Andrew Johnson sarta masa jabatanna] ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * [https://www.c-span.org/program/american-presidents/life-portrait-of-andrew-johnson/117250 "Life Portrait of Andrew Johnson"], ti [[C-SPAN]] * [https://www.archives.gov/legislative/features/impeachment/index.html Résolusi Pamancatan (Impeachment)] ti Arsip Nasional AS {{Andrew Johnson}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta Pangajén |list1= {{S-start}} {{S-par|us-hs}} {{S-bef|before=[[Thomas Dickens Arnold]]}} {{S-ttl|title=Anggota [[List of United States representatives from Tennessee|DPR Amérika Sarikat]]<br/>ti [[Tennessee's 1st congressional district|Distrik Kongrés ka-1 Tennessee]]|years=1843–1853}} {{S-aft|after=[[Brookins Campbell]]}} {{S-ppo}} {{S-bef|before=[[William Trousdale]]}} {{S-ttl|title=Calon [[Democratic Party (United States)|Démokrat]] pikeun [[Governor of Tennessee|Gubernur Tennessee]]|years=1853, 1855}} {{S-aft|after=[[Isham G. Harris]]}} {{S-bef|before=[[Hannibal Hamlin]]}} {{S-ttl|title=Calon [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] pikeun Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat¹|years=[[1864 United States presidential election|1864]]}} {{S-aft|after=[[Schuyler Colfax]]}} {{S-off}} {{S-bef|before=[[William B. Campbell]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[Governor of Tennessee|Gubernur Tennessee]]|years=1853–1857}} {{S-aft|after=[[Isham G. Harris]]}} {{S-bef|before=[[Isham G. Harris]]}} {{S-ttl|title=Gubernur Militer Tennessee|years=1862–1865}} {{S-aft|after=[[Edward H. East]]<br/>{{Small|Pajabat saheulaanan}}}} {{S-bef|before=[[Hannibal Hamlin]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[Vice President of the United States|Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1865}} {{S-aft|after=[[Schuyler Colfax]]}} {{S-bef|before=[[Abraham Lincoln]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[President of the United States|Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1865–1869}} {{S-aft|after=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]}} {{S-par|us-sen}} {{S-bef|before=[[James C. Jones]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[List of United States senators from Tennessee|Sénator Amérika Sarikat (Kelas 1) ti Tennessee]]|years=1857–1862|alongside=[[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]], [[Alfred O. P. Nicholson]]}} {{S-aft|after=[[David T. Patterson]]}} {{S-bef|before=[[William Gannaway Brownlow]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[List of United States senators from Tennessee|Sénator Amérika Sarikat (Kelas 1) ti Tennessee]]|years=1875|alongside=[[Henry Cooper (U.S. Senator)|Henry Cooper]]}} {{S-aft|after=[[David M. Key]]}} {{S-ref|Lincoln sarta Johnson maju dina tikét [[National Union Party (United States)|Uni Nasional]] dina taun 1864.}} }} {{Portal bar|Perang Sipil Amérika|Biografi|Sajarah|Politik|Amérika Sarikat}} == Catetan == {{reflist|group="lower-alpha"}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Johnson, Andrew}} [[Kategori:Andrew Johnson]] [[Kategori:Lahir taun 1808]] [[Kategori:Pupus taun 1875]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Tennessee]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Tennessee]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Perang Sipil Amérika]] [[Kategori:Tukang kaput]] 71bayynixp2ulz56haj34t9svtknc8o 0 107862 711807 706898 2026-08-07T04:47:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Ulysses S. Grant | image = Ulysses S. Grant 1870-1880 (cropped).jpg | caption = Grant, sakitar taun 1870–1880 | birth_name = Hiram Ulysses Grant | birth_date = {{birth date|1822|4|27}} | birth_place = Point Pleasant, Ohio, A.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1885|7|23|1822|4|27}} | death_place = Wilton, New York, A.S. | resting_place = [[Grant's Tomb]], New York City | occupation = [[Jénderal]], [[Politikus]] | office = [[Présidén Amérika Serikat]] ka-18 | term_start = 4 Maret 1869 | term_end = 4 Maret 1877 | predecessor = [[Andrew Johnson]] | successor = [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Serikat)|Républik]] | spouse = [[Julia Dent]] | signature = UlyssesSGrantSignature.svg }} '''Ulysses S. Grant''' (gumelar kalayan nami '''Hiram Ulysses Grant'''; [[27 April]] [[1822]] – [[23 Juli]] [[1885]]) nyaéta saurang jénderal sarta negarawan [[Amérika Serikat]] anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-18 ti taun 1869 dugi ka 1877. Salaku komandan jénderal, anjeunna mingpin [[Tentara Uni]] pikeun meunangkeun [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] dina taun 1865. Salaku présidén, Grant miboga peran penting dina mangsa [[Rékonstruksi]], ngarojong [[Amandemén ka-15]], sarta sacara panceg merangan gerakan rasialis [[Ku Klux Klan]]. Sanajan mangsa jabatanna kotor ku sababaraha skandal korupsi di lingkungan kabinétna, Grant tetep dipikawanoh salaku simbol persatuan nasional. Buku mémorandumna (méméar) anu disusun sateuacan anjeunna pupus janten salah sahiji karya sajarah sarta sastra anu kacida dihargaanana di Amérika. == Mangsa leutik sarta atikan == [[File:Birthplace of Ulysses S Grant, color illustration, cropped.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Panyicingan lahir Ulysses S. Grant]] di [[Point Pleasant, Ohio]].]] Ramana Grant, [[Jesse Root Grant]], nyaéta saurang pangrojong [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Serikat)|Partéy Whig]] sarta saurang abolisionis (nu nolak perbudakan) anu kacida pancegna. Jesse sarta [[Hannah Simpson]] nikah dina tanggal 24 Juni 1821, sarta putra cikalna, Hiram Ulysses Grant, gumelar dina tanggal [[27 April]] [[1822]]. Pikeun ngahormatan mertuana, Jesse masihan nami "Hiram Ulysses" ka éta budak, sanajan dina sapopoéna anjeunna sok nyebut "Ulysses". Dina taun 1823, kulawargana pindah ka [[Georgetown, Ohio]], dimana lima dulur lianna gumelar: Simpson, Clara, Orvil, Jennie, sarta Mary. Nalika yuswa lima taun, Ulysses mimiti sakola di sakola langganan (subscription school) sarta saterusna nuluykeun ka dua sakola swasta. Dina usum tiris 1836–1837, Grant janten murid di Maysville Seminary, sarta dina usum gugur 1838, anjeunna sakola di akademi milik John Rankin. Dina mangsa budakna, Grant miboga pangabisa anu anéh tapi hébat dina tumpak sarta ngatur kuda; ku kituna, ramana sering masihan pancén ka anjeunna pikeun mawa gorobag paranti nyandak barang sarta nganteurkeun jalma. Béda sareng dulur-dulurna, Grant henteu diwajibkeun ka garéja ku kolotna anu nganut aliran [[Métodisme]]. Sapanjang hirupna, anjeunna sok neneda (ngadoa) sacara pribadi sarta henteu kantos sacara resmi gabung kana dénominasi agama naon waé. Pikeun batur, kaasup putrana sorangan, Grant katingalna sapertos saurang [[agnostik]]. Sateuacan perang, Grant mémang henteu pati mikaresep kana urusan politik, nanging anjeunna kantos nyerat: "Upami kuring kantos miboga simpati politik, tangtos éta téh ka Partéy Whig. Kuring digedékeun di sakola (paham) éta."<ref name="Chernow99">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press. pp. 99–100.</ref> == Karir militer awal sarta kahirupan pribadi == === West Point sarta tugas munggaran === [[File:Ulysses Grant at 21.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Grant nalika janten perwira ngora, sakitar taun 1845–1847.]] Dumasar kana pamundut Jesse Grant, Anggota Déwan [[Thomas L. Hamer]] nyalonkeun Ulysses ka [[Akademi Militer Amérika Serikat]] di [[West Point, New York]], dina usum semi 1839. Grant ditarima dina tanggal 1 Juli. Kusabab teu pati wanoh ka Grant, Hamer salah nuliskeun namina, sahingga Grant didaptarkeun kalayan nami "U. S. Grant". Nalika lulus ti akademi, anjeunna mutuskeun nganggo nami "Ulysses S. Grant". Kusabab singketan "U.S." ogé hartosna "[[Uncle Sam]]", anjeunna janten kawéntar ku sebutan "Sam" di kalangan rénjangna di tentara. Mimitina, Grant téh teu pati resep kana kahirupan militer, nanging lami-lami anjeunna nyerat yén "sacara umum kuring resep pisan ka ieu tempat". Anjeunna miboga reputasi salaku [[Kabisat tumpak kuda Ulysses S. Grant|nu pangahli tumpak kuda]]. Pikeun ngaleungitkeun kacapé tina rutinitas militer, anjeunna diajar ngalukis ka seniman [[Romantisisme]] Robert Walter Weir. Anjeunna ogé langkung seueur méspending waktos maca buku di perpustakaan tibatan maca buku tatanén akademikna. Sanajan sipatna répéh, anjeunna miboga sababaraha babaturan deukeut sapertos [[Frederick Tracy Dent]] sarta [[James Longstreet]]. Grant lulus dina tanggal 30 Juni 1843, ranking ka-21 tina 39 murid di kelasna, sarta dinten saatosna ditaékeun pangkat janten [[létnan dua]] brevet. Anjeunna sabenerna miboga rencana badé kaluar ti tentara saatos bérés masa tugas opat taun. Sanajan anjeunna ahli tumpak kuda, Grant henteu ditempatkeun di pasukan kavaleri (pasukan kuda), tapi kalah ka [[Résimén Infanteri ka-4]]. Tugas munggaran Grant nyaéta di [[Jefferson Barracks]], caket [[St. Louis, Missouri]], anu mangrupa markas militer pangbadagna di wilayah Kulon dina waktos éta. Grant ngarasa resep ka komandanna, nanging anjeunna tetep nganti-nganti bérésna masa tugas militer sarta miboga harepan hoyong janten pangajar (guru).<ref>Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster. pp. 30–33.</ref> === Kawinan sarta kulawarga === Dina taun 1844, Grant marengan Frederick Dent ka Missouri sarta wawuh jeung kulawargana, kaasup lanceukna Frederick, [[Julia Grant|Julia]]. Teu lami ti harita, duanana papacangan (tunangan). Dina tanggal [[22 Agustus]] [[1848]], aranjeunna nikah di bumi Julia di St. Louis. Ramana Grant, anu saurang ''abolisionis'' (nu nolak perbudakan), teu panuju kana kawinan ieu margi kulawarga Dent miboga budak (budak beulian/budak belian). Ku kituna, duanana sepuh Grant henteu sumping ka éta kawinan.<ref name="Chernow66">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press. pp. 61–62.</ref> Nalika nikah, Grant dibarengan ku tilu réncangna lulusan West Point anu maraké saragam biru, kaasup [[James Longstreet]] anu mangrupa dulur misan Julia. Anu matak hélok, éta tilu réncang Grant téh engkéna kalah janten perwira di Tentara Konfédérasi (pihak musuh) sarta tungtungna pasrah ka Grant di Appomattox.<ref>Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster. pp. 73–74.</ref> Ieu pasangan téh dipaparin opat putra: [[Frederick Dent Grant|Frederick]], [[Ulysses S. Grant Jr.|Ulysses Jr.]] ("Buck"), [[Nellie Grant|Ellen]] ("Nellie"), sarta [[Jesse Root Grant (politician)|Jesse II]]. Saatos kawinan, Grant kénging perpanjangan cuti salami dua sasih sarta mulang ka St. Louis. Di dinya anjeunna mutuskeun yén demi nganapkahan pamajikanana, anjeunna bakal tetep ngabdikeun diri dina karir militer.<ref>Simpson, Brooks D. (2014). ''Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph Over Adversity, 1822–1865''. Voyageur Press. p. 49.</ref> === Perang Méksiko-Amérika === {{utama|Perang Méksiko-Amérika}} [[File:Battle of Monterrey.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Patempuran Monterrey]], salah sahiji médan laga dimana Grant némbongkeun kawani sarta katapisanna.]] Unit Grant ditempatkeun di Louisiana salaku bagian tina Tentara Pendudukan di handap pingpinan Mayor Jéndéral [[Zachary Taylor]]. Dina Séptémber 1846, Présidén [[James K. Polk]] maréntahkeun Taylor pikeun maju ka kidul nuju [[Rio Grande]]. Nalika nuju ka [[Fort Texas]] pikeun nyegah pangepungan ku urang Méksiko, Grant ngalaman perang munggaranana dina tanggal 8 Méi 1846, dina [[Patempuran Palo Alto]]. Sanajan pancén utamana mah janten kuartermaster (patugas logistik) résimén, Grant kacida hayangna aub langsung dina perang; nalika diidinan, anjeunna mingpin serangan dina [[Patempuran Resaca de la Palma]]. Anjeunna némbongkeun kaparigelanna tumpak kuda dina [[Patempuran Monterrey]] ku cara nawarkeun diri pikeun nganteurkeun surat penting ngaliwatan kepungan nu némbak (sniper); anjeunna gumantung dina sisi kuda, ngajantenkeun awak kuda salaku taméng antara anjeunna sareng musuh. Saterusna, unit Grant dipindahkeun ka pasukan anyar anu di pingpin ku Mayor Jéndéral [[Winfield Scott]]. Pasukan Scott badarat di [[Veracruz]] sarta terus maju nuju [[Mexico City]]. Aranjeunna tarung dina patempuran [[Patempuran Molino del Rey|Molino del Rey]] sarta [[Patempuran Chapultepec|Chapultepec]]. Kusabab kawani sarta inisiatifna di San Cosmé—dimana anjeunna maréntahkeun anak buahna pikeun mawa mariem gunung ''(howitzer)'' ka luhur munara garéja pikeun némbak pasukan Méksiko—Grant ditaékeun pangkatna janten kaptén brevet. Dina tanggal 14 Séptémber 1847, pasukan Scott asup ka kota, sarta Méksiko tungtungna masrahkeun wilayah anu kacida legana, kaasup [[California]], ka Amérika Serikat dina 2 Pébruari 1848. Salila perang ieu, Grant parantos ngukir préstasi anu alus sarta mimiti mikirkeun karir anu leuwih daria di militér. Anjeunna loba diajar ngeunaan taktik sarta stratégi ti Scott sarta Taylor. Dina mémorandumna, Grant nyebatkeun yén dina perang ieu anjeunna diajar yén pamingpin militer téh kudu boga karakter anu kuat. Sanajan anjeunna ngahormatan Scott, gaya kapamingpinan Grant mah langkung deukeut ka Taylor. Dina saterusna, Grant percaya yén perang Méksiko téh sacara moral teu adil, sarta anjeunna boga pamikiran yén [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] téh mangrupa "hukuman ti Gusti" pikeun agrési Amérika ka Méksiko. Para ahli sajarah ogé nyebutkeun pentingna pangalaman Grant salaku asisten kuartermaster. Sanajan mimitina anjeunna teu resep kana éta jabatan, pangalaman éta ngajantenkeun anjeunna ahli dina ngatur rute pasokan, transportasi, sarta logistik perang—faktor utama anu engkéna ngajantenkeun anjeunna suksés dina Perang Sipil. === Tugas pasca-perang sarta pangunduran diri === Saatos perang réngsé, Grant sarta Julia pindah ka [[Detroit]] dina 17 Nopémber 1848. Nanging, teu lami ti harita anjeunna dipindahkeun ka [[Madison Barracks]], hiji pos militér anu simpé sarta kurang pangrojong di New York. Dina taun 1852, nalika aya kajadian ''[[California Gold Rush]]'' (demam emas California), Grant sarta Résimén Infanteri ka-4 ditugaskeun ka basisir kulon. Julia, anu nuju bobot ''(hamil)'' dalapan sasih, henteu tiasa marengan anjeunna.<ref name="Chernow60">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press. pp. 60–61.</ref> Nalika nuju ka California ngaliwatan Panama, wabah [[koléra]] narajang pasukan sarta warga sipil. Grant némbongkeun dedikasina ku cara ngadegkeun rumah sakit darurat sarta ngarawat sorangan jalma-jalma anu gering. Anjeunna kénging pujian anu kacida ageungna margi kersa turun tangan langsung sanajan patugas médis sanésna seueur anu sieun katépaan.<ref name="Smith">Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster.</ref> Saatos dugi ka basisir kulon, Grant nyobian rupa-rupa usaha bisnis nanging sadayana gagal, malah anjeunna kantos ditipu ku batur bisnisna. Di dinya ogé anjeunna ningal kumaha urang [[Indigénus]] lokal diperlakukeun sacara teu adil sarta kaserang panyakit [[cacar]]. Pangalaman ieu nu ngalantarankeun Grant miboga rasa émpati anu jero ka nasib maranéhna.<ref name="White1">White, Ronald C. (2016). ''American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant''. Random House.</ref> Dina tanggal 5 Agustus 1853, Grant ditaékeun pangkat janten kaptén sarta ditugaskeun mingpin Kompi F di [[Fort Humboldt]], California. Di dieu, Grant ngarasa tiiseun margi papisah sareng kulawargana, anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna mimiti resep kana inuman keras (mabok). Komandanna, Létnan Kolonél Robert C. Buchanan, méré peringatan supaya Grant "undur diri atanapi robah." Sanggeus hiji kajadian dimana Grant katingal dipangaruhan ku alkohol nalika tugas, anjeunna panceg kana jangjina sarta milih mundur tina tentara, anu mimiti lumaku dina 31 Juli 1854. Sanajan seueur ahli sajarah anu miboga sawangan béda ngeunaan darajat "mabokna" Grant, Departemén Perang nyatakeun yén: "Teu aya noda dina nami hadéna." Grant mulang ka St. Louis kalayan kaayaan teu gaduh padamelan pikeun ngahiji deui sareng kulawargana.<ref name="Smith" /> == Mangsa malarat, perbudakan, sarta politik == [[File:Hardscrabble.jpg|thumb|left|250px|"Hardscrabble", imah tina tangkal kai (log cabin) anu diwangun ku Grant nalika anjeunna malarat.]] Dina taun 1854, dina yuswa 32 taun, Grant mimiti hirup salaku warga sipil tanpa miboga kaahlian husus pikeun nganapkahan kulawargana. Ieu mangrupa awal ti tujuh taun mangsa susah sarta ékonomi anu teu stabil dina hirupna. Ramana nawarkeun gawé di bisnis kulit kulawarga di [[Galena, Illinois]], nanging méré sarat yén Julia sarta barudakna kedah tetep cicing di Missouri. Grant sarta Julia nolak éta sarat. Salami opat taun ka hareupna, Grant nyobian tatanén di lahan milik baraya Julia, nanging teu hasil. Pikeun nyambung hirup, anjeunna dugi ka ngical suluh di juru-juru jalan kota St. Louis.<ref name="McFeely">McFeely, William S. (1981). ''Grant: A Biography''. W. W. Norton & Company.</ref> Dina taun 1856, kulawarga Grant pindah ka lahan milik mertuana sarta ngawangun imah basajan anu dingaranan "Hardscrabble". Julia nyebat éta imah téh "gubug anu teu pikaresepeun". Nalika lumangsungna [[Krisis Ékonomi 1857]], kaayaan Grant beuki parna; anjeunna dugi ka kedah ngajual (ngagadékeun) arloji emasna ngan saukur pikeun mésér kado Natal keur barudakna.<ref name="White2">White, Ronald C. (2016). ''American Ulysses''. Random House.</ref> Ngeunaan masalah perbudakan, dina taun 1858, Grant nampa saurang budak '(slave)' ti mertuana, lalaki umur 35 taun nami William Jones. Sanajan dina waktos éta Grant sanés saurang ''abolisionis'' (nu nolak perbudakan), anjeunna sabenerna mah teu resep kana perbudakan sarta teu tega mun kedah maksa batur digawé. Dina Maret 1859, Grant ngabébaskeun William Jones ngaliwatan akta ''manumisi'$. Padahal dina waktos éta, Jones tiasa waé dijual kalayan harga $1.000 (anjeunana leuwih milih ngaleupaskeun duit sakitu gedéna batan kudu ngajual jalma).<ref name="Smith">Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster.</ref> Dina sisi politik, Grant mimitina mah ''apolitis''. Nanging, kusabab sieun yén kapilihna présidén ti Partéy Républik bakal nyababkeun perang sipil, anjeunna milih James Buchanan (Demokrat) dina taun 1856. Dina taun 1860 ogé anjeunna sabenerna milih Douglas (Demokrat), nanging teu tiasa milih kusabab urusan administratif perenah cicing di Galena.<ref name="Brands">Brands, H. W. (2012a). ''The Man Who Saved the Union''. Doubleday.</ref> Tungtungna dina April 1860, Grant sarta kulawargana pindah ka Galena, Illinois, pikeun gawé di toko barang kulit "Grant & Perkins" milik ramana anu dikelola ku adi-adina. Dina sababaraha bulan, Grant suksés mayaran sakabéh hutang-hutangna sarta mimiti dikenal salaku warga anu miboga reputasi hadé di éta kota.<ref name="White3">White (2016), sakumaha anu dicutat dina ''American Ulysses''.</ref> == Perang Sipil == {{utama|Ulysses S. Grant sarta Perang Sipil Amérika}} [[File:Ulysses S Grant as Brigadier General, 1861.jpg|thumb|upright|Brigadir Jéndéral Grant, 1861.]] Dina tanggal 12 April 1861, [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] dimimitian nalika pasukan Konfédérasi [[Patempuran Fort Sumter|nyerang Fort Sumter]] di Charleston, South Carolina. Warta ieu janten kareuwas pikeun warga Galena, kalebet Grant anu kacida hariwangna ningal kaayaan nagara anu keur mahabu. Dina tanggal 15 April, Présidén Lincoln nyauran 75.000 sukarelawan pikeun ngabéla Uni. Poé isukna, Grant sumping ka hiji riungan masarakat pikeun madungdengan éta krisis sarta ngajak warga pikeun milu daptar janten tentara. Dina éta acara, hiji biantara ti John Aaron Rawlins—anu engkéna janten réncang satia Grant—hasil ngahudangkeun sumanget ''patriotisme'' dina diri Grant. Dina suratna ka ramana kaping 21 April, Grant nétépkeun sikepna ngeunaan pacéngkadan anu bakal lumangsung: "Urang miboga pamaréntahan, hukum, sarta bandéra, anu sadayana kedah dijaga sarta dibéla. Ayeuna ngan ukur aya dua pihak: Panghianat sarta Patriot."<ref>Brands, H. W. (2012a). ''The Man Who Saved the Union''. Doubleday. p. 123.</ref> === Komando awal === {{further|Kentucky dina Perang Sipil Amérika}} Dina tanggal 18 April, Grant mingpin rapat rékrutmen anu kadua, nanging anjeunna nolak jabatan kaptén salaku komandan milisia anu nembé kabentuk. Anjeunna miharep pangalamanana tiasa ngabantosan anjeunna kéngingkeun pangkat anu langkung luhur. Usaha awalna pikeun asup deui ka militer kantos ditolak ku Mayor Jéndéral [[George B. McClellan]] sarta Brigadir Jéndéral [[Nathaniel Lyon]]. Nanging, dina 29 April, kalayan dironjong ku Anggota Kongrés [[Elihu B. Washburne]], Grant diangkat janten asistén militér pikeun Gubernur [[Richard Yates (19th-century politician)|Richard Yates]] sarta hasil ngumpulkeun sapuluh résimén pikeun milisia Illinois. Dina tanggal 14 Juni, masih kalayan bantuan Washburne, Grant diangkat janten kolonél sarta dipasihan tanggung jawab mingpin [[Résimén Infanteri Sukarelawan Illinois ka-21]]. Anjeunna ngangkat [[John A. Rawlins]] salaku asistenna (aide-de-camp) sarta hasil mawa katertiban sarta disiplin ka éta résimén. Teu lami ti harita, Grant sarta Résimén ka-21 dipindahkeun ka Missouri pikeun ngusir pasukan Konfédérasi.<ref>U.S. National Park Service, "Battle Unit Details - the Civil War".</ref> Dina tanggal 5 Agustus, Grant diangkat janten brigadir jéndéral sukarelawan. Mayor Jéndéral [[John C. Frémont]], komandan Uni di wilayah Kulon, milih Grant (ngalangkungan jéndéral-jéndéral anu langkung senior) janten komandan Distrik Missouri Tenggara. Dina tanggal 2 Séptémber, Grant dugi ka [[Cairo, Illinois]], sarta ngadegkeun markasna pikeun ngarencanakeun kampanye militer ka sapanjang walungan Mississippi, Tennessee, sarta Cumberland.<ref name="White4">White (2016), sakumaha anu dicutat dina ''American Ulysses''.</ref> Nalika pasukan Konfédérasi asup ka wilayah kulon Kentucky sarta ngawasa Columbus, Grant geuwat méré nyaho ka Frémont. Tanpa ngantosan walonana, Grant langsung maju ka [[Paducah, Kentucky]], sarta hasil ngawasa éta kota tanpa aya perlawanan dina tanggal 6 Séptémber. Kusabab terang pisan pentingna sikep nétral Kentucky pikeun Présidén Lincoln, Grant ngayakinkeun wargana: "Kuring datang ka aranjeun sanés salaku musuh, tapi salaku babaturan."<ref name="Chernow61">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press.</ref> === Belmont (1861), Bénténg Henry sarta Donelson (1862) === {{utama|Patempuran Belmont|Patempuran Fort Henry|Patempuran Fort Donelson}} [[File:"Battle of Fort Donelson.".jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Patempuran Fort Donelson'' karya [[Kurz and Allison]], 1887.]] Dina tanggal 2 Nopémber 1861, Lincoln ngaleupaskeun Frémont tina jabatanna, anu masihan lolongkrang ka Grant pikeun nyerang pasukan Konfédérasi di Missouri. Dina tanggal 7 Nopémber, Grant aub dina [[Patempuran Belmont]]. Sanajan pasukan Uni sempet ngawasa kémp musuh, nanging datangna bala bantuan Konfédérasi maksa Grant pikeun mundur. Sanajan mundur, patempuran ieu masihan kapercayaan diri sarta pangalaman anu kacida diperyogikeunana ku para sukarelawan Uni. Grant saterusna ngararancang stratégi pikeun ngawasa [[Fort Henry]] di Walungan Tennessee sarta [[Fort Donelson]] di Walungan Cumberland. Tujuanana nyaéta pikeun muka jalan ka wilayah kidul ngaliwatan jalur walungan. Komandanna anu anyar, [[Henry Halleck]], mimitina mah nolak éta rencana, nanging tungtungna satuju kalayan sarat yén Grant kedah gawé bareng sareng Angkatan Laut di handap pingpinan [[Andrew H. Foote]]. Dina 6 Pébruari 1862, kapal-kapal perang Foote ngabom Fort Henry dugi ka éta bénténg pasrah sateuacan pasukan infanteri Grant dugi. Grant geuwat maréntahkeun serangan ka Fort Donelson. Patempuran di dieu langkung sengit. Nalika pasukan Konfédérasi nyoba kabur tina kepungan, Grant anu nuju opat mil ti dinya geuwat sumping sarta ngumpulkeun deui kakuatan pasukanna. Saatos ngaliwatan patempuran anu campuh dina kaayaan cuaca anu tiris kacida, jéndéral Konfédérasi [[Simon Bolivar Buckner]] nanya ngeunaan sarat-sarat pikeun pasrah. Walon Grant kacida tegasna: "Teu aya sarat naon waé iwal ti pasrah anu teu sarat sarta sagancangna" (''unconditional and immediate surrender''). Buckner tungtungna pasrah dina tanggal 16 Pébruari 1862. Kameunangan ieu mangrupa kameunangan gedé munggaran pikeun pihak Uni, dimana Grant hasil nawan leuwih ti 12.000 prajurit musuh. Sanajan Halleck masih kénéh sirik sarta nyoba ngalaporkeun hal-hal négatif ngeunaan Grant ka Washington (kaasup tuduhan yén Grant mabok deui), Présidén Lincoln kalah ngangkat Grant janten Mayor Jéndéral sukarelawan. Pers di wilayah kalér nganggap Grant salaku pahlawan sarta méré landihan anyar dumasar kana singketan namina: "Unconditional Surrender Grant". ===Shiloh (1862) sarta Balukarna=== {{further|Patempuran Shiloh}} [[File:Monument to Tennessee's troops in the battle of Shiloh; dedicated 2005. (f42f2753-1dd8-b71b-0b1e-b3cda4ae9057).jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|250px|''Patempuran Shiloh'' karya [[Thure de Thulstrup]], 1888.]] Sanggeus dibalikkeun deui kana jabatanna ku Lincoln, Grant mingpin [[Tentara Tennessee]] nuju ka Pittsburg Landing. Di dinya, anjeunna ngantosan bantuan ti pasukan Mayor Jéndéral [[Don Carlos Buell]]. Nanging, sateuacan bantuan sumping, dina énjing-énjing tanggal 6 April 1862, pasukan Konfédérasi anu dipingpin ku [[Albert Sidney Johnston]] nyerang dadakan "ibarat longsor salju ti gunung Alpine". Pasukan Uni kapaksa mundur dina kaayaan anu kacau balau nuju ka sisi Walungan Tennessee.<ref name="White1" /> Dina kaayaan anu kritis, Grant hasil ngumpulkeun deui artileri sarta 20.000 pasukan pikeun nahan gempuran musuh di Pittsburg Landing. Hiji momen anu kawéntar nyaéta nalika Sherman manggihan Grant nuju nangtung nyalira di handapeun tangkal bari kahujanan dina wengi saatos perang poé munggaran. Sherman nyebatkeun, "Wah, Grant, urang nuju sial pisan poé ieu, nya?" Grant ngawalon kalayan tenang, "Enya. Tapi isuk mah urang éléhkeun maranéhna."<ref name="Chernow205">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press. p. 205.</ref> Poe isukna, kalayan bantuan 18.000 pasukan anyar, Grant ngayakeun serangan balesan sarta hasil ngawasa deui médan laga, maksa pasukan Konfédérasi mundur ka Corinth. Sanajan meunang, Shiloh janten patempuran anu paling getihan dina sajarah Amérika dugi ka waktos éta, kalayan total 23.746 korban (maot sarta tatu). Pers di wilayah kalér saterusna nyerang Grant, nyebutkeun anjeunna gagabah malah aya nu nuduh anjeunna mabok nalika perang lumangsung. Nalika Grant ngarasa pundung sarta badé mundur, Sherman ngayakinkeun anjeunna supaya tetep mertahankeun jabatanna. Présidén Lincoln ogé ngabéla Grant ku nyarios: "I can't spare this man; he fights" (Kuring teu bisa kaleungitan ieu jalma; anjeunna téh tukang tarung). Kameunangan di Shiloh ieu nandeskeun yén Konfédérasi moal bisa deui ngawasa wilayah kulon. Dina ahir taun 1862, saatos Lincoln ngaluarkeun mimitina [[Proklamasi Émansipasi]], Grant maréntahkeun unit-unit di handapna pikeun narima mantan budak (slaves) janten bagian tina Tentara Uni, masihan maranéhna papakéan, tempat cicing, sarta gajih pikeun jasana.<ref name="Flood">Flood, Charles Bracelen (2005). ''Grant and Sherman: The Friendship That Won the Civil War''. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> === Kampanye Vicksburg (1862–1863) === {{further|Kampanye Vicksburg|Paréntah Umum No. 11 (1862)}} [[File:VicksburgBlockade.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Léngkah wani Grant anu suksés: Kapal-kapal perang Porter nembus némbakan mariem Konfédérasi dina wengi di Vicksburg, [[Walungan Mississippi]].]] Ngawasa [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]], bénténg pamungkas Konfédérasi di [[Walungan Mississippi]], dianggap kacida vitalna margi bakal ngabagi dua wilayah Konfédérasi. Présidén Lincoln mimitina nunjuk McClernand pikeun pancén ieu, sanés Grant atanapi Sherman. Nanging, Halleck maréntahkeun McClernand ka Memphis sarta nempatkeun anjeunna di handap ''otoritas'' Grant. Dina tanggal 13 Nopémber 1862, Grant hasil ngarebut [[Holly Springs, Mississippi|Holly Springs]] sarta maju nuju Corinth. Rencanana nyaéta nyerang Vicksburg tina jalur darat, sedengkeun Sherman nyerang ti Chickasaw Bayou. Nanging, serangan kavaleri Konfédérasi dina tanggal 11 sarta 20 Désémber ngaruksak jalur komunikasi Uni sarta ngarebut deui Holly Springs, anu ngabalukarkeun Grant sarta Sherman gagal ngahiji. Serangan anu paling fatal dipingpin ku Jéndéral [[Earl Van Dorn]] anu ngancurkeun gudang pasokan Grant sarta maksa anjeunna ngabolaykeun serangan jalur darat. Saatos kajadian éta, Grant mimiti ngagunakeun stratégi "hirup tina hasil bumi" (foraging) tinimbang ngandelkeun jalur pasokan anu panjang sarta rawan ditarjang musuh. Dina mangsa ieu ogé, Grant kudu ngurus rébua urang tilas budak (African-American) anu kabur nuju ka distrikna. Sacara ''inisiatif'' sorangan, Grant ngadegkeun program ''[[pragmatis]]'' sarta nunjuk John Eaton pikeun ngokolakeun kémp-kémp pangungsian. Mantan budak ieu digawé metetik kapas anu saterusna dikirim ka kalér pikeun ngarojong dana perang Uni. Grant ogé ngagunakeun tanaga gawé maranéhna pikeun ngawangun [[Kanal Grant]] sarta ngasupkeun maranéhna jadi Tentara sarta Angkatan Laut Uni. [[File:Battle of Jackson (cropped).tif|thumb|left|upright=1.2|[[Patempuran Jackson, Mississippi|Patempuran Jackson]] dina 14 Méi 1863, mangrupa bagian tina Kampanye Vicksburg.]] Tanggung jawab Grant ogé ngawengku merangan perdagangan kapas haram. Dina tanggal 17 Désémber 1862, Grant ngaluarkeun [[Paréntah Umum No. 11 (1862)|Paréntah Umum No. 11]] anu kontrovérsial, nyaéta ngusir "urang Yahudi salaku hiji golongan" tina distrik militerna. Saatos meunang protés, Lincoln ngabolaykeun éta paréntah dina 3 Januari 1863. Di mangsa payun, Grant nyebatkeun yén paréntah ieu mangrupa salah sahiji kaduhung pangbadagna dina hirupna. Dina 29 Januari 1863, Grant nyandak alih komando sapinuhna. Anjeunna maréntahkeun Laksamana [[David Dixon Porter]] pikeun mawa kapal perang nembus némbakan mariem Vicksburg dina wengi tanggal 16 April. Grant saterusna ngalakukeun rupa-rupa serangan tipuan pikeun ngabingungkeun musuh, ngawasa Jackson, sarta ngéléhkeun pasukan Pemberton dina [[Patempuran Champion Hill]]. Saatos ngepung kota salami tujuh minggu, Pemberton tungtungna pasrah ka Grant dina tanggal [[4 Juli]] [[1863]]. === Chattanooga (1863) sarta promosi === {{further|Kampanye Chattanooga}} [[File:Battle of Missionary Ridge McCormick Harvesting.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Pasukan Uni nyerbu [[Patempuran Missionary Ridge|Missionary Ridge]] sarta ngéléhkeun pasukan Bragg.]] Dina tanggal 16 Oktober 1863, Lincoln ngangkat Grant janten Mayor Jéndéral dina tentara reguler sarta masihan komando pikeun Divisi Militer Mississippi. Saatos [[Patempuran Chickamauga]], Tentara Cumberland kakeupung di Chattanooga. Grant sumping ka dinya sarta geuwat muka jalur pasokan anu katelah "Cracker Line". Grant ngararancang serangan ka [[Patempuran Missionary Ridge|Missionary Ridge]]. Dina tanggal 25 Nopémber, opat divisi Tentara Cumberland—anu dipingpin ku [[Philip Sheridan]] sarta Thomas J. Wood—ngusir musuh tina solokan pertahanan sarta, sanajan di luar paréntah, terus merenahkeun serangan naék ka lamping gunung anu lungkawing (45 darajat) nepi ka hasil ngawasa puncakna. Kameunangan mutlak ieu méré Uni kontrol pinuh ka Tennessee sarta muka jalan pikeun invasi ka Georgia. Dina tanggal 2 Maret 1864, Lincoln ngangkat Grant janten Létnan Jéndéral, pangkat anu sateuacanna ngan kantos dicepeng ku [[George Washington]]. Grant dugi ka Washington dina 8 Maret sarta sacara resmi dilantik ku Lincoln dina rapat Kabinét. Grant saterusna ngawangun hubungan gawé anu saé sareng Lincoln, dimana présidén ngawenangkeun Grant pikeun nyusun stratégi perangna sorangan. Grant nempatkeun markasna bareng jeung Tentara Potomac anu dipingpin ku Jéndéral [[George Meade]]. Anjeunna ngararancang lima serangan Uni anu kakokoordinasi pikeun nyegah musuh mindahkeun pasukan. Grant sarta Meade fokus nyerang pasukan [[Robert E. Lee]], sedengkeun Sherman—anu ayeuna mingpin sakabéh tentara wilayah kulon—ditugaskeun ngancurkeun pasukan Joseph E. Johnston sarta ngarebut Atlanta. Grant ayeuna mingpin 533.000 prajurit anu siap tempur. === Kampanye Overland (1864) === {{utama|Kampanye Overland}} Kampanye Overland mangrupa runtuyan patempuran brutal anu lumangsung di Virginia salila sasih Méi sarta Juni 1864. Kusabab usaha Sigel sarta Butler gagal, Grant kapaksa kudu nyanghareupan Lee nyalira. Dina tanggal 4 Méi, Grant mingpin pasukanna ti markas nuju ka Germanna Ford sarta meuntas [[Walungan Rapidan]] tanpa aya perlawanan. Dina tanggal 5 Méi, pasukan Uni nyerang Lee dina **[[Patempuran Wilderness]]**. Ieu patempuran lumangsung salila tilu poé kalayan perkiraan korban saloba 17.666 ti pihak Uni sarta 11.125 ti pihak Konfédérasi. Tinimbang mundur saatos patempuran anu sakitu hébatna, Grant kalah ngalakukeun gerakan ''flaking'' (muter) ka arah tenggara pikeun nyoba nyelipkeun pasukanna di antara Lee sarta Richmond di [[Patempuran Spotsylvania Court House]]. Nanging, pasukan Lee sumping ti payun ka Spotsylvania sahingga lumangsung patempuran rongkah salami tilu belas poé anu loba ngahakan korban. Dina tanggal 12 Méi, Grant nyoba nembus pertahanan musuh di bagian ''Muleshoe'' anu dijaga ku artileri Konfédérasi. Ieu serangan janten salah sahiji anu loba ngabalukarkeun korban dina sajarah Perang Sipil, anu katelah ku sebutan [[The Bloody Angle (Spotsylvania)|The Bloody Angle]] (Sudut Getih). Kusabab teu hasil nembus pertahanan Lee, Grant sakali deui muter ka arah tenggara sarta panggih deui jeung musuh dina [[Patempuran North Anna]] anu lumangsung salami tilu poé. ==== Cold Harbor ==== {{utama|Patempuran Cold Harbor}} [[File:Grant crop of Cold Harbor photo.png|thumb|upright=0.9|Jéndéral Grant di markasna di [[Cold Harbor, Virginia]], Juni 1864.]] Sanggeus Kampanye Wilderness anu kacida getihna, Grant miboga kapercayaan yén nembus pertahanan Lee di titik pangmantenna, nyaéta [[Cold Harbor]], bakal mawa perang ieu kana tungtung anu gancang. Cold Harbor téh mangrupa titik jalan anu kacida vitalna sabab nyambung langsung ka Richmond.<ref name="Chernow205" /> Dina tanggal 1 sarta 2 Juni, boh Grant boh Lee nuju ngantosan bantuan pasukan sumping. Pasukan Hancock dugi dina kaayaan anu kacida lungséne saatos leumpang sapeupeuting, sahingga Grant kedah nunda serangan dugi ka tabuh 04:30 énjing dina tanggal 3 Juni. Nanging, aya hal anu teu kanyahoan ku Grant: salila sapeuting éta, Lee hasil ngawangun solokan pertahanan (entrenchments) anu kacida kuatna sarta kalingkung ku tatangkalan jeung rungkun.<ref name="Furgurson">Furgurson, Ernest B. (2000). ''Not War But Murder: Cold Harbor 1864''. Knopf.</ref> Nalika serangan dimimitian dina énjing-énjing tanggal 3 Juni, kalayan kakuatan leuwih ti 100.000 prajurit Uni ngalawan 59.000 prajurit Konfédérasi, pasukan Grant ditarjang ku témbakan mariem sarta bedil anu kacida rongkahna ti balik bénténg musuh. Dina waktu anu singget, tentara Grant nandang korban anu pohara lobana, nyaéta antara 12.000 dugi ka 14.000 casualties, sedengkeun pihak Lee ngan ukur nandang korban sakitar 3.000 dugi ka 5.000 urang.<ref name="Bonekemper">Bonekemper, Edward H. (2011). ''Grant and Lee: Victorious American and Vanquished Virginian''. Regnery History.</ref> Jumlah korban anu sakitu ageungna ngahudangkeun sentimen anti-perang di wilayah Kalér. Sanggeus patempuran, loba prajurit anu tatu sarta maot ditinggalkeun di médan laga alatan héséna perjangjian gencatan pakarang antara Grant sarta Lee. Grant henteu kantos ménta hampura sacara resmi dina laporan militerna, nanging dina buku mémorandumna (méméar) anu disusun sababaraha taun saatosna, anjeunna nandeskeun: "Kuring salawasna hanjakal yén serangan pamungkas di Cold Harbor kantos dilakukeun."<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Pengepungan Petersburg (1864–1865) === {{further|Pengepungan Petersburg|Patempuran Kawah}} Henteu kanyahoan ku Lee, Grant mindahkeun pasukanna ka kiduleun Walungan James sarta maju nuju [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]], pusat jalur karéta api Virginia. Ieu ngabalukarkeun lumangsungna [[Pengepungan Petersburg]] salami salapan sasih. Grant ogé maréntahkeun Sheridan pikeun "ngudag musuh dugi ka maotna" di Lebak Shenandoah pikeun mastikeun jalur pasokan musuh kapegat. Dina ahir Juli, Grant kalayan asa-asa nyatujuan rencana pikeun ngabeledugkeun sabagian solokan pertahan musuh ngaliwatan torowongan anu dieusi bubuk mesiu. Ieu kajadian katelah ku nami [[Patempuran Kawah]] (''Battle of the Crater''). Ledakan éta kacida rongkahna, nanging alatan kapamingpinan anu goréng ti Jéndéral Burnside sarta Ledlie, pasukan Uni kalah asup ka jero kawah tinimbang ngepungna. Pasukan Konfédérasi anu parantos sadar geuwat nembakan pasukan Uni ti luhur kawah. Grant ngaku yén taktik ieu mangrupa "kagagalan anu kacida badagna". [[File:The Peacemakers 1868.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Grant (tengah kénca) gigireun Lincoln bareng jeung Jéndéral [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Sherman]] (paling kénca) sarta Laksamana [[David Dixon Porter|Porter]] (katuhu) – ''[[The Peacemakers]]'' karya [[George Peter Alexander Healy]], 1868.]] Tinimbang neraskeun serangan frontal sapertos di Cold Harbor, Grant milih maksa Lee pikeun manjangkeun garis pertahananna ka arah kidul sarta kulon Petersburg. Ieu tujuanana pikeun ngarebut jalur karéta api anu kacida pentingna pikeun pasokan logistik musuh. Samentara éta, pasukan Uni hasil ngarebut Mobile Bay sarta Atlanta, anu mastikeun Lincoln kapilih deui janten présidén dina Nopémber. Sherman saterusna ngalakukeun [[Sherman's March to the Sea|Lalampahan ka Laut]] nuju Savannah, ninggalkeun ruruntuhan di sapanjang jalan sarta ngancurkeun kamampuh ékonomi Konfédérasi. Dina Désémber, pasukan Thomas hasil ngancurkeun sésa-sésa kakuatan Konfédérasi di Nashville. Ayeuna, ngan ukur pasukan Lee di Petersburg anu janten hahalang pamungkas pikeun kameunangan Uni. Dina Maret 1865, kaayaan Lee beuki kadeseh sarta kakuatanna beuki mérétek. Rébu urang prajurit Konfédérasi kabur (disérsi) sabab geus teu boga kapercayaan deui ka komandanna. Dina 25 Maret, dina usaha pamungkas anu kacida nekatna, Lee ngorbankeun sésa pasukanna di [[Patempuran Fort Stedman]], anu janten patempuran garis pertahanan pamungkas di Petersburg sarta dipungkas ku kameunangan Uni. === Pasrahna Lee sarta kameunangan Uni (1865) === {{utama|Patempuran Katilu Petersburg|Kampanye Appomattox|Patempuran Appomattox Court House}} [[File:General Robert E. Lee surrenders at Appomattox Court House 1865.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|left|Saatos kaéléhkeun ku Grant, Lee tungtungna pasrah di Appomattox Court House.]] Dina tanggal 2 April, Grant maréntahkeun serangan umum ka pasukan Lee; Lee kapaksa ninggalkeun Petersburg sarta Richmond, anu saterusna hasil direbut ku Grant. Lee anu keur kaayaan deudeupeun nyoba ngahijikeun sésa pasukanna jeung tentara [[Joseph E. Johnston]]. Nanging, kavaleri Sheridan hasil megatkeun gerakan maranéhna sarta misahkeun musuh tina jalur pasokan logistikna. Grant ngirimkeun asistenna, [[Orville Babcock]], pikeun mawa surat pamungkas ka Lee anu isina nungtut sangkan anjeunna pasrah. Dina lalampahanana, Grant nampa surat walon ti Lee anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna daék masrahkeun pasukanna. Dina tanggal 9 April 1865, Grant sarta Lee panggih di [[Appomattox Court House]]. Sanajan Grant ngarasa sedih ningal musuhna anu "geus tarung sakitu lilana sarta wanian" kudu éléh, anjeunna tetep percaya yén perjuangan pihak Kidul (perbudakan) mangrupa "salah sahiji hal panggoréngna anu kantos diperjuangkeun ku hiji bangsa". Grant nuliskeun sorangan sarat-sarat pasrahna: "unggal perwira sarta prajurit bakal diwenangkeun mulang ka imahna masing-masing, sarta moal diganggu ku otoritas AS salami maranéhna patuh kana jangji (parole) sarta hukum anu lumaku di tempat cicingna." Lee geuwat narima éta sarat sarta nandatanganan dokumén pasrahna tanpa aya pangakuan diplomatik naon waé pikeun Konfédérasi. Nalika Lee ménta sangkan urut prajuritna diwenangkeun mawa kudana masing-masing, Grant kalayan [[Béréhan]] nyatujuan éta paménta. Nalika pasukan Uni mimiti surak ngarayakeun kameunangan, Grant geuwat nyaram sarta ngomong: "Perang geus réngsé; para pemberontak téh ayeuna jadi dulur sabangsa urang deui." Pasukan Johnston di Tennessee tungtungna pasrah dina 26 April, dituturkeun ku pasukan Alabama dina 4 Méi, sarta pasukan Texas dina 26 Méi, anu sacara resmi mungkas sakabéh Perang Sipil Amérika. === Panelasan Lincoln === {{utama|Panelasan Abraham Lincoln}} Dina tanggal 14 April 1865, Grant sumping ka rapat kabinét di Washington. Lincoln ngajak anjeunna sarta pamajidanna, Julia, ka [[Téater Ford]], nanging maranéhna nolak margi parantos miboga rencana badé angkat ka bumina di [[Burlington, New Jersey]]. Dina hiji konspirasi anu tujuanana pikeun ngaruntuhkeun Uni, Lincoln ditémbak ku [[John Wilkes Booth]] di éta téater sarta pupus dina énjingna. Loba jalma, kalebet Grant sorangan, percaya yén Grant ogé sabenerna janten udagan dina éta rencana panelasan.<ref name="White5">White (2016), sakumaha anu dicutat dina ''American Ulysses''.</ref> Nalika ngaluuhan upacara pamakaman Lincoln dina 19 April, Grant nangtung nyalira sarta ceurik balilihan; anjeunna nyebatkeun yén Lincoln téh mangrupa "jalma panghadéna anu kantos kuring kenal." Wakil Présidén [[Andrew Johnson]] saterusna dilantik janten présidén. Grant boga niat pikeun digawé bareng jeung Johnson sarta mimitina mah miboga harepan yén présidén anyar ieu tiasa mingpin pamaréntahan kalayan saé.<ref name="Smith" /> == Komandan Jéndéral (1865–1869) == {{utama|Masa jabatan Komandan Jéndéral Ulysses S. Grant}} [[File:Ulysses S Grant-Constant Mayer.jpg|thumb|left|Potrét Jéndéral Grant ku [[Constant Mayer]], 1866.]] Saatos perang réngsé, Grant tetep janten komandan angkatan darat. Pancénna ngawengku urusan [[Maximilian I ti Méksiko|Kaisar Maximilian]] sarta pasukan Perancis di Méksiko, ngajalankeun program [[Rékonstruksi]] di urut nagara-nagara Konfédérasi, sarta ngawas perang ngalawan suku Indian di wilayah Kulon. Nalika Robert E. Lee sarta para jéndéralna dituduh ngalakukeun panghianatan (treason) di Virginia, Présidén Johnson nungtut sangkan maranéhna diadili. Nanging, Grant sacara panceg nolak sarta negeskeun yén maranéhna teu meunang diadili dumasar kana janji pangampunan (amnesti) anu parantos dipasihkeun di Appomattox. Alatan kategasan Grant, tuduhan ka Lee tungtungna dibolaykeun. Dina tanggal 25 Juli 1866, Kongrés ngangkat Grant kana pangkat anyar anu kacida luhurna, nyaéta **[[Jéndéral Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]]**. Pangkat ieu diciptakeun husus pikeun ngajénan jasa-jasa Grant salami Perang Sipil.<ref name="Smith" /> === Lalampahan ka Kidul === {{further|Éra Rékonstruksi}} Kawijakan Rékonstruksi Présidén Johnson leuwih méré lolongkrang ka urut Konfédérasi pikeun mulang ka Kongrés sarta nempatkeun urang kulit bodas deui dina kalungguhan pamaréntahan, bari ngajantenkeun urang kulit hideung salaku warga nagara kelas kadua. Dina 27 Nopémber 1865, Grant dikirim ku Johnson pikeun ngayakeun inspeksi ka wilayah Kidul. Laporanna dina mangsa éta nyarankeun sangkan [[Freedmen's Bureau]] (Biro Urang Merdéka) diteruskeun, sanajan Johnson teu satuju.<ref name="Simpson">Simpson, Brooks D. (1988). ''Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction''.</ref> Grant percaya yén urang Kidul tacan siap pikeun marentah sorangan sarta masih merlukeun panangtayungan ti pamaréntah féderal. Anjeunna tetep ngagunakeun Angkatan Darat pikeun ngajaga katertiban. Sanajan laporanna mimitina rada condong ka Johnson, Grant sabenerna ngadukung sangkan urang kulit hideung tungtungna meunangkeun hak warga nagara anu pinuh. Johnson ngagunakeun laporan Grant pikeun ngalawan oposisi Radikal di Kongrés, anu ngabalukarkeun hubungan Grant jeung kelompok Radikal sempet kaganggu.<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Pepegatan sareng Johnson === [[File:Image from Swingin' Round the Cirkle, or Andy's trip to the West, together with a life of its hero 04.jpg|thumb|Ilustrasi kartun tina ''Swingin' Round the Cirkle'', anu némbongkeun yén Grant leuwih dipikaresep ku masarakat batan Johnson nalika tur ka sababaraha kota.]] Mimitina Grant téh optimistis ka Johnson, nanging dina Pébruari 1866, hubungan maranéhna mimiti mérétek. Johnson teu satuju nalika Grant nutup koran ''[[Richmond Examiner]]'' anu dianggap teu satia ka nagara. Nalika Johnson ngayakeun tur "[[Swing Around the Circle]]" pikeun néangan dukungan, anjeunna mawa Grant sangkan katingal populér. Nanging, Grant ngarasa éra ku biantara-biantara Johnson anu disebutna salaku "pinauléeun nasional" (''national disgrace'') sarta milih balik ti payun.<ref name="Brands" /> Kongrés saterusna ngaluarkeun **[[Undang-Undang Rékonstruksi]]** dina taun 1867 sanajan di-véto ku Johnson. Pikeun ngajaga Grant, Kongrés ogé ngaluarkeun ''Command of the Army Act'' anu nyababkeun Johnson teu bisa mindahkeun atanapi ngaleupaskeun Grant tanpa idin ti Sénat. Dina Agustus 1867, Johnson miceun Menteri Perang [[Edwin Stanton]] sarta nunjuk Grant salaku Menteri Perang samentara (''ad interim''). Grant nampi jabatan éta sabab anjeunna sieun upami jabatan éta ragrag ka jalma anu bakal ngahalangan prosés Rékonstruksi. Nanging, nalika Sénat mutuskeun pikeun mulangkeun Stanton ka jabatanna dina Januari 1868, Grant geuwat nyerahkeun deui éta jabatan ka Stanton. Johnson kacida ambekna sarta nuduh Grant ngabohong (''duplicity''). Pepegatan ieu janten parna sarta ngabalukarkeun prosés [[Impeachment Andrew Johnson|Pamaksulann Andrew Johnson]]. Johnson salamet ngan ku selisih hiji sora di Sénat. Di sisi séjén, popularitas Grant beuki ningkat di kalangan Républik Radikal, sarta jalan anjeunna nuju korsi kaprésidénan beuki kabuka lébar.<ref name="White6">White (2016), sakumaha anu dicutat dina ''American Ulysses''.</ref> === Pamilihan 1868 === {{utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1868}} [[File:Grant-Colfax.png|thumb|right|Tikét Partéy Républik Grant–Colfax]] Dina Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1868, para delegasi sacara buled milih Grant salaku calon présidén. Sanajan Grant sabenerna leuwih resep tetep aya di jero militer, anjeunna nampi lolongkrang éta margi percaya yén ngan anjeunna anu tiasa ngahijikeun nagara. Partéy Républik ngusung téma "hak sipil sarta politik anu sarua pikeun sakabéh jalma" sarta méré hak pilih pikeun urang [[Amérika-Afrika]].<ref name="Rep1868">Republican Party Platform of 1868.</ref> Grant henteu milu kampanye sacara langsung, nanging slogan kampanyena, "Let us have peace" (Hayu urang silih daméykeun), janten kawéntar pisan. Dina poé pamilihan, Grant meunang mutlak dina ''Electoral College'' kalayan 214 sora ngalawan 80 sora pikeun Horatio Seymour ti Demokrat. Sanajan Seymour meunang mayoritas sora ti warga kulit bodas, Grant dibantuan ku 500.000 sora ti urang kulit hideung, anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna meunang 52,7 persén sora rahayat. Dina yuswa 46 taun, Grant janten présidén pangngorana dina sajarah Amérika harita.<ref name="Smith" /> == Masa Kaprésidénan (1869–1877) == {{utama|Masa Kaprésidénan Ulysses S. Grant}} [[File:Ugrant.jpeg|thumb|left|Potrét resmi Gedong Bodas Présidén Grant ku [[Henry Ulke]], 1875.]] Dina biantara pelantikanna, Grant ngarojong ratifikasi **[[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Serikat|Amandemén ka-15]]** sarta nyebatkeun yén urang [[Indian]] kedah diperlakukeun kalayan saé nuju ka warga nagara anu pinuh. Grant nunjuk babaturan lila, [[Hamilton Fish]], salaku Menteri Luar Negeri, sarta ngadegkeun hubungan anu unik ku cara nunjuk urut musuhna, Jéndéral Konfédérasi [[James Longstreet]], salaku pajabat di New Orleans salaku bukti nyata pikeun ngahijikeun deui wilayah Kalér sarta Kidul. Salah sahiji warisan alam panghadéna nyaéta nalika Grant nandatanganan undang-undang anu ngadegkeun [[Taman Nasional Yellowstone]] dina taun 1872, taman nasional munggaran di dunya. ==== Hak Minoritas sarta Kaagamaan ==== Pikeun nebus kaluputanna dina Paréntah Umum No. 11, Grant nunjuk leuwih ti 50 urang Yahudi kana jabatan féderal. Anjeunna ogé nolak diskriminasi dumasar sélér, warna kulit, atawa agama dina pendidikan. Nanging, Grant kacida pancegna dina merangan [[Poligami]] di Utah anu disebutna salaku "kajahatan ngalawan moralitas". Anjeunna ogé nandatanganan **Undang-Undang Comstock** pikeun merangan pornografi sarta prakték aborsi haram.<ref name="Kahan">Kahan, Paul (2018). ''The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant: Preserving the Civil War's Legacy''.</ref> Dina biantara kawéntarna di Iowa (1875), Grant nandeskeun yén sakola umum teu meunang ngagunakeun dana nagara pikeun sakola kaagamaan (sectarian), anu dina mangsa éta mangrupa respon kana tumuwuhna pangaruh Katolik. Anjeunna percaya yén pamisahan antara nagara sarta agama téh penting pikeun kamajuan bangsa.<ref name="White2017">White, Ronald C. (2017). ''American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant''.</ref> === Rékonstruksi === {{utama|Éra Rékonstruksi}} [[File:Amos T Akerman - crop and minor retouch.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Amos T. Akerman]], Jaksa Agung anu ditunjuk ku Grant, anu sacara panceg merangan sarta nangkep anggota [[Ku Klux Klan]].]] Grant dianggap salaku présidén anu éféktif dina ngajaga hak-hak sipil. Dina taun 1869 sarta 1870, anjeunna nandatanganan undang-undang anu ngawenangkeun urang kulit hideung pikeun janten juri sarta nyepeng kalungguhan publik. Grant ogé panceg ngarojong ratifikasi [[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Serikat|Amandemén ka-15]] sangkan nagara bagian teu bisa ngahalangan hak pilih urang Amérika-Afrika. Alatan kategasanana, dina mangsa ieu pisan pikeun munggaranana dina sajarah, urang kulit hideung tiasa calik salaku anggota Kongrés AS.<ref name="Kahan" /> ==== Merangan Ku Klux Klan ==== Pikeun nerapkeun hukum Rékonstruksi, Grant sarta Kongrés ngadegkeun Departemén Kaadilan dina taun 1870. Grant ngagunakeun tilu ''Enforcement Acts'' pikeun ngancurkeun kelompok rasialis [[Ku Klux Klan]] (KKK). Jaksa Agungna, [[Amos T. Akerman]], sacara sumanget nangkep leuwih ti 470 anggota Klan di South Carolina, anu ngabalukarkeun kakuatan KKK runtuh dina taun 1872.<ref name="Smith" /> ==== Nyirorotna Dukungan Rékonstruksi ==== Dina mangsa jabatan kaduana, dukungan ti wilayah Kalér mimiti ngurangan alatan masalah ékonomi sarta skandal politik. Kelompok konservatif Kidul anu disebut "[[Redeemers]]" mimiti ngagunakeun kekerasan ngaliwatan organisasi sapertos ''White League'' sarta ''Red Shirts'' pikeun ngagulingkeun pamaréntahan Républik. Sanajan Grant nyoba ngirimkeun pasukan ka Louisiana sarta South Carolina, anjeunna mimiti hésé meunangkeun dukungan ti Kongrés anu ayeuna dikawasa ku Demokrat saatos pamilihan 1874. Grant nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Hak Sipil 1875]], nanging dina praktékna hésé dijalankeun. Éra Rékonstruksi sacara resmi dipungkas saatos Grant lungsur tina jabatan, ngaliwatan Kompromi 1877.<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Urusan Kauangan === Teu lami saatos janten présidén, Grant nyandak léngkah konservatif pikeun mulangkeun ékonomi kana standar monétér sateuacan perang. Salila Perang Sipil, Kongrés ngaluarkeun duit kertas anu katelah "[[Greenbacks]]" anu teu dijamin ku emas atanapi pérak, anu ngabalukarkeun inflasi. Dina 18 Maret 1869, Grant nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Krédit Publik 1869]], anu ngajamin yén surat hutang nagara bakal dibayar deui nganggo koin (emas atanapi pérak). Kawijakan ieu boga tujuan pikeun nyetabilkeun mata uang sarta ngurangan hutang nasional sacara bertahap. Grant ngandelkeun pisan kana nasehat para pangusaha sabab anjeunna ngaku yén pamahamanana ngeunaan ékonomi téh kawilang saderhana.<ref name="Simon">Simon, John Y. (1982). ''The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant''. Southern Illinois University Press.</ref> ==== Konspirasi Emas (Black Friday) ==== {{further|Black Friday (1869)}} [[File:Black Friday 1869.jpg|thumb|Poto papan tulis di Gold Room, New York City nalika [[Black Friday (1869)|Black Friday]], némbongkeun runtagna harga emas.]] Dina April 1869, dua pangusaha karéta api, [[Jay Gould]] sarta [[James Fisk (financier)|Jim Fisk]], ngayakeun konspirasi pikeun "nyecek" (corner) pasar emas di New York. Rencanana nyaéta naékeun harga emas sangkan hasil tatanén ti Amérika bisa dibeli ku urang asing kalayan harga murah (dina ukuran emas), anu saterusna bakal dikirim maké jalur karéta api bogana maranéhna. Gould sarta Fisk ngadeukeutan dulur iparna Grant, **Abel Corbin**, pikeun meunangkeun aksés ka présidén. Maranéhna nyoba ngayakinkeun Grant yén harga emas anu luhur téh alus pikeun patani. Grant, anu lugu dina urusan kauangan, mimitina percaya. Nanging, nalika anjeunna sadar yén ieu téh manipulasi, Grant geuwat maréntahkeun Menteri Kauangan Boutwell pikeun ngajual emas nagara saloba $4.000.000. Dina tanggal 24 Séptémber 1869, anu katelah **[[Black Friday (1869)|Black Friday]]**, harga emas runtag saketép netra. Pasar ékonomi jadi panik, Gould sarta Fisk kabur, sarta karuksakan ékonomi lumangsung mangbulan-bulan. Panalungtikan Kongrés saterusna ngabébaskeun Grant tina tuduhan nyiar kauntungan, nanging anjeunna dikritik alatan babari teuing dipercaya ku Corbin sarta para spekulan.<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Urusan Luar Nagri === Dina urusan diplomatik, Grant ngandelkeun pisan ka Menteri Luar Negerina anu kacida tapis, **[[Hamilton Fish]]**. Hubungan maranéhna kacida akrabna. Sajaba ti Grant, tokoh utama séjénna nyaéta **[[Charles Sumner]]**, pupuhu Komite Urusan Luar Nagri Sénat, anu sabenerna mah kacida ngéwana ka Grant.<ref name="Calhoun">Calhoun, Charles W. (2017). ''The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant''. University Press of Kansas.</ref> Grant miboga dorongan ékspansionis pikeun ngajaga kapentingan Amérika sarta kacida ngadukung **[[Doktrin Monroe]]**. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna ogé miboga sisi idealis. Contona, Grant nunjuk saurang pengacara Yahudi, **[[Benjamin F. Peixotto]]**, janten Konsul AS di Bukarest salaku réspon kana panganiayaan urang Yahudi di Romania. Grant nandeskeun yén: "Ngajénan hak asasi manusa téh mangrupa kawajiban utama pikeun sing saha waé anu dipercaya janten pamingpin."<ref name="Kahan" /> ==== Perjangjian Washington (1871) ==== {{utama|Perjangjian Washington (1871)}} [[File:Hamilton Fish Brady Edited.jpg|alt=Potrét Hamilton Fish|thumb|upright=.8|Menteri Luar Nagri [[Hamilton Fish]] sarta Grant hasil ngabéréskeun [[Klaim Alabama]] ngaliwatan perjangjian sarta arbitrase.]] Masalah diplomatik anu paling ngadeseh dina taun 1869 nyaéta pangréngséan **''[[Alabama Claims]]''**. Ieu mangrupa tuntutan karuksakan ka kapal dagang Uni anu disababkeun ku kapal perang Konfédérasi, ''CSS Alabama'', anu diwangun di galangan kapal Inggris (hiji palanggaran aturan nétralitas harita).<ref name="Simon"/> Charles Sumner nungtut ganti rugi anu kacida gedéna, malah sempet ngusulkeun sangkan wilayah British Columbia (Kanada) dibikeun ka AS salaku bayaranna. Nanging, Hamilton Fish sarta Menteri Kauangan Boutwell ngayakinkeun Grant yén hubungan daméy jeung Inggris téh leuwih penting. Pikeun ngajaga kalancaran negosiasi, Grant nahan diri pikeun teu ngaku (recognize) pemberontak Kuba anu keur tarung ngalawan Spanyol. Hasilna, hiji komisi di Washington hasil nyusun perjangjian dimana hiji tribunal internasional bakal nangtukeun jumlah ganti rugi. Inggris nyatakeun kaduhungna, sanajan teu ngaku salah sacara resmi. Sénat tungtungna nyatujuan **[[Perjangjian Washington (1871)|Perjangjian Washington]]**, anu ogé ngabéréskeun sengketa hak perikanan sarta wates maritim. Pangréngséan klaim ''Alabama'' ($15.500.000) dianggap salaku **[[Kameunangan Diplomatik]]** pangbadagna Grant, anu hasil ngarobah Inggris ti musuh janten salah sahiji sekutu pangkuatna Amérika dugi ka ayeuna.<ref name="Smith" /> ==== Ékspédisi Korea (1871) ==== {{utama|Ékspédisi Amérika Serikat ka Korea}} Dina taun 1871, Grant ngirimkeun pasukan darat sarta laut anu diwangun ku lima kapal perang sarta leuwih ti 1.200 prajurit ka [[Korea]]. Tujuanana nyaéta pikeun muka jalur padagangan sarta maluruh nasib kapal dagang SS ''General Sherman'' anu leungit dina taun 1866. Nalika kapal-kapal Amérika asup ka Selat Ganghwa dina 1 Juni, bénténg-bénténg Korea némbakan éta kapal. Rodgers nuntut ménta hampura, nanging pamaréntah Korea nolak. Dina tanggal 10 Juni, pasukan Amérika nyerang sarta ngancurkeun sababaraha bénténg Korea dina **[[Patempuran Ganghwa]]**. Sakitar 250 urang Korea palastra, sedengkeun ti pihak Amérika ngan 3 urang anu gugur. Sanajan unggul sacara militer, ieu ékspédisi gagal muka jalur dagang sarta kalah nguatkeun kawijakan isolasi Korea (nagara anu nutup diri).<ref name="Korea1871">The 1871 Korea Campaign, ''[[United States Naval Institute|U.S. Naval Institute]]''.</ref> ==== Santo Domingo (Républik Dominika) ==== {{utama|Rencana anéksasi Santo Domingo}} [[File:Annexation demonstration in San Domingo City-the Seybo regiment in the citadel, bearing the U.S. colors LCCN93515587.jpg|thumb|Kota Santo Domingo; lukisan ku James E. Taylor, 1871.]] Dina taun 1869, Grant ngamimitian rencana pikeun nganéksasi (ngahijikeun) **[[Républik Dominika]]**. Grant percaya yén wilayah ieu bakal ningkatkeun sumber daya alam AS, nguatkeun [[Doktrin Monroe]], sarta anu paling penting: janten tempat panyalindungan (''safe haven'') pikeun warga kulit hideung Amérika tina "kajahatan KKK" (Klu <ref name="Chernow295">Chernow (2017), hlm. 295.</ref> Nanging, rencana ieu dihalangan ku Sénator **[[Charles Sumner]]**, pupuhu Komite Urusan Luar Nagri Sénat. Sumner nganggap ieu rencana téh mangrupa tindakan impérialisme anu nindes nagara leutik. Sanajan Grant parantos sumping langsung ka bumi Sumner pikeun ngarayu, sarta ngirimkeun komisi husus anu dibantu ku **[[Frederick Douglass]]**, Sénat tetep nolak éta perjangjian. Kontrovérsi ieu janten parna pisan dugi ka Grant miceun Menteri Luar Nagri di Inggris anu mangrupa babaturan Sumner, sarta tungtungna hasil nurunkeun Sumner tina jabatanna salaku pupuhu komite Sénat dina Maret 1871. Ieu kajadian janten salah sahiji "perang" politik panggetolna dina mangsa jabatanna.<ref name="White">White (2016), hlm. 21.</ref> ==== Kuba sarta Insidén ''Virginius'' ==== {{utama|Insidén Virginius}} Kawijakan Amérika di handapeun Grant nyaéta tetep nétral salila [[Perang Sapuluh Taun]] (1868–78) di Kuba ngalawan pangawasa Spanyol. Grant nolak ngaku para pemberontak demi ngajaga perdamaian sarta padagangan jeung Spanyol, nanging anjeunna tetep nungtut sangkan perbudakan di Kuba dihapus.<ref name="Priest">Priest, Ty (2009). ''The Great Guano Rush''.</ref> Kawijakan anu rapuh ieu ampir beulah dina Oktober 1873, nalika kapal perang Spanyol néwak kapal dagang **[[Virginius Affair|''Virginius'']]** anu ngapungkeun bandéra AS bari mawa bantuan pikeun pemberontak. Otoritas Spanyol nganggap maranéhna salaku bajak laut sarta maéhan **53 tahanan** tanpa prosés pangadilan, kalebet dalapan urang Amérika. Kaptén Joseph Frye sarta awakna dipaéhan kalayan kaayaan jasad anu kacida ngeneskeunana. Urang Amérika kacida ambekna sarta nungtut perang. Grant geuwat maréntahkeun kapal-kapal perang Angkatan Laut AS pikeun kumpul di Kuba. Nanging, Hamilton Fish hasil ngahontal solusi diplomatik: Spanyol nyatakeun kaduhungna, masrahkeun deui kapal sarta sésa tawanan, sarta mayar **$80.000** salaku ganti rugi pikeun kulawarga korban Amérika.<ref name="Calhoun" /> ==== Padagangan Bébas jeung Hawaii ==== {{utama|Perjangjian Timbal Balik 1875}} [[File: Kalakaua Grant state visit 1874.jpg|alt=reception line|thumb|left|Raja [[Kalākaua|Kalākaua ti Hawaii]] panggih jeung Présidén Grant di Gedong Bodas dina [[Kalākaua's 1874–75 state visit to the United States|kunjungan nagara]], 1874.]] Sanajan ditarjang ku oposisi kuat ti Partéy Démokrat, Grant sarta Fish hasil nandatanganan perjangjian padagangan bébas jeung **[[Karajaan Hawaii]]** dina taun 1875. Raja **[[Kalākaua]]** ngayakeun kunjungan nagara salami 91 poé, janten raja munggaran anu kantos nincakkeun suku di Amérika Serikat. Oposisi ti Démokrat Kidul nolak ieu perjangjian sabab hayang ngajaga patani béas sarta gula lokal, malah maranéhna nganggap urang Hawaii salaku ras anu "handap". Nanging, undang-undang ieu tetep lolos di Kongrés. Amérika meunangkeun hak kana wilayah **Pu{{okina}}u Loa** (anu engkéna janten pangkalan laut [[Pearl Harbor]]), sarta industri gula Hawaii tungtungna asup kana orbit ékonomi Amérika Serikat.<ref name="Farr">Farr, Warner D. (2019). ''The Death of Ulysses S. Grant''.</ref> === Kawijakan Indian Féderal === {{utama|Kawijakan Amérika Pribumi mangsa administrasi Ulysses S. Grant}} {{tempo ogé|Klaim Tanah Black Hills|Great Sioux War}} [[File:Ely S. Parker.jpg|alt=Potrét Ely S. Parker|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Ely Samuel Parker]], urang Amérika Pribumi (''[[Seneca people|Seneca]]'') munggaran anu diangkat janten Komisioner Urusan Indian ku Grant.]] Nalika Grant janten présidén dina 1869, leuwih ti 250.000 urang [[Amérika Pribumi]] diatur ku 370 perjangjian. Grant miboga kapercayaan yén "Anu Nyipta" henteu nempatkeun rupa-rupa ras di bumi sangkan anu kuat ngancurkeun anu lemah. Anjeunna ngajalankeun kawijakan "Perdaméyan" (''Peace Policy'') anu tujuanana pikeun asimilasi: ngarahkeun urang pribumi sangkan boga adat, basa, sarta cara hirup sapertos urang Éropa (tatanén) sarta tungtungna janten warga nagara AS.<ref name="ReferenceA">Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster.</ref> Pikeun ngurangan korupsi, Grant nunjuk **[[Ely S. Parker]]**, saurang urang Seneca, janten urang Amérika Pribumi munggaran anu mingpin Biro Urusan Indian. Grant ogé ngaganti para agén Indian anu korup ku para misionaris kaagamaan pikeun ngadidik urang pribumi di réreservasi. ==== Tantangan sarta Kekerasan ==== Sanajan boga niat daméy, mangsa jabatan Grant tetep pinuh ku getih. Sababaraha kajadian tragis lumangsung, sapertos **Pambantéyan Marias** (1870) sarta **Skeléton Cave** (1872). Dina taun 1871, Grant mungkas sistem perjangjian kedaulatan suku; sacara hukum, individu Amérika Pribumi dianggap salaku "tanggungan" (''wards'') pamaréntah féderal. ==== Perang Great Sioux sarta Little Big Horn ==== Masalah pangbadagna muncul nalika emas kapanggih di **[[Black Hills]]**, wilayah anu dijaga ku perjangjian pikeun suku **Sioux**. Para panambang bodas mimiti nyerbu ka éta wilayah. Grant nyoba negosiasi, nanging para pamingpin suku sapertos **[[Sitting Bull]]** nolak ninggalkan tanahna. [[File:Battle of the Big Horn LCCN2003656850.jpg|thumb|left|[[Patempuran Little Big Horn]], 1876.]] Dina taun 1876, lumangsung **[[Great Sioux War of 1876|Perang Great Sioux]]**. Dina **[[Patempuran Little Big Horn]]**, pasukan anu dipingpin ku **[[George Armstrong Custer]]** tumpur ludes ku para pejuang anu dipingpin ku **[[Crazy Horse]]**. Grant nyempad Custer dina média, nyebatkeun yén éta pambantéyan téh mangrupa "pangurbanan pasukan anu sabenerna mah teu perlu" alatan kasalahan Custer sorangan.<ref name="Brands" /> Tungtungna, Grant hasil maksa suku-suku kasebut pikeun masrahkeun Black Hills sateuacan anjeunna lungsur tina jabatan dina 1877. Sanajan kawijakanana dianggap leuwih "manusiawi" dibandingkeun jaman baheula, para ahli sajarah ayeuna ngritik Grant alatan anjeunna dianggap kurang ngahargaan kana kabudayaan asli suku pribumi.<ref name="Smith" /> === Pamilihan 1872 sarta Jabatan Kadua === {{utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1872}} [[File:Grant Liberal Gratitude.jpg|alt=Kartun Thomas Nast|thumb|Kartun ku [[Thomas Nast]] ngeunaan lawan-lawan Grant dina kampanye pamilihan ulang.]] Dina taun 1872, muncul kelompok **[[Liberal Republican Party (United States)|Républik Liberal]] anu misahkeun diri ti Grant. Maranéhna nganggap pamaréntahan Grant téh korup ("[[Grantism]]") sarta nungtut sangkan pasukan féderal ditarik ti Kidul. Maranéhna nyalonkeun [[Horace Greeley]], saurang éditur koran kawéntar, anu saterusna ogé dirojong ku Partéy Démokrat.<ref name="Chernow205" /> Grant hasil meunang mutlak (landslide) kalayan 56% sora rahayat sarta 286 sora Electoral College. Kameunangan ieu dibantu ku ékonomi anu harita masih kuat sarta dukungan masif ti urang Amérika-Afrika di Kidul. Grant dilantik deui dina 4 Maret 1873, kalayan jangji pikeun mulangkeun hubungan hadé antara wilayah Kalér sarta Kidul.<ref name="Smith" /> === Panik 1873 sarta Runtagna Ékonomi === Jabatan kadua Grant langsung dihantem ku krisis kauangan rongkah anu disebut **[[Panic of 1873|Panik 1873]]**. Krisis ieu dimimitian ku bangkrutna firma perbankan ''Jay Cooke & Company''. Akibatna, 89 tina 364 jalur karéta api di Amérika milu bangkrut, sarta pangangguran ningkat drastis. Pikeun nyanghareupan krisis, aya dua léngkah penting anu dicandak ku Grant: # **Veto Tagihan Inflasi (1874)**: Grant nolak (véto) rencana pikeun nyétak leuwih loba duit kertas (greenbacks) sanajan loba anu nungtut. Anjeunna milih ngajaga ajén mata uang tetep stabil dumasar kana emas. # **Specie Payment Resumption Act (1875)**: Grant nandatanganan undang-undang pikeun ngagentos duit kertas ku koin emas sacara bertahap. Sanajan léngkah ieu dianggap wijaksana ku para bankir, rahayat leutik sarta para patani ngarasa beurat. Balukarna, dina pamilihan sela 1874, Partéy Républik kaleungitan mayoritas di DPR (House of Representatives) ka Partéy Démokrat pikeun munggaranana ti saprak Perang Sipil.<ref name="White" /> === Réformasi sarta Skandal === {{tempo ogé|Réformasi administrasi Ulysses S. Grant|Skandal administrasi Ulysses S. Grant}} Ékonomi saatos Perang Sipil mawa kabeungharan industri anu rongkah, nanging ogé mawa korupsi anu sumebar di kantor-kantor féderal. Grant, dumasar kana sipat aslina, mangrupa jalma anu jujur nanging kacida satetia ka babaturanana, sahingga mindeng dimanfaatkeun ku jalma jahat.<ref name="Smith" /> [[File:Cover of Harper's Weekly Dec 7, 1872.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|left|Kartunis [[Thomas Nast]] muji Grant alatan nolak paménta pulitikus Pennsylvania pikeun ngeureunkeun aturan palayanan sipil.]] ==== Usaha Réformasi Birokrasi ==== Dina awalna, Grant nyoba ngabereskeun sistem birokrasi. Anjeunna ngadegkeun [[Komisi Palayanan Sipil Amérika Serikat]] munggaran dina taun 1871 pikeun ngayakeun ujian kompetensi bagi calon pegawé nagara, sangkan jabatan teu ngan saukur dibikeun ka pendukung politik (ending spoils system). Nanging, kusabab Kongrés nolak méré dana permanén, Grant ahirna ngabubarkeun ieu komisi dina taun 1874.<ref name="Calhoun" /> ==== Skandal-Skandal Utama ==== Sajumlah skandal ngotoran ngaran hadé administrasi Grant, di antarana: * **Sanborn Incident (1874): Kontrak swasta pikeun nagih pajeg anu diselewengkeun pikeun dana kampanye Partéy Républik. * [[Whiskey Ring]] (1875): Skandal korupsi pangbadagna dimana para panyuling wiski sarta pajabat pajeg babarengan maok jutaan dollar duit nagara. Menteri Kauangan [[Benjamin Bristow]] hasil ngabongkar ieu jaringan, anu ngalibatkeun 32 pamasangan di sakuliah nagara sarta 110 dakwaan.<ref name="Chernow205" /> * Skandal Belknap (1876): Menteri Perang **[[William W. Belknap]] katohyan nampa sogokan (kickbacks) tina pos padagangan di wilayah Indian (Fort Sill). Anjeunna geuwat mundur saatos kasusna kabongkar.<ref name="Simon"/> [[File:Whiskeyring.jpg|alt=Kartun Whiskey Ring|thumb|upright=0.8|Kartun ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' ngeunaan panalungtikan Whiskey Ring ku Bristow.]] Salah sahiji momen anu paling matak éra pikeun Grant nyaéta nalika sekretaris pribadina, [[Orville Babcock]], kacekel milu dina Whiskey Ring. Grant tetep nampik percaya yén Babcock salah, malah anjeunna méré kasaksian anu ngabéla Babcock, anu ahirna ngabébaskeun sekretarisna nanging ngaruksak reputasi Grant di mata masarakat.<ref name="White" /> Dina pesen taunan ahirna dina 5 Désémber 1876, Grant ménta hampura ka sakabéh bangsa Amérika, nyebatkeun yén: "Kagagalan anu lumangsung mangrupa kasalahan dina méré kaputusan (judgement), sanés kasalahan niat (intent)."<ref name="McFeely" /> === Pamilihan 1876 === {{utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1876}} Pamilihan 1876 janten titik balik sajarah Amérika. Grant mutuskeun pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui pikeun periode katilu. Partéy Républik milih [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], sedengkeun Démokrat milih **[[Samuel J. Tilden]]**. Hasil pamilihan ieu kacida saketna sarta pinuh ku sengketa sora di sababaraha nagara bagian Kidul.<ref name="Smith" /> Grant némbongkeun sikep anu tenang (calm visage) sarta nolak ngagunakeun kakuatan militer pikeun milih salah sahiji pihak. Anjeunna nandatanganan undang-undang pikeun ngawangun **Komisi Éléktoral**. Hasilna nyaéta [[Kompromi 1877]]: Hayes janten présidén, nanging pasukan féderal ditarik ti Kidul. Kajadian ieu sacara resmi mungkas éra Rékonstruksi sarta muka jalan pikeun éra segregasi (pemisahan ras) **Jim Crow** anu lumangsung salila 80 taun ka hareup.<ref name="Chernow205" /> == Mangsa Saatos Présidén (1877–1885) == {{utama|Mangsa saatos présidén Ulysses S. Grant}} Saatos lungsur ti Gedong Bodas, Grant nyebatkeun yén anjeunna "teu kantos ngarasa bagja sapertos kieu salila hirupna". Anjeunna sarta pamajawanna, Julia, ngamimitian hirup anyar salaku "waifs" (jalma anu teu boga imah tetep) bari ngadatangan kulawargana di sababaraha kota.<ref name="White" /> === Lalampahan Dunya sarta Diplomasi === {{utama|Lalampahan dunya Ulysses S. Grant}} [[File:World tour of Ulysses S Grant, 1879, map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Peta lalampahan dunya Grant ku J. S. Kemp, 1879.]] Ngagunakeun tabunganana saloba $25.000, kulawarga Grant ngayakeun lalampahan kuriling dunya salami dua satengah taun. Ieu sanés ngan saukur pelesir, nanging ogé mangrupa misi diplomatik teu resmi pikeun ngawanohkeun Amérika Serikat salaku kakuatan dunya anu anyar. Salila ieu lalampahan, Grant panggih jeung inohong-inohong dunya, di antarana: * Éropa: [[Ratu Victoria]] (Inggris) sarta Otto von Bismarck (Jérman). * [[Timur Tengah]] & Afrika: Ngadatangan Mesir sarta Yerusalem. * Asia: Panggih jeung Li Hongzhang (Cina) sarta [[Kaisar Meiji]] (Jepang). Lalampahan ieu némbongkeun yén sanajan anjeunna geus lain présidén, wibawa Grant salaku jénderal anu hasil nyalametkeun Uni tetep dipuji di sakuliah buana. Grant tungtungna mulang ka San Francisco dina 20 Séptémber 1879, dipapag ku kacida lobana rahayat anu surak sarta bungah.<ref name="Smith" /> === Usaha Periode Katilu === {{Main|Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1880}} [[File:Ulysses S. Grant Trapeze Cartoon Keppler Puck 1880.tif|alt=Kartun Grant acrobat|thumb|upright=0.8|Kartunis [[Joseph Ferdinand Keppler|Joseph Keppler]] nyindekkeun Grant sarta batur-baturna dina majalah ''[[Puck (magazine)|Puck]]'', 1880.]] Dina taun 1880, kelompok [[Stalwarts]] anu dipingpin ku Roscoe Conkling nyoba nyalonkeun deui Grant pikeun periode katilu. Sanajan Grant sacara publik teu loba nyarita, anjeunna sabenerna mah daék narima éta jabatan. Nanging, loba anu nolak sabab dianggap ngalanggar aturan teu tinulis "dua periode" anu dimimitian ku George Washington. Dina konvénsi di Chicago, Grant mimitina unggul sora, nanging teu nepi ka mayoritas. Saatos 36 kali sora (ballots), para lawan Grant ngahiji sarta milih calon kompromi, [[James A. Garfield]]. Grant narima kalayan léngoh sarta milu kampanye pikeun Garfield. Nalika Garfield nemas pati alatan ditémbak ku nu maténi dina 1881, Grant ceurik kanyenyerian.<ref name="Brands" /> === Kagagalan Bisnis sarta Skandal Grant & Ward === Harita, can aya sistem pangsiun pikeun urut présidén. Duit tabungan Grant béak dipaké lalampahan dunya. Pikeun néangan panghasilan, Grant milu investasi dina proyék karéta api Méksiko anu ahirna bangkrut dina taun 1884.<ref name="McFeely" /> Nasib anu leuwih parah datang nalika anakna, Buck Grant, muka firma investasi Grant & Ward jeung saurang calo ngaranna Ferdinand Ward. Grant milu nunda modal $100.000. Teu kanyahoan ku Grant, Ward sabenerna ngajalankeun [[Skéma Ponzi]] (panipuan investasi). Ward disebut nganggap Grant "kawas budak leutik dina urusan bisnis". Dina Méi 1884, firma éta runtuh. Grant kaleungitan sakabéh hartana. Pikeun mayar hutang ka William Henry Vanderbilt, Grant anu kacida ngajaga kahormatanana kapaksa masrahkeun sakabéh pedang perang, medali, sarta imahna. Grant ngarasa kacida kaduhungna sarta nanya sacara pribadi: "Kumaha kuring bisa percaya deui ka manusa?"<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Pamulihan Ngaran sarta Réputasi Sajarah === Salila puluhan taun, ngaran Grant sempet kacemar ku tiori-tiori ti [[Dunning School]] anu mindeng nyalahkeun anjeunna sarta ngalemahkeun jasa-jasana dina mangsa Rékonstruksi. Nanging, dina abad ka-21, para ahli sajarah modern mimiti méré sawangan anu leuwih adil sarta positif ka anjeunna.<ref name="Economist2017">"The warrior-president", ''The Economist'', 2017.</ref> Buku-buku biografi anyar sapertos karya [[H. W. Brands]] (2012), [[Ronald C. White]] (2016), sarta [[Ron Chernow]] (2017) hasil ngangkat deui martabat Grant. White nyebatkeun yén Grant némbongkeun "rasa handap asor, kawani moral, sarta kateguhan anu luar biasa." Grant ayeuna diaku salaku pamingpin anu wani ngalawan panindesan pamilih (voter suppression) anu dilakukeun ku ''Ku Klux Klan''.<ref name="Hunt2017">Hunt, Tristram (2017). "The trials of Ulysses S. Grant", ''The Guardian''.</ref> Sajaba ti éta, para ahli sajarah sapertos Robert Farley nandeskeun yén "Kultus Lee" (pemujaan kaleuleuwihi ka Robert E. Lee) baheula sempet ngabalukarkeun Grant katingal "leutik", nanging kanyataanana Grant nyaéta sosok anu bener-bener merjuangkeun kaadilan pikeun urang Amérika-Afrika. Dina survéy [[C-SPAN]] taun 2021 ngeunaan [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Serikat|peringkat présidén]], Grant ayeuna nempatan posisi ka-20 tina 44 présidén. Ieu mangrupa luncatan anu kacida luhurna ti peringkat ka-33 dina taun 2017. Dunya ayeuna leuwih ngajénan jasa-jasana dina urusan Rékonstruksi sarta diplomasi tinimbang ngan saukur museur kana skandal korupsi anu sabenerna mah lain kalakuan anjeunna pribadi.<ref name="Brockell2021">Brockell, Gillian (2021). "Ulysses S. Grant’s complicated history", ''Washington Post''.</ref> == Rujukan sarta Bibliografi Pilihan == {{refbeg}} === Buku sarta Biografi === * {{cite book |last=Chernow |first=Ron |title=Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/grant0000cher_x5t4 |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1594204876|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=White |first=Ronald C. |title=American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/americanulyssesl0000whit_w9r7 |publisher=Random House |year=2016 |isbn=978-1400069026}} * {{cite book |last=Brands |first=H. W. |title=The Man Who Saved the Union: Ulysses S. Grant in War and Peace |url=https://archive.org/details/manwhosavedunion0000bran |publisher=Doubleday |year=2012 |isbn=978-0385532457}} * {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Donald L. |title=Vicksburg: Grant's Campaign That Broke the Confederacy |url=https://archive.org/details/vicksburggrantsc0000mill |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4516-4137-0}} === Jurnal sarta Sajarah Rékonstruksi === * {{cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution 1863–1877 |url=https://archive.org/details/reconstructionam0000fone_q8w6 |publisher=Harper Perennial |year=2014 |isbn=978-0062354518}} * {{cite journal |last=Simpson |first=Brooks D. |title=Grant's Tour of the South Revisited |journal=The Journal of Southern History |volume=54 |number=3 |year=1988 |pages=425–448 |doi=10.2307/2208997}} * {{cite journal |last=Ertman |first=M. M. |title=Race Treason: The Untold Story of America's Ban on Polygamy |year=2010 |journal=Columbia Journal of Gender and Law |volume=19 |issue=2}} === Masalah Minoritas sarta Skandal === * {{cite book |last=Sarna |first=Jonathan D. |title=When General Grant Expelled the Jews |publisher=Schocken Books |year=2012a |isbn=978-0-8052-4279-9}} * {{cite book |last=Kohn |first=George C. |title=The New Encyclopedia of American Scandal |publisher=Facts on File, Inc. |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8160-4420-7}} {{refend}} == Bacaan Salajengna == {{Refbegin|30em}} === Artikel Pilihan === * Waugh, Joan (2011). "How the 'Lost Cause' poisoned our history books: Ulysses S. Grant championed civil rights". ''[[Salon.com|Salon]]''. * Stockwell, Mary (2019). "Ulysses Grant's Failed Attempt to Grant Native Americans Citizenship". ''[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]''. === Buku Utama === * {{Cite book |last=Bordewich |first=Fergus |title=Klan War: Ulysses S. Grant and the Battle to Save Reconstruction |url=https://archive.org/details/klanwarulyssessg0000ferg |publisher=Knopf |year=2023 |isbn=978-0-593-31782-2}} * {{Cite book |last=Grant |first=Ulysses S. |title=Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant |year=1885 |publisher=Charles L. Webster & Company}} * {{Cite book |last=Simpson |first=Brooks D. |title=Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction |url=https://archive.org/details/letushavepeace00broo |year=1991 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press}} {{Refend}} == Tautan Éksternal == * [https://www.usgrantlibrary.org Perpustakaan Présidén Ulysses S. Grant] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309050634/https://apnews.com/1c79b8f4c8974576a3f072b5f204532a |date=2021-03-09 }} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/grant/index.html Ulysses S. Grant: Panduan Sumber Daya - Library of Congress] * {{Gutenberg author | id=527}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Ulysses S. Grant}} {{US Presidents}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Grant, Ulysses S.}} [[Category:Ulysses S. Grant]] [[Category:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:Union army generals]] p93n5ar0ufz6iurh4s6c6r6juqfsep3 0 107863 711815 706897 2026-08-07T05:11:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 11 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711815 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Rutherford B. Hayes | image = President Rutherford Hayes 1870 - 1880 Restored.jpg | caption = Potrét, {{circa|1870–1880}} | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-19 | office = | vicepresident = [[William A. Wheeler]] | term_start = 4 Maret 1877 | term_end = 4 Maret 1881 | predecessor = [[Ulysses S. Grant]] | successor = [[James A. Garfield]] | order1 = Gubernur Ohio ka-29 sarta ka-32 | term_start1 = 10 Januari 1876 | term_end1 = 2 Maret 1877 | predecessor1 = [[William Allen (governor)|William Allen]] | successor1 = Thomas L. Young | term_start2 = 12 Januari 1868 | term_end2 = 8 Januari 1872 | predecessor2 = [[Jacob Dolson Cox]] | successor2 = [[Edward Follansbee Noyes]] | birth_name = Rutherford Birchard Hayes | birth_date = {{birth date|1822|10|4}} | birth_place = [[Delaware, Ohio]], A.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1893|1|17|1822|10|4}} | death_place = [[Fremont, Ohio]], A.S. | resting_place = [[Spiegel Grove]] | party = {{plainlist| * [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (dugi ka 1854) * [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] (ti 1854) }} | spouse = [[Lucy Ware Webb]] | children = 8 urang, kalebet [[Webb Hayes|Webb]] sarta [[Rutherford P. Hayes|Rutherford]] | education = {{plainlist| * [[Kenyon College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) * [[Harvard University]] ([[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]]) }} | occupation = Politikus, ahli hukum | signature = Rutherford Birchard Hayes Signature.svg | branch = [[Tentara Uni]] | serviceyears = 1861–1865 | rank = [[Brigadir jenderal]] | unit = [[Infanteri Ohio ka-23]] | battles = [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]] }} '''Rutherford Birchard Hayes''' (4 Oktober 1822 – 17 Januari 1893) nyaéta saurang politikus sarta ahli hukum Amérika Sarikat anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-19 ti taun 1877 dugi ka 1881. Sateuacanna, anjeunna ngajabat salaku panaséhat hukum kota (''city solicitor'') [[Cincinnati]] (1858–1861) sarta kawentar salaku sosok ''[[Abolisionisme|abolisionis]]'' anu wanter ngabéla para budak anu kabur di pangadilan.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Rutherford B. Hayes|url= https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/rutherford-b-hayes/|access-date=May 19, 2021|publisher=[[White House]]}}</ref> Nalika lumangeungna Perang Sadulur, Hayes ninggalkeun karir pulitikna pikeun ngagabung ka [[Tentara Uni]]. Anjeunna nandangan tatu lima kali, anu pangparahna nyaéta nalika [[Battle of South Mountain|Patempuran South Mountain]] taun 1862. Hayes meunang pangajén alatan kawani sarta gagah rongkahna dina pangperangan, nepi ka pangkatna naék janten mayor jenderal brevet. Saatos perang, anjeunna janten anggota pinunjul tina faksi "[[Half-Breeds (politics)|Half-Breed]]" di Partéy Républik.<ref>Welch, Richard E., Jr. (1971). ''George Frisbie Hoar and the Half-Breed Republicans'', p. 91. Harvard University Press.</ref> Hayes ngajabat di Kongrés (1865–1867) sarta kapilih janten gubernur Ohio, ngajabat dua période (1868–1872) sarta sawaréh période katilu (1876–1877) sateuacan dilantik janten présidén. Hayes unggul dina nominasi Partéy Républik dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1876]]. Dina pamilihan umum anu pinuh ku pacogrégan, anjeunna ngéléhkeun [[Samuel J. Tilden]] ti Partéy [[Democratic Party (United States)|Démokrat]] sanajan anjeunna éléh dina sora rahayat (''popular vote''). Kadua kandidat mimitina teu aya nu meunang sora éléktoral anu cukup, nanging Hayes tungtungna unggul saatos Komisi Kongrés masihan 20 sora éléktoral anu jadi sengketa dina [[Kompromi 1877]]. Ieu sengketa réngsé ku kasapukan yén Hayes janten présidén, nanging anjeunna kedah ngeureunkeun dukungan féderal pikeun [[Era Rekonstruksi]] sarta narik tentara ti urut wilayah [[Confederate States of America|Konfédérasi]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= "Betrayal of the Freedman: Rutherford B. Hayes and the End of Reconstruction"|url= https://www.rbhayes.org/hayes/betrayal-of-the-freedman-rutherford-b.-hayes-and-the-end-of-reconstruction/|access-date= May 19, 2021|publisher= [[Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center]]}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124112539/https://www.rbhayes.org/hayes/betrayal-of-the-freedman-rutherford-b.-hayes-and-the-end-of-reconstruction/ |date=January 24, 2022 }}</ref> Administrasi Hayes dipangaruhan ku kapercayaanana kana pamaréntahan anu dumasar kana préstasi ([[Meritokrasi]]) sarta perlakuan anu adil tanpa némbongkeun kabeungharan, kalungguhan sosial, atanapi ras. Salah sahiji kajadian penting dina mangsa jabatanna nyaéta [[Great Railroad Strike of 1877|Mogok Karéta Api Gedé 1877]], anu diréngsékeun ku Hayes ku cara nurunkeun Tentara A.S. ngalawan para pagawé. Hayes ogé ngalaksanakeun réformasi layanan sipil anu janten dadasar pikeun réformasi salajengna dina taun 1880-an sarta 1890-an. Dina ahir jabatanna, Hayes nedunan jangjina pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui sarta pangsiun ka bumina di Ohio. == Mangsa leutik sarta kulawarga == === Budak leutik sarta sajarah kulawarga === Rutherford Birchard Hayes gumelar di [[Delaware, Ohio]], dina 4 Oktober 1822, putra ti Rutherford Ezekiel Hayes, Jr. sarta Sophia Birchard. Ramana, saurang padagang ti [[Vermont]], mawa kulawargana ka Ohio dina taun 1817, nanging pupus 10 minggu sateuacan Rutherford gumelar. Sophia ngasuh Hayes sarta lanceukna, Fanny; maranéhna téh dua ti opat duduluran anu salamet dugi ka déwasa.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=7–8}} Sophia teu kantos nikah deui,{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=10|Barnard|2005|2pp=76–77}} sarta adi lalaki Sophia, [[Sardis Birchard]], kantos linggih sareng kulawargana.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=4}} Sardis kacida caketna sareng Hayes sarta janten sosok bapa keur anjeunna, kaasup mantuan dina mangsa atikan awalna.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=20–21|Barnard|2005|2pp=27–31}} Ti jalur kadua sepuhna, Hayes téh turunan kolonis [[New England]].{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=41}} Karuhun imigran pangmimitina sumping ka [[Connecticut]] ti [[Skotlandia]].{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=3}} Buyut Hayes, Ezekiel Hayes, nyaéta saurang kaptén milisi di Connecticut nalika [[Perang Révolusi Amérika]], nanging putra Ezekiel (aki Hayes, nami Rutherford ogé) ninggalkeun bumina di [[Branford, Connecticut]] nalika perang demi kaamanan di Vermont.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=53}} Karuhun ti pihak ibuna ogé pindah ka Vermont dina mangsa anu sarua. Dina catetanana, Hayes nyerat: <blockquote>Sim kuring salawasna nganggap diri sim kuring téh urang Skotlandia (Scotch), nanging ti garis bapa anu sumping ka Amérika, sakitar tilu puluh urang téh urang Inggris sarta mung dua urang, Hayes sareng Rutherford, anu katurunan Skotlandia. Ieu mah ti garis bapa. Ari ti garis ibu, tilu puluh dua karuhun téh sigana mah sanés urang Skotlandia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rbhayes.org/hayes/hayes-family-genealogy/|title = Hayes Family Genealogy}}</ref></blockquote> [[John Noyes (politician)|John Noyes]], paman ti jalur pernikahan, kantos janten mitra bisnis ramana di Vermont sarta engkéna kapilih janten anggota Kongrés.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=17–18}} Dulur sabarékna, Mary Jane Mead, nyaéta ibu ti pamatung [[Larkin Goldsmith Mead]] sarta arsiték [[William Rutherford Mead]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=17–18}} [[John Humphrey Noyes]], nu ngadegkeun [[Oneida Community]], ogé mangrupa dulur sabarékna.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=62–63|Barnard|2005|2p=113}} === Atikan sarta karir hukum awal === Hayes sakola di sakola umum ([[common school]]s) di Delaware, Ohio, sarta dina taun 1836 asup ka [[Norwalk Seminary]] di [[Norwalk, Ohio]].{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=4–5}} Anjeunna téh murid anu préstasi di Norwalk, sarta taun salajengna pindah ka Webb School, hiji sakola persiapan kuliah ([[University-preparatory school|preparatory school]]) di [[Middletown, Connecticut]], dimana anjeunna diajar basa [[Latin]] sarta basa [[Yunani Kuna]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=20–22|Trefousse|2002|2p=5}} Saatos mulang ka Ohio, Hayes kuliah di [[Kenyon College]], [[Gambier, Ohio]] dina taun 1838.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=25}} Anjeunna kacida mikaresep mangsa kuliahna sarta hasil sacara akademis;{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=107–113}} nalika di ditu, Hayes ngagabung ka sababaraha perkumpulan mahasiswa sarta mimiti kairut ku pulitik Partéy [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]]. Babaturan sakelasna kalebet [[Stanley Matthews (judge)|Stanley Matthews]] sarta [[John Celivergos Zachos]].<ref name="Topping1">[https://ahepahistory.org/History-of-the-Order-of-AHEPA-1922-1972-George-Leber/docs/John-Zachos-Cincinnati-Historical-Bulletin-1976-by-Eva-Catafygiotu-Topping.pdf "Topping, Eva Catafygiotu"] ''John Zachos Cincinnatian from Constantinople'' The Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin Volumes 33–34 Cincinnati Historical Society 1975: p. 51</ref>{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=33–43}} Hayes lulus kalayan gelar [[Phi Beta Kappa]] sarta meunang pangajén pangluhurna dina taun 1842, tuluy didapuk pikeun nepikeun biantara perpisahan salaku lulusan pangpunjulna ([[valedictorian]]).{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=6}} Saatos sakedap diajar hukum di [[Columbus, Ohio]], Hayes pindah ka wétan pikeun kuliah di [[Harvard Law School]] dina taun 1843.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=43–51|Barnard|2005|2pp=131–138}} Sanggeus lulus kalayan gelar [[Bachelor of Laws|LL.B]], anjeunna meunang ijin praktek hukum di Ohio dina taun 1845 sarta muka kantor hukumna sorangan di Lower Sandusky (ayeuna [[Fremont, Ohio]]).{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=52–53}} Mimitina mah usahana téh sepi, nanging lila-lila Hayes mimiti meunang palanggan sarta ngawakilan pamanna, Sardis, dina urusan hukum tanah.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=55–60}} Dina taun 1847, Hayes katarajang panyakit anu ku dokter dianggap [[tuberculosis|TBC]]. Ku sabab mikir yén parobahan hawa bisa mantuan, anjeunna kantos niat daptar jadi tentara dina [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]], nanging dumasar kana saran dokterna, Hayes langkung milih nganjang ka kulawargana di New England.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=62–66}} Saatos mulang ti ditu, Hayes sareng pamanna, Sardis, ngayakeun lalampahan tebih ka [[Texas]], dimana Hayes nganjang ka [[Guy M. Bryan]], babaturan kuliahna di Kenyon anu masih kénéh aya hubungan baraya jauh.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=66–70|Barnard|2005|2p=114}} Usahana di Lower Sandusky tetep teu pati majeng, nepi ka Hayes mutuskeun pikeun pindah ka [[Cincinnati]].{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=8}} === Praktek hukum di Cincinnati sarta pernikahan === Dina taun 1850, Hayes pindah ka Cincinnati sarta muka kantor hukum sareng John W. Herron, saurang ahli hukum ti [[Chillicothe, Ohio|Chillicothe]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=73}}{{efn|Putri Herron, [[Helen Herron Taft|Helen]], engkéna nikah sareng [[William Howard Taft]].{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=167}}}} Herron engkéna ngagabung ka firma anu langkung mapan, sarta Hayes ngadegkeun kemitraan énggal sareng William K. Rogers sarta Richard M. Corwine.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=184–185}} Usahana di Cincinnati langkung majeng sarta anjeunna mikaresep kahirupan sosial di ditu, dugi ka ngagabung sareng [[Literary Club of Cincinnati|Paguyuban Sastra Cincinnati]] sarta Klub [[Independent Order of Odd Fellows|Odd Fellows]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=74–75}} Hayes ogé sering sumping ka [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Geréja Épiskopal]] di Cincinnati, sanajan anjeunna henteu janten anggota resmina.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=74–75}} Nalika di ditu, Hayes mimiti nganjang sarta mikacinta calon pamajisanna, [[Lucy Webb Hayes|Lucy Webb]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=78–86}} Ibuna sabenerna parantos ngajurung anjeunna wanoh ka Lucy sababaraha taun sateuacanna, nanging harita Hayes nganggap Lucy teuing budak kénéh sarta langkung milih merhatoskeun awéwé sanés.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=61–62}} Opat taun ti harita, Hayes mimiti sering nyéépkeun waktos sareng Lucy. Maranéhna tunangan dina taun 1851 sarta nikah dina 30 Désémber 1852, di bumi ibu Lucy.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=78–86}} Dina lima taun salajengna, Lucy ngababarkeun tilu putra lalaki: Birchard Austin (1853), [[Webb Hayes|Webb Cook]] (1856), sarta [[Rutherford P. Hayes|Rutherford Platt]] (1858). Salaku urang [[Methodism|Métodis]], Lucy téh saurang [[Teetotalism|anti-alkohol]] sarta [[Abolisionisme|abolisionis]]. Lucy ageung pangaruhna kana pandangan salakana ngeunaan éta isu, sanajan Hayes teu kantos sacara resmi ngagabung ka geréja pamajisanna.{{sfnm|Barnard|2005|1pp=178–180, 187–188|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=93–95}} Hayes mimitina museurkeun praktek hukumna dina urusan komérsial, nanging anjeunna janten langkung kawentar di Cincinnati salaku pangacara panyalindungan kriminal,{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=9}} ngabéla sababaraha urang anu dituduh maéhan.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=87–93}} Dina salah sahiji kasus, anjeunna ngagunakeun alesan [[Panyakit jiwa|gangguan jiwa]] (''insanity defense'') anu tiasa nyalametkeun terdakwa tina hukuman gantung; éta jalma kalahka diasupkeun ka lembaga kaséhatan méntal.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=10}} Hayes ogé ngabéla para budak anu kabur sarta dituduh dumasar kana [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur 1850]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=95–99|Barnard|2005|2pp=189–191}} Ku margi Cincinnati perenahna peuntas [[Walungan Ohio]] ti [[Kentucky]], nagara bagian anu ngidinan perbudakan, kota ieu janten tujuan pikeun para budak anu kabur, sarta seueur kasus sapertos kitu diperiksa di pangadilanna. Salaku abolisionis anu teguh, Hayes ngarasa karyana ngabéla budak téh masihan kapuasan batin sarta mangpaat sacara pulitik, margi hal ieu ngangkat namina di [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]] anu nembé ngadeg.{{sfnm|Barnard|2005|1pp=196–197|Trefousse|2002|2pp=14–15}} Reputasi pulitik Hayes naék luyu sareng kasuksésan karirna. Anjeunna nolak nominasi Partéy Républik pikeun jabatan hakim dina taun 1856.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=100}} Dua taun ti harita, sababaraha urang Républik ngusulkeun Hayes pikeun ngeusian jabatan hakim anu kosong, nanging anjeunna nimbang-nimbang deui dugi ka jabatan [[City attorney|panaséhat hukum kota]] (''city solicitor'') ogé kosong.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=104–105|Barnard|2005|2pp=202–203}} Déwan kota milih Hayes janten panaséhat hukum kota pikeun ngeusian éta kekosongan, sarta anjeunna kapilih pikeun période pinuh dua taun dina April 1859 kalayan sora anu langkung seueur tibatan kandidat Républik sanésna.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=107|Barnard|2005|2p=204}} == Perang Sadulur == === Virginia Kulon sarta South Mountain === Nalika nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul mimiti misahkeun diri (''secede'') saatos [[Abraham Lincoln]] kapilih janten présidén dina taun 1860, Hayes mimitina mah teu pati sumanget kana [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]] pikeun mulikkeun Uni. Kusabab nganggap kadua pihak moal tiasa dironjatkeun deui, anjeunna kantos ngusulkeun sangkan Uni "ngantepkeun maranéhna angkat."{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=113|Barnard|2005|2p=210}} Ohio mémang milih Lincoln dina taun 1860, nanging pamilih di Cincinnati kalahka malik ngalawan Partéy Républik saatos aya pamisahan diri éta. Pangeusina seueur anu asalna ti [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kidul]], sarta maranéhna milih Démokrat sarta faksi [[Know-Nothing]], anu ngahiji pikeun meunangkeun pamilihan kota dina April 1861, anu ngabalukarkeun Hayes lélos tina jabatan panaséhat hukum kota.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=114|Barnard|2005|2pp=210–212}} Mulang deui ka prakték swasta, Hayes ngawangun kemitraan hukum anu sakedap pisan sareng [[Leopold Markbreit]], mung tahan tilu dinten sateuacan perang dimimitian.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=114|Barnard|2005|2pp=210–212}} Saatos pihak [[Konfédérasi]] nembak [[Fort Sumter]], Hayes miceun karaguanna sarta ngagabung ka kompi sukarélawan anu diwangun ku babaturanana ti Paguyuban Sastra.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=115|Barnard|2005|2pp=213–214}} Dina sasih Juni, Gubernur [[William Dennison, Jr.]] ngangkat sababaraha perwira ti kompi sukarélawan éta ka posisi dina [[Infanteri Ohio ka-23]]. Hayes diangkat janten [[Mayor (Amérika Sarikat)|mayor]], sarta babaturan kuliahna, [[Stanley Matthews (hakim)|Stanley Matthews]], diangkat janten [[Létnan kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|létnan kolonél]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=116–117}} Aya deui anu ngagabung ka resimén éta salaku prajurit (''private''), nyaéta calon présidén sanésna, [[William McKinley]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=116–117}} Saatos sabulan latihan, Hayes sarta resimén ka-23 Ohio mangkat ka Virginia kulon dina Juli 1861 salaku bagian ti [[Divisi Kanawha]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=120–121}} Maranéhna nembé patepang sareng musuh dina sasih Séptémber, nalika resimén éta panggih sareng pasukan Konfédérasi di [[Battle of Carnifex Ferry|Carnifex Ferry]] (ayeuna di [[Virginia Kulon]]) sarta hasil ngusir maranéhna.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=125–126|Reid|1868|2p=160}} Dina sasih Nopémber, Hayes ditaékeun pangkatna janten létnan kolonél sarta mingpin pasukanana langkung jero ka Virginia kulon, dimana maranéhna cicing di markas usum tiis.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=128–130}} Pasukanana maju deui dina usum semi salajengna, sarta Hayes mingpin sababaraha serangan ka pasukan pemberontak, anu salah sahijina ngabalukarkeun anjeunna tatu hampang dina tuurna.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=136–141}} Dina sasih Séptémber, resimén Hayes dicalukan ka wétan pikeun ngabantu pasukan Jenderal [[John Pope (general)|John Pope]] dina [[Patempuran Bull Run Kadua]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=141–143}} Hayes sarta pasukanana teu sumping dina waktuna pikeun patempuran éta, nanging maranéhna ngagabung sareng [[Tentara Potomac]] anu nuju rurusuhan ka kalér pikeun megat jalan pasukan [[Robert E. Lee]] anu nuju maju ka [[Maryland]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=141–143}} Nalika maju ka kalér, resimén ka-23 janten pasukan panghareupna anu panggih sareng Konfédérasi dina [[Patempuran South Mountain]] tanggal 14 Séptémber.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=146–148}} Hayes mingpin serangan ka posisi musuh sarta katarajang pélor dina panangan kencana nepi ka tulangna pites.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=146–147|Reid|1868|2p=161}} Hayes ménta salah sahiji anak buahna pikeun nalian tatuna nganggo saputangan supados getihna eureun, sarta terus mingpin pasukanana dina patempuran. Tungtungna, anak buahna mawa Hayes ka tukangeun garis pertahanan sarta dibawa ka rumah sakit. Resiménna terus maju ka [[Patempuran Antietam]], nanging Hayes teu tiasa milu tanding salila sésa kampanye éta.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=149–153}} Dina sasih Oktober, anjeunna diangkat janten [[Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|kolonél]] sarta ditugaskeun mingpin brigade kahiji ti Divisi Kanawha salaku [[Brigadir jenderal]] brevet.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=30}} === Army of the Shenandoah === [[File:George Crook - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white picture of a forked-bearded man in an army uniform|[[George Crook]] was Hayes's commander and the namesake of his fourth son]] The division spent the following winter and spring near [[Charleston, West Virginia|Charleston, Virginia]] (present-day West Virginia), out of contact with the enemy.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=154–156}} Hayes saw little action until July 1863, when the division skirmished with [[John Hunt Morgan]]'s cavalry at the [[Battle of Buffington Island]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=157–158}} Returning to Charleston for the rest of the summer, Hayes spent the fall encouraging the men of the 23rd Ohio to reenlist, and many did.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=159–161}} In 1864, the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized, and Hayes's division was assigned to [[George Crook]]'s [[Army of West Virginia]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=159–161}} Advancing into southwestern Virginia, they destroyed Confederate salt and lead mines there.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=162–164|Trefousse|2002|2pp=32–33}} On May 9, they engaged Confederate troops at [[Battle of Cloyd's Mountain|Cloyd's Mountain]], where Hayes and his men charged the enemy entrenchments and drove the rebels from the field.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=162–164|Trefousse|2002|2pp=32–33}} Following the rout, the Union forces destroyed Confederate supplies and again successfully skirmished with the enemy.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=162–164|Trefousse|2002|2pp=32–33}} Hayes and his brigade moved to the [[Shenandoah Valley]] for the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]]. Crook's corps was attached to Major General [[David Hunter]]'s [[Union Army of the Shenandoah|Army of the Shenandoah]] and soon back in contact with Confederate forces, capturing [[Lexington, Virginia]], on June 11.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=166–168}} They continued south toward [[Lynchburg, Virginia|Lynchburg]], tearing up railroad track as they advanced,{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=166–168}} but Hunter believed the troops at Lynchburg were too powerful, and Hayes and his brigade returned to West Virginia.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=166–168}} Hayes thought Hunter lacked aggression, writing in a letter home that "General Crook would have taken Lynchburg."{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=166–168}} Before the army could make another attempt, Confederate General [[Jubal Early]]'s raid into Maryland forced their recall to the north. Early's army surprised them at [[Second Battle of Kernstown|Kernstown]] on July 24, where Hayes was slightly wounded by a bullet to the shoulder.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=168–169}} He also had a horse shot out from under him, and the army was defeated.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=168–169}} Retreating to Maryland, the army was reorganized again, with Major General [[Philip Sheridan]] replacing Hunter.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=170–171}} By August, Early was retreating up the valley, with Sheridan in pursuit. Hayes's troops fended off a Confederate assault at [[Battle of Berryville|Berryville]] and advanced to [[Battle of Opequon|Opequon Creek]], where they broke the enemy lines and pursued them farther south.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=172–173}} They followed up the victory with another at [[Battle of Fisher's Hill|Fisher's Hill]] on September 22, and one more at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]] on October 19.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=174–177}} At Cedar Creek, Hayes sprained his ankle after being thrown from a horse and was struck in the head by a spent round, which did not cause serious damage.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=174–177}} His leadership and bravery drew his superiors' attention, with [[Ulysses S. Grant]] later writing of Hayes, "[h]is conduct on the field was marked by conspicuous gallantry as well as the display of qualities of a higher order than that of mere personal daring."{{sfn|Grant|2003|p=564}} Cedar Creek marked the end of the campaign. Hayes was promoted to [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] in October 1864 and brevetted [[Major general (United States)|major general]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=178–181}} Around this time, he learned of the birth of his fourth son, George Crook Hayes. The army went into winter quarters once more, and in spring 1865 the war quickly came to a close with Lee's surrender to Grant at Appomattox. Hayes visited [[Washington, D.C.]], that May and observed the [[Grand Review of the Armies]], after which he and the 23rd Ohio returned to their home state to be mustered out of the service.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=186–188}} == Pulitik pasca-perang == === Anggota DPR A.S. ti Ohio === Nalika nuju ngalaksanakeun tugas di [[Tentara Uni Shenandoah]] dina taun 1864, Hayes dicalonkeun ku Partéy Républik pikeun janten anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat]] (DPR A.S.) ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-2 Ohio]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=171–176|Barnard|2005|2pp=225–227}} Nalika dipénta ku babaturanana di Cincinnati sangkan ninggalkeun tentara demi kampanye, anjeunna nolak sarta nyebatkeun yén "perwira anu jagjag tur mampuh tugas, anu dina mangsa krisis kieu kalahka ninggalkeun posna demi kampanye korsi di Kongrés, pantesna mah dikuliti (''scalped'')."{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=171–176|Barnard|2005|2pp=225–227}} Gantina, Hayes nyerat sababaraha serat ka para pamilih anu ngajéntrékeun pandangan pulitikna, sarta anjeunna tungtungna kapilih kalayan kaunggulan 2,400 sora ngéléhkeun petahana ti Démokrat, [[Alexander Long]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=171–176|Barnard|2005|2pp=225–227}} Nalika [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-39]] kumpul dina sasih Désémber 1865, Hayes dilantik salaku bagian tina mayoritas ageung Partéy Républik. Hayes kaasup kana faksi [[Républik Moderat (éra Rékonstruksi)|moderat]], nanging anjeunna kersa milih bareng jeung faksi [[Républik Radikal|radikal]] demi ngajaga persatuan partéy.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=200–201|Conwell|1876|2pp=145–180}} Tarékah législatif utama dina Kongrés harita nyaéta [[Amandemén ka-14 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], anu dirojong ku Hayes sarta hasil disahkeun ku kadua lembaga Kongrés dina sasih Juni 1866.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=200–201|Trefousse|2002|2pp=41–44|Richardson|2001|3pp=17–18}} Pandangan Hayes saluyu sareng baturna di Républik ngeunaan isu [[Éra Rékonstruksi Amérika Sarikat]]: yén nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul kedah dibalikkeun deui ka Uni, nanging kalayan panangtayungan anu cukup pikeun para [[freedmen]] (urut budak anu parantos merdéka) sarta warga kulit hideung sanésna di Kidul.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=203|Trefousse|2002|2pp=40–41}} Sabalikna, Présidén [[Andrew Johnson]], anu naék jabatan saatos rajapati Lincoln, hoyong nampa deui nagara-nagara bagian anu kungsi misahkeun diri sacara gancang tanpa mastikeun yén maranéhna ngadopsi hukum anu nangtayungan hak-hak sipil urut budak; anjeunna ogé masihan pangampura (''grasi'') ka seueur tokoh urut Konfédérasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=203|Trefousse|2002|2pp=40–41}} Hayes sarta para anggota Kongrés ti Républik teu sapuk kana hal éta. Maranéhna digawé pikeun nolak visi Rékonstruksi Johnson sarta ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Hak Sipil 1866]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=197–199|Trefousse|2002|2p=42}} Saatos kapilih deui dina taun 1866, Hayes mulang pikeun sidang ''lame-duck''. Dina 7 Januari 1867, anjeunna milih resolusi anu ngidinan [[Inkuiri pamakzulan munggaran ngalawan Andrew Johnson|panalungtikan pamakzulan munggaran ngalawan Andrew Johnson]].<ref>{{cite web |title=To Pass a Resolution to Impeach the President. (P. 320-2, 321-2). -- House Vote #418 -- Jan 7, 1867 |url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/39-2/h418 |publisher=[[GovTrack]] |access-date=March 23, 2022}}</ref> Hayes ogé milih [[Undang-Undang Masa Jabatan 1867]], anu mastikeun yén Johnson teu tiasa ngaganti pajabat administrasi tanpa idin ti Sénat,{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=204–205}} sarta narékahan sangkan aya RUU [[Réformasi layanan sipil Amérika Sarikat|réformasi layanan sipil]], sanajan harita tacan hasil.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=204–205|Foner|2002|2pp=493–494}} Hayes teras milih bareng mayoritas dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-40]] ngeunaan [[Undang-Undang Rékonstruksi]], nanging anjeunna mundur dina sasih Juli 1867 pikeun nyalonkeun diri janten gubernur Ohio.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=208–210}} === Gubernur Ohio === Salaku anggota Kongrés anu populér sarta urut perwira Angkatan Darat, Hayes dianggap ku urang Républik di Ohio salaku sosok "pamawa bandéra" (''standard-bearer'') anu hadé pikeun [[Pamilihan gubernur Ohio 1867]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=211–213|Trefousse|2002|2pp=45–46}} Pandangan pulitikna langkung moderat tibatan platform partéyna, sanajan Hayes sapuk kana usulan amandemén konstitusi nagara bagian Ohio anu bakal ngajamin [[Hak pilih|hak pilih]] (''suffrage'') pikeun lalaki kulit hideung di Ohio.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=211–213|Trefousse|2002|2pp=45–46}} Lawanna, [[Allen G. Thurman]], ngajantenkeun usulan amandemén éta salaku jengjérék (puseur) kampanyena sarta nolak hak pilih pikeun warga kulit hideung. Kadua tokoh éta kampanye kalayan kacida sumangetna, ngayakeun biantara di sakuliah nagara bagian, anu kalolobaanana museur kana sual hak pilih.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=211–213|Trefousse|2002|2pp=45–46}} Ieu pamilihan téh matak kuciwa pikeun urang Républik, margi amandeménna gagal disahkeun sarta Partéy Démokrat hasil ngawasa mayoritas di [[Majelis Umum Ohio|législatif nagara bagian]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=214|Barnard|2005|2pp=238–239}} Hayes mimitina nyangka yén anjeunna ogé éléh, nanging hasil ahir némbongkeun yén Hayes unggul kalayan selisih 2.983 sora tina total 484.603 sora.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=214|Barnard|2005|2pp=238–239}} Salaku gubernur ti Partéy Républik kalayan législatif anu dikawasa ku Démokrat, peran Hayes dina pamaréntahan kacida kawatesna, utamana kusabab [[Gubernur Ohio]] harita teu gaduh hak [[Veto]]. Sanajan aya hahalang éta, anjeunna hasil ngawas pangadegan sakola pikeun jalma tunarungu sarta sakola réformasi pikeun barudak awéwé.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=47–48}} Hayes ngarojong [[Pamakzulan Andrew Johnson|pamakzulan Présidén Andrew Johnson]] sarta ngadesek sangkan anjeunna dihukum, sanajan tungtungna gagal ku salisih hiji sora di Sénat Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=215–216}} Dicalonkeun deui pikeun période kadua dina taun 1869, Hayes kampanye deui pikeun hak-hak anu sarua pikeun warga kulit hideung di Ohio sarta narékahan pikeun ngahubungkeun lawanna ti Démokrat, [[George H. Pendleton]], jeung isu perpecahan sarta simpati ka Konfédérasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=218–220|Barnard|2005|2pp=239–241}} Hayes kapilih deui kalayan mayoritas sora anu langkung seueur, sarta Partéy Républik hasil ngawasa législatif, anu mastikeun ratifikasi Ohio kana [[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], anu ngajamin hak pilih pikeun lalaki kulit hideung.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=218–220|Barnard|2005|2pp=239–241}} Kalayan législatif anu dikawasa ku Républik, période kadua Hayes karasana langkung lugina. Hak pilih dilegakeun sarta hiji paguron luhur tatanén sarta mékanik (nu engkéna janten [[Universitas Nagara Bagian Ohio]]) diadegkeun.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=225–228}} Anjeunna ogé ngusulkeun pangurangan pajeg nagara bagian sarta réformasi sistem panjara nagara bagian. Hayes milih henteu nyalonkeun deui sarta miharep tiasa pangsiun tina dunya pulitik dina taun 1872.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=236–240}} === Kahirupan pribadi sarta mulang deui ka dunya pulitik === Nalika Hayes nuju tatahar pikeun réngsé tina jabatanna, sababaraha delegasi ti Partéy Républik faksi réformis ngajurung anjeunna pikeun nyalonkeun diri ka [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]] ngalawan petahana ti Républik, [[John Sherman]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=236–240}} Hayes nolak, langkung milih ngajaga persatuan partéy sarta pangsiun janten rahayat biasa.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=236–240}} Anjeunna kacida miharep tiasa nyéépkeun waktos sareng putra-putrana, anu dua di antarana (Fanny sarta Scott) nembé babar dina lima taun ka tukang.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=241–242}}{{efn|Dua putra munggaranna, Joseph sareng George, pupus nalika masih orok.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=31, 42}}}} Mimitina, Hayes nyoba ngamajukeun proyék karéta api ka kota asalna, Fremont. Anjeunna ogé ngokolakeun sababaraha lahan anu dipésérna di [[Duluth, Minnesota]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=240–245|Barnard|2005|2pp=250–252}} Sanajan henteu sagemblengna leupas tina pulitik, Hayes kantos ngaharepkeun jabatan [[Kabinet Amérika Sarikat|kabinet]], nanging anjeunna kuciwa margi mung ditawaran janten asistén bendahara A.S. di Cincinnati, anu teras ditolak ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=246–248}} Hayes sapuk pikeun dicalonkeun deui dina korsi DPR lami na dina taun 1872, nanging anjeunna éléh ku [[Henry B. Banning]], baturna papada alumni Kenyon College.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=243–244|Barnard|2005|2pp=250–252}} Dina taun 1873, Lucy ngababarkeun putra sanésna, Manning Force Hayes.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=249–250}} Dina taun anu sami, [[Krisis Ékonomi 1873]] (''Panic of 1873'') ngaruksak prospek bisnis di sakuliah nagara, kalebet bisnis Hayes. Pamanna, Sardis Birchard, pupus dina taun éta, sarta kulawarga Hayes pindah ka [[Spiegel Grove]], imah agréng anu diwangun ku Birchard khusus pikeun maranéhna.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=249–251}} Hayes ngumumkeun amanat pamanna anu masihan aset $50.000 pikeun ngadegkeun perpustakaan umum di Fremont, anu dingaranan Perpustakaan Birchard. Éta perpustakaan dibuka dina taun 1874, sarta gedong anyarna réngsé di Fort Stephenson State Park dina taun 1878. Hayes ngajabat salaku pupuhu déwan pangurus perpustakaan dugi ka pupusna.<ref>[http://www.birchard.lib.oh.us/missionHistory.htm "Library History: Birchard Public Library of Sandusky County"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804170108/http://www.birchard.lib.oh.us/missionHistory.htm |date=August 4, 2018 }}, Birchard Library website</ref> Hayes miharep tiasa tetep jauh tina dunya pulitik supados tiasa mayar hutang-hutangna balukar krisis ékonomi, nanging nalika konvénsi nagara bagian Partéy Républik nyalonkeun anjeunna janten gubernur dina taun 1875, anjeunna tungtungna nampi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=256–257|Barnard|2005|2pp=270–271}} Kampanyena ngalawan [[William Allen (gubernur)|William Allen]] ti Démokrat museur kana kahéman umat Protéstan ngeunaan kamungkinan [[Blaine Amendment|bantuan nagara pikeun sakola Katolik]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=257–260|Barnard|2005|2pp=271–275|Foner|2002|3p=557}} Hayes nolak dana kasebut, sanajan anjeunna pribadi sanés saurang anti-Katolik. Kampanye ieu suksés, sarta dina 12 Oktober 1875, Hayes kapilih deui janten gubernur kalayan selisih 5.544 sora.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=257–260|Barnard|2005|2pp=271–275|Foner|2002|3p=557}} Salaku jalma munggaran anu ngajabat tilu période salaku gubernur Ohio, Hayes hasil ngirangan hutang nagara bagian, ngadegkeun deui Déwan Amal, sarta ngabatalkeun RUU Geghan anu mimitina ngidinan pangangkatan imam Katolik di sakola sarta panjara.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=61–64}} == Pamilihan 1876 == === Nominasi Républik sarta kampanye ngalawan Tilden === Kasuksesan Hayes di Ohio langsung ngangkat namina ka jajaran luhur politikus Républik anu dipertimbangkeun pikeun korsi kapersidénan dina taun 1876.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=62}} Delegasi Ohio dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1876]] ngahiji ngarojong anjeunna, sarta Sénator [[John Sherman]] ngalakukeun sagala cara sangkan Hayes meunang nominasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=260–261|Robinson|2001|2p=57}} Dina sasih Juni 1876, konvénsi dikumpulkeun kalayan [[James G. Blaine]] ti [[Maine]] salaku calon unggulan.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=262–263|Robinson|2001|2pp=53–55}} Blaine mimitina mingpin jauh dina cacah delegasi, nanging teu tiasa ngahontal mayoritas. Nalika sora Blaine mimiti turun, para delegasi milari calon sanés sarta tungtungna milih Hayes dina sora (''ballot'') katujuh.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=263–264|Robinson|2001|2pp=61–63}} Konvénsi milih Anggota DPR [[William A. Wheeler]] ti [[New York (nagara bagian)|New York]] salaku wakil présidén, sosok anu nembé ditaroskeun ku Hayes, "Éra ogé sim kuring nyebatkeunana: saha ari Wheeler téh?"{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=260|Robinson|2001|2p=63}} Strategi kampanye Hayes sarta Wheeler museur kana usaha narik simpati faksi Whig di Kidul, kalayan tujuan "misahkeun" urang Whig Kidul lami tina faksi Démokrat Kidul. Nalika [[Frederick Douglass]] naroskeun naha Partéy Républik bakal terus satia nangtayungan hak sipil warga kulit hideung atanapi "bakal leumpang tanpa sora jalma hideung di Kidul", Hayes sarta Wheeler langkung milih jalan anu kadua. Calon ti Démokrat nyaéta [[Samuel J. Tilden]], gubernur New York. Tilden dianggap lawan anu tangguh anu, sami sareng Hayes, gaduh reputasi salaku jalma jujur.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=64–68, 90–95}} Tilden ogé ngarojong sistem mata uang kuat (''hard-money'') sarta réformasi layanan sipil.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=64–68, 90–95}} Luyu sareng kabiasaan harita, kampanye dilakukeun ku wawakil (''surrogates''), sedengkeun Hayes sarta Tilden tetep cicing di kota asalna masing-masing.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=97–98}} Kaayaan ékonomi anu nuju goréng ngabalukarkeun partéy anu nuju kawasa (Républik) janten teu populér, anu ngajantenkeun Hayes curiga yén anjeunna bakal éléh.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=71}} Kadua kandidat museurkeun kakuatan di nagara bagian anu sora pamilihna gampang robah (''swing states'') sapertos New York sarta [[Indiana]], ogé tilu nagara bagian di kidul—[[Louisiana]], [[South Carolina]], sarta [[Florida]]—dimana pamaréntahan Républik éra Rékonstruksi masih kénéh nyesa di tengah kekerasan pulitik, kalebet usaha masif pikeun neken sora para [[freedman]] (urut budak).{{sfnm|Trefousse|2002|1pp=72–73|Robinson|2001|2pp=113–114}} Urang Républik nekenkeun bahayana upami Démokrat mingpin nagara saatos Démokrat Kidul ngamimitian Perang Sadulur. Di pihak sanésna, Démokrat ngagung-ngagungkeun catetan réformasi Tilden sarta ngabandingkeunana sareng [[Skandal administrasi kapersidénan Ulysses S. Grant|korupsi dina administrasi Grant]].{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=99–102}} Nalika hasil sora diitung dina dinten pamilihan, katingal pisan yén sainganna kacida ketatna: Démokrat unggul di ampir sakuliah Kidul, ogé di New York, Indiana, [[Connecticut]], sarta [[New Jersey]].{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=74}} Di [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kalér-Wétan]], beuki seueur imigran sarta turunanana anu milih Démokrat. Sanajan Tilden unggul dina sora rahayat (''popular vote'') sarta ngklaim 184 sora éléktoral, para pamingpin Républik nangtang éta hasil sarta nuduh Démokrat ngalakukeun kacurangan sarta penekanan sora warga kulit hideung di Florida, Louisiana, sarta South Carolina.{{sfn|Sproat|1974|pp=163–164}} Urang Républik sadar yén upami maranéhna tiasa nahan tilu nagara bagian kidul anu nuju dikoalisi éta sareng sababaraha nagara bagian di kulon, maranéhna bakal unggul dina [[Lembaga Pilihan (Amérika Sarikat)|lembaga pilihan]] (''electoral college'').{{sfnm|Trefousse|2002|1p=75|Robinson|2001|2pp=119–123|Sproat|1974|3pp=163–164}} === Sora éléktoral anu jadi sengketa === {{utama|Kompromi 1877|Komisi Éléktoral (Amérika Sarikat)}} Dina 11 Nopémber, tilu dinten saatos dinten pamilihan, Tilden katingalna unggul ku 184 sora éléktoral, kirang hiji sora deui pikeun ngahontal mayoritas.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=126–127}} Hayes katingalna gaduh 166 sora, sedengkeun 19 sora ti Florida, Louisiana, sarta South Carolina masih kénéh cangcaya (''disputed'').{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=126–127}} Urang Républik sarta Démokrat papada ngaklaim kameunangan di tilu nagara bagian éta, nanging hasilna jadi teu tangtu alatan ayana kacurangan ti kadua pihak.{{sfnm|Robinson|2001|1pp=131–142|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=277–279}} Kaayaan beuki ruyek nalika salah sahiji ti tilu éléktor ti [[Oregon]] (nagara bagian anu dimeunangkeun ku Hayes) didiskualifikasi; hal ieu ngirangan sora Hayes janten 165 sarta ningkatkeun sora anu jadi sengketa janten 20.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=127–128}}{{efn|Éléktor éta, John W. Watts, didiskualifikasi margi anjeunna nyepeng "Jabatan Kapercayaan atanapi Kauntungan di handapeun Amérika Sarikat", anu ngalanggar [[Pasal Dua Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat#Klausa 2: Métode milih éléktor|Pasal II, bagian 1, klausa 2]] Konstitusi A.S.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=279}}}} Upami Hayes teu kénging sadaya 20 sora sengketa éta, Tilden anu bakal kapilih janten présidén. Aya perdebatan rongkah ngeunaan saha jalmana atanapi lembaga mana di Kongrés anu boga wewenang pikeun mutuskeun antara daptar éléktor anu silih saing éta; Sénat anu dikawasa ku Républik sarta DPR anu dikawasa ku Démokrat papada ngaku gaduh hak utama.{{sfnm|Robinson|2001|1pp=145–154|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=281–286}} Dugi ka Januari 1877, nalika pasualanna teu acan réngsé, Kongrés sarta Présidén [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sapuk pikeun nyerahkeun perkara ieu ka [[Komisi Éléktoral (Amérika Sarikat)|Komisi Éléktoral]] dwipartéy.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|p=157}} Ieu komisi diwangun ku lima anggota DPR, lima sénator, sarta lima hakim Agung.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|p=158}} Pikeun ngajaga kasaimbangan partéy, diangkat tujuh urang Démokrat sarta tujuh urang Républik, kalayan Hakim [[David Davis (hakim Agung)|David Davis]], saurang independen anu dipihormat ku kadua pihak, salaku anggota ka-15.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|p=158}} Nanging, kasaimbangan ieu kaganggu nalika urang Démokrat di législatif Illinois milih Davis janten Sénat kalayan harepan tiasa mangaruhan sorana.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=286}} Davis kalahka nguciwakeun urang Démokrat ku cara nolak janten anggota Komisi alatan anjeunna parantos kapilih janten Sénat.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=286}} Kusabab hakim sanésna sadayana urang Républik, Hakim [[Joseph P. Bradley]], anu dianggap paling independen, dipilih pikeun ngagentos Davis.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=159–161}} Ieu Komisi ngayakeun sidang dina sasih Pébruari sarta dalapan urang Républik milih pikeun mikeun sadaya 20 sora éléktoral ka Hayes.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=166–171}} Urang Démokrat, anu ngarasa ambek ku éta hasil, nyoba ngalakukeun [[Filibuster]] pikeun nyegah Kongrés nampi hasil komisi.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=171–183}} Tungtungna, para palaku filibuster nyerah, ngantepkeun DPR sarta Sénat kumpul deui pikeun ngabéréskeun cacah sora. Dina jam 4:10 subuh tanggal 2 Maret, Sénator [[Thomas W. Ferry]] ngumumkeun yén Hayes sarta Wheeler parantos kapilih janten présidén sarta wakil présidén kalayan sora 185–184. Nalika dinten pelantikan beuki caket, para pamingpin Kongrés ti Républik sarta Démokrat panggih di [[Wormley's Hotel]] di Washington pikeun nyawalakeun hiji [[Kompromi 1877]]. Urang Républik jangji bakal masihan konsési (timbal balik) asal urang Démokrat narima kaputusan komisi. Konsési utama anu dijajikeun ku Hayes nyaéta narik pasukan féderal ti Kidul sarta nampi kameunangan pamaréntahan Démokrat di nagara-nagara bagian Kidul anu can "dipulihkeun" (''unredeemed'').{{sfnm|Robinson|2001|1pp=182–184|Foner|2002|2pp=580–581}} Urang Démokrat sapuk, sarta dina 2 Maret, filibuster dieureunkeun. Hayes kapilih janten présidén, nanging Éra Rékonstruksi réngsé, sarta para [[freedmen]] (urut budak) ditinggalkeun dina kakawasaan urang Démokrat kulit bodas anu teu boga niat pikeun ngajaga hak-hak maranéhna.{{sfnm|Robinson|2001|1pp=185–189|Foner|2002|2pp=581–587}} {{clear}} == Mangsa Kapersidénan (1877–1881) == {{Utama|Kapersidénan Rutherford B. Hayes}} === Pelantikan === Kusabab tanggal 4 Maret 1877 ragrag dina dinten Minggu, Hayes ngalaksanakeun sumpah jabatan sacara pribadi dina dinten Saptu, 3 Maret, di [[Red Room (White House)|Kamar Beureum]] [[Gedong Bodas]]. Hal ieu ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran anu dicokot sumpahna di jero Mansion Éksékutif. Dua dinten saatosna, anjeunna ngalaksanakeun sumpah sacara kabuka di Portico Wétan [[Gedong Capitol Amérika Sarikat]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=295–297}} Dina biantara pelantikanana, Hayes nyobi nenangkeun amarah pulitik anu lumangsung sababaraha sasih ka tukang, kalayan nyebatkeun yén "anjeunna anu panghadéna ngabakti ka partéyna nyaéta anu panghadéna ngabakti ka nagarana" (''he serves his party best who serves his country best'').{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=85–86}} Hayes jangji bakal ngarojong "pamaréntahan lokal anu wijaksana, jujur, sarta daméy" di Kidul, ogé réformasi [[Layanan sipil Amérika Sarikat|layanan sipil]] sarta mulang deui sagemblengna kana [[Standar emas]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=298–299}} Sanajan anjeunna mawa pesen perdamaian, seueur urang Démokrat anu tetep teu ngaku yén kameunangan Hayes téh sah, sarta maranéhna nyebut Hayes salaku "**Rutherfraud**" atanapi "**His Fraudulency**" (Kacurangan Anjeunna) salila opat taun jabatanna.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=402–403}} === Wilayah Kidul sarta réngséna Rékonstruksi === Hayes sabenerna satia ngarojong kawijakan [[Era Rekonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]] Partéy Républik sapanjang karirna, nanging léngkah munggaran anu penting dina mangsa kapersidénanana nyaéta mungkas Rékonstruksi sarta mulikkeun wilayah Kidul kana "pamaréntahan mandiri" (''home rule'').{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=90–93}} Sanajan tanpa ayana kasapukan di Wormley's Hotel ogé, Hayes bakal hésé pikeun neraskeun kawijakan nu tiheula. DPR dina [[Kongres Amérika Sarikat ka-45]] dikawasa ku mayoritas Démokrat, sarta maranéhna nolak mikeun dana anu cukup pikeun tentara tetep cicing di wilayah Kidul.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=304–307|Foner|2002|2pp=580–583|Davison|1972|3p=142}} Malah di kalangan urang Républik sorangan, sumanget pikeun neraskeun Rékonstruksi militer mimiti luntur alatan ayana perlawanan sarta kekerasan anu terus-terusan di Kidul.{{sfnm|Davison|1972|1p=138|Trefousse|2002|2p=92}} Nalika Hayes mimiti ngajabat dina 5 Maret, mung dua nagara bagian, South Carolina sarta Louisiana, anu masih kénéh aya dina pangaruh Rékonstruksi. Dina 3 April, Hayes maréntahkeun Sekretaris Perang [[George W. McCrary]] pikeun narik pasukan féderal anu ditempatkeun di [[Gedong Nagara South Carolina]] ka barakna masing-masing. Sababaraha minggu ti harita, dina 20 April, anjeunna maréntahkeun McCrary pikeun mindahkeun pasukan féderal ti St. Louis Hotel di [[New Orleans]] ka [[Jackson Barracks]].{{sfnm|Dodds|2013|1p=113|Clendenen|1969|2p=246}} Tanpa ayana pasukan pikeun ngajalankeun undang-undang hak pilih, nagara-nagara bagian ieu geuwat ragrag kana kakawasaan Démokrat.{{sfn|Clendenen|1969|p=244}} Tarékah Hayes salajengna pikeun nangtayungan hak-hak warga kulit hideung di Kidul téh henteu hasil.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=317–318|Davison|1972|2pp=141–143}} Nanging, anjeunna hasil ngéléhkeun usaha Kongrés pikeun ngawatesan kakuatan féderal dina ngawas pamilihan umum. Démokrat di Kongrés ngaluluskeun RUU anggaran tentara dina taun 1879 kalayan "aturan tambahan" (''rider'') anu bakal ngabatalkeun [[Undang-Undang Penegakan]] (''Enforcement Acts''), anu mimitina dipaké pikeun neken [[Ku Klux Klan]]. Hayes keukeuh hayang ngajaga hukum anu nangtayungan pamilih kulit hideung sarta ngagunakeun hak [[Veto]]-na kana éta anggaran.{{sfnm|Davison|1972|1pp=162–163|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=392–402|Richardson|2001|3p=161}} Urang Démokrat nyoba nepi ka lima kali kalayan RUU anu sarupa, nanging Hayes tetep meveto éta RUU.{{sfnm|Davison|1972|1pp=162–163|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=392–402|Richardson|2001|3p=161}} Tungtungna, Kongrés ngaluluskeun RUU tanpa aturan tambahan éta, nanging nolak ngaluarkeun dana pikeun marsekal féderal anu kacida pentingna pikeun negakkeun hukum pamilihan. Undang-undang pamilihan tetep lumaku, nanging dana pikeun ngajalankeunana dikiihan (dikurangan) pikeun samentara waktu.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=402}} Dina buku poéanana, Hayes nyerat: "Tugas sim kuring nyaéta ngaleungitkeun garis warna (ras), mungkas sekssionalisme, sarta mawa katengtreman. Pikeun ngalakukeun ieu, sim kuring sayagi nyandak léngkah anu mahiwal sarta nanggung résiko kana reputasi sim kuring sorangan di jero partéy sarta nagara."{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=418}} Sanajan kitu, sagala tarékahna hanteu hasil; Hayes gagal ngayakinkeun wilayah Kidul pikeun narima sagemblengna sasaruaan hukum ras.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=317–318}} === Réformasi layanan sipil === Hayes mimiti ngajabat kalayan tékad pikeun ngoméan sistem pangangkatan layanan sipil (birokrasi), anu saprak mangsa kapersidénan [[Andrew Jackson]] dumasar kana [[Sistem spoils|sistem balat-kosép]] (''spoils system'').{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=93–94}}{{efn|Nu miheulaan Hayes, Présidén [[Ulysses S. Grant]], kungsi ngadegkeun [[Komisi Layanan Sipil Amérika Sarikat]] munggaran dina taun 1871, nanging éta komisi bubar dina taun 1874.{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|pp=293–294}}}} Gantina masihan padamelan féderal ka para pangrojong pulitik, Hayes hoyong masihan éta jabatan dumasar kana préstasi (''merit system'') luyu sareng hasil [[Ujian layanan sipil|ujian]] anu kedah diikuti ku sadaya pelamar.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=318–319}} Ieu tarékah réformasi téh geuwat mawa anjeunna kana konflik sareng faksi [[Stalwart (pulitik)|Stalwart]], nyaéta faksi di Partéy Républik anu ngadukung sistem balat-kosép. Para sénator ti kadua partéy anu tos biasa ditaroskeun pamadeganana ngeunaan pangangkatan pajabat pulitik kalahka malik ngalawan Hayes. Lawan utamana nyaéta Sénator New York, [[Roscoe Conkling]], anu terus-terusan ngahalangan usaha réformasi Hayes.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=164–165}} Pikeun némbongkeun komitmenna, Hayes ngangkat [[Carl Schurz]], salah sahiji tokoh anu pangvokalna dina réformasi harita, janten [[Sekretaris Urusan Jero Nagara Amérika Sarikat]] sarta miwarang Schurz sareng [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Nagara]] [[William M. Evarts]] pikeun mingpin komite kabinét husus anu ditugaskeun nyusun aturan anyar ngeunaan pangangkatan pajabat féderal.{{sfn|Paul|1998|p=71}} Sekretaris Bendahara [[John Sherman]] maréntahkeun [[John Jay (pangacara)|John Jay]] pikeun nalungtik [[New York Custom House]] (Kantor Béa Cukai New York), anu harita pinuh ku jalma-jalma "titipan" Conkling.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=318–319}} Laporan Jay némbongkeun yén éta kantor téh teuing ku seueur teuing pagawé titipan pulitik nepi ka 20% ti maranéhna sabenerna teu diperlukeun pisan.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=322–325|Davison|1972|2pp=164–165|Trefousse|2002|3pp=95–96}} Sanajan anjeunna teu tiasa ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngalarang sistem balat-kosép, Hayes ngaluarkeun [[Parentah éksékutif (Amérika Sarikat)|parentah éksékutif]] anu ngalarang para pajabat féderal dipénta sumbangan kampanye atanapi aub dina pulitik praktis partéy.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=322–325|Davison|1972|2pp=164–165|Trefousse|2002|3pp=95–96}} [[Chester A. Arthur]], Kapala Béa Cukai Palabuhan New York, sarta anak buahna [[Alonzo B. Cornell]] sarta [[George H. Sharpe]], anu mangrupa pangrojong Conkling, nolak nurut kana éta paréntah.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=322–325|Davison|1972|2pp=164–165|Trefousse|2002|3pp=95–96}} Dina sasih Séptémber 1877, Hayes ménta maranéhna mundur, nanging ditolak. Anjeunna teras ngajukeun nami [[Theodore Roosevelt, Sr.]], [[L. Bradford Prince]], sarta [[Edwin Atkins Merritt]] salaku panggantina ka Sénat. Komite Perdagangan Sénat anu dipingpin ku Conkling milih pikeun nolak sadaya calon kasebut.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=352|Trefousse|2002|2pp=95–96}} Hayes kedah ngantosan dugi ka Juli 1878, nalika Kongrés nuju libur, pikeun ngeureunkeun Arthur sarta Cornell sarta ngangkat Merritt sarta [[Silas W. Burt]] ngaliwatan [[pangangkatan mangsa resés]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=370–371}} Nalika Sénat kumpul deui dina Pébruari 1879, pangangkatan éta tungtungna disahkeun, anu janten kameunangan pangageungna pikeun Hayes dina réformasi layanan sipil.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=382–384|Barnard|2005|2p=456}} Sapanjang sésa jabatanna, Hayes teras-terasan ngadesek Kongrés sangkan ngesahkeun undang-undang réformasi permanén. Sanajan henteu lulus nalika jaman anjeunna, tarékah Hayes janten dadasar anu kuat pikeun lahirna [[Undang-Undang Pendleton 1883]], anu ironisna ditéken ku Présidén Chester Arthur (jalma anu kungsi dipecat ku Hayes).{{sfn|Paul|1998|pp=73–74}} Hayes ogé tegas dina merangan korupsi di departemén sanés; dina taun 1880, anjeunna maksa [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] [[Richard W. Thompson]] pikeun mundur saatos Thompson nampi gaji ti pihak swasta Perancis pikeun proyék terusan di Panama.{{sfn|Sproat|1974|pp=169–170}} Hayes ogé nyoba ngabongkar skandal korupsi di layanan pos anu katelah "[[Star route scandal|star route]]".{{sfn|Klotsche|1935|pp=409–411}} Sanajan dituduh ku Démokrat lila teuing dina nalungtikna alatan sieun ngaruksak kasempetan Républik dina pamilihan 1880, Hayes tetep ngeureunkeun kontrak-kontrak anyar anu curiga. Sejarawan [[Hans L. Trefousse]] nyebatkeun yén Hayes sabenerna teu terang-terang acan ka tersangka utamana sarta teu gaduh hubungan sareng korupsi éta.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=144}} === Mogok Karéta Api Ageung === {{Utama|Mogok Karéta Api Ageung 1877}} Dina taun munggaran jabatanna, Hayes nyanghareupan pergolakan buruh pangageungna dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat harita, nyaéta [[Mogok Karéta Api Ageung 1877]].{{sfnm|Foner|2002|1p=583|Stowell|1999|2pp=1–2|Richardson|2001|3p=121}} Pikeun nutupan karugian finansial balukar Krisis Ékonomi 1873, pausahaan-pausahaan karéta api utama neukteuk gaji karyawanana sababaraha kali dina taun 1877.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=326–327}} Dina sasih Juli taun éta, para pagawé di [[Baltimore & Ohio Railroad]] lélos tina pagawéanana di [[Martinsburg, Virginia Kulon]], pikeun protés kana pangurangan gajih kasebut.{{sfnm|Bruce|1989|1pp=75–77|Stowell|1999|2p=117}} Ieu aksi [[Mogok|mogok]] téh geuwat nular ka para pagawé karéta api [[New York Central Railroad|New York Central]], [[Erie Railroad|Erie]], sarta [[Pennsylvania Railroad|Pennsylvania]], nepi ka jumlahna ngahontal rébuan jalma.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=328–333|Davison|1972|2pp=145–153|Barnard|2005|3pp=445–447}} Alatan sieun ayana [[Karusuhan|karusuhan]], Gubernur [[Henry M. Mathews]] ménta Hayes pikeun ngintunkeun pasukan féderal ka Martinsburg. Hayes nyaluyuan, nanging nalika pasukan sumping, teu aya karusuhan—anu aya mung protés daméy.{{sfn|Bruce|1989|pp=93–94}} Nanging, [[Mogok karéta api Baltimore 1877|karusuhan leres-leres bitu di Baltimore]] dina 20 Juli, sarta Hayes maréntahkeun pasukan di [[Fort McHenry]] pikeun ngabantu gubernur neken éta karusuhan.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=328–333|Davison|1972|2pp=145–153|Barnard|2005|3pp=445–447}} Salajengna, [[Pittsburgh]] ogé bitu ku karusuhan, nanging Hayes rada hamham (ragu-ragu) pikeun ngintunkeun pasukan sateuacan aya paménta ti gubernur.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=328–333|Davison|1972|2pp=145–153|Barnard|2005|3pp=445–447}} Warga sanésna anu ngarasa teu puas ogé milu aub jeung para pagawé karéta api dina karusuhan éta.{{sfnm|Stowell|1999|1pp=116–127|Hoogenboom|1995|2p=328}} Saatos sababaraha dinten, Hayes mutuskeun pikeun ngintunkeun pasukan guna nangtayungan banda nagara (aset féderal) di mana waé anu dianggap kaancam, sarta méré wewenang pinuh ka Mayor Jenderal [[Winfield Scott Hancock]] pikeun ngatur kaayaan. Ieu mangrupikeun kajadian munggaran pasukan féderal dipaké pikeun mungkas aksi mogok ngalawan pausahaan swasta.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=328–333|Davison|1972|2pp=145–153|Barnard|2005|3pp=445–447}} Dina tanggal 29 Juli, karusuhan parantos réngsé sarta pasukan féderal mulang ka barakna.{{sfn|Foner|2002|p=585}} Teu aya pasukan féderal anu nelasan demonstran atanapi nemasing pati, nanging bentrokan antara milisi nagara bagian jeung para demonstran ngabalukarkeun korban jiwa di kadua pihak.{{sfnm|Davison|1972|1pp=148–150|Trefousse|2002|2p=95}} Sanajan pausahaan karéta api "meunang" dina jangka pondok, rahayat kalahka nyalahkeun maranéhna alatan ayana kekerasan éta, nepi ka pausahaan kapaksa ngoméan kaayaan gawé.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=334|Davison|1972|2pp=152–153}} Pamadegan Hayes pribadi mah rada **[[Dua Sisi]]**; sakumaha anu diserat dina buku poéanana: <blockquote>"Aksi mogok parantos dieureunkeun ku ''kakuatan;'' nanging ayeuna urang peryogi ubar anu ''nyata''. Naha aya anu tiasa dilakukeun ngaliwatan atikan pikeun para demonstran, sarta ku pangawasan anu wijaksana ka para kapitalis (nu boga modal), sarta ku kawijakan umum anu pinter pikeun mungkas ieu kaburukan? Para demonstran karéta api téh, umumna, jalma-jalma bageur, jujur, calakan, sarta getol daméy."{{sfnm|Barnard|2005|1pp=446–447|Hayes|1922|2loc=v. 3|2p=440}}</blockquote> === Debat mata uang === Hayes nyanghareupan dua pasualan ngeunaan [[Mata uang|mata uang]], anu munggaran nyaéta ngeunaan [[Pérak bébas|penduitan pérak]] sarta hubunganana sareng [[Standar emas]]. Dina taun 1873, [[Undang-Undang Penduitan 1873]] ngeureunkeun panyitakan koin pérak pikeun sakabéh koin anu hargana samiliar dolar atanapi langkung, anu sacara éféktif nali nilai dolar kana nilai emas. Balukarna, [[Deflasi|suplai artos ngaleutikan]] sarta pangaruh Krisis Ékonomi 1873 beuki parah, ngajantenkeun para pautang (''debtors'') beuki hésé mayar hutang anu dijieun nalika nilai mata uang masih handap.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=356}} Para patani sarta buruh kacida mikahayang mulangna deui penduitan dina kadua logam (emas sarta pérak), kalayan kapercayaan yén kanaékan suplai artos bakal mulikkeun gajih sarta nilai banda.{{sfn|Unger|2008|p=358}} Anggota DPR ti Démokrat, [[Richard P. Bland]], ngusulkeun RUU anu ngawajibkeun Amérika Sarikat nyitak saloba-loba pérak sakumaha anu tiasa dijual ku para panambang ka pamaréntah.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=176–177}} [[William B. Allison]], urang Républik ti Iowa, masihan amandemén pikeun ngawatesan penduitan mung dua dugi ka opat juta dolar per sasih, sarta hasilna nyaéta [[Undang-Undang Bland–Allison]] anu disahkeun ku Kongrés dina taun 1878.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=176–177}} Hayes sieun yén ieu undang-undang bakal ngabalukarkeun [[Inflasi]] anu ngaruksak dunya bisnis. Anjeunna yakin yén nga-inflasikeun mata uang téh tindakan anu teu jujur, kalayan nyebatkeun, "Kabutuhan sarta kaadilan papada nungtut ayana mata uang anu jujur."{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=358–360}} Anjeunna meveto éta RUU, nanging Kongrés hasil ngabatalkeun (''override'') veto-na; ieu mangrupikeun hiji-hijina kajadian veto Hayes dibatalkeun ku Kongrés salila mangsa jabatanna.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=176–177}} Pasualan kadua nyaéta ngeunaan [[Greenback (artos)|greenbacks]], nyaéta jinis [[Mata uang fiat|mata uang fiat]] (artos kertas) anu munggaran dikaluarkeun nalika Perang Sadulur. [[Undang-Undang Pamulihan Pamayaran Spési]] taun 1875 ngawajibkeun bendahara nagara pikeun nukeun deui greenback anu aya ku emas, sangkan mata uang nagara balik deui kana standar emas anu kuat.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=176–177}} Sekretaris Bendahara [[John Sherman]] sapuk sareng pamadegan Hayes sarta ngumpulkeun stok emas pikeun persiapan nukeurkeun greenback.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=358–360}} Nanging, saatos rahayat yakin yén maranéhna tiasa nukeun éta artos kertas ku emas, tétéla mung saeutik anu leres-leres nukeunana. Nalika undang-undang éta mimiti lumaku dina taun 1879, mung $130.000 tina total $346.000.000 greenback anu leres-leres ditukeun ku emas.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=107}} Gabungan antara Undang-Undang Bland-Allison sarta pamulihan pamayaran emas ieu hasil nyiptakeun kompromi antara pihak anu hoyong inflasi sareng pihak "mata uang kuat" (''hard money''), sahingga pacogrégan ngeunaan mata uang mimiti tiis dina sésa mangsa jabatan Hayes.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=177–180}} === Kawijakan luar nagara === Kalolobaan kawijakan luar nagara Hayes aya hubunganana sareng [[Amérika Latin]]. Dina taun 1878, saatos [[Perang Paraguay]], anjeunna janten arbiter (panengah) dina sengketa wilayah antara [[Argéntina]] sarta [[Paraguay]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=416}} Hayes mutuskeun yén lahan anu jadi sengketa di wilayah [[Gran Chaco]] téh milik Paraguay. Pikeun ngajénan jasa Hayes, urang Paraguay nganami hiji kota ([[Villa Hayes]]) sarta hiji [[Departemén (subdivisi nagara)|departemén]] ([[Departemén Presidente Hayes]]) dumasar kana namina.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=416}} Hayes ogé hariwang ku rencana [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]], nu ngawangun [[Terusan Suéz]], anu badé ngawangun terusan meuntas [[Isthmus Panama]] (harita masih bagian tina [[Kolombia]]).{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=417–418}} Hariwang ku kajadian deui campur tangan Perancis sapertos di Méksiko, Hayes negeskeun [[Doktrin Monroe]]. Dina pesenna ka Kongrés, anjeunna ngajéntrékeun: "Kawijakan nagara ieu nyaéta terusan di handapeun kontrol Amérika... Amérika Sarikat moal satuju pikeun nyerahkeun kontrol ieu ka kakuatan Éropa mana waé."{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=420–421|Barnard|2005|2p=442}} Wates [[Méksiko–Amérika Sarikat]] ogé narik perhatian Hayes. Sapanjang taun 1870-an, "gorombolan anu teu patuh hukum" sering meuntas wates pikeun ngalakukeun rampog di Téxas.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=335|Barnard|2005|2p=443}} Tilu sasih saatos ngajabat, Hayes masihan wewenang ka Angkatan Darat pikeun ngudag para [[brandal]], sanajan kudu meuntas ka wilayah Méksiko.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=335|Barnard|2005|2p=443}} Présidén Méksiko [[Porfirio Díaz]] protés sarta ngintunkeun pasukan ka wates. Kaayaan mimitina tegang, nanging tungtungna kalem saatos Díaz sarta Hayes sapuk pikeun babarengan ngudag para brandal.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=337|Barnard|2005|2p=444}} Kekerasan di sapanjang wates ngurangan, sarta dina taun 1880, Hayes nyabut paréntah ngudag ka wilayah Méksiko.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=338}} Di luar [[Hémisfér Kulon]], pasualan luar nagara Hayes anu pangageungna nyaéta sareng China. Dina taun 1868, Sénat parantos ngaratifikasi [[Perjangjian Burlingame]], anu ngidinan imigran China asup ka Amérika Sarikat tanpa wates. Nalika ékonomi murag saatos Krisis Ékonomi 1873, imigran China disalahkeun di Amérika Kulon alatan dianggap nurunkeun gajih buruh.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=387}} Salaku réspon, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Pangaluaran China]] (''Chinese Exclusion Act'') dina taun 1879, anu ngabatalkeun perjangjian 1868 sacara sapihak.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=388–389|Barnard|2005|2pp=447–449}} Hayes meveto éta RUU, kalayan kapercayaan yén Amérika Sarikat teu meunang ngabatalkeun perjangjian tanpa negoisasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=388–389|Barnard|2005|2pp=447–449}} Veto ieu dipuji ku urang Républik di Kalér-Wétan, nanging Hayes dikritik rongkah di wilayah Amérika Kulon.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=388–389|Barnard|2005|2pp=447–449}} Démokrat di DPR malah nyoba pikeun [[Pamakzulan|mamakzulkeun]] anjeunna, nanging gagal. Saatos veto éta, Hayes ngintunkeun utusan pikeun negoisasi sareng pihak China sangkan bisa ngurangan imigrasi sacara babarengan sarta daméy.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=390–391}} Dina taun 1877, urut Présidén [[Ulysses S. Grant]] ngayakeun perjalanan sakuliah dunya. Hayes sadar kana popularitas Grant di Éropa sarta ngarojong éta perjalanan pikeun nguatkeun kapentingan sarta hubungan luar nagara Amérika.{{sfn|Campbell|2016|pp=xi–xii, 2–3}} Nalika Grant nuju di Nice, anjeunna naék kana kapal [[USS Vandalia (1876)|USS ''Vandalia'']], kapal perang anu sacara husus dikintunkeun ku Hayes pikeun perjalan Grant di Laut Tengah sarta Mesir.{{sfn|White|2016|p=597}} === Kawijakan ka urang Indian === Sekretaris Urusan Jero Nagara [[Carl Schurz]] ngajalankeun kawijakan Hayes ka [[Padumuk asli Amérika|urang Indian]], dimimitian ku nyegah [[Departemén Perang Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Perang]] nyokot alih [[Biro Urusan Indian]].{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=184–185}} Hayes sarta Schurz ngajalankeun kawijakan anu ngawengku asimilasi kana budaya kulit bodas, palatihan atikan, sarta ngabagi-bagi lahan Indian janten kapamilikan somah (kulawarga) masing-masing.{{sfnm|Trefousse|2002|1p=109|Davison|1972|2pp=186–187}} Hayes yakin yén kawijakanana bakal mawa kamerdikaan ékonomi sarta katengtreman antara urang Indian sarta kulit bodas.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=341–343, 449–450}} Sistem pembagian lahan (''allotment system'') di handapeun [[Undang-Undang Dawes]] harita dipikaresep ku para réformis liberal, nanging tétéla kalahka ngarugikeun urang Indian. Maranéhna kaleungitan seueur lahan alatan dijual ku pamaréntah salaku "lahan kaleuwihan", sarta seueur lahan anu dicokot ku para [[Spékulasi|spékulan]] kulit bodas anu teu jujur.{{sfn|Stuart|1977|pp=452–454}} Sanajan Hayes sarta Schurz ngoméan Biro Urusan Indian pikeun ngurangan kacurangan, éta lembaga umumna kakurangan tanaga gawé.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=343–344, 449}} Hayes nanganan sababaraha konflik sareng suku-suku Indian. Suku [[Nez Perce]], anu dipingpin ku [[Chief Joseph]], ngamimitian [[Perang Nez Perce|pemberontakan]] dina sasih Juni 1877 nalika Mayor Jenderal [[Oliver O. Howard]] maréntahkeun maranéhna pindah ka [[Résérvasi Indian|résérvasi]]. Suku Nez Perce nyoba kabur sajauh 1.700 mil ka [[Kanada]], nanging tungtungna Chief Joseph nyerah di [[Bear Paw]], Montana.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=338–341}} Perang Nez Perce sanés konflik terakhir; suku [[Bannock]] ogé ngayakeun perlawanan dina taun 1878 di Idaho sateuacan ditalukkeun ku pasukan Howard.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=184–185}} Dina taun 1879, perang sareng suku [[Ute]] bitu di Colorado saatos maranéhna nelasan agén Indian [[Nathan Meeker]]. Ieu konflik réngsé saatos Schurz ngayakeun negoisasi daméy sarta nyegah para padumuk kulit bodas ngalakukeun bales dendam.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=123}} Hayes ogé aub dina ngaréngsékeun masalah pamindahan suku [[Ponca]] ti [[Nebraska]] ka Téritori Indian (ayeuna [[Oklahoma]]). Masalah ieu narik perhatian Hayes saatos pamimpinna, [[Standing Bear]], ngajukeun gugatan hukum. Hayes ngawangun komisi dina taun 1880 anu mutuskeun yén suku Ponca bébas mulang ka tanah asalna di Nebraska atanapi tetep di résérvasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=450–454|Sproat|1974|2p=173}} Dina pesenna ka Kongrés dina Pébruari 1881, Hayes negeskeun yén anjeunna bakal "méré ka ieu jalma-jalma anu katindes ukuran kaadilan sarta kamanusaan anu sakuduna."{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=124}} === Perjalanan Ageung ka Kulon 1880 === Dina taun 1880, Hayes ngayakeun perjalanan salami 71 dinten ka [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kulon]], janten présidén kadua anu nuju ngajabat anu ngalanto ka kuloneun [[Pagunungan Rocky]]. Rombongan perjalanana ngawengku pamajidanna sarta [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], anu mantuan ngatur éta lalampahan. Hayes angkat dina sasih Séptémber 1880, miang ti Chicago ngagunakeun [[Jalur karéta api transkontinental munggaran|jalur karéta api transkontinental]]. Hayes meuntas buana, dugi ka California, sarta eureun heula di Wyoming, Utah, sarta Nevada sateuacan dugi ka Sacramento sarta San Francisco. Ngagunakeun karéta api sarta karéta kuda (''stagecoach''), rombongan éta ngalanto ka kalér ka Oregon, dugi ka Portland, sarta ti dinya ka Vancouver, Washington. Ngagunakeun kapal uap, maranéhna nganjang ka Seattle, teras mulang deui ka San Francisco. Hayes teras ngurilingan sababaraha nagara bagian di kidul-kulon sateuacan mulang ka Ohio dina sasih Nopémber, pas pisan waktosna pikeun méré sora dina pamilihan présidén 1880. === Gedong Bodas jaman Hayes === Hayes sarta pamajidanna, [[Lucy Webb Hayes|Lucy]], kawentar ku kawijakanana anu ngalarang ayana alkohol di Gedong Bodas, anu ngabalukarkeun pamajidanna meunang lalandian "Lemonade Lucy".{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=3|Davison|1972|2p=xv}} Resépsi munggaran di Gedong Bodas harita sabenerna masih mintonkeun anggur (''wine''), nanging Hayes ngarasa kuciwa ningal paripolah mabok dina resépsi-resépsi anu diayakeun ku para duta besar di Washington, sahingga anjeunna mutuskeun pikeun nuturkeun pamadegan pamajidanna ngeunaan [[Gerakan temperance|pantang alkohol]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=384}} Kritikus nuduh Hayes pedit, nanging Hayes kalahka méspentkeun langkung seueur artos (tina saku pribadi) saatos larangan éta, kalayan maréntahkeun sangkan sésa anggaran tina alkohol dipaké pikeun hiburan anu langkung méwah. Kawijakan ieu ogé mawa kauntungan pulitik, nyaéta nguatkeun dukungan ti para pandita [[Protestan]]. Sanajan Sekretaris Evarts kungsi banyol yén dina jamuan tuang di Gedong Bodas, "cai ngamalir lir ibarat anggur," ieu kawijakan hasil ngayakinkeun para pangrojong larangan alkohol pikeun milih Républik.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=458}} === Pangangkatan hakim === {{utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku Rutherford B. Hayes}} Hayes ngangkat dua [[Hakim Agung Amérika Sarikat|Hakim Agung]]. Anu munggaran nyaéta [[John Marshall Harlan]]. Harlan téh urut calon gubernur Kentucky anu engkéna ngabakti di pangadilan salami 34 taun. Anjeunna kawentar salaku hakim anu (sanajan seringna janten sora minoritas) satia ngabéla penegakan hukum hak sipil sacara agrésif.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=130–132}} Dina taun 1880, korsi kadua kosong sarta Hayes nyalonkeun [[William Burnham Woods]]. Woods ngabakti salami genep taun, nanging tungtungna nguciwakeun Hayes margi anjeunna napsirkeun Konstitusi ku cara anu langkung condong ka Démokrat Kidul tinimbang ka pamadegan Hayes sorangan.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=268, 498}} Hayes ogé nyoba nyalonkeun sobatna, [[Stanley Matthews (hakim)|Stanley Matthews]], dina taun 1881. Nanging, seueur sénator anu nolak margi Matthews dianggap teuing ku deukeut teuing sareng kapentingan pausahaan ageung sarta karéta api. Sénat nolak méré sora nepi ka mangsa jabatan Hayes réngsé. Engkéna, dina jaman Présidén [[James A. Garfield]], Matthews tungtungna disahkeun janten hakim ku bédana mung hiji sora (24-23). Kaputusanana dina kasus ''[[Yick Wo v. Hopkins]]'' (1886) némbongkeun dukunganana kana hak-hak minoritas étnis, luyu sareng visi Hayes.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=457}} == Sabada kapersidénan (1881–1893) == [[File:Hayes in 1886.jpg|thumb|Hayes dina taun 1886]] {{Georgism|politicians}} Hayes nolak pikeun dicalonkeun deui dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1880|pamilihan 1880]], nepi kana jangjina mung ngajabat salila samasa jabatan.{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|p=549}} Anjeunna ngarasa sugema nalika rénjangna ti Ohio, James A. Garfield, kapilih pikeun ngagantikeunana.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=447–465}} Saatos pelantikan Garfield, Hayes sarta kulawargana mulang ka [[Spiegel Grove]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=466–467}} Hayes janten tokoh anu vokal dina ngamajukeun amal atikan sarta subsidi atikan féderal pikeun sadaya barudak.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=471–475|Thelen|1970|2p=156}} Anjeunna yakin yén atikan téh cara panghadéna pikeun ngubaran "borok" dina masarakat Amérika. Dina taun 1887, Hayes diangkat janten Déwan Pangawas di [[Universitas Nagara Ohio]] (Ohio State University), sakola anu kungsi dibantuan ku anjeunna nalika janten gubernur.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=498–499}} Hayes ogé ngarojong pisan kana atikan vokasional (kaahlian): "Sim kuring mawakeun 'injil' digawé," seratna, "Sim kuring percaya kana tanaga gawé anu ahli salaku bagian tina atikan."{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=506}} Dina taun 1889, anjeunna masihan biantara anu ngajurung mahasiswa kulit hideung pikeun ngalamar béasiswa ti Slater Fund; salah sahiji anu nampi nyaéta tokoh kawentar [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] dina taun 1892.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=518–523}} Dina mangsa pangsiunna, Hayes ngarasa hariwang ku ayana jurang antara nu beunghar jeung nu miskin. Dina buku poéanana taun 1887, anjeunna nyerat: {{blockquote | Dina pikiran sim kuring, tos waktosna masarakat terang yén bahaya pangageungna di ieu nagara nyaéta kabeungharan raksasa anu dikawasa ku saeutik jalma. Duit téh kakuatan. Di Kongrés, di législatif nagara bagian, di pangadilan, nepi ka mimbar-mimbar agama, pangaruhna beuki ageung. Kabeungharan anu kaleuleuwihi di leungeun saeutik jalma hartosna kamiskinan ékstrim, kabodoan, sarta kasangsaraan pikeun jalma réa... Urang kedah terang yén ieu téh borok sateuacan urang tiasa ngaleungitkeunana.{{sfnm|Hayes|1922|1loc=v. 4|1p=354|Swint|1952|2pp=46–47}} }} Sanaos anjeunna diidéntifikasi salaku saurang konservatif, Hayes némbongkeun rasa simpati kana sawangan sosialisme dina kontéks palayanan publik, sapertos sistem pos sarta sakola nagara anu dianggapna salaku conto "sosialisme praktis". === Pupusna === Hayes kacida sedihna nalika pamajidanna, Lucy, pupus dina taun 1889. Hayes nyerat yén "jiwa parantos ninggalkeun Spiegel Grove".{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=508–510}} Dina taun 1890, anjeunna mingpin Konférénsi Lake Mohonk ngeunaan Masalah Kulit Hideung pikeun ngabahas isu-isu rasial.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=515–517|Foner|2002|2pp=605–606}} Hayes pupus alatan komplikasi serangan jantung di bumina dina 17 Januari 1893, dina yuswa 70 taun.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=522–523}} Kecap panungtunganana nyaéta, "Sim kuring terang yén sim kuring bade nuju ka tempat di mana Lucy aya."{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=522–523}} Présidén-kapilih Cleveland sarta Gubernur Ohio McKinley mingpin rombongan layon. Hayes mimitina dikurebkeun di Oakwood Cemetery, nanging dina taun 1915, jasadna dipindahkeun ka bumina di [[Spiegel Grove]] sangkan ngahiji sareng makam pamajidanna. {{clear}} == Warisan sarta panghurmatan == Panulis biografi [[Ari Hoogenboom]] nyerat yén prestasi pangageungna Hayes nyaéta mulikkeun kapercayaan rahayat ka lembaga kapersidénan sarta malikkeun deui kakuatan éksékutif anu kungsi nyirorot saatos [[Pamaténian Abraham Lincoln]] dina taun 1865. Para pangrojongna muji komitmen anjeunna kana réformasi layanan sipil; nanging para kritik nyacad sikepna anu dianggap teuing lungsé ka urut nagara-nagara bagian Konfédérasi, sarta kawijakanana anu narik dukungan féderal pikeun hak pilih sarta hak sipil [[Warga Amérika katurunan Afrika]].{{sfn|Hamilton|2010|p=163}} Para sejarawan sarta akademisi umumna [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Hayes salaku présidén anu "rata-rata" atanapi di handapeun rata-rata.{{sfn|Federalist Society|2000}}{{sfn|Otis|2014}} Saatos bumina disumbangkeun ka nagara bagian Ohio pikeun janten Taman Nagara [[Spiegel Grove]], jasad Hayes dipindahkeun ka dinya dina taun 1915. Taun salajengna, [[Pusat Présidén Rutherford B. Hayes|Perpustakaan sarta Muséum Pangéling-ngéling Hayes]] dibuka di éta lokasi. Ieu mangrupikeun perpustakaan kapersidénan munggaran di Amérika Sarikat, anu diwangun tina sumbangan nagara bagian Ohio sarta kulawarga Hayes.{{sfn|Smith|1980|pp=485–488}} Dina taun 1922, Kantor Pos A.S. ngaluarkeun prangko munggaran pikeun ngahormatan Hayes, tepat 100 taun saatos kalahiranana. Prangko Hayes sanésna, [[:File:RB Hayes 1938 Issue2-19c.jpg|édisi 19 sén]], [[Isu Présidén|dikaluarkeun dina taun 1938]]. Dina taun 2011, United States Mint ngaluarkeun koin "Golden Dollar", anu mangrupikeun mata uang A.S. munggaran anu nganggo gambar Hayes pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna. {| style="margin:auto" | [[Berkas:Hayes 1922 Issue2-11c.jpg|thumb|180px|Prangko Hayes, édisi 1922, pangéling-ngéling 100 taun kalahiranana.]] |&nbsp;&nbsp; | [[Berkas:Rutherford Hayes Presidential Golden Dollar, of 2011, 1 dollar.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|{{center|Koin "Golden Dollar" Hayes,<br>dicitak taun 2011}}]] |} Hayes kungsi janten arbiter sarta mutuskeun sengketa taun 1878 antara Argéntina sarta Paraguay anu nguntungkeun pihak Paraguay. Ieu kaputusan masihan Paraguay sakitar 60% tina wilayahna anu ayeuna. Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun namina diabadikeun janten nami propinsi: [[Departemén Presidente Hayes]] (ibukota: [[Villa Hayes]]). Aya ogé poé peré resmi: **[[Laudo Hayes Firm Day]], pikeun ngéling-ngéling éta kaputusan; malah aya tim maén bal lokal anu dingaranan [[Club Presidente Hayes]] (katelah ogé "Los Yanquis") di ibukota [[Asunción]].{{sfn|Teeter|2009}} Salian ti éta, nami Hayes ogé diabadikeun pikeun: * [[Hayes County, Nebraska]]: Hiji county di nagara bagian Nebraska.{{sfn|Gannett|1905|p=153}} * [[Rutherford B. Hayes High School (Delaware, Ohio)|SMA Rutherford B. Hayes]]: Di kota kalahiranana, Delaware, Ohio. * [[University, Hayes and Orton Halls|Hayes Hall]]: Diwangun taun 1893 di Universitas Nagara Ohio. Ieu mangrupikeun gedong pangkolotna anu masih aya di dinya sarta tos didaptarkeun salaku Tempat Sajarah Nasional. Hayes terang yén éta gedong bakal dingaranan dumasar kana namina, nanging anjeunna pupus sateuacan éta gedong réngsé. Dina 21 Oktober 1890, Hayes ogé kapilih janten anggota [[American Antiquarian Society]]. Kota Delaware ogé ngadegkeun patung Hayes pikeun ngahormatan jasa-jasana. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar politikus Universitas Harvard]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman saméméhna]] == Catetan == {{Notelist|30em}} == Rujukan == === Kutipan === {{Reflist|25em}} === Buku === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | last = Barnard | first = Harry | date = 2005 | orig-year = 1954 | title = Rutherford Hayes and his America | url = https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbhayes0000harr | publisher = American Political Biography Press | location = Newtown, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-945707-05-9}} * {{cite book | last = Bruce | first = Robert V. | date = 1989 | orig-year = 1959 | title = 1877: Year of Violence | url = https://archive.org/details/1877yearofviolen0000bruc_w1p1 | publisher = Ivan R. Dee, Publisher | isbn = 978-0-929587-05-9}} * {{cite book |last=Calhoun |first=Charles W. |author-link=Charles W. Calhoun |title=The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofulys0000calh |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, Kansas |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-7006-2484-3}} * {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Edwina S. |title=Citizen of a Wider Commonwealth: Ulysses S. Grant's Postpresidential Diplomacy |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |location=Carbondale, Illinois |date=2016 |isbn=978-0809334780}} * {{cite book |last=Conwell |first=Russell H. |title=Life and public services of Gov. Rutherford B. Hayes |url=https://archive.org/details/lifepublicservic01conw |authorlink=Russell H. Conwell |publisher=B. B. Russell; Philadelphia, Quaker city pub. house |location=Boston |year=1876}} * {{cite book | last = Davison | first = Kenneth E. | date = 1972 | title = The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes | url = https://archive.org/details/presidencyofruth00davi | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-8371-6275-1}} * {{cite book | last = Foner | first = Eric | author-link = Eric Foner | date = 2002 | orig-year = 1988 | title = Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 | publisher = Harper Perennial Modern Classics | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-06-093716-4}} * {{cite book | last = Grant | first = Ulysses S. | author-link = Ulysses S. Grant | date = 2003 | orig-year = 1885 | title = Personal Memoirs | publisher = Barnes & Noble, Inc | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-7607-4990-6}} * {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Rutherford B. |date=1922 |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=Charles Richard |title=The Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, Nineteenth President of the United States |publisher=Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society |location=Columbus, Ohio |volume=1}} * {{cite book | last = Hoogenboom | first = Ari | author-link = Ari Hoogenboom | date = 1995 | title = Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700606412 | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence, Kansas | isbn = 978-0-7006-0641-2}} * {{cite book |last=McFeely |first=William S. |author-link=William S. McFeely |title=Grant: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/grant00will |location=New York |publisher= Norton |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-3933-4287-1}} * {{cite book | last = Reid | first = Whitelaw | author-link = Whitelaw Reid | date = 1868 | title = Ohio in the War: The history of her regiments, and other military organizations | url = https://archive.org/details/ohiointhewar02reidrich | publisher = Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin}} * {{cite book | last = Richardson | first = Heather Cox | date = 2001 | title = The Death of Reconstruction | url = https://archive.org/details/deathofreconstru0000rich | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-674-00637-9}} * {{cite book | last = Trefousse | first = Hans L. | author-link = Hans L. Trefousse | date = 2002 | title = Rutherford B. Hayes | url = https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbhayes0000tref | publisher = Times Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6907-5}} * {{cite book | last = Unger | first = Irwin | author-link = Irwin Unger | date = 2008 | title = The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance, 1865–1879 | publisher = ACLS Humanities | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-59740-431-0}} * {{cite book |title=American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/americanulyssesl0000whit_w9r7 |last=White |first=Ronald C. |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-5883-6992-5}} {{refend}} === Artikel === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | last = Clendenen | first = Clarence | author-link = Clarence C. Clendenen |date=October 1969 | title = President Hayes' "Withdrawal" of the Troops: An Enduring Myth | journal = The South Carolina Historical Magazine | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | jstor = 27566958 | pages = 240–250}} * {{cite journal | last = Klotsche | first = J. Martin | author-link = J. Martin Klotsche |date=December 1935 | title = The Star Route Cases | journal = The Mississippi Valley Historical Review | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | jstor = 1892626 | pages = 407–418 | doi = 10.2307/1892626}} * {{cite journal | last = Paul | first = Ezra |date=Winter 1998 | title = Congressional Relations and Public Relations in the Administration of Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–81) | journal = Presidential Studies Quarterly | volume = 28 | jstor = 27551831 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–87}} * Skidmore, Max J. "Rutherford B. Hayes." dina ''Maligned Presidents: The Late 19th Century'' (2014): 50–62. * {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Thomas A. |date=1980 |title=Before Hyde Park: The Rutherford B. Hayes Library |journal=The American Archivist |volume=43 |pages=485–488 |jstor=40292342 |issue=4}} * {{cite journal | last = Stuart | first = Paul |date=September 1977 | title = United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission | journal = Social Service Review | volume = 51 | issue = 3 | pages = 451–463 | jstor = 30015511 | doi = 10.1086/643524}} * {{cite journal | last = Swint | first = Henry L. |date=June 1952 | title = Rutherford B. Hayes, Educator | journal = The Mississippi Valley Historical Review | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–60 | jstor = 1902843 | doi = 10.2307/1902843}} * {{cite journal | last = Thelen | first = David P. |date=Summer 1970 | title = Rutherford B. Hayes and the Reform Tradition in the Gilded Age | journal = American Quarterly | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 150–165 | jstor = 2711639 | doi = 10.2307/2711639}} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == * {{CongBio|H000393}} * [http://www.rbhayes.org Pusat Présidén Rutherford B. Hayes] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/hayes/index.html Rutherford B. Hayes: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti [[Perpustakaan Kongrés]] * [http://millercenter.org/president/hayes Eséy éksténsif ngeunaan Rutherford B. Hayes] ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * {{Librivox author |id=11290}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=1652}} {{Rutherford B. Hayes}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghurmatan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[Alexander Long]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti Ohio|DPR Amérika Sarikat]]<br>ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-2 Ohio]]|years=1865–1867}} {{s-aft|after=[[Samuel Fenton Cary]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Jacob Dolson Cox]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon ti [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] pikeun [[Gubernur Ohio]]|years=[[Pamilihan gubernur Ohio 1867|1867]], [[Pamilihan gubernur Ohio 1869|1869]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Edward Follansbee Noyes]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon ti [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] pikeun [[Daptar tiket présidén Partéy Républik Amérika Sarikat|Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1876|1876]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[James A. Garfield]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Jacob Dolson Cox]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Gubernur Ohio]]|years=1868–1872}} {{s-aft|after=[[Edward Follansbee Noyes]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William Allen (gubernur)|William Allen]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Gubernur Ohio|years=1876–1877}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. Young]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1877–1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[James A. Garfield]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Navboxes |list= {{US Presidents}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{Governors of Ohio}} {{OhioRepresentatives02}} {{Hayes cabinet}} {{Reconstruction Era}}}} {{Subject bar|commons=y|q=y|s=y|portal1=Biografi|portal2=Perang Sadulur Amérika|portal5=Pulitik|portal6=Hukum|portal7=Amérika Sarikat}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hayes, Rutherford B.}} [[Kategori:Rutherford B. Hayes| ]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran 1822]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1893]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Abolisionis Amérika]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Ohio]] [[Kategori:Alumni Sakola Hukum Harvard]] [[Kategori:Ahli hukum Ohio]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Jénderal angkatan darat Uni]] 832qy8jur0jbe413jcf6d82rsdpoz1a 0 107881 711585 706062 2026-08-06T23:41:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 13 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711585 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = James A. Garfield | image = James Abram Garfield, photo portrait seated.jpg | caption = Garfield {{c.}} 1881 | alt = Poto potrét Garfield, janggotna kandel, nganggo jas "double-breasted" | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-20 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = [[Chester A. Arthur]] | term = 4 Maret 1881{{Snd}}19 Séptémber 1881 | predecessor = [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] | successor = [[Chester A. Arthur]] | state1 = [[Ohio]] | district1 = Distrik ka-19 | term_start1 = 4 Maret 1863 | term_end1 = 8 Nopémber 1880 | predecessor1 = [[Albert G. Riddle]] | successor1 = [[Ezra B. Taylor]] | birth_name = James Abram Garfield | birth_date = {{Birth date|1831|11|19}} | birth_place = [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]], AS | death_date = {{Death date and age|1881|09|19|1831|11|19}} | death_place = [[Elberon, New Jersey]], AS | death_cause = Inféksi parna ([[sepsis]] sarta [[pneumonia]]) saatos [[Assassination of James A. Garfield|ditémbak]] | resting_place = [[James A. Garfield Memorial]], Cleveland, Ohio | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] | spouse = [[Lucretia Garfield|Lucretia Rudolph]] | children = 7, kalebet [[Harry Augustus Garfield|Hal]], [[James Rudolph Garfield|James]], sarta [[Abram Garfield|Abram]] | occupation = Politikus, pangacara, panghulu, pendidik | education = [[Hiram College]], [[Williams College]] | signature = James Abram Garfield Signature.svg | allegiance = [[Uni (Perang Sipil Amérika)|Amérika Sarikat]] | branch = [[Tentara Uni]] | serviceyears = 1861–1863 | rank = [[Major general (Amérika Sarikat)|Major general]] | battles = * [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] ** [[Pertempuran Middle Creek]] ** [[Pertempuran Shiloh]] ** [[Pengepungan Corinth]] ** [[Kampanye Tullahoma]] ** [[Pertempuran Chickamauga]] }} '''James Abram Garfield''' (19 Nopémber 1831{{Snd}}19 Séptémber 1881) nyaéta Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ka-20, ngajabat ti Maret 1881 dugi ka pupusna dina bulan Séptémber taun éta kénéh saatos [[Assassination of James A. Garfield|ditémbak dina bulan Juli]]. Saurang panghulu, pangacara, sarta jénderal dina [[Perang Sipil Amérika|Perang Sipil]], Garfield ngajabat salila salapan mangsa di [[DPR Amérika Sarikat]] sarta mangrupikeun hiji-hijina anggota DPR anu nuju ngajabat anu kapilih janten présidén. Sateuacan nyalonkeun diri janten présidén, Majelis Umum Ohio parantos milih anjeunna ka Sénat AS, hiji posisi anu ditolak ku anjeunna saatos janten [[President-elect of the United States|présidén terpilih]]. Garfield lahir dina kaayaan miskin di hiji [[imah]] log sarta digedékeun di [[Ohio Kalér-Wétan]]. Saatos lulus ti [[Williams College]] dina taun 1856, anjeunna neuleuman widang hukum sarta janten saurang pokrol (pangacara). Garfield mangrupikeun saurang panghulu dina Gerakan Réstorasi sarta présidén di [[Western Reserve Eclectic Institute]], anu aya hubunganana sareng jamaah Disciples. Anjeunna kapilih salaku anggota [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] dina Sénat Nagara Bagian Ohio taun 1859, ngajabat dugi ka taun 1861. Garfield nentang pamisahan diri (séksési) Konfédérasi, janten [[Major general (Amérika Sarikat)|jénderal mayor]] di [[Tentara Uni]] nalika Perang Sipil Amérika, sarta perang dina pertempuran [[Battle of Middle Creek|Middle Creek]], [[Battle of Shiloh|Shiloh]], sarta [[Battle of Chickamauga|Chickamauga]]. Anjeunna kapilih jadi anggota Kongrés dina taun 1862 ngawakilan [[Ohio's 19th congressional district|distrik ka-19 Ohio]]. Salila karirna di Kongrés, Garfield sacara teguh ngarojong [[standar emas]] sarta meunang reputasi salaku orator anu ahli. Mimitina anjeunna satuju sareng pandangan [[Républik Radikal]] ngeunaan [[Éra Rékonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]], tapi saatosna langkung milih pendekatan [[Républik Moderat]] pikeun penegakan hak-hak sipil jalma-jalma anu nembé merdéka (freedmen). Kapinteran Garfield dina matématika ngawengku [[Garfield's proof of the Pythagorean theorem|bukti karyana sorangan]] pikeun [[Téoréma Pythagoras]], anu dipedalkeun dina taun 1876, sarta anjeunna ngarojong panggunaan statistik pikeun nangtukeun kawijakan pamaréntah. Dina Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1880, para delegasi milih Garfield, anu sabenerna henteu milari jabatan di Gedong Bodas, salaku calon présidén kompromi dina sora (ballot) ka-36. Dina [[Pemilihan présidén AS 1880|pamilihan présidén 1880]], anjeunna ngajalankeun kampanye "front porch" anu saderhana sarta sakedik pisan ngéléhkeun calon ti Démokrat, [[Winfield Scott Hancock]]. Préstasi Garfield salaku présidén kalebet negeskeun deui otoritas présidén ngalawan kabiasaan sénat (''senatorial courtesy'') dina janjian éksekutif, meresihan korupsi di Departemén Kantor Pos AS, sarta ngangkat saurang hakim Mahkamah Agung. Anjeunna ogé ngarojong téknologi tatanén, masarakat anu terdidik, sarta [[Gerakan hak sipil (1865–1896)|hak-hak sipil pikeun urang Amérika katurunan Afrika]]. Anjeunna ogé ngusulkeun réformasi layanan sipil anu penting, anu ahirna disahkeun ku Kongrés dina taun 1883 salaku [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act|Undang-Undang Réformasi Layanan Sipil Pendleton]] sarta ditéken ku gagantina, [[Chester A. Arthur]]. Garfield mangrupikeun anggota faksi "[[Half-Breeds (politics)|Half-Breed]]" di jero partéy anu ngagunakeun kakawasaan présidén pikeun nentang Sénator "[[Stalwarts (politics)|Stalwart]]" [[Roscoe Conkling]] anu kuat ti New York. Anjeunna ngalakukeun ieu ku cara nunjuk pamingpin faksi Blaine, [[William H. Robertson]], kana posisi anu nguntungkeun salaku Koléktor Palabuhan New York. Patempuran politik anu lumangsung ngabalukarkeun dikonpirmasina Robertson sarta mundurna Conkling jeung [[Thomas C. Platt]] tina Sénat. Dina kaping 2 Juli 1881, Garfield ditémbak ku [[Charles J. Guiteau]], saurang anu boga halusinasi hayang meunang jabatan (''office seeker''). Anjeunna pupus dina 19 Séptémber alatan inféksi tina tatuna sarta digantikeun ku Wakil Présidén Chester A. Arthur. Lantaran mangsa jabatanana anu pondok sarta kurangna parobahan gedé salila mangsa jabatanna, para sejarawan condong [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun anjeunna]] salaku présidén anu di handapeun rata-rata atawa malah teu diasupkeun pisan kana daptar peringkat, sanajan sawatara pihak ningali poténsi Garfield kalayan saé, muji anjeunna dina sikep anti-korupsi sarta pro-hak sipil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the C-SPAN Presidential Historians Survey? |publisher=[[C-SPAN]] |url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/?page=overall |date=2021 |access-date=February 16, 2024}}</ref> == Masa budak sarta awal kahirupan == [[File:MorelandHillsGarfieldCabin.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Imah log kalayan patung sarta tangkal di hareupna|Réplika [[imah log]] di [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]], tempat lahirna Garfield]] James Abram Garfield lahir salaku bungsu ti lima sadulur dina 19 Nopémber 1831, di hiji imah log di [[Orange Township, Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Orange Township]], anu saatosna janten [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]].{{efn|Orange Township perenahna di [[Western Reserve]] dugi ka taun 1800.}} Karuhun Garfield, Edward Garfield, pindah ti [[Hillmorton]], [[Warwickshire]], Inggris, ka Massachusetts sakitar taun 1630. Rama James, [[Abraham Garfield|Abraham]], lahir di [[Worcester, New York]], sarta sumping ka Ohio pikeun milari kabogoh mangsa budakna, Mehitabel Ballou, nanging tétéla anjeunna parantos nikah. Abraham ahirna nikah ka adina Mehitabel, Eliza, anu lahir di New Hampshire. James dingaranan luyu sareng nami putra Eliza sarta Abram sateuacanna anu pupus nalika masih orok.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=4–6}} Dina awal taun 1833, Abram sarta Eliza Garfield ngagabung ka garéja [[Gerakan Réstorasi|Stone-Campbell]], hiji kaputusan anu mangaruhan pisan kana jalan hirup putra bungsuna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=6–7}} Abram pupus dina taun éta kénéh, sarta James digedékeun dina kaayaan miskin di asuhan indungna anu gaduh karep kuat.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=8–10}} James mangrupikeun anak anu diogo indungna, sarta duanana terus raket saumur hirupna.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=4}} Eliza nikah deui dina taun 1842, nanging teu lami anjeunna ninggalkeun salaki kaduana, Warren (atanapi Alfred) Belden, sarta ditalak (divorce) dina taun 1850. James mihak ka indungna dina éta urusan sarta nyatet pupusna Belden dina taun 1880 kalayan rasa sugema dina buku poéanna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=10–11}} Garfield ogé resep kana dongéng-dongéng indungna ngeunaan karuhunna, utamana ngeunaan aki buyutna anu asalna ti [[Urang Welsh|Wales]] sarta saurang karuhun anu janten ksatria di [[Kastil Caerphilly]].{{sfn|Brown|1881|p=23}} Lantaran miskin sarta teu gaduh bapa, Garfield sering dihina ku babaturanana sarta janten sénsitif kana hinaan sapanjang hirupna; anjeunna milari hiburan ku cara kacida resepna maca buku.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=10–11}} Anjeunna ninggalkeun bumi dina yuswa 16 taun dina taun 1847 sarta ditolak nalika badé damel dina hiji-hijina kapal anu aya di palabuhan [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. Garfield ahirna mendakan padamelan dina kapal kanal, ngurus bagal (mules) anu narik éta kapal.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=30–33}} [[Horatio Alger]] saatosna ngagunakeun ieu pangalaman damel salaku bahan anu saé nalika anjeunna nyerat biografi kampanye Garfield dina taun 1880.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=10}} Saatos genep minggu, panyakit maksa Garfield mulang ka bumi, sarta nalika nuju panyéhatan, indungna sarta saurang pajabat sakola lokal hasil ngayakinkeun anjeunna pikeun milih sakola salila sataun batan damel deui di kanal. Dina taun 1848, anjeunna mimiti sakola di [[Geauga Seminary]], di deukeut [[Chester Township, Geauga County, Ohio]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=14–17}} Garfield saatosna nyarios ngeunaan mangsa budakna, "Kuring hanjelu yén kuring lahir dina kamiskinan, sarta dina karusutan mangsa budak ieu, tujuh belas taun kaliwat sateuacan kuring kenging inspirasi... hiji mangsa 17 taun anu kacida berhargana dimana saurang budak anu gaduh bapa sarta harta meureun parantos gaduh tatapakan anu ajég dina jalan kadéwasan."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=13}} == Atikan, pernikahan, sarta awal karir == [[File:Garfield-at-16.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Garfield ngora anu teu imut, buukna kulimis, nganggo jas tilu potongan|Garfield dina yuswa 16 taun]] Garfield sakola di Geauga Seminary ti taun 1848 dugi ka 1850 sarta diajar mata pelajaran akademik anu sateuacanna teu kaurus ku anjeunna. Anjeunna janten murid anu onjoy sarta kacida kabetotna kana basa jeung [[elokusi]] (seni nyarita). Anjeunna mimiti mahami kakuatan saurang orator di payuneun pamiarsa, sarta nyerat yén panggung pidato téh "ngahudangkeun sumanget. Kuring resep kana perdebatan sarta panalungtikan, sarta sugema nalika ngabéla bebeneran anu teu populer ngalawan kasalahan anu populer."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=6}} Geauga mangrupikeun sakola campuran (lalaki jeung awéwé), sarta Garfield kabetot ku salah saurang babaturan sakelasna, [[Lucretia Garfield|Lucretia Rudolph]], anu saatosna janten pamajikanana.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=71–73}} Pikeun nyukupan pangabutuh hirupna salila di Geauga, anjeunna damel janten asistén tukang kai sarta guru.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=47–49}} Kabiasaan pindah ti kota ka kota pikeun milari padamelan janten guru ngajantenkeun Garfield teu resep kana naon anu ku anjeunna disebut "milari jabatan" (''place-seeking''), anu saatosna janten "hukum dina hirup kuring."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=16}} Dina taun-taun salajengna, anjeunna ngajantenkeun babaturanana héran ku cara ngabaékeun posisi-posisi anu sabenerna bisa dihontal ku anjeunna kalayan sakedik usaha politik.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=16}} Garfield mimitina lungsur-langsar ka garéja téh langkung kusabab hoyong nyenangkeun indungna batan ibadah ka Gusti, nanging dina mangsa rumajana anjeunna ngalaman gugah spiritual. Anjeunna ngiringan seueur [[camp meeting]], anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna [[Born again (Christianity)|lahir deui]] dina 4 Maret 1850, nalika anjeunna dibaptis ku cara dikeueum dina cai tiris di [[Walungan Chagrin]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=17}} Saatos kaluar ti Geauga, Garfield damel sataun dina sababaraha widang, kalebet janten guru.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=21}} Nalika terang yén sababaraha urang New England tiasa kuliah bari damel, Garfield nekad pikeun ngalakukeun hal anu sami sarta milari sakola anu tiasa nyiapkeun anjeunna pikeun ujian asup. Ti taun 1851 dugi ka 1854, anjeunna sakola di [[Western Reserve Eclectic Institute]] (saatosna dingaranan [[Hiram College]]) di [[Hiram, Ohio]], hiji sakola anu diadegkeun ku sarta masih aya hubunganana sareng [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]]. Nalika di dinya, anjeunna kacida kabetotna kana diajar basa Yunani sarta Latin, nanging anjeunna ogé kabuka pikeun diajar sarta ngadiskusikeun hal anyar naon waé anu kapanggih ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=27–28}} Anjeunna mimitina damel janten [[janitor]] (tukang beberesih) nalika asup, nanging ahirna kenging posisi janten guru nalika masih janten murid di dinya.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=22–23}} [[Lucretia Rudolph]] ogé sakola di éta Institut, sarta Garfield ngadeukeutan anjeunna nalika ngajar basa Yunani ka Lucretia.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=29}} Anjeunna ngamimitian kagiatan janten panghulu (preaching) anu rutin di garéja-garéja sabudeureunana, sarta dina sababaraha kasempetan, kenging bayaran sa- [[gold dollar|dolar emas]] dina unggal palayanan. Dina taun 1854, Garfield parantos neuleuman sakabéh élmu anu aya di éta Institut sarta janten guru pinuh.{{sfnm|Brown|1881|1p=56|Peskin|1978|2p=30}} Garfield salajengna daptar ka [[Williams College]] di [[Williamstown, Massachusetts]], salaku [[Junior (education year)|mahasiswa taun katilu]]; anjeunna kenging kiridit pikeun dua taun diajar di Institut saatos lulus ujian singget. Garfield ogé kataji ku présidén kuliahna, [[Mark Hopkins (educator)|Mark Hopkins]], anu ngabales kalayan haneut surat patarosan Garfield ngeunaan pangakuan murid. Anjeunna nyarios ngeunaan Hopkins, "Kuliah anu idéal nyaéta Mark Hopkins dina hiji tungtung log (watang kai) sarta saurang murid dina tungtung hiji deui."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=34}} Hopkins saatosna nyarios ngeunaan Garfield nalika janten muridna, "Aya kapasitas umum anu lega anu tiasa dilarapkeun kana naon waé mata pelajaran. Henteu aya sikep siga nu jenius atanapi usaha anu ngan ukur sakedapan, nanging mangrupikeun hiji pencapaian anu nyugemakeun dina sagala widang."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}} Saatos semester kahijina, Garfield ditémbal pikeun ngajar seni nulis (penmanship) ka murid-murid di deukeut [[Pownal, Vermont]], hiji posisi anu sateuacanna dicepeng ku [[Chester A. Arthur]].{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}} [[File:Lucretia Garfield - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.75|[[Lucretia Garfield]] dina taun 1870-an]] Garfield lulus kalayan gelar [[Phi Beta Kappa]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbk.org/presidents |title=Phi Beta Kappa Presidents |publisher=PBK |access-date=April 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118101012/https://www.pbk.org/presidents |url-status=live }}</ref> ti Williams dina bulan Agustus 1856, sarta janten [[salutatorian]] (lulusan kadua panghadéna) sarta nepikeun pidato dina mangsa [[Wisuda|kalulusan]]. Penulis biografina, Ira Rutkow, nyerat yén mangsa kuliah Garfield di Williams masihan anjeunna kasempetan pikeun mikawanoh sarta ngahormatan jalma-jalma tina latar tukang sosial anu béda, sarta sanajan anjeunna asalna ti urang Kulon anu saderhana, urang New England anu sadar sosial mikaresep sarta ngahormatan anjeunna. "Singketna," Rutkow nyerat, "Garfield miboga pangalaman munggaran anu lega sarta positif sareng dunya di luar Western Reserve Ohio."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}} Nalika mulang deui ka Ohio, gelar ti kuliah luhur di Wétan ngajantenkeun Garfield saurang jalma anu dipandang. Anjeunna mulang deui ka Hiram pikeun ngajar di Institut sarta dina taun 1857 diangkat janten kapala sakola (principal), sanajan anjeunna henteu ningali dunya pendidikan salaku widang anu bakal ngawujudkeun sakabéh poténsina. Suasana [[Abolisionisme|abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) di Williams parantos ngahudangkeun kasadaran politikna, sarta saatos éta anjeunna mimiti mikirkeun politik salaku karirna.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=11}} Anjeunna milu kampanye pikeun calon présidén Républik [[John C. Frémont]] dina taun 1856.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doenecke|first=Justus|url=https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/life-before-the-presidency|title=James Garfield: Life Before the Presidency|date=October 4, 2016|publisher=UVA Miller Center|access-date=December 18, 2021|archive-date=December 18, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218194947/https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/life-before-the-presidency|url-status=live}}</ref> Dina taun 1858, anjeunna nikah ka Lucretia, sarta maranéhna miboga tujuh anak, lima di antarana salamet ti mangsa orok.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=44}} Teu lami saatos kawinan, anjeunna daptar pikeun [[Belajar hukum|diajar hukum]] di kantor pokrol [[Albert Gallatin Riddle]] di Cleveland, sanajan anjeunna diajar di Hiram.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Manuscript Division, Library of Congress Collection Summary Title: James A. Garfield Papers Span Dates: 1775–1889 Bulk Dates: (bulk 1850–1881) ID No.: MSS291956|url=http://memory.loc.gov/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2008/ms008147.pdf|journal=Library of Congress|access-date=December 31, 2019|archive-date=September 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925165541/http://memory.loc.gov/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2008/ms008147.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=74–75}} Anjeunna diangkat janten pokrol (diaku ku bar) dina taun 1861.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=82}} Pamingpin [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] lokal ngondang Garfield pikeun asup ka dunya politik saatos pupusna Cyrus Prentiss, calon kuat pikeun korsi sénat nagara bagian lokal. Anjeunna dicalonkeun dina konvénsi partéy dina sora (ballot) kagenep sarta kapilih, ngajabat ti taun 1860 dugi ka 1861.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=60–61}} Usaha utama Garfield di sénat nagara bagian nyaéta ngusulkeun RUU (anu ahirna gagal) anu nyadiakeun [[survéi géologi]] munggaran di Ohio pikeun ngukur sumber daya mineralna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=73}} ==Civil War== [[File:General James Garfield - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Seated portrait in army uniform. Garfield has a full beard and mustache|Garfield as a brigadier general during the Civil War]] After [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s election as president, several Southern states announced their [[Secession in the United States|secession]] from the Union to form a new government, the [[Confederate States of America]]. Garfield read military texts while anxiously awaiting the war effort, which he regarded as a holy crusade against the [[Slave Power]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp = 86–87}} In April 1861, the rebels [[Battle of Fort Sumter|bombarded Fort Sumter]], one of the South's last federal outposts, beginning the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. Although he had no military training, Garfield knew his place was in the Union Army.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=86–87}} At Governor [[William Dennison Jr.|William Dennison's]] request, Garfield deferred his military ambitions to remain in the legislature, where he helped appropriate the funds to raise and equip Ohio's volunteer regiments.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=87–89}} When the legislature adjourned, Garfield spent the spring and early summer on a speaking tour of northeastern Ohio, encouraging enlistment in the new regiments.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=87–89}} Following a trip to Illinois to purchase muskets, Garfield returned to Ohio and, in August 1861, received a commission as a [[Colonel (United States)|colonel]] in the [[42nd Ohio Infantry]] regiment.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} The 42nd Ohio existed only on paper, so Garfield's first task was to fill its ranks. He did so quickly, recruiting many of his neighbors and former students.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} The regiment traveled to [[Camp Chase]], outside [[Columbus, Ohio]], to complete training.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} During this period, on November 19, 1861, Garfield became a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]], at Magnolia Lodge, No. 20 in Columbus, Ohio, receiving the third degree after his military service was completed in 1864.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Masonic Presidents & Vice Presidents |url=https://scottishritenmj.org/blog/masonic-presidents-vice-presidents |access-date=January 23, 2025 |website=Scottish Rite, NMJ |language=en-US}}</ref> In December, Garfield was ordered to bring the 42nd to Kentucky, where they joined the [[Army of the Ohio]] under [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]] [[Don Carlos Buell]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=98–101}} === Komando Buell === Buell gancang méré pancén ka Garfield pikeun ngusir kakuatan Konfédérasi ti Kentucky wétan, méré anjeunna Brigade ka-18 pikeun ieu kampanye, anu salian ti resiménna sorangan (ka-42), ogé ngawengku [[40th Ohio Infantry]], dua resimén infanteri Kentucky, sarta dua unit kavaléri.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=101–103}} Maranéhna mangkat ti [[Catlettsburg, Kentucky]], dina pertengahan Désémber, maju ngaliwatan lebak [[Walungan Big Sandy]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=101–103}} Lalampahan éta lumangsung tenang dugi ka pasukan Uni nepi ka [[Paintsville, Kentucky]], dina 6 Januari 1862, dimana kavaléri Garfield silih témbak jeung para pemberontak di Jenny's Creek.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=106–112}} Pasukan Konfédérasi di handapeun Brigadir Jéndéral [[Humphrey Marshall (general)|Humphrey Marshall]] nguasaan éta kota kalayan jumlah pasukan anu méh sarua jeung pasukan Garfield, nanging Garfield nempatkeun pasukanna ku cara anu nipu Marshall sangkan percaya yén jumlah pasukan Uni téh jauh leuwih loba.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=106–112}} Marshall méré paréntah ka pasukanna pikeun mundur ka simpang Middle Creek, dina jalan nuju ka Virginia, sarta Garfield maréntahkeun pasukanna pikeun terus ngudag.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=112–115}} Maranéhna nyerang posisi pemberontak dina 9 Januari 1862, dina [[Pertempuran Middle Creek]], hiji-hijina pertempuran tanding anu dipingpin sacara pribadi ku Garfield.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=76–78}} Dina ahir perang, pihak Konfédérasi mundur ti médan perang sarta Garfield ngirim pasukanna ka [[Prestonsburg, Kentucky|Prestonsburg]] pikeun nyadiakeun deui logistik.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=116–120}} [[File:Middle Creek Battlefield.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Médan perang Middle Creek. Garfield maréntah ti pasir nu jauh di tengah poto.]] Salaku pangajén kana kasuksésanana, Garfield dionjatkeun pangkatna janten brigadir jéndéral.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=128}} Saatos mundurna Marshall, komando Garfield janten hiji-hijina kakuatan Uni anu nyésa di Kentucky wétan sarta anjeunna ngumumkeun yén sing saha waé jalma anu kungsi bajoang pikeun Konfédérasi bakal dibéré amnésti (pangampura) upami maranéhna mulang ka imahna, hirup rukun, sarta tetep satia ka Uni.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=122–127}} Proklamasi éta téh kacida léngsérna (leuleuy), lantaran ayeuna Garfield percaya yén perang téh mangrupikeun hiji perjuangan suci pikeun ngabasmi perbudakan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=122–127}} Saatos lumangsungna silih témbak sakedap di [[Pound Gap]], unit pemberontak pamungkas di wewengkon éta kadeseh sarta mundur ka Virginia.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=81–82}} Kajunjungan pangkat Garfield méré anjeunna komando Brigade ka-20 ti Angkatan Darat Ohio, anu nampi paréntah pikeun ngagabung jeung pasukan [[Major general (Amérika Sarikat)|Jéndéral Mayor]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]] nalika maranéhna maju nuju ka [[Corinth, Mississippi]], dina awal taun 1862.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=131–133}} Nanging, sateuacan Brigade ka-20 nepi, pasukan Konfédérasi di handapeun Jéndéral [[Albert Sidney Johnston]] nyerang dadakan pasukan Grant di kémah-kémahna, nepi ka kadeseh mundur.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=134–135}} Pasukan Garfield nampi béja ngeunaan éta pertempuran sarta maju kalayan gancang, ngagabung jeung sésa pasukan lianna dina poé kadua pikeun ngusir deui pihak Konfédérasi sarta maksa maranéhna mundur.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=135–137}} Éta kajadian, anu saatosna katelah [[Pertempuran Shiloh]], mangrupikeun perang anu paling getas (paling loba korban) dina mangsa éta; Garfield kakeunaan ku silih témbak dina sabagéan badag poé éta, nanging anjeunna salamet teu tatu sakedik ogé.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=135–137}} Jéndéral Mayor [[Henry W. Halleck]], atasan Grant, nyepeng kadali gabungan angkatan darat sarta maju kalayan ati-ati nuju ka Corinth; nalika maranéhna nepi, pihak Konfédérasi parantos kabur.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=138–139}} Dina usum panas éta, Garfield katarajang panyakit [[konéng]] (jaundice) sarta beurat awakna turun drastis.{{efn|Panulis biografi Allan Peskin boga spekulasi yén anjeunna sabenerna katarajang [[hépatitis inféksius]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=632–633}}}}{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=146–147}} Anjeunna kapaksa mulang ka imahna, dimana pamajikanana ngurus anjeunna dugi ka damang deui.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=146–147}} Nalika anjeunna di imah, babaturan Garfield narékahan sangkan anjeunna kenging nominasi Républik pikeun Kongrés, nanging anjeunna nolak pikeun kampanye jeung para delegasi.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=147–148}} Anjeunna mulang deui kana tugas militér dina usum gugur éta sarta mangkat ka Washington pikeun ngantosan pancén salajengna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=149–151}} Salila mangsa nganggur ieu, aya gosip ngeunaan hubungan di luar nikah anu ngabalukarkeun géséh dina rumah tangga kulawarga Garfield dugi ka ahirna Lucretia milih pikeun mopohokeun éta urusan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=160–161}} Garfield sababaraha kali nampi rencana pancén anu gancang dibatalkeun deui, anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna kuciwa.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=161–162}} Samentawis éta, anjeunna janten anggota [[mahkamah militer Fitz John Porter]] lantaran Porter dianggap kendor dina [[Pertempuran Bull Run Kadua]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=162–165}} Anjeunna yakin yén Porter salah sarta milu méré sora jeung jéndéral-jéndéral séjénna pikeun ngahukum Porter.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=162–165}} Éta persidangan lumangsung méh dua bulan, ti Nopémber 1862 dugi ka Januari 1863, sarta dina ahirna, Garfield meunang pancén salaku lulugu staf (chief of staff) pikeun Jéndéral Mayor [[William S. Rosecrans]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=166}} === Lulugu staf pikeun Rosecrans === [[File:GenWmSRosecrans.jpg|thumb|upright|Jéndéral [[William S. Rosecrans]]]] Lulugu staf (''chief of staff'') jéndéral biasana dijabat ku perwira anu pangkatna langkung handap, nanging pangaruh Garfield ka Rosecrans langkung ageung batan biasana, kalayan tugas anu ngalangkungan saukur nepikeun paréntah nepi ka ngokolakeun sacara nyata [[Angkatan Darat Cumberland]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=176}} Rosecrans kacida resepna kana sawala (obrolan), utamana upami nuju teu tiasa kulem; dina diri Garfield, anjeunna mendakan "jalma munggaran anu wawasanana lega dina angkatan darat" sarta sosok anu idéal pikeun sawala anu jero nepi ka tengah peuting.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=169}} Maranéhna ngadiskusikeun saniskara hal, utamana ngeunaan agama, sarta duanana janten raket sanajan Garfield langkung ngora 12 taun. Rosecrans, anu parantos pindah agama ti [[Métodisme]] ka [[Katolik Roma]], ngalembutkeun sawangan Garfield kana kaimananana.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=170}} Garfield nyarankeun sangkan Rosecrans ngaganti komandan jangjang [[Alexander McCook]] sarta [[Thomas Leonidas Crittenden|Thomas Crittenden]], lantaran anjeunna yakin yén maranéhna téh teu éféktif, nanging Rosecrans ngabaékeun éta saran.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=177}} Babarengan jeung Rosecrans, Garfield ngararancang [[Kampanye Tullahoma]] pikeun ngudag sarta néwak Jéndéral Konfédérasi [[Braxton Bragg]] di [[Tullahoma]]. Saatos kasuksésan awal Uni, Bragg mundur nuju ka [[Chattanooga]], dimana Rosecrans lirén samentawis sarta ménta tambahan pasukan sarta logistik.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=180–182}} Garfield boga pamandangan sangkan geuwat maju, luyu jeung paménta ti Halleck sarta Lincoln.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=180–182}} Saatos déwan perang sarta pertimbangan anu panjang, Rosecrans sapuk pikeun nyerang.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=183–189}} Dina [[Pertempuran Chickamauga]] anu lumangsung dina 19 sarta 20 Séptémber 1863, kabingung di antara para komandan jangjang ngeunaan paréntah Rosecrans ngabalukarkeun lolongkrang dina garis pertahanan, anu ngakibatkeun kadeséhna bagian jangjang katuhu. Rosecrans nyimpulkeun yén pertempuran parantos éléh sarta mundur ka Chattanooga pikeun ngawangun garis pertahanan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} Nanging, Garfield mikir yén sabagian angkatan darat masih aya anu nahan sarta, kalayan widi ti Rosecrans, anjeunna mangkat meulah [[Missionary Ridge]] pikeun marios kaayaan. Sangkaan Garfield tétéla bener.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} Balukarna, lalampahan kuda Garfield janten carita légéndaris sarta kasalahan Rosecrans deui-deui ngahudangkeun kritik ngeunaan kapamingpinanana.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} Sanajan angkatan darat Rosecrans tiasa nyingkahan musibah gedé, maranéhna kasingkur di Chattanooga, dikepung ku angkatan darat Bragg. Garfield ngirim télégram ka Sekretaris Perang [[Edwin M. Stanton]] anu ngawanti-wanti Washington ngeunaan perluna tambahan pasukan pikeun nyingkahan karuksakan total. Lincoln sarta Halleck ngaréspon paménta éta ku cara ngirimkeun 20.000 pasukan ka Garfield liwat karéta api dina waktu salapan poé.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=210}} Samentawis éta, Grant dionjatkeun pangkatna pikeun mingpin angkatan darat bagian kulon sarta gancang ngaganti Rosecrans ku [[George H. Thomas]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=213}} Garfield diparéntahkeun pikeun laporan ka Washington, dimana anjeunna dionjatkeun pangkatna janten jéndéral mayor.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=219–220}} Nurutkeun sejarawan [[Jean Edward Smith]], Grant sarta Garfield miboga "hubungan anu kaku" saprak Grant nunjuk Thomas, lain Garfield, pikeun mingpin Angkatan Darat Cumberland saatos Rosecrans diberhentikeun.{{sfn|Smith|2001|pp=550–551}} == Karir Kongrés == === Pilihan raya taun 1862; taun-taun Perang Sipil === [[File:Mathew Brady, Portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, officer of the United States government (1860–1865).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Salmon P. Chase]] mangrupikeun babaturan deukeut Garfield dugi ka sidang pamakzulan Andrew Johnson.]] Nalika anjeunna nuju pancén di Angkatan Darat dina awal taun 1862, babaturan Garfield ngadeukeutan anjeunna pikeun nyalonkeun diri ka Kongrés ti distrik ka-19 Ohio anu nembé diropéa sarta didominasi ku Partéy Républik. Anjeunna hariwang yén dirina sarta jéndéral-jéndéral séjén anu diangkat ku nagara bagian bakal nampi pancén anu teu jelas, sarta nyalonkeun diri ka Kongrés bakal ngamungkinkeun anjeunna neraskeun deui karir politikna. Lantaran Kongrés anu anyar moal ngayakeun sidang parlemén rutin dugi ka Désémber 1863, anjeunna masih tiasa neraskeun tugas perangnya samentawis waktu.{{efn|Dugi ka ratifikasi Amandemén ka-20 dina taun 1933, Kongrés ngayakeun sidang taunan dina bulan Désémber.}} Nalika keur cuti médis di bumi, anjeunna nolak pikeun kampanye, masrahkeun urusan éta ka para pangurus politik anu ahirna hasil meunangkeun nominasi dina konvénsi lokal bulan Séptémber 1862 dina sora (ballot) kadalapan. Dina pamilihan umum bulan Oktober, anjeunna ngéléhkeun D.B. Woods kalayan babandingan sora dua banding hiji pikeun korsi dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-38]].{{sfnm|Rutkow|2006|1p=17|Peskin|1978|2p=148}} Sawatara dinten sateuacan mangsa jabatan Kongrésna dimimitian, Garfield kaleungitan putri cikalna, Eliza anu yuswana nembe tilu taun. Anjeunna janten hariwang sarta bimbang, nyebatkeun yén "kasangsaraan haténa" meureun merlukeun anjeunna mulang deui ka "kahirupan liar di angkatan darat."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=219}} Anjeunna ogé nyangka yén perang bakal réngsé sateuacan anjeunna lebet ka DPR, nanging tétéla henteu, sarta anjeunna ngarasa kuat yén dirina leuwih merenah aya di médan perang batan di Kongrés. Anjeunna ogé nyangka bakal kenging komando anu hadé, janten anjeunna mutuskeun pikeun nepungan Présidén Lincoln. Dina éta patepungan, Lincoln nyarankeun sangkan anjeunna nyandak korsi DPR-na, lantaran harita kaleuwihan jumlah jéndéral nanging kakirangan anggota kongrés anu ngarojong administrasi, utamana anu gaduh pangaweruh ngeunaan urusan militér. Garfield nampi saran ieu sarta ngundurkeun diri tina jabatan militérna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=219}} Garfield patepang sarta janten sobat deukeut Menteri Kauangan [[Salmon P. Chase]], anu ningali Garfield salaku vérsi ngora ti dirina sorangan. Duanana sapuk sacara politik sarta duanana mangrupikeun bagéan tina jangjang [[Républik Radikal]] dina Partéy Républik.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=18}} Saatos anjeunna nyicingan korsi DPR dina Désémber 1863, Garfield ngarasa kuciwa ku sikep Lincoln anu siga wegah pikeun nahan pihak Kidul kalayan keras. Seueur kaum radikal, anu dipingpin di DPR ku [[Thaddeus Stevens]] ti Pennsylvania, hoyong lahan milik para pemberontak disita, nanging Lincoln ngancam bakal méto (veto) sakabéh RUU anu ngusulkeun hal éta sacara masif. Dina debat di DPR, Garfield ngarojong panerapan hukum kasebut sarta, nalika ngabahas ngeunaan [[Révolusi Agung]] (Glorious Revolution) di Inggris, anjeunna masihan isyarat yén Lincoln meureun bisa diusir tina jabatanna upami nolak hal éta.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=139–142}} Garfield parantos ngarojong [[Proklamasi Émansipasi]] Lincoln sarta ngarasa hélok ku "fénoména anéh dina sajarah dunya, nalika saurang pangacara kelas dua ti Illinois janten alat pikeun ngucapkeun kekecapan anu bakal ngabentuk hiji éra anu diéling-éling dina sakabéh mangsa nu bakal datang."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=25–26}} Garfield henteu ngan saukur satuju kana [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|ngahapusna perbudakan]], nanging ogé percaya yén pamingpin pemberontakan parantos kaleungitan hak konstitusionalna. Anjeunna ngarojong panyitaan perkebunan di Kidul sarta malah pangasingan atanapi hukuman mati pikeun para pamingpin pemberontakan salaku cara pikeun mastikeun perbudakan réngsé sacara permanén.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=233}} Garfield ngarasa Kongrés miboga kawajiban "pikeun nangtukeun panerapan hukum naon anu diperlukeun pikeun mastikeun kaadilan anu sarua pikeun sakabéh jalma anu satia, tanpa ningali warna kulitna."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=234}} Anjeunna langkung ngarojong Lincoln nalika présidén nyandak tindakan nyata ngalawan perbudakan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=152}} Garfield parantos nunjukkeun kapamingpinanana; mimitina anjeunna mangrupikeun hiji-hijina anggota Républik anu méré sora pikeun ngeureunkeun panggunaan karahayu (''bounties'') dina rékrutmen militér. Sababaraha urang anu mampu sacara finansial ngagunakeun sistem ieu pikeun "meuli" kabébasan tina tugas militér (disebut komutasi), anu dianggap kacida hina ku Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=224}} Anjeunna nepikeun pidato anu nunjukkeun kakurangan dina undang-undang wajib militer anu aya: 300,000 urang parantos dipénta daptar, nanging bieu 10,000 urang anu ngalakukeunana, sésana mah ménta pangajamban (''exemption''), méré duit, atanapi néang gaganti. Lincoln sumping ka Komisi Urusan Militér dimana Garfield pancén di dinya, ménta RUU anu leuwih éféktif; sanajan éta kudu ngorbankeun kapilihna deui anjeunna, Lincoln yakin tiasa meunangkeun perang sateuacan mangsa jabatanna réngsé.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=145–147}} Saatos sababaraha kali gagal, Garfield, kalayan rojongan Lincoln, hasil ngagolgolkeun undang-undang wajib militer anu ngaleungitkeun sistem komutasi.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=232}} Di handapeun pangaruh Chase, Garfield janten panyokong kuat mata uang dolar anu didasarkeun kana [[standar emas]], sarta kacida nentangna kana "[[Greenback (duit)|greenback]]". Anjeunna ogé nampi kabutuhan pikeun [[Specie Payment Resumption Act|ngeureunkeun samentawis pamayaran dina emas atanapi pérak]] nalika Perang Sipil kalayan rasa beurat haté.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=156}} Anjeunna méré sora babarengan jeung kaum Républik Radikal dina ngaluluskeun [[RUU Wade–Davis]], anu dirancang pikeun masihan Kongrés kakuatan leuwih dina mangsa [[Éra Rékonstruksi]], nanging Lincoln ngabatalkeunana ku [[pocket veto]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=241}} Garfield henteu nganggap Lincoln pantes pisan pikeun dipilih deui, nanging sigana teu aya pilihan sanés anu leuwih hadé. "Anjeunna meureun jalmana, sanajan kuring pikir urang bisa néang nu leuwih hadé", saurna.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=25–26}} Garfield ngiringan [[Konvénsi Nasional Uni 1864|konvénsi partéy]] sarta ngamajukeun Rosecrans salaku calon wakil présidén Lincoln, nanging para delegasi langkung milih [[Andrew Johnson]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=240}} Lincoln kapilih deui, kitu ogé Garfield.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=134–137}} Harita, Chase parantos kaluar tina Kabinét sarta diangkat janten [[Lulugu Hakim Amérika Sarikat]], sarta hubunganana sareng Garfield janten langkung anggang.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=153}} Dina taun 1865, Garfield mimiti muka prakték hukum pikeun ngalereskeun kauangan pribadina. Usahana nyandak anjeunna ka Wall Street dimana, sapoé saatos Lincoln nemas tilar dunya alatan ditelasan, sakelompok massa anu nuju amarah narik anjeunna pikeun nepikeun pidato dadakan pikeun nenangkeun kaayaan: "Dulur-dulur sakabéh! Méga sarta poék aya di sakuriling Manten-na! Tenda-Na nyaéta cai anu poék sarta méga anu kandel di langit! Kaadilan sarta kaputusan mangrupikeun tatapakan tina tahta-Na! Karahayu sarta bebeneran bakal aya di payuneun pameunteu-Na! Dulur-dulur sakabéh! Gusti nu murbéng alam, sarta Pamaréntah di Washington masih kénéh hirup!"{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=250}} Éta pidato, anu teu nyebatkeun atanapi muji Lincoln, nurutkeun panulis biografi Garfield, Robert G. Caldwell, nyaéta "kacida signifikanna pikeun naon anu henteu dikandungna sakumaha signifikanna pikeun naon anu dikandungna."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=154–155}} Dina taun-taun salajengna, Garfield nembé masihan langkung seueur pujian pikeun Lincoln; sataun saatos Lincoln pupus, Garfield nyarios, "Anu pangageungna di antara sakabéh kamekaran ieu nyaéta karakter sarta kamashuran Abraham Lincoln," sarta dina taun 1878 anjeunna nyebat Lincoln salaku "salah sahiji ti saeutik pamingpin hébat anu kawicaksanaanna ningkat babarengan jeung kakuatanana".{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=155–156}} Nalika di Washington, Garfield rutin lungsur-langsar ka Vermont Avenue Christian Church, anu saatosna janten [[National City Christian Church]], hiji wangunan anu diwangun sarta dibiayaan ku jamaah [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)|Disciples]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rushford |first=Jerry B. |title=The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofst0000unse_g1p0 |date=2004 |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |isbn=978-0-8028-3898-8 |editor-last=Foster |editor-first=Douglas A. |editor-link=Douglas A. Foster |location=Grand Rapids, MI |language=en-us |chapter=James Abram Garfield (1831–1881) |editor-last2=Blowers |editor-first2=Paul M. |editor-last3=Dunnavant |editor-first3=Anthony L. |editor-last4=Williams |editor-first4=D. Newell}}</ref> === Rékonstruksi === Dina taun 1864, Sénat AS ngaluluskeun [[Amandemén ka-13 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén ka-13]], anu ngahapus perbudakan di sakuliah Uni. Ieu RUU gagal meunang sora mayoritas dua per tilu di DPR nepi ka tanggal 31 Januari 1865, nalika ahirna dikirim ka nagara-nagara bagian pikeun diratifikasi. Ieu Amandemén muka pasualan séjén ngeunaan hak-hak sipil [[Urang Amérika katurunan Afrika|Afrika-Amérika]]. Garfield naros, "[Naon] ari kabébasan téh? Naha ngan saukur hak husus pikeun teu diranté?... Lamun ngan sakieu, mangka kabébasan téh mangrupikeun éksép anu pait, hiji halusinasi anu telenges."{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=66}}{{efn|Dina 13 Juni 1868, DPR ngaluluskeun [[Amandemén ka-14 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén ka-14]] anu masihan kawarganagaraan AS ka [[Afrika-Amérika]].{{sfn|Foner|2014|pp=253-254}}}} Garfield ngarojong [[hak pilih urang hideung]] kalayan teguh sakumaha anjeunna ngarojong panghapusan perbudakan.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=47–48}} Présidén Johnson narékahan pikeun geuwat mulangkeun nagara-nagara bagian Kidul salila bulan-bulan antara jabatanana sarta rapat Kongrés dina Désémber 1865; Garfield ngarojong kawijakan ieu kalayan ragu-ragu salaku hiji ékspérimén. Johnson, saurang sobat lila, ménta rojongan Garfield sarta obrolan maranéhna ngajantenkeun Garfield nyangka yén bédana pamadegan antara Johnson jeung Kongrés téh teu pati gedé. Nalika Kongrés karumpul dina bulan Désémber (anu ngajantenkeun Johnson kuciwa, lantaran tanpa wakil nu kapilih ti nagara bagian Kidul nu dikaluarkeun), Garfield ngajurung babaturanana pikeun ngayakeun rékonsiliasi, sanajan anjeunna hariwang yén Johnson, tilas Démokrat, meureun ngagabung jeung urang Démokrat séjén pikeun meunangkeun kadali politik. Garfield parantos ningali bakal aya konflik malah sateuacan Pébruari 1866, nalika Johnson méto (veto) RUU pikeun manjangkeun umur [[Biro Freedmen]], anu pancénna mantuan tilas budak. Nepi ka bulan April, Garfield geus nyimpulkeun yén Johnson téh boh "gélo atawa mabok ku candu."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=279}} [[File:Garfield Monument1.JPG|thumb|upright=.75|alt=Patung hideung Garfield luhureun tihang anu ukiranana rumit. Rotunda Capitol AS katingali di tukangna.|[[Monumén James A. Garfield|Monumén Garfield]], deukeut Capitol, tempat anjeunna ngabakti ampir dua puluh taun]] Konflik antara Kongrés jeung Présidén Johnson mangrupikeun pasualan utama dina kampanye taun 1866, kalayan Johnson ngayakeun kampanye jalanan dina [[Swing Around the Circle]] sarta Garfield nyanghareupan oposisi di jero Partéy Républik di distrik asalna. Kalayan pihak Kidul anu masih kaleungitan hak pilih sarta opini publik Kalér anu ngarojong urang Républik, maranéhna meunangkeun mayoritas dua per tilu di dua kamar Kongrés. Garfield, saatos hasil ngéléhkeun sainganna dina konvénsi nominasi distrik, meunangkeun deui jabatanna kalayan gampang.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=170–172}} Garfield mimitina nentang [[Usaha pamakzulan Andrew Johnson|usulan pamakzulan Johnson]] nalika Kongrés karumpul dina Désémber 1866, nanging anjeunna ngarojong panerapan hukum pikeun ngawatesan kakawasaan Johnson, sapertos [[Tenure of Office Act (1867)|Undang-Undang Mangsa Jabatan]], anu ngawatesan kamampuan Johnson pikeun ngaleupaskeun pajabat présidén anu parantos diangkat.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=278}} Kaganggu ku pancén komisi, Garfield jarang nyarita ngeunaan ieu RUU, nanging anjeunna mangrupikeun sora Républik anu satia ngalawan Johnson.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}} Dina 7 Januari 1867, Garfield méré sora pikeun ngarojong résolusi anu ngamimitian [[penyelidikan pamakzulan munggaran ngalawan Andrew Johnson|penyelidikan pamakzulan munggaran ngalawan Johnson]]. Dina 7 Désémber 1867, anjeunna méré sora nentang résolusi pamakzulan Johnson anu gagal. Dina 27 Januari 1868, anjeunna méré sora pikeun ngaluluskeun résolusi anu masihan wewenang pikeun [[penyelidikan pamakzulan kadua ngalawan Andrew Johnson|penyelidikan pamakzulan kadua]]. Lantaran aya urusan pangadilan, anjeunna teu hadir dina 24 Pébruari 1868, [[Pamakzulan Andrew Johnson|nalika DPR memakzulkeun Johnson]], nanging anjeunna nepikeun pidato anu sajajar jeung Thaddeus Stevens sarta jalma séjén anu narékahan pikeun ngaleupaskeun Johnson teu lami saatosna.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}} Garfield hadir dina tanggal 2 sarta 3 Maret 1868, nalika DPR ngayakeun sora ngeunaan pasal-pasal pamakzulan sacara spésifik, sarta anjeunna méré sora pikeun ngarojong sakabéh 11 pasal. Nalika Johnson dibébaskeun dina [[Sidang pamakzulan Andrew Johnson|sidangna di payuneun Sénat]], Garfield ngarasa reuwas sarta nyalahkeun hasil éta ka lulugu sidang, Lulugu Hakim Chase, tilas méntorna.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}} Nalika Grant ngagentos Johnson dina taun 1869, Garfield parantos ngajauh ti sésa-sésa kaum radikal (Stevens, pamingpin maranéhna, parantos pupus dina taun 1868). Harita, seueur jalma dina Partéy Républik anu hoyong ngaleungitkeun "pasualan Negro" tina urusan nasional.{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=449}} Garfield ngabagéakeun ratifikasi [[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén ka-15]] dina taun 1870 salaku hiji kameunangan sarta ngarojong ditarimanana deui Georgia ka Uni salaku hak, lain urusan politik. Salaku urang Républik anu boga pangaruh, Garfield nyarios, "[Amandemén] ka-15 masihan kakuatan ka ras Afrika pikeun ngurus takdirna sorangan. Hal ieu nempatkeun nasib maranéhna dina leungeun maranéhna sorangan."{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=449}} Dina taun 1871, Kongrés ngabahas [[Undang-Undang Ku Klux Klan]], anu dirancang pikeun merangan serangan kana hak pilih Afrika-Amérika. Garfield nentang éta undang-undang, nyarios, "Kuring can kungsi ngarasa bingung kieu ku hiji panerapan hukum." Anjeunna bimbang antara rasa amarahna ka Klan, anu ku anjeunna disebut "téroris", sarta kahariwangna kana kakuatan anu dipasrahkeun ka présidén pikeun ngajalankeun éta undang-undang ngaliwatan penangguhan ''[[habeas corpus]]''.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=332–334}} === Tarif sarta kauangan === [[File:US-$1-LT-1862-Fr-16c.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Duit kertas "greenback" anu kacida teu dipikaresep ku Garfield]] Sapanjang karir politikna, Garfield mihak kana [[standar emas]] sarta nyawad sagala rupa tarékah pikeun nambahan jumlah duit anu medar ngaliwatan pamedaran duit kertas anu teu didasarkeun kana emas, sarta saatosna, ngaliwatan [[pérrak bébas|pamedaran pérak anu bébas sarta teu kawates]].{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=205–218}} Dina taun 1865, anjeunna ditempatkeun dina [[Komisi Urusan Keuangan DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komisi Urusan Keuangan DPR]] (''House Ways and Means Committee''), hiji kasempetan anu parantos lami dinanti-nanti pikeun museurkeun perhatian kana pasualan kauangan sarta ékonomi. Anjeunna negeskeun deui sikepna anu nentang ''greenback'', kalayan nyarita, "Sing saha waé partéy anu milih ngagunakeun duit kertas bakal runtag di tengah musibah umum, katutupan ku supata ti rahayat anu sangsara."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=261}} Dina taun 1868, Garfield nepikeun pidato salila dua jam ngeunaan mata uang di DPR, anu ku seueur pihak dianggap salaku kamampuh orator panghadéna nepi ka mangsa harita; di dinya, anjeunna ngajurung sangkan pamaréntah laun-laun mulang deui kana pamayaran tunai (''specie payments''), nyaéta pamaréntah mayar nganggo pérak sarta emas, lain ku duit kertas anu teu bisa ditukeurkeun.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=268}} Tarif parantos dionjatkeun ka tingkat anu luhur nalika Perang Sipil. Saatosna, Garfield, anu neuleuman pisan urusan kauangan, ngajurung sangkan Amérika nuju kana perdagangan anu leuwih bébas, sanajan sikep baku Partéy Républik harita nyaéta tarif protéktif anu bakal ngamungkinkeun industri Amérika mekar. Ieu béda pamadegan jeung partéyna sigana anu ngabalukarkeun anjeunna kaleungitan posisi di Komisi Urusan Keuangan dina taun 1867, sarta sanajan urang Républik nguasaan mayoritas di DPR nepi ka taun 1875, Garfield tetep teu diasupkeun ka éta komisi. Garfield ahirna mingpin [[Komisi Anggaran DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komisi Anggaran DPR]] (''House Appropriations Committee'') anu kawasa, nanging sabenerna anjeunna langkung hoyong mingpin Komisi Urusan Keuangan lantaran pangaruhna kana kawijakan fiskal.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=31–32}} Salah sahiji alesan naha anjeunna ditolak di Komisi Urusan Keuangan nyaéta oposisi ti redaktur Républik anu boga pangaruh, [[Horace Greeley]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=265, 327}} [[File:Ulysses S Grant by Brady c1870-restored.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|alt=Poto potrét Grant|Potrét [[Ulysses S. Grant]]]] Dimimitian dina Januari 1870, Garfield, anu harita janten pupuhu [[Komisi Perbankan DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komisi Perbankan DPR]], mingpin panalungtikan ngeunaan skandal Panik Emas [[Black Friday (1869)|Black Friday]].{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|p=146}} Dina taun 1869, nalika mangsa jabatan munggaran Grant, dua jalma sakongkol ti New York, [[Jay Gould]] sarta [[James Fisk (financier)|James Fisk]], ngajalankeun skéma pikeun nguasaan pasar emas. Éta konspirasi kagagalkeun dina poé Jumaah, 24 Séptémber 1869, nalika Grant sarta Menteri Kauangan [[George Boutwell]] ngaluarkeun cadangan emas ka pasar, anu ngabalukarkeun panik kauangan sacara lega. Salila panalungtikan, sumebar béja yén kulawarga Grant meureun milu kalibet. Sangkan pamajikan Grant teu kudu méré kasaksian, Garfield ngayakeun patepungan pribadi jeung Grant di Gedong Bodas. Nalika Garfield némbongkeun kasaksian ngeunaan Grant sarta kulawargana, Grant nganuhunkeun ka Garfield nanging nolak maca atanapi méré réspon.{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|pp=125, 146}} Grant sacara pribadi ngarasa tugenah ka Garfield lantaran nalungtik kajadian Black Friday sarta pamajikanana, Julia, ngeunaan kamungkinan kalibet dina éta skandal.{{sfn|Smith|2001|pp=550-551}} Hasil panalungtikan Garfield sarta laporan mayoritas pamungkasna, anu dikaluarkeun dina 12 Séptémber 1870, kacida lengkepna nanging teu mendakan palanggaran hukum anu bisa didakwa sarta ngabébaskeun Grant jeung Julia tina kasalahan.{{sfnm|Calhoun|2017|1p=146|Smith|2001|2pp=550-551}} Garfield boga pamadegan yén éta skandal téh bisa lumangsung alatan ayana duit ''greenback'' anu ngabiayaan éta spékulasi.{{sfnm|McFeely|1981|1p=328|Peskin|1978|2p=311|Calhoun|2017|3p=146|Smith|2001|4pp=550-551}} Garfield teu pati sumanget ngeunaan kapilihna deui Présidén Grant dina taun 1872—nepi ka Greeley, anu muncul salaku calon ti urang Démokrat sarta [[Partéy Républik Liberal (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik Liberal]], janten hiji-hijina pilihan séjén anu sarius. Garfield nyarita, "Kuring bakal nyebutkeun yén Grant téh teu pantes dicalonkeun sarta Greeley téh teu pantes dipilih."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=350–351}} Duanana, boh Grant boh Garfield, ahirna kapilih deui kalayan sora anu mutlak.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=350–351}} === Skandal Crédit Mobilier sarta "Salary Grab" === [[Skandal Crédit Mobilier Amérika]] ngalibatkeun korupsi dina pamayaran proyék [[Jalan Karéta Api Union Pacific]], bagéan tina [[jalan karéta api transkontinéntal]] anu réngsé dina taun 1869. Para pajabat sarta diréktur Union Pacific sacara rusiah meuli sarta ngawasa pausahaan [[Crédit Mobilier of America]], salajengna ngayakeun kontrak jeung éta pausahaan pikeun ngalaksanakeun pangwangunan jalan karéta. Pihak jalan karéta mayar tagihan pausahaan anu hargana parantos dionjatkeun sacara kacida (mark-up) ku dana féderal anu dialokasikeun pikeun nyubsidi éta proyék, sarta éta pausahaan diidinan meuli surat berharga Union Pacific dina harga [[par value|nilai par]] (harga asal), anu jauh di handapeun harga pasar. Crédit Mobilier némbongkeun kauntungan sarta kanaékan saham anu kacida badagna, sarta ngabagikeun dividén anu gedé. Biaya anu luhur ieu ngabalukarkeun Kongrés dipénta pikeun ngalokasikeun langkung seueur dana. Salah saurang pajabat jalan karéta anu ngawasa Crédit Mobilier ogé saurang anggota kongrés, [[Oakes Ames]] ti [[Massachusetts]]. Anjeunna nawarkeun ka sababaraha babaturanana kasempetan pikeun meuli saham Crédit Mobilier dina harga par, jauh di handapeun harga jual di pasar, sarta pihak jalan karéta kenging tambahan alokasi dana.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=219}} [[File:Keppler Credit Mobilier Hari-Kari.png|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Kartun éditorial: [[Uncle Sam]] maréntahkeun para Sénator sarta Anggota DPR AS anu kalibet dina skéma Crédit Mobilier pikeun ngalakukeun [[Hara-Kiri]].]] Ieu carita kabongkar dina Juli 1872, di tengah-tengah kampanye présidén. Di antara nami-nami anu kasebut nyaéta Wakil Présidén [[Schuyler Colfax]], Sénator Massachusetts [[Henry Wilson]] (calon wakil présidén ti Républik), Ketua DPR [[James G. Blaine]] ti Maine, sarta Garfield. Greeley kurang untung dina ngamangpaatkeun ieu skandal. Nalika Kongrés karumpul deui saatos pamilihan, Blaine, anu narékahan pikeun meresihan namina, ménta panalungtikan ku DPR. Bukti di payuneun komisi husus ngabébaskeun Blaine tina kasalahan. Garfield nyarita dina Séptémber 1872 yén Ames parantos nawarkeun saham ka anjeunna, nanging anjeunna sababaraha kali nolak. Nalika méré kasaksian di payuneun komisi dina bulan Januari, Ames nyarita yén anjeunna parantos nawarkeun sapuluh lambar saham ka Garfield dina harga par, nanging Garfield teu kungsi nyandak atanapi mayar éta saham, sanajan sataun parantos kalangkung, ti 1867 dugi ka 1868, sateuacan Garfield ahirna bener-bener nolak. Muncul di payuneun komisi dina 14 Januari 1873, Garfield mastikeun sabagian badag tina hal ieu. Ames méré kasaksian sababaraha minggu saatosna yén Garfield sapuk pikeun nyandak saham ku cara kiridit, sarta éta saham parantos dibayar ku dividén pausahaan anu kacida gedéna.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=224–226}} Duanana béda pamadegan ngeunaan duit $300 anu ditarima ku Garfield sarta saatosna dibayar deui, dimana Garfield nganggap éta téh salaku injeuman, sedengkeun Ames nganggap éta téh dividén.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=354–359}} Para panulis biografi Garfield siga nu wegah pikeun ngabébaskeun anjeunna sagemblengna dina ieu skandal. Allan Peskin nyerat, "Naha Garfield ngabohong? Henteu persis. Naha anjeunna nyarioskeun sabenerna? Henteu sagemblengna. Naha anjeunna korup? Henteu ogé. Malah musuh-musuh Garfield ogé teu kungsi ngaklaim yén kalibetna anjeunna dina ieu urusan mangaruhan kalakuanana."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=362}} Rutkow nyerat, "Kasalahan nyata Garfield nyaéta anjeunna sacara sadar nolak di payuneun komisi panalungtik DPR yén anjeunna parantos sapuk nampi saham sarta anjeunna ogé parantos nampi dividén sagedé $329."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=34}} Caldwell nyarankeun yén Garfield "nyarioskeun bebeneran [di payuneun komisi, nanging] tétéla gagal nyarioskeun sagemblengna bebeneran, sacara jéntré nyingkahan jawaban pikeun sababaraha patarosan penting sarta méré kesan kasalahan anu leuwih parah batan naon anu sabenerna dilakukeun ku anjeunna."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=230}} Yén Crédit Mobilier téh hiji organisasi korup sabenerna mangrupikeun rusiah umum anu geus bocor, malah kungsi disebutkeun dina sidang Kongrés, sarta redaktur Sam Bowles nyerat harita yén Garfield, dina posisina dina komisi-komisi anu ngurus kauangan, "teu boga hak pikeun bodo dina urusan anu sakieu pentingna, sakumaha saurang pangawal teu meunang nundutan dina pos jagana."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=362}} Pasualan sanés anu ngabalukarkeun Garfield kasusah dina usaha kapilihna deui dina taun 1874 nyaéta naon anu disebut "[[Undang-Undang Salary Grab|Salary Grab]]" (Rampog Gaji) taun 1873, anu naékkeun kompensasi pikeun anggota Kongrés sagedé 50%, lumaku surut (retroaktif) nepi ka taun 1871. Salaku pupuhu Komisi Anggaran, Garfield tanggung jawab pikeun ngawal RUU anggaran éta di DPR; salila debat dina Pébruari 1873, Perwakilan Massachusetts [[Benjamin Butler (politikus)|Benjamin Butler]] ngusulkeun kanaékan éta salaku amandemén, sarta sanajan Garfield nentang, éta RUU lulus di DPR sarta ahirna janten undang-undang. Éta hukum kacida populérna di DPR, lantaran ampir satengah anggotana téh urang [[lame duck (politik)|lame duck]] (anu moal ngajabat deui), nanging publik kacida ambekna, sarta seueur konstituén Garfield anu nyalahkeun anjeunna, sanajan sacara pribadi anjeunna nolak nampi éta kanaékan gaji. Dina taun anu goréng pikeun urang Républik, anu kaleungitan kadali di DPR pikeun munggaranana saprak Perang Sipil, Garfield ngalaman pamilihan kongrés anu pangketatna, meunang kalayan ngan 57% sora.{{efn|Garfield biasana meunang dua atanapi tilu kali lipet sora lawanna ti Démokrat.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=148, 244, 277, 292}}}}{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=233–236|Rutkow|2006|2pp=34–35}} ===Floor leader; Hayes administration=== The Democratic takeover of the House of Representatives in 1875 meant the loss of Garfield's chairmanship of the Appropriations Committee, though the Democrats did put him on the Ways and Means Committee. With many of his leadership rivals defeated in the 1874 Democratic landslide, and Blaine elected to the Senate, Garfield was seen as the Republican [[floor leader]], and the likely Speaker, should the party regain control of the chamber.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=37–39}} Garfield thought the [[Public Land Survey System#Railroad land grants|land grants]] given to expanding railroads was an unjust practice. He also opposed monopolistic practices by corporations, as well as the power sought by workers' unions.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=331}} He supported the proposed establishment of the [[United States civil service]] as a means of ridding officials of the annoyance of aggressive office seekers. He especially wished to eliminate the practice of forcing government workers, in exchange for their positions, to [[Kickback (bribery)|kick back]] a percentage of their wages as political contributions.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=335–338}} As the [[1876 United States presidential election|1876 presidential election]] approached, Garfield was loyal to the candidacy of Senator Blaine, and fought for the former Speaker's nomination at the [[1876 Republican National Convention]] in Cincinnati. When it became clear, after six ballots, that Blaine could not prevail, the convention nominated Ohio Governor [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]. Although Garfield had supported Blaine, he had kept good relations with Hayes, and wholeheartedly supported the governor.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=398–400}} Garfield had hoped to retire from politics after his term expired to devote himself full-time to the practice of law, but to help his party, he sought re-election, and won it easily that October. Any celebration was short-lived, as Garfield's youngest son, Neddie, fell ill with [[whooping cough]] shortly after the congressional election, and soon died.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=401–405}} [[File:Electoral Commission (United States).jpg|thumb|200px|upright=1.25|Garfield (second from right in the row of commissioners just below the gallery) served on the [[Electoral Commission (United States)|Electoral Commission]] that decided the disputed 1876 presidential election. Painting by [[Cornelia Adele Strong Fassett]].]] When Hayes appeared to have lost the presidential election the following month to Democrat [[Samuel Tilden]], the Republicans launched efforts to reverse the results in South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida, where they held the governorship. If Hayes won all three states, he would take the election by a single electoral vote. Grant asked Garfield to serve as a "neutral observer" of the recount in Louisiana. The observers soon recommended to the state electoral commissions that Hayes be declared the winner—Garfield recommended the entire vote of [[West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana|West Feliciana Parish]], which had given Tilden a sizable majority, be thrown out. The Republican governors of the three states certified that Hayes had won their states, to the outrage of Democrats, who had the state legislatures submit rival returns, and threatened to prevent the counting of the electoral vote—under the Constitution, Congress is the final arbiter of the election. Congress then established an [[Electoral Commission (United States)|Electoral Commission]], consisting of eight Republicans and seven Democrats, to determine the winner. Despite his objection to the Commission, Garfield was appointed to it. He felt Congress should count the vote and proclaim Hayes victorious. Hayes emerged the victor by a party line vote of 8–7.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://elections.harpweek.com/Controversy.asp|publisher=Harpers Weekly|title=Hayes vs. Tilden: The Electoral College Controversy of 1876–1877|access-date=December 21, 2021|website=HarpWeek|archive-date=December 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221170539/https://elections.harpweek.com/Controversy.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> In exchange for recognizing Hayes as president, Southern Democrats secured the removal of federal troops from the South, ending Reconstruction.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=251–261|Rutkow|2006|2p=40}} Although an Ohio Senate seat would be vacated by the resignation of [[John Sherman]] to become Treasury Secretary, Hayes needed Garfield's expertise to protect him from the agenda of a hostile Congress, and asked him not to seek it. Garfield agreed. As Hayes's key legislator in the House, he gained considerable prestige and respect for his role there.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=41}} When Congress debated the [[Bland–Allison Act]], to have the government purchase large quantities of silver and strike it into legal tender [[Morgan dollar|dollar coins]], Garfield opposed it as a deviation from the gold standard; it was enacted over Hayes's veto in February 1878.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=261}} In 1876, Garfield purchased the property in [[Mentor, Ohio|Mentor]] that reporters later dubbed [[James A. Garfield National Historic Site|Lawnfield]], where he later conducted the first successful [[front porch campaign]] for the presidency.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=498}} Hayes suggested that Garfield run for governor in 1879, seeing that as a road likely to take Garfield to the White House. Garfield preferred to seek election as a U.S. senator. Rivals were spoken of for the seat, such as Secretary Sherman, but he had presidential ambitions (for which he sought Garfield's support), and other candidates fell by the wayside. The General Assembly elected Garfield to the Senate in January 1880, though his term was not scheduled to commence until March 4, 1881.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=442–447}} === Karir hukum sarta aktivitas séjénna === Dina taun 1865, Garfield janten mitra dina firma hukum [[Jeremiah Black]]. Maranéhna miboga seueur sasaruaan, iwal ti dina widang politik: Black nyaéta saurang Démokrat anu kacida fanatikna, sarta kungsi ngabakti dina kabinét Présidén [[James Buchanan]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=270}} Taun salajengna, Black dipercaya ku sababaraha urang sipil Kalér anu pro-Konfédérasi anu dinyatakeun bersalah ngalakukeun hianat ku pangadilan militer sarta dihukum pati. Black ningali ieu kasempetan pikeun neunggeul pangadilan militer sarta urang Républik.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=271}} Anjeunna parantos ngadangu pidato-pidato militer Garfield, sarta terang yén Garfield henteu ngan saukur parigel dina orator, nanging ogé nentang kana kakawasaan komisi militer anu tumaninah. Black masrahkeun éta kasus ka Garfield saminggu sateuacan argumén ditepikeun di payuneun Pangadilan Agung AS. Nalika Black ngingetkeun ngeunaan bahaya politikna, Garfield ngajawab, "Éta mah teu jadi masalah. Kuring percaya kana kabébasan Inggris sarta hukum Inggris."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=272}} Dina kasus anu kacida pentingna ieu, ''[[Ex parte Milligan]],'' Garfield hasil ngayakinkeun yén warga sipil teu tiasa diadili di payuneun tribun militer sanajan dina kaayaan darurat militer (martial law), salami pangadilan sipil masih kénéh jalan. Dina panampilan munggaranna di pangadilan, argumén lisan Garfield lumangsung langkung ti dua jam, sarta sanajan kliénna anu beunghar nolak mayar anjeunna, anjeunna parantos ngukuhkeun dirina salaku saurang pangacara anu petingan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=271}} Salila mangsa jabatan munggaran Grant, Garfield ngarasa kurang sugema ku layanan publik sarta dina taun 1872 anjeunna deui-deui ngudag kasempetan dina widang hukum. Nanging, anjeunna nolak tawaran kemitraan ti hiji firma hukum di Cleveland nalika dibéjaan yén calon mitrana miboga reputasi anu "teu bener sarta cabul."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=347}} Dina taun 1873, saatos pupusna Chase, Garfield ménta ka Grant sangkan nunjuk Hakim [[Noah H. Swayne]] janten Lulugu Hakim, nanging Grant kalah nunjuk [[Morrison R. Waite]].{{sfn|McFeely|1981|pp=387–389, 392}} [[File:Garfield Pythagoras.svg|thumb|upright=.75|right|Bukti tiori Pythagoras ti Garfield maké wangun trapésium jeung segitiga siku-siku di jerona.]] Dina taun 1871, Garfield indit ka [[Wilayah Montana]] pikeun ngayakeun badami ngeunaan pamindahan sélér [[Bitterroot Salish]] ka [[Flathead Indian Reservation|Reservasi India Flathead]]. Saatos dibéjaan yén éta jalma-jalma bakal bungah pindah, Garfield nyangka ieu tugas téh bakal gampang. Tétéla, anjeunna mendakan urang Salish téh teguh hayang tetep cicing di tanah karuhunana di [[Lebak Bitterroot]]. Usahana pikeun maksa [[Chief Charlo]] (Lulugu Charlo) sangkan nandatanganan perjangjian méh baé ngabalukarkeun bentrok militer. Ahirna, anjeunna hasil ngayakinkeun dua wakil lulugu pikeun nandatanganan sarta pindah ka reservasi jeung saeutik urang Salish. Garfield teu kungsi bisa ngayakinkeun Charlo pikeun nandatanganan, sanajan dokumén perjangjian resmi anu disahkeun ku Kongrés miboga tanda tangan palsu anjeunna. Dina taun 1876, Garfield ngamekarkeun hiji [[Bukti tiori Pythagoras ti Garfield|bukti trapésium]] pikeun [[tiori Pythagoras]], anu diterbitkeun dina ''[[New England Journal of Education]]''. Sejarawan matematika [[William Dunham (matematikawan)|William Dunham]] nyerat yén karya trapésium Garfield nyaéta "bukti anu kacida pinter benerna." Nurutkeun éta jurnal, Garfield manggihan éta bukti dina sela-sela "hiburan matematika sarta diskusi jeung anggota kongrés séjénna." Saatos pangalaman konvési agamana dina taun 1850, dunya kaagamaan janten prioritas utama pikeun Garfield. Anjeunna seueur maca sarta pamikiranna ngalegaan saluareun wates-wates pangalaman awalna salaku anggota Murid-murid Kristus (Disciples of Christ). Sawangan anyarna anu leuwih lega dumasar kana kacintaanana kana kabébasan mikir sarta pangulikna kana sajarah. Jerona pamikiran kaagamaan Garfield ogé dipangaruhan ku pangalamanana dina panggero perang sarta interaksina jeung para pamilih. == Pilihan raya présidén taun 1880 == {{Utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1880}} === Nominasi Républik === {{Utama|Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1880}} [[File:The Appomattox of the third termers - unconditional surrender.jpg|thumb|200px|upright=1.25|alt=Kartun. Grant nuju deku, Garfield nampi pedang ti Grant.|Saatos Grant éléh dina nominasi, majalah [[Puck (majalah)|''Puck'']] nyieun satira ngeunaan talukna [[Robert E. Lee]] ka Grant di Appomattox ku cara némbongkeun Grant masrahkeun pedangna ka Garfield.]] Saatos nembé kapilih janten Sénator kalayan rojongan John Sherman, Garfield sabenerna boga komitmen pikeun ngarojong Sherman dina nominasi présidén Républik taun 1880.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=454–455}} Nanging, sateuacan konvénsi dimimitian, sababaraha urang Républik, kalebet [[Wharton Barker]] ti Philadelphia, nganggap Garfield salaku pilihan panghadéna pikeun nominasi éta.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=454–455}} Garfield nolak yén anjeunna boga minat kana éta jabatan, nanging perhatian publik ieu cekap pikeun ngajantenkeun Sherman curiga kana ambisi leungeun katuhuna éta.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=456–457}} Salian ti Sherman, calon-calon anu diunggulkeun di awal nyaéta Blaine sarta tilas Présidén Grant; sababaraha calon séjén ogé narik perhatian para delegasi.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=17–19}} Partéy Républik harita kabeulah janten dua faksi: "**Stalwarts**", anu ngarojong sistem patronase (bagi-bagi jabatan) pamaréntah féderal anu aya, sarta "**Half-Breeds**", anu hoyong ayana réformasi layanan sipil. Nalika konvénsi dimimitian, Sénator New York [[Roscoe Conkling]], pamingpin faksi Stalwarts anu ngarojong tilas Présidén Ulysses S. Grant, ngusulkeun sangkan para delegasi sumpah pikeun ngarojong saha waé anu engkéna kapilih jadi nomine dina pilihan raya umum.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} Nalika tilu delegasi Virginia Kulon nolak kabeungkeut ku sumpah éta, Conkling narékahan pikeun ngaluarkeun maranéhna tina konvénsi. Garfield nangtung pikeun ngabéla éta jalma-jalma, nepikeun pidato anu pinuh ku sumanget pikeun ngabéla hak maranéhna dina nangtukeun pilihan.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} Massa ahirna malik nentang Conkling, sarta anjeunna narik deui usulanana.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} Ieu aksi Garfield matak hélok para pangrojongna, anu beuki yakin yén anjeunna téh hiji-hijina jalma anu bisa narik mayoritas sora delegasi.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=464–465}} Saatos urusan awal konvénsi réngsé, Conkling naék ka panggung pikeun némbongkeun calonna, [[Ulysses S. Grant]], kalayan pidato anu ngagedur sarta sababaraha kali kapegat ku surak massa, anu ngajantenkeun sabagian badag wartawan yakin yén Grant bakal meunang nominasi sacara aklamasi. Garfield salajengna naék ka panggung pikeun nyalonkeun babaturanana urang Ohio, [[John Sherman]], nepikeun pidato anu leuwih tenang anu ngingetkeun para delegasi yén pilihan raya présidén bakal ditangtukeun "dina kotak sora di Républik" dina bulan Novémber, lain "di Chicago dina panasna bulan Juli". Pidato Garfield museur kana hak para delegasi pikeun milih luyu jeung sora haténa, lain dikadali ku pamingpin partéy. Garfield dianggap salaku sosok anu mawa integritas anu dipiharep ku publik di tengah kacapéan politik sarta korupsi anu sumebar. Fokus salajengna pindah ka Garfield, anu ngabalukarkeun saurang delegasi nyarita, "Upami aya jalma luar (outsider) anu dicandak, kuring miharep éta téh Garfield". Dina sora (''ballot'') munggaran, Grant kenging 304 sora, Blaine 284, sarta Sherman jauh di tukang kalayan 93 sora. Sora-sora salajengna tetep macét (deadlock) antara Grant sarta Blaine, dimana duanana teu aya nu kenging 379 sora anu diperlukeun pikeun nominasi.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=96–101}} [[Jeremiah McLain Rusk]], anggota delegasi Wisconsin, sarta [[Benjamin Harrison]], delegasi Indiana, narékahan pikeun mungkas éta kamacétan ku cara mindahkeun sababaraha sora anti-Grant ka calon kuda hideung (**[[dark horse]]**)—nyaéta Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=472–475}} Garfield kenging 50 sora dina sora ka-35, sarta gelombang rojongan mimiti ngagedur. Garfield protés ka delegasi Ohio yén anjeunna teu néang nominasi sarta moal ngahianat ka Sherman, nanging maranéhna teu maliré protésna sarta tetep milih anjeunna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=475–477}} Dina sora salajengna, ampir sakabéh delegasi Sherman sarta Blaine mindahkeun rojonganana ka Garfield, anu masihan anjeunna 399 sora sarta sah janten nomine. Sabagian badag pangrojong Grant tetep milih Grant nepi ka ahir, anu nyiptakeun minoritas faksi Stalwart anu kuciwa dina jero partéy.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=110–114}} Pikeun kenging rojongan ti éta faksi, [[Chester A. Arthur]], saurang anggota mesin politik Conkling, dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=480–481}} === Kampanye ngalawan Hancock === [[File:Grand national Republican banner 1880 LCCN2001702119.jpg|thumb|200px|Poster pilihan raya Garfield–Arthur]] [[File:ElectoralCollege1880.svg|right|thumb|200px|Hasil sora éléktoral taun 1880]] Sanajan dina posisi calon wakil présidén parantos aya urang Stalwart, mumusuhan antara faksi-faksi Républik sésa konvénsi tetep aya, sahingga Garfield indit ka New York pikeun nepungan para pamingpin partéy.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=488–491}} Saatos hasil ngayakinkeun faksi Stalwart sangkan miceun bédana pamadegan sarta ngahiji pikeun kampanye, Garfield mulang ka Ohio, masrahkeun kampanye aktip ka batur, sakumaha tradisi harita.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=498–500}} Samentawis éta, urang Démokrat nangtukeun calonna, Mayor Jéndéral [[Winfield Scott Hancock]] ti Pennsylvania, saurang perwira militer karir.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=488–491}} Hancock sarta urang Démokrat ngarep-ngarep bisa nguasaan wilayah [[Solid South]] (Kidul anu kompak), sedengkeun sabagian badag wilayah Kalér dianggap wilayah aman pikeun Garfield sarta urang Républik; lolobana kampanye museur ka sababaraha [[Nagara bagian ayun|nagara bagian anu sora na ketat]] (''swing states''), kalebet New York sarta Indiana.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=501–502}} Béda praktis antara dua calon ieu sabenerna saeutik, nanging urang Républik ngamimitian kampanye ku téma anu geus biasa, nyaéta "[[waving the bloody shirt]]" (ngageberkeun baju getihan). Maranéhna ngingetkeun para pamilih di Kalér yén Partéy Démokrat tanggung jawab kana aksi misahkeun diri (sési) sarta opat taun perang sipil, sarta urang Démokrat bakal ngabatalkeun hasil tina éta perang, ngahinakeun para véteran Uni, sarta mayar pangsiun para véteran Konfédérasi tina kas nagara.{{sfn|Clancy|1958|pp=175–180}} Lima belas taun parantos kaliwat saprak perang réngsé, sarta kalayan jéndéral Uni mingpin di kadua pihak, taktik "baju getihan" ieu beuki kurang mangpaatna pikeun ngahudang sumanget pamilih.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=493–494}} Sababaraha bulan sateuacan pilihan raya, urang Républik ngarobah taktik ku cara nekenkeun kana masalah [[tarif]]. Ngamangpaatkeun program Démokrat anu hayang "tarif ngan saukur pikeun panghasilan nagara", urang Républik bébéja ka para buruh di Kalér yén upami Hancock jadi présidén, éta bakal ngaleutikan panyalindungan tarif anu ngajaga maranéhna tetep boga pagawéan anu hadé.{{sfn|Clancy|1958|pp=232–233}} Hancock ngajantenkeun kaayaan langkung parah nalika anjeunna nyobian nyandak sikep tengah kalayan nyarita, "Pasualan tarif mah pasualan lokal."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=493–494}} Taktik Républik ieu kabuktian éféktif pikeun ngahijikeun Kalér di tukangeun Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=511–513}} Ahirna, tina leuwih ti 9,2 juta sora rahayat anu asup, sélisih antara dua calon ieu kurang ti 2.000 sora. Nanging dina [[Kolaéj Éléktoral (Amérika Sarikat)|Kolaéj Éléktoral]], Garfield meunang mutlak luhureun Hancock kalayan 214 sora lawan 155 sora.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=510–511}} Ieu pilihan raya ngajantenkeun Garfield hiji-hijina anggota DPR anu masih ngajabat anu kungsi kapilih jadi présidén. == Kapersidénan (1881) == {{Infobox Kabinét AS |align=right |Name=Garfield |President=James A. Garfield |President date=1881 |Vice President=[[Chester A. Arthur]] |Vice President date=1881 |State=[[James G. Blaine]] |State date=1881 |Treasury=[[William Windom (politikus)|William Windom]] |Treasury date=1881 |War=[[Robert Todd Lincoln]] |War date=1881 |Justice=[[Wayne MacVeagh]] |Justice date=1881 |Post=[[Thomas Lemuel James]] |Post date=1881 |Navy=[[William H. Hunt]] |Navy date=1881 |Interior=[[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] |Interior date=1881 }} === Kabinét sarta pelantikan === {{Utama|Pelantikan James A. Garfield}} [[File:Garfield inauguration.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Présidén Garfield dina panggung tinjauan, nuju ningali upacara pelantikan dina 4 Maret 1881]] [[File:GARFIELD, James A-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg|thumb|200px|Ukiran garis Garfield, dijieun sakitar taun 1902 ku Bureau of Engraving and Printing]] Sateuacan pelantikanana, Garfield disibukkeun ku nyusun kabinét anu bisa mawa katengtreman antara faksi Conkling (Stalwart) sarta faksi Blaine (Half-Breed) dina internal partéy. Delegasi Blaine parantos masihan seueur rojongan pikeun nominasi Garfield, janten sénator ti Maine éta kenging posisi kahormatan salaku Menteri Luar Negeri.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=519–521}} Blaine lain saukur panaséhat pangdeukeutna présidén, nanging anjeunna ogé kacida panasaranana kana sagala hal anu lumangsung di Gedong Bodas, malah konon nempatkeun mata-mata di dinya nalika anjeunna nuju teu aya.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=554–555}} Garfield nunjuk [[William Windom (politikus)|William Windom]] ti Minnesota salaku Menteri Kauangan, [[William H. Hunt]] ti Louisiana salaku Menteri Angkatan Laut, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] salaku Menteri Perang, sarta [[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] ti Iowa salaku Menteri Jero Nagara. New York diwakilan ku [[Thomas Lemuel James]] salaku Diréktur Jéndéral Pos. Garfield ogé nunjuk urang Pennsylvania, [[Wayne MacVeagh]], anu mangrupikeun lawan Blaine, janten [[Jaksa Agung Amérika Sarikat]].{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=33–36}} Blaine nyobian ngagagalkeun ieu janjian ku cara ngayakinkeun Garfield sangkan nunjuk lawan MacVeagh, [[William E. Chandler]], janten [[Solistur Jéndéral Amérika Sarikat]] di handapeun MacVeagh. Ngan saukur panolakan Sénat ka Chandler anu hasil nyegah MacVeagh ngundurkeun diri alatan éta pasualan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=555–561}} Lantaran Garfield kaganggu ku urusan tawar-menawar kabinét, pidato pelantikanana dianggap sakadar "kumpulan omongan anu ilahar" sarta teu luyu jeung harepan publik.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=330}}{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=272}} Nanging, dina salah sahiji bagian penting, Garfield nekenkeun hak-hak sipil [[Afrika-Amérika]], nyarita yén "Kabébasan moal bisa méré berkah anu sampurna salami hukum atanapi administrasina masih nunda halangan leutik dina jalan unggal warga nagara anu mulya."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=538–540}} Saatos ngabahas standar emas, kabutuhan pendidikan, sarta kecaman anu teu disangka-sangka ka [[poligami Mormon]], éta pidato réngsé. Massa méré keprok, nanging nurutkeun Peskin, éta pidato "sanajan ditepikeun kalayan tulus, némbongkeun prosés panyusunan anu rurusuhan alatan nada anu datar sarta téma anu geus ilahar."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=539}} Janjian James ku Garfield matak ngambekkeun Conkling, lawan faksi Diréktur Jéndéral Pos éta, anu salajengna nungtut janjian kompensasi pikeun faksina, sapertos posisi Menteri Kauangan. Pasulayan anu dihasilkeun méakkeun seueur waktos dina mangsa kapersidénan Garfield anu pondok. Mumusuhan jeung Conkling nepi ka puncagna nalika présidén, alatan pangaruh Blaine, nunjuk musuh Conkling, Hakim [[William H. Robertson]], janten [[Koléktor Palabuhan New York]]. Ieu mangrupikeun salah sahiji posisi "basah" (patronase) di handapeun tingkat kabinét anu harita dicekel ku [[Edwin Atkins Merritt|Edwin A. Merritt]]. Conkling ngagunakeun prinsip [[sopan santun sénatorial]] (''senatorial courtesy'') pikeun nyobian ngagagalkeun éta janjian, nanging teu hasil. Garfield, anu percaya yén éta prakték téh korup sarta nolak ngan saukur jadi "tukang stempel" pikeun pilihan para sénator anu kawasa, teu daék mundur. Anjeunna ngancam bakal narik sakabéh nominasi iwal upami Robertson disahkeun, kalayan maksud pikeun "nangtukeun naha présidén téh ngan saukur juru tulis pendaptaran Sénat atanapi lulugu Éksekutif Amérika Sarikat".{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=38}} Ahirna, Conkling sarta baturna ti New York, Sénator [[Thomas C. Platt]], ngundurkeun diri tina korsi Sénat pikeun néang pangrojong balik ti nagara bagianana, nanging kalah manggihan kahinaan nalika législatif New York kalah milih jalma séjén pikeun ngagentos maranéhna. Robertson disahkeun janten Koléktor sarta kameunangan Garfield katingal jéntré. Sanajan Blaine rada tugenah, Garfield balik deui kana tujuanana pikeun nyaimbangkeun kapentingan faksi-faksi partéy sarta nunjuk sababaraha babaturan Conkling ti faksi Stalwart pikeun ngeusian rupa-rupa jabatan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=273}} Kalayan kabinét anu parantos lengkep, Garfield kudu nyanghareupan rébu-rébu jalma anu néang jabatan (office seekers). Anjeunna ngagorowok, "Gusti! Naon anu aya di ieu tempat nepi ka saurang lalaki hayang pisan asup ka dieu." Kulawarga Garfield sabenerna betah cicing di Gedong Bodas, nanging anjeunna ngarasa tugas-tugas kapersidénan téh kacida matak jéngkélna.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=272}} === Waragad deui hutang nasional === Garfield maréntahkeun Menteri Kauangan William Windom pikeun ngawaragad deui (''refinance'') hutang nasional ku cara narik deui beungkeut (''bond'') AS anu mayar bunga 6%. Para panyekel beungkeut dipasihan pilihan: nampi artos tunai atanapi nampi beungkeut énggal kalayan bunga 3%, anu langkung luyu sareng tingkat bunga harita. Ieu léngkah hasil nyalametkeun artos pembayar pajak sakitar $10 juta. Salaku babandingan, total pengeluaran féderal dina taun 1881 téh di handapeun $261 juta.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=273}} === Nominasi Pangadilan Agung === Dina taun 1880, Présidén Hayes parantos nyalonkeun [[Stanley Matthews (hakim)|Stanley Matthews]] ka Pangadilan Agung, nanging Sénat nolak pikeun méré putusan. Dina Maret 1881, Garfield nyalonkeun deui Matthews, sarta Sénat ahirna nyahkeun Matthews ku sora 24–23. Nurutkeun ''The New York Times'', oposisi kana janjian Matthews téh asalna tina sajarah anjeunna dina taun 1859 nalika nungtut saurang éditor koran anu mantuan dua budak lumpat. Lantaran Matthews téh saurang "abolisionis" (nu nentang perbudakan) harita, ieu pasualan dianggap salaku kameunangan kapentingan politik praktis luhureun prinsip moral. Matthews ngabakti di Pangadilan nepi ka pupusna dina taun 1889. === Réformasi === {{Utama|Skandal Star Route}} [[File:Left Puck.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=Kartun Garfield mendakan orok.|Kartun ''[[Puck (majalah)|Puck]]'' taun 1881 némbongkeun Garfield mendakan orok di hareupeun pantuna kalayan labél "Réformasi Layanan Sipil, salam ti [[Rutherford B. Hayes|R.B. Hayes]]". Hayes katingali di tukangeunana dandan jiga awéwé bari mawa kantong tabungan.]] Grant sarta Hayes duanana parantos ngajurung ayana réformasi layanan sipil (''civil service reform''), sarta dina taun 1881 asosiasi réformasi sapertos kitu parantos dikelompokeun kalayan énergi énggal di sakuliah nagara. Garfield miboga rasa simpati ka maranéhna, percaya yén [[sistem jarahan]] (''spoils system'') téh ngarusak kapersidénan sarta sering nutupan pasualan-pasualan anu langkung penting.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=39–41}} Sababaraha urang réformis rada kuciwa nalika Garfield ngan méré batasan jabatan ka para néang jabatan tingkat handap sarta masih méré janjian ka babaturan lila na.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=39–41}} Korupsi di kantor pos ogé kacida merlukeun réformasi. Dina April 1880, parantos aya panalungtikan kongrés ngeunaan korupsi di Departemén Kantor Pos AS, dimana aya sindikat anu konon maok jutaan dolar ku cara meunangkeun kontrak pangiriman surat palsu dina rute-rute anu disebut [[rute béntang]] (''star routes'').{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=578}} Saatos meunangkeun kontrak kalayan tawaran harga panghandapna, biaya operasional rute surat éta bakal dionjatkeun sacara palsu sarta kauntunganana dibagikeun ka anggota sindikat. Teu lami saatos ngajabat, Garfield nampi laporan ngeunaan korupsi pos ku salah saurang lulugu sindikat, nyaéta Asistén Diréktur Jéndéral Pos [[Thomas J. Brady]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=580}} Garfield nungtut Brady sangkan ngundurkeun diri sarta maréntahkeun pangadilan anu réngsé dina sidang konspirasi. Nalika dibéjaan yén partéyna sorangan, kalebet manajer kampanyena, [[Stephen W. Dorsey]], kalibet di jerona, Garfield maréntahkeun sangkan korupsi di Kantor Pos éta dibongkar nepi ka "akar-akarna" (''to the bone''), teu paduli ka mana baé éta bakal nuju.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=578}} Brady ngundurkeun diri sarta didakwa ngalakukeun konspirasi, sanajan dina sidang juri taun 1882 sarta 1883, anjeunna dinyatakeun teu bersalah.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=94–95}} === Hak sipil sarta atikan === [[File:Jgarfield.jpeg|thumb|200px|alt=Potrét resmi kapersidénan James Garfield dina taun 1881]] Garfield percaya yén konci pikeun ngaronjatkeun kaayaan hak-hak sipil urang Afrika-Amérika nyaéta atikan anu dirojong ku pamaréntah.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=48}} Salila mangsa Rékonstruksi, [[freedman|jalma anu kakara leupas tina perbudakan]] parantos kenging hak kawarganagaraan sarta hak pilih, anu ngamungkinkeun maranéhna milu aub dina pamaréntahan. Nanging, Garfield hariwang yén hak-hak maranéhna keur dileyurkeun ku lalawanan urang bodas di Kidul sarta tingkat buta huruf anu luhur. Anjeunna sieun urang kulit hideung bakal janten golongan "[[peasantry|pabéasan]]" permanén di Amérika.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=48–49}} Anjeunna ngusulkeun sistem atikan "universal" anu dibiayaan ku pamaréntah féderal. Salaku anggota kongrés ti Ohio dina Pébruari 1866, Garfield sarta Komisaris Sakola Ohio, Emerson Edward White, parantos nyusun rancangan undang-undang pikeun Departemén Atikan Nasional. Maranéhna percaya yén ngaliwatan data statistik, maranéhna bisa nyorong Kongrés AS pikeun ngadegkeun lembaga féderal pikeun réformasi sakola. Statistik harita némbongkeun yén tingkat buta huruf di kalangan urang kulit hideung di nagara bagian tilas Konfédérasi kacida luhurna, sakitar 80-90% dina awal mangsa Rékonstruksi. Nanging, dina mangsa kapersidénan Garfield, Kongrés sarta publik kulit bodas di Kalér parantos kaleungitan minat kana hak-hak Afrika-Amérika, sahingga Kongrés teu ngasahkeun waragad féderal pikeun atikan universal salila mangsa jabatanna.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=48–49}} Garfield ogé narékahan pikeun nunjuk sababaraha urang Afrika-Amérika dina posisi penting: [[Frederick Douglass]], pangrékam akta di Washington; [[Robert B. Elliott|Robert Elliot]], agén husus pikeun Departemén Kauangan; [[John M. Langston]], menteri pikeun [[Haiti]]; sarta [[Blanche Bruce|Blanche K. Bruce]], pangrégistrasi di Departemén Kauangan. Garfield percaya yén rojongan Kidul pikeun Partéy Républik bisa kenging ngaliwatan kapentingan "komersial sarta industri" tinimbang pasualan ras, sarta anjeunna mimiti ngarobah kawijakan Hayes anu dianggap leuleuh teuing ka urang Démokrat Kidul. Anjeunna nunjuk [[William H. Hunt]], saurang Républik ti Louisiana, salaku Menteri Angkatan Laut.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=49–50}} === Kawijakan luar nagri sarta réformasi angkatan laut === {{Tempo ogé|Sajarah kawijakan luar nagri AS, 1861–1897}} [[File:James G. Blaine - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb |upright|left|[[James G. Blaine]], Menteri Luar Negeri Garfield]] Lantaran Garfield kurang miboga pangalaman dina kawijakan luar nagri, anjeunna kacida gumantungna ka Blaine. Maranéhna sapuk ngeunaan perluna ngamajukeun perdagangan bébas, hususna di wilayah [[Bahan Dunya Kulon]].{{sfn|Crapol|2000|pp=62–64}} Garfield sarta Blaine percaya yén ngaronjatkeun perdagangan jeung [[Amérika Latin]] mangrupikeun cara panghadéna pikeun nyegah [[Karajaan Ngahiji Britania Raya sarta Irlandia]] nguasaan éta wilayah. Ku cara ngadorong ékspor, maranéhna percaya bisa ningkatkeun karaharjaan Amérika.{{sfn|Crapol|2000|pp=62–64}} Garfield méré wewenang ka Blaine pikeun ngayakeun konférénsi Pan-Amérika dina taun 1882 pikeun nengahkeun sengketa di antara nagara-nagara Amérika Latin sarta janten forum diskusi pikeun ningkatkeun perdagangan.{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=65–66|Doenecke|1981|2pp=55–57}} Dina waktos anu sasarengan, maranéhna miharep bisa nengahkeun perdamaian dina [[Perang Pasifik]] anu harita keur lumangsung antara [[Bolivia]], [[Chili]], sarta [[Peru]].{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=65–66|Doenecke|1981|2pp=55–57}} Blaine leuwih condong kana solusi dimana Peru teu kudu masrahkeun wilayahna, nanging dina taun 1881 Chili parantos nguasaan ibu kota Peru, [[Lima]], sarta nolak sagala perjangjian anu balik deui kana kaayaan sateuacan perang (''status quo'').{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1p=70|Doenecke|1981|2pp=57–58}} Garfield ogé narékahan pikeun ngalegaan pangaruh Amérika di wilayah séjén, nyungkeun badami deui ngeunaan [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]] sangkan Amérika Sarikat bisa ngawangun [[Terusan Panama|hiji terusan ngaliwatan Panama]] tanpa campur tangan Inggris, sarta nyobian ngurangan pangaruh Inggris di [[Karajaan Hawaii]] anu strategis. Rencana Garfield sarta Blaine malah ngalegaan dugi ka luar Amérika, sakumaha maranéhna néang perjangjian komersial jeung [[Dinasti Joseon|Koréa]] sarta [[Karajaan Merina]] di Madagaskar.{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=74–80|Peskin|1978|2pp=576–577}} Garfield ogé mikirkeun pikeun ningkatkeun kakuatan militer AS di luar nagri, maréntahkeun Menteri Angkatan Laut Hunt pikeun nalungtik kaayaan angkatan laut kalayan tujuan pikeun ékspansi sarta modernisasi.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=145–147}} Nanging, sakabéh rencana ambisius ieu ahirna bolay saatos Garfield tiwas ditembak. Salapan nagara sabenerna parantos nampi ondangan pikeun konférénsi Pan-Amérika, nanging éta ondangan ditarik deui dina April 1882 saatos Blaine mundur tina kabinét sarta Arthur, gaganti Garfield, ngabolaykeun éta konférénsi. Réformasi angkatan laut tetep diteruskeun dina mangsa Arthur, sanajan dina skala anu leuwih leutik batan anu dibayangkeun ku Garfield sarta Hunt.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=148–149}} === Sawangan politik === Salaku présidén, Garfield nentang serikat buruh sarta mihak ka faksi "hard-money" (duit teuas/standar emas) dina Partéy Républik. Anjeunna ogé curiga ka program pertanian koperasi anu dirojong ku Grange, hiji organisasi patani anu ku anjeunna disebut salaku "komunisme anu nyamur". Nanging, Garfield ogé nentang monopoli korporasi sarta ngajurung ayana departemén atikan féderal bareng jeung ningkatkeun rojongan féderal pikeun atikan urang Afrika-Amérika di nagara-nagara bagian Kidul. Panalungtikan séjén nyebutkeun ngeunaan Garfield: <blockquote>Teu aya saurang ogé anu bisa lila aya dina dunya politik sakumaha Garfield tanpa boga sawangan ngeunaan sipat kapamingpinan présidén, sarta sawanganana, sacara gurat badag, nyaéta négatif. Sacara filosofis, sakumaha anu parantos dicatet, anjeunna mangrupikeun panyekel teguh ajaran laissez-faire (pasar bébas), sarta anjeunna parantos curiga kana kakawasaan présidén ti saprak anjeunna bajoang nentang Andrew Johnson.</blockquote> Gaganti Garfield salaku présidén, [[Chester A. Arthur]], miboga sawangan laissez-faire anu sarua. == Assassination (Sempalan maot) == === Guiteau sarta panémbakan === {{Utama|Assassination of James A. Garfield}} [[Charles J. Guiteau]] parantos ngalaman rupa-rupa profési dina hirupna, nanging dina taun 1880 anjeunna nekad hayang kenging jabatan féderal ku cara ngarojong naon anu ku anjeunna dianggap bakal jadi partéy pamenang, nyaéta Républik.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=114}} Anjeunna nyusun pidato, "Garfield vs. Hancock", sarta dicitak ku Komite Nasional Républik. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngayakinkeun pamilih harita nyaéta ngaliwatan orator anu ngajelaskeun kahadéan calon, nanging lantaran urang Républik leuwih milih jalma anu leuwih kawentar, Guiteau saeutik pisan kenging kasempetan pikeun nyarita.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=151–152}} Guiteau, anu nganggap dirina saurang [[Stalwart (politik)|Stalwart]], ngarasa yén kontribusina pikeun kameunangan Garfield téh cekap pikeun janten alesan anjeunna diangkat janten konsul di Paris, sanajan kanyataanana anjeunna teu bisa basa Perancis, atawa basa asing séjénna.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=189–190, 237}} Ahli médis saatosna ngajelaskeun Guiteau salaku jalma anu kamungkinan katarajang skizofrenia narsistik; neuroscientist Kent Kiehl meunteun anjeunna salaku psikopat klinis. [[File:B&PStation1908.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Wangunan stasion karéta api.|[[Stasion Karéta Api Baltimore and Potomac]] di Washington, D.C., tempat Garfield ditémbak dina 2 Juli 1881.]] [[File:Garfield assassination engraving cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|Garfield, ditémbak ku [[Charles J. Guiteau]], rubuh nalika Menteri Luar Negeri Blaine ménta tulung. Ukiran tina ''Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper''.]] Salah sahiji tugas Garfield anu paling matak capé nyaéta narima para nu néang jabatan (office-seekers), sarta anjeunna pendak sareng Guiteau sahenteuna sakali. Pajabat Gedong Bodas nyarankeun sangkan Guiteau nepungan Blaine, lantaran jabatan konsul aya di handapeun Departemén Luar Negeri.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=237–238}} Blaine ogé narima publik sacara rutin, sarta Guiteau janten langganan dina éta sési. Blaine, anu teu miboga niat pikeun méré jabatan ka Guiteau anu teu mampuh sarta teu miboga jasa, ngan saukur nyarita yén kamacétan di Sénat ngeunaan nominasi Robertson ngajantenkeun pamikiran ngeunaan jabatan konsul di Paris moal bisa dilaksanakeun.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=278–279}} Saatos para sénator New York mundur, sarta Robertson disahkeun janten Koléktor, Guiteau terus-terusan nungtut hakna, nepi ka Blaine sacara teges nyarita yén anjeunna moal kenging éta jabatan.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=299}} Guiteau ahirna percaya yén anjeunna kaleungitan éta jabatan lantaran anjeunna saurang Stalwart. Anjeunna mutuskeun yén hiji-hijina cara pikeun mungkas perang sadulur di jero Partéy Républik nyaéta ku cara Garfield kudu maot—sanajan anjeunna teu boga dendam pribadi ka présidén. Anjeunna ngarasa yén naékna Arthur bakal mulangkeun katengtreman, sarta mawa ganjaran pikeun sasama urang Stalwart, kalebet Guiteau sorangan.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=305–308}} Ti saprak [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|pamaténan Abraham Lincoln]], kajadian sapertos kitu dianggap salaku kabeneran anu langka alatan Perang Sipil, sarta Garfield, sakumaha kalolobaan jalma harita, ngarasa taya alesan naha saurang présidén kudu dijaga ketat; gerak-gerik sarta rencanana sering dicitak dina koran. Guiteau terang yén Garfield bakal ninggalkeun Washington pikeun néang hawa anu leuwih tiis dina 2 Juli 1881, sarta nyusun rencana pikeun maéhanana sateuacan harita. Anjeunna meuli pestol anu ku anjeunna dianggap bakal katingali alus lamun diasupkeun ka musium.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=313–316}} Guiteau nyumput di deukeut ruang nunggu awéwé di [[Stasion Karéta Api Baltimore and Potomac]] di Sixth Street, tempat Garfield dijadwalkeun indit. Blaine, anu bakal tetep di Washington, sumping ka stasion pikeun nganterkeunana. Dua lalaki éta nuju jongjon ngawangkong sarta teu nyadar aya Guiteau anu kaluar bari mawa révolverna, salajengna némbak Garfield dua kali. Guiteau gancang ditéwak.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=596}} Nalika Blaine mikawanoh anjeunna, Guiteau dibawa indit bari nyarita, "Kuring nu ngalakukeunana. Kuring bakal asup panjara kusabab ieu. Kuring saurang Stalwart sarta Arthur bakal jadi Présidén." Warta ngeunaan motivasina pikeun nguntungkeun faksi Stalwart sumebar bareng jeung béja panémbakanana, anu ngabalukarkeun amarah masarakat ka éta faksi.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=335–340}} === Pangobatan sarta maotna === Saatos Garfield pupus dina poé saterusna, [[Chester A. Arthur]] ngucapkeun sumpah jabatan présidén anu dipingpin ku Hakim Pangadilan Agung New York, [[John R. Brady]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=608}} Nurutkeun sababaraha sejarawan sarta ahli médis, Garfield sabenerna bisa salamet tina tatu-tatuna upami para dokter anu nanganan anjeunna parantos miboga pangaweruh, téknik, sarta alat médis jaman ayeuna.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Prakték médis standar harita ngawajibkeun prioritas dipasrahkeun pikeun maluruh jalanna pélor dina jero awak. Sababaraha dokterna ngasupkeun ramo anu [[Asepsis|teu distérilkeun]] kana tatuna pikeun mariksa pélor, hiji kabiasaan anu umum dina taun 1880-an.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Para sejarawan sapuk yén inféksi masif mangrupikeun faktor utama dina tilar dunyana Garfield.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Biografer Peskin nyebatkeun yén malaprakték médis sabenerna teu boga kontribusi langsung kana maotna Garfield; inféksi sarta karacunan getih (sepsis) anu teu bisa di nyingkahan tina tatu pélor anu jero ngabalukarkeun karuksakan kana sababaraha organ sarta fragméntasi tulang tonggong.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=607}} Nanging, Rutkow, saurang profésor bedah, boga pamadegan yén kalaparan ogé milu mawa pangaruh. Rutkow nyarankeun, "Garfield miboga tatu anu teu pati maotkeun. Dina dunya ayeuna, anjeunna bakal bisa mulang ka bumi dina waktu dua atawa tilu poé."{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Narasi konvénsional ngeunaan kaayaan médis Garfield saatos ditémbak ditantang ku Theodore Pappas sarta Shahrzad Joharifard dina artikel taun 2013 dina ''The American Journal of Surgery''. Maranéhna boga pamadegan yén Garfield pupus alatan peupeusna (rupture) [[pseudoaneurysm]] arteri limpa, anu mekar alatan jalur pélor anu deukeut jeung arteri limpa. Maranéhna ogé boga pamadegan yén sepsis anu dialamanana sabenerna disababkeun ku ''acalculous cholecystitis'' akut pasca-trauma. Dumasar kana laporan [[autopsi]], panulis nyangka yén hamperuna peupeus, anu ngabalukarkeun ayana absés badag anu ngandung empedu di gigireun hamperu. Nurutkeun maranéhna, ieu nu nyababkeun turunna kaayaan kaséhatan Garfield mimiti tanggal 23 Juli 1881. === Sidang sarta éksékusi Guiteau === Guiteau didakwa dina 14 Oktober 1881, pikeun pamaténan présidén. Salila sidangna, Guiteau nyatakeun yén anjeunna henteu tanggung jawab kana maotna Garfield; anjeunna ngaku némbak, nanging henteu maéhan. Dina pembélaanana, Guiteau nyerat: "Jéndéral Garfield pupus alatan malaprakték. Nurutkeun dokterna sorangan, anjeunna teu ditémbak nepi ka maot. Para dokter anu salah nanganan anjeunna anu kudu nanggung dosa maotna, sanés kuring. Maranéhna anu kudu didakwa maéhan James A. Garfield, lain kuring." Saatos sidang anu kacau dimana Guiteau sering motong omongan sarta adu argumén, sarta ku ayana pembélaan nganggo alesan "gangguan jiwa" (insanity defense), juri nyatakeun anjeunna bersalah dina 25 Januari 1882, sarta anjeunna dihukum gantung. Guiteau kamungkinan katarajang ''neurosyphilis'', hiji panyakit anu nyababkeun karuksakan méntal fisiologis. Anjeunna diéksékusi dina 30 Juni 1882.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=444–446}} == Pamakaman, monumén, sarta pangéling-ngéling == [[File:Garfield-casket.jpg|thumb|200px|Peti mati Garfield nalika [[lying in state|disemahkeun]] di [[United States Capitol rotunda|Rotunda Capitol]]]] Kajadian pupusna Garfield matak ngareureuwas sakuliah nagara. Karéta pamakamanana mangkat ti Long Branch ngaliwatan jalur husus anu dipinuhan ku kembang sarta imah-imah anu dipasangan bandéra satengah tihang. Layonana dibawa ka Capitol sarta saterusna diteruskeun ka Cleveland pikeun dikureubkeun.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=608–609}} Pamingpin [[United States Marine Band|Marine Band]], [[John Philip Sousa]], nyiptakeun lagu mart "[[In Memoriam: President Garfield's Funeral March|In Memoriam]]" pikeun ngahormat anjeunna. Leuwih ti 70.000 warga ngantri nepi ka tilu jam pikeun méré panghurmatan terakhir nalika layonana [[lying in state|disemahkeun]] di [[United States Capitol rotunda|Rotunda Capitol]] ti tanggal 21 nepi ka 23 Séptémber 1881. Dina tanggal 25 Séptémber di Cleveland, peti mati Garfield diarak di sapanjang Euclid Avenue, dihadiran ku tilas présidén Grant sarta Hayes, sarta jéndéral-jéndéral kawentar saperti [[William Tecumseh Sherman|William Sherman]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=608–609}} Monumén pikeun Garfield diadegkeun di sakuliah nagara. Dina April 1882, Departemén Kantor Pos AS ngaluarkeun perangko pikeun ngahormat anjeunna.{{sfn|Smithsonian 2006}} Sababaraha monumén penting séjénna diadegkeun di San Francisco (1884), Washington (1887), sarta Philadelphia (1896). Malah di [[Victoria, Australia]], wewengkon Cannibal Creek diganti ngaranna jadi Garfield pikeun ngahormat présidén Amérika ieu. [[File:The Garfield Obsequies at Cleveland, Schofield vault, temporary resting place of the remains, from Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views.jpg|thumb|200px|Gambar [[Stéréoskopi|stéréoskopik]] gudang kulawarga Schofield, tempat samentawis layon Garfield sateuacan monumén permanénna réngsé]] Dina 19 Méi 1890, layon Garfield sacara permanén dikureubkeun dina hiji [[James A. Garfield Memorial|mausoléum]] di Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland. Upacara ieu dihadiran ku Présidén Benjamin Harrison anu nyarita yén hirup sarta maotna Garfield bakal "terus jadi kajadian anu méré pangajaran sarta inspirasi dina sajarah Amérika".{{sfn|Memorial 1890|p=51}} Monumén éta nembékeun lima panel anu ngagambarkeun peran Garfield salaku guru, mayor jéndéral Uni, [[orator]], nalika ngucapkeun sumpah présidén, sarta nalika disemahkeun di Capitol. Pamaténan Garfield ku saurang néang jabatan (office-seeker) anu kaganggu jiwana ngahudangkeun kasadaran publik ngeunaan perluna réformasi layanan sipil. Sénator [[George H. Pendleton]] ngamimitian tarékah réformasi anu ngalahirkeun **[[Pendleton Act]]** dina Januari 1883.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=100–102}} Ieu undang-undang ngarobah "**[[spoils system]]**" (sistem jarahan) dimana jabatan féderal dileler dumasar kana préstasi sarta ujian kalapa, lain dumasar kana kasatiaan politik atawa pamayaran ka partéy.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=102–103}} Sanajan dina mimitina ngan nyakup 10% pagawé féderal, ieu dianggap salaku salah sahiji prestasi pangbadagna dina mangsa kapersidénan Arthur.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=610}} Patung marmer Garfield karya Charles Niehaus ditambahan kana [[National Statuary Hall Collection]] di Capitol, Washington, D.C., salaku kado ti nagara bagian Ohio dina taun 1886. Loba kota sarta sakola di AS, Kanada, sarta Australia anu dingaranan Garfield pikeun ngéling-ngéling jasana. <gallery class="center" widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Garf 07-04-2008 02;10;53PM.JPG|[[James A. Garfield National Historic Site|Lawnfield]], tempat lumangsungna "**[[front porch campaign]]**" File:James A. Garfield Monument 01 (cropped).jpg|[[James A. Garfield Memorial|Mausoléum Garfield]] di Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland File:James A. Garfield Monument (general view) - Washington, DC.jpg|[[James A. Garfield Monument]] di Washington, D.C. File:James Garfield2 1882 Issue-5c.jpg|Perangko munggaran Garfield, 1882 File:Garfield, NJ city hall front view, Jan. 2025.jpg|[[Garfield, New Jersey]], salah sahiji kota anu dingaranan tina nami présidén </gallery> == Warisan sarta sawangan sajarah == Salila sababaraha taun saatos pamaténanana, carita hirup Garfield dianggap salaku conto nyata tina "American success story"—yén budak anu paling miskin ogé hiji waktu bisa jadi Présidén Amérika Sarikat. Peskin nyerat: "Dina mangsa duka pikeun Garfield, urang Amérika sanés ngan saukur ngahormat saurang présidén; maranéhna méré pangajén ka saurang lalaki anu carita hirupna ngawujudkeun aspirasi maranéhna anu paling luhur."{{sfn|Peskin|2000}} Nanging, nalika mumusuhan antara faksi Stalwarts sarta [[Half-Breeds (politik)|Half-Breeds]] mimiti sirna dina ahir taun 1880-an, kitu ogé mémori ngeunaan Garfield. Dina taun 1890-an, urang Amérika mimiti kuciwa ka para politikus sarta néang inspirasi ti pihak séjén, sapertos industrialis, pamingpin buruh, sarta élmuwan. Beuki lila, mangsa kapersidénan Garfield anu singget téh beuki poho.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=136}} Abad ka-20 teu némbongkeun ayana kabangkitan mémori pikeun Garfield. Panulis [[Thomas Wolfe]] nyebut para présidén dina jaman **[[Gilded Age]]**, kalebet Garfield, salaku "urang Amérika anu leungit" anu beungeutna "campur aduk, leyur, sarta ngahiji".{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=399}} Para politikus dina jaman éta kasilih ku tokoh-tokoh anu mangaruhan Amérika di luar kantor politik, sapertos para **[[Robber baron (industrialis)|robber baron]]**, para nu manggihan (inventor), sarta para réformis sosial. Nurutkeun Ackerman, "Abad ka-20 anu sibuk parantos ngajantenkeun jaman Garfield katingali jauh sarta teu rélevan."{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=399}} Para biografer Garfield condong miboga sawangan anu hadé ka anjeunna, sarta nganggap yén kapersidénanana némbongkeun awal anu ngajangjikeun sateuacan lekasan sacara tragis. Sejarawan [[Justus D. Doenecke]] nyatet préstasi Garfield: "ku cara meunangkeun kameunangan luhureun faksi Stalwarts, anjeunna ningkatkeun kakuatan sarta wibawa jabatanna. Salaku manusa, anjeunna calakan, sénsitip, sarta waspada, sarta pangaweruhna ngeunaan kumaha jalanna pamaréntahan téh taya tandingna."{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=182}} Dina taun 1931, Caldwell nyerat: "Upami Garfield tetep hirup dina sajarah, éta téh sabagian alatan pesona kapribadianana—nanging ogé kusabab dina hirup sarta maotna, anjeunna méré neunggeul munggaran anu telat kana sistem kakawasaan 'bos' anu bahaya."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=363}} Rutkow nyerat yén kapersidénan James Abram Garfield ahirna ngan saukur jadi hiji patanya badag "kumaha lamun (what if)".{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=136}} Peskin percaya yén Garfield pantes kenging pangajén anu leuwih luhur pikeun karir politikna: "Sanajan préstasina henteu katingali wani atawa heroik, nanging jaman anjeunna memang sanés jaman anu merlukeun kapahlawanan. Kapersidénanana anu pinuh ku polémik memang singget, nanging anjeunna ninggalkeun éta jabatan dina kaayaan anu leuwih kuat batan nalika anjeunna nampa. Salaku inohong publik, anjeunna milu aub dina ampir unggal pasualan penting nasional salila dua dékade."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=611}} Minat publik ka Garfield hudang deui alatan miniseri taun 2025 anu judulna ''[[Death by Lightning]]'', dimana anjeunna diperankeun ku aktor [[Michael Shannon]]. Salian ti éta, peran Garfield ogé kungsi némbongan dina film ''The Night Riders'' (1939) sarta episode American Experience "Murder of a President" (2016) anu diperankeun ku [[Shuler Hensley]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanna]] * [[Daptar usaha pamaténan présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Kekerasan politik di Amérika Sarikat]] == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist|24em}} == Karya anu dicutat == {{refbegin}} === Buku === * {{cite book|last=Ackerman|first= Kenneth D. |title=Dark Horse: The Surprise Election and Political Murder of James A. Garfield|url=https://archive.org/details/darkhorsesurpris0000acke|publisher= Avalon Publishing|location=New York, New York|year= 2003|isbn=978-0-7867-1396-7}} * {{cite book |last=Bach |first=Penny Balkin |title=Public Art in Philadelphia |url=https://archive.org/details/publicartinphila0000bach |publisher=Temple University Press| location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | year=1992| isbn=978-0-87722-822-6}} * {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Emma Elizabeth |author-link=Emma Elizabeth Brown |title=The Life and Public Services of James A. Garfield / Twentieth President of the United States |publisher=D. Lothrop Company |location=Boston, Massachusetts |year=1881 |oclc=3037198 }} * {{cite book |last=Caldwell |first=Robert Granville |year=1965 |orig-year=1931 |title=James A. Garfield: Party Chieftain |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Co |location=New York, New York |oclc=833793627 }} * {{cite book |last=Calhoun |first=Charles W. |title=The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofulys0000calh |author-link=Charles W. Calhoun |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-7006-2484-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Clancy |first=Herbert J. |year=1958 |title=The Presidential Election of 1880 |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentialelec0000unse_x5q2 |publisher=Loyola University Press |location=Chicago, Illinois |isbn=978-1-258-19190-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Crapol |first=Edward P. |year=2000 |title=James G. Blaine: Architect of Empire |publisher=Scholarly Resources |location=Wilmington, Delaware |series=Biographies in American Foreign Policy |volume=4 |isbn=978-0-8420-2604-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Doenecke |first=Justus D. |author-link=Justus Drew Doenecke |title=The Presidencies of James A. Garfield & Chester A. Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/presidenciesofja00doen |year=1981 |publisher=The Regents Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0208-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Foner |title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution 1863–1877 Updated Version |url=https://archive.org/details/reconstructionam0000fone_q8w6 |publisher=Harper Perennial |location=New York |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-06-235451-8 }} * {{cite book |author=Garfield National Memorial Association |title=The Man and the Mausoleum |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028849077 |publisher=Cleveland Print and Publishing Company |location=Cleveland, Ohio |year=1890 |ref={{sfnRef|Memorial 1890}} |oclc=1656783 }} * {{cite book |last=Howe |first=George F. |title=Chester A. Arthur, A Quarter-Century of Machine Politics |year=1966 |orig-year=1935 |publisher=F. Ungar Pub. Co |location=New York |isbn=978-1499999402}} * Millard, Candice, ''Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine, and the Murder of a President'', 2012 Knopf Doubleday. * {{cite book |last=McFeely |first=William S. |author-link=William S. McFeely |title=Grant: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/grant00will |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc |location=New York, New York |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-393-32394-8 }} * {{Cite book |last=Peskin |first=Allan |title=Garfield: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/garfieldbiograph0000pesk |publisher=Kent State University Press |location=Kent, Ohio |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-87338-210-6 }} * Pletcher, David M. ''The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur'' (U of Missouri Press, 1962). * {{cite book |last1=Radford |first1=Warren |last2=Radford |first2=Georgia |title=Outdoor Sculpture in San Francisco: a Heritage of Public Art |url=https://archive.org/details/outdoorsculpture0000radf |location=Gualala, California |publisher=Helsham Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-9717607-1-4 }} * {{Cite book |first=Ira |last=Rutkow |title=James A. Garfield |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesagarfield0000rutk |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |year=2006 |location=New York, New York |oclc=255885600 |isbn=978-0-8050-6950-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jean Edward |author-link=Jean Edward Smith |title=Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/grant0000unse_g8a3 |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperback |location=New York, New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-684-84927-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Weisberger|first=Bernard A.|title=The Presidents A Reference History James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur|publisher=Charles Scribners's Sons|editor=Henry F. Graff|date=2002}} {{refend}} === Majalah sarta périodik === * {{Cite news |first=Amanda |last=Schaffer |title=A President Felled by an Assassin and 1880s Medical Care |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/25/health/25garf.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |location=New York, New York |date=July 25, 2006}} * {{cite book|title=The Magazine of American History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AdA2AQAAMAAJ|volume=25|year=1891|publisher=A.S. Barnes & Company|location=The University of California|format=digital|ref=The Magazine of American History}} === Online === * {{cite web|last=Peskin|first=Allan|title=Garfield, James Abram|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/05/05-00264.html|work=American National Biography Online|date=February 2000}} * {{cite web |title=5 cent Garfield |date=May 16, 2006 |publisher=Smithsonian National Postal Museum |url=http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2032596 |ref={{sfnRef|Smithsonian 2006}} }} * {{cite web |title=Garfield, James Abram 1831–1881|url=https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/G/GARFIELD,-James-Abram-(G000063)/|ref=History, Arts, & Archives United States House of Representatives|website=history.house.gov|publisher=History, Arts, & Archives United States House of Representatives}} {{refend}} == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book|first=Corydon E.|last=Fuller|title=Reminiscences of James A. Garfield|publisher=Hansebooks|isbn=978-3-34807-944-0|year=2022|orig-date=1887}} * Goodyear, C. W. (2023). ''[[President Garfield: From Radical to Unifier]]''. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. * Graff Henry F., ed. ''The Presidents: A Reference History'' (3rd ed. 2002). * {{cite journal |title=The Surgical Treatment of President Garfield |first1=William A. |last1=Hammond |first2=John |last2=Ashhurst, Jr. |first3=J. Marion |last3=Sims |first4=John T. |last4=Hodgen |journal=[[The North American Review]] |volume=133 |number=301 |date=Dec 1881 |pages=578–610}} * {{cite book |last=Millard |first=Candice |author-link=Candice Millard |title=[[Destiny of the Republic|Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine and the Murder of a President]] |publisher=Anchor Books |location=New York, New York |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7679-2971-4 }} * Vermilya, Daniel J. ''James Garfield and the Civil War: For Ohio and the Union'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2015). == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book|first=Corydon E.|last=Fuller|title=Reminiscences of James A. Garfield|publisher=Hansebooks|isbn=978-3-34807-944-0|year=2022|orig-date=1887}} * Goodyear, C. W. (2023). ''[[President Garfield: From Radical to Unifier]]''. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. * Graff Henry F., ed. ''The Presidents: A Reference History'' (3rd ed. 2002). * {{cite journal |title=The Surgical Treatment of President Garfield |first1=William A. |last1=Hammond |first2=John |last2=Ashhurst, Jr. |first3=J. Marion |last3=Sims |first4=John T. |last4=Hodgen |journal=[[The North American Review]] |volume=133 |number=301 |date=Dec 1881 |pages=578–610}} * Houdek, John Thomas. "James A. Garfield and Rutherford B. Hayes: A Study in State and National Politics" (Disertasi PhD, Michigan State University, 1970). * Menke, Richard. "Media in America, 1881: Garfield, Guiteau, Bell, Whitman." ''Critical Inquiry'' 31.3 (2005): 638–664. * {{cite book |last=Millard |first=Candice |author-link=Candice Millard |title=[[Destiny of the Republic|Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine and the Murder of a President]] |publisher=Anchor Books |location=New York, New York |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7679-2971-4 }} * North, Ira Lutts. "A rhetorical criticism of the speaking of James Abram Garfield, 1876-1880" (Disertasi PhD, Louisiana State University, 1953). * Rushford, Jerry Bryant. "Political Disciple: The Relationship Between James A. Garfield And The Disciples Of Christ" (Disertasi PhD, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1977). * Skidmore, Max J. "James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur." dina ''Maligned Presidents: The Late 19th Century'' (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2014) pp. 63–79. * Sutton, Thomas C. "James A. Garfield." dina ''The Presidents and the Constitution'' (Volume One. New York University Press, 2020) pp. 266–275. * Uhler, Kevin A. "The demise of patronage: Garfield, the midterm election, and the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Act" (Disertasi PhD, Florida State University, 2011). * Vermilya, Daniel J. ''James Garfield and the Civil War: For Ohio and the Union'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2015). == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=James A. Garfield|q=James A. Garfield|s=Author:James Abram Garfield|v=no|n=no|b=no|d=Q34597|mw=no|m=no|species=no}} * [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=G000063 Biografi Kongrés James Abram Garfield (1831–1881)] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/garfield/index.html James Garfield: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress) * [http://millercenter.org/president/garfield Ésai ringkes ngeunaan James A. Garfield sarta pamaréntahanana] ti Miller Center of Public Affairs * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151093-1/life-portrait-james-garfield "Life Portrait of James Garfield"], ti C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', 26 Juli 1999 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200121211413/https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-2933066R-root Buletin médis resmi patali jeung kaséhatan Présidén AS James Garfield] ti Perpustakaan Kadokteran Nasional AS (U.S. National Library of Medicine). {{James A. Garfield}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta pangajén |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-oh-sen}} {{s-bef|before=George P. Ashmun}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Sénat Ohio]]<br>ti [[Distrik sénatorial ka-26 Ohio|distrik ka-26]]|years=1860–1861}} {{s-aft|after=[[Lucius V. Bierce]]}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[Albert G. Riddle]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar Perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti Ohio|Déwan Perwakilan AS]]<br>ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-19 Ohio]]|years=1863–1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ezra B. Taylor]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Robert C. Schenck]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Ketua [[Komite Urusan Militer Déwan Perwakilan AS]]|years=1867–1869}} {{s-aft|after=[[John A. Logan]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Theodore M. Pomeroy]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Ketua [[Komite Jasa Kauangan Déwan Perwakilan AS]]|years=1869–1871}} {{s-aft|after=[[Samuel Hooper]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry L. Dawes]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Ketua [[Komite Apronasi Déwan Perwakilan AS]]|years=1871–1875}} {{s-aft|after=[[Samuel J. Randall]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Rutherford B. Hayes]]}} {{s-ttl|title={{nowrap|[[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] [[Daptar tikét présidén Partéy Républik AS|nomine]] pikeun Présidén Amérika Sarikat}}|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat, 1880|1880]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[James G. Blaine]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=Rutherford Hayes}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[Chester A. Arthur]]}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Wilson]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Jalma anu [[Lying in state|disemahkeun sacara kanagaraan]] di [[Rotunda Capitol Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[John A. Logan]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Portal bar|Perang Sipil Amérika|Biografi|Kristen|Hukum|Matematika|Ohio|Politik|Amérika Sarikat}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Garfield, James A.}} [[Category:James A. Garfield| ]] [[Category:Nu babar taun 1831]] [[Category:Nu pupus taun 1881]] [[Category:Matematikawan Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Category:Ahli hukum Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Category:Anggota Majelis Umum Ohio abad ka-19]] [[Category:Orator]] [[Category:Perwakilan Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Category:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Category:Abolisionis ti Ohio]] [[Category:Aktivis hak sipil Afrika-Amérika]] [[Category:Matematikawan amatir]] [[Category:Urang Amérika turunan Inggris]] [[Category:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ditémbak]] [[Category:Makam di Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland]] [[Category:Calon dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1880]] [[Category:Abolisionis Kristen]] [[Category:Réformasi layanan sipil di Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:Nu pupus di New Jersey]] [[Category:Nu pupus alatan sepsis di Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:Alumni Hiram College]] [[Category:Alumni Williams College]] [[Category:Jéndéral tentara Uni]] [[Category:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:Gilded Age]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} n67avy9uquifmljy05pls3ecyr3yxoz 0 107911 711682 709541 2026-08-07T01:30:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711682 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Chester A. Arthur | image = Chester A. Arthur by Abraham Bogardus (cropped) (2).jpg | caption = Arthur, {{circa|1880}} | order = Présidén Amérika Serikat ka-21 | office = Présidén Amérika Serikat | term_start = 19 Séptémber 1881 | term_end = 4 Maret 1885 | vicepresident = Kosong{{Efn|Arthur téh asalna Wakil Présidén James A. Garfield, naék tahta sanggeus [[Assassination of James A. Garfield|Garfield perlaya ditémbak]]. Harita mah can aya aturan ngeusian korsi wakil présidén nu kosong nepi ka panyilihan tahta saterusna.}} | predecessor = [[James A. Garfield]] | successor = [[Grover Cleveland]] | order1 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat ka-20 | office1 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat | president1 = James A. Garfield | term_start1 = 4 Maret 1881 | term_end1 = 19 Séptémber 1881 | predecessor1 = [[William A. Wheeler]] | successor1 = [[Thomas A. Hendricks]] | order2 = Pupuhu [[New York Republican State Committee|Partéy Républik New York]] | term_start2 = 11 Séptémber 1879 | term_end2 = 11 Oktober 1881 | predecessor2 = John F. Smyth | successor2 = [[B. Platt Carpenter]] | order3 = Nagara ka-21 | office3 = Collector of the Port of New York | term_start3 = 1 Désémber 1871 | term_end3 = 11 Juli 1878 | appointer3 = [[Ulysses S. Grant]] | predecessor3 = [[Thomas Murphy (Collector)|Thomas Murphy]] | successor3 = [[Edwin Atkins Merritt]] | birth_name = Chester Alan Arthur | birth_date = {{birth date|1829|10|5}} | birth_place = [[Fairfield, Vermont]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1886|11|18|1829|10|5}} | death_place = New York City, U.S. | resting_place = [[Albany Rural Cemetery]], Menands, New York | party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] (1854–1886) | otherparty = [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (saméméh 1854) | spouse = {{marriage|[[Nell Arthur|Ellen Herndon]]|25 Oktober 1859|12 Januari 1880|reason=tilar dunya}} | children = {{hlist|William|[[Chester Alan Arthur II|Chester II]]|Ellen}} | parents = {{ubl|[[William Arthur (clergyman)|William Arthur]]|Malvina Stone}} | profession = {{hlist|Ahli Hukum|Pagawé Nagara}} | education = {{plainlist| *[[Union College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) *[[State and National Law School]] }} | signature = Chester Alan Arthur Signature.svg | branch = [[New York Army National Guard|Milisi New York]] | serviceyears = 1857–1863 | unit = {{plainlist| * Brigadé Kadua, Milisi New York * Staf Gubernur [[Edwin D. Morgan]] }} | rank = [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadir Jéndral]] | battles = [[American Civil War]] }} '''Chester Alan Arthur''' (gumelar 5 Oktober 1829{{efn|Aya sawatara rujukan heubeul anu nyebutkeun manéhna gumelar taun 1830,{{sfn|Howe|p=5}} tapi nu nulis riwayatna, [[Thomas C. Reeves]], negeskeun yén éta téh salah: Arthur ngahaja ngora-ngorakeun umur sataun "ukur kusabab hayang katingal kénéh jagat" (gengsi).{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=5}}}} – pupus 18 Nopémber 1886) téya Présidén Amérika Serikat anu ka-21, nyepeng kakawasaan ti taun 1881 nepi ka 1885. Manéhna téé urang Partéy [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] ti New York anu saméméhna jadi Wakil Présidén ka-20 marengan Présidén [[James A. Garfield]]. Sanggeus Garfield perlaya tilar dunya ditémbak ku musuhna ([[Assassination of James A. Garfield|dipaténi]]), Arthur naék tahta jadi présidén. Dina mangsa pamaréntahanana, angkatan laut Amérika Serikat dijieun nepi ka tohaga, aturan milih pagawé nagara dilereskeun (ngaleungitkeun sistem [[spoils system|balales budi]]), sarta aturan keur urang deungeun anu asup ka nagrina dijieun leuwih lekeut. Arthur gumelar di [[Fairfield, Vermont]], sarta sapopoéna jadi ahli hukum di kota New York. Nalika aya [[American Civil War|Perang Sadulur Amérika]], manéhna téh jadi jéndral logistik (quartermaster general) di [[New York Army National Guard|Milisi New York]]. Réngsé perang, manéhna ancrub kana dunya pulitik sarta gancang naék darajatna dina organisasi Senator [[Roscoe Conkling]]. Présidén [[Ulysses S. Grant]] ngangkat manéhna jadi [[Collector of the Port of New York]] dina taun 1871. Di dinya, Arthur jadi kakuatan utama faksi [[Stalwart (politics)|Stalwart]] dina Partéy Républik. Nanging, dina taun 1878, alatan aya papaséaan rongkah antara Conkling jeung Présidén [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] ngeunaan kakawasaan ngangkat pagawé, Hayes miceun Arthur tina jabatanna pikeun meresihan sistem birokrasi féderal. Dina [[1880 Republican National Convention|Muktamar Nasional Républik taun 1880]], nalika aya perang campuh parebut sora antara Grant (faksi Stalwart) jeung [[James G. Blaine]] (faksi [[Half-Breeds (politics)|Half-Breed]]), James Garfield ahirna dipilih jadi jalan tengah (kompromi). Arthur tuluy dicalonkeun jadi wakil présidén pikeun ngalindeukkeun haté urang Stalwart anu kuciwa alatan Grant éléh. Garfield jeung Arthur ahirna unggul dina [[1880 United States presidential election|pamilihan umum taun 1880]] sarta mimiti marentah dina bulan Maret 1881. Opat bulan ti harita, Garfield ditémbak; sarta sanggeus 11 minggu nahan kanyeri, Garfield pupus, tuluy Arthur naék jadi présidén. Nalika jadi présidén, Arthur mingpin dunya pawayangan pulitik kalayan ngahirupkeun deui angkatan laut Amérika, sanajan manéhna ogé loba dikritik alatan teu bisa ngatur kaleuwihan duit nagara (surplus) sésa Perang Sadulur. Arthur kungsi nolak (veto) aturan [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] taun 1882 anu nyaram urang Cina asup ka Amérika salila dua puluh taun, sabab dianggap ngarempak perjangjian [[Burlingame Treaty]]. Nanging, manéhna ahirna satuju nalika aturanana dirobah jadi sapuluh taun.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sturgis |first=Amy H. |date=2003 |title=Presidents from Hayes Through McKinley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fNPuBbSKUkC&pg=PA83 |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=83–84 |isbn=978-0-3133-1712-5}}</ref> Manéhna ogé ngangkat [[Horace Gray]] jeung [[Samuel Blatchford]] jadi hakim agung. Salah sahiji jasa Arthur anu paling matak hookeun nyaéta nalika manéhna nandatanganan aturan [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]] taun 1883, anu ngajadikeun sistim pagawé nagara leuwih beresih, padahal loba nu nyangka manéhna téh moal wani ngalakukeun éta sabab asalna ti faksi Conkling anu korup. Kusabab panyakitna anu parna, Arthur teu pati sumanget nalika hayang dicalonkeun deui dina taun 1884, sarta milih reureuh sanggeus jabatanna bérés. Nepi ka ayeuna, manéhna téh présidén pamungkas anu teu kungsi milu deui pamilihan umum sanggeus jadi présidén ganti. Sanajan kaayaan awakna tuluy nyirorot sarta pamaréntahanana katingal "anteng" (teu pati loba polah cara présidén modéren), Arthur meunang pamuji ti jalma-jalma sajamanana alatan bisa ngajaga martabat nagara kalayan hadé. == Mangsa Leutik == === Gumelar sarta Kulawarga === [[File:Fairfield ChesterArthur Nov2007.JPG|thumb|left|Imah tempat gumelar Arthur di [[Fairfield, Vermont]]]] {{Chester A. Arthur series}} Chester Alan Arthur gumelar di [[Fairfield, Vermont]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} Indungna, Malvina Stone, babar di [[Berkshire, Vermont]], putri ti George Washington Stone jeung Judith Stevens.{{sfn|Hambley|page=103}} Kulawarga indungna mah teureuh urang [[English Americans|Inggris]] jeung [[Welsh Americans|Wales]]. Aki ti pihak bapana, Uriah Stone, kungsi bajoang di [[Continental Army]] nalika jaman [[American Revolution|Révolusi Amérika]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} Bapa Arthur, [[William Arthur (clergyman)|William Arthur]], babar taun 1796 di Dreen, [[Cullybackey]], County Antrim, Irlandia, ti kulawarga [[Presbyterianism|Présbitérian]]. Indungna William (nini Arthur) ngaranna Eliza McHarg anu nikah ka Alan Arthur.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=4}} William lulus kuliah di [[Belfast]] tuluy hijrah ka [[Lower Canada|Propinsi Kanada Hilir]] dina taun 1819 atawa 1820.{{sfn|Reeves|July 1, 1970|p=179}} Malvina Stone panggih jeung William Arthur nalika William keur ngajar di [[Dunham, Quebec]], deukeut wates Vermont.{{sfn|Reeves (Autumn 1970)|p=294}} Maranehna nikah di Dunham dina kaping 12 April 1821.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} Kulawarga Arthur pindah ka Vermont sanggeus anak munggaranna, Regina, babar.{{sfn|Reeves (Autumn 1970)|p=294}} Maranehna pindah-pindah ti [[Burlington, Vermont|Burlington]] ka [[Jericho, Vermont|Jericho]], nepi ka ahirna matuh di [[Waterville, Vermont|Waterville]], marengan William anu meunang pancén ngajar di sakola-sakola anu béda.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} William Arthur ogé kungsi sakedap neuleuman élmu hukum, tapi nalika di Waterville, manéhna ninggalkeun dunya hukum sarta kapercayaan Présbitérianana tuluy asup ka [[Free Will Baptist]]s; sésa hirupna dipaké pikeun jadi pandita di éta aliran.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} William Arthur téh saurang anu kacida teugeugna dina ngalawan perbudakan ([[abolitionist]]), nu matak manéhna mindeng teu dipikaresep ku sawatara anggotana sarta jadi sabab kulawargana sering pindah-pindah tempat.{{sfnm|Howe||1p=7|Reeves|1975|2p=6}} Dina taun 1828, kulawargana pindah deui ka Fairfield, tempat Chester Alan Arthur babar dina taun saterusna; manéhna téh anak kalima ti salapan duduluran.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=5}}{{sfn|Howe|pp=5, 25, 28—29}} Ngaran "Chester" dicokot tina ngaran Chester Abell,{{sfn|Vermont Bureau of Publicity|page=84}} saurang dokter sarta sobat bapana anu mantuan babarna, ari "Alan" mah dicokot tina ngaran akina ti pihak bapa.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=436}}{{efn|Arthur ngucapkeun ngaran tengahna kalayan tekenan dina suku kata kadua (A-lan).{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=5}}}} Kulawargana matuh di Fairfield nepi ka taun 1832, tuluy pindah-pindah deui nuturkeun pancén bapana ka sawatara kota di Vermont jeung New York. Ahirna maranéhna matuh di [[Schenectady, New York]], dina taun 1844.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=7–8}} Arthur miboga adi lalaki, George (1836–1838), anu pupus nalika masih kénéh budak leutik,{{sfn|Reeves (Autumn 1970)|p=295}} sarta tujuh urang duduluran anu hirup nepi ka sawawa:{{sfn|Hudson|p=246}} * Regina (1822–1910), pamajikan William G. Caw, saurang padagang, bankir, sarta inohong di [[Cohoes, New York]]. * Jane (1824–1842). * Almeda (1825–1899), pamajikan James H. Masten anu jadi kapala kantor pos di Cohoes. * Ann (1828–1915), saurang guru anu ngajar di New York sarta South Carolina. * Malvina (1832–1920), pamajikan Henry J. Haynesworth, pajabat di pamaréntahan Konfédérasi sarta perwira di Angkatan Darat AS nalika Arthur jadi présidén. * William (1834–1915), lulusan sakola médis sarta perwira militer anu kungsi tatu nalika Perang Sadulur. * [[Mary Arthur McElroy|Mary]] (1841–1917), pamajikan John E. McElroy, anu jadi "ibu nagara" samentara nalika Arthur nyepeng kalungguhan présidén. Kulawargana anu mindeng pindah-pindah tempat jadi sabab ayana tuduhan yén Arthur téh sanés asli urang Amérika Serikat. Nalika dicalonkeun jadi wakil présidén taun 1880, saurang ahli hukum ti New York, Arthur P. Hinman, nyebarkeun gosip yén Arthur babar di Irlandia sarta karék asup ka Amérika nalika umur 14 taun. Upami éta bener, Arthur moal bisa jadi présidén dumasar kana aturan [[natural-born-citizen clause (United States)|konstitusi Amérika]].{{sfn|Karabell|pp=53–54}}{{sfn|Fisher|page=28}}{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=202–203}}{{efn|Amandemén ka-12 nyebutkeun yén syarat jadi wakil présidén téh sarua jeung syarat jadi présidén.}} Nalika éta berita teu loba nu percaya, Hinman nyebarkeun deui béja yén Arthur babar di Kanada. Nanging, sakabéh tuduhan éta teu kabuktian sabab dina catetan sénsus sarta Alkitab kulawarga, jelas disebutkeun yén Arthur babar di Vermont.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=202–203}}{{sfn|Reeves (Autumn 1970)|pp=292–293}} === Atikan === Arthur méakkeun mangsa leutikna matuh di sababaraha kota di New York saperti [[York, New York|York]], [[Perry, New York|Perry]], [[Greenwich (town), New York|Greenwich]], [[Lansingburgh, New York|Lansingburgh]], [[Schenectady, New York|Schenectady]], jeung [[Hoosick, New York|Hoosick]].{{sfn|Ferris|1999|p=127}} Salah saurang guruna nyebutkeun yén Arthur téh budak anu "jujur, taya kacangcaya, sarta soméah pisan".{{sfn|Howe|p=7}} Nalika sakola, manéhna mimiti mikaresep dunya pulitik sarta mihak ka [[Whig Party (United States)|Partéy Whig]]. Manéhna milu jeung barudak ngora Whig séjénna ngarojong [[Henry Clay]], malah kungsi milu campuh (gelut) ngalawan murid-murid anu ngarojong [[James K. Polk]] nalika [[1844 United States presidential election|pamilihan présidén taun 1844]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=7–8}} Arthur ogé ngarojong [[Fenian Brotherhood]], hiji organisasi républikan Irlandia anu diadegkeun di Amérika; manéhna némbongkeun rojonganana ku cara maké jaspati (coat) warna héjo.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=9}} Sanggeus bérés nyiapkeun diri di Lyceum Union Village (ayeuna [[Greenwich (village), New York|Greenwich]]) jeung sakola tatabasa di Schenectady, Arthur asup ka [[Union College]] dina taun 1845. Di dinya, manéhna neuleuman kurikulum klasik tradisional.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=7–8}} Manéhna jadi anggota [[Psi Upsilon]] [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://psiu.org/alumni/distinguished-alumni/ |title=Notable Alumni, Chester A. Arthur |website=Distinguished Alumni |date=September 11, 2019 |publisher=Psi Upsilon Fraternity |location=Indianapolis, IN |access-date=August 18, 2022}}</ref> sarta nalika tingkat ahir, manéhna kapilih jadi présidén pakumpulan debat sarta asup ka [[Phi Beta Kappa]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=9}} Nalika libur usum tiis, manéhna sok ngajar di sakola di [[Schaghticoke (town), New York|Schaghticoke]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=9}} Sanggeus lulus dina taun 1848, Arthur balik deui ka Schaghticoke jadi guru tetep, sarta teu lila ti harita mimiti neuleuman élmu hukum.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=10}} Sambil diajar hukum, manéhna tetep ngajar, pindah deukeut ka imahna ku cara narima gawé di sakola di [[North Pownal, Vermont]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=10}} Aya hiji kajadian anu kabeneran, Présidén [[James A. Garfield]] dina mangsa nu bakal datang kungsi ngajar nulis (penmanship) di sakola anu sarua tilu taun ti harita, nanging maranéhna duanana teu kungsi patepung nalika jadi guru.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=11}} Dina taun 1852, Arthur pindah deui ka [[Cohoes, New York]], jadi kapala sakola (principal) di tempat adina, Malvina, ngajar.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=11}} Dina taun 1853, sanggeus sakola di [[State and National Law School]] di [[Ballston Spa, New York]], sarta geus boga cukup duit keur pindah, Arthur indit ka kota New York pikeun magang hukum ([[Reading law]]) di kantor [[Erastus D. Culver]], saurang ahli hukum anu teugeug ngalawan perbudakan sarta sobat kulawargana.{{sfn|Karabell|p=12}} Nalika Arthur resmi jadi ahli hukum New York dina taun 1854, manéhna asup ka firma hukum Culver, anu tuluy robah ngaranna jadi Culver, Parker, jeung Arthur.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=14}} == Karir Awal == === Ahli Hukum New York === [[File:Chester A. Arthur 1858 lawyer (3x4 cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Poto hideung bodas Arthur keur ngora miboga kumis|Arthur nalika jadi ahli hukum ngora]] Nalika Arthur asup ka firma hukum Culver, Culver jeung saurang ahli hukum New York, [[John Jay (lawyer)|John Jay]] (incuna [[John Jay|inohong nu ngadegkeun Amérika]]), keur ngajalankeun gugatan ''[[habeas corpus]]'' ngalawan Jonathan Lemmon, saurang nu boga budak ti Virginia anu keur ngaliwat ka New York mawa dalapan urang budakna.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=14–15}} Dina kasus ''[[Lemmon v. New York]]'', Culver nandeskeun yén dumasar hukum New York anu teu méré idin ayana perbudakan, sakabéh budak anu nincak New York otomatis jadi jalma merdéka.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=14–15}} Gugatan éta unggul, sarta sanggeus ngaliwatan sababaraha banding, ahirna dikukuhkeun ku [[New York Court of Appeals]] dina taun 1860.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=14–15}} Tukang nulis riwayatna jaga bakal nyebutkeun yén Arthur boga jasa gedé dina éta kameunangan; padahal sabenerna mah peranna teu sabaraha, sanajan manéhna mémang milu ancrub dina éta perkara.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=16}} Dina kasus hak sipil séjénna dina taun 1854, Arthur jadi lulugu ahli hukum anu ngawakilan [[Elizabeth Jennings Graham]] sanggeus konduktor miceun manéhna sacara kasar tina jero karéta (streetcar) ukur kulantaran manéhna urang kulit hideung.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=16}} Arthur unggul dina éta perkara, sarta hasilna jadi cukang lantaran leungitna [[Desegregation in the United States|ségrégasi]] (pangbédaan warna kulit) dina jalur karéta di kota New York.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=16}} Dina taun 1856, Arthur mimiti mikacinta [[Nell Arthur|Ellen Herndon]], putri ti [[William Lewis Herndon]], saurang perwira angkatan laut ti Virginia.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=19–20}} Teu lila ti harita maranéhna papacangan.{{sfn|Karabell|p=14}} Dina taun anu sarua, manéhna nyieun firma hukum anyar jeung sobatna, Henry D. Gardiner, tuluy ngalalana ka Kansas pikeun nempo lahan sarta rencana muka praktek hukum di ditu.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=16}} Harita, éta nagara bagian keur campuh ku [[Bleeding Kansas|papaséaan rongkah]] antara [[Border ruffian|nu pro-perbudakan]] jeung [[Free-Stater (Kansas)|nu anti-perbudakan]]; Arthur mah nancebkeun pihakna ka nu anti-perbudakan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=17–18}} Nanging, hirup di daérah "koboy" (frontier) anu kasar téh teu cocog jeung urang New York anu biasa hirup lemes; sanggeus tilu atawa opat bulan, éta dua ahli hukum téh balik deui ka kota New York. Di dinya Arthur ngupahan tunanganana anu keur kasedihan alatan bapana palid di sagara nalika kapal [[SS Central America|SS ''Central America'']] karérem.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=17–18}} Dina taun 1859, maranéhna nikah di [[Calvary Church (Manhattan)|Gréja Épiskopal Calvary]] di Manhattan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=21}} Ieu pasangan téh dipaparin tilu urang putra: * William Lewis Arthur (10 Désémber 1860 – 7 Juli 1863), pupus alatan "[[convulsions|ayan]]" (step). * [[Chester Alan Arthur II]] (25 Juli 1864 – 18 Juli 1937), nikah ka Myra Townsend, tuluy ka Rowena Graves, ramana [[Gavin Arthur]]. * Ellen Hansbrough Herndon "Nell" Arthur Pinkerton (21 Nopémber 1871 – 6 Séptémber 1915), nikah ka Charles Pinkerton. Sanggeus nikah, Arthur museurkeun tanagana pikeun ngawangun firma hukumna, tapi tetep boga waktu keur ancrub kana dunya pulitik Partéy Républik. Salian ti éta, manéhna ogé nyalurkeun karesepna kana dunya militer ku cara jadi [[Judge Advocate General's Corps, United States Army|Jaksa Militer]] (Judge Advocate General) keur Brigadé Kadua tina Milisi New York.{{sfn|Howe|pp=18–19}} == Perang Sadulur == Dina taun 1861, Arthur diangkat jadi staf militer Gubernur [[Edwin D. Morgan]] minangka lulugu insinyur (engineer-in-chief).{{sfn|Howe|pp=18–19}} Mimitina ieu jabatan téh dianggap teu sabaraha pentingna, nanging nalika [[American Civil War|Perang Sadulur]] bitu dina April 1861, New York sarta nagara-nagara bagian kalér séjénna kudu sasadayaan nyiapkeun sarta pakarang keur balatentara anu jumlahna kacida lobana.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=20–21|Reeves|1975|2pp=22–23}} Arthur tuluy diangkat jadi [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadir jéndral]] sarta ditugaskeun di bagian logistik ([[quartermaster]]) milisi nagara bagian.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=20–21|Reeves|1975|2pp=22–23}} Manéhna kacida parigelna dina ngatur panyicingan sarta dangdanan keur para prajurit anu datang ka kota New York, nepi ka manéhna naék pangkat jadi inspektur jéndral milisi dina Maret 1862, tuluy jadi jéndral logistik (quartermaster general) dina bulan Juli taun éta kénéh.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=24–25}} Arthur sabenerna boga lolongkrang keur maju ka médan perang nalika resimén [[9th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment]] milih manéhna jadi komandan kalayan pangkat [[colonel]], nanging ku pamenta Gubernur Morgan, manéhna nolak éta kalungguhan sabab tanagana leuwih dibutuhkeun di New York.{{sfn|Howe|p=25}} Manéhna ogé nolak mingpin opat resimén Brigadé Métropolitan kusabab pamenta Morgan deui waé.{{sfn|Howe|p=25}} Pangdeukeutna Arthur ka garis hareup pangperangan nyaéta nalika manéhna miang ka kidul pikeun mariksa pasukan New York deukeut [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]], dina Méi 1862.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=26–27|Reeves|1975|2pp=28–29}} Dina usum panas harita, manéhna jeung utusan gubernur séjénna manggihan Sekretaris Nagara [[William H. Seward]] pikeun badami ngeunaan tambahan pasukan; Arthur méakkeun waktu sababaraha bulan pikeun ngumpulkeun 120.000 urang prajurit ti New York.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=26–27|Reeves|1975|2pp=28–29}} Sanajan meunang loba pamuji, jabatan Arthur téh mangrupa jabatan pulitik, nu matak manéhna dieureunkeun tina tugas milisi dina Januari 1863 nalika Gubernur [[Horatio Seymour]] ti Partéy [[Democratic Party (United States)|Démokrat]] naék tahta.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=30}} Arthur balik deui jadi ahli hukum, sarta ku ayana kenalan-kenalan anyar ti dunya militer, firma hukum Arthur & Gardiner jadi kacida majuna.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=30–31|Reeves|1975|2pp=33–34}} Nanging, sajeroning hirupna beuki ginding, Arthur jeung pamajikanana meunang cocoba anu kacida beuratna: anakna nu ngan hiji-hijina, William, pupus dadak-sakala dina umur dua taun.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=29–30|Reeves|1975|2pp=34–35}} Ieu pasangan téh kacida kasedihanana, nu matak nalika dipaparin deui putra, Chester Alan Jr., dina taun 1864, maranéhna kacida deudeuhna sarta ngageugeut éta budak.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=35}} Maranéhna ogé boga putri, Ellen, dina taun 1871.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=84}} Duanana hirup nepi ka sawawa.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=84}} Lalakon pulitik Arthur beuki moncorong nalika pelindungna, urut Gubernur Morgan, kapilih jadi anggota [[United States Senate|Sénat AS]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=37}} Manéhna digawekeun ku [[Thomas Murphy (Collector)|Thomas Murphy]], saurang pulitikeun Républik anu ogé sobatna [[William M. Tweed]], kokolot Démokrat ti [[Tammany Hall]]. Murphy téh saurang tukang laken (hatter) anu ngajual barang ka Angkatan Darat Uni, sarta Arthur jadi wakilna di Washington. Duanana jadi akrab dina bunderan Partéy Républik New York, nepi ka naék darajatna dina faksi konservatif anu dipingpin ku [[Thurlow Weed]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=37}} Dina [[1864 United States presidential election|pamilihan présidén taun 1864]], Arthur jeung Murphy ngumpulkeun dana ti urang Républik di New York, sarta maranéhna milu hadir dina acara [[second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln|pelantikan kadua Abraham Lincoln]] dina taun 1865.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=38}} == Pulitikeun New York == === Mesin Pulitik Conkling === [[File:NYCustomHouseMerchantsExchange.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|alt=Wangunan jangkung miboga pilar jeung kubah|[[New York Custom House]] (baheulana wangunan Merchants' Exchange di [[55 Wall Street]]) anu jadi kantor Arthur salila tujuh taun.]] Réngséna Perang Sadulur méré lolongkrang anyar pikeun jalma-jalma dina "mesin pulitik" Républik nu dipingpin ku Morgan, kaasup Arthur.{{sfn|Karabell|p=17}} Morgan milih faksi konservatif dina Partéy Républik New York, kitu ogé jalma-jalma nu digawe jeung manéhna, saperti Weed, Seward, sarta [[Roscoe Conkling]] (urang [[Utica, New York|Utica]] anu pinter nyarita sarta jadi béntang anyar di partéy).{{sfn|Karabell|p=17}} Harita, Arthur jarang pisan midangkeun pamikiran pulitikna sorangan; sakumaha ilaharna jaman harita, kasatiaan sarta gawé rancagé pikeun kapentingan "mesin" leuwih utama batan sikep pulitik pribadi.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=39|Howe||2p=37}} Jaman harita, kantor [[custom house]] (pabéan) AS diurus ku jalma-jalma lulugu anu diangkat dumasar pulitik. Dina taun 1866, Arthur kungsi nyobaan ngalamar jadi Perwira Laut (Naval Officer) di [[New York Custom House]], hiji jabatan anu kacida basana (nguntungkeun), nanging teu hasil.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=40–41}} Manéhna tuluy neruskeun deui praktek hukumna sarta jadi anggota pakumpulan luhur [[Century Association|Century Club]] dina taun 1867.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=40–41}} Conkling, anu kapilih jadi Sénat AS dina [[United States Senate election in New York, 1867|taun 1867]], merhatikeun Arthur sarta mantuan manéhna naék darajat di partéy; nepi ka Arthur jadi pupuhu komite éksékutip Républik kota New York dina taun 1868.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=42–45}} Ieu kasibukan téh matak Arthur mindeng balik peuting, nepi ka pamajikanana ngarasa kuciwa alatan Arthur jarang aya di imah keur kulawarga.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=71–73}} Dina taun 1868, Conkling jadi pamingpin faksi konservatif Républik New York. Mesin pulitik Conkling kacida ngarojongna ka Jéndral [[Ulysses S. Grant]] dina pamilihan présidén, sarta Arthur milu ngumpulkeun dana keur kameunangan Grant dina [[1868 United States presidential election|taun 1868]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=48}} Sanajan Grant unggul di tingkat nasional, di nagara bagian New York mah éléh ku Horatio Seymour ti Démokrat. Arthur mimiti leuwih loba méakkeun waktu dina dunya pulitik batan dunya hukum, sarta dina taun 1869 manéhna diangkat jadi panaséhat hukum Komisi Pajak Kota New York kalayan gajih $10.000 sataun.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=49–50|Howe||2p=42}}{{efn|$10.000 dina taun 1870 téh sarua jeung kira-kira ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|10000|1870}}}} duit ayeuna.}} Arthur mundur tina éta jabatan sanggeus urang [[Tammany Hall]] (Démokrat) anu dipingpin ku William M. Tweed ngawasa deui parlemén.{{sfn|Howe|p=42}} Dina taun 1871, Grant nawarkeun jabatan Komisioner Pajak Intern (Commissioner of Internal Revenue) ka Arthur, nanging Arthur nolak.{{sfn|''The Tribune''|1871|page=2}} Dina taun 1870, Présidén Grant méré kawenang ka Conkling pikeun ngatur jabatan-jabatan stratégis ([[Spoils system|patronage]]) di New York, kaasup di Custom House. Grant ngangkat Thomas Murphy jadi lulugu di dinya.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=51–53|Howe||2pp=44–45}} Murphy loba nu teu mikaresep, nepi ka ahirna mundur dina Désémber 1871.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=57–58}} Grant tuluy nawarkeun éta jabatan ka jalma séjén, tapi maranéhna nolak sarta kalah nyarankeun nami Arthur.{{sfn|Doyle & Swaney|p=188}} Nalika Arthur dicalonkeun, koran ''New York Times'' nulis yén sanajan ngaranna jarang mucunghul, Arthur téh sabenerna jalma anu paling loba ngatur jalanna Partéy Républik di New York salila 10 taun panungtung.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=60|Howe||2pp=46–47}} Arthur resmi jadi lulugu Custom House (Collector) sarta ngatur ampir sarébu pagawé kalayan panghasilan anu kacida gedéna.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=61–67|Schwartz||2p=182}} Sajaba ti gajih tetep, manéhna meunang tambahan tina sistem "moiety", nyaéta perséntase tina barang nu disita sarta denda ti para importir anu curaling.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=59, 63, 85–86}} Total pangasilanna nepi ka leuwih ti $50.000—leuwih gedé batan gajih présidén harita, cukup pikeun hirup méwah sarta maké papakéan anu ginding.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=59, 63, 85–86}}{{efn|$50,000 dina taun 1871 téh sarua jeung kira-kira ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|50000|1871}}}} duit ayeuna.}} Arthur kaasup lulugu anu dipikaresep ku bawahanna sarta ku Partéy Républik, sabab manéhna pinter ngatur setoran dana kampanye ti para pagawé.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=71–73}} Nanging, para palulugu anu hayang ayana perobahan (reformis) tetep nyawad yén sistem ieu téh korup. Dina taun 1874, sanggeus ayana skandal denda anu teu merenah, Kongrés ngahapus sistem moiety sarta ngarobah gajih Arthur jadi gajih tetep $12.000 sataun.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=79–84|Howe||2p=49}} Sanajan turun drastis, éta gajih téh masih kénéh leuwih luhur batan gajih dunyana, nyaéta Sekretaris Kaunangan AS.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=79–84|Howe||2p=49}} === Pasalia jeung Hayes === [[File:Arthur NYcustoms house cartoon.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|alt=Gambar kartun saurang lalaki najong lalaki séjén ka jalan|Kartun anu ngagambarkeun Présidén [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] najong Arthur kaluar tina New York Custom House]] Waktos jabatan opat taun Arthur minangka lulugu pabéan (Collector) bérés dina 10 Désémber 1875. Conkling, anu harita jadi salah sahiji pulitikeun pangkuatna di Washington, hasil ngatur sangkan Présidén Grant ngangkat deui anak emasna éta.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=87–89}} Conkling sabenerna hayang jadi calon présidén dina [[1876 Republican National Convention|Muktamar Nasional Républik taun 1876]], nanging anu unggul kalah ka [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], saurang inohong anu hayang ngaropéa birokrasi.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=95–96|Karabell||2pp=26–27}} Sanajan Arthur jeung mesin pulitikna soson-soson ngumpulkeun dana kampanye, Conkling mah katingalna rada "tiis" dina ngarojong Hayes.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=100–105}} Sanggeus ngaliwatan sababaraha bulan [[Electoral Commission (United States)|papaséaan sora]] anu kacida raména, Hayes ahirna dinyatakeun unggul.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=106–107}} Hayes mimiti maréntah kalayan jangji hayang meresihan sistem birokrasi tina pangaruh pulitik ([[spoils system]]). Dina taun 1877, manéhna jeung Sekretaris Kaunangan [[John Sherman]] ngajadikeun mesin pulitik Conkling salaku udagan utama.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=100–105}} Sherman nitah hiji komisi anu dipingpin ku John Jay pikeun nalungtik New York Custom House.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|pp=318–319}} Jay (anu baheula kungsi bareng jeung Arthur dina kasus ''Lemmon'') nyebutkeun yén éta kantor pabéan téh pinuh teuing ku pagawé titipan pulitik, malah 20% pagawéna mah sabenerna mah teu diperlukeun.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom||1pp=322–325|Reeves|1975|2pp=118–119|Howe||3pp=68–69}} Sanajan Arthur milu nurut kana sawatara paréntah ngurangan pagawé, Komisi Jay tetep nyawad Arthur sarta ménta sangkan éta kantor dibombardir (dirombak total).{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=121–122}} Hayes tuluy ngaluarkeun [[executive order]] anu nyaram para pajabat féderal milu campur dina urusan organisasi pulitik atawa kampanye.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom||1pp=322–325|Reeves|1975|2p=121}} Arthur jeung baladna, [[Alonzo B. Cornell]] sarta [[George H. Sharpe]], mugen (nolak) nurut kana éta paréntah. Sherman nawarkeun sangkan Arthur mundur sacara lemes kalayan diiming-imingan jabatan jadi [[United States Ambassador to France|Duta Besar di Paris]], tapi Arthur tetep nancebkeun pamadeganana: nolak!{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=121–123}} Dina Séptémber 1877, Hayes ménta maranéhna mundur, tapi tetep ditolak. Hayes tuluy nyoba ngangkat jalma-jalma séjén (kaasup [[Theodore Roosevelt Sr.]]) pikeun ngaganti Arthur, tapi ku kakuatan Conkling di Sénat, sakabéh calon ti Hayes téh ditalikung sarta ditolak ku Sénat.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom||1pp=353–355|Reeves|1975|2pp=126–131}} Nanging, Arthur ahirna teu bisa mumpang deui nalika dina bulan Juli 1878, Hayes ngamangpaatkeun mangsa resés Kongrés pikeun mecat Arthur sarta Cornell sacara sapihak.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom||1pp=370–371|Reeves|1975|2pp=136–137}} Hayes nawarkeun deui jabatan Konsul Jéndral di Paris pikeun "ngajaga pameunteu" (ngoméan gengsi) Arthur, tapi sakali deui Arthur nolak.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|p=354}} Saenggeus meunang loba waktu lowong, Arthur tuluy museurkeun tanaga dina urusan pulitik di New York. Dina taun 1879, manéhna kapilih jadi pupuhu Komite Éksékutip Républik Nagara Bagian New York.{{sfn|"The Sun"}} Manéhna jeung Conkling hasil nyatakeun kakuatanana ku cara ngunggulkeun faksi maranéhna anu disebut **[[Stalwart (politics)|Stalwart]]**.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=153–155|Peskin||2p=704}} Sanajan meunang, Arthur ngan ukur sakedap bisa ngarasakeun kabungahna; dina 12 Januari 1880, pamajikanana, Nell, pupus dadak-sakala nalika Arthur keur di Albany.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=158–159|Karabell||2pp=38–39}} Arthur kacida kasedihanana, ngarasa dosa, sarta nepi ka tilar dunya manéhna teu kungsi nikah deui.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=98–99|Karabell||2pp=38–39}} == Pamilihan Taun 1880 == {{utama|1880 United States presidential election}} [[File:Grand national Republican banner 1880 LCCN2001702119.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|Poster kampanye Garfield–Arthur]] Conkling sarta baladna di faksi Stalwart, kaasup Arthur, boga harepan hayang neruskeun kameunangan taun 1879 dina [[1880 Republican National Convention|Muktamar Nasional Républik taun 1880]]. Maranéhna hayang ngunggulkeun deui sobatna, urut Présidén Grant.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=160–165}} Sabalikna, faksi [[Half-Breed (politics)|Half-Breeds]] mah ngarojong [[James G. Blaine]], saurang sénator ti Maine anu leuwih satuju kana perobahan birokrasi.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=160–165}} Kadua calon éta taya nu meunang sora mayoritas, nepi ka dina voting ka-36, muktamar milih jalan tengah ku cara ngangkat "kuda hideung" ([[dark horse]]), nyaéta James A. Garfield, saurang anggota parlemén ti Ohio sarta jéndral Perang Sadulur anu teu milih ka faksi Stalwart atawa Half-Breed.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=177–178|Howe||2pp=107–108|Karabell||3pp=39–40}} Garfield sarta nu ngarojongna sadar yén maranéhna bakal bangga unggul dina pamilihan lamun teu dibantuan ku urang Stalwart ti New York. Maranéhna tuluy nawarkeun korsi wakil présidén ka faksi éta.{{sfnm|Karabell||1p=41|Reeves|1975|2p=178}} Mimitina ditaunkeun ka [[Levi P. Morton]], nanging Conkling nyaram manéhna narima.{{sfn|Howe|pp=107–108}} Tuluy maranéhna ngadeukeutan Arthur. Conkling nyaram deui waé, sabab yakin yén Partéy Républik bakal éléh.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=179–181}} Nanging, Arthur mah béda pamadegan. Manéhna narima éta tawaran. Ceuk béja ti saurang wartawan, William C. Hudson, Arthur nyarita ka Conkling: "Jabatan Wakil Présidén téh hiji kahormatan anu leuwih luhur batan nu kungsi dicipaneun ku kuring."{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=179–181}}{{efn|Nulis riwayat George Howe yakin kana ieu carita, nanging nulis riwayat sanggeusna mah curiga yén ieu téh ngan saukur carita rékaan (apokrif).}} Conkling ahirna léléh sarta milu kampanye keur éta pasangan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=190–194}} Sakumaha nu geus dikira-kira, pamilihan téh kacida raména. Calon ti Démokrat, Jéndral [[Winfield Scott Hancock]], kacida dipikaresepna ku balaréa.{{sfn|Jordan|pp=292–305}} Urang Républik mimitina ngagunakeun taktik "[[bloody shirt]]"—nyaéta ngingetkeun deui kakeueung Perang Sadulur sarta nyebutkeun yén milih Démokrat hartina méré angin ka urang kidul nu hayang misahkeun diri ([[Secession in the United States|séksési]]).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=194–196|Jordan||2pp=294–295}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1880.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Hasil sora éléktoral taun 1880]] Nanging, ku sabab perang geus liwat lima belas taun sarta kadua calon présidénna sarua jéndral Uni, éta taktik téh teu pati ampuh.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=194–196|Jordan||2pp=294–295}} Maranéhna tuluy ganti taktik ku cara nyebarkeun béja yén Démokrat bakal nurunkeun [[tariff|pajak impor]], anu matak barang-barang ti Éropa bakal banjir sarta rébuan pagawé pabrik di Amérika bakal kaleungitan pagawéan.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=196–197|Jordan||2pp=297–302}} Ieu taktik téh hasil pisan di New York jeung Indiana. Hancock kalah beuki ti késeman nalika nyebutkeun yén urusan pajak téh "urusan lokal", anu matak manéhna katingal teu ngarti kana masalah nagara anu utama.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=196|Jordan||2p=301}} Salaku pupuhu Républik di New York, Arthur parigel pisan dina ngatur kampanye sarta ngumpulkeun dana.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=198–202}} Hasilna, Républik unggul di New York ku selisih 20.000 sora. Dina pamilihan anu pangkacida raména dina sajarah (78,4% sora asup), maranéhna unggul di tingkat nasional ku selisih anu kacida saeutikna: ngan 7.018 sora.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=203–204}} Nanging, dina [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]] mah unggulna atra pisan, nyaéta 214 ka 155. Garfield jeung Arthur ahirna kapilih jadi pamingpin nagara.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=203–204}} == Wakil Présidén (1881) == [[File:CAArthur-oathofoffice (edit).jpg|thumb|Arthur nampi sumpah jabatan présidén anu dipingpin ku Hakim [[John R. Brady]] di [[Chester A. Arthur Home|bumi Arthur]] di kota New York, 20 Séptémber 1881.]] Sanggeus pamilihan, Arthur nyoba mangaruhan Garfield sangkan ngeusi sawatara jabatan ku baladna ti faksi Stalwart New York, utamana korsi Sekretaris Kaunangan; nanging Garfield kalah ka milih James G. Blaine, musuh buyutna Conkling, jadi Sekretaris Nagara.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=205–207}} Hubungan antara Présidén jeung Wakil Présidén beuki rengat nalika Garfield terus ngasingkeun faksi Stalwart tina kakawasaan. Darajat Arthur di pamaréntahan beuki nyirorot nalika manéhna biantara di hareupeun wartawan sarta nyebutkeun yén kameunangan di Indiana téh hasil tina kacurangan pulitik.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=213–216|Karabell||2pp=52–53}} Garfield ahirna ngangkat urang Stalwart, [[Thomas Lemuel James]], jadi Postmaster General, nanging papaséaan kabinét sarta biantara Arthur anu salah mangsa matak kaduana jadi "tiis" nalika resmi ngamimitian pancén dina 4 Maret 1881.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=216–219|Karabell||2pp=54–56}} Sénat AS harita keur saimbang pisan sorana antara Républik jeung Démokrat. Arthur, salaku Wakil Présidén, ngagunakeun hak sora panangtu ([[tie-breaking vote]]) pikeun mastikeun yén Partéy Républik bisa mingpin sakabéh komite di Sénat.{{sfn|Bycoffe}}{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=220–223}} Nanging, nalika Conkling sarta Sénator Thomas C. Platt mundur ti Sénat pikeun protés ka Garfield, Arthur milih mulang ka kota New York sabab euweuh deui pancén di Washington.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=233–237|Howe||2pp=147–149}} Nalika keur di Albany dina kaping 2 Juli, Arthur meunang béja yén Garfield ditémbak ku musuh.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=233–237|Howe||2pp=147–149}} Jalma anu némbakna, [[Charles J. Guiteau]], téh jalma anu kurang ingetan (gélo) anu hayang meunang jabatan. Manéhna ngagorowok ka jalma-jalma: "Kuring urang Stalwart, sarta Arthur bakal jadi Présidén!"{{sfnm|Karabell||1p=59|Reeves|1975|2p=237}} Sanajan Guiteau ngaku-ngaku balad Arthur, sabenerna hubungan maranéhna mah kacida jauhna. Guiteau ogé salah nganggap yén Arthur bakal méré hampura ka manéhna sanggeus Garfield perlaya. Nu leuwih matak hariwang nyaéta euweuh aturan hukum anu jelas ngeunaan [[United States presidential line of succession|panyilihan tahta présidén]]: nalika Garfield keur sakarat nahan kanyeri, taya nu nyaho saha anu sabenerna boga kawenang mingpin nagara.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=241–243|Howe||2pp=152–154}} Arthur ogé hoream katembat nyokot kakawasaan présidén salila Garfield masih kénéh hirup. Salila usum panas, nagara kawas anu kaleungitan pamingpin sabab Garfield beuki lungse sarta Arthur embung migawé pancén présidén.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=244–248|Karabell||2pp=61–63}} Dina peuting kaping 19 Séptémber, Arthur meunang béja yén Garfield ahirna tilar dunya. Hakim [[John R. Brady]] nyumpah Arthur jadi présidén di bumina di New York dina jam 2:15 subuh, 20 Séptémber. Isukna, manéhna miang ka Long Branch pikeun nepungan kulawarga Garfield, tuluy ka Washington.{{sfn|McCabe|page=764}} Saacanna, Arthur parantos mastikeun yén aturan panyilihan tahta tetep jalan ku cara ménta Sénat ngayakeun sidang husus. Sakali nepi ka Washington, manéhna resmi jadi pamingpin Amérika Serikat dina kaayaan anu kacida sedihna.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=247–248}} == Mangsa Jabatan Présidén (1881–1885) == {{Utama|Presidency of Chester A. Arthur}} === Mimiti Ngajabat === {{Tempo ogé|Inauguration of Chester A. Arthur}} Arthur nepi ka [[Washington, D.C.]], dina kaping 21 Séptémber.{{sfn|''The New York Times''|1881}} Dina poé saterusna, manéhna ngalakukeun sumpah jabatan deui, harita mah di hareupeun Lulugu Hakim [[Morrison R. Waite]]. Arthur nyokot ieu léngkah pikeun mastikeun yén sagalana luyu jeung aturan hukum; sabab harita aya kacangcaya naha hakim nagara bagian (Brady) boga kawenang pikeun nyumpah pajabat féderal.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=53–54|Reeves|1975|2p=248}} Mimitina, manéhna matuh di imah Sénator [[John Percival Jones|John P. Jones]], bari nungguan Gedong Bodas ([[White House]]) dirénovasi dumasar pamentana, kaasup nambahan hiasan kaca sapanjang lima belas méter jieunan [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=252–253, 268–269}} [[File:Arthur-cabinet.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|alt=Gambar sakelompok lalaki neuteup lalaki séjénna|''Dina bangbarung jabatan, naon anu bisa diarepkeun ti manéhna?'' Dina kartun ''[[Puck (magazine)|Puck]]'' taun 1881, Arthur pahareup-hareup jeung [[James A. Garfield#Cabinet and inauguration|kabinét]] sanggeus Présidén Garfield ditémbak.]] Kulantaran geus duda, adina Arthur, [[Mary Arthur McElroy]], jadi "ibu nagara" samentara anu ngurus sagala rupa jamuan di Gedong Bodas.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=252–253, 268–269}} Arthur jadi duda anu paling dipikaresep di Washington nepi ka loba béja ngeunaan hubungan asmarana, nanging sabenerna manéhna tetep satia mikacinta ka pamajikanana anu parantos tilar dunya.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=275–276}} Putrana, Chester Jr., harita keur kuliah tingkat mimiti di [[Princeton University]], ari putrina, Nell, tetep di New York bareng jeung guru pribadina ([[governess]]) nepi ka taun 1882. Nalika Nell datang ka Washington, Arthur kacida ngajagana sangkan budakna teu kaganggu ku wartawan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=275–276}} Teu lila ti harita, Arthur mimiti pasalia jeung kabinét titinggal Garfield, anu lolobana mah faksi lawan di partéyna. Manéhna ménta sangkan anggota kabinét tetep ngajabat nepi ka bulan Désémber, nanging Sekretaris Kaunangan [[William Windom (politician)|William Windom]] mundur leuwih ti heula dina bulan Oktober.{{sfnm|Howe||1p=160|Reeves|1975|2p=254}} Arthur tuluy milih [[Charles J. Folger]], sobatna ti faksi Stalwart New York, pikeun ngaganti Windom.{{sfnm|Howe||1p=160|Reeves|1975|2p=254}} Jaksa Agung [[Wayne MacVeagh]] ogé mundur sabab ngarasa salaku reformis manéhna moal cocog aya di kabinét Arthur.{{sfnm|Howe||1p=161|Reeves|1975|2pp=254–255}} Sanajan Arthur ménta manéhna tetep cicing, MacVeagh tetep mundur sarta diganti ku [[Benjamin H. Brewster]].{{sfnm|Howe||1p=161|Reeves|1975|2pp=254–255}} Blaine, musuh buyut faksi Stalwart, tetep jadi Sekretaris Nagara nepi ka Kongrés ngayakeun sidang deui, tuluy langsung mundur.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=160–161|Reeves|1975|2pp=255–257}} Conkling ngarep-ngarep Arthur bakal ngangkat manéhna ngaganti Blaine, nanging Présidén kalah milih [[Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen|Frederick T. Frelinghuysen]] ti New Jersey dumasar saran urut Présidén Grant.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=160–161|Reeves|1975|2pp=255–257}} Tina sakabéh anggota kabinét anu diwariskeun ti Garfield, ngan saukur Sekretaris Perang [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] (putra Abraham Lincoln) anu tetep ngajabat nepi ka mangsa jabatan Arthur bérés.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=162–163|Reeves|1975|2pp=257–258}} Harita, Arthur teu bisa ngangkat wakil présidén anyar pikeun ngeusi korsi anu kosong, sabab aturanana (Amandemén ka-25) can aya dina mangsa éta. === Reformasi Birokrasi === [[File:Chester Alan Arthur (cropped).jpg|thumb|276x276px|Arthur dina taun 1882]] Dina taun 1870-an, kabongkar ayana [[star route scandal|hiji skandal]] "ruteu béntang" (star route), di mana para kontraktor kiriman pos dibayar kaleuleuwihi ku ayana "uucingan" (konspirasi) jeung pajabat pamaréntah.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=93–95|Reeves|1975|2pp=297–298}} Para reformis hariwang yén Arthur, salaku urut nu ngarojong sistem setoran pulitik ([[spoils system]]), moal neruskeun pamariksaan éta skandal.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=93–95|Reeves|1975|2pp=297–298}} Nanging, Jaksa Agung pilihan Arthur, Brewster, kalah terus méré lolongkrang pikeun nalungtik éta perkara, malah nyéwa ahli hukum ti Partéy Démokrat pikeun nguatkeun tim jaksa sarta nyingkahan kacurigaan masarakat.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=299–300|Howe||2p=182}} Sanajan Arthur kungsi akrab jeung salah sahiji palakuna méméh jadi présidén, sanggeus ngajabat mah manéhna tegas ngarojong pamariksaan sarta mecat pajabat-pajabat anu kacepet ku éta skandal.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=299–300|Howe||2p=182}} Sanajan dina ahirna taya vonis nu beurat pikeun para palaku utama, Arthur hasil ngeureunkeun éta prakték curaling (fraud).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=303–305|Howe||2pp=189–193}} Kajadian perlaya na Garfield ku jalma nu gélo hayang jabatan beuki ngagedékeun pamenta masarakat pikeun ayana reformasi birokrasi.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=320–324|Doenecke||2pp=96–97}} Dina taun 1880, Sénator Démokrat [[George H. Pendleton]] ngasongkeun aturan sangkan pagawé nagara dipilih dumasar kana pangabisa (merit) ngaliwatan [[Civil service examination|ujian]], lain dumasar kadituna-kadieuna (koneksi pulitik).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=320–324|Doenecke||2pp=96–97}} Dina biantara taunanana taun 1881, Arthur ménta sangkan undang-undang reformasi birokrasi geuwat dijieun.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=320–324|Doenecke||2pp=96–97}} Sanggeus Partéy Républik kaleungitan loba korsi dina pamilihan parlemén 1882, Kongrés ahirna léléh sarta nyatujuan éta aturan. Arthur nandatanganan **[[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]]** jadi undang-undang dina 16 Januari 1883.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=324|Doenecke||2pp=101–102}} Dina waktu ngan dua taun, saurang inohong Stalwart anu teugeug geus robah jadi présidén anu muka jalan pikeun reformasi birokrasi anu geus lila dianti-anti.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=324|Doenecke||2pp=101–102}} Mimitina, ieu undang-undang ngan lumaku pikeun 10% jabatan féderal. Lamun présidénna teu daria, ieu aturan téh moal jalan.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=325–327|Doenecke||2pp=102–104}} Loba jalma nu sangsi kana kasatiaan Arthur. Nanging, manéhna kalah gerak gancang ku cara ngangkat anggota [[United States Civil Service Commission|Komisi Birokrasi]] anu jujur.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=325–327|Doenecke||2pp=102–104}} Lulugu pamariksa nu diangkatna, [[Silas W. Burt]], malah baheulana mah musuh Arthur nalika di New York Custom House.{{sfn|Howe|pp=209–210}} Dina taun 1884, Arthur ngarasa sugema ku ieu sistem anyar, sarta nyebutkeun yén ieu aturan hasil ngajaga para pajabat ti "tekenan kapentingan pribadi" sarta ngajaga kualitas pagawé nagara.<ref name="Arthur 1884" /> === Kaleuwihan Anggaran sarta Pajeg Impor === {{CSS image crop|Image=ARTHUR, Chester A-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg|bSize=310|cWidth=230|cHeight=270|oTop=48|oLeft=38|Location=left|Description=Poto ukiran Présidén Arthur ti [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]]}} Kulantaran pajeg jaman perang masih kénéh lumaku, pamaréntah féderal ngumpulkeun duit leuwih loba batan nu dikaluarkeun saprak taun 1866; nepi ka taun 1882, kaleuwihan anggaran (surplus) nepi ka $145 juta.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=328–329|Doenecke||2p=168}} Aya rupa-rupa pamadegan ngeunaan cara [[Balanced budget|nyaruakeun anggaran]]; urang Démokrat hayang nurunkeun [[tariff|pajeg impor (tarif)]] sanggeusna harga barang impor jadi leuwih murah, sedengkeun urang Républik yakin yén pajeg impor nu luhur téh penting pikeun ngajaga gajih para pagawé pabrik jeung tambang di jero nagara. Maranéhna leuwih satuju lamun éta duit surplus dipaké pikeun [[internal improvements|pangwangunan infrastruktur]] sarta ngurangan pajeg cukai (excise).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=328–329|Doenecke||2p=168}} Arthur sapamadegan jeung partéyna. Dina taun 1882, manéhna ménta sangkan pajeg cukai dihapus (iwal ti keur inuman keras) sarta ménta aturan pajeg impor anu leuwih basajan.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=330–333|Doenecke||2pp=169–171}} Dina bulan Méi taun éta, ditépakeun hiji komisi pajeg impor; Arthur ngangkat jalma-jalma anu lolobana mah [[Protectionism|protéksionis]] (nu ngabela pajeg luhur) kana éta komite. Nanging, dina Désémber 1882, éta komite kalah ngasongkeun laporan anu ménta pajeg impor diturunkeun antara 20 nepi ka 25%. Kongrés teu maliré kana éta saran, sarta dina ahirna [[Tariff of 1883|Undang-Undang taun 1883]] ngan saukur nurunkeun pajeg impor rata-rata 1,47%. Arthur nandatanganan éta aturan, tapi euweuh pangaruhna kana kaleuwihan anggaran nagara.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=334–335}} Kongrés ogé nyoba nyaruakeun anggaran ku cara méakkeun duit dina [[Rivers and Harbors Act]] taun 1882 kalayan jumlah anu kacida badagna, nyaéta $19 juta.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=280–282|Doenecke||2p=81}} Sanajan Arthur satuju kana pangwangunan, manéhna ngarasa beurat ku badagna éta anggaran sarta kusabab éta proyék ngan saukur nguntungkeun "daérah-daérah nu tangtu" wungkul, lain pikeun kapentingan nasional.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=280–282|Doenecke||2p=81}} Dina 1 Agustus 1882, Arthur ngagunakeun hak **[[Veto]]** (nolak) kana éta undang-undang; manéhna nyebutkeun yén éta anggaran téh lain pikeun "pertahanan babarengan atawa karaharjaan umum."{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=281}} Nanging, poé isukna, Kongrés [[Veto override|ngabatalkeun veto]] présidén (override), sarta éta aturan tetep jalan, ngurangan surplus nagara ku $19 juta.<ref name="Kim-Dwor"/> Urang Républik harita ngarasa éta téh hiji kameunangan, nanging jaga mah katingal yén éta léngkah téh kalah matak maranéhna kaleungitan korsi dina pamilihan parlemén 1882.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=196–197|Reeves|1975|2pp=281–282|Karabell|3p=90}} === Urusan Luar Nagri sarta Imigrasi === [[File:The only one barred out cph.3b48680.jpg|thumb|alt=Saurang lalaki Cina diuk di luar pager nu dikonci|Kartun pulitik taun 1882, anu nyawad kawijakan [[Chinese exclusion|panghalangan urang Cina]]]] Nalika mangsa Garfield, Sekretaris Nagara James G. Blaine nyoba ngahirupkeun deui hubungan diplomatik jeung nagara-nagara Amérika Latin. Manéhna hayang ayana perjangjian dagang sarta jadi panengah dina papaséaan antar nagara di dinya.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=55–57|Reeves|1975|2pp=284–289}} Blaine malah ngasongkeun ide konferensi Pan-Amérika dina taun 1882 pikeun ngeureunkeun [[War of the Pacific|Perang Pasifik]] antara [[Bolivia]], Chili, jeung [[Peru]].{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=55–57|Reeves|1975|2pp=284–289}} Nanging, nalika Frelinghuysen ngaganti Blaine dina ahir taun 1881, éta rencana téh jadi [[wikt:dead letter|surat paéh]] (teu jalan). Frelinghuysen hoream neruskeun usaha perdamaian Blaine sabab sieun Amérika Serikat kalah kacepet asup kana éta konflik.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=129–132|Reeves|1975|2pp=289–293|Bastert||3pp=653–671}} Kongrés ka-47 ogé loba méakkeun waktu pikeun nguruskeun imigrasi. Dina Juli 1882, Kongrés nyieun aturan ngeunaan kapal uap anu mawa imigran ka Amérika. Teu sangka, Arthur ngagunakeun hak [[Veto]]-na sarta ménta sangkan éta aturan diropéa deui; sanggeus dibenerkeun, kakara ku Arthur disatujuan.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=168–169|Doenecke||2p=81}} Manéhna ogé nandatanganan [[Immigration Act of 1882]], anu nerapkeun pajeg 50 sén pikeun unggal imigran sarta ngalarang asupna jalma anu boga gangguan jiwa, jalma nu kurang ingetan, kriminal, atawa sing saha waé anu dianggap bakal jadi bangbaluh nagara.{{sfnm|Hutchinson||1p=162|Howe||2p=169}} Papaséaan anu pangpanasna mah lumangsung ngeunaan urang imigran ti Cina. Saacanna, dina taun 1868, Amérika boga perjangjian ([[Burlingame Treaty]]) anu ngamajukeun urang Cina asup sacara bébas. Nanging, nalika ékonomi keur siméte (Panic of 1873), urang Cina dianggap jadi cukang lantaran turunna gajih pagawé lokal.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=277–278|Hoogenboom||2pp=387–389}} Dina taun 1882, Kongrés nyoba ngaluarkeun aturan anu ngalarang pagawé Cina asup salila 20 taun.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=278–279|Doenecke||2pp=81–84}} Arthur deui-deui ngagunakeun hak **[[Veto]]**-na. Manéhna ngarasa yén larangan salila 20 taun téh méngpar tina perjangjian internasional anu ngan meunangkeun "panghalangan anu wajar." Koran-koran di bagian Wétan muji kana kawani Arthur, sedengkeun urang bagian Kulon mah katingalna bendu pisan. Ahirna, Kongrés ngasongkeun deui aturan anyar anu ngalarang imigrasi Cina salila 10 taun. Sanajan sabenerna masih kénéh kurang sapuk, Arthur ahirna nandatanganan [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] dina 6 Méi 1882 salaku jalan tengah.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=278–279|Doenecke||2pp=81–84}} Ieu undang-undang ngahalangan sakabéh urang Cina asup ka Amérika, iwal ti diplomat, guru, murid, padagang, sarta nu keur pelesir. === Ngawangum Angkatan Laut === [[File:Chicago. Leading the Squadron of Evolution, 1889 - NARA - 512952.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Poto opat kapal perang|Barisan kapal "Squadron of Evolution" keur balabuh dina taun 1889: ''Chicago'', ''Yorktown'', ''Boston'', sarta ''Atlanta''.]] Sanggeus Perang Sadulur bérés, kakuatan [[United States Navy|Angkatan Laut Amérika]] nyirorot pisan. Kapal anu tadina ampir 700 siki, kari 52 deui, malah lolobana mah geus tinggaleun jaman.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=337|Doenecke||2p=145}} Salami lima belas taun saacanna, pamaréntah leuwih museurkeun tanaga kana [[American Indian Wars|perang jeung urang Indian]] di daratan Kulon batan nguruskeun lautan. Nanging, nalika kaayaan di darat geus mimiti aman, Kongrés mimiti melang ningali kaayaan kapal perangna anu geus bobo.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=338–341||Doenecke|2pp=145–147}} Dina biantara taunanana taun 1881, Arthur ménta sangkan Angkatan Laut dikuatkeun deui.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=277}} Manéhna méré kawenang sapinuhna ka Sekretaris Angkatan Laut anyar, [[William E. Chandler]]. Chandler, saurang pamingpin anu tegas, langsung "meresihan" para pajabat anu masih kénéh milih kapal kai sarta ngadegkeun [[Naval War College]].{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=277}} Chandler ngabentuk tim ahli pikeun ngaropéa Angkatan Laut sangkan bisa ngajaga Amérika nepi ka rébuan mil jauhna, lain ngan saukur ngajaga basisir wungkul.{{sfnm|Weisberger|2002|1p=277||Doenecke|2pp=147–149}} Dumasar saran éta tim, Kongrés méré anggaran pikeun nyieun tilu kapal perang baja (''[[USS Atlanta (1884)|Atlanta]]'', ''[[USS Boston (1884)|Boston]]'', sarta ''[[USS Chicago (1885)|Chicago]]'') jeung hiji kapal panganteur (''[[USS Dolphin (PG-24)|Dolphin]]''). Ieu kapal téh katelah "Kapal ABCD" atawa ''[[Squadron of Evolution]]''.{{sfnm|Weisberger|2002|1p=277|Reeves|1975|2pp=342–343}} Kontrakna dibikeun ka [[John Roach & Sons]], pausahaan anu nawarkeun harga pangmurahna, sanajan Roach baheulana kungsi jadi dunungan Chandler.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=343–345|Doenecke||2pp=149–151}} Sanajan urang Démokrat di Kongrés ka-48 nyoba ngahalangan anggaran pikeun kapal baja saterusna, kaayaan Angkatan Laut tetep beuki maju. Kapal-kapal anyar éta ahirna resmi dioperasikeun dina taun 1889.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=349–350|Doenecke|2pp=152–153}} Chandler sorangan ngarasa reueus sabab geus hasil "ngancurkeun angkatan laut kolot" sarta ngagantina ku nu modérn.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=277}} Dina mangsa jabatan Arthur, Amérika ogé ngayakeun ékspédisi ilmiah ka kutub kalér (Lady Franklin Bay Expedition). Sanajan aya anggota anu hasil nyieun catetan pangjauhna ka kalér ([[Farthest North]]), nanging tina 25 urang anggota ékspédisi, ngan saukur tujuh urang anu hasil salamet nepi ka balik deui. === Hak Sipil sarta Urusan Masarakat === [[File:Mahone, Hon. Senator of Virginia, Brig. Gen. in Civil War Crop.jpg|thumb|Pamingpin Partéy Readjuster [[William Mahone]] anu bajoang pikeun hak sipil di Virginia]] Saperti para présidén ti Partéy Républik méméhna, Arthur ngarasa beurat nyanghareupan pasalian kumaha cara nangtang kakuatan Partéy Démokrat di wilayah Kidul sarta kumaha cara ngajaga hak-hak sipil urang kulit hideung di dinya.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=306–308|Doenecke||2pp=105–108}} Sanggeus mangsa [[Reconstruction Era|Rekonstruksi]] bérés, urang kulit bodas ti Partéy Démokrat (nu sok disebut "[[Bourbon Democrat]]s") miboga kakuatan deui, sarta Partéy Républik beuki léléh sabab nu ngarojong utamana, nyaéta urang kulit hideung, [[Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|hak sorana ditalikung]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=306–308|Doenecke||2pp=105–108}} Aya hiji lolongkrang di wilayah Kidul nalika mecenghul partéy anyar di Virginia, nyaéta **[[Readjuster Party]]**.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=307–309|Ayers||2pp=46–47}} Ieu partéy mawa janji hayang ngaronjatkeun anggaran pendidikan (boh keur sakola kulit hideung atawa bodas) sarta ngahapus [[Poll tax (United States)|pajeg sora]] nu matak hésé ka rahayat leutik. Arthur satuju pikeun gawé bareng jeung ieu faksi sarta méré jabatan-jabatan féderal ka urang Readjuster batan ka urang Républik asli di dinya. Sanajan loba urang Républik kulit hideung anu ngarasa "dihianatan" ku ieu taktik, nanging inohong kawas [[Frederick Douglass]] mah ngarojong sabab kawijakan urang Readjuster dianggap leuwih adil batan urang Démokrat.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=310–313}} Nanging, usaha séjénna pikeun ngabéla urang kulit hideung téh kurang hasilna. Nalika Mahkamah Agung ngabatalkeun [[Civil Rights Act of 1875]] dina kasus ''[[Civil Rights Cases]]'' (1883), Arthur nyatakeun teu sapuk kana éta kaputusan dina biantarana ka Kongrés, tapi manéhna teu hasil mangaruhan Kongrés pikeun nyieun aturan anyar salaku gagantina.{{sfn|Doenecke|pp=112–114}} Dina hiji hal mah Arthur hasil campur tangan, nyaéta nalika ngabatalkeun hukuman ka saurang kadét kulit hideung di [[United States Military Academy|West Point]], [[Johnson Chesnut Whittaker]], sanggeus dipaluruh yén éta kasus téh pinuh ku kacua dumasar kana warna kulit (rasial).{{sfn|Marszalek|loc=''[[passim]]''}} Di wilayah Kulon, Arthur ogé nyanghareupan masalah ngeunaan prakték [[polygamy|poligami]] ku kelompok [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormon]] di Utah. Arthur sapamadegan jeung Garfield yén poligami téh hiji tindak kajahatan anu ngaruksak ajén kulawarga.{{sfn|Doenecke|pp=84–85}} Dina taun 1882, manéhna nandatanganan **[[Edmunds Act]]** anu ngajadikeun poligami salaku kajahatan féderal sarta ngalarang palakuna pikeun nyepeng jabatan publik atawa milu milih dina pamilihan.{{sfn|Doenecke|pp=84–85}} === Kawijakan Urang Indian === Pamaréntahan Arthur nyanghareupan tangtangan tina parobahan hubungan jeung sélér-sélér [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]] di wilayah Kulon.{{sfn|Doenecke|pp=85–89}} [[American Indian Wars|Perang Indian]] geus mimiti réngsé, sarta sikep masarakat mimiti robah jadi leuwih hadé ka urang Indian. Arthur ménta ka Kongrés sangkan nambahan anggaran pikeun pendidikan urang Indian, anu ahirna disatujuan dina taun 1884, sanajan jumlahna teu saluyu jeung kahayang manéhna.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–92|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} Manéhna ogé satuju kana parobahan sistem lahan jadi [[Allotment Era|sistem jatah (allotment)]], di mana urang Indian sacara pribadi—lain dumasar sélér—boga hak milik kana tanah. Arthur teu hasil ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngajalankeun ieu ide salila manéhna ngajabat, nanging dina taun 1887, [[Dawes Act]] ahirna ngarobah hukum sangkan saluyu jeung éta sistem.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–92|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} Ieu sistem jatah téh harita mah dipuji ku para reformis, nanging tétéla jaga mah kalah matak rugi ka urang Indian sabab tanah maranéhna loba nu dijual deui kalayan harga murah ka para [[Speculation|tukang spekulasi]] kulit bodas.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1p=91|Stuart||2pp=452–454}} Salami mangsa présidén Arthur, para nu bubuara (settlers) sarta nu boga ingon-ingon terus-terusan asup sarta ngarebut wilayah urang Indian.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–90|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} Mimitina mah Arthur nolak kana éta peta, nanging sanggeus Sekretaris Jero Nagri [[Henry M. Teller]] ngayakinkeun yén éta lahan téh teu ditangtayungan ku hukum, Arthur ahirna muka wilayah [[Crow Creek Reservation]] di [[Dakota Territory]] pikeun para nu bubuara ngaliwatan paréntah éksékutip dina taun 1885.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–90|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} Présidén saterusna, [[Grover Cleveland]], manggihan yén éta tanah téh sabenerna hak milik urang Indian, sarta langsung ngabolaykeun paréntah Arthur sababaraha bulan ti harita.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–90|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} === Kaséhatan sarta Lalampahan === [[File:President Chester A. Arthur Yellowstone National Park Expedition 1883.jpg|upright=1.15|alt=Sakelompok lalaki diuk di leuweung|thumb|left|Arthur dina hiji ékspédisi di [[Yellowstone National Park]] bareng jeung [[Philip Sheridan]] sarta [[Robert Todd Lincoln]].]] Teu lila sanggeus jadi présidén, Arthur didiagnosa kakeunaan ku panyakit **[[Bright's disease]]**, nyaéta gangguan [[kidney|ginjal]] anu ayeuna disebut **[[nephritis]]**.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=317–318|Howe||2pp=243–244}} Manéhna nyoba nyumputkeun éta kaayaan sangkan teu kanyahoan ku balaréa, nanging dina taun 1883, béja ngeunaan panyakitna mimiti sumebar. Awakna beuki lila beuki begang sarta pameunteuna katingal beuki sepuh, malah manéhna ogé mimiti "ngos-ngosan" (hésé) nuturkeun wirahma gawé présidén anu kacida padetna.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=317–318|Howe||2pp=243–244}} Pikeun mulikkeun deui kaséhatanana, dina bulan April 1883, Arthur sarta sawatara sobat pulitikna indit ka Florida.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=355–359|Howe||2pp=244–246}} Nanging, éta pakansi téh kalah matak sabalikna; Arthur kalah katarajang kanyeri anu kacida méméh balik deui ka Washington.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=355–359|Howe||2pp=244–246}} Dina ahir taun éta, dumasar saran ti Sénator Missouri [[George Graham Vest]], manéhna nganjang ka **[[Yellowstone National Park]]**.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=364–367|Howe||2pp=247–248}} Loba wartawan anu milu dina éta rombongan présidén, anu ahirna milu ngawanohkeun sistem [[History of the National Park Service|Taman Nasional]] anyar ka masarakat luas.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=364–367|Howe||2pp=247–248}} Lalampahan ka Yellowstone katingalna leuwih mangpaat pikeun kaséhatan Arthur batan pakansi ka Florida. Manéhna balik ka Washington dina kaayaan anu leuwih jagrag sanggeus dua bulan lalampahan.{{sfnm|Karabell||1pp=124–125|Reeves|1975|2pp=366–367}} === Pamilihan Présidén 1884 === Nalika [[1884 United States presidential election|pamilihan présidén taun 1884]] geus deukeut, James G. Blaine dianggap salaku calon pangkuatna ti Partéy Républik. Nanging, Arthur ogé kungsi boga niat hayang nyalonkeun deui pikeun hiji mangsa jabatan pinuh.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=368–371|Howe||2pp=254–257}} Tapi, sababaraha bulan méméh [[1884 Republican National Convention|Muktamar Nasional Républik]], Arthur mimiti sadar yén taya hiji faksi ogé di partéyna anu bener-bener daék ngarojong manéhna sapinuhna. Faksi Half-Breed tetep satia ka Blaine, sedengkeun faksi Stalwart masih kénéh bingung; aya nu ngadukung Arthur, aya ogé nu milih Sénator [[John A. Logan]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=368–371|Howe||2pp=254–257}} Urang Républik anu mikacinta reformasi birokrasi memang geus mimiti resep ka Arthur sanggeus manéhna nandatanganan UU Pendleton, tapi maranéhna masih kénéh cangcaya naha Arthur téh bener-bener "beresih" atawa henteu. Maranéhna kalah leuwih milih Sénator [[George F. Edmunds]] ti Vermont.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=368–371|Howe||2pp=254–257}} Sanajan para pangusaha sarta urang Républik di wilayah Kidul ngadukung manéhna, Arthur ahirna mutuskeun pikeun teu milu campur sacara daria dina rebutan korsi calon présidén.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=373–375|Doenecke||2pp=181–182}} Manéhna tetep milu "étalaseu" (token effort) hungkul, sabab lamun manéhna mundur kitu waé, urang bakal curiga kana kaséhatanana sarta bakal cangcaya kana naon anu geus dipigawé ku manéhna salila ngajabat. Nalika muktamar dimimitian dina bulan Juni, geus katingal yén Arthur bakal éléh. Dina voting kaopat, Blaine meunang 541 sora, sedengkeun Arthur ngan meunang 207 sora.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=380–381|Howe||2pp=264–265}} Arthur tuluy ngirim telegram ucapan salamet ka Blaine sarta narima éta kaéléhan kalayan tenang ([[equanimity]]).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=380–381|Howe||2pp=264–265}} Manéhna teu milu dina kampanye taun 1884, anu engkéna ku Blaine dianggap salaku cukang lantaran éléhna ku calon ti Démokrat, Gubernur New York [[Grover Cleveland]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=387–389|Howe||2pp=265–266}} === Pangangkatan Hakim === {{utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku Chester A. Arthur}} Arthur ngangkat dua urang hakim pikeun ngeusi korsi kosong di [[United States Supreme Court|Mahkamah Agung AS]]. Anu kahiji nyaéta dina Juli 1881 nalika Hakim [[Nathan Clifford]] tilar dunya.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} Arthur milih [[Horace Gray]], saurang ahli hukum ti Massachusetts, sarta pamilihan ieu gampang disatujuaun ku Sénat.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} Gray ngabdikeun dirina di Mahkamah Agung salila leuwih ti 20 taun. Korsi kosong kadua mecenghul nalika Hakim [[Ward Hunt]] pangsiun dina Januari 1882. Arthur mimitina milih urut dununganana, [[Roscoe Conkling]]. Sabenerna Arthur rada cangcaya naha Conkling bakal narima atawa henteu, nanging manéhna ngarasa kudu méré pangajén ka jalma anu kungsi ngangkat karirna.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} Sénat nyatujuan, nanging luyu jeung sangkaan, Conkling nolak.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} Ieu mangrupakeun kajadian pamungkas di mana saurang calon anu geus disatujuaun ku Sénat kalah nolak jabatanana. Salaku gantina, Arthur ngangkat [[Samuel Blatchford]], saurang hakim ti Pangadilan Banding Federal anu kacida dipikahormatna.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} == Saatos Jadi Présidén (1885–1886) == Arthur bérés ngajabat dina taun 1885 sarta mulang ka bumina di kota New York. Sababaraha urang Stalwart New York ménta manéhna pikeun nyalonkeun jadi Sénator, nanging Arthur nolak. Manéhna leuwih milih balik deui jadi pokrol (pengacara) di firma hukumna, Arthur, Knevals & Ransom.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=412–414}} Nanging, kaséhatanana beuki nyirorot nepi ka manéhna jarang bisa kaluar imah.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=416–418}} === Tilar Dunya === [[File:Chester Arthur grave.jpg|thumb|Makam Arthur di [[Albany Rural Cemetery]] di Menands, New York]] Sanggeus méakkeun usum panas taun 1886 di Connecticut, Arthur balik deui ka bumina dina kaayaan anu beuki parna. Dina kaping 16 Nopémber, manéhna méré paréntah sangkan sakabéh dokumén pribadina sarta dokumén resmina diduruk nepi ka béak.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=416–418}} Isukna, Arthur katarajang stroke ([[cerebral hemorrhage]]) sarta teu éling deui. Manéhna tilar dunya dina poé saterusna, 18 Nopémber, dina umur 57 taun.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=416–418}} Dina kaping 22 Nopémber, hiji upacara pamakaman dilaksanakeun di New York anu dihadiran ku Présidén Cleveland sarta urut Présidén Hayes. Arthur dimakamkeun di gigireun pamajikanana dina hiji [[sarcophagus]] (peti batu) anu megah di [[Albany Rural Cemetery]], [[Menands, New York]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=416–418}} Dina taun 1889, hiji monumén patung malaikat tina perunggu ditepakeun di luhureun makamna salaku tanda pangajén pikeun jasa-jasana ka nagara.{{sfn|''The New York Times''|1894}} Mangsa hirup Arthur sanggeus jadi présidén téh mangrupakeun anu kadua pangpondokna dina sajarah AS (ngan sataun dalapan bulan), sanggeus James K. Polk. == Sawangan Pulitik == Salaku saurang konservatif,{{sfn|Nelson|2015|p=370}} Arthur kabeungkeut kana faksi Stalwart dina Partéy Républik salila taun 1860-an jeung 1870-an, anu ngarojong [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sarta kawijakan-kawijakan konservatif pamaréntahanana.{{sfn|Whalen|2007|p=58}} == Warisan Sajarah == [[File:Carthur.jpeg|thumb|Potrét resmi Présidén Arthur]] Sawatara pos [[Grand Army of the Republic]] dingaranan dumasar kana ngaran Arthur, kaasup di [[Goff, Kansas]], [[Lawrence, Nebraska]], [[Medford, Oregon]], sarta [[Ogdensburg, Wisconsin]]. Dina 5 April 1882, Arthur kapilih jadi anggota kahormatan [[Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States]] (MOLLUS) salaku tanda pangajén kana kontribusina dina mangsa perang.{{sfn|"The Loyal Legion"|page=1}} Union College méré gelar [[Legum Doctor|LL.D.]] (Doktor Kahormatan dina widang Hukum) ka Arthur dina taun 1883.{{sfn|University of the State of New York|pages=21–22}} Dina taun 1898, hiji patung parunggu Arthur saluhur 4,5 méter anu dijieun ku George Edwin Bissell ditepakeun di [[Madison Square]], Kota New York.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=419}} Nalika upacara panyingkapan éta patung, Sekretaris Perang [[Elihu Root]] nyebutkeun yén Arthur téh saurang pamingpin anu "wijaksana dina nagara sarta teguh dina pamaréntahan," sanajan manéhna ngarasa kasingkur sarta kurang dipikanyaah ku partéyna sorangan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=419}} Dina taun 1938, Kantor Pos AS ngaluarkeun prangko husus pikeun ngahormatan manéhna. Dina taun 2012, gambar Arthur ogé dipaké dina koin saméméh hiji dollar AS. <gallery class="center"> File:Chet Arthur Mad Sq jeh.JPG|[[Statue of Chester A. Arthur|Patung Arthur]] di [[Madison Square Park]], Kota New York, dijieun taun 1898. File:Chester A Arthur, 21c, 1938 issue.jpg|Prangko Arthur, kaluaran taun 1938. File:Chester A. Arthur, Presidential Dollar.jpg|Koin dollar AS gambar Arthur, dicitak taun 2012. File:Arthur Avenue Streetsign (36769067783).jpg|[[Arthur Avenue]] di [[the Bronx]] dingaranan dumasar kana ngaran Présidén Arthur. </gallery> Ngaran Arthur mimitina kurang dipikawanoh ku para ahli sajarah sanggeus manéhna bérés ngajabat.{{sfn|Karabell|p=139}} Dina taun 1935, sejarawan George F. Howe nyebutkeun yén Arthur téh "nepi ka poék (henteu kawentar), kontras pisan jeung peranna anu kacida pentingna dina sajarah Amérika."{{sfn|Howe|p=288}} Nanging, dina taun 1975, [[Thomas C. Reeves]] nulis yén pangangkatan pajabat ku Arthur téh kacida hadéna, sarta skandal korupsi anu ramé harita mah teu nempel ka pamaréntahanana.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=420}} Wartawan [[Alexander McClure]] nulis, "Taya jalma anu asup jadi Présidén kalayan rasa teu percaya anu kacida gedéna saperti Chester Alan Arthur, sarta taya jalma anu bérés ngajabat... kalayan rasa hormat anu leuwih luhur, boh ti sobat pulitikna atawa ti musuhna." [[Mark Twain]] ogé nulis, "Hésé pisan néangan pamaréntahan anu leuwih hadé batan pamaréntahan Présidén Arthur."{{sfn|Feldman|p=95}} Dina sawangan sejarawan modérn, Arthur umumna dianggap présidén anu "rata-rata" atawa biasa waé, malah mindeng disebut présidén anu paling gampang dipopohokeun. Imah Arthur di New York saterusna dijual ka [[William Randolph Hearst]]. Saprak taun 1944, éta tempat dipaké jadi toko samara (spice emporium) **[[Kalustyan's]]** anu kasohor nepi ka ayeuna. === Dina Média === Sosok Arthur diperankeun ku [[Nick Offerman]] dina miniseri [[historical drama]] [[Netflix]] taun 2025 anu judulna ''[[Death by Lightning]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Death By Lightning' Gives Nick Offerman the Role of a Lifetime in Chester A. Arthur|last=O'Keefe| first=Meghan|date=7 November 2025|website=Decider.com|url=https://decider.com/2025/11/07/death-by-lightning-nick-offerman-chester-a-arthur-muttonchops/|access-date=Dec 17, 2025}}</ref> == Tempo Ogé == {{Portal|American Civil War|Biography|United States|Politics|New York City|New York (state)|Law}} * Arthur Cottage, imah karuhun Arthur di [[Cullybackey]], [[County Antrim]], Irlandia Kalér. * [[Julia Sand]], awéwé anu surat-suratan sarta méré saran ka Arthur. * [[List of presidents of the United States|Daptar Présidén Amérika Serikat]]. * [[List of presidents of the United States by previous experience|Daptar Présidén Amérika Serikat dumasar pangalaman méméhna]]. {{clear}} == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == <references> <ref name="Arthur 1884"> {{cite web | url = http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur%27s_Fourth_State_of_the_Union_Address | title = Fourth State of the Union Address | first = Chester A. | last = Arthur | year = 1884 | publisher = Wikisource, The Free Library | access-date = July 15, 2011 }} </ref> <ref name="Kim-Dwor"> Lewis A. Kimmel, ''Federal-Budget and Fiscal Policy 1789–1958'', (Washington, D. C.: The Brooking Institute, 1959). Dicutat dina Dworsky: "The temptation to squander money was overwhelming; the Rivers and Harbors Act passed over (President) Arthur's veto in 1882 demonstrated how strongly it lay upon the Congress." </ref> {{sfn|"Supreme Court Nominations"}} </references> == Bibliografi == === Buku === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | title = The Naval History of the United States | volume = 2 | last = Abbot | first = Willis J. | author-link = Willis J. Abbot | publisher = Peter Fenelon Collier | year = 1896 | oclc = 3453791 | url = https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26416 | ref = {{sfnRef|Abbot}} }} * {{cite book | title = The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction | url = https://archive.org/details/promiseofnewsout0000edwa | last = Ayers | first = Edward L. | author-link = Edward L. Ayers | year = 2007 | orig-year = 1992 | publisher = Oxford University Press, US| location = New York | isbn = 978-0-19-532688-8 | ref = {{sfnRef|Ayers}} }} * {{cite book | last1 = Doyle | first1 = Burton T. | last2 = Swaney | first2 = Homer H. | date = 1881 | title = Lives of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur | url = https://archive.org/details/livesofjamesa00doyle | location = Washington, D.C. | publisher = Rufus H. Darby | ref = {{sfnRef|Doyle & Swaney}} }} * {{cite book | title = The Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur | last = Doenecke | first = Justus D. | year = 1981 | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence | isbn = 978-0-7006-0208-7 | ref = {{sfnRef|Doenecke}} | url = https://archive.org/details/presidenciesofja00doen }} * {{cite book | last = Feldman | first = Ruth Tenzer | year = 2006 | title = Chester A. Arthur | publisher = Twenty-First Century Books | isbn = 978-0-8225-1512-8 | ref = {{sfnRef|Feldman}} | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/chesteraarthur0000feld }} * {{cite book |last=Ferris |first=Gary W. |date=1999 |title=Presidential Places: A Guide to the Historic Sites of U.S. Presidents |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVvOyszUlpEC&pg=PA127 |location=Chicago |publisher=R. R. Donnelly and Sons |isbn=978-0-89587-176-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Louis |date=2014 |title=The Law of the Executive Branch: Presidential Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RmDwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985621-3 |ref={{sfnRef|Fisher}} }} * {{cite book |last=Hambley |first=Del |date=2008 |title=Presidential Footprints |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3lxZHZFTp4C&pg=PA103 |location=Indianapolis, IN |publisher=Dog ear Publishing |isbn=978-159858-800-2 |ref={{sfnRef|Hambley}} }} * {{cite book | last = Hoogenboom | first = Ari | author-link = Ari Hoogenboom | title = Rutherford Hayes: Warrior and President | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700606412 | year = 1995 | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence | isbn = 978-0-7006-0641-2 | ref = {{sfnRef|Hoogenboom}} }} * {{cite book | title = Chester A. Arthur, A Quarter-Century of Machine Politics | last = Howe | first = George F. | year = 1966 | orig-year = 1935 | publisher = F. Ungar Pub. Co | location = New York | asin = B00089DVIG | ref = {{sfnRef|Howe}} }} * {{cite book |last=Hudson |first=David L. |date=2012 |title=The Handy Presidents Answer Book |url=https://archive.org/details/handypresidentsa0000huds |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/handypresidentsa0000huds/page/246 246] |location=Canton, MI |publisher=Visible Ink Press |ref={{sfnRef|Hudson}} |isbn=978-1-57859-317-0 }} * {{cite book | title = Winfield Scott Hancock: A Soldier's Life | url = https://archive.org/details/winfieldscotthan0000jord_g7v7 | last = Jordan | first = David M. | year = 1988 | publisher = Indiana University Press | location = Bloomfield | isbn = 978-0-253-36580-4 | ref = {{sfnRef|Jordan}} }} * {{cite book | title = Chester Alan Arthur | last = Karabell | first = Zachary | author-link = Zachary Karabell | year = 2004 | publisher = Henry Holt & Co | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6951-8 | ref = {{sfnRef|Karabell}} | url = https://archive.org/details/chesteralanarthu00kara }} * {{cite book|last1=McCabe|first1=James D.|title=Our Martyred President&nbsp;... : The Life and Public Services of Gen. James A. Garfield|url=https://archive.org/details/ourmartyredpresi0000mcca|date=1881|publisher=National Publishing Company|ref={{sfnRef|McCabe}}}} * {{cite book | title = Gentleman Boss: The Life of Chester A. Arthur | url = https://archive.org/details/gentlemanbosslif00reev | url-access = registration | last = Reeves | first = Thomas C. | author-link = Thomas C. Reeves | year = 1975 | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-394-46095-6 }} * Rhodes, James Ford. ''History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850: 1877–1896'' (1919) [https://archive.org/details/historyunitedst04rhodgoog online lengkep]; buku klasik, faktual, sarta museur kana pulitik, karya pameunang Hadiah Pulitzer. * {{cite book |last=University of the State of New York |date=1883 |title=Annual Report of the Board of Regents |volume=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx0tAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA21 |location=Albany, NY |publisher=Weed, Parsons & Company |ref={{sfnRef|University of the State of New York}} }} * {{cite book |last=Vermont Bureau of Publicity |date=1913 |title=Vermont: The Land of Green Mountains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fo0UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84 |location=Montpelier |publisher=Vermont Secretary of State |ref={{sfnRef|Vermont Bureau of Publicity}} }} * {{cite book |last=Weisberger|first=Bernard A.|title=The Presidents A Reference History James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|editor=Henry F. Graff|date=2002}} {{refend}} === Artikel === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |title=Diplomatic Reversal: Frelinghuysen's Opposition to Blaine's Pan-American Policy in 1882 |journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review |first=Russell H. |last=Bastert |volume=42 |issue=4 |date=March 1956 |jstor=1889232 |ref={{sfnRef|Bastert}} |pages=653–671 |doi=10.2307/1889232}} * {{cite web |ref=Chester A. Arthur |title=Chester A. Arthur |url=http://newyorkcitystatues.com/chester-a-arthur/ |publisher=New York City Statues |access-date=October 18, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013092658/http://newyorkcitystatues.com/chester-a-arthur/ |archive-date=October 13, 2012}} * {{cite web |last=Easley-Walsh |first=Megan |url=https://praguepapers.ff.cuni.cz/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2024/04/Megan_Easley-Walsh_36-52.pdf |title=Chester Alan Arthur: The forgotten American President who Changed the World through two Conferences (the International Meridian Conference of 1884 and the Berlin Africa Conference of 1884–1885) |date=February 2022 |website=Prague Papers on the History of International Relations}} * {{cite journal |title=The Present Status of Our Immigration Laws and Policies |journal=The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly |first=C.P. |last=Hutchinson |volume=25 |issue=2 |date=April 1947 |jstor=3348178 |ref={{sfnRef|Hutchinson}} |pages=161–173 |doi=10.2307/3348178}} * {{cite magazine |last=Jampoler |first=Andrew C.A. |title=Disaster at Lady Franklin Bay |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2010/august/disaster-lady-franklin-bay |date=August 2010 |magazine=Naval History Magazine |volume=24 |number=4 |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |ref=Jampoler (August 2010) |accessdate=December 25, 2022}} * {{cite BDA1906 |wstitle= Arthur, Chester Alan |volume= 1 |pages= 146-151 |short=|ref=none}} * {{cite journal |title=A Black Cadet At West Point |journal=American Heritage |first=John F. Jr. |last=Marszalek |author-link=John F. Marszalek |volume=22 |issue=5 |date=August 1971 |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/content/black-cadet-west-point?page=show |ref={{sfnRef|Marszalek}} |access-date=September 1, 2018}} * {{cite journal |title=Who Were the Stalwarts? Who Were Their Rivals? Republican Factions in the Gilded Age |journal=Political Science Quarterly |first=Allan |last=Peskin |volume=99 |issue=4 |date=Winter 1984 |jstor=2150708 |ref={{sfnRef|Peskin}} |pages=703–716 |doi=10.2307/2150708}} * {{cite journal |title=The Search for the Chester Alan Arthur Papers |journal=The Wisconsin Magazine of History |first=Thomas C. |last=Reeves |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Summer 1972 |jstor=4634741 |pages=310–319}} * {{cite journal |last=Reeves |first=Thomas C. |date=July 1, 1970 |title=The Diaries of Malvina Arthur: Windows Into The Past of Our 21st President |url=https://vermonthistory.org/journal/misc/DiariesOfMalvinaArthur.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the Vermont Historical Society |location=Montpelier |publisher=Vermont Historical Society |access-date=September 1, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|Reeves|July 1, 1970}}}} * {{cite journal |title=The Mystery of Chester Alan Arthur's Birthplace |journal=Vermont History |first=Thomas C. |last=Reeves |volume=38 |issue=4 |date=Autumn 1970 |url=https://vermonthistory.org/journal/misc/MysteryOfChester.pdf |access-date=September 1, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|Reeves (Autumn 1970)}}}} * {{cite journal |title=In Defense of Chester Arthur |journal=The Wilson Quarterly |first=Sybil |last=Schwartz |volume=2 |issue=4 |date=Autumn 1978 |jstor=40255548 |ref={{sfnRef|Schwartz}} |pages=180–184}} * {{cite journal |title=United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission |journal=Social Service Review |first=Paul |last=Stuart |volume=51 |issue=3 |date=September 1977 |jstor=30015511 |ref={{sfnRef|Stuart}} |pages=451–463 |doi=10.1086/643524 |s2cid=143506388}} * {{cite journal |title=Patronage, the Pendleton Act, and the Power of the People |journal=The Journal of Politics |first=Sean M. |last=Theriault |volume=65 |issue=1 |date=February 2003 |jstor=3449855 |ref={{sfnRef|Theriault}} |pages=50–68 |doi=10.1111/1468-2508.t01-1-00003 |s2cid=153890814}} * {{cite magazine |last=Todd |first=A. L. |date=June 1960 |volume=11 |issue=4 |title=Ordeal In The Arctic |url=https://www.americanheritage.com/ordeal-arctic |magazine=American Heritage |ref=Todd (June 1960) |accessdate=December 27, 2022}} {{refend}} === Surat Kabar === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite news |title=Afternoon Dispatches: Pleasanton |work=The Tribune |location=Lawrence, KS |date=July 9, 1871 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-kansas-tribune-afternoon-dispa/185199734/ |page=2 |ref={{sfnRef|''The Tribune''|1871}}}} * {{cite news |title=Republican State Committee: Gen. Chester A. Arthur Elected Chairman – Campaign Plans |work=The Sun |location=New York |page=2 |date=September 12, 1879 |url-access=limited |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-herald-republican-state-committ/186244751/ |ref={{sfnRef|"The Sun"}}}} * {{cite news |title=Organization of the Republican State Committee |work=Boston Post |location=Boston, MA |page=1 |date=October 12, 1881 |url-access=limited |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/boston-post-organization-of-the-republic/186244844/ |ref={{sfnRef|"Boston Post"}}}} * {{cite news |title=The New Administration; President Arthur Formally Inaugurated |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1881/09/23/98566684.pdf |access-date=January 14, 2016 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=September 22, 1881 |ref={{sfnRef|''The New York Times''|1881}}}} *{{cite news |date=April 6, 1882 |title=The Loyal Legion: Meeting Last Night; President Arthur Elected to Membership |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/national-republican-meeting-last-night/186244933/ |work=National Republican |location=Washington, DC |url-access=limited |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |ref={{sfnRef|"The Loyal Legion"}}}} *{{cite news |date=August 30, 1891 |title=Leading Officials: The Three Principal Officers in the Nebraska Posts |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/omaha-daily-bee-the-three-principal-offi/186245007/ |work=Omaha Daily Bee |location=Omaha, NE |url-access=limited |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |ref={{sfnRef|"Leading Officials"}}}} *{{cite news |date=September 23, 1892 |title=In the Encampment at the Reunion at Ashland |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-medford-mail-in-the-encampment-at-th/186245093/ |work=[[Mail Tribune|Medford Mail]] |location=Medford, OR |url-access=limited |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |ref={{sfnRef|"In the Encampment at the Reunion at Ashland"}}}} *{{cite news |date=January 26, 1893 |title=Meeting of C. A. Arthur Post, No. 411 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-goffs-advance-c-a-arthur-post-no/186245245/ |work=The Goffs Advocate |location=Goff, KS |url-access=limited |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |ref={{sfnRef|"Meeting of C. A. Arthur Post, No. 411"}}}} * {{cite news |title=Monuments At Albany |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/01/07/104104464.pdf |date=January 7, 1894 |ref={{sfnRef|''The New York Times''|1894}}}} * {{cite news |date=November 17, 1910 |title=Sister of Arthur Dead: Mrs. Regina M. Caw Was Born In Dunham, Canada in 1822 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-washington-post-sister-of-arthur-dea/186245293/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |location=Washington, DC |page=3 |url-access=limited |ref={{sfnRef|"Sister of Arthur Dead"}}}} * {{cite news |date=April 12, 1915 |title=Sister of Late President Arthur Dies at Age of 87 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-burlington-free-press-sister-of-late/186245623/ |work=Burlington Free Press |location=Burlington, VT |page=1 |url-access=limited |ref={{sfnRef|"Burlington Free Press"}}}} * {{cite news |last=Jenks |first=J. E. |date=March 6, 1915 |title=Obituary, Major William Arthur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVE-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA310 |work=Army and Navy Register |location=Washington, DC |ref={{sfnRef|Jenks}}}} * {{cite news |date=January 9, 1917 |title=Mrs. John E. McElroy Dead: Sister of Late President Arthur Succumbs in Atlantic City |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/times-herald-mrs-john-e-mcelroy-dead/186245652/ |work=Washington Times |location=Washington, DC |page=9 |url-access=limited |ref={{sfnRef|"Mrs. John E. McElroy Dead"}}}} {{refend}} === Situs Wéb Séjénna === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web |url=http://greenwichhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/another-sister-for-chester-almeda.html |title=Another Sister for Chester: Almeda Arthur Masten |last=Dolton |first=Trisha |date=July 12, 2013 |website=Greenwich History |publisher=Greenwich Town Historian |location=Greenwich, NY |ref={{sfnRef|Dolton}} }} * {{Cite news |last=Bycoffe |first=Aaron |date=February 7, 2017 |title=Pence Has Already Done Something Biden Never Did: Break A Senate Tie |url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/pence-has-already-done-something-biden-never-did-break-a-senate-tie/ |access-date=June 4, 2025 |work=[[FiveThirtyEight]] |ref={{sfnRef|Bycoffe}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103082937/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/pence-has-already-done-something-biden-never-did-break-a-senate-tie/ |date=January 3, 2021 }} * {{Cite web |title=A Dramatic Tie-Breaker |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/A_Dramatic_Tie-Breaker.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210121228/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/A_Dramatic_Tie-Breaker.htm |archive-date=December 10, 2020 |access-date=June 4, 2025 |website=[[United States Senate]] |ref={{sfnRef|"A Dramatic Tie-Breaker"}} }} * {{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm |title=Supreme Court Nominations, present-1789 |publisher=[[United States Senate]] |access-date=February 11, 2012 |ref={{sfnRef|"Supreme Court Nominations"}} }} *{{cite web |url=http://www.suvcw.org/garrecords/garposts/wi.pdf |title=Historical Summary of Grand Army of the Republic (GAR) Posts by State: Wisconsin |date=2005 |last=National GAR Records Program |website=garrecords.org |publisher=Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War |ref={{sfnRef|"GAR Posts by State: Wisconsin"}} |access-date=March 26, 2019 |archive-date=July 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727205328/http://www.suvcw.org/garrecords/garposts/wi.pdf |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727205328/http://www.suvcw.org/garrecords/garposts/wi.pdf |date=July 27, 2020 }} *{{cite web |url=http://rimollus.tripod.com/ |title=From the Headquarters Desk |last=Rhode Island Commandery |date=2009 |website=Original Civil War Officer Members of MOLLUS |publisher=Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States |ref={{sfnRef|"Original Civil War Officer Members of MOLLUS"}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727205120/http://rimollus.tripod.com/ |date=2020-07-27 }} * {{cite web |title=Chester A. Arthur Fourth Annual Message |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fourth-annual-message-12 |publisher=The American Presidency Project |date=December 1, 1884 |accessdate=January 25, 2023 |ref=Chester A. Arthur Fourth Annual Message (December 1, 1884) }} {{refend}} == Bacaan Salajengna == * {{cite book |last=Aubin |first=J. Harris |date=1906 |title=Register of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MoXlAAAAMAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MoXlAAAAMAAJ/page/n27 20] |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, Commandery of Massachusetts}} * {{cite book |last=Department of Oregon, Grand Army of the Republic |date=1919 |title=Journal of the Annual Encampment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9bIPB0S4iegC&pg=PA83 |location=Salem, OR |publisher=State Publishing Department }} * {{cite book |last=Greenberger |first=Scott S. |date=2017 |title=The Unexpected President: The Life and Times of Chester A. Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/unexpectedpresid0000gree |publisher=Da Capo |page=xii |isbn=978-0-30-682389-3}} * {{cite book |last= McCrory |first=Thomas J. |date=2005 |title=Department of Wisconsin, Grand Army of the Republic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JeuBye82K0EC&pg=PA100 |location=Black Earth, WI |publisher=Trails Books |isbn=1-931599-28-9}} * {{cite book |last=Werner |first=Edgar A. |date=1889 |title=The New-York Civil List |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXM1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA170 |location=Albany |publisher=Weed, Parsons & Co. |pages=170–171}} * {{cite magazine |last=Waxman |first=Olivia B. |date=February 16, 2018 |title=Chester A. Arthur Is the Most Forgotten President in U.S. History, According to Science |url=http://www.time.com/5160978/presidents-day-history-memory/ |magazine=Time |access-date=September 1, 2018 |archive-date=July 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730140929/https://time.com/5160978/presidents-day-history-memory/ |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.fjc.gov/servlet/nGetInfo?jid=192&cid=999&ctype=na&instate=na | title = Blatchford, Samuel M. | work = Biographical Directory of Federal Judges | publisher = Federal Judicial Center | access-date = July 27, 2011}} == Tumbu Luar == {{sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Chester A. Arthur|q=Chester A. Arthur|v=no|n=no|s=Author:Chester Alan Arthur|b=no}} * {{CongBio|A000303}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=1653}} *{{Librivox author |id=11292}} * [http://millercenter.org/president/arthur Ésai ngeunaan Chester Arthur sarta ésai pondok ngeunaan unggal anggota kabinétna], ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/arthur/index.html Chester Arthur: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151431-1/life-portrait-chester-arthur "Life Portrait of Chester A. Arthur"], ti [[C-SPAN]] ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', 6 Agustus 1999 * [https://www.c-span.org/video/?306347-1/life-career-chester-arthur "Life and Career of Chester A. Arthur"], presentasi ku [[Zachary Karabell]] di [[Kansas City Public Library]], 23 Mei 2012 * [http://www.history.com/topics/chester-a-arthur/videos#president-chester-a-arthur ''Pamaréntahan Chester A. Arthur''], vidéo ku [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History.com]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wdq0ADd91zI ''Biantara di Makam Chester Alan Arthur, Albany Rural Cemetery, 5 Oktober 2019''] ku sejarawan [[David Pietrusza]] * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Presidents/Arthur-Chester-A Manuskrip Pribadi Chester A. Arthur] ti [http://www.shapell.org/ Shapell.org] * {{YouTube|id=7S47gxS3wPo|Adegan tina épisode ''Futurama'' "The Day the Earth Stood Stupid"}} {{Chester A. Arthur}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan jeung pangajén |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=John Smyth}} {{s-ttl|title=Pupuhu [[New York Republican State Committee|Partéy Républik New York]]|years=1879–1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[B. Platt Carpenter]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William A. Wheeler]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Calon ti Républik]] pikeun Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat|years=[[1880 United States presidential election|1880]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[John A. Logan]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[William A. Wheeler]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Vice President of the United States|Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]]|years=1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas A. Hendricks]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[James A. Garfield]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States|Présidén Amérika Serikat]]|years=1881–1885}} {{s-aft|after=[[Grover Cleveland]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{navboxes |title=Artikel nu patali jeung Chester A. Arthur |list1= {{US Presidents}} {{USVicePresidents}} {{USRepVicePresNominees}} {{Arthur cabinet}} {{United States presidential election, 1880}} {{United States presidential election, 1884}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Arthur, Chester A.}} [[Kategori:Chester A. Arthur| ]] [[Kategori:Gumelar taun 1829]] [[Kategori:Calon wakil présidén Amérika Serikat 1880]] [[Kategori:Tilar dunya taun 1886]] [[Kategori:Episkopalian Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Aktivis anti-korupsi Amérika]] [[Kategori:Pangacara Amérika]] [[Kategori:Urang Amérika katurunan Skotlandia-Irlandia]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Arthur|Chester A.]] [[Kategori:Makam di Albany Rural Cemetery]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1884]] [[Kategori:Anggota kabinét pamaréntahan Garfield]] [[Kategori:Urang Républik New York]] [[Kategori:Urang Whig New York]] [[Kategori:Urang Fairfield, Vermont]] [[Kategori:Urang Schaghticoke, New York]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Alumni Union College (New York)]] [[Kategori:Jénderal angkatan darat Uni]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Inohong dunya]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} d54orkxyw4rqyn6z9lz6lg9n191n1pk 0 107916 711800 708322 2026-08-07T04:39:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711800 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = StephenGroverCleveland.jpg | caption = Cleveland dina taun 1892 | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-22 & ka-24 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = [[Adlai Stevenson I]] | term_start = 4 Maret 1893 | term_end = 4 Maret 1897 | predecessor = [[Benjamin Harrison]] | successor = [[William McKinley]] | vicepresident1 = {{plainlist| * {{longitem|[[Thomas A. Hendricks]]<br />(Mar–Nov 1885)}} * Kosong (1885–1889){{Efn|Wakil Présidén Hendricks tilar dunya nalika nuju ngajabat. Sateuacan aya Amandemén ka-25 taun 1967, jabatan wakil présidén anu kosong moal dieusi dugi ka pamilihan salajengna.}} }} | term_start1 = 4 Maret 1885 | term_end1 = 4 Maret 1889 | predecessor1 = [[Chester A. Arthur]] | successor1 = Benjamin Harrison | order2 = Gubernur New York ka-28 | office2 = Gubernur New York | lieutenant2 = [[David B. Hill]] | term_start2 = 1 Januari 1883 | term_end2 = 6 Januari 1885 | predecessor2 = [[Alonzo B. Cornell]] | successor2 = David B. Hill | order3 = Walikota Buffalo ka-35 | office3 = Walikota Buffalo | term_start3 = 2 Januari 1882 | term_end3 = 20 Nopémber 1882 | predecessor3 = [[Alexander Brush]] | successor3 = [[Marcus M. Drake]] | order4 = Sheriff Erie County ka-17 | office4 = Sheriff Erie County | term_start4 = 1 Januari 1871 | term_end4 = 31 Désémber 1873 | predecessor4 = Charles Darcy | successor4 = [[John B. Weber]] | birth_name = Stephen Grover Cleveland | birth_date = {{birth date|1837|3|18}} | birth_place = [[Caldwell, New Jersey]], A.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1908|6|24|1837|3|18}} | death_place = [[Princeton, New Jersey]], A.S. | resting_place = [[Princeton Cemetery]] | party = [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] | otherparty = [[Partéy Démokrat Nasional (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat Nasional]] | father = [[Richard Falley Cleveland]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Frances Cleveland|Frances Folsom]]|2 Juni 1886}} | relatives = {{indented plainlist| * [[Richard Falley Jr.]] (buyut) * [[Rose Cleveland]] (sadérék awéwé) * [[Philippa Foot]] (incu) }} | children = 6, kalebet [[Oscar Folsom Cleveland|Oscar]], [[Ruth Cleveland|Ruth]], [[Esther Cleveland|Esther]], [[Richard F. Cleveland|Richard]] sareng [[Francis Cleveland|Francis]] | occupation = {{hlist|Politikus|Pengacara}} | signature = Grover Cleveland Signature 1882.svg }} '''Stephen Grover Cleveland''' (gumelar 18 Maret 1837 – tilar dunya 24 Juni 1908) nyaéta saurang politikus sarta pengacara Amérika anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-22 (1885–1889) sarta ka-24 (1893–1897). Cleveland mangrupa hiji-hijina présidén dina sajarah Amérika anu ngajabat dua kali kalayan périodeu anu henteu ngaruntuy. Gumelar di [[Caldwell, New Jersey]], Cleveland kapilih janten [[Walikota Buffalo]] dina taun 1881 sarta [[Gubernur New York]] dina taun 1882. Nalika janten gubernur, anjeunna gawé bareng pisan sareng pamimpin minoritas [[Majelis Nagara Bagian New York|majelis nagara bagian]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], pikeun ngaluluskeun léngkah-léngkah reformasi, anu ngirut perhatian nasional.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Grover Cleveland Birthplace |url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/presidents/grover_cleveland_birthplace.html |publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref> Anjeunna mingpin kelompok [[Bourbon Democrats]], hiji gerakan anu pro-bisnis sarta nentang [[Sajarah tarif di Amérika Sarikat|tarif luhur]], [[pérak gratis]], sarta [[imperialisme]]. Perjuanganana pikeun reformasi pulitik sarta [[konservatisme fiskal]] ngajadikeun anjeunna ikon pikeun konservatif Amérika dina mangsa éta. == Mangsa keur leutik == === Budak leutik sarta sajarah kulawarga === [[File:Caldwell Presbyterian Church Manse, Caldwell, NJ.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|Imah pastur Presbiterian Caldwell, [[Grover Cleveland Birthplace|tempat gumelar]] Grover Cleveland di [[Caldwell, New Jersey]]]] Stephen Grover Cleveland gumelar dina 18 Maret 1837, di [[Caldwell, New Jersey]], putra ti Ann (née Neal) sarta [[Richard Falley Cleveland]].<ref>Nevins, 8–10</ref> Ramana Cleveland, anu asalna ti [[Connecticut]], nyaéta saurang pendéta [[Kongregasionalisme di Amérika Sarikat|Kongregasional]] sarta [[Presbiterianisme di Amérika Sarikat|Presbiterian]].<ref>Graff, 3–4; Nevins, 8–10</ref> Ibuna asalna ti [[Baltimore]], putri ti saurang padagang buku.<ref>Graff, 3–4</ref> Ti garis katurunan ramana, Cleveland téh katurunan Inggris anu mimiti émigrasi ka [[Massachusetts]] ti [[Ipswich, England|Ipswich]], Inggris, dina taun 1635.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nevins |first1=Allan |title=Grover Cleveland; a study in courage |url=https://archive.org/details/groverclevelands0000alla_g0y5 |date=1933 |publisher=[[Dodd, Mead & Co.]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/groverclevelands0000alla_g0y5/page/6 6]}}</ref> Sedengkeun ti garis ibuna, anjeunna téh katurunan Anglo-Irlandia Protéstan sarta [[Quakers]] Jérman.<ref>Nevins, 9</ref> Cleveland ogé mibanda hubungan baraya jauh sareng Jenderal [[Moses Cleaveland]], tokoh anu janten asal-usul nami kota [[Cleveland]], Ohio.<ref>Graff, 7</ref> Cleveland, anak kalima ti salapan duduluran, dingaranan Stephen Grover pikeun ngahormat pastur munggaran di Garéja Presbiterian Munggaran Caldwell, tempat ramana ngabakti harita. Anjeunna langkung kawentar ku nami Grover nalika parantos déwasa.<ref>Nevins, 10; Graff, 3</ref> Dina taun 1841, kulawarga Cleveland pindah ka [[Fayetteville, New York]], tempat Grover ngalangkungan mangsa budakna.<ref>Nevins, 11; Graff, 8–9</ref> Tatanggana harita ngagambarkeun anjeunna salaku budak anu "resep banyol sarta resep jail",<ref>Nevins, 11</ref> sarta resep pisan kana olahraga di luar rohangan.<ref>Jeffers, 17</ref> Dina taun 1850, ramana, Richard, mindahkeun kulawargana ka [[Clinton, Oneida County, New York|Clinton, New York]], saatos nampi padamelan salaku sekretaris distrik pikeun [[American Home Missionary Society]].<ref>Nevins, 17–19</ref> Sanaos ramana suhud dina gawé misionaris, panghasilanana henteu cekap pikeun nyukupan kulawarga anu sakitu lobana. Kaayaan ékonomi maksa Grover kedah kaluar ti sakola sarta ngalaksanakeun magang dagang (mercantile apprenticeship) salila dua taun di Fayetteville. Pangalaman ieu kacida berhargana, sanaos sakedap. Grover mulang deui ka Clinton sarta neraskeun sakolana saatos kontrak magangna réngsé.<ref>Tugwell, 14</ref> Dina taun 1853, padamelan misionaris mimiti mangaruhan kaséhatan Richard. Anjeunna nampi tugas anyar di [[Holland Patent, New York]], sarta mindahkeun kulawargana sakali deui.<ref name="nevins21">Nevins, 21</ref> Teu lami ti harita, Richard Cleveland tilar dunya alatan [[gastric ulcer]] (borok lambung). Grover disebutkeun terang wartos pupusna ramana ti saurang budak anu nuju ngiderkeun koran.<ref name="nevins21" /> === Atikan sarta pindah ka kulon === [[File:Grover Cleveland young photo.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Poto Cleveland mangsa keur ngora (teu aya titimangsa)]] Cleveland nampi atikan dasarna di Akademi Fayetteville sarta [[Clinton, Oneida County, New York#Sajahah atikan|Sakola Tata Basa Clinton]] (ulah pahili sareng Clinton Liberal Institute).<ref>Nevins, 18–19; Jeffers, 19</ref> Saatos ramana tilar dunya dina taun 1853, anjeunna sakali deui kedah kaluar ti sakola pikeun ngabantosan ékonomi kulawargana. Dina tungtung taun éta, lanceukna, William, ditarima janten guru di [[Lembaga Pikeun Nu Lolong New York]] (New York Institute for the Blind) di New York City, sarta William hasil milarian tempat pikeun Cleveland salaku asistén guru. Cleveland mulang ka imahna di Holland Patent dina tungtung taun 1854, di dinya saurang kokolot garéja nawarkeun pikeun ngabiayaan kuliahna upami anjeunna jangji badé janten pendéta. Cleveland nolak tawaran éta, sarta dina taun 1855 anjeunna mutuskeun pikeun pindah ka wilayah kulon.<ref>Nevins, 23–27</ref> Anjeunna eureun heula di [[Buffalo, New York]], di dinya misanana, [[Lewis F. Allen]], masihan padamelan administrasi.<ref>Nevins, 27–33</ref> Allen mangrupa jalma penting di Buffalo, sarta anjeunna ngenalkeun Cleveland ka jalma-jalma anu boga pangaruh, kalebet para mitra di [[kantor hukum]] Rogers, Bowen, sarta Rogers.<ref>Nevins, 31–36</ref> Cleveland satuluyna janten kerani di kantor éta, mimiti [[diajar hukum]] sacara mandiri sareng maranéhna, sarta ahirna lulus ujian [[Bar examination di Amérika Sarikat|pangacara New York]] dina taun 1859.<ref name="graff14">Graff, 14</ref> === Karir awal sarta Perang Sipil Amérika === Cleveland damel di kantor hukum Rogers salami tilu taun sateuacan kaluar dina taun 1862 pikeun muka prakték hukum sorangan.<ref>Graff, 14–15</ref> Dina Januari 1863, anjeunna diangkat janten asistén [[jaksa distrik]] [[Erie County, New York]].<ref>Graff, 15; Nevins, 46</ref> Nalika [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] nuju ragot, Kongrés ngesahkeun [[Undang-Undang Wajib Militer 1863]], anu maréntahkeun lalaki anu jagjag pikeun ngabakti di tentara upami ditaun, atanapi mayar jalma sanés salaku gagantina.<ref name="graff14" /> Cleveland milih jalan kadua, anjeunna mayar $150 ka George Benninsky, saurang imigran [[Polandia]], pikeun ngagantikeun anjeunna perang.<ref>Graff, 14; Nevins, 51–52</ref> Salaku pengacara, Cleveland dipikawanoh ku konsentrasi sarta dedikasi anu kacida suhudna kana padamelan.<ref name="nevins52">Nevins, 52–53</ref> Dina taun 1866, anjeunna hasil ngabéla sababaraha pamilon dina [[Serangan Fenian]], kalayan damel sacara ''[[pro bono]]'' (haratis).<ref>Nevins, 54</ref> Dina taun 1868, Cleveland janten perhatian dunya hukum alatan hasilna ngabéla kasus [[pitenah]] (libel) ngalawan éditor koran ''Commercial Advertiser'' di Buffalo.<ref>Nevins, 54–55</ref> Dina mangsa ieu, Cleveland hirup kalayan basajan, nganjrék di hiji [[imah kos]] anu dawam. Anjeunna ngagunakeun panghasilanana anu beuki ningkat pikeun nyukupan kabutuhan ibu sarta adi-adi awéwéna.<ref>Nevins, 55–56</ref> Sanaos tempat cicingna kacida basajanna, Cleveland mikaresep kahirupan sosial sarta silih gaul di lobi hotél sarta [[Western saloon|saloon]].<ref>Nevins, 56</ref> Anjeunna ngajauhan kalangan masarakat kelas luhur di Buffalo, tempat kulawarga pamanna biasa gaul.<ref>Tugwell, 26</ref> == Karir pulitik di New York == === Sheriff Erie County === [[Image:DSCN4468 buffaloclevelandstatue e.jpg|upright|thumb|Patung Grover Cleveland di payuneun [[Buffalo City Hall|Balé Kota]] di [[Buffalo, New York]]]] Ti mimiti aub dina dunya pulitik, Cleveland parantos mihak ka [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]].<ref>Nevins, 44–45</ref> Anjeunna mibanda rasa henteu resep anu kacida ka urang Républik saperti [[John C. Frémont]] sarta [[Abraham Lincoln]], sarta para pamingpin di kantor hukum Rogers ogé mangrupa urang Démokrat tulén.<ref>Tugwell, 32</ref> Dina taun 1865, anjeunna nyalonkeun janten [[Jaksa Distrik]], nanging éléh tipis ku réngréngan sarta batur sakamarna, [[Lyman K. Bass]], calon ti Partéy Républik.<ref name="nevins52" /> Dina taun 1870, kalayan bantosan sobatna, Oscar Folsom, Cleveland hasil kenging nominasi Démokrat pikeun jabatan [[Sheriff Erie County, New York]].<ref name="nevins58">Nevins, 58</ref> Anjeunna meunangkeun pamilihan kalayan sélisih 303 sora sarta mimiti ngajabat dina 1 Januari 1871, dina yuswa 33 taun.<ref>Jeffers, 33</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Julie |date=2003 |title=American Presidents Year by Year |publisher=Routledge |page=334}}</ref> Sanaos karir anyar ieu ngajauhkeun anjeunna tina prakték hukum, hasilna kacida muwuh: pajeg sarta waragad jabatanana disebutkeun ngahasilkeun dugi ka $40,000 salami dua taun jabatanana.<ref name="nevins58" /> Masa jabatan Cleveland salaku sheriff dianggap biasa-biasa waé. Biografer [[Rexford Tugwell]] ngagambarkeun mangsa éta salaku miceun waktos pikeun Cleveland dina widang pulitik. Cleveland terang ayana prakték suap (graft) di kantor sheriff salila anjeunna ngajabat, nanging anjeunna milih pikeun henteu nungkulanana.<ref>Tugwell, 36</ref> Hiji kajadian anu kawentar dina mangsa jabatanana lumangsung dina 6 Séptémber 1872, nalika Patrick Morrissey dihukum pati alatan maéhan ibuna sorangan.<ref name="morrisey">Jeffers, 34; Nevins, 61–62</ref> Salaku sheriff, Cleveland tanggung jawab pikeun ngalaksanakeun hukuman pati sacara langsung atanapi mayar wakilna $10 pikeun ngalakukeun éta pancén.<ref name="morrisey" /> Sanaos mibanda rasa beurat, Cleveland milih pikeun ngagantung Morrissey ku pananganana sorangan.<ref name="morrisey" /> Anjeunna ogé ngagantung saurang deui panelandung, [[Daptar jalma anu dihukum pati di New York|John Gaffney]], dina 14 Pébruari 1873.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buffalonian.com/history/articles/1851-1900/gaffneyhanging/gaffneyhanging.html|title=The Execution of John Gaffney|website=The Buffalonian}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006162510/http://www.buffalonian.com/history/articles/1851-1900/gaffneyhanging/gaffneyhanging.html |date=2017-10-06 }}</ref> Saatos masa jabatanana réngsé, Cleveland mulang deui kana prakték hukum, muka kantor hukum sareng Lyman K. Bass sarta [[Wilson S. Bissell]].<ref>Jeffers, 36; Nevins, 64</ref> Bass satuluyna diganti ku [[George J. Sicard]]. Kalayan Bass kapilih janten anggota Kongrés dina taun 1872, Cleveland sarta Bissell ahirna janten jawara di komunitas hukum Buffalo.<ref>Nevins, 66–71</ref> Nepi ka harita, karir pulitik Cleveland dianggap terhormat nanging henteu istiméwa. Sakumaha anu ditulis ku biografer [[Allan Nevins]], "Mungkin teu aya saurang ogé di nagara ieu, dina 4 Maret 1881, anu nyangka yén pengacara basajan ti Buffalo ieu bakal nangtung di [[Washington, D.C.]] opat taun ti harita pikeun sumpah salaku Présidén Amérika Sarikat."<ref>Nevins, 78</ref> Dina mangsa ieu ogé Cleveland mimiti deukeut sareng saurang randa, [[Maria Halpin]]. Halpin satuluyna nuduh Cleveland parantos merkosa anjeunna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/how-many-presidents-have-been-accused-sexual-assault-692766|title=Sexual misconduct allegations against presidents have a long history|website=Newsweek}}</ref> Henteu jéntré naha Halpin mémang diperkosa atanapi hubungan maranéhna dumasar kana suka sarua suka.<ref name=":0">Huck, C., 2017. "The Halpin Affair".</ref> Dina Maret 1876, Cleveland nuduh Halpin salaku saurang alkoholik sarta nyandak hak asuh budakna. Budak éta dibawa ka Panti Asuhan Protéstan, sarta Cleveland mayar sadaya kabutuhanana di dinya.<ref name=":0" /> Cleveland ogé ngalebetkeun Halpin ka Rumah Sakit Jiwa Providence, nanging Halpin mung diubaran lima dinten kulantaran dianggap henteu gélo.<ref name=":0" /> Cleveland satuluyna masihan bantuan kauangan sangkan Halpin tiasa muka usaha sorangan di luar Buffalo.<ref name=":0" /> Sanaos henteu aya bukti anu kuat yén Cleveland téh ramana,<ref name=":1">Hamilton, Neil A., 2005.</ref> masalah budak ieu janten bahan kampanye pikeun [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]] dina kampanye présidén munggaran Cleveland, di mana maranéhna nyebarkeun pitenah yén Cleveland téh jalma "teu boga moral" sarta telenges kulantaran henteu ngasuh budakna sorangan.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Henry F. Graff 2002 61–63">Graff, 2002.</ref> === Walikota Buffalo === Dina taun 1870-an, pamaréntahan kota di Buffalo beuki korup, di mana [[mesin pulitik]] Démokrat sarta Républik gawé bareng pikeun silih bagi [[Sistem rampasan|kauntungan]] tina jabatan pulitik.<ref>Nevins, 79</ref> Nalika urang Républik nyalonkeun sakumpulan pulitikus mesin anu kacida busukna pikeun pamilihan 1881, urang Démokrat ningal kasempetan pikeun meunangkeun sora ti urang Républik anu kuciwa ku cara nyalonkeun kandidat anu leuwih jujur.<ref>Nevins, 79–80</ref> Pamingpin partéy ngadeukeutan Cleveland, anu satuju nyalonkeun janten [[Daptar walikota Buffalo, New York|Walikota Buffalo]] kalayan sarat yén daptar calon partéy pikeun jabatan séjénna luyu sareng kahayangna.<ref name="nevins80">Nevins, 80–81</ref> Pulitikus anu kawentar borokna dikaluarkeun tina tikét Démokrat sarta anjeunna nampi nominasi éta.<ref name="nevins80" /> Cleveland [[Pamilihan walikota Buffalo 1881|kapilih]] janten walikota dina bulan Nopémber kalayan 15.120 sora, sedengkeun lawan Républikna, [[Milton Earl Beebe]], meunang 11.528 sora.<ref>Nevins, 83</ref> Anjeunna mimiti ngajabat dina 2 Januari 1882. Masa jabatan Cleveland salaku walikota bélas dipaké pikeun ngalawan kapentingan mesin partéy anu geus mapan.<ref>Graff, 19</ref> Salah sahiji tindakan anu ngangkat ngaranna nyaéta véto kana tagihan meresihan jalan anu disahkeun ku [[Déwan Umum Buffalo]].<ref name="street">Nevins, 84–86</ref> Kontrak meresihan jalan éta geus jadi subyék lélang, sarta Déwan milih nu nawar pangluhurna yaéta $422.000, tinimbang nu nawar panghandapna anu sélisihna $100.000 leuwih murah, alatan hubungan pulitik si panawar éta.<ref name="street" /> Walikota sateuacanna sok ngantepkeun hal sarupa kitu, tapi pesen véto Cleveland nyebutkeun, "Abdi nganggap ieu salaku puncak tina skéma anu paling teu boga kaéra, kurang ajar, sarta ngerakeun pikeun ngahianat kapentingan rahayat, sarta leuwih ti sakadar miceun duit publik."<ref>Nevins, 85</ref> Déwan ahirna balik deui kana jalan nu bener sarta méré kontrak ka nu nawar panghandapna.<ref>Nevins, 86</ref> Alatan tindakan ieu sarta léngkah séjénna pikeun ngajaga duit nagara, Cleveland mimiti kawentar salaku pamingpin anu wani meresihan korupsi pamaréntahan. === Gubernur New York === [[File:GCleveland.png|thumb|Potrét Gubernur Grover Cleveland]] Pajabat partéy Démokrat mimiti mertimbangkeun Cleveland salaku calon kuat pikeun [[Gubernur New York]].<ref name="nevins94">Nevins, 94–99</ref> Kulantaran aya perpecahan di jero Partéy Républik nagara bagian dina taun 1882, partéy Démokrat dianggap mibanda kauntungan.<ref name="nevins94" /> Cleveland meunangkeun kameunangan dina [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1882|pamilihan umum]] kalayan 535.318 sora ngalawan calon Républik [[Charles J. Folger]] anu meunang 342.464 sora.<ref>Nevins, 105</ref> Sélisih kameunangan Cleveland harita mangrupa anu pangbadagna dina sajarah pamilihan di New York. Cleveland mawa sikep nolak miceunan duit ka kantor gubernur. Anjeunna langsung ngirim dalapan véto ka législatur dina dua bulan munggaranana ngajabat.<ref>Graff, 35</ref> Salah sahiji vétona anu narik perhatian nyaéta nolak tagihan pikeun nurunkeun ongkos [[Sajahah karéta api New York City|karéta api luhur New York City]] janten lima sén.<ref>Graff, 35–36</ref> Sanajan tagihan ieu dirojong ku loba jalma sabab nu boga karétana, [[Jay Gould]], teu dipikaresep, Cleveland nganggap tagihan éta teu adil sacara hukum sabab ngalanggar [[Klausul Kontrak]] dina Konstitusi féderal.<ref name="nevins116">Nevins, 116–117</ref> Sanajan awalna teu populér, koran-koran ahirna muji véto Cleveland éta.<ref name="nevins116" /> [[Theodore Roosevelt]], anu harita anggota [[Majelis Nagara Bagian New York]], mimitina satuju kana tagihan éta tapi ahirna malik ngadukung véto Cleveland.<ref name="nevins117">Nevins, 117–118</ref> Sikep Cleveland anu nolak korupsi pulitik meunangkeun pangaku tina rahayat, tapi ogé ngadatangkeun mumusuhan ti organisasi [[Tammany Hall]] anu boga pangaruh di New York City sarta bosna, [[John Kelly (pulitikus New York)|John Kelly]].<ref>Nevins, 125–126</ref> Cleveland sacara terang-terangan nentang kapentingan Tammany Hall sarta ngahalangan kapilihna deui [[Thomas F. Grady]], urang kapercayaan maranéhna di Sénat Nagara Bagian.<ref>Tugwell, 77</ref> Leungitna dukungan ti Tammany Hall katutup ku dukungan ti Theodore Roosevelt sarta urang Républik séjénna anu mibanda pamikiran reformis. Gawé bareng antara Cleveland sareng Roosevelt dina ngaropéa pamaréntahan kota ngajadikeun Cleveland beuki kawentar di tingkat nasional.<ref name=":2" /> {{Clear}} == Pamilihan 1884 == === Nominasi présidén === {{main|Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1884}} [[File:Bernard Gilliam - Phryne before the Chicago Tribunal.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Kartun anti-Blaine anu ngagambarkeun anjeunna salaku "lalaki anu ditato", pinuh ku rupa-rupa skandal anu teu bisa dihapus.]] Dina Juni 1884, Partéy Républik ngayakeun konvénsi nasional di [[Chicago]], milih manten Speaker DPR A.S. [[James G. Blaine]] ti [[Maine]] salaku calon présidén. Nominasi Blaine ngabalukarkeun loba urang Républik, kaasup kelompok [[Mugwumps]], ngarasa teu cocog sabab nganggap Blaine téh ambisius sarta teu boga moral.<ref name="nevins185">Nevins, 185–186</ref> Pamingpin partéy Démokrat yakin yén pilihan Républik ieu méré kasempetan pikeun maranéhna nempoan deui Gedong Bodas saprak taun 1856 upami mibanda kandidat anu pas.<ref name="nevins185" /> Di kalangan Démokrat, [[Samuel J. Tilden]] mimitina janten calon unggulan, nanging anjeunna nolak nominasi alatan kaséhatanana anu kirang saé.<ref name="nevins146">Nevins, 146–147</ref> Cleveland muncul salaku salah sahiji pamingpin anu meunangkeun rojongan awal, sarta dina voting kadua, Cleveland hasil meunangkeun nominasi sanggeus faksi-faksi séjén ngahiji ngadukung anjeunna. Thomas A. Hendricks ti [[Indiana]] dipilih janten calon wakil présidénna.<ref name="nevins154">Nevins, 154</ref> === Kampanye ngalawan Blaine === Korupsi dina pulitik janten isu sentral dina taun 1884; Blaine parantos kalibet dina sababaraha skandal sapanjang karirna.<ref>Tugwell, 80</ref> Reputasi Cleveland salaku pajoang anti-korupsi janten pakarang pangkuatna pikeun Démokrat.<ref>Grossman, 31</ref> Slogan kampanye Cleveland anu kawentar nyaéta "Jabatan publik téh mangrupa amanah publik" (*A public office is a public trust*).<ref>Tugwell, 84</ref> Kelompok Républik anu boga pikiran reformis, disebut "[[Mugwump]]s", ninggalkeun Blaine sarta pindah ngadukung Cleveland.<ref name="mugwump">Nevins, 156–159</ref> Kampanye ieu museur kana standar moral masing-masing kandidat. Pangrojong Cleveland ngungkit deui skandal Blaine ngeunaan pangaruh korupna dina législasi karéta api.<ref name="blaine">Nevins, 159–162</ref> Urang Démokrat boga yel-yel: *"Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter!'"* (Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, tukang bohong ti nagara bagian Maine, 'Duruk ieu surat!'). [[File:Another voice for Cleveland - F.B. LCCN95522869 - restoration2.jpg|thumb|Kartun anti-Cleveland anu ngungkit skandal Halpin.|left]] Nanging, urang Républik ogé mendakan "borok" dina mangsa katukang Cleveland. Maranéhna nyebarkeun béja yén Cleveland boga anak haram nalika janten pengacara di Buffalo,<ref>Lachman, 195–216</ref> sarta yel-yel maranéhna nyaéta *"Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?"* (Ema, Ema, di mana bapa?). Nalika disanghareupan ku skandal ieu, Cleveland langsung méré paréntah ka pangrojongna: "Anu pangutamana, caritakeun anu sabenerna."<ref name="Henry F. Graff 2002 61–63" /> Anjeunna ngaku yén anjeunna mémang mayar tunjangan anak ka Maria Crofts Halpin sarta tanggung jawab kana hal éta.<ref name="Henry F. Graff 2002 61–63" /> [[File:ElectoralCollege1884.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Hasil [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1884|pamilihan 1884]]]] Dina ahirna, pamilihan ditangtukeun ku sora di nagara bagian "swing" saperti New York. Urang Irlandia-Amérika, anu tadina rék ngadukung Blaine, malik deui ka Démokrat sanggeus saurang pandéta Républik ngahina maranéhna ku sebutan partéy "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion" (Arak, Katolik, sarta Pemberontakan).<ref>Nevins, 181–184</ref> Saatos sora diitung, Cleveland unggul tipis di opat nagara bagian konci, kaasup New York anu ngan bédana 1.200 sora.<ref name="leip1884" /> Cleveland meunang sora éléktoral 219–182.<ref name="leip1884" /> Sabada kameunangan éta, yel-yel "Ma, Ma..." dijawab ku pangrojong Démokrat: *"Gone to the White House. Ha! Ha! Ha!"* (Geus ka Gedong Bodas. Ha! Ha! Ha!).<ref>Graff, 64</ref> == Masa présidén munggaran (1885–1889) == {{Main|Masa présidén munggaran Grover Cleveland}} === Reformasi === [[File:Cleveland Tariffs (edit).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Cleveland digambarkeun salaku tokoh reformis tarif]] Teu lami saatos ngajabat, Cleveland disanghareupan ku tugas pikeun ngeusi jabatan-jabatan pamaréntahan. Jabatan ieu biasana dieusi dumasar kana [[sistem rampasan]] (spoils system), nanging Cleveland ngumumkeun yén anjeunna moal mecat urang Républik anu gawéna saé, sarta moal ngangkat sasaha ngan saukur dumasar kana jasa ka partéy.<ref>Nevins, 208–211</ref> Anjeunna ogé ngagunakeun kakawasaanana pikeun ngirangan jumlah pagawé féderal, kulantaran loba departemén anu dianggap loba teuing pagawé titipan pulitik.<ref>Nevins, 214–217</ref> Sanajan dina ahirna anjeunna mimiti ngangkat urang Démokrat pikeun posisi anu nangtukeun kawijakan, Cleveland tetep leuwih mentingkeun préstasi (merit) tinimbang présidén-présidén sateuacanna.<ref>Nevins, 238–241</ref> Cleveland ogé ngaropéa bagian séjén dina pamaréntahan. Dina taun 1887, anjeunna nandatanganan undang-undang anu ngadegkeun [[Komisi Perdagangan Antarnagara]] (Interstate Commerce Commission).<ref>Nevins, 354–357</ref> Anjeunna sareng [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] [[William C. Whitney]] modérnisasi [[Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat]] sarta ngabatalkeun kontrak pangwangunan kapal anu kualitanna goréng.<ref>Nevins, 217–223</ref> Cleveland ogé ngambekkeun investor karéta api ku cara maréntahkeun panalungtikan kana lahan-lahan di Kulon anu dikawasa ku maranéhna. Hasilna, sakitar {{convert|81000000|acre|km2|abbr=on}} lahan ulayat publik hasil dipulangkeun deui ka nagara.<ref name="rrgrants">Nevins, 223–228</ref> === Véto === [[File:CLEVELAND, Grover-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg|thumb|220px|right|Potrét Cleveland salaku présidén anu diukir ku [[Biro Ukir sarta Citak]] (BEP)]] Nalika Kongrés sarta Sénat anu dikawasa ku Républik ngirimkeun undang-undang anu teu sapuk sareng pamikiranana, Cleveland mindeng ngagunakeun hak véto.<ref>Graff, 85</ref> Anjeunna ngavéto ratusan tagihan pénsiun swasta pikeun véteran Perang Sipil Amérika, sabab nganggap upami paméntana geus ditolak ku Biro Pénsiun, Kongrés teu kudu pipilueun.<ref>Nevins, 326–328</ref> Dina mangsa jabatan munggaranana wungkul, Cleveland ngagunakeun hak véto saloba 414 kali, nyaéta opat kali leuwih loba tinimbang gabungan sakabéh présidén sateuacanna. Dina taun 1887, Cleveland ngaluarkeun véto anu paling kawentar, nyaéta [[Texas Seed Bill]].<ref name="nevins331">Nevins, 331–332</ref> Saatos halodo panjang ngaruksak pepelakan di sababaraha county di Texas, Kongrés nyayagakeun dana $100.000 pikeun meuli binih (bibit) keur para patani di dinya. Cleveland ngavéto anggaran éta. Dina pesen vétona, anjeunna ngajelaskeun téori pamaréntahan anu kawates: {{blockquote|Sim kuring teu mendakan dasar hukum pikeun anggaran sapertos kitu dina Konstitusi, sarta sim kuring teu yakin yén kakawasaan sarta kawajiban pamaréntah pusat kedah diperpanjang dugi ka ngabantosan sangsara individu anu teu aya patalina sareng palayanan atanapi kauntungan publik. ... sanajan rahayat ngarojong pamaréntah, pamaréntah mah teu kedah ngarojong (sacara finansial) rahayat. Sipat soméah sarta amal ti sasama warga nagara urang salawasna tiasa diandelkeun pikeun ngabantosan dulur-dulurna anu nuju cilaka.<ref>The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland, 1892</ref>}} === Masalah Pérak === Salah sahiji isu anu paling panas dina taun 1880-an nyaéta naha mata uang kedah dijamin ku [[Bimetallisme|emas sareng pérak]], atanapi ku [[standar emas]] wungkul.<ref>Jeffers, 157–158</ref> Ieu masalah ngabagi internal partéy; urang Républik di Kulon sarta urang Démokrat di Kidul hayang ayana panyitakan koin pérak sacara bébas, sedengkeun wawakil kadua partéy ti wilayah timur laut tetep milih standar emas.<ref name="nevins201">Nevins, 201–205</ref> Kulantaran harga pérak leuwih handap batan ajén légalna dina emas, para nu mayar pajeg mayar ka pamaréntah ku pérak, sedengkeun tukang ngahutang internasional ménta dibayar ku emas, anu ngabalukarkeun cadangan emas nagara beuki ngipis. Cleveland sareng Sekretaris Kas Nagara [[Daniel Manning]] tetep pageuh dina standar emas. Maranéhna nyobian ngirangan jumlah pérak anu kedah dicetak ku pamaréntah dumasar kana [[Undang-Undang Bland–Allison]] taun 1878.<ref>Nevins, 269</ref> Urang Kulon sareng Kidul anu ambek tetep bajoang ménta "duit murah" (cheap money) pikeun ngabantosan konstituén maranéhna anu miskin.<ref>Nevins, 268</ref> Salah sahiji tokoh utama "silverite", [[Richard P. Bland]], ngajukeun tagihan dina taun 1886 pikeun nyitak pérak saloba-lobana, nanging tagihan éta sarta tagihan sabalikna ti pamaréntah sarua deudeulna. Hasilna, kaayaan tetep macét sarta masalah pérak ieu teu acan réngsé.<ref>Nevins, 277–279</ref> === Tarif === {| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5" | style="text-align: left;" |"Nalika urang nimbang-nimbang yén téori lembaga urang ngajamin ka unggal warga nagara pikeun ngarasakeun sagala hasil tina industri sarta usahana... mangka jelas yén paménta anu leuwih ti éta mangrupa pamerasan anu teu bisa dibéla sarta panghianatan kana kaadilan Amérika... Kas Nagara, anu sakuduna ngan saukur janten saluran pikeun nepikeun upeti rahayat ka tujuan belanja anu sah, kalah janten tempat nunda duit anu sabenerna mah diperlukeun ku dunya dagang sarta rahayat... sahingga ngahalangan pangwangunan nagara sarta ngundang skéma rampog publik." |- | style="text-align: left;" | '''''Pesen taunan katilu Cleveland ka Kongrés''',<br />6 Désémber 1887.''<ref>The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland, 1892.</ref> |} Masalah kauangan séjénna nyaéta [[tarif]] pelindung (protective tariff). Tarif ieu mimitina mangrupa kawijakan samentara nalika perang sipil pikeun ngajaga industri Amérika, nanging tetep diteruskeun sanggeus perang réngsé. Pamadegan Cleveland luyu sareng umumna urang Démokrat: yén tarif kedah dikirangan.<ref name="nevins280">Nevins, 280–282</ref> Sabalikna, urang Républik hayang tarif tetep luhur. Dina taun 1880-an, tarif ieu ngahasilkeun pendapatan anu sakitu gedéna sahingga pamaréntah mibanda kaleuwihan anggaran (surplus).<ref>Nevins, 286–287</ref> Dina taun 1886, tagihan pikeun nurunkeun tarif éléh tipis di DPR.<ref>Nevins, 287–288</ref> Nalika surplus anggaran beuki numpuk, Cleveland sarta para reformis ménta sangkan tarif ngan saukur dipaké pikeun kabutuhan pendapatan nagara wungkul (tariff for revenue only). Pesenna ka Kongrés dina taun 1887 (dicutat di gigir) negeskeun yén teu adil nyokot duit rahayat leuwih ti batan anu diperlukeun ku pamaréntah.<ref>Nevins, 379–381</ref> [[Roger Q. Mills]] ngajukeun tagihan pikeun nurunkeun tarif ti 47% janten sakitar 40%.<ref name="graff88">Graff, 88–89</ref> Sanajan hasil lulus di DPR sanggeus diperjuangkeun ku Cleveland, tagihan ieu ahirna deudeul di Sénat.<ref name="graff88" /> === Kawijakan luar nagri, 1885–1889 === Cleveland nyaéta saurang [[isolasionisme|non-intervensionis]] anu komitmen, anu kampanyena nolak ékspansi sarta imperialisme. Anjeunna nolak neraskeun perjangjian terusan Nikaragua anu diajukeun ku pamaréntahan sateuacanna, sarta umumna kurang mibanda jiwa ékspansi dina hubungan luar nagri.<ref>Nevins, 205, 404–405</ref> Sekretaris Nagara Cleveland, [[Thomas F. Bayard]], ngayakeun rundayan sareng [[Joseph Chamberlain]] ti Britania Raya ngeunaan hak ngala lauk di cai sabudeureun Kanada, sarta némbongkeun sikep anu damai sanajan ditentang ku Sénator Républik ti [[New England]].<ref>Nevins, 404–413</ref> Cleveland ogé narik diri tina pertimbangan Sénat ngeunaan perjangjian Konférénsi Berlin anu ngajamin panto kabuka pikeun kapentingan A.S. di [[Nagara Bébas Kongo]].<ref name="wealth">Zakaria, 80</ref> === Kawijakan militer sarta angkatan laut, 1885–1889 === [[File:Grover Cleveland Portrait.jpg|thumb|Cleveland dina taun 1888]] Kawijakan militer Cleveland museur kana pertahanan diri sarta modérnisasi. Dina taun 1885, Cleveland nunjuk [[Déwan Bénténg]] di handapeun [[Sekretaris Perang]] [[William Crowninshield Endicott|William C. Endicott]] pikeun ngarékoméndasikeun sistem [[pertahanan basisir di Amérika Sarikat|bénténg basisir]] anu anyar.<ref name="Berhow, pp. 9-10">Berhow, pp. 9–10</ref> Laporan Déwan taun 1886 ngarékoméndasikeun program pangwangunan masif saharga $127 juta (sarua sareng $4,3 milyar dina taun 2026) di 29 palabuan sarta muara walungan, kaasup mariem rifled anyar, mortir, sarta [[ranjau laut]]. Program ieu kawentar ku nami Program Endicott. Nepi ka taun 1910, 27 lokasi parantos dijaga ku leuwih ti 70 bénténg.<ref>Berhow, pp. 201–226</ref> Pikeun Angkatan Laut, pamaréntahan Cleveland anu dipingpin ku [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] [[William Collins Whitney]], ngalakukeun modérnisasi sanajan can aya kapal anu bisa nandingan kapal perang panghadéna di Éropa. Genep belas kapal perang mibanda rangka waja (steel-hulled) anyar dipesen nepi ka tungtung taun 1888. Kapal-kapal ieu maénkeun peran penting dina [[Perang Amérika–Spanyol]] taun 1898. Di antarana nyaéta "kapal perang kelas dua" {{USS|Maine|ACR-1|2}} sarta {{USS|Texas|1892|2}}, anu dirancang pikeun nandingan kapal waja modérn milik nagara-nagara Amérika Kidul saperti kapal perang Brasil, ''[[Riachuelo (1883)|Riachuelo]]''.<ref>Bauer and Roberts, p. 102</ref> Salian ti éta, dipesen ogé sabelas [[kruser anu dijaga]] (kaasup {{USS|Olympia|C-6|2}} anu kawentar), hiji kruser waja, sarta hiji monitor.<ref>Bauer and Roberts, pp. 101, 133, 141–147</ref> === Hak sipil sarta imigrasi === Dina mangsa Cleveland, kamajuan hak sipil pikeun urang Amérika turunan Afrika kacida kawatesna.<ref>Bergeson-Lockwood, 2018</ref> Cleveland, saperti loba urang kalér sarta ampir sakabéh urang kidul kulit bodas, nganggap [[Éra Rékonstruksi]] salaku proyék anu gagal,<ref>The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2001</ref> sarta horéam ngagunakeun kakuatan féderal pikeun ngalaksanakeun [[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén ka-15]], anu ngajamin hak pilih pikeun urang Afrika-Amérika.<ref name="welch65">Welch, 65–66</ref> Sanajan kitu, anjeunna ngantepkeun tokoh [[Frederick Douglass]] neraskeun jabatanna salaku pangrékam akta (recorder of deeds) di Washington, D.C., sarta nunjuk urang hideung séjénna, [[James Campbell Matthews]], pikeun ngaganti Douglass nalika anjeunna mundur.<ref name="welch65" /> Ngeunaan imigrasi, sanajan Cleveland kungsi nyawad kakejaman ka imigran Cina, anjeunna yakin yén imigran Cina téh hésé pikeun [[Asimilasi budaya|asimilasi]] kana masarakat kulit bodas.<ref>Welch, 72</ref> Sekretaris Nagara Thomas F. Bayard ngayakeun rundayan pikeun manjangkeun [[Undang-Undang Pangaluaran urang Cina]] (Chinese Exclusion Act), sarta Cleveland ngarojong Kongrés pikeun ngesahkeun [[Undang-Undang Scott (1888)|Undang-Undang Scott]]. Ieu aturan ngalarang imigran Cina anu geus kaluar ti Amérika Sarikat pikeun mulang deui ka jero nagara.<ref name="welch73">Welch, 73</ref> Cleveland nandatanganan undang-undang ieu dina 1 Oktober 1888.<ref name="welch73" /> === Kawijakan urang pribumi Amérika === [[File:HenryLDawes.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Henry L. Dawes]] nyusun [[Undang-Undang Dawes]], anu disahkeun ku Cleveland.]] Cleveland nganggap urang pribumi Amérika salaku "tanggungan nagara" (wards of the state). Dina biantara pelantikanana, anjeunna nyebatkeun yén "tugas papayung ieu ngawengku usaha pikeun ningkatkeun kaayaan maranéhna sarta negakkeun hak-hakna."<ref name="welch70">Welch, 70</ref> Anjeunna ngarojong ide [[Asimilasi budaya|asimilasi budaya]] sarta nyorong disahkeunana [[Undang-Undang Dawes]], anu ngamungkinkeun lahan ulayat suku dialihkeun janten hak milik individu anggota suku.<ref name="welch70"/> Cleveland yakin ieu bakal ngabantosan maranéhna kaluar tina kamiskinan. Nanging, dina praktékna, undang-undang ieu ngaleungitkeun kakawasaan pamaréntahan suku sarta ngabalukarkeun urang pribumi kaleungitan sakitar 100 juta acre lahan antara taun 1887 dugi ka 1934 (sakitar dua per tilu ti total lahan maranéhna dina taun 1887).<ref name=":7"/><ref name=":8"/> Sateuacan Cleveland ngajabat dina taun 1885, Présidén Arthur muka opat juta acre lahan [[Ho-Chunk]] sarta [[Crow Creek]] pikeun padumuk kulit bodas. Cleveland nganggap paréntah éta ngalanggar perjangjian sareng suku-suku kasebut, sahingga dina 17 April 1885, anjeunna ngabatalkeun paréntah éta sarta ngirimkeun pasukan Angkatan Darat pikeun ngusir para padumuk kulit bodas tina wilayah kasebut.<ref name="B141">Brodsky, 141–142</ref> === Pernikahan sarta putra-putri === {{main|Pernikahan Grover Cleveland sareng Frances Folsom}} [[File:Frances Folsom Cleveland.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Frances Folsom Cleveland, sakitar taun 1886]] Cleveland yuswa 47 taun nalika lebet ka Gedong Bodas kalayan status jajaka. Adina, [[Rose Cleveland]], janten ibu nagara samentara salami 15 bulan munggaran.<ref>Brodsky, 158</ref> Nanging, Cleveland henteu janten jajaka salamina. Dina taun 1885, [[Frances Cleveland|Frances Folsom]], putri ti sobatna Oscar Folsom, nganjang ka Washington.<ref name="graff78">Graff, 78</ref> Sanggeus meunang idin ti indungna, Cleveland sarta Frances ahirna tunangan. Pernikahanana lumangsung dina 2 Juni 1886, di [[Ruang Biru (Gedong Bodas)|Ruang Biru]] di Gedong Bodas. Cleveland harita yuswa 49 taun, sedengkeun Frances nembe 21 taun.<ref>Graff, 79</ref> Cleveland mangrupa hiji-hijina présidén dina sajarah anu nikah di jero Gedong Bodas. Frances Folsom Cleveland janten [[Ibu Nagara Amérika Sarikat]] pangora deuih dina sajarah, sarta kacida dipikaresepna ku masarakat alatan kapribadianana anu soméah.<ref>Graff, 80–81</ref> Kulawarga Cleveland mibanda lima putra-putri: [[Ruth Cleveland|Ruth]] (1891–1904), [[Esther Cleveland|Esther]] (1893–1980), Marion (1895–1977), [[Richard F. Cleveland|Richard]] (1897–1974), sarta [[Francis Cleveland|Francis]] (1903–1995). Injuna, [[Philippa Foot]] (1920–2010), mangrupa saurang filsuf Inggris anu kawentar.<ref>The New York Times, 2010</ref> Putri cikalna, Ruth, tilar dunya alatan [[diphtheria]] dina yuswa 12 taun. Pausahaan cokelat ''Curtiss Candy Company'' satuluyna ngaku yén nami cokelat "**[[Baby Ruth]]**" dicandak tina nami putri Cleveland ieu.<ref>Snopes, 2007</ref> Salian ti éta, Cleveland ogé mibanda saurang putra ti Maria Crofts Halpin, nyaéta [[Oscar Folsom Cleveland]], anu gumelar dina taun 1874.<ref>Smithsonian, 2013</ref> === Administrasi sarta Kabinét === [[File:Cleveland First Cabinet (edited).png|thumb|upright=1.65|alt=Kabinét Munggaran Cleveland|Kabinét munggaran Cleveland. <br />Jajaran hareup, ti kenca ka katuhu: Thomas F. Bayard, '''Cleveland''', Daniel Manning, [[Lucius Q. C. Lamar]] <br /> Jajaran tukang, ti kenca ka katuhu: [[William F. Vilas]], [[William C. Whitney]], [[William C. Endicott]], [[Augustus H. Garland]] ]] {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | Name = Cleveland Munggaran | align = none | President = Grover Cleveland | President start = 1885 | President end = 1889 | Vice President = [[Thomas A. Hendricks]] | Vice President date = 1885 | Vice President 2 = Teu aya | Vice President start 2 = 1885 | Vice President end 2 = 1889 | State = [[Thomas F. Bayard]] | State start = 1885 | State end = 1889 | Treasury = [[Daniel Manning]] | Treasury start = 1885 | Treasury end = 1887 | Treasury 2 = [[Charles S. Fairchild]] | Treasury start 2 = 1887 | Treasury end 2 = 1889 | War = [[William Crowninshield Endicott]] | War start = 1885 | War end = 1889 | Justice = [[Augustus Hill Garland]] | Justice start = 1885 | Justice end = 1889 | Post = [[William Freeman Vilas]] | Post start = 1885 | Post end = 1888 | Post 2 = [[Donald M. Dickinson]] | Post start 2 = 1888 | Post end 2 = 1889 | Navy = [[William Collins Whitney]] | Navy start = 1885 | Navy end = 1889 | Interior = [[Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar]] | Interior start = 1885 | Interior end = 1888 | Interior 2 = [[William Freeman Vilas]] | Interior start 2 = 1888 | Interior end 2 = 1889 | Agriculture = [[Norman Jay Coleman]] | Agriculture date = 1889 }} === Panunjuk Hakim Mahkamah Agung === [[Image:Melville Weston Fuller Chief Justice 1908.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Ketua Hakim Melville Fuller.]] Salami masa jabatan munggaranana, Cleveland hasil nunjuk dua hakim ka [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]]. Anu kahiji, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, manten sénator Mississippi anu ngajabat salaku Sekretaris Interior. Nominasi Lamar disahkeun kalayan sélisih sora anu tipis, 32 lawan 28.<ref>Meador, 1986</ref> Sababaraha bulan ti harita, Ketua Hakim [[Morrison Waite]] tilar dunya. Cleveland nunjuk [[Melville Fuller]] dina 30 April 1888. Sanggeus dipariksa salami sababaraha bulan ku Komite Yudisial Sénat, Fuller ahirna disahkeun ku sora 41 lawan 20. Cleveland mangrupa présidén Démokrat kadua anu nunjuk saurang Ketua Hakim saatos [[Andrew Jackson]].<ref>Nevins, 445–450</ref> == Pamilihan 1888 == {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1888}} [[File:1888DemocraticPoster 2.png|thumb|Poster Présidén Cleveland sarta Allen G. Thurman ti Ohio (1888)]] [[File:ElectoralCollege1888.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Hasil pamilihan 1888]] Urang Républik nyalonkeun Benjamin Harrison pikeun présidén sarta [[Levi P. Morton]] pikeun wakil présidén. Cleveland dicalonkeun deui ku Démokrat dina konvénsi di St. Louis.<ref name="graff90">Graff, 90–91</ref> Kulantaran Wakil Présidén Hendricks parantos tilar dunya, Démokrat milih [[Allen G. Thurman]] salaku batur duet Cleveland.<ref name="graff90" /> Dina kampanye ieu, urang Républik leuwih unggul. Maranéhna ngagunakeun isu tarif pikeun narik sora di nagara bagian industri di Kalér.<ref>Nevins, 418–420</ref> Sajaba ti éta, aya skandal "surat Murchison" (surat ti duta badag Inggris anu ngarojong Cleveland) anu justru ngabalukarkeun Cleveland kaleungitan sora ti urang Irlandia-Amérika di New York. Hasilna unik: Cleveland meunang sora rahayat (popular vote) saloba 48,6% dibandingkeun Harrison 47,8%. Nanging, Harrison unggul jauh dina sora éléktoral (Electoral College), 233 lawan 168.<ref name="leip1888"> Leip PV source, 1888</ref> Cleveland kaleungitan nagara bagian asalna, New York, sarta kudu narima éléh sanajan sacara sora rahayat anjeunna nu meunang. == Antara masa présidén (1889–1893) == Nalika Frances Cleveland ninggalkeun Gedong Bodas, anjeunna nyarios ka saurang staf, "Jerry, tulung jaga sagala parabot sarta hiasan di imah ieu, sabab abdi hoyong manggihan sadayana sakumaha ayana ayeuna nalika urang mulang deui." Nalika ditaros iraha anjeunna bakal mulang, anjeunna ngajawab, "Urang bakal mulang deui opat taun ti ayeuna."<ref>Nevins, 448</ref> Samentara éta, kulawarga Cleveland pindah ka New York City. Cleveland digawé di hiji firma hukum, sanajan anjeunna leuwih loba méakkeun waktu keur mancing di imah peristirahatanana, [[Gray Gables]]. Dina taun 1890, Cleveland ngajual tanahna "Oak View" di Washington kalayan kauntungan badag (meuli $21.500, dijual $140.000). Wilayah kasebut ayeuna kawentar ku nami [[Cleveland Park]]. Dina mangsa ieu, putri cikalna, Ruth, gumelar dina taun 1891.<ref>Graff, 99–100</ref> Pamérian Harrison ngaluarkeun kawijakan [[Tarif McKinley]] sarta [[Undang-Undang Pembelian Pérak Sherman]] anu kacida dipikageuleuh ku Cleveland sabab dianggap ngabahayakeun kauangan nagara.<ref>Nevins, 465–467</ref> Dina taun 1891, Cleveland nulis "surat pérak" kabuka anu némbongkeun kahariwangna, anu ahirna ngajantenkeun ngaran Cleveland deui janten sorotan utama menjelang pamilihan 1892.<ref>Nevins, 470–471</ref> ==Election of 1892== {{Main|1892 United States presidential election|Grover Cleveland 1892 presidential campaign}} ===Nomination for president=== {{main|1892 Democratic National Convention}} Cleveland's enduring reputation as chief executive and his recent pronouncements on the monetary issues made him a leading contender for the Democratic nomination.<ref>Nevins, 468–469</ref> His leading opponent was David B. Hill, a Senator for New York.<ref name="nevins470">Nevins, 470–473</ref> Hill united the anti-Cleveland elements of the Democratic party—silverites, protectionists, and Tammany Hall—but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny Cleveland the nomination.<ref name="nevins470" /> Despite some desperate maneuvering by Hill, Cleveland was nominated on the first ballot at the party convention in Chicago.<ref>Tugwell, 182</ref> For vice president, the Democrats chose to balance the ticket with [[Adlai E. Stevenson I|Adlai E. Stevenson]] of Illinois, a silverite.<ref>Graff, 105; Nevins, 492–493</ref> Although the Cleveland forces preferred [[Isaac P. Gray]] of Indiana for vice president, they accepted the convention favorite.<ref>William DeGregorio, ''The Complete Book of U.S. Presidents'', Gramercy 1997</ref> As a supporter of [[United States Note|greenbacks]] and [[free silver]] to inflate the currency and alleviate economic distress in the rural districts, Stevenson balanced the otherwise [[Hard money (policy)|hard-money]], [[gold-standard]] ticket headed by Cleveland.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Adlai_Stevenson.htm |title=U.S. Senate: Art & History Home > Adlai Ewing Stevenson, 23rd Vice President (1893–1897) |publisher=Senate.gov |date= n.d.|access-date=May 30, 2011}}</ref> ===Campaign against Harrison=== [[File:ElectoralCollege1892.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Results of the 1892 election]] The Republicans renominated President Harrison, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier. Unlike the turbulent and controversial elections of 1876, 1884, and 1888, the 1892 election was, according to Cleveland biographer Allan Nevins, "the cleanest, quietest, and most creditable in the memory of the post-war generation",<ref>Nevins, 498</ref> in part because Harrison's wife, [[Caroline Harrison|Caroline]], was dying of tuberculosis.<ref>Calhoun, 149</ref> Harrison did not personally campaign at all. Following Caroline Harrison's death on October 25, two weeks before the national election, Cleveland and all of the other candidates stopped campaigning, thus making Election Day a somber and quiet event for the whole country as well as the candidates.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Matuz |first1=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ge4uEQAAQBAJ&q=1892%20presidential%20election%20somber |title=The Presidents Fact Book: The Achievements, Campaigns, and Legacies of Every President |last2=Harris |first2=Bill |last3=Craughwell |first3=Thomas J. |date=2025-03-04 |publisher=Workman Publishing Company |isbn=979-8-89414-094-0 |language=en}}</ref> The issue of the tariff had worked to the Republicans' advantage in 1888. Now, however, the legislative revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that by 1892, many voters favored tariff reform and were skeptical of big business.<ref>Nevins, 499</ref> Many Westerners (traditionally Republican voters), defected to [[James B. Weaver]], the candidate of the new [[Populist Party (United States)|Populist Party]]. Weaver promised free silver, generous veterans' pensions, and an [[eight-hour work day]].<ref>Graff, 106–107; Nevins, 505–506</ref> The Tammany Hall Democrats adhered to the national ticket, allowing a united Democratic party to carry New York.<ref>Graff, 108</ref> At the campaign's end, many Populists and labor supporters endorsed Cleveland following an attempt by the Carnegie Corporation to break the union during the [[Homestead strike]] in Pittsburgh and after a similar [[Coal Creek War|conflict between big business and labor at the Tennessee Coal and Iron Co]].<ref>Tugwell, 184–185</ref> The final result was a victory for Cleveland by wide margins in both the popular and electoral votes, and it was Cleveland's third consecutive popular vote plurality. Cleveland's victory made him the first U.S. president to serve two nonconsecutive terms.<ref>{{Leip PV source 2|year=1892|as of=February 22, 2008}}, {{National Archives EV source|year=1892|as of=February 22, 2008}}</ref>{{efn|The only other to do so is [[Donald Trump]], who began his nonconsecutive second term in 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ogwude |first1=Haadiza |last2=Page |first2=Susan |date=January 20, 2025 |title=Is Donald Trump the oldest president sworn into office? A look at his historic feats |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2025/01/20/who-is-the-oldest-president-to-be-sworn-in-donald-trump/77776042007/ |access-date=January 20, 2025}}</ref>}} {{clear}} ==Second presidency (1893–1897)== {{Main|Second presidency of Grover Cleveland}} === Krisis ékonomi sarta masalah pérak === [[File:It can not pass while he is there - Dalrymple. LCCN2012648637.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Karikaturna Cleveland salaku panghalang pérak]] Teu lami saatos mangsa jabatan kadua Cleveland dimimitian, [[Panik 1893]] narajang pasar saham, anu maksa Cleveland sarta sakumna nagara nyanghareupan [[depresi ékonomi]].<ref>Graff, 114</ref> Ieu krisis diperparah ku kurangna cadangan emas alatan beuki lobana panyitak koin pérak. Cleveland ngayakeun sidang istiméwa Kongrés pikeun ngaréngsékeun masalah ieu.<ref name="nevins526">Nevins, 526–528</ref> Perdebatan ngeunaan koin pérak kacida panasna. Sanajan kitu, Cleveland hasil ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngabatalkeun katangtuan panyitak pérak dina [[Undang-Undang Pembelian Pérak Sherman]].<ref>Nevins, 537–540</ref> Sanajan awalna dianggap salaku léngkah leutik ku kelompok "silverite", pangbatalan ieu mangrupa tanda mimitina tungtung pérak salaku dasar mata uang Amérika.<ref>Timberlake, 1993</ref> === Reformasi Tarif === Saatos hasil ngarobah kawijakan pérak, Cleveland nyobian ngaropéa [[Tarif McKinley]]. [[Undang-Undang Tarif Wilson–Gorman]] diajukeun dina Désémber 1893.<ref>Summers, 1974</ref> Ieu tagihan ngusulkeun pangirangan tarif sarta nambahkeun [[pajeg panghasilan]] (income tax) sagedé dua persén pikeun panghasilan di luhur $4.000.<ref name="nevins564">Nevins, 564–566</ref> Nanging, di Sénat, tagihan ieu dirobah ku loba amandemén (leuwih ti 600 amandemén) anu justru nguntungkeun kapentingan bisnis badag saperti "Sugar Trust" (mafia gula). Cleveland kacida ambekna sarta nyebut ieu salaku hasil tina kontrol Sénat ku kapentingan bisnis.<ref>Nevins, 585–587</ref> Sanajan kitu, anjeunna ngantepkeun tagihan éta janten undang-undang tanpa ditandatanganan ku anjeunna, sabab dianggap masih leuwih mending batan tarif McKinley.<ref>Nevins, 564–588</ref> === Hak Pilih === Dina taun 1892, Cleveland kampanye nolak [[Lodge Bill]], anu sakuduna bisa nguatkeun panangtayungan [[hak pilih di Amérika Sarikat]]. Cleveland hasil nyorong pangbatalan [[Undang-Undang Penegakan 1871]] dina taun 1894, anu sateuacanna méré wewenang féderal pikeun ngawaskeun prosés pamilihan ti mimiti pendaptaran nepi ka sertifikasi hasil.<ref>Congressional Research Service, 2004</ref> === Gejolak Buruh === [[File:John t morgan.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[John Tyler Morgan]], Sénator ti Alabama, anu nentang Cleveland dina urusan pérak sarta tarif, nepi ka nyarios: "Abdi ceuceub pisan ka taneuh anu ditincak ku éta jalma."]] Panik 1893 ngaruksak kaayaan buruh di sakuliah Amérika Sarikat. Sakelompok buruh anu dipingpin ku [[Jacob S. Coxey]] ngayakeun "long march" ka Washington, D.C. pikeun protés kawijakan Cleveland.<ref name="coxey">Nevins, 603–605</ref> Kelompok ieu, anu kawentar ku nami [[Coxey's Army]], nungtut program pangwangunan jalan nasional pikeun méré pagawéan sarta mata uang anu leuwih lemah pikeun ngabantosan patani mayar hutang.<ref name="coxey" /> Sanajan gerakan ieu ahirna bubar saatos pamingpinna ditéwak, hal ieu némbongan ayana rasa teu sugema anu kacida gedéna di wilayah Kulon kana kawijakan monétér wilayah Wétan.<ref>Graff, 118</ref> [[File:Queen_Liliuokalani_of_Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|Ratu Liliuokalani, pamingpin panungtungan Karajaan Hawaii.]] Cleveland nolak panggagabungan Hawaii ka Amérika Sarikat sabab anjeunna yakin yén panggulingan [[Ratu Liliuokalani]] mangrupa tindakan anu teu adil sarta ngalanggar hukum internasional.<ref>McWilliams, 25–36</ref> Nanging, sanggeus nyanghareupan tantangan ti Kongrés sarta nolakna pamaréntahan samentara Hawaii pikeun mulangkeun deui kakawasaan Ratu, Cleveland ahirna ngaku sarta ngajaga hubungan diplomatik sareng [[Républik Hawaii]] anu anyar di handapeun Présidén [[Sanford B. Dole]] dina Juli 1894.<ref>McWilliams, 25–36</ref> Di wilayah anu leuwih deukeut, Cleveland nerapkeun napsiran anu lega kana [[Doktrin Monroe]]. Anjeunna henteu ngan saukur nyaram ayana koloni anyar ti Éropa, tapi ogé nétélakeun yén Amérika Sarikat mibanda kapentingan nasional dina sagala urusan penting di belahan bumi kulon.<ref>Zakaria, 145–146</ref> Nalika Britania sarta [[Krisis Venezuela 1895|Venezuela]] paséa ngeunaan wates wilayah antara Venezuela sarta koloni [[Guiana Britania]], Cleveland sarta Sekretaris Nagara [[Richard Olney]] ngalaksanakeun protés keras.<ref>Graff, 123–125</ref> Perdana Menteri Britania, [[Robert Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury ka-3|Lord Salisbury]], mimitina nganggap énténg kana masalah ieu, nanging ahirna narima tungtutan Amérika pikeun ngayakeun [[arbitrase]].<ref>Blake, 1942</ref> Sanajan tribunal internasional dina taun 1899 masihan sabagian badag wilayah anu dipaséakeun ka Guiana Britania, léngkah Cleveland anu ngabela nagara Amérika Latin ngalawan kakuatan kolonial hasil ngaronjatkeun hubungan jeung nagara-nagara di Amérika Latin.<ref>Graff, 123–125</ref> Sajaba ti éta, cara anu damai dina ngaréngsékeun masalah ieu ogé nguatkeun hubungan jeung Britania sarta ngadorong nagara-nagara badag pikeun ngagunakeun arbitrase salaku jalan pikeun mutuskeun papaséaan.<ref>Nevins, 633–648</ref> === Kawijakan militer, 1893–1897 === Pamaréntahan kadua Cleveland tetep komitmen kana modérnisasi militer. Anjeunna maréntahkeun pangwangunan kapal-kapal perang anu mampuh ngalakukeun serangan (offensive action). Program Endicott pikeun [[Bénténg basisir di Amérika Sarikat|bénténg basisir]] ogé diteruskeun.<ref name="Berhow, pp. 9-10" /> Dina mangsa ieu, pakarang anyar nyaéta sanapan [[Krag–Jørgensen]], sanapan "bolt-action" munggaran anu digunakeun ku Angkatan Darat A.S., resmi diadopsi.<ref>American Rifleman, 2010</ref> Di sisi Angkatan Laut, Sekretaris [[Hilary A. Herbert]] hasil ngajukeun pesenan lima [[kapal perang]] (battleship) sarta genep belas [[kapal torpédo]]. Ieu mangrupa léngkah badag anu ampir ngadua-kali-lipatkeun kakuatan kapal perang Amérika, sanajan sabagian badag kapalna nembe réngsé saatos Perang Amérika–Spanyol.<ref>Bauer and Roberts, pp. 102–104</ref> === Panyakit Kangker === [[File:Eastman Johnson - Grover Cleveland - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Potrét resmi Présidén Cleveland ku [[Eastman Johnson]], {{circa|1891}}]] Dina tengah-tengah perdebatan ngeunaan koin pérak taun 1893, Cleveland ngarasa aya anu peurih sarta borok dina lalangit sungutna (beulah kénca). Saatos dipariksa sacara rusiah, diagnosana nyaéta [[epithelioma]], sajenis tumor.<ref name="Renehan">Renehan & Lowry, 1995</ref> Cleveland mutuskeun pikeun ngayakeun operasi sacara rusiah pisan sangkan masarakat henteu panik, anu bisa ngajadikeun krisis ékonomi beuki parah.<ref>Nevins, 528–529</ref> Dina 1 Juli 1893, anjeunna pura-pura liburan pesiar. Operasi dilaksanakeun di luhur kapal pesiar ''[[USS Adelante (SP-765)|Oneida]]'' milik sobatna, Elias Cornelius Benedict, nalika kapal kasebut nuju balayar di lepas basisir Long Island.<ref>Nevins, 529</ref> Dokter bedah [[Joseph D. Bryant]] sarta timna hasil ngangkat sabagian rahang kénca luhur sarta lalangit sungut Cleveland. Sangkan henteu aya tapak tatu dina beungeutna, operasi dilakukeun ti jero sungutna.<ref name="nevins530">Nevins, 530–531</ref> Cleveland satuluyna dipasangan prostésis huntu tina karét teuas sangkan anjeunna tiasa nyarios normal deui sarta rupana henteu robah. Pers dibéré béja bohong yén présidén ngan saukur cabut huntu.<ref name="nevins532">Nevins, 532–533</ref> Rusiah ieu nembe kabuka sacara jéntré dina taun 1917 ku salah saurang dokter bedahna, [[William Williams Keen]].<ref name="Keen" /> Analisis dina taun 1980-an mastikeun yén tumor kasebut nyaéta ''verrucous carcinoma'', jenis kangker anu tingkat bahayana rendah sarta jarang nyebar (metastasis).<ref name="Renehan" /> Salami masa jabatan kadua Cleveland, Kongrés ka-53 ngaluluskeun Undang-Undang Kamandirian anu ngamungkinkeun [[Utah]] ngajukeun diri janten nagara bagian. Cleveland nandatanganan aturan ieu dina 16 Juli 1894.<ref>Timberlake, 1993</ref> Utah resmi gabung ka Uni salaku nagara bagian ka-45 dina 4 Januari 1896. == Pamilihan 1896 sarta pangsiun (1897–1908) == [[File:Grover Cleveland - NARA - 518139 (cropped) (2).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Cleveland dina taun 1904]] Musuh-musuh Cleveland tina kelompok agraris sarta pangrojong pérak hasil ngawasa partéy Démokrat di tingkat nagara bagian salami masa jabatan kaduana. Pamustunganana, ideologi Cleveland anu ngadukung standar emas janten kasingkirkeun. Dina taun 1896, maranéhna ngawasa Partéy Démokrat nasional, nolak kawijakan Cleveland, sarta nyalonkeun [[William Jennings Bryan]] kalayan platform "pérak bébas".<ref>Nevins, 684–693</ref> Cleveland sacara cicing-cicing ngarojong "Démokrat Emas" (pihak katilu) anu jangji bakal ngajaga standar emas sarta ngawatesan pamaréntahan, nanging anjeunna nolak dicalonkeun deui pikeun masa jabatan katilu.<ref>Graff, 128–129</ref> Dina pamilihan umum, [[William McKinley]] ti Républik hasil unggul ngalawan Bryan.<ref name="leip1896">Leip PV source, 1896</ref> [[File:McKinley sworn in.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.2|Présidén Cleveland (katuhu) nyaksian William McKinley diala sumpahna janten présidén ku Ketua Hakim [[Melville Fuller]].]] Saatos ninggalkeun Gedong Bodas dina 4 Maret 1897, Cleveland pangsiun sarta cicing di bumina, [[Westland Mansion]], di [[Princeton, New Jersey]].<ref>Graff, 131–133</ref> Anjeunna janten salah saurang wali (trustee) di [[Universitas Princeton]]. Di dinya, anjeunna mindeng béda pamadegan sareng [[Woodrow Wilson]], anu harita janten présidén universitas kasebut, ngeunaan rencana pangwangunan kampus.<ref>Leitch, 1978</ref> Cleveland ogé sakali-kali méré saran ka Présidén [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901–1909). Sanajan tos sepuh, anjeunna tetep vokal dina urusan pulitik. Dina hiji artikel taun 1905 di ''The Ladies Home Journal'', Cleveland nyatakeun pamadeganana anu kontroversial nolak gerakan [[hak pilih awéwé]] (women's suffrage). Anjeunna nulis yén "awéwé anu wijaksana sarta tanggung jawab mah teu hayang milu milih (voting)," sarta nganggap peran lalaki jeung awéwé geus ditangtukeun ku "intelejénsi anu leuwih luhur" (Tuhan).<ref>Ladies Home Journal, 1905</ref> Dina taun 1906, sababaraha urang Démokrat di New Jersey nyobian nyorong Cleveland janten calon [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]], nanging anjeunna tetep milih hirup tenang dugi ka ahir hayatna.<ref name="NYT1906">The New York Times, 1906</ref> == Wafat == [[File:Grover Cleveland's latest portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Poto panungtungan Cleveland ku [[Underwood & Underwood]] (1907)]] Kaséhatan Cleveland beuki nyirorot salami sababaraha taun, sarta dina usum gugur 1907, anjeunna mimiti gering parah.<ref name="graff135">Graff, 135–136</ref> Dina taun 1908, anjeunna katarajang [[serangan jantung]] sarta tilar dunya dina 24 Juni dina yuswa 71 taun di bumina, [[Westland Mansion|Princeton]].<ref name="graff135" /> Kecap-kecap panungtungna nyaéta, "Abdi parantos nyobian satekah polah pikeun ngalakukeun anu bener." (I have tried so hard to do right.)<ref>Jeffers, 340</ref> Anjeunna dimakamkeun di [[Pamakamann Princeton]] di Nassau Presbyterian Church.<ref>Roberts, 1995</ref> == Panghormatan sarta Panginget-nginget == Dina mangsa jabatan munggaranana, Cleveland mésér imah kebon sacara rusiah anu dingaranan [[Oak View]] di wilayah District of Columbia pikeun nyingkahan hawa panas Washington. Saatos anjeunna teu kapilih deui dina 1888, wilayah kasebut mekar janten padumukan sarta ahirna dingaranan [[Cleveland Park]] pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna.<ref>Williams, 2001</ref> Sajaba ti éta, seueur tempat sarta lembaga anu nganggo nami Cleveland salaku panghormatan, di antarana: * [[Grover Cleveland Hall]] di [[Universitas Buffalo State]] di New York. * [[Grover Cleveland Middle School]] di tempat gumelarna, Caldwell, New Jersey. * Kota ''Cleveland, Mississippi'' sarta **Gunung Cleveland** (Mount Cleveland) di Alaska.<ref>Myers, 1994</ref> Dina taun 1895, Cleveland janten [[Daptar munggaran présidén Amérika Sarikat|présidén A.S. munggaran anu dirékam dina pilem]].<ref>Presidentsgraves.com</ref> Beungeut Cleveland ogé némbongan dina dunya kauangan sarta filatéli: * [[Perangko]]: Munggaran némbongan dina taun 1923, satuluyna dina édisi 1938 sarta 1986. * [[Mata Uang]]: Potrétna némbongan dina duit kertas [[$1.000]] édisi 1928 sarta 1934, ogé dina duit $20 édisi awal 1914. * [[Koin]]: Salaku présidén ka-22 sarta ka-24, anjeunna dijantenkeun dua koin pérak sadoar anu béda dina program koin présidén taun 2012.<ref>CoinNews, 2024</ref> Dina taun 2013, Cleveland sacara resmi dilebetkeun kana [[New Jersey Hall of Fame]].<ref>NJ.com, 2014</ref> {| style="margin:auto" | [[File:US-$1000-GC-1934-Fr.2409.jpg| thumb|upright=1.4|Grover Cleveland dina duit kertas [[sarébu dollar Amérika Sarikat|$1.000]] (1934) ]] | &nbsp; | [[File:Grover Cleveland, 1931 & 1938 issues.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6| Perangko Grover Cleveland édisi 1931 & 1938]] |} == Tempo ogé == * [[Tempat Gumelar Grover Cleveland]] * [[Daptar putra-putri présidén Amérika Sarikat#Grover Cleveland sareng Maria Halpin|Putra sareng Maria Halpin]] * [[Daptar putra-putri présidén Amérika Sarikat#Grover sareng Frances Cleveland|Putra-putri sareng Frances Cleveland]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == === Sitiran === {{reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | last = Bauer | first = K. Jack | author-link = K. Jack Bauer | author2=Roberts, Stephen S. | title = Register of Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1775–1990: Major Combatants | url = https://archive.org/details/registerofshipso0000baue | publisher = Greenwood Press | year = 1991 | location = [[Westport, Connecticut]] | isbn = 978-0-313-26202-9 }} * Bard, Mitchell. "Ideology and Depression Politics I: Grover Cleveland (1893–1897)" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1985 15(1): 77–88. * [[David T. Beito|Beito, David T.]] and [[Linda Royster Beito|Beito, Linda Royster]]. "Gold Democrats and the Decline of Classical Liberalism, 1896–1900". ''Independent Review'' 4 (Spring 2000), 555–575. * {{cite book | editor-last1 = Berhow | editor-first1 = Mark A. | title = American Seacoast Defenses, A Reference Guide |edition=Third | location = McLean, Virginia | publisher = CDSG Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-0-9748167-3-9}} * Brodsky, Alan. ''Grover Cleveland: A Study in Character'', (2000). {{ISBN|978-0-312-26883-1}} * Graff, Henry F. ''Grover Cleveland'' (2002). {{ISBN|978-0-8050-6923-5}}. * Jeffers, H. Paul, ''An Honest President: The Life and Presidencies of Grover Cleveland'' (2000), {{ISBN|978-0-380-97746-8}}. * [[Allan Nevins|Nevins, Allan]]. ''Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage'' (1932). Biografi anu meunangkeun Hadiah Pulitzer. * Senik, Troy. ''A Man of Iron: The Turbulent Life and Improbable Presidency of Grover Cleveland'' (Threshold Editions, 2022). * [[Rexford Guy Tugwell|Tugwell, Rexford Guy]], ''Grover Cleveland'' Simon & Schuster, Inc. (1968). * Welch, Richard E. Jr. ''The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland'' (1988) {{ISBN|978-0-7006-0355-8}}. * [[Woodrow Wilson|Wilson, Woodrow]], ''Mr. Cleveland as President'' ''Atlantic Monthly'' (Maret 1897). {{refend}} ::'''Sumber primér''' {{refbegin}} * Cleveland, Grover. ''The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland'' (1892) [https://archive.org/details/writingsandspee01clevgoog édisi online] * Cleveland, Grover. ''Presidential Problems.'' (1904) [https://archive.org/details/presidentialpro00clevgoog édisi online] * Nevins, Allan ed. ''Letters of Grover Cleveland, 1850–1908'' (1933) * {{cite book |author=National Democratic Committee |url=https://archive.org/details/campaigntextboo01goog |title=Campaign Text-book of the National Democratic Party |publisher=National Democratic committee |year=1896}}, buku panduan Démokrat Emas anu mikanyaah ka Cleveland. {{RefEnd}} == Tumbu luar == {{Sister project links |wikt=no |commons=Grover Cleveland |n=no |b=no |s=Author:Grover Cleveland |v=no}} '''Seratan sarta biantara''' * [http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#cleveland Teks biantara Cleveland] di [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * [http://www.nysl.nysed.gov/msscfa/vc19810.htm Manuskrip Grover Cleveland, 1867–1908] di [[Perpustakaan Nagara Bagian New York]]. '''Lianna''' * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/cleveland/index.html Grover Cleveland: Pituduh Sumber Daya], [[Perpustakaan Kongrés]] (Library of Congress). * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151466-1/life-portrait-grover-cleveland "Life Portrait of Grover Cleveland"], ti [[C-SPAN]]. * {{Gutenberg author | id=1654| name=Grover Cleveland}} {{Grover Cleveland}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghargaan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Alexander Brush]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar walikota Buffalo, New York|Walikota Buffalo]]|years=1882}} {{s-aft|after=[[Marcus M. Drake]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Alonzo B. Cornell]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Gubernur New York]]|years=1883–1885}} {{s-aft|after=[[David B. Hill]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Chester A. Arthur]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=1885–1889}} {{s-aft|after=[[Benjamin Harrison]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Benjamin Harrison]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=1893–1897}} {{s-aft|after=[[William McKinley]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Winfield Scott Hancock]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] [[Daptar calon présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Démokrat|Calon]] Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1884|1884]], [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1888|1888]], [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1892|1892]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Jennings Bryan]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Navboxes |title=Artikel patali Grover Cleveland |list1= {{US Presidents}} {{USDemPresNominees}} {{Governors of New York}} {{BuffaloMayors}} {{Cleveland 22 cabinet}} {{Cleveland 24 cabinet}} }} {{Portal bar|Biografi|Konservatisme|New Jersey|New York (nagara bagian)|Pulitik|Hukum|Amérika Sarikat}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cleveland, Grover}} [[Kategori:Grover Cleveland|*]] [[Kategori:Gumelar 1837]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1908]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Gubernur New York (nagara bagian)]] [[Kategori:Walikota Buffalo, New York]] [[Kategori:Pamingpin antikorupsi Amérika]] [[Kategori:Hukum Amérika]] [[Kategori:Démokrat New York (nagara bagian)]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Gubernur New York]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti New Jersey]] 28jn8kdsu3qwenpvhms5lxhhzswlywp 0 107923 711762 706224 2026-08-07T03:36:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711762 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Monotréma<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=1–2|id=10300001}}</ref> | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Barremian|Recent|[[Kapur Awal]] ([[Barremian]]) – Ayeuna}} | image = <imagemap> File:Monotreme collage.jpg|300px rect 0 510 820 950 [[Platipus]] rect 0 950 820 1560 [[Ékhidna monyong panjang kulon]] rect 1520 510 820 950 [[Ékhidna monyong pondok]] rect 1520 950 820 1560 [[Ékhidna monyong panjang wétan]] </imagemap> | regnum = [[Amal|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia]] | subclassis = [[Prototheria]] | ordo = '''Monotremata''' | authority = [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|C.L. Bonaparte]], 1837<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonaparte |first1=C.L. |title=A New Systematic Arrangement of Vertebrated Animals |journal=Transactions of the Linnean Society of London |date=1837 |volume=18 |issue=3 |page=258 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1838.tb00177.x |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32952956}}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = Sub-grup | subdivision = *{{extinct}}[[Kollikodontidae]] *{{extinct}}[[Steropodontidae]] *{{extinct}}[[Teinolophidae]] *'''[[Ornithorhynchoidea]]'''<ref name="Flannery2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Flannery |first1=Timothy F. |author-link1=Tim Flannery |last2=McCurry |first2=Matthew R. |last3=Rich |first3=Thomas H. |author-link3=Tom Rich |last4=Vickers-Rich |first4=Patricia |author-link4=Patricia Vickers-Rich |last5=Smith |first5=Elizabeth T. |last6=Helgen |first6=Kristofer M. |date=2024-05-26 |title=A diverse assemblage of monotremes (Monotremata) from the Cenomanian Lightning Ridge fauna of New South Wales, Australia |journal=[[Alcheringa (journal)|Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology]] |volume=48 |issue=2 |language=en |pages=319–337 |doi=10.1080/03115518.2024.2348753 |issn=0311-5518|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024Alch...48..319F }}</ref> **{{extinct}}[[Opalionidae]] **[[Ornithorhynchidae]] **[[Ékhidna|Tachyglossidae]] | range_map = Ornithorhynchoids map.jpg }} '''Monotréma''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɒ|n|ə|t|r|iː|m|z}}) nyaéta golongan [[mamalia]] tina ordo '''Monotremata'''. Ieu sato téh hiji-hijina mamalia anu masih kénéh kumelendang kalayan baranahanana ku cara [[Oviparity|ngendog]], batan ngajuru kawas mamalia séjénna. Lima spésiés monotréma anu masih aya nepi ka kiwari nyaéta [[platypus]] sarta opat rupa [[echidna]]. Monotréma diciriikeun ku béda struktur dina uteuk, careeéham, saluran panyernaan/peujit, saluran réproduksi, sarta bagian awak séjénna upama dibandingkeun jeung mamalia saumumna. Sanajan béda jeung mamalia lian kusabab ng endog, monotréma bikang téh tetep kawas mamalia séjén dina perkara nyusuan anakna ku [[milk|susu]]. Monotréma geus dianggap ku sawatara ahli minangka anggota [[Australosphenida]], nyaéta hiji [[clade|''clade'']] anu ngawengku mamalia tumpur ti jaman [[Jurassic]] sarta [[Cretaceous]] di Madagaskar, Amérika Kidul, jeung Australia, tapi ieu papasingan téh masih jadi padu sarta [[#Taxonomy|taksonomina]] masih dipaluruh kénéh. Sakumna spésiés monotréma anu masih aya téh asalna ti [[Australia]] sarta [[New Guinea]], sanajan baheulana kungsi aya dina mangsa ''Late Cretaceous'' sarta ''Paleocene'' di bagian kidul Amérika Kidul, anu ngandung harti yén ieu sato ogé kungsi aya di Antartika sanajan sésa-sésana can kapanggih di dinya. Nami ''monotreme'' asalna tina basa Yunani {{wikt-lang|grc|μονός}} ({{Transliteration|grc|monós}} 'tunggal') sarta {{wikt-lang|grc|τρῆma}} ({{Transliteration|grc|trêma}} 'liang'), anu nujul kana [[cloaca]]. == Ciri-ciri Umum == Kawas mamalia séjénna, monotréma téh kaasup [[endotherm|''endotherm'']]ic kalayan laju métabolismé anu luhur, sanajan teu saluhur mamalia séjén; mibanda [[hair|bulu]] dina awakna; ngahasilkeun susu ngaliwatan kelenjar susu pikeun nyusuan anakna; mibanda hiji tulang dina rahang handapna; sarta mibanda tilu tulang [[middle ear|ceuli tengah]]. Sami jeung [[marsupial]], monotréma teu mibanda struktur panyambung ([[corpus callosum]]) anu dina golongan [[Placentalia|plaséntal]] mah mangrupa jalur komunikasi utama antara belahan uteuk katuhu jeung kénca.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/monotremata/order.htm |series=Animal Bytes |title=Order Monotremata |access-date=2009-09-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223230609/http://seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/monotremata/order.htm |archive-date=2010-12-23 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Nanging, [[anterior commissure|''anterior commissure'']] nyadiakeun jalur komunikasi séjén, sarta dina monotréma jeung marsupial mah ieu bagian mawa sakumna [[commissural fiber|''commissural fiber''s]] anu asalna tina [[neocortex|''neocortex'']], sedengkeun dina mamalia plaséntal mah ''anterior commissure'' ngan mawa sabagian tina éta sérat.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ann B. |last1=Butler |first2=William |last2=Hodos |title=Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6kGARvykJKMC&pg=PA361 |date=2005 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-73383-6 |page=361}}</ref> Monotréma anu hirup kiwari teu mibanda huntu nalika geus sawawa. Wangun fosil sarta anak platypus mibanda huntu [[molar (tooth)|molar]] wangun ''"tribosphenic"'' (kalayan luhuran [[Commonly used terms of relationship and comparison in dentistry|occlusal]] anu diwangun ku tilu [[cusp (dentistry)|tonjolan]] anu nyusun segitiga), anu mangrupa salasahiji ciri mandiri mamalia kiwari. Sababaraha panalungtikan anyar nétépkeun yén monotréma meunangkeun ieu wangun huntu sacara mandiri tina plaséntal sarta marsupial,<ref name=Luo01/> sanajan ieu hipotésis masih dipaluruh kénéh.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Weil, A. |journal=Nature |title=Mammalian evolution: Relationships to chew over |volume=409 |issue=6816 |pages=28–31 |doi=10.1038/35051199 |date=4 January 2001 |pmid=11343097|bibcode=2001Natur.409...28W |s2cid=37912232 }}</ref> Leungitna huntu dina monotréma modéren meureun aya patalina jeung mekarna kamampuh [[electrolocation|''electrolocation'']].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Masakazu Asahara |author2=Masahiro Koizumi |first3=Thomas E. |last3=Macrini |first4=Suzanne J. |last4=Hand |first5=Michael |last5=Archer |title=Comparative cranial morphology in living and extinct platypuses: Feeding behavior, electroreception, and loss of teeth |journal=Science Advances |volume=2 |issue=10 |article-number=e1601329 |year=2016 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1601329 |pmid=27757425 |pmc=5061491|bibcode=2016SciA....2E1329A }}</ref> Rahang monotréma diwangun rada béda ti mamalia séjén, sarta otot anu mukakeun rahangna ogé béda. Kawas sakumna mamalia sajati, tulang-tulang leutik anu nganteurkeun sora ka ceuli tengah geus ngahiji sagemblengna kana tangkorak, batan aya dina rahang kawas dina [[cynodont]] non-mamalia sarta [[synapsida|synapsid]] lianna; ieu ciri ogé disebutkeun mekar sacara mandiri dina monotréma sarta [[theria|''theria'']]ns,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=T.H. |last2=Hopson |first2=J.A. |last3=Musser |first3=A.M. |last4=Flannery |first4=T.F. |last5=Vickers-Rich |first5=P. |date=2005 |title=Independent origins of middle ear bones in monotremes and therians&nbsp;(I) |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.1105717 |pmid=15705848 |volume=307 |issue=5711 |pages=910–914 |bibcode=2005Sci...307..910R|s2cid=3048437 }}</ref> sanajan kitu, ieu hipotésis ogé masih dipadungdengkeun.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Comment on "Independent Origins of Middle Ear Bones in Monotremes and Therians" (I) |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5740 |pages=1492a |doi=10.1126/science.1112248 |pmid=16141050 |year=2005 |last1=Bever |first1=G.S. |last2=Rowe |first2=T. |last3=Ekdale |first3=E.G. |last4=MacRini |first4=T.E. |last5=Colbert |first5=M.W. |last6=Balanoff |first6=A.M. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Comment on "Independent Origins of Middle Ear Bones in Monotremes and Therians"&nbsp;(II) |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5740 |page=1492b |doi=10.1126/science.1111294 |pmid=16141051 |year=2005 |last1=Rougier |first1=G.W. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Nanging, pamanggih dina spésiés tumpur ''[[Teinolophos]]'' mastikeun yén tulang ceuli anu ngagantung téh mekar sacara mandiri di antara monotréma sarta ''therians''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Rich, Thomas H. |author2=Hopson, James A. |author3=Gill, Pamela G. |author4=Trusler, Peter |author5=Rogers-Davidson, Sally |author6=Morton, Steve |author7=Cifelli, Richard L. |author8=Pickering, David |author9=Kool, Lesley |author10=Siu, Karen |author11=Burgmann, Flame A. |author12=Senden, Tim |author13=Evans, Alistair R. |author14=Wagstaff, Barbara E. |author15=Seegets-Villiers, Doris |author16=Corfe, Ian J. |author17=Flannery, Timothy F. |author18=Walker, Ken |author19=Musser, Anne M. |author20=Archer, Michael |author21=Pian, Rebecca |author22=Vickers-Rich, Patricia |display-authors=6 |title=The mandible and dentition of the Early Cretaceous monotreme ''Teinolophos trusleri'' |journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=475–501 |year=2016 |doi=10.1080/03115518.2016.1180034|bibcode=2016Alch...40..475R |s2cid=89034974 }}</ref> Liang ceuli luar masih kénéh perenahna dina dasar rahang. Hasil panyusunan urutan ''genome'' platypus ogé geus méré panitén ngeunaan evolusi sawatara sipat monotréma, saperti racun sarta [[electroreception|''electroreception'']], sarta némbongkeun sababaraha ciri unik anyar, nyaéta monotréma mibanda lima pasang kromosom séks anu sacara koléktif boga polah salaku sistem panangtu séks [[XY sex-determination system|XY]] tunggal — salila ''spermatogenesis'', sapuluh kromosom séks jaluna ngabentuk ranté anu piligenti antara kromosom X sarta Y, sarta sakumna X atanapi sakumna Y bakal diwariskeun bareng. Salasahiji kromosom X nyaruaan [[Z chromosome|kromosom Z]] dina manuk,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080507131453.htm |title=Platypus genome explains animal's peculiar features; holds clues to evolution of mammals |website=Sciencedaily.com |date=2008-05-07 |access-date=2011-06-09 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> anu nuduhkeun yén dua kromosom séks dina marsupial sarta plaséntal mekar sanggeus pamisahan tina garis katurunan monotréma.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Veyrunes |display-authors=etal |title=Bird-like sex chromosomes of platypus imply recent origin of mammal sex chromosomes |journal=Genome Res. |date=June 2008 |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=965–973|doi=10.1101/gr.7101908 |pmid=18463302 |pmc=2413164 }}</ref> Rekonstruksi tambahan ngaliwatan gén anu sarua dina kromosom séks ngarojong ieu hipotésis ngeunaan evolusi mandiri.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cortez |first1=Diego |last2=Marin |first2=Ray |last3=Toledo-Flores |first3=Deborah |last4=Froidevaux |first4=Laure |last5=Liechti |first5=Angélica |last6=Waters |first6=Paul D. |last7=Grützner |first7=Frank |last8=Kaessmann |first8=Henrik |title=Origins and functional evolution of Y&nbsp;chromosomes across mammals |journal=Nature |date=24 April 2014 |volume=508 |issue=7497 |pages=488–493 |doi=10.1038/nature13151 |pmid=24759410 |bibcode=2014Natur.508..488C|s2cid=4462870 }}</ref> Ieu sipat, bareng jeung sasaruaan genetik lianna jeung manuk, saperti gén anu patali jeung nendog, dianggap méré panitén ngeunaan [[most recent common ancestor|karuhun babarengan panganyarna]] tina garis katurunan [[synapsid]] anu nuju ka mamalia sarta garis katurunan [[Sauropsida|sauropsid]] anu nuju ka manuk jeung réptil modéren, anu dipercaya misah sakitar 315 juta taun ka tukang salila jaman [[Carboniferous]].<ref name="Myers 2008"/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Genome analysis of the platypus reveals unique signatures of evolution |volume=453 |issue=7192 |doi=10.1038/nature06936 |pmid=18464734 |pmc=2803040 |journal=Nature |pages=175–183 |year=2008 |last1=Warren |first1=W. C. |last2=Hillier |first2=L. W. |last3=Marshall Graves |first3=J. A. |last4=Birney |first4=E. |last5=Ponting |first5=C. P. |last6=Grützner |first6=F. |last7=Belov |first7=K. |last8=Miller |first8=W. |last9=Clarke |first9=L. |last10=Chinwalla |first10=A. T. |last11=Yang |first11=S. P. |last12=Heger |first12=A. |last13=Locke |first13=D. P. |last14=Miethke |first14=P. |last15=Waters |first15=P. D. |last16=Veyrunes |first16=F. |last17=Fulton |first17=L. |last18=Fulton |first18=B. |last19=Graves |first19=T. |last20=Wallis |first20=J. |last21=Puente |first21=X. S. |last22=López-Otín |first22=C. |last23=Ordóñez |first23=G.R. |last24=Eichler |first24=E.E. |last25=Chen |first25=L. |last26=Cheng |first26=Z. |last27=Deakin |first27=J.E. |last28=Alsop |first28=A. |last29=Thompson |first29=K. |last30=Kirby |first30=P. |bibcode=2008Natur.453..175W |display-authors=6}}</ref> Ayana gén [[vitellogenin]] (protéin anu diperlukeun pikeun ngabentuk konéng endog) sarua jeung anu aya dina manuk; ayana ieu [[symplesiomorphy]] nuduhkeun yén karuhun babarengan monotréma, marsupial, sarta plaséntal téh mémang [[Oviparity|oviparous]] (nendog), sarta sipat ieu tetep dijaga dina monotréma tapi leungit dina sakumna golongan mamalia lianna. Analisis DNA nuduhkeun yén sanajan sipat nendog ieu sarua jeung manuk, platypus tetep mamalia sarta karuhun mamalia téh mémang geus nyusuan.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Brawand D, Wahli W, Kaessmann H |title=Loss of egg yolk genes in mammals and the origin of lactation and placentation |journal=PLOS Biol. |volume=6 |issue=3 |article-number=e63 |year=2008 |pmid=18351802 |pmc=2267819 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060063 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Monotréma ogé mibanda tulang tambahan dina bagian taktak ([[shoulder girdle]]), kaasup [[interclavicle]] sarta [[coracoid]], anu teu kapanggih dina mamalia séjén. Monotréma ngajaga cara leumpang (''gait'') anu jiga réptil, kalayan suku di gigireun awak, sanés di handapeun awak. Suku monotréma mibanda [[Spur (zoology)|taji]] dina bagian mumuncangan; taji ieu teu boga fungsi dina echidna, tapi ngandung [[platypus venom|racun]] anu kuat dina platypus jalu. Racun ieu asalna tina [[Beta defensin|β-defensins]], protéin anu aya dina mamalia pikeun ngalawan virus sarta baktéri. Sawatara racun réptil ogé diwangun ku rupa-rupa β-defensins, salasahiji sipat séjén anu sarua jeung réptil.<ref name="Myers 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=PZ |title=Interpreting Shared Characteristics: The Platypus Genome |journal=Nature Education |date=2008 |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=46 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/interpreting-shared-characteristics-the-platypus-genome-44568/ }}</ref> Hal ieu dianggap mangrupa ciri mamalia kuna, lantaran loba golongan mamalia purba ogé mibanda [[venomous mammal|taji racun]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Jørn H. |last1=Hurum |author2=Zhe-Xi Luo |first3=Zofia |last3=Kielan-Jaworowska |title=Were mammals originally venomous? |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |year=2006}}</ref> === Sistem Réproduksi === {{Further|Echidna#Reproduction|Platypus#Reproduction}} Béda utama anatomi antara monotréma sarta mamalia séjén nyaéta salasahiji alesan naha maranéhna dingaranan kieu; ''monotreme'' hartina "liang tunggal" dina basa Yunani, nujul kana saluran tunggal ([[cloaca]]) pikeun sistem kemih, miceun kokotor, sarta réproduksi. Kawas manuk sarta réptil, monotréma mibanda hiji cloaca.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Withers |first1=Philip C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CcNjDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA275 |title=Ecological and Environmental Physiology of Mammals |last2=Cooper |first2=Christine E. |last3=Maloney |first3=Shane K. |last4=Bozinovic |first4=Francisco |last5=Neto |first5=Ariovaldo P. Cruz |date=2016-10-27 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-109267-1 |language=en}}</ref> Marsupial mibanda [[Marsupial#Reproductive system|saluran séks anu misah]], sedengkeun lolobana plaséntal bikang mibanda liang anu misah pikeun réproduksi ([[vagina]]), kemih ([[urethra]]), sarta miceun kokotor ([[anus]]). Dina monotréma, ngan ukur mani anu ngaliwatan sirit (''penis'') sedengkeun cikiih dikaluarkeun ngaliwatan cloaca jalu.<ref name="Griffiths2012">{{cite book |author=Griffiths, Mervyn |title=The Biology of the Monotremes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7nu16_DkTgC |date=2 December 2012 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-323-15331-7}}</ref> Sirit monotréma nyaruaan sirit kuya sarta dibungkus ku kantong ''preputial''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Grützner, F. |author2=Nixon, B. |author3=Jones, R.C. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23233860 |title=Reproductive biology in egg-laying mammals |journal=Sexual Development |volume=2 |issue=3 |year=2008 |pages=115–127|doi=10.1159/000143429 |pmid=18769071 |s2cid=536033 }}</ref><ref name="Lombardi2012">{{cite book |author=Lombardi, Julian |title=Comparative Vertebrate Reproduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXvjBwAAQBAJ |date=6 December 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4615-4937-6}}</ref> Monotréma jalu teu mibanda [[prostate]] atanapi [[seminal vesicles]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vogelnest |first1=Larry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4d6VDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 |title=Current Therapy in Medicine of Australian Mammals |last2=Portas |first2=Timothy |date=2019-05-01 |publisher=Csiro Publishing |isbn=978-1-4863-0752-4 |language=en}}</ref> Endog [[egg (biology)|endog]] monotréma dijaga sawatara waktu di jero awak indungna sarta meunangkeun nutrisi langsung ti indungna, sarta ilaharna netes dina waktu sapuluh poé sanggeus diténdogkeun – jauh leuwih gancang batan mangsa inkubasi endog [[sauropsida]].<ref>{{cite report |author=Cromer, Erica |date=14 April 2004 |title=Monotreme Reproductive Biology and Behavior |publisher=Iowa State University }} {{full citation needed|date=April 2020}}</ref><ref name=arkiveTGA>{{cite web |url=http://www.arkive.org/short-beaked-echidna/tachyglossus-aculeatus/biology.html |title=Short-beaked echidna (''Tachyglossus aculeatus'') |publisher=Arkive.org |access-date=2016-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813121709/http://www.arkive.org/short-beaked-echidna/tachyglossus-aculeatus/biology.html |archive-date=2009-08-13 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813121709/http://www.arkive.org/short-beaked-echidna/tachyglossus-aculeatus/biology.html |date=2009-08-13 }}</ref> Pisan kawas bayi marsupial, bayi monotréma anu kakara lahir, disebut "puggles", wangunna kawas larva atawa fétus sarta mibanda suku hareup anu kawilang geus mekar sangkan bisa ngarayap. Monotréma teu mibanda [[teat|pentil susu]], jadi para ''puggles'' kudu leuwih sering ngarayap dibanding anak marsupial pikeun néangan susu. Batan ngaliwatan pentil, monotréma ngaluarkeun susu tina [[mammary gland|kelenjar susu]]na ngaliwatan pori-pori dina kulitna. Sakumna lima spésiés némbongkeun parawatan indung ka anak anu lila, kalayan laju réproduksi anu rendah sarta umur anu kawilang panjang. Monotréma ogé kasohor dina mekarna ''zygote'': lolobana [[zygote]] mamalia ngalaman ''holoblastic'' [[cleavage (embryo)|''cleavage'']] (pambelahan sagemblengna). Sabalikna, zygote monotréma, kawas dina manuk sarta réptil, ngalaman pambelahan [[meroblastic]] (sabagian). Ieu ngandung harti yén sél-sél dina sisian konéng endog mibanda ''cytoplasm'' anu nyambung jeung sél endog, sangkan konéng endog sarta émbryo bisa silih tukeur kokotor jeung nutrisi.<ref name="Myers 2008"/> == Taksonomi == Hipotésis "[[Theria]]" anu geus jadi pakem nétépkeun yén pamisahan garis katurunan monotréma tina [[Metatheria]] ([[marsupial]]) sarta [[Eutheria]] ([[Placentalia|plaséntal]]) lumangsung saméméh misahna ''marsupial'' jeung plaséntal. Hal ieu anu nerangkeun naha monotréma masih kénéh ngajaga rupa-rupa sipat [[Primitive (phylogenetics)|purba]] anu dianggap geus aya di karuhun [[synapsid]] mamalia sanggeusna, salasahijina nyaéta nendog.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=Terry A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LD1nDlzXYicC&pg=PA80 |title=Mammalogy |last2=Ryan |first2=James M. |last3=Czaplewski |first3=Nicholas J. |date=2011 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-0-7637-6299-5 |edition=5th |page=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to the Monotremata |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotreme.html |access-date=2011-06-09 |publisher=Ucmp.berkeley.edu |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Jacks |title=Lecture&nbsp;3 |url=http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~jacks/Lecture3.pdf |publisher=University of Idaho |place=Moscow, ID}}</ref> Lolobana bukti morfologis ngarojong kana hipotésis ''Theria'' ieu, tapi aya hiji pengecualian nyaéta pola ganti huntu anu sarua antara monotréma jeung ''marsupial'', anu asalna jadi dasar pikeun hipotésis tandingan "[[Marsupionta]]". Dina éta hipotésis, pamisahan antara monotréma jeung ''marsupial'' disebutkeun lumangsung leuwih pandeur batan pamisahan jeung golongan plaséntal. Nanging, Van&nbsp;Rheede (2005) nyimpulkeun yén bukti genetik leuwih condong kana hipotésis ''Theria'',<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van&nbsp;Rheede |first1=Teun |year=2005 |title=The platypus is in its place: Nuclear genes and indels confirm the sister group relation of monotremes and therians |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=587–597 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msj064 |pmid=16291999 |doi-access=free}}</ref> sarta ieu pamanggih téh jadi anu pangilaharna ditarima nepi ka kiwari.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Janke |first1=A. |last2=Xu |first2=X. |last3=Arnason |first3=U. |year=1997 |title=Monotremes |url=http://tolweb.org/treehouses/?treehouse_id=4430 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=1276–1281 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.4.1276 |pmc=19781 |pmid=9037043 |access-date=2011-06-09 |doi-access=free |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Monotréma ilaharna dianggap ngawengku hiji ordo tunggal ''Monotremata''. Sakumna papasingan ieu sacara tradisional diasupkeun kana sub-kelas [[Prototheria]], anu ogé ngawengku sababaraha ordo [[fossil|fosil]], sanajan ayeuna éta ordo fosil téh geus teu dianggap deui boga patali langsung jeung karuhun monotréma. Hiji hipotésis anu kontrovérsial ayeuna ngaitkeun monotréma jeung kumpulan mamalia fosil séjén dina hiji [[clade|''clade'']] anu disebut [[Australosphenida]], nyaéta golongan mamalia ti jaman ''Jurassic'' sarta ''Cretaceous'' di Madagaskar, Amérika Kidul, jeung Australia, anu sarua mibanda huntu [[tribosphenic molar|''tribosphenic molar'']].<ref name="Luo01">{{cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=Z.-X. |last2=Cifelli |first2=R.L. |last3=Kielan-Jaworowska |first3=Z. |year=2001 |title=Dual origin of tribosphenic mammals |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6816 |pages=53–57 |doi=10.1038/35051023 |pmid=11343108|bibcode=2001Natur.409...53L |s2cid=4342585 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=Z.-X. |last2=Cifelli |first2=R.L. |last3=Kielan-Jaworowska |first3=Z. |year=2002 |title=In quest for a phylogeny of Mesozoic mammals |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |volume=47 |pages=1–78}}</ref> Nanging, dina hiji tinjauan taun 2022 ngeunaan evolusi monotréma, dicaritakeun yén ''[[Teinolophos]]'', anu mangrupa monotréma pangkolotna ([[Barremian]] ~ 125 juta taun ka tukang) sarta pangpurbana, mibanda béda anu kacida badag jeung golongan ''australosphenidan'' sanésna; nyaéta mibanda lima huntu ''molar'', béda jeung ''australosphenidan'' séjén anu ngan mibanda tilu. Monotréma ti jaman ''Aptian'' sarta ''Cenomanian'' tina kulawarga ''Kollikodontidae'' (113–96.6 juta taun ka tukang) mibanda opat huntu ''molar''. Hal ieu nuduhkeun yén monotréma téh jigana mah teu mibanda patali jeung ''tribosphenid australosphenidan''.<ref name="Flannery-2022" /> Waktu nalika garis monotréma misah tina garis mamalia séjénna téh can pasti, tapi salasahiji panalungtikan genetik méré kira-kira sakitar 220 juta taun ka tukang,<ref name=Masden2009>{{cite book |last=Madsen |first=Ole |editor1-first=S. Blair |editor1-last=Hedges |editor2-first=Sudhir |editor2-last=Kumar |title=The Timetree of Life |year=2009 |url=https://archive.org/details/timetreelife00hedg |url-access=limited |chapter=chapter&nbsp;68 – Mammals (Mamalia) |pages=[https://archive.org/details/timetreelife00hedg/page/n481 459]–461 |website=timetree.org |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-953503-3 }}</ref> sedengkeun anu séjénna nyebutkeun leuwih ngora nyaéta 163 nepi ka 186 juta taun ka tukang (sanajan ''[[Juramaia]]'' anu geus jadi plaséntal asalna tina jaman 161–160 juta taun ka tukang). ''Teinolophos'', kawas monotréma modéren, némbongkeun adaptasi mangrupa rahang anu ngulur sarta mekarna indra pangrasa dina rahangna, anu patali jeung [[mechanoreception|''mechanoreception'']] atanapi [[electroreception|''electroreception'']].<ref name="Flannery-2022" /> [[File:French Island Echidna.ogg|thumb|Hiji ékhidna keur ngali liang pertahanan di [[French Island National Park|Taman Nasional Pulo French]]]] Pangitungan mangsa dumasar [[Molecular clock|''molecular clock'']] sarta titimangsa fosil méré rupa-rupa tanggal pikeun misahna ''echidna'' jeung ''platypus''; salasahiji panitén nétépkeun pamisahanana dina 19–48 juta taun ka tukang,<ref name="Phillips">{{cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=M.J. |last2=Bennett |first2=T.H. |last3=Lee |first3=M.S. |year=2009 |title=Molecules, morphology, and ecology indicate a recent, amphibious ancestry for echidnas |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=106 |issue=40 |pages=17089–17094 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0904649106 |pmid=19805098 |pmc=2761324|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617089P |doi-access=free }}</ref> tapi anu séjénna nyebutkeun antara 17–89 juta taun ka tukang.<ref name="Springer2009">{{cite book |first1=Mark S. |last1=Springer |first2=Carey W. |last2=Krajewski |editor1-first=S. Blair |editor1-last=Hedges |editor2-first=Sudhir |editor2-last=Kumar |title=The Timetree of Life |chapter=chapter&nbsp;69 – Monotremes (Prototheria) |pages=462–465 |chapter-url=http://timetree.org/public/data/pdf/Springer2009Chap69.pdf |website=timetree.org |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009}}</ref> Aya ogé pamanggih yén boh spésiés ''echidna'' monyong pondok atawa monyong panjang téh asalna tina karuhun anu jiga ''platypus''.<ref name="Flannery-2022" /> Hubungan anu pasti di antara golongan mamalia anu geus tumpur sarta golongan modéren saperti monotréma téh mémang can pati tétéla, tapi analisis [[cladistics|kladistik]] ilaharna neundeun [[Most recent common ancestor#MRCA of different species|karuhun babarengan panganyarna]] (LCA) antara plaséntal jeung monotréma deukeut jeung LCA plaséntal sarta [[Multituberculata|''multituberculates'']], sedengkeun anu séjénna boga pamanggih yén LCA plaséntal jeung ''multituberculates'' téh leuwih anyar batan LCA plaséntal jeung monotréma.<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael J. |last=Benton |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P1LkOL1CijEC&pg=PA300 |date=2004 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-632-05637-8 |page=300}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Matthew T. |last1=Carrano |first2=Richard W. |last2=Blob |first3=Timothy J. |last3=Gaudin |first4=John R. |last4=Wible |title=Amniote Paleobiology: Perspectives on the Evolution of Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4uNMCqSRQ9gC&pg=PA358 |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-09478-6 |page=358}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ Status Konservasi sarta Populasi Monotréma ! Spésiés !! Nami Ilmiah !! Kira-kira Populasi !! [[IUCN Red List|Status IUCN]] !! Trén Populasi !! Catetan !! Gambar |- | '''[[Platypus]]''' | ''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'' | '''30,000–300,000''' | {{IUCN-NT}}<ref name="O.anatinus IUCN">{{Cite IUCN|title=''Ornithorhynchus anatinus''|article-number=e.T15391A21970662|last=Woinarski, J.|year=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T15391A21970662.en|last2=Burbidge, A.A.}}</ref> | align="center" | {{decreasing}}<ref name="O.anatinus IUCN"/> | Kira-kira pangalusna pikeun jumlah sato sawawa nyaéta 50,000.<ref name="O.anatinus IUCN"/> | [[File:Duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) Scottsdale 4.jpg|175px]] |- | '''[[Short-beaked echidna]]''' | ''Tachyglossus aculeatus'' | '''5,000,000–50,000,000'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance Library |title=Short-beaked Echidna (''Tachyglossus aculeatus'') Fact Sheet: Population & Conservation Status |url=https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/short-beaked-echidna |access-date=2026-01-24 |website=International Environment Library Collection}}</ref> | {{IUCN-LC}}<ref name="T.aculeatus IUCN"/> | align="center" | {{steady}}<ref name="T.aculeatus IUCN"/> | Penilaian IUCN teu ngalaporkeun kira-kira populasi sacara pasti.<ref name="T.aculeatus IUCN">{{Cite IUCN|title=''Tachyglossus aculeatus''|article-number=e.T41312A21964662|last=Aplin, K.|year=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41312A21964662.en|last2=Dickman, C.|last3=Salas, L.|last4=Helgen, K.}}</ref> | [[File:Echidna short beaked.jpg|175px]] |} == Monotréma Fosil == {{See also|Evolution of mammals}} [[File:Steropodon model aus.jpg|thumb|Modél sato monotréma anu geus [[Extinction|tumpur]], ''[[Steropodon]]'', di [[Australian Museum]]]] Monotréma jaman [[Mesozoic]] munggaran anu kapanggih nyaéta ''Steropodon galmani'' tina jaman [[Cenomanian]] (100–96.6 juta taun ka tukang) ti Lightning Ridge, New South Wales.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Ashwell, K. |year=2013 |title=Neurobiology of Monotremes |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location=Melbourne |isbn=978-0-643-10311-5}}</ref> Bukti biokimia sarta anatomi nuduhkeun yén monotréma téh misah tina garis katurunan mamalia méméh mekar na ''marsupial'' sarta plaséntal. Monotréma séjénna ti jaman Mesozoic nyaéta ''[[Teinolophos]]'' (Barremian, 126 juta taun ka tukang), ''[[Sundrius]]'' sarta ''[[Kryoryctes]]'' (Albian, 113–108 juta taun ka tukang), sarta ''[[Dharragarra]]'', ''[[Kollikodon]]'', ''[[Opalios]]'', ''[[Parvopalus]]'', ''[[Steropodon]]'', jeung ''[[Stirtodon]]'' (kabéhanana ti jaman Cenomanian, 100.2–96.6 juta taun ka tukang) ti sédimén Australia. Aya ogé ''[[Patagorhynchus]]'' (Maastrichtian) ti sédimén [[Patagonia]] dina jaman [[Cretaceous]], anu ngabuktikeun yén monotréma téh geus mimiti baranahan sarta rupa-rupa (''diversifying'') ti mimiti jaman ''Late Cretaceous''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotremefr.html |title=Fossil Record of the Monotremata |publisher=Ucmp.berkeley.edu |access-date=2011-06-09 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Fosil monotréma ogé kapanggih dina ahir jaman Cretaceous sarta Paleocene di bagian kidul Amérika Kidul, nepi ka aya hiji hipotésis yén monotréma téh asalna ti Australia dina jaman [[Late Jurassic]] atanapi [[Early Cretaceous]], tuluy sawatara di antarana hijrah meuntas [[Antarctic land bridge|sasak daratan Antartika]] nuju ka [[South America|Amérika Kidul]], anu harita mah mémang masih kénéh ngahiji jeung Australia.<ref name=VertPal>{{cite book |first=Michael J. |last=Benton |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GDxXb_ZPJEC&pg=PA303 |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-632-05614-9 |pages=303–304}}</ref><ref name="Chimento2023" /> Ieu arah hijrah téh kabalikan tina hipotésis hijrahna golongan mamalia utama Australia séjénna, nyaéta [[marsupial]], anu jigana mah hijrahna téh ti Amérika Kidul meuntas Antartika nuju ka Australia.<ref name="Nilsson">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nilsson MA, Churakov G, Sommer M, Tran NV, Zemann A, Brosius J, Schmitz J |date=July 2010 |title=Tracking marsupial evolution using archaic genomic retroposon insertions |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=8 |issue=7 |article-number=e1000436 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000436 |pmc=2910653 |pmid=20668664 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dina taun 2024, kumpulan monotréma purba anu penting dicaritakeun tina sédimén Cenomanian (100–96.6 juta taun ka tukang) di [[Griman Creek Formation]], Lightning Ridge, New South Wales. Salah sahijina nyaéta fragmén rahang fosil ''[[Dharragarra]]'', anu mangrupa fosil pangkolotna anu mibanda ciri jiga platypus.<ref name="Flannery-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Flannery |first1=Timothy F. |last2=Rich |first2=Thomas H. |last3=Vickers-Rich |first3=Patricia |last4=Ziegler |first4=Tim |last5=Veatch |first5=E. Grace |last6=Helgen |first6=Kristofer M. |date=2022-01-02 |title=A review of monotreme (Monotremata) evolution |journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=3–20 |doi=10.1080/03115518.2022.2025900 |s2cid=247542433 |issn=0311-5518|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022Alch...46....3F }}</ref><ref name="Flannery2024"/><ref name="Press1">{{Cite web |last=de Kruijff |first=Peter |date=2024-05-26 |title='Echidnapus' fossil of potential echidna and platypus ancestor may point to Australian 'age of monotremes' |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2024-05-27/meet-the-echidnapus-from-an-age-of-monotremes-in-australia/103849096 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527085342/https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2024-05-27/meet-the-echidnapus-from-an-age-of-monotremes-in-australia/103849096 |archive-date=2024-05-27 |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] |language=en-AU}}</ref> Sato ''durophagous'' ''[[Kollikodon]]'', ''pseudotribosphenic'' ''[[Steropodon]]'', sarta ''[[Stirtodon]]'', ''[[Dharragarra]]'', ''[[Opalios]]'', jeung ''[[Parvopalus]]'' kabéhanana aya dina sédimén Cenomanian anu sarua. Fosil platypus anu mibanda huntu tina jaman Oligo-Miocene, nyaéta ''[[Obdurodon]]'', ogé geus kapanggih di Australia, sarta fosil baraya platypus anu umurna 63 juta taun kapanggih di bagian kidul Argéntina (''Monotrematum''). Genus platypus anu masih aya, ''Ornithorhynchus'', ogé geus dipikawanoh tina sédimén Pliocene, sedengkeun fosil ''tachyglossid'' (ékhidna) pangkolotna asalna tina jaman Pleistocene (1.7 juta taun ka tukang).<ref name="Flannery-2022" /> === Spésiés Fosil === [[Image:Steropodon jaw.jpg|thumb|400px|Rahang ''[[Steropodon]]'' anu umurna 100 juta taun dipajang di American Museum of Natural History, New York City, AS]] [[File:Ornithorhynchus anatinus -Sydney Aquarium, Sydney, Australia -swimming-6a.ogv|thumb|Platypus keur ngojay di [[Sydney Aquarium]]]] Iwal ti ''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'', sakumna sato anu didaptarkeun dina ieu bagian téh ngan dipikawanoh tina fosilna wungkul. Sababaraha panetepan kulawarga (''family'') masih kénéh dianggap samentara (''hesitant''), lantaran kaayaan spésiménna anu mangrupa fragmén-fragmén wungkul.<ref name="Flannery2024"/> * Kulawarga {{extinct}}[[Kollikodontidae]] ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Kollikodon]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Kollikodon ritchiei]]'' ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Kryoryctes]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Kryoryctes cadburyi]]'' ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Sundrius]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Sundrius ziegleri]]'' * Kulawarga {{extinct}}[[Steropodontidae]] ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Parvopalus]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Parvopalus clytiei]]'' ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Steropodon]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Steropodon galmani]]'' * Kulawarga {{extinct}}[[Teinolophidae]] ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Stirtodon]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Stirtodon elizabethae]]'' ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Teinolophos]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Teinolophos trusleri]]'' – 123 Ma (juta taun ka tukang), spésimén monotréma pangkolotna * Superfamilia [[Ornithorhynchoidea]] ** Kulawarga {{extinct}}[[Opalionidae]] *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Opalios]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Opalios splendens]]'' ** Kulawarga [[Ornithorhynchidae]] *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Dharragarra]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Dharragarra aurora]]'' *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Monotrematum]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Monotrematum|Monotrematum sudamericanum]]'' – 61 Ma, bagian kidul Amérika Kidul *** Genus ''[[Ornithorhynchus]]'' – spésimén ''Ornithorhynchus'' pangkolotna asalna ti 9 Ma **** Spésiés ''[[Ornithorhynchus anatinus]]'' (platypus) – spésimén pangkolotna umurna 10.000 taun *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Obdurodon]]'' – ngawengku sababaraha platypus Riversleigh ti jaman [[Miocene]] (24–5 Ma) **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Obdurodon dicksoni]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Obdurodon insignis]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Obdurodon tharalkooschild]]'' – [[Middle Miocene]] sarta [[Upper Miocene]] (15–5 Ma) *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Patagorhynchus]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Patagorhynchus|Patagorhynchus pascuali]]'' - [[Maastrichtian]], monotréma Amérika Kidul pangmunggarana anu kanyahoan<ref name="Chimento2023">{{cite journal |last1= Chimento |first1= N.R. |last2= Agnolín|first2= F.L. |display-authors=etal |date= 16 February 2023|title= First monotreme from the Late Cretaceous of South America |journal= Communications Biology |volume= 6 |issue= 1 |page= 146 |doi= 10.1038/s42003-023-04498-7|pmid= 36797304 |pmc= 9935847 }}</ref> ** Kulawarga [[Tachyglossidae]] *** Genus ''[[Zaglossus]]'' – [[Upper Pleistocene]] (1.8–0.1 Ma) **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Zaglossus robustus]]'' *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Murrayglossus]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Murrayglossus|Murrayglossus hacketti]]'' *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Megalibgwilia]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''Megalibgwilia ramsayi'' – [[Late Pleistocene]] **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''Megalibgwilia robusta'' – [[Miocene]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Bahan Bacaan Salajengna == * {{cite book |first=Ronald M. |last=Nowak |title=Walker's Mammals of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa_d2q4 |isbn=978-0-8018-5789-8 |year=1999 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |edition=6th |lccn=98023686 |language = en}} [[Kategori:Mamalia]] nxctytrjqivf6cefro0nxqbo8w57ksy 0 107977 711847 706895 2026-08-07T05:46:23Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711847 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = William McKinley | image = McKinley (cropped).jpg | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-25 | office = Pangagung luhur di Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = {{plainlist| * [[Garret Hobart]] (1897–1899) * Lowong (1899–1901) * Theodore Roosevelt (Mar–Sept 1901) }} | term_start = 4 Maret 1897 | term_end = 14 Séptémber 1901 | predecessor = [[Grover Cleveland]] | successor = [[Theodore Roosevelt]] | order1 = [[Gubernur Ohio]] ka-39 | lieutenant1 = [[Andrew L. Harris]] | term_start1 = 11 Januari 1892 | term_end1 = 13 Januari 1896 | predecessor1 = [[James E. Campbell]] | successor1 = [[Asa S. Bushnell]] | office2 = Utusan rahayat (Kongrés)<br />ti [[Ohio]] | term_start2 = 4 Maret 1885 | term_end2 = 3 Maret 1891 | birth_name = William McKinley Jr. | birth_date = {{birth date|1843|1|29}} | birth_place = [[Niles, Ohio]], AS | death_date = {{death date and age|1901|9|14|1843|1|29}} | death_place = [[Buffalo, New York]], AS | death_cause = Dirogahala (Ditémbak) | resting_place = Pamakaman McKinley,<br />[[Canton, Ohio]] | party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Parté Républik]] | father = [[William McKinley Sr.]] | mother = [[Nancy Allison]] | spouse = [[Ida Saxton McKinley|Ida Saxton]] | children = 2 | education = [[Albany Law School]] | profession = [[Janggaléman]] pulitik, ahli hukum | branch = [[Balad campuh]] (Angkatan Darat) | rank = Mayor (Brevet) | unit = [[23rd Ohio Infantry]] | battles = [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]] (Campuh Bull Run II, Antietam, jsté.) | caption = McKinley kira-kira taun 1900 }} '''William McKinley''' (29 Januari 1843 – 14 Séptémber 1901) téh mangrupa [[présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-25, anu ngawula ti taun 1897 nepi ka manéhna tilar dunya alatan dirogahala dina taun 1901.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. American Presidency Series. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> Salaku inohong ti Parté Républik, manéhna mingpin parobahan pulitik anu ngajadikeun parténa ngagegedénan sarta dominan pisan di nagara-nagara bagian industri ogé di sakuliah nagara salila mangpuluh-puluh taun.<ref>Williams, R. Hal (2010). Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan, and the Remarkable Election of 1896. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1721-0.</ref> McKinley hasil mawa Amérika unggul dina Perang Spanyol-Amérika sarta ngatur mangsa ékspansi wilayah, ku jalan nyangking Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, Filipina, jeung Samoa Amérika.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> McKinley téh présidén pamungkas anu kungsi aub jadi prajurit dina Perang Sadulur Amérika; manéhna hiji-hijina présidén anu ngamimitian lalakon jadi prajurit biasa nepi ka boga pangkat mayor brevet.<ref>Armstrong, William H. (2000). Major McKinley: William McKinley and the Civil War. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-657-9.</ref> Sabada perang réngsé, manéhna matuh di Canton, Ohio, pikeun muka prakték hukum sarta kawin ka Ida Saxton.<ref>Leech, Margaret (1959). In the Days of McKinley. New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 456809.</ref> Dina taun 1876, McKinley kapilih jadi anggota Déwan (Kongrés), di dinya manéhna jadi ahli ti pihak Républik dina urusan pajeg (tarif) panyalindungan, sabab yakin yén kawijakan proteksionisme bakal mawa kamakmuran.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> Aturan "McKinley Tariff" taun 1890 anu dijieun ku manéhna loba anu nyawad sarta, ditambahan deui ku ayana parobahan wewengkon pamilihan ku Parté Démokrat anu maksudna pikeun nyingkirkeun manéhna, ngabalukarkeun manéhna éléh dina pamilihan lulugu Déwan taun 1890.<ref>Phillips, Kevin (2003). William McKinley. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6953-2.</ref> Manéhna tuluy kapilih jadi gubernur Ohio dina taun 1891 jeung 1893, bari nyoba nyokot jalan tengah antara kapentingan nu boga modal jeung kaum buruh.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> McKinley hasil meunangkeun pencalonan présidén ti Parté Républik dina taun 1896 nalika nagarana keur katarajang kasisitan ékonomi anu parna, sarta ngéléhkeun lawanna, William Jennings Bryan, sabada ngayakeun kampanye "front porch" (di buruan imah) bari ngadukung kawijakan "duit anu séhat" (standar emas) jeung jangji yén pajeg luhur bakal mulikkeun deui kajayaan ékonomi.<ref>Williams, R. Hal (2010). Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan, and the Remarkable Election of 1896. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1721-0.</ref> Mangsa jabatanana diwarnaan ku kamekaran ékonomi anu gancang pisan.<ref>Leech, Margaret (1959). In the Days of McKinley. New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 456809.</ref> Manéhna nolak pamakéan pérak sacara bébas sarta leuwih milih nahan standar emas, ogé naékeun pajeg panyalindungan ku jalan nandatanganan "Dingley Tariff" taun 1897 pikeun nangtayungan pabrik jeung buruh tina saingan luar nagara, sarta ngasahkeun "Gold Standard Act" dina taun 1900.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> Kawijakan luar nagri McKinley nyonto kana jaman impérialisme kakuatan-kakuatan gedé dunya di wilayah Osiania, Asia, jeung Laut Karibia.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> Amérika Sarikat nyangking Républik Hawaii anu merdéka dina taun 1898, anu tuluy robah jadi Téritori Hawaii dina taun 1900.<ref>Leech, Margaret (1959). In the Days of McKinley. New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 456809.</ref> McKinley mimitina mah hayang ngolo Spanyol sangkan méré kamerdékaan ka Kuba tanpa aya campuh perang.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> Sanajan kitu, nalika badami éta gagal, manéhna ménta sarta nandatanganan deklarasi perang ti Déwan pikeun ngamimitian Perang Spanyol-Amérika taun 1898, anu di éta perang Amérika hasil meunang mutlak kalayan gancang.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> Dina perjanjian daméy éta, Spanyol masrahkeun jajahan utamana kawas Puerto Rico, Guam, jeung Filipina ka Amérika, samentara Kuba dijangjikeun merdéka tapi angget aya dina pangawasan Amérika nepi ka sabada McKinley tilar dunya dina taun 1902.<ref>Phillips, Kevin (2003). William McKinley. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6953-2.</ref> Di Filipina, aya pemberontakan anu hayang merdéka, tapi ahirna mah bisa ditalukkeun.<ref>Miller, Stuart Creighton (1982). "Benevolent Assimilation": The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03081-5.</ref> McKinley ogé hasil nyangking wewengkon anu ayeuna disebut Samoa Amérika nalika pamaréntahanana ngabagi Kapuloan Samoa jeung karajaan Inggris sarta Jérman dina Konvénsi Tripartite.<ref>Leech, Margaret (1959). In the Days of McKinley. New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 456809.</ref> McKinley ngéléhkeun Bryan deui dina pamilihan présidén taun 1900 dina kampanye anu museur kana urusan impérialisme, proteksionisme, jeung pérak bébas.<ref>Williams, R. Hal (2010). Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan, and the Remarkable Election of 1896. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1721-0.</ref> Jabatan kaduana lekasan leuwih tiheula nalika manéhna ditémbak dina 6 Séptémber 1901 ku saurang anarkis, Leon Czolgosz.<ref>Rauchway, Eric (2004). Murdering McKinley: The Making of Theodore Roosevelt's America. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-1638-9.</ref> McKinley tilar dunya dalapan poé sanggeusna sarta diganti ku Wakil Présidén Theodore Roosevelt, anu kawéntarna ngaleuwihan McKinley sorangan.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> Ahli sajarah nganggep kameunangan McKinley taun 1896 téh minangka pamilihan anu ngarobah tatanan pulitik ti mangsa pasca-Perang Sadulur ka jaman anu didominasi ku Parté Républik.<ref>Phillips, Kevin (2003). William McKinley. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6953-2.</ref> Amérika Sarikat angget ngawasa wilayah-wilayah anu dicaning ku McKinley, iwal ti Filipina anu ahirna merdéka dina taun 1946.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> McKinley umumna ditempatkeun dina jajaran tengah dina daptar peringkat présidén-présidén Amérika Sarikat.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> ==Mangsa leutik jeung kulawarga== [[File:McKinley boy.png|left|thumb|upright|McKinley, yuswa 15 taun]] William McKinley Jr. dibabarkeun dina taun 1843 di [[Niles, Ohio]], mangrupa anak katujuh tina salapan duduluran pasangan [[William McKinley Sr.]] jeung Nancy (née Allison) McKinley.{{sfnm|Leech||1p=4|Morgan||2p=2}} Kulawarga McKinley téh turunan Inggris jeung Skotlandia-Irlandia anu geus matuh di wilayah kulon Pennsylvania ti abad ka-18.{{sfnm|Leech||1p=4|Morgan||2p=2}} Karuhun maranéhna anu mimiti datang (imigran) téh nyaéta David McKinley, anu dibabarkeun di [[Dervock]], County Antrim, di wilayah anu ayeuna jadi [[Irlandia Kalér]]. William McKinley Sr. sorangan dibabarkeun di Pennsylvania, perenahna di [[Pine Township, Mercer County, Pennsylvania|Pine Township, Mercer County]].{{sfnm|Leech||1p=4|Morgan||2p=2}} Ieu kulawarga tuluy pindah ka Ohio nalika McKinley senior masih budak, sarta matuh di New Lisbon (ayeuna [[Lisbon, Ohio|Lisbon]]). Di dinya manéhna panggih jeung Nancy Allison, anu saterusna dikawin.{{sfnm|Leech||1p=4|Morgan||2p=2}} Kulawarga Allison lolobana turunan Inggris sarta kaasup salah sahiji kulawarga anu mimiti matuh di Pennsylvania.{{sfn|Morgan|p=3}} Pacabakan kulawarga ti dua pihakna téh nyaéta tukang nyieun beusi. McKinley senior ngokolakeun [[Foundry|pabrik citakan beusi]] di sakuliah Ohio, mimiti di New Lisbon, Niles, [[Poland, Ohio|Poland]], nepi ka ahirna di [[Canton, Ohio|Canton]].{{sfnm|Armstrong||1pp=4–6|Morgan||2pp=2–3|Phillips||3p=13}} Kaayaan rumah tangga McKinley, sakumaha ilaharna kulawarga ti wilayah Western Reserve di Ohio, kandel pisan ku pamadegan pulitik Whig sarta sumanget [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan), anu dumasar kana kayakinan agama maranéhna salaku panyekel ajaran [[Methodist Episcopal Church|Metodis]] anu pengkuh.{{sfnm|Phillips||1pp=17–18|Armstrong||2p=8|Morgan||3pp=10–11}} William anu ngora ogé nuturkeun tatapakan agamana, manéhna mimiti aktif di [[First Methodist Episcopal Church (Canton, Ohio)|gréja Metodis lokal]] dina yuswa genep belas taun.{{sfnm|Phillips||1p=16|Leech||2pp=4–5}} Manéhna jadi saurang Metodis anu taat saumur hirupna.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=9–10}} Dina taun 1852, ieu kulawarga pindah ti Niles ka Poland, Ohio, sangkan barudakna bisa sakola di tempat anu leuwih hadé. Sabada lulus ti [[Poland Seminary]] dina taun 1859, McKinley nuluykeun sakola ka [[Allegheny College]] di [[Meadville, Pennsylvania]] dina taun saterusna. Manéhna jadi anggota kahormatan di paguyuban [[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon Fraternity, Volume 2|last=Levere|first=William|publisher=Lakeside Press|year=1911|location=Chicago|pages=204–19}}</ref> Manéhna ngan kuat sataun di Allegheny, tuluy mulang ka imah dina taun 1860 alatan teu damang sarta ngarasa depressed (teu sumanget). Manéhna ogé kungsi sakola di Mount Union College, ayeuna [[University of Mount Union]], di [[Alliance, Ohio]], dimana manéhna saterusna jadi anggota dewan pangurus di dinya.{{sfnm|Phillips||1p=20|Armstrong||2p=5}} Sanajan kaséhatanana geus jagjag deui, kaayaan ékonomi kulawargana keur nyirorot (kasisitan), sahingga McKinley teu bisa balik deui ka Allegheny. Manéhna mimiti digawé jadi tanaga administrasi di kantor pos sarta sanggeusna jadi guru di hiji sakola deukeut Poland, Ohio.{{sfnm|Armstrong||1p=6|Morgan||2pp=11–12}} Pasukan tuluy nuju ka [[Lynchburg, Virginia|Lynchburg]], bari ngaruksak jalur karéta api salila maranéhna maju.{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom|1pp=166–68|2a=Armstrong|2pp=66–69}} Sanajan kitu, Hunter boga kayakinan yén balad musuh di Lynchburg kuat teuing, sahingga pasukanana mulang deui ka West Virginia.{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom|1pp=166–68|2a=Armstrong|2pp=66–69}} Saméméh pasukan bisa ngayakeun panarajang deui, serangan ti Jenderal Konféderasi [[Jubal Early]] ka Maryland maksa maranéhna ditarik deui ka kalér.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=70–71}} Pasukan Early nyerang dadakan di [[Second Battle of Kernstown|Kernstown]] dina 24 Juli, dimana McKinley katarajang hujan pélor sarta pasukanana kasoran (éléh).{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom|1pp=168–69|2a=Armstrong|2pp=72–73}} Nalika mundur ka Maryland, pasukan disusun deui: Mayor Jenderal [[Philip Sheridan]] ngaganti Hunter, sarta McKinley, anu naék pangkat jadi [[Captain (United States O-3)|kaptén]] sabada campuh éta, dipindahkeun jadi staf Jenderal Crook.{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom||1pp=170–71|2a=Armstrong||2pp=75–77}} Dina bulan Agustus, Early mundur ka kidul, diburu ku pasukan Sheridan.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=78–80}} Maranéhna hasil nahan panarajang Konféderasi di [[Battle of Berryville|Berryville]], dimana kuda anu ditumpakan ku McKinley ditémbak nepi ka tiwasna, tuluy pasukan maju ka [[Battle of Opequon|Opequon Creek]], dimana maranéhna hasil ngabobol pertahanan musuh sarta ngudag maranéhna leuwih jauh ka kidul.{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom||1pp=172–73|2a=Armstrong||2pp=80–82}} Kameunangan éta dituluykeun ku kameunangan séjénna di [[Battle of Fisher's Hill|Fisher's Hill]] dina 22 Séptémber sarta campuh deui di [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]] dina 19 Oktober.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=84–91}} Sanajan mimitina mundur alatan panarajang Konféderasi, McKinley milu ngagedurkeun deui sumanget baladna sarta hasil malikkeun kaayaan dina éta perang.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=84–91}} Sabada perang di Cedar Creek, pasukan tetep matuh di sabudeureun dinya nepi ka poéan pamilihan, nalika McKinley méré sora munggaranana pikeun calon présidén ti Parté Républik, [[Abraham Lincoln]].{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=84–91}} Poé saterusna, maranéhna pindah ka kalér nuju ka tempat pamatuhan usum tiris deukeut Kernstown.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=84–91}} Dina bulan Pébruari 1865, Crook ditéwak ku pasukan panyerang Konféderasi.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=95–96}} Kajadian ditéwakna Crook nambahan kabingung nalika pasukan keur disusun deui pikeun kampanye usum semi, sarta McKinley ngabantu staf opat jenderal anu béda dina waktu lima belas poé—Crook, [[John Dunlap Stevenson|John D. Stevenson]], [[Samuel S. Carroll]], jeung [[Winfield Scott Hancock|Winfield S. Hancock]].{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=95–96}} Ahirna ditépakeun deui jadi staf Carroll, McKinley purah jadi hiji-hijina [[adjutant|ajudan]] éta jenderal.{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Jenderal Lee jeung pasukanana [[Battle of Appomattox Court House#Surrender|nyerah]] ka Jenderal [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sababaraha poé sanggeusna, anu jadi tanda réngséna peperangan. McKinley asup kana pakumpulan [[Freemasonry|Freemason]] (anu jagana dingaranan maké ngaran manéhna) di [[Winchester, Virginia]], méméh manéhna jeung Carroll dipindahkeun ka Korps Hanock di Washington.{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Sakedap méméh perang bérés, McKinley nampi undak pangkat pamungkas, nyaéta pangkat mayor brevet.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=103–05}} Dina bulan Juli, unitna dibubarkeun sarta McKinley dibébaskeun tina pancénna.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=103–05}} Carroll jeung Hancock ngajurung McKinley sangkan asup jadi tantara tetep dina mangsa daméy, tapi manéhna nolak sarta milih mulang deui ka Ohio dina bulan saterusna.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=103–05}} McKinley, bareng jeung Samuel M. Taylor sarta James C. Howe, milu nyusun sarta medarkeun karya dua belas jilid, ''Official Roster of the Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1866'', anu dipedarkeun dina taun 1886.<ref>[[#roster|McKinley, Taylor, Howe, 1886]]</ref> ==Karir hukum jeung kawin== [[File:ISMcKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ida Saxton McKinley]] [[File:Katherine McKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Katherine McKinley]] Sabada perang réngsé dina taun 1865, McKinley milih pikeun nyuprih élmu dina widang hukum sarta mimiti dialajar di kantor saurang ahli hukum di [[Poland, Ohio]].{{sfn|Morgan|pp=28–30}} Taun saterusna, manéhna nuluykeun sakolana ka [[Albany Law School]] di nagara bagian New York.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=30–31}} Sabada sakola di dinya kurang ti sataun, McKinley mulang deui ka lemburna sarta dina Maret 1867 resmi diaku jadi ahli hukum (admitted to the bar) di [[Warren, Ohio]].{{sfn|Morgan|pp=30–31}} Dina taun éta kénéh, manéhna pindah ka Canton, puseur dayeuh [[Stark County, Ohio]], sarta muka kantor leutik.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=30–31}} Teu lila, manéhna gawé bareng jeung George W. Belden, saurang ahli hukum anu geus jembar ku pangalaman sarta urut hakim.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=31–33|2a=Leech||2pp=12, 21}} Usahana hasil pisan nepi ka manéhna bisa meuli wangunan di Main Street, Canton, anu méré pangasilan tambahan tina séwa salila mangpuluh-puluh taun.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=31–33|2a=Leech||2pp=12, 21}}</ref> Nalika sobatna di tantara, Rutherford B. Hayes, dicalonkeun jadi gubernur dina taun 1867, McKinley mimiti ancrub ka dunya pulitik ku jalan biantara pikeun ngadukung Hayes di Stark County.{{sfn|Leech|pp=11–12}} Sanajan kaayaan sora rahayat di dinya ampir saimbang antara Parté Démokrat jeung Républik, Hayes hasil unggul di éta wilayah.{{sfn|Leech|pp=11–12}} Dina taun 1869, McKinley nyalonkeun diri jadi jaksa wilayah (prosecuting attorney) Stark County, kalungguhan anu biasana dicepeng ku urang Démokrat, tapi manéhna hasil kapilih kalayan teu disangka-sangka.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=34–35}} Nalika manéhna nyalonkeun deui dina taun 1871, urang Démokrat nyalonkeun [[William A. Lynch]], saurang ahli hukum kasohor, sarta McKinley kasoran ku sela 143 sora.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=34–35}} Sajalan jeung karirna anu maju, lalakon asihna ogé mimiti kembangan: manéhna meungkeut asih ka [[Ida Saxton McKinley|Ida Saxton]], putri ti kulawarga jegud di Canton.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=34–35}}Maranéhna kawin dina 25 Januari 1871 di Grja Presbiterian Munggaran Canton anu anyar diwangun. Ida tuluy milu pindah agama jadi Metodis nuturkeun salakina.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Anak munggaranana, Katherine, dibabarkeun dina poé Natal taun 1871.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37|2a=Leech||2p=16}} Anak kadua, Ida, lahir dina taun 1873 tapi tilar dunya dina taun éta kénéh.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Pamajikan McKinley ngarasa dunya poék (depresi parna) alatan tilar dunya anakna, sarta kaséhatanana mimiti nyirorot.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Dua taun ti harita, Katherine tilar dunya alatan tipus. Ida henteu kungsi jagjag deui tina kasedihna, sarta kulawarga McKinley teu gaduh deui katurunan.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Ida ogé mimiti katarajang kasakit ayan (epilepsi) sarta gumantung pisan ka salakina. McKinley jadi salaki anu kacida tulaténna sarta terus ngajaga pamajikanana kalayan pinuh ku kaasih saumur hirupna.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Ida ngajurung sangkan salakina terus maju dina karir hukum jeung pulitikna.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=39–40}} McKinley milu dina konvénsi nagara bagian Républik taun 1875 sarta mantuan kampanye Hayes pikeun jadi gubernur deui.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=39–40}} Taun saterusna, McKinley nyepeng pasualaan hukum anu jadi perhatian balaréa nalika ngabéla sakelompok buruh tambang batu bara anu ditéwak alatan karusuhan jeung pameupeus mogok (strikebreakers).{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=40–41|2a=Weisenburger||2pp=78–80}} Lynch, lawan McKinley dina pamilihan 1871, jadi jaksa lawanna, sarta salah sahiji nu boga tambangna téa nyaéta [[Mark Hanna]], pangusaha ti Cleveland.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=40–41|2a=Weisenburger||2pp=78–80}} Ku jalan méré bantuan hukum haratis (''pro bono''), McKinley hasil ngabébaskeun ampir sakabéh buruh tambang éta.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=40–41|2a=Weisenburger||2pp=78–80}} Ieu hal ngangkat ngaran McKinley di mata kaum buruh, sakaligus jadi awal wawuhna manéhna jeung Hanna, anu jagana bakal jadi pangrojong panguatna.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=40–41|2a=Weisenburger||2pp=78–80}} Kaharéman McKinley di mata kaum buruh mangpaat pisan nalika manéhna nyalonkeun diri pikeun Kongrés ti wilayah ka-17 Ohio.{{sfn|Morgan|p=42}} Para utusan yakin manéhna bisa narik sora ti kaum "kerah biru" (buruh), sarta dina Agustus 1876, McKinley resmi dicalonkeun.{{sfn|Morgan|p=42}} Harita, Hayes geus dicalonkeun jadi présidén, sarta McKinley milu mantuan kampanye Hayes bari ngajalankeun kampanyena sorangan.{{sfn|Morgan|p=43}} Duanana hasil unggul. McKinley ngéléhkeun utusan Démokrat, Levi L. Lamborn, ku sela 3.300 sora kalayan ngusung téma pajeg panyalindungan. Hayes ogé hasil jadi présidén sabada pamilihan anu pinuh ku perdebatan.{sfn|Morgan|p=43}} Kameunangan McKinley ieu miboga konsékuansi pribadi: bayaranana salaku anggota Kongrés ngan satengahna tina naon anu ditarima nalika jadi ahli hukum.{{sfn|McElroy|p=31}} ==Inohong anu keur nanjung (1877–1895)== ===Juru biantara panyalindungan pajeg=== {{quote box | align = right | width = 24em | salign = right | quote = Dina kaayaan dagang bébas, tukang dagang téh jadi dunungan sarta nu nyieun barang (produsén) jadi badéga. Panyalindungan pajeg (proteksi) mah taya lian iwal ti hukum alam, hukum keur ngajaga diri, hukum kamekaran diri, sarta pikeun mastikeun darajat nu pangluhurna jeung panghadéna keur umat manusa. [Aya nu nyebut] yén proteksi téh teu boga moral... Naha, lamun proteksi bisa ngawangun jeung ngangkat darajat 63.000.000 [jumlah padumuk AS harita] jalma, pangaruh ti éta 63.000.000 jalma téh bakal ngangkat sakuliah dunya. Urang moal bisa ngaléngkah dina jalan kamajuan tanpa méré mangpaat ka umat manusa di mana waé. Heug, maranéhna nyebut, "Meuli mah di mana waé nu pangmurahna"... Tangtu, éta lumaku pikeun tanaga gawé sakumaha lumaku pikeun nu séjénna. Hayu kuring méré papatah (maksim) anu rébu kali leuwih hadé batan éta, nyaéta maksim proteksi: "Meuli mah di mana waé anjeun bisa mayar kalayan pang-enténgna." Sarta éta tempat di bumi téh nyaéta di mana tanaga gawé meunang ganjaran nu pangluhurna. | source = William McKinley, biantara dina 4 Oktober 1892, Boston, Massachusetts}} McKinley mimiti diuk dina korsé Kongrés dina Oktober 1877, nalika Présidén Hayes manggil Kongrés pikeun sidang istiméwa.{{sfn|Leech|p=20}} Kusabab urang Républik jadi minoritas, McKinley dipasihan pancén dina komisi-komisi anu dianggap kurang penting, anu ku manéhna dipidamel kalayan rancagé.{{sfn|Leech|p=20}} Sosobatan McKinley jeung Hayes teu pati méré kauntungan pikeun McKinley di [[Capitol Hill]], sabab éta présidén téh kurang dipihormat ku loba pamingpin di dinya.{{sfn|Leech|p=37}} Éta anggota Kongrés ngora téh béda pamadegan jeung Hayes dina urusan mata uang, tapi hal éta teu mangaruhan kana sosobatan maranéhna.{{sfn|Morgan|p=47}} Amérika Sarikat geus sacara éféktif maké standar emas dumasar kana Undang-Undang Mata Uang 1873; nalika harga pérak turun drastis, loba jalma hayang ngajadikeun pérak minangka alat mayar nu sah deui, saimbang jeung emas.{{sfn|Horner|pp=180–81}} McKinley milih ngadukung Undang-Undang Bland-Allison 1878 anu marentahkeun pamaréntah meuli pérak dina jumlah gedé pikeun dijadikeun duit, sarta manéhna ogé milu jeung sora mayoritas di unggal déwan pikeun ngabatalkeun véto (panolakan) Hayes kana éta aturan.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan|1pp=46–47|2a=Horner|2pp=181–82}} Dina peta éta, McKinley milih jalan anu béda jeung pamingpin Républik di Déwan, James Garfield, anu ogé urang Ohio sakaligus sobatna.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan|1pp=46–47|2a=Horner|2pp=181–82}} [[File:Mckin.jpg|thumb|left|McKinley salaku utusan rahayat (Kongrés) kira-kira taun 1870-an]] Ti mimiti jabatanana di Kongrés, McKinley geus jadi pangrojong panguatna pikeun pajeg panyalindungan (tarif proteksi). Maksud utama tina éta pajeg téh lain keur néangan pangasilan nagara, tapi sangkan industri manufaktur Amérika bisa mekar ku jalan méré kauntungan harga di pasar jero nagri batan saingan ti luar nagri.{{sfnm|1a=Leech||1pp=36–37|2a=Phillips||2pp=42–44}} Panulis biografi McKinley, Margaret Leech, nyatet yén kota Canton geus jadi maju minangka puseur manufaktur alat-alat tatanén alatan ayana panyalindungan pajeg, sarta hal ieu pisan anu mangaruhan pamadegan pulitikna.{{sfnm|1a=Leech||1pp=36–37|2a=Phillips||2pp=42–44}} Garfield anu kapilih jadi présidén dina taun 1880 nyésakeun lowongan dina Komisi Urusan Keuangan (Ways and Means Committee); McKinley kapilih pikeun ngeusian éta tempat, meunang posisi dina komisi pangkuatna ngan dina waktu dua mangsa jabatan.{{sfn|Morgan|p=55}} McKinley beuki lila beuki jadi inohong penting dina pulitik nasional. Dina taun 1884, manéhna kapilih jadi utusan dina konvénsi Républik, dimana manéhna jadi ketua Komisi Resolusi sarta meunang pangalem alatan tapis dina mingpin jalanna konvénsi.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=60–61}} Dina taun 1886, McKinley, Sénator John Sherman, jeung Gubernur Joseph B. Foraker dianggap minangka pamingpin Parté Républik di Ohio.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=60–61}} Saenggeus konvénsi taun 1888 anu pinuh ku pacogrégan, Mark Hanna mimiti mikareueus McKinley sarta jadi sobat sakaligus panaséhat deukeutna.{{sfn|Horner|pp=80–81}} Sanajan Hanna tetep aktip dina dunya bisnis, dina taun-taun sabada 1888, manéhna méakkeun beuki loba waktu pikeun ngangkat karir pulitik McKinley.{{sfn|Horner|pp=80–81}} Dina taun 1889, nalika urang Républik jadi mayoritas, McKinley nyoba nyalonkeun jadi Ketua Déwan (Speaker). Manéhna teu hasil nempatan éta posisi, anu ahirna dicepeng ku Thomas B. Reed ti Maine; sanajan kitu, Ketua Reed nunjuk McKinley jadi ketua Komisi Urusan Keuangan.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=27, 42–43}} Urang Ohio ieu tuluy mingpin panyusunan "McKinley Tariff" taun 1890 dina Kongrés; sanajan hasil gawéna loba dirobah alatan pangaruh kapentingan husus di Sénat, éta aturan hasil netepkeun sajumlah pajeg panyalindungan pikeun barang-barang ti luar nagri.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=27, 42–43}} ===Gerrymandering sarta kasoran dina pamilihan=== [[File:Judge cover September 1890 - On to Ohio.png|thumb|Gambar tina majalah ''Judge'' taun 1890, nembongkeun McKinley (kenca) keur rurusuhan nuju ka wilayahna di Ohio anu geus diacak-acak watesna (gerrymandered).]] Kusabab urang Demokrat nempo aya kakuatan gede dina diri McKinley, unggal maranehna ngawasa legislatif di Ohio, maranehna sok nyoba ngalakukeun [[Gerrymandering|gerrymander]] atawa ngarobah wates wilayah pamilihan sangkan McKinley tumpas tina jabatanna.{{sfn|Phillips|p=27}} Dina taun 1878, wilayah McKinley dipindahkeun ka distrik ka-16; tapi manehna angget unggul, nepi ka Hayes nyebut kalayan bungah, "Wah, untung pisan McKinley mah! Manehna diacak-acak wilayahna tapi angget bisa ngéléhkeun gerrymander eta! Urang sarerea milu bungah."{{sfn|Morgan|p=54}} Sanggeus pamilihan taun 1882, McKinley kungsi kaleungitan korsi alatan ayana sengketa pamilihan dina sora di Dewan.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=59–60}} Sanajan kungsi ngarasa dunya poék alatan eta kasoran, manehna jangji bakal nyalonkeun deui. Urang Demokrat ngarobah deui wates wilayah Stark County pikeun pamilihan taun 1884; tapi McKinley tetep bisa mulang deui ka Kongrés.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=60–62}} Dina taun 1890, urang Demokrat ngalakukeun gerrymander pamungkas ka McKinley, ku jalan ngahijikeun Stark County jeung wilayah Holmes County anu pangeusina teh urang [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] anu fanatik ka Demokrat. Dumasar itungan harita, Demokrat yakin wates anyar eta bakal méré kauntungan 2.000 nepi ka 3.000 sora keur maranehna. Urang Républik teu bisa ngalawan eta aturan, tapi maranehna ngerahkeun sagala kakuatan ka eta wilayah. Aturan pajeg "McKinley Tariff" jadi jejer utama kampanye Demokrat di sakuliah nagara, sarta loba jalma anu merhatikeun nasib McKinley. Parté Républik ngirimkeun juru biantara panghadena ka Canton, kaasup Blaine, Ketua Reed, sarta Présidén Harrison. McKinley sorangan teu aya kacape ngurilingan wilayahna pikeun nerangkeun ka 40.000 pamilih yén pajegna teh: {{blockquote | dijieun pikeun rahayat... salaku taméng keur industri maranehna, salaku panyalindungan pikeun tanaga gawena, salaku pangjaga pikeun imah-imah kaum buruh Amérika anu bagja, sarta salaku jaminan pikeun pendidikan, gajih, jeung investasi maranehna... Ieu hal bakal mawa kamakmuran anu taya tandingna dina sajarah urang sarta dunya."{{sfn|McKinley|p=464}} }} Demokrat nyalonkeun urut wakil gubernur [[John G. Warwick]] anu kacida kuatna. Pikeun ngahasut rahayat, maranehna nyewa budak ngora pikeun pura-pura jadi tukang dagang anu nawarkeun parabot tina kaleng harga 25 sen jadi 50 sen ka ibu-ibu rumah tangga, bari nerangkeun yen naekna harga teh alatan "McKinley Tariff". Ahirna, McKinley eleh ku sela 300 sora, tapi urang Républik unggul sacara nasional sarta ngarasa eta teh mangrupa "kameunangan moral".{{sfn|Jensen|pp=151–53}} ===Gubernur Ohio (1892–1896)=== Méméh jabatanana di Kongrés lekasan, McKinley geus didatangan ku utusan ti Ohio anu ngajurung manehna nyalonkeun jadi gubernur. Gubernur harita, James E. Campbell ti Demokrat, bakal nyalonkeun deui dina taun 1891. Parté Républik di Ohio harita keur peupeus, tapi McKinley hasil ngatur sangkan Foraker (lawan partena) nyalonkeun manehna dina konvénsi, sarta McKinley kapilih kalayan sora buleud. Manehna meunangkeun pamilihan taun 1891 ku sela 20,000 sora.{{sfn|Williams|p=50}} [[File:Blaine breaks out.png|right|thumb|James G. Blaine (tengah) masih dianggap saingan kuat pikeun McKinley jeung Reed dina kartun taun 1890.]] Gubernur Ohio sabenerna teu boga kakuatan gede—contona, manehna teu bisa ngabatalkeun (veto) undang-undang—tapi kusabab Ohio teh nagara bagian anu penting (swing state), gubernurna jadi inohong gede dina pulitik nasional.{{sfn|Williams|p=117}} Sanajan McKinley yakin yen kamajuan nagara gumantung kana dunya usaha, manehna tetep adil ka kaum buruh.{{sfn|Gould|p=7}} Manehna nyieun aturan pikeun nyeleseikeun pacogregan gawé sarta ngaluarkeun hukum anu ngadenda dunungan lamun macatkeun buruh alatan milu union (serikat buruh).{{sfn|Williams|p=122}} Nalika ékonomi Amérika ambruk alatan [[Panic of 1893]], McKinley ampir bae bangkrut sabab kungsi nanggung hutang sobatna, Robert Walker, anu jumlahna leuwih ti $100,000 (sarua jeung loba pisan juta dollar jaman ayeuna).{{sfn|Morgan|pp=129–30}} McKinley sempet mikir hayang mundur jadi gubernur sangkan bisa neangan duit jadi pengacara deui.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=130–34}} Tapi, para pangrojongna anu baleunghar, kaasup Hanna, ngumpulkeun duit pikeun malayar eta hutang. Rahayat loba anu karunya sarta simpati ka McKinley, sahingga popularitasna kalahka beuki naek.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=130–34}} Manehna hasil kapilih deui jadi gubernur dina taun 1893 kalayan sora anu panglobana saprak jaman Perang Sadulur.{{sfn|Phillips|p=67}} Sabada hasil ngahijikeun kakuatan Républik di Ohio, McKinley mimiti museurkeun paneuteupna kana korsi présidén nasional.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=69–70}} ==Pamilihan taun 1896== ===Meunangkeun pencalonan=== [[File:Mark Hanna by WJ Root, 1896 cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|Mark Hanna, sobat sarta panaséhat deukeut McKinley]] Henteu pati tétéla iraha William McKinley mimiti bener-bener nyiapkeun diri pikeun nyalonkeun présidén. Sakumaha anu dicatet ku panulis biografi McKinley, Kevin Phillips, "Taya dokumén, taya buku poéan, taya surat rusiah ka Mark Hanna (atawa ka sasaha waé) anu eusina mangrupa harepan rusiah atawa siasat anu nyamuni."{{sfn|Phillips|p=61}} Ti mimiti pisan, sagala persiapan McKinley téh dibantuan ku Hanna; panulis biografi Hanna, William T. Horner, nyatet yén, "Anu geus pasti bener nyaéta dina taun 1888, éta dua lalaki téh mimiti ngawangun hubungan gawé anu raket anu jagana mawa McKinley ka Gedong Bodas."{{sfn|Horner|p=81}} Kusabab Sherman teu nyalonkeun deui présidén sabada taun 1888, Hanna bisa bener-bener museurkeun pangrojongna kana ambisi McKinley.{{sfn|Horner|p=92}} Ku modal duit jeung katapisan Hanna dina ngatur organisasi, McKinley lalaunan ngumpulkeun pangrojong sapanjang taun 1895 nepi ka awal 1896. Nalika calon séjén kawas Ketua Reed jeung Sénator William B. Allison ngirimkeun utusan ka luar nagara bagianana pikeun ngumpulkeun sora urang Républik, maranéhna manggihan yén utusan Hanna geus ti heula aya di dinya. Dumasar kana panalungtikan ahli sajarah Stanley Jones ngeunaan pamilihan 1896: {{blockquote|Hal séjén anu sarua tina kampanye Reed jeung Allison nyaéta kagagalan maranéhna nahan arus anu nuju ka McKinley. Sabenerna, duanana kampanye éta geus mundur ti mimiti pisan digubragkeun. Kayakinan anu tenang ti unggal calon yén maranéhna bakal meunang pangrojong ti wilayahna sorangan, geuwat robah jadi... tuduhan pait yén Hanna geus ngalanggar aturan maén ku jalan meunangkeun pangrojong keur McKinley di wilayah maranéhna.{{sfn|Jones|p=103}}}} Hanna, atas ngaran McKinley, ngayakeun riungan jeung para "bandar" (political bosses) Républik di wilayah wétan, kawas Thomas Platt ti New York jeung Sénator Matthew Quay ti Pennsylvania, anu sanggup ngajamin pencalonan McKinley asal aya imbalan mangrupa jangji jabatan. Sanajan kitu, McKinley geus panceg dina pamadeganana hayang meunangkeun pencalonan tanpa aya transaksi (dagang sapi), sarta Hanna narima kana éta putusan.{{sfn|Jones|p=105}} Kalolobaan usaha awal maranéhna difokuskeun ka wilayah Kidul; Hanna nepi ka meuli imah keur pelesir di Georgia kidul dimana McKinley sering datang sarta tepung jeung para inohong Républik di éta wilayah. McKinley butuh 453½ sora utusan (delegasi) pikeun meunangkeun pencalonan; manéhna hasil meunangkeun ampir satengahna ti wilayah Kidul jeung wilayah wates. Platt ngangluh dina catetanana, "[Hanna] geus miboga sora Kidul anu solid méméh urang hudang tina saré."{{sfn|Williams|p=57}} [[File:Coronation of McKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Kartun tina majalah ''Puck'' taun 1896, nembongkeun McKinley keur masangkeun makuta pencalonan ka dirina sorangan.]] Quay jeung Platt masih boga harepan pikeun ngahalangan McKinley meunangkeun sora mayoritas dina konvénsi ku jalan ngangkat calon-calon "favorite son" (tokoh lokal) kawas Quay sorangan, Gubernur New York Levi P. Morton, jeung Sénator Illinois Shelby Cullom. Nagara bagian Illinois anu loba sorana jadi médan campuh anu penting, dimana pangrojong McKinley kawas Charles G. Dawes bajoang sangkan para delegasi milih McKinley dina konvénsi nasional di St. Louis. Cullom tétéla teu mampuh nahan kakuatan McKinley; dina konvénsi nagara bagian dina tungtung April, McKinley hasil nyapu bersih sora delegasi Illinois.{{sfn|Jones|pp=119–25}} Urut présidén Harrison ogé dianggap saingan kuat, tapi nalika Harrison méré béja yén manéhna moal nyalonkeun deui, organisasi McKinley geuwat ngawasa Indiana kalayan gancang pisan. Sénator Wyoming, Francis Warren, nulis, "Para pulitikus keur bajoang kacida kuatna ngalawan manéhna, tapi lamun rahayat leutik anu nyarita, McKinley téh mangrupa pilihan ti saeutikna 75% sakabéh pamilih Républik di Amérika".{{sfn|Phillips|pp=71–72}} Nalika konvénsi nasional dimimitian di St. Louis dina 16 Juni 1896, McKinley geus miboga sora mayoritas anu cukup. Éta urut gubernur, anu angget matuh di Canton, nuturkeun jalanna konvénsi tina telepon, sarta hasil ngadéngé sapalih tina biantara Foraker anu nyalonkeun manéhna. Nalika nepi ka gilirannana sora nagara bagian Ohio, éta sora téh langsung ngajadikeun McKinley resmi dicalonkeun. Manéhna ngarayakeunana ku cara nangkeup pamajikan jeung indungna, samentara babaturanana kalaluar ti imah pikeun nyanghareupan balaréa anu geus mimiti kumpul. Peuting éta, rébu-rébu jalma datang ti Canton jeung sabudeureunana pikeun ngadéngékeun McKinley biantara ti buruan imahna. Konvénsi ogé milih Garret Hobart ti New Jersey salaku calon wakil présidén, pilihan anu saenyana mah ditangtukeun ku Hanna. Hobart téh saurang ahli hukum sarta pangusaha jegud anu teu pati kasohor, tapi sakumaha ceuk Herbert Croly, "sanajan manéhna teu pati méré kakuatan tambahan kana éta pasangan, manéhna ogé henteu ngaleutikan kakuatanana".{{sfn|Horner|pp=159–62}}{{sfn|Williams|p=59}} ===Kampanye pamilihan umum=== [[File:McKinley straddle.jpg|thumb|left|Méméh konvénsi 1896, McKinley nyoba nyokot jalan tengah dina urusan mata uang. Kartun William Allen Rogers nembongkeun McKinley keur "tumpak pager" (bingung milih) antara emas jeung pérak.]] Méméh konvénsi Républik, McKinley téh siga "straddle bug" (jalma nu cangcaya) dina urusan mata uang, leuwih milih posisi tengah saperti bimetalismeu (maké emas jeung pérak) dumasar perjangjian internasional. Dina poéan pamungkas méméh konvénsi, McKinley mutuskeun—sanggeus ngadéngé masukan ti para pulitikus jeung pangusaha—yén parténa kudu ngadukung standar emas, sanajan tetep muka lolongkrang pikeun bimetalismeu mun aya gawé bareng jeung nagara séjén.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=52, 81–82}} Ieu putusan ngabalukarkeun sababaraha utusan ti wilayah kulon, anu dipingpin ku Sénator Henry M. Teller, milih kaluar (walk out) tina konvénsi. Sanajan kitu, pacogrégan di jero Républik mah leutik kénéh dibandingkeun jeung Parté Démokrat.{{sfn|Cherny|pp=55–56}}{{sfn|Jones|p=177}} Kaayaan ékonomi anu keur werit nambahan kakuatan pikeun pihak anu ngadukung pérak bébas (free silver). Ieu pasualan misahkeun Parté Démokrat kalayan pait pisan; Présidén Cleveland panceg ngadukung standar emas, tapi beuki loba urang Démokrat di pilemburan, utamana di Kidul jeung Kulon, anu mikahayang pérak.{{sfn|Gould|pp=10–11}} Kaum pérak hasil ngawasa konvénsi Démokrat sarta milih [[William Jennings Bryan]] jadi calon présidén; manéhna hasil ngahudang sumanget utusan ku biantara "Cross of Gold". Radikalna pamadegan ékonomi Bryan ngajadikeun para bankir reuwas—maranéhna nyangka program Bryan bakal ngabangkrutkeun pausahaan karéta api sarta ngaruksak ékonomi. Hanna tuluy ménta pangrojong ti para pangusaha pikeun stratégi kameunanganana, sarta maranéhna méré bantuan $3,5 juta pikeun nyéwa juru biantara sarta nyitak leuwih ti 200 juta pamflét anu ngadukung posisi Républik.{{sfn|Leech|pp=85–87}} {{listen | filename = William McKinley campaign speech 1896.ogg | title = McKinley biantara ti buruan imahna | description = Rekaman sajarah William McKinley. Bagian pamungkas (ti menit 5:40) eusina cuplikan biantara kampanye taun 1896. }} Kampanye Bryan mah diukur ngan miboga modal paling loba $500,000. Ku modal kamonésan biantara sarta tanaga anu ngora kénéh, Bryan mutuskeun pikeun ngayakeun tur kampanye maké karéta api ka sakuliah nagara kalayan skala anu can aya tandingna.{{sfn|Williams|pp=130–31}} Hanna ngajurung McKinley sangkan nandingan éta tur, tapi McKinley nolak alatan ngarasa Bryan leuwih tapis dina biantara panggung: "Kuring mah mending masang trapeze (parabot sirkus) di buruan hareup sarta tanding jeung atlit profésional batan kudu indit biantara nandingan Bryan. Kuring mah kudu ''mikir'' heula mun biantara."{{sfn|Williams|pp=130–31}} Tibatan manéhna anu datang ka rahayat, McKinley milih cicing di imahna di Canton sarta ngantep rahayat anu datang ka manéhna. Strategi "Front Porch Campaign" (Kampanye Buruan Imah) ieu jagana jadi legenda dina sajarah pulitik Amérika.{{sfn|Williams|pp=130–31}} [[File:Flower delegation.jpg|thumb|left|William jeung Ida McKinley poto bareng jeung rombongan "Flower Delegation" ti Oil City, Pennsylvania, di hareupeun imahna.]] McKinley narima datangna rahayat unggal poé iwal poé Minggu, narima rombongan delegasi tina téras (buruan) hareup imahna.{{sfn|Leech|pp=88–89}} Pausahaan karéta api méré potongan harga murah pikeun para pangunjung—nepi ka koran anu pro-pérak, ''Cleveland Plain Dealer'', nyawad yén indit ka Canton téh geus dijadikeun "leuwih murah batan cicing di imah".{{sfn|Harpine|p=52}} Delegasi marawai ti stasion karéta api nuju ka imah McKinley di North Market Street. Di dinya, maranéhna kumpul hareupeun téras—malah aya anu rerencepan nyeték kai téras keur kenang-kenangan—nalika McKinley biantara. Kabéh biantara McKinley disusun kalayan taliti pisan sangkan teu aya omongan anu salah; malah omongan delegasi ogé kudu disatujuan heula ku McKinley.{{sfn|Williams|pp=131, 226}} [[File:Man of Mark.png|thumb|right|upright|Kartun Homer Davenport taun 1896 anu nembongkeun McKinley salaku "bonéka" Mark Hanna.]] Koran-koran Démokrat lolobana nolak ngadukung Bryan, iwal ''New York Journal'' milik William Randolph Hearst. Dina laporan anu beurat sabeulah sarta kartun seukeut ti Homer Davenport, Hanna digambarkeun jahat salaku inohong "plutokrat" anu nincak kaum buruh.{{sfn|Jones|pp=176–77}} McKinley sorangan digambarkeun salaku budak leutik anu gampang diatur ku pangusaha gedé. Nepi ka ayeuna, ieu gambaran masih mangaruhan pandangan jalma ka Hanna jeung McKinley.{{sfn|Horner|pp=272, 318}} McKinley mimitina nyangka yén pasualaan pajeg bakal jadi pangbeuratna, tapi tétéla pasualaan pérak jeung emas anu ngawasa kampanye.{{sfn|Morgan|p=170}} Médan perang utama aya di Midwest—sabab wilayah Kidul jeung Kulon geus pasti milih Bryan.{{sfn|Kazin|p=68}} Nalika nagara bagian Maine jeung Vermont ngadukung McKinley dina Séptémber, geus kaciri yén pangrojong pikeun pérak mimiti nyirorot. Dina 3 Nopémber 1896, McKinley unggul mutlak di wilayah Northeast sarta Midwest kalayan sora 51%.{{sfn|Kazin|pp=76–77}} Bryan ngan fokus kana pasualaan pérak sarta teu bisa narik ati kaum buruh di kota-kota gedé; ampir sakabéh kota gedé (populasi luhureun 100.000) milih McKinley, iwal ti Denver, Colorado.{{sfn|Kazin|pp=76–77}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1896.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Hasil sora Electoral College 1896]] Dina Januari 1898, Spanyol jangji bakal méré sababaraha kalongsoran (konsési) ka para pamberontak, tapi nalika konsul Amérika [[Fitzhugh Lee]] ngalaporkeun ayana karusuhan di [[Havana]], McKinley sapuk pikeun ngirimkeun kapal perang [[USS Maine (ACR-1)|USS ''Maine'']].{{sfn|Gould|pp=71–72}} Dina 15 Pébruari, kapal ''Maine'' bitu sarta tilelep nepi ka niwaskeun 266 urang prajurit.{{sfn|Gould|p=74}} Perhatian masarakat langsung museur kana éta krisis sarta miboga kacindekan yén saha waé anu masang bomna, Spanyol geus kaleungitan kadali ka Kuba. McKinley keukeuh yén pangadilan militer ([[Naval Board of Inquiry]]) kudu nangtukeun heula naha éta bitu téh alatan kacilakaan atawa lain.{{sfn|Leech|pp=171–72}} Badami jeung Spanyol terus lumaku nalika pangadilan mariksa bukti-bukti, tapi dina 20 Maret, pangadilan mutuskeun yén ''Maine'' téh dibitukeun ku ranjau jero cai.{{sfnm|1a=Leech|1p=173|2a=Gould|2pp=78–79}} Nalika desekan perang beuki kuat di Kongrés, McKinley terus nyoba badami pikeun kamerdékaan Kuba.{{sfn|Gould|pp=79–81}} Spanyol nolak usulan McKinley, sarta dina 11 April, McKinley masrahkeun ieu pasualan ka Kongrés. Manéhna teu ménta perang, tapi Kongrés nyokot putusan sarta ngumumkeun perang dina 20 April, kalayan tambahan [[Teller Amendment]] anu negeskeun yén Amérika teu boga niat pikeun nyangking (aneksasi) Kuba.{{sfn|Gould|pp=86–87}} Ahli sajarah Nick Kapur boga pamanggih yén léngkah McKinley téh dumasar kana ajén-inajén badami, sipat pasifis, kamanusaan, sarta kadali diri anu jalu (manly), lain alatan desekan ti luar.<ref>Nick Kapur, "William McKinley's Values and the Origins of the Spanish‐American War: A Reinterpretation." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 41.1 (2011): 18–38.</ref> Mekarna telegraf jeung telepon méré lolongkrang keur McKinley pikeun leuwih jero ngatur jalanna perang poé demi poé batan présidén-présidén saméméhna, sarta manéhna ngagunakeun éta téknologi anyar pikeun ngarahkeun gerakan angkatan darat jeung laut sakumaha mampuhna.{{sfn|Gould|pp=91–93}} McKinley ngarasa Alger kurang mampuh jadi Sekretaris Perang, sarta manéhna ogé kurang cocog jeung panglima luhur Angkatan Darat, [[Nelson A. Miles]].{{sfn|Gould|pp=102–03}} Ku jalan naliwangkeun maranéhna, manéhna ménta nasehat stratégi ti Jenderal John Schofield sarta Adjudan Jenderal Henry Clarke Corbin.{{sfn|Gould|pp=102–03}} Ieu perang ogé mawa parobahan dina kabinét McKinley, nalika présidén narima pangunduran diri Sherman salaku Sekretaris Nagara. [[William R. Day]] satuju pikeun ngagentos samentara nepi ka perang réngsé.{{sfnm|1a=Gould|1p=94|2a=Leech|2p=191}} Dina waktu dua minggu, angkatan laut meunangkeun kameunangan munggaranana nalika Komodor [[George Dewey]] ngancurkeun armada Spanyol dina [[Battle of Manila Bay]] di Filipina.{{sfn|Leech|pp=203–07}} Kameunangan mutlak Dewey ieu ngalegaan wengkuan perang anu tadina museur di Karibia jadi nangtukeun nasib sakabéh jajahan Spanyol di Pasifik.{{sfn|Gould|p=96}} Bulan saterusna, McKinley nambahan jumlah [[Eighth Army Corps (Spanish-American War)|pasukan anu dikirim ka Filipina]] sarta méré kawenang ka Komandan Mayor Jenderal Wesley Merritt pikeun nyusun sistem hukum jeung pajeg—kabutuhan pikeun penjajahan jangka panjang.{{sfn|Gould|pp=97–98}} Nalika pasukan nepi di Filipina dina tungtung Juni 1898, McKinley geus mutuskeun yén Spanyol kudu masrahkeun éta kapuloan ka Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Gould|p=101}} Sanajan manéhna ngaku kabuka kana sagala pamadegan, manéhna yakin yén sajalan jeung majuna perang, masarakat bakal nungtut sangkan éta kapuloan dicepeng salaku hadiah perang.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=467–68}} Samentara éta, di médan perang Karibia, pasukan badag anu diwangun ku tantara tetep jeung sukarelawan kumpul deukeut Tampa, Florida, pikeun nyerang Kuba.{{sfn|Leech|pp=214–15}} Sabada sababaraha kali nyangsang, angkatan darat anu dipingpin ku Mayor Jenderal William Rufus Shafter badarat deukeut [[Santiago de Cuba]] dina 22 Juni.{{sfn|Gould|pp=107–09}} Pasukan Shafter campuh jeung kakuatan Spanyol dina 2 Juli dina [[Battle of San Juan Hill]].{{sfn|Leech|pp=249–52}} Dina perang anu ragot sapoé jeput, pasukan Amérika hasil unggul, sanajan dua pihakna kudu kaleungitan loba korban.{{sfn|Gould|pp=109–110}} Poé saterusna, armada Karibia Spanyol anu nyumput di palabuan Santiago nyoba kabur ka laut leupas tapi diancurkeun ku Armada Atlantik Kalér dina [[Battle of Santiago de Cuba|perang laut pangbadagna di éta mangsa]].{{sfn|Leech|pp=253–58}} Shafter ngepung kota Santiago, anu ahirna nyerah dina 17 Juli, ngajadikeun Kuba sacara éféktif aya dina kadali Amérika.{{sfn|Gould|pp=110–12}} McKinley jeung Miles ogé maréntahkeun serangan ka [[Puerto Rico]], anu ampir taya perlawanan nalika pasukan badarat dina bulan Juli.{{sfn|Gould|pp=110–12}} Jauh na jarak ti nagara asal sarta hancurna angkatan laut Spanyol ngajadikeun maranéhna teu bisa ngirim deui bantuan, sahingga pamaréntah Spanyol mimiti néangan jalan pikeun mungkas peperangan.{{sfn|Gould|pp=112–13}} ===Daméy sarta nambahanana wilayah=== [[File:Jules Cambon signs Treaty of Paris, 1899.JPG|thumb|left|Nandatanganan [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Perjangjian Paris]]]] Kabinét McKinley sapuk jeung manéhna yén Spanyol kudu miang ti Kuba jeung Puerto Rico, tapi maranéhna béda pamadegan ngeunaan Filipina, aya anu hayang nyangking (aneksasi) sakabéh éta kapuloan sarta aya ogé anu ngan hayang miboga pangkalan angkatan laut di éta wilayah.{{sfn|Gould|p=117}} Sanajan sora rahayat kacirina leuwih condong kana nyangking Filipina, sababaraha inohong pulitik kasohor—kaasup urang Démokrat kawas Bryan jeung Cleveland, sarta Liga Anti-Impérialis Amérika anu anyar dibentuk—nembongkeun panolakanana.{{sfn|Gould|p=116}} McKinley ngusulkeun pikeun muka badami jeung Spanyol dumasar kana dibébaskeunana Kuba sarta dicangkingna Puerto Rico, samentara status pamungkas Filipina bakal dibadamikeun deui saterusna.{{sfn|Gould|pp=118–19}} Manéhna panceg dina éta tungtutan sanajan kaayaan militer di Kuba mimiti nyirorot nalika tantara Amérika ditarajang ku kasakit [[yellow fever]] (muriang konéng).{{sfn|Gould|pp=118–19}} Spanyol ahirna satuju kana gencatan senjata dumasar kana éta pasaratan dina 12 Agustus, sarta badami perjangjian dimimitian di Paris dina bulan Séptémber 1898.{{sfn|Gould|pp=120–21}} Éta sawala lumangsung nepi ka 18 Désémber, nalika [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Perjangjian Paris]] ditandatanganan.{{sfn|Gould|pp=142–43}} Amérika Sarikat meunangkeun Puerto Rico, Filipina, sarta pulo [[Guam]], samentara Spanyol masrahkeun hakna kana Kuba; salaku imbalanana, Amérika Sarikat sapuk pikeun mayar $20 juta ka Spanyol.{{sfn|Gould|pp=142–43}} McKinley rada hésé ngayakinkeun Sénat sangkan nyaluyuan éta perjangjian ku dua per tilu sora, tapi ku jalan lobi-lobi manéhna jeung Wakil Présidén Hobart, ahirna hasil, sarta Sénat méré sora satuju dina 6 Pébruari 1899 kalayan babandingan sora 57 lawan 27.{{sfnm|1a=Gould|1pp=144–50|2a=Morgan|2p=320}} ====Hawaii==== [[File:Annexation Here to Stay (edit).jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|[[Newlands Resolution|Panyangkingan]] [[Republic of Hawaii]] dina taun 1898]] Nalika perang lumangsung, McKinley ogé narékahan pikeun nyangking [[Republic of Hawaii]]. Éta républik anyar, anu dikawasa ku kapentingan bisnis, geus [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|ngaléngsérkeun Ratu]] dina taun 1893 nalika sang Ratu nyoba mulikkeun deui kakawasaan monarki ku jalan ngabatalkeun konstitusi bayonét.{{sfn|Gould|p=48}} Aya rojongan kuat ti Amérika pikeun nyangking éta wilayah, sarta kabutuhan pangkalan di Pasifik dina mangsa perang jadi beuki tétéla sabada Perang Manila.{{sfn|Gould|pp=49–50}} McKinley mimiti ngajabat salaku pangrojong panyangkingan Hawaii, sarta ngalobi Kongrés sangkan gura-giru meta, bari méré gorowok pangéling yén lamun cicing baé bakal nimbulkeun révolusi ti pihak karajaan atawa dicangking ku Jepang.{{sfn|Gould|pp=49–50}} Kusabab geus neguh bakal hésé meunangkeun dua per tilu sora Sénat pikeun nyatujuan perjangjian panyangkingan, McKinley malah ngarojong tarekah utusan Démokrat [[Francis G. Newlands]] ti Nevada pikeun ngahontal éta hasil ku jalan [[joint resolution]] (résolusi babarengan) ti dua déwan di Kongrés.{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Hasilna, [[Newlands Resolution]] ditarima ku sora mayoritas di dua déwan, sarta McKinley nandatanganan éta aturan dina 8 Juli 1898.{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Panulis biografi McKinley, H. Wayne Morgan, nyatet, "McKinley téh mangrupa sumanget anu ngarahkeun panyangkingan Hawaii, nembongkeun... kapancegan dina narékahanana"; présidén nyarita ka Cortelyou, "Urang butuh Hawaii sakumaha butuhna, malah leuwih butuh batan urang butuh California. Ieu téh mangrupa [[manifest destiny]] (takdir anu nyata)."{{sfn|Morgan|pp=223, 225}} ===Ngalegaan pangaruh ka mancanagara=== ====Panto kabuka di Cina==== Méméh badami daméy jeung Spanyol dimimitian, McKinley ménta Kongrés pikeun ngawangun komisi anu mariksa lolongkrang dagang di Asia sarta ngusung kabijakan "[[Open Door Policy]]" (Kawijakan Panto Kabuka), dimana sakabéh nagara bisa kalayan bébas dagang jeung Cina sarta taya sahiji nagara anu meunang ngarempak kadaulatan wilayah éta nagara.{{sfn|Gould|p=201}} [[File:Siege of Peking, Boxer Rebellion.jpg|thumb|left|Prajurit Amérika naék kana témbok Beijing pikeun méré bantuan nalika dikepungna utusan internasional, Agustus 1900]] Para misionaris Amérika kaancam pati nalika [[Boxer Rebellion]] ngancam urang deungeun di Cina.{{sfn|Gould|pp=220–22}} Urang Amérika jeung urang kulon séjénna di [[Peking]] dikepung, sarta ku jalan gawé bareng jeung kakuatan kulon séjénna, McKinley maréntahkeun 5.000 pasukan ka éta kota dina Juni 1900 dina misi [[China Relief Expedition]].{{sfn|Lafeber|p=714}} Urang kulon hasil disalametkeun dina bulan saterusna, tapi sababaraha urang Démokrat di Kongrés protés kana tindakan McKinley anu ngirimkeun pasukan tanpa badami heula jeung legislatif.{{sfn|Gould|pp=220–22}} Tindakan McKinley ieu jadi conto (présidén) anu dituturkeun ku lolobana panerusna dina ngagunakeun kakawasaan mandiri pikeun ngatur militer.{{sfn|Lafeber|p=714}} Sabada éta pemberontakan réngsé, Amérika Sarikat negeskeun deui komitmenna kana kawijakan Panto Kabuka, anu jadi dadasar kawijakan Amérika ka Cina.{{sfn|Gould|p=233}} ====Terusan Panama==== McKinley sareng [[John Hay|Hay]] ngayakeun badami sareng Inggris ngeunaan rencana pangwangunan terusan motong Amérika Tengah. Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer taun 1850 ngalarang kadua nagara miboga kadali éksklusif kana éta terusan. Perang nu geus liwat nembongkeun héséna ngatur angkatan laut di dua samudra nalika kapal-kapal kudu ngurilingan Amérika Kidul pikeun nepi ka Pasifik.{{sfn|Gould|pp=196–98}} Ayeuna, kalayan kapentingan bisnis jeung militer Amérika anu beuki kuat di Asia, éta terusan téh karasa beuki penting, sarta McKinley ngadesek sangkan éta perjangjian dirobah.{{sfn|Gould|pp=196–98}} Hay jeung duta badag Inggris, [[Julian Pauncefote, 1st Baron Pauncefote|Julian Pauncefote]], sapuk yén Amérika Sarikat bisa ngatur éta terusan asal dibuka pikeun sakabéh kapal jeung teu dijadikeun bénténg militer.{{sfn|McCullough|pp=256–59}} McKinley satuju, tapi Sénat nolak sarta nungtut sangkan Amérika diidinan ngawangun bénténg di dinya.{{sfn|McCullough|pp=256–59}} Hay ngarasa éra ku éta panolakan sarta ménta mundur, tapi McKinley nolak sarta maréntahkeun manéhna pikeun neruskeun badami nepi ka tujuanna kahontal.{{sfn|McCullough|pp=256–59}} Usahana hasil, perjangjian anyar disusun sarta disatujuan, tapi éta kajadian sabada McKinley dimaotkeun dina taun 1901.{{sfn|McCullough|pp=256–59}} Hasilna di mangsa Roosevelt nyaéta [[Panama Canal|Terusan Panama]]. ===Pajeg jeung bimetalismeu=== [[File:McKinley Prosperity.jpg|thumb|upright|Poster pamilihan taun 1900 kalayan téma McKinley geus mulikkeun kamakmuran Amérika]] McKinley geus kakoncara di Kongrés alatan ngadukung pajeg (tarif) luhur pikeun ngajaga bisnis Amérika sarta buruh pabrik. Kalayan kontrol Républik di Kongrés, disahkeun [[Dingley Act]] anu naékeun tarif keur wol, gula, jeung barang méwah.{{sfn|Gould|pp=44–45}} McKinley nandatanganan éta aturan dina 24 Juli 1897.<ref name="ucsb">{{cite web | title=William McKinley Event Timeline | website=The American Presidency Project | url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/william-mckinley-event-timeline | access-date=May 24, 2024}}</ref> Amérika ogé nyoba badami jeung Inggris ngeunaan [[bimetallism|bimetalismeu]] (pamakéan emas jeung pérak). Perdana Menteri Inggris [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]] mimitina némbokeun minat, tapi pamaréntahan India (jajahan Inggris) nolak éta usulan.{{sfn|Gould|pp=45–46}} Alatan éta usaha gagal, McKinley ahirna ninggalkeun pérak sarta milih standar emas.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=217–18}} Sumanget rahayat pikeun "pérak bébas" ogé ngurangan sabab ékonomi mimiti maju sarta lobana papanggihan emas anyar di Klondike sarta Australia.{{sfnm|1a=Nichols||1p=586|2a=Gould||2p=46}} Dina 14 Maret 1900, McKinley nandatanganan [[Gold Standard Act]] (Undang-Undang Standar Emas) maké pulpén emas.{{sfn|Gould|pp=169–71}} ===Hak sipil=== [[File:McKinley at Atlanta.jpg|thumb|right|McKinley (katuhu tengah) bareng jeung Gubernur Georgia Allen D. Candler sarta Jenderal Shafter dina parade di Atlanta, 15 Désémber 1898]] Sabada McKinley kapilih dina 1896, urang kulit hideung miboga harepan aya kamajuan dina kasaruaan hak. McKinley kungsi nyarita ngalawan tindakan [[lynching]] (hakiman massa) nalika jadi gubernur.{{sfn|Gould|pp=153–54}} Sanajan kitu, McKinley leuwih mentingkeun ngahijikeun deui wilayah-wilayah Amérika (rekonsiliasi), sahingga kawijakanana dianggap nguciwakeun pikeun urang kulit hideung.{{sfn|Gould|pp=153–54}} Tindakan McKinley kana kekerasan rasial dianggap minim pisan. Nalika aya pajabat pos kulit hideung di Georgia (1897) jeung South Carolina (1898) anu diserang, McKinley teu ngaluarkeun pernyataan nanaon.{{sfn|Gould|p=155}} Kitu ogé nalika kajadian [[Wilmington insurrection of 1898|pemberontakan Wilmington]], dimana sakelompok jalma anu percaya kaunggulan kulit bodas (white supremacists) ngaléngsérkeun pamaréntahan anu sah, McKinley nolak ngirimkeun pasukan pikeun ngajaga warga kulit hideung.<ref name=Time>{{cite news|title=The 1898 Wilmington Massacre Is an Essential Lesson in How State Violence Has Targeted Black Americans|url=https://time.com/5861644/1898-wilmington-massacre-essential-lesson-state-violence/|date=July 1, 2020|newspaper=Time Magazine}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916115308/https://time.com/5861644/1898-wilmington-massacre-essential-lesson-state-violence/ |date=September 16, 2021 }}</ref> Nurutkeun ahli sajarah Clarence A. Bacote, méméh Perang Amérika-Spanyol, urang kulit hideung nganggap McKinley salaku "sobat panghadéna".{{sfn|Bacote|p=234}} McKinley kungsi ngadatangan [[Tuskegee Institute]] sarta tokoh pendidikan kulit hideung [[Booker T. Washington]].{{sfn|Phillips|pp=156–57}} Sanajan kitu, dina tur ka wilayah Kidul, manéhna teu nyinggung pisan ngeunaan kakerasan ras. Ahli sajarah Gould nyimpulkeun yén McKinley kurang miboga tetempoan (visi) pikeun ngaluhuran prasangka dina zamanna pikeun masa depan Amérika anu leuwih hadé.{{sfnm|1a=Gould||1pp=159–60|2a=Phillips||2p=149}} ===Pamilihan 1900=== {{Main|1900 United States presidential election}} [[File:The Administration's Promises Have Been Kept.jpg|thumb|McKinley kampanye dumasar kana catetan kasuksésan ékonomi sarta kameunangan perang dina taun 1900, sahingga gampang kapilih deui ngéléhkeun William Jennings Bryan.]] Urang Républik umumna suksés dina pamilihan nagara bagian jeung lokal di sakuliah nagara dina taun 1899, sarta McKinley ngarasa optimis ngeunaan lolongkrangna pikeun kapilih deui dina taun 1900.{{sfn|Gould|pp=207–08}} Popularitas McKinley dina mangsa jabatan kahiji ngajamin manéhna dicalonkeun deui pikeun kadua kalina.{{sfn|Gould|pp=213–14}} Hiji-hijina pananya pikeun pasangan Républik nyaéta ngeunaan calon wakil présidén; McKinley butuh batur sapaan anyar sabab Hobart tilar dunya dina tungtung taun 1899.{{sfn|Gould|pp=215–17}} McKinley mimitina milih [[Elihu Root]], tapi manéhna ngarasa Root téh keur migawé pancén anu kacida hadéna di Departemén Perang sahingga lebar lamun kudu dipindahkeun.{{sfn|Gould|pp=215–17}} Manéhna mertimbangkeun calon séjén kawas Allison, tapi taya nu bisa nandingan kakuatan béntang anyar Parté Républik, [[Theodore Roosevelt]].<ref>{{sfn|Phillips|pp=120–22}}</ref> Roosevelt, saurang pahlawan Perang Kuba anu keur ngajabat Gubernur New York, dipikaresep ku réa jalma pikeun jadi wakil présidén, sanajan Mark Hanna kurang satuju sabab nganggap Roosevelt téh jalma anu gurunggusuh (impulsif).{{sfn|Horner|pp=260–66}} Nalika konvénsi Républik dimimitian di Philadelphia dina bulan Juni, McKinley negeskeun yén pilihan wakil présidén téh dipasrahkeun sagemblengna ka konvénsi.{{sfn|Gould|p=218}} Dina 21 Juni, McKinley dicalonkeun deui kalayan sora buleud, sarta kalayan rasa beurat ti Hanna, Roosevelt dicalonkeun jadi wakil présidén dina sora kahiji.{{sfn|Leech|pp=540–42}} Démokrat, dina konvénsina di Kansas City, nyalonkeun deui William Jennings Bryan, sahingga jadi tanding ulang ti kajadian taun 1896.{{sfn|Gould|pp=219–20}} Sarat calon mah angget sarua, tapi pasualaan kampanye geus robah: "pérak bébas" masih jadi bahan sawala, tapi urang Républik leuwih museur kana kameunangan perang sarta kamakmuran ékonomi di jero nagri.{{sfnm|1a=Gould||1pp=226–27|2a=Leech||2pp=543–44}} Urang Démokrat nyoba nyerang McKinley ku jalan ngagambarkeun manéhna salaku badéga modal jeung pausahaan badag (trusts).{{sfnm|1a=Gould||1pp=227–28|2a=Leech||2pp=544–46}} Bryan ngayakeun tur biantara ka sakuliah nagara, samentara McKinley angget matuh di imah sarta ngan sakali biantara pikeun narima pencalonanana.{{sfn|Leech|pp=549–57}} Dina 6 Nopémber 1900, McKinley hasil meunangkeun kameunangan pangbadagna pikeun urang Républik saprak taun 1872, malah manéhna unggul di nagara bagian asal Bryan, Nebraska.{{sfn|Leech|p=559}} ===Mangsa jabatan kadua=== [[File:President William McKinley Taking The Oath (1901) by Thomas A. Edison.webm|thumb|Pelantikan kadua McKinley anu dirékam ku Thomas Edison. Ieu téh sumpah jabatan présidén munggaran anu dirékam dina sajarah AS.]] Teu lila sabada pelantikan kaduana dina 4 Maret 1901, William jeung Ida McKinley ngayakeun tur genep minggu ka sakuliah nagara. Maranéhna sakuduna indit ka wilayah Kidul nepi ka basisir Pasifik, sarta ditungtungan ku kunjungan ka [[Pan-American Exposition]] di Buffalo, New York, dina 13 Juni 1901.{{sfn|Miller|pp=289–90}} Sanajan kitu, Sang Ibu Nagara (Ida) gering di California, sahingga McKinley kudu ngabatalkeun sababaraha acara biantara sarta nunda kunjungan ka paméran di Buffalo nepi ka bulan Séptémber.{{sfn|Gould|pp=247–49}} Manéhna méakkeun sabulan di Washington sarta dua bulan di Canton méméh indit ka Buffalo.{sfn|Gould|pp=247–49}} ==Dirogahala== {{Main|Assassination of William McKinley}} [[File:McKinley last photo.jpg|thumb|McKinley nuju ka [[Temple of Music]] dina 6 Séptémber 1901, sakedap méméh kajadian némbak.]] Sanajan McKinley resep tepung jeung rahayat, Cortelyou (sekretarisna) ngarasa hariwang ku kaamanan présidén alatan loba kajadian rajapati ku kaum anarkis di Éropa.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|p=294}}</ref> Dina 5 Séptémber, McKinley méré biantara di hareupeun 50.000 jalma di tempat paméran, anu eusina ngajurung kana perjangjian dagang mancanagara. Ieu biantara téh sabenerna jadi dadasar rancana manéhna pikeun mangsa jabatan kadua.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=298–300}}{{sfn|Gould|pp=250–51}}</ref> Saurang lalaki dina éta balaréa, [[Leon Czolgosz]], boga niat jahat hayang maéhan McKinley. Czolgosz, anu kabaud ku paham anarkismeu, nunggu kasempetan di wangunan [[Temple of Music]] dina poé saterusna nalika présidén keur narima rahayat. Czolgosz nyumputkeun pestolna dina saputangan, sarta nalika gilirannana salaman, manéhna némbak McKinley dua kali dina bagian beuteung tina jarak deukeut.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=300–01}}</ref> Dina kaayaan kitu, McKinley masih kénéh ménta ka ajudanna sangkan méré nyaho éta béja kalayan ati-ati ka pamajikanana, sarta ménta sangkan balaréa ulah neunggeulan Czolgosz.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=301–02}}</ref> McKinley dibawa ka imah John G. Milburn. Dina sababaraha poé awal, kaayaan McKinley kacirina mimiti hadé sahingga para menteri sarta Wakil Présidén Roosevelt bubar ti Buffalo.{{sfnm|1a=Miller||1pp=315–17|2a=Morgan||2pp=401–02}} Nanging, dina isuk-isuk 13 Séptémber, kaayaanana ngadadak drop. Anu teu kanyahoan ku dokter harita, jaringan sakuliah tatu beuteungna geus ruksak sarta jadi racun kana getihna (gangrene).<ref>{{sfn|Leech|p=600}}</ref> Nalika peuting, McKinley geus sadar yén ajjalna geus deukeut, manéhna ngomong, "Geus taya gunana, Juragan. Jigana urang kudu ngadoa."<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=318–319}}</ref> Pamajikanana, Ida, ceurik bari ngomong hayang milu maot, tapi McKinley ngajawab kalayan tenang, "Urang kabéh ogé bakal indit. Kersaning Gusti anu bakal kajadian, lain kahayang urang."<ref>{{sfn|Miller|p=320}}</ref> Dina jam 02:15 subuh, 14 Séptémber 1901, McKinley tilar dunya. Theodore Roosevelt rurusuhan mulang ka Buffalo sarta disumpah jadi présidén. Czolgosz ahirna dihukum pati maké korsi listrik dina 29 Oktober 1901.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=321–30}}</ref> ==Pamakaman, tugu peringatan, sarta warisan== ===Pamakaman sarta tempat reureuh pamungkas=== [[File:President McKinley's funeral, 1901.webm|thumb|Iring-iringan layon McKinley dina 17 Séptémber 1901.]] Nurutkeun Gould, "Sakuliah nagara ngarasa sedih anu kacida nalika ngadéngé béja pupusna McKinley."<ref>{{sfn|Gould|p=252}}</ref> Layon McKinley mimitina disimpen di East Room di Gedong Bodas, tuluy dibawa ka Capitol méméh dibawa ka Canton maké karéta api. Kira-kira 100.000 urang ngantri dina hujan pikeun méré panghurmatan pamungkas ka présidénna.<ref>{{sfn|Morgan|pp=402–03}}</ref> Loba nu nyangka Ida McKinley moal kuat lila ditinggal maot ku salaki anu dipikacintana. Ida mémang teu milu kana upacara di Washington alatan teu kiat, tapi manéhna matuh di Canton sapanjang sésa hirupna bari terus nganjang ka tempat neundeun layon McKinley.<ref>{{sfn|Leech|p=602}}</ref> Ida tilar dunya dina umur 59 taun, 26 Méi 1907, ngan sababaraha bulan méméh tugu peringatan [[McKinley National Memorial]] réngsé diwangun.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|p=348}}</ref> William jeung Ida McKinley ayeuna dimakamkeun babarengan jeung dua putri maranéhna dina tugu marmer anu agréng di luhur pasir di kota Canton.{{sfnm|1a=McElroy||1pp=189–93|2a=Morgan||2p=406}} ===Tugu peringatan séjénna=== Salian ti makamna di Canton, loba kénéh tugu séjén pikeun ngahormat McKinley. Tugu William McKinley nangtung di hareupeun Gedong Nagara Ohio di Columbus, sarta patung marmer McKinley anu badag aya di tempat weton (gumelarna) di Niles. Aya dua puluh sakola di Ohio sarta loba deui sakola di sakuliah Amérika anu maké ngaran McKinley.<ref>{{sfn|McElroy|p=189}}</ref> Kurang leuwih sajuta dollar dikumpulkeun ti masarakat sarta dana publik pikeun ngawangun tugu-tugu peringatan dina taun mimitina sabada manéhna pupus.<ref>{{sfn|Olcott|p=388}}</ref> Kevin Phillips, nu nulis biografina, nyebutkeun yén lobana tugu peringatan di Ohio nembongkeun harepan urang Ohio harita yén McKinley bakal dijajarkeun jeung présidén-présidén agung Amérika.{{sfn|Phillips|p=161}} Patung McKinley bisa kapanggih di leuwih ti dua belas nagara bagian. Dina taun 1896, saurang tukang neangan emas méré ngaran "Mount McKinley" pikeun [[Denali]], gunung pangluhurna di Amérika Kalér. Ngaran éta gunung dibalikkeun deui jadi Denali ku pamaréntah dina taun 1975 sarta 2015.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hirschfeld Davis|first1=Julie|title=Mount McKinley Will Be Renamed Denali|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/31/us/mount-mckinley-will-be-renamed-denali.html?smid=fb-nytimes&smtyp=cur&_r=0|website=The New York Times |date=August 30, 2015}}</ref> Nanging, dina 20 Januari 2025, Présidén Donald Trump ngaluarkeun paréntah éksékutif pikeun mulikkeun deui ngaran McKinley kana éta gunung.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 20, 2025 |title=Restoring names that honor American greatness|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/restoring-names-that-honor-american-greatness/ |website=White House}}</ref> ===Warisan sarta citra sajarah=== [[File:Harriet Anderson Stubbs Murphy - William McKinley - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Potrét resmi Présidén William McKinley.]] Phillips yakin yén bagian tina warisan McKinley nyaéta jalma-jalma anu aya dina pamaréntahanana anu jagana ngawasaan Parté Républik salila saparapat abad sabada manéhna tilar dunya. Para pajabat ieu kaasup Cortelyou, anu ngajabat dina tilu posisi Kabinét di handapeun Roosevelt, sarta Dawes, anu jadi wakil présidén di handapeun Coolidge. Jalma-jalma anu diangkat ku McKinley séjénna anu jagana jadi inohong utama nyaéta Day, anu diangkat ku Roosevelt ka Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat, sarta William Howard Taft, anu dijadikeun Gubernur Jenderal Filipina ku McKinley sarta saterusna ngagantikeun Roosevelt jadi présidén.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=163–64}} H. Wayne Morgan nyatet yén McKinley pupus salaku présidén anu paling dipikaasih dina sajarah.{{sfn|Morgan|p=404}} Nanging, sosok Roosevelt anu ngora sarta pinuh sumanget geuwat narik perhatian masarakat sarta nyieun kenangan ngeunaan McKinley lalaunan laleur. Nepi ka taun 1920, pamaréntahan McKinley ngan dianggap salaku "bubuka anu biasa-biasa baé méméh jagana datang Theodore Roosevelt anu pinuh énergi."{{sfn|Gould|p=252}} Ti mimiti taun 1950-an, McKinley mimiti meunang peunteun anu leuwih hadé, sanajan dina survéy-survéy présidén, manéhna biasana aya di tengah-tengah.{{sfn|Gould|p=252}} Aya kasapukan di antara para ahli sajarah yén kapilihna McKinley nandaan parobahan jaman pulitik Amérika kana mangsa anu leuwih modern sarta pro-industri.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kenneth F. Warren|title=Encyclopedia of U.S. Campaigns, Elections, and Electoral Behavior|year=2008|publisher=SAGE|page=211}}</ref> Kevin Phillips boga pamanggih yén peunteun rendah pikeun McKinley téh sabenerna teu pantes, sarta manéhna kudu dijajarkeun sanggeus présidén hébat kawas Washington jeung Lincoln.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=156–57}} Salah sahiji warisan McKinley anu nyata nyaéta jalma-jalma anu diangkat ku manéhna di pamaréntahan jagana jadi inohong penting, kawas William Howard Taft anu ahirna jadi présidén.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=163–64}} Salian ti éta, alatan kajadian rajapati McKinley, Kongrés ahirna mutuskeun yén nangtayungan kasalametan présidén kudu jadi tugas resmi Secret Service Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/how-president-william-mckinleys-assassination-led-modern-secret-service-180964868/|title=How President William McKinley's Assassination Led to the Modern Secret Service|website=Smithsonianmag.com}}</ref> Pasualan anu masih kontrovérsial nyaéta ngeunaan panyalapan wilayah (imperialismeu); iwal ti Filipina anu dibéré kamerdikaan dina taun 1946, Amérika Sarikat masih kénéh nyekel wilayah-wilayah anu dicangking di jaman McKinley.{{sfn|Phillips|p=154}} Ékspansi wilayah taun 1898 mindeng dianggap ku ahli sajarah salaku mimitina "Emperium Amérika".{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Morgan ningali yén sawala sajarah ieu mangrupa bagian tina perdebatan ngeunaan naékna Amérika salaku kakuatan dunya; manéhna ngarepkeun yén perdebatan ngeunaan tindakan McKinley bakal terus lumangsung salawasna tanpa aya kacindekan, sarta nyatet yén naon baé penilaian batur, salah sahiji motivasi McKinley téh nyaéta hayang ngarobah kahirupan rahayat Filipina jeung Kuba sangkan leuwih hadé.{{sfn|Morgan|p=468}} Salaku saurang anu boga faham pulitik konservatif,<ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Presidential_Performance/EmLZb6uoo78C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Cleveland+saw+conservative+Republican+William+McKinley%E2%80%99s+success+as+a+victory+for+his+own+policies.&pg=PA170&printsec=frontcover Presidential Performance A Comprehensive Review By Max J. Skidmore, 2014, P.170]</ref> McKinley mingpin pamaréntahan anu ngajalankeun kawijakan konservatif boh dina urusan luar nagri, hak sipil, ogé ékonomi. Ngeunaan ékonomi, salah saurang ahli sajarah nyebutkeun yén, "Ngeunaan pipilueun pamaréntah dina ékonomi di jaman McKinley, pendekatanna angget kana faham ''laissez-faire'' (pasar bébas)."<ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/American_Conservatism/2dymBgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Concerning+government+intervention+in+the+economy+under+McKinley,+the+approach+remained+decidedly+laissez-faire&pg=PA189&printsec=frontcover American Conservatism History, Theory and Practice By Brian Farmer, 2005, P.189]</ref> Morgan nyindekkeun yén naékna minat masarakat ka McKinley téh mangrupa bagian tina sawala ngeunaan kawijakan luar nagri Amérika anu beuki teges dina sababaraha dékade pamungkas: {{blockquote|McKinley téh inohong utama dina sababaraha kajadian pangpentingna dina sajarah Amérika. Putusan-putusanana mangaruhan kawijakan sarta sikep publik di mangsa hareup. Peunteun para sarjana ka manéhna biasana beuki hadé nalika maranéhna nalungtik lalakon hirupna sacara jero. Malah jalma anu teu sapuk kana kawijakanana ogé ningali McKinley salaku pamingpin anu aktip, tanggung jawab, sarta weruh kana sagala putusan anu dicokotna. Sikepna anu tenang sarta cara gawéna anu rancingeus ngajadikeun manéhna rada jauh tina tetempoan publik. Tapi ayeuna, manéhna geus balik deui ka puseur kajadian, tempat dimana manéhna ngamimitian sagalana.{{sfn|Morgan|p=473}}}} === Galéri tugu peringatan === <gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:McKinley Birthplace Memorial uncirculated dollar (common obverse).jpg |Duit koin emas "McKinley Birthplace Memorial" anu dicitak dina taun 1916 sarta 1917. File:William McKinley Presidential Library & Museum.jpg|[[McKinley National Memorial|Makam McKinley]] di [[Canton, Ohio]]. File:McKinley Memorial Ohio Statehouse.JPG|''[[William McKinley Monument]]'' karya Hermon MacNeil di hareupeun Gedong Nagara Ohio, Columbus. File:McKinley Monument, Buffalo, NY - IMG 3693.JPG|''[[McKinley Monument]]'' karya Alexander Phimister Proctor di hareupeun Balai Kota Buffalo. File:McKinley Monument, Toledo, O. - DPLA - a6478c0228d574a7add483ba5b86bfb8 (page 1) (cropped).jpg|Tugu McKinley di hareupeun Pangadilan Lucas County, [[Toledo, Ohio]]. </gallery> {| style="margin:auto" | [[File:Mckinley stamp issues.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Perangko William McKinley tina citakan taun 1901 sarta 1927.]] | [[File:500 USD note; series of 1934; obverse.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Gambar McKinley dina [[Large denominations of United States currency|duit kertas $500]].]] |} ==Tempo ogé== * [[List of heads of state and government who were assassinated or executed|Daptar kapala nagara anu dimaotkeun]] * [[List of presidents of the United States|Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * ''[[McKinley at Home, Canton, Ohio]]'' (film taun 1896) == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} * {{cite book | last = Leech | first = Margaret | year = 1959 | title = In the Days of McKinley | url = https://archive.org/details/indaysofmckinley00leec | url-access = registration | publisher = Harper and Brothers | location = New York | oclc = 456809 | ref = {{sfnRef|Leech}} }} sajarah populer. * {{cite book | last = McCullough | first = David | author-link = David McCullough | year = 1977 | title = The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 | publisher = Touchstone | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-671-24409-5 | ref = {{sfnRef|McCullough}} | title-link = The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 }} * {{cite book | last = McElroy | first = Richard L. | year = 1996 | title = William McKinley and Our America | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinleyo0000mcel | publisher = Stark County Historical Society | location = Canton, Ohio | isbn = 978-0-9634712-1-5 | ref = {{sfnRef|McElroy}} }} sajarah populer. * {{cite book |title=President McKinley: Architect of the American Century |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentmckinle0000merr |first=Robert W. |last=Merry |author-link=Robert W. Merry |place=New York |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2017 |isbn=9781451625448 }} sajarah populer. * {{cite book | last = Miller | first = Scott | year = 2011 | title = The President and the Assassin | publisher = Random House | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-4000-6752-7 | ref = {{sfnRef|Miller}} | url = https://archive.org/details/presidentassassi00mill }} * {{cite book | last = Morgan | first = H. Wayne | year = 2003 | title = William McKinley and His America | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinleyh0000morg |edition=revised | publisher = The Kent State University Press | location = Kent, Ohio | isbn = 978-0-87338-765-1 | ref = {{sfnRef|Morgan}} }} * Morgan, H. Wayne (1969). ''From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896'', panalungtikan akademis. * Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson (1937). ''A History of the United States since the Civil War''. Volume V: ''1888–1901''. Macmillan. 791 pp. * {{cite book | last = Olcott | first = Charles | author-link = Charles S. Olcott | year = 1916 | title = The Life of William McKinley, 2 vol. | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinley02olcogoog | quote = the life of william mckinley olcutt. | access-date = March 23, 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Olcott}} }} sumber heubeul tapi detil pisan. * {{cite book | last = Phillips | first = Kevin | author-link = Kevin Phillips (political commentator) | year = 2003 | title = William McKinley | publisher = Times Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6953-2 | ref = {{sfnRef|Phillips}} | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinley00phil }} museur kana sisi pamilih. * {{cite book | last = Pratt | first = Walter F. | year = 1999 | title = The Supreme Court under Edward Douglass White, 1910–1921 | publisher = University of South Carolina Press | location = Columbia, South Carolina | url = https://archive.org/details/supremecourtunde00prat_0 | url-access = registration | isbn = 978-1-57003-309-4 | ref = {{sfnRef|Pratt}} }} * {{cite book |title=The Triumph of William McKinley: Why the Election of 1896 Still Matters |url=https://archive.org/details/triumphofwilliam0000rove |first=Karl |last=Rove |author-link=Karl Rove |ref={{sfnRef|Rove}} |place=New York |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781476752952 }} museur kana sisi pamilih. * {{cite book | last = Williams | first = R. Hal | year = 2010 | title = Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan and the Remarkable Election of 1896 | url = https://archive.org/details/realigningameric00unse | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence, Kansas | isbn = 978-0-7006-1721-0 | ref = {{sfnRef|Williams}} }} * {{cite journal | last = Nice | first = David C. |date=September 1984 | title = The Influence of War and Party System Aging on the Ranking of Presidents | journal = The Western Political Quarterly | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 443–55 | jstor = 448445 | doi = 10.2307/448445 | ref = {{sfnRef|Nice}} }} * {{cite journal | last = Nichols | first = Jeannette P. |date=December 1933 | title = Silver Diplomacy | journal = Political Science Quarterly | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 565–88 | jstor = 2142930 | doi = 10.2307/2142930 | ref = {{sfnRef|Nichols}} }} * Offner, John L. "McKinley and the Spanish‐American War." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34.1 (2004): 50-61. [https://cooperative-individualism.org/offner-john_mckinley-and-the-spanish-american-war-2004-mar.pdf online] * {{cite journal | last = Rauchway | first = Eric | author-link = Eric Rauchway |date=July 2005 | title = William McKinley and Us | journal = The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 235–53 | jstor = 25144402 | ref = {{sfnRef|Rauchway}} | doi = 10.1017/S1537781400002644 | s2cid = 162552066 }} * {{cite journal | last = Weisenburger | first = Francis P. | date=June 1934 | title = The Time of Mark Hanna's First Acquaintance with McKinley | journal = The Mississippi Valley Historical Review | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–80 | jstor = 1896406 | doi = 10.2307/1896406 | ref = {{sfnRef|Weisenburger}} }} * {{cite book | last = Phillips | first = Kevin | author-link = Kevin Phillips (political commentator) | year = 2003 | title = William McKinley | publisher = Times Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6953-2 | ref = {{sfnRef|Phillips}} | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinley00phil }} * {{cite book | last = Morgan | first = H. Wayne | year = 2003 | title = William McKinley and His America | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinleyh0000morg |edition=revised | publisher = The Kent State University Press | location = Kent, Ohio | isbn = 978-0-87338-765-1 | ref = {{sfnRef|Morgan}} }} {{refend}} ===Disertasi PhD=== Téks lengkep sayogi sacara online ngalangkungan perpustakaan akademik. * Brady, David William. "A Congressional Response to a Stress Situation: Party Voting in the Mckinley Era" (The University of Iowa; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1970. 7023867). * Damiani, Brian Paul. "Advocates of Empire: William Mckinley, The Senate and American Expansion, 1898-1899" (University of Delaware; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1978. 7816908). * Labinski, Nicholas Winter. "A Transitional Moment: William McKinley's Foreign Policy Rhetoric and America's Outward Turn" (University of Kansas; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2017. 10687965). * Matlosz, Gregory. "The Political Symbiosis of Rutherford B. Hayes & William McKinley" (Drew University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2015. 3700842). * Ofek, Hillel. "A Just Peace: Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, and the Moral Basis of American Foreign Policy" (University of Texas at Austin; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2018. 28166006). * Waksmundski, John. "Mckinley Politics and the Changing Attitudes Toward American Labor, 1870-1900" (The Ohio State University; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7311599). ==Tumbu luar== {{Sister project links |wikt=no |commons=William McKinley |b=no |n=no |q=William McKinley |s=William McKinley |v=no |species=no |author=yes}} ===Resmi=== * [http://www.mckinleymuseum.org/ Perpustakaan sarta Musieum Présidén William McKinley] * [https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/william-mckinley/ Biografi Gedong Bodas] ===Biantara=== * [http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#mckinley Téks sababaraha biantara McKinley], [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] ===Lalampahan média=== * {{NYT topic|people/m/william_mckinley}} ===Séjénna=== {{CongBio|M000522}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/mckinley/index.html William McKinley: Pituduh Sumber Daya], [[Library of Congress]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120426175456/http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/mckinley Ésay lengkep ngeunaan William McKinley] sarta ésay pondok ngeunaan unggal anggota kabinétna ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * [http://mckinleydeath.com/ McKinley Assassination Ink], sajarah dokuménter ngeunaan rajapati William McKinley * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151617-1/life-portrait-william-mckinley "Life Portrait of William McKinley"], ti [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', 23 Agustus 1999 * {{Gutenberg author|id=1656}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=William McKinley}} * {{Librivox author |id=11295}} * {{IMDb name}} {{William McKinley}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghormatan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Joseph B. Foraker]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] pikeun [[Gubernur Ohio]]|years=[[1891 Ohio gubernatorial election|1891]], [[1893 Ohio gubernatorial election|1893]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Asa S. Bushnell]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Benjamin Harrison]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] pikeun Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[1896 United States presidential election|1896]], [[1900 United States presidential election|1900]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Theodore Roosevelt]]}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[Laurin D. 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McClure]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[List of United States representatives from Ohio|DPR AS]]<br />ti [[Ohio's 18th congressional district|distrik ka-18 Ohio]]|years=1883–1884}} {{s-aft|after=[[Jonathan Wallace]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[David R. Paige]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[List of United States representatives from Ohio|DPR AS]]<br />ti [[Ohio's 20th congressional district|distrik ka-20 Ohio]]|years=1885–1887}} {{s-aft|after=[[George W. Crouse]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Isaac H. Taylor]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[List of United States representatives from Ohio|DPR AS]]<br />ti [[Ohio's 18th congressional district|distrik ka-18 Ohio]]|years=1887–1891}} {{s-aft|after=[[Joseph D. Taylor]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Roger Q. Mills]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Ketua [[United States House Committee on Ways and Means|Komite Ways and Means DPR AS]]|years=1889–1891}} {{s-aft|after=[[William McKendree Springer]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James E. Campbell]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Governor of Ohio|Gubernur Ohio]]|years=1892–1896}} {{s-aft|after=[[Asa S. Bushnell (Governor)|Asa Bushnell]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Grover Cleveland]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=1897–1901}} {{s-aft|after=[[Theodore Roosevelt]]}} {{s-end}} }} [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ag8egu0zzdgyvwa0i47rs2zoub2bay1 0 107983 711635 706893 2026-08-07T00:39:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711635 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = Theodore Roosevelt by the Pach Bros (4x5 cropped).jpg | caption = Roosevelt dina taun 1904 | order1 = ka-26 | office1 = [[Présidén Amérika Serikat]] | vicepresident1 = {{Plain list| * Kosong (1901–1905){{Efn|Roosevelt téh mimitina Wakil Présidén McKinley, tuluy jadi présidén saatos McKinley ditelasan (diasesinasi) dina taun 1901. Hal ieu kajantenan sateuacan diadopsina [[Amandemén ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Serikat]] dina taun 1967, ku kituna kakosongan korsi wakil présidén teu tiasa dieusi dugi ka pamilihan sareng pelantikan salajengna.}} * {{longitem|[[Charles W. Fairbanks]] (1905–1909)}} }} | term_start1 = 14 Séptémber 1901 | term_end1 = 4 Maret 1909 | predecessor1 = [[William McKinley]] | successor1 = [[William Howard Taft]] | order2 = ka-25 | office2 = [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]] | president2 = William McKinley | term_start2 = 4 Maret 1901 | term_end2 = 14 Séptémber 1901 | predecessor2 = [[Garret Hobart]] | successor2 = Charles W. Fairbanks | order3 = ka-33 | office3 = [[Daptar gubernur New York|Gubernur New York]] | lieutenant3 = [[Timothy L. Woodruff]] | term_start3 = 1 Januari 1899 | term_end3 = 31 Désémber 1900 | predecessor3 = [[Frank S. Black]] | successor3 = [[Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.]] | order4 = ka-5 | office4 = Asistén Sékrétaris Angkatan Laut | president4 = William McKinley | term_start4 = 19 April 1897 | term_end4 = 10 Méi 1898 | predecessor4 = [[William McAdoo (New Jersey politician)|William McAdoo]] | successor4 = [[Charles Herbert Allen]] | office5 = [[Présidén Déwan Komisaris Polisi Kota New York]] | appointer5 = [[William Lafayette Strong]] | term_start5 = 6 Méi 1895 | term_end5 = 19 April 1897 | predecessor5 = James J. Martin | successor5 = [[Frank Moss (lawyer)|Frank Moss]] | state_assembly6 = New York | district6 = [[Distrik Majelis Nagara Bagian New York ka-21|ka-21]] | term_start6 = 1 Januari 1883 | term_end6 = 31 Désémber 1884 | predecessor6 = William J. Trimble | successor6 = [[Henry A. Barnum]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1858|10|27}} | birth_name = Theodore Roosevelt{{nbsp}}Jr. | birth_place = Kota New York, A.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1919|1|6|1858|10|27}} | death_place = [[Oyster Bay, New York]], A.S. | resting_place = [[Youngs Memorial Cemetery]] | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Serikat)|Républik]] (1880–1912, 1916–1919) | otherparty = [[Partéy Bull Moose]] (1912–1916) | spouse = {{unbulleted list|{{marriage|[[Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt|Alice Lee]]|27 Oktober 1880|14 Pébruari 1884|end=pupus}}|{{marriage|[[Edith Carow]]|2 Désémber 1886}}}} | children = 6 | relatives = [[Kulawarga Roosevelt]] | alma_mater = {{unbulleted list|[[Universitas Harvard]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|AB]])|[[Sakola Hukum Columbia|Universitas Columbia]]}} | occupation = {{flatlist| * Panulis * konservasionis * pangjalajah * sajarawan * naturalis * [[komisaris polisi]] * politikus * prajurit }} | signature = Theodore Roosevelt Signature-2.svg | awards = [[Hadiah Nobél Perdamaian]] (1906) | allegiance = Amérika Serikat | branch = [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]] | serviceyears = {{unbulleted list|1882–1886 (gardu)|1898}} | rank = [[Kolonél (Amérika Serikat)|Kolonél]] | unit = [[Garda Nasional Angkatan Darat New York]] | mawards = [[Medal of Honor]] {{avoid wrap|([[Anugerah anumerta|anumerta]], 2001)}} | commands = [[Kavaleri Sukarelawan ka-1 A.S.]] | battles = {{tree list}} * [[Perang Spanyol–Amérika]] ** [[Patempuran Las Guasimas]] ** [[Patempuran Pasir San Juan]] {{tree list/end}} | module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Right of the People.ogg|title=Sora Theodore Roosevelt|type=biantara|description=Roosevelt nuju biantara nalika [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1912|kampanyé présidén kaduana]]<br />Dirékam taun 1912}} }} '''Theodore Roosevelt Jr.'''{{efn|Dilafalkeun {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|oʊ|z|ə|v|ɛ|l|t}} {{respell|ROH|zə|velt}}}} (27 Oktober 1858 – 6 Januari 1919), ogé kawentar ku landihan '''Teddy''' atanapi '''T.{{nbsp}}R.''', nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-26, anu ngajabat ti taun 1901 dugi ka 1909. Roosevelt sateuacanna aktip dina dunya politik [[New York (state)|New York]], kalebet ngajabat janten [[Daptar gubernur New York|gubernur ka-33]] salami dua taun. Anjeunna ngajabat salaku [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]] ka-25 dina mangsa Présidén [[William McKinley]] salami genep sasih dina taun 1901, sarta naék janten présidén saatos kajantenan [[Aksidén William McKinley|McKinley ditelasan]]. Nalika janten présidén, Roosevelt mucunghul salaku pamingpin [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Serikat)|Partéy Républik]] sarta janten kakuatan utama pikeun kawijakan [[Hukum antiamanh (antitrust) Amérika Serikat|anti-amanah]] sarta kawijakan-kawijakan [[Era Progrésif]]. Nalika budak, Roosevelt téh budak anu geringan alatan kasakit [[asma]], nanging anjeunna tiasa ngungkulan masalah kaséhatanana ku cara hirup anu tapis atanapi [[The Strenuous Life|hirup anu pinuh ku sumanget]]. Anjeunna dididik ku cara [[sakola di imah]] sarta mimiti mikaresep dunya naturalis sateuacan kuliah di [[Universitas Harvard]]. Bukuna anu judulna ''[[The Naval War of 1812]]'' ngukuhkeun reputasina salaku sajarawan sarta panulis populér. Roosevelt janten pamingpin faksi réformasi ti Partéy Républik di [[Législatur Nagara Bagian New York]]. Pamajikan kahijina, [[Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt]], sareng ibuna, [[Martha Bulloch Roosevelt]], pupus dina wengi anu sami, anu matak ngajantenkeun anjeunna kacida duka sacara psikologis. Anjeunna cageur deui saatos mésér sareng ngurus peternakan sapi di [[Dakotas]]. Roosevelt kantos ngajabat janten [[asistén sékrétaris Angkatan Laut]] dina mangsa McKinley, sarta dina taun 1898 ngabantu ngarencanakeun [[Perang Spanyol–Amérika|perang laut ngalawan Spanyol anu hasilna jaya]]. Anjeunna mundur pikeun ngabantu ngadegkeun sarta mingpin [[Rough Riders]], hiji unit anu merangan [[Tentara Spanyol]] di [[Kuba]] anu kawentar pisan. Saatos mulang salaku pahlawan perang, Roosevelt [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1898|kapilih janten gubernur New York dina taun 1898]]. Alatan pamingpin partéy di New York teu resep kana agénda nagara bagianana anu ambisius, maranéhna ngayakinkeun McKinley pikeun milih Roosevelt salaku pasanganana dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1900]]. Pasangan McKinley–Roosevelt meunang mutlak. Roosevelt [[Pelantikan kahiji Theodore Roosevelt|ngamimitian janten présidén]] dina umur 42 taun nalika [[Aksidén William McKinley|McKinley ditelasan]]. Ku kituna, anjeunna janten (sareng tetep dugi ka ayeuna) jalmi pangora-ngorana anu nyekel jabatan éta. Salaku pamingpin [[Progrésivisme di Amérika Serikat|gerakan progrésif]], anjeunna ngusung kawijakan domestik "[[Square Deal]]", anu nekenkeun kaadilan pikeun sakumna warga nagara, ngabubarkeun [[Trust (bisnis)|amanah (trust)]] anu jahat, ngatur karéta api, sarta [[Undang-undang Kadaharan sareng Ubar Murni|kadaharan sareng ubar anu murni]]. Roosevelt ngutamakeun [[Gerakan konservasi|konservasi]] sarta ngadegkeun [[Daptar taman nasional Amérika Serikat|taman nasional]], [[Daptar leuweung nasional Amérika Serikat|leuweung]], sarta [[Daptar monumén nasional Amérika Serikat|monumén]] pikeun ngajaga sumber daya alam A.S. Dina [[Kawijakan luar nagri administrasi Theodore Roosevelt|kawijakan luar nagri]], anjeunna [[Roosevelt Corollary|fokus ka Amérika Tengah]], kalayan ngamimitian pangwangunan [[Terusan Panama]]. Roosevelt ngalegaan Angkatan Laut A.S. sarta ngirimkeun [[Great White Fleet]] pikeun kuriling dunya pikeun némbongkeun kakuatan lautna. [[Perjangjian Portsmouth|Usahana anu hasil]] dina mungkasan [[Perang Rusia-Jepang]] ngajantenkeun anjeunna kenging [[Hadiah Nobél Perdamaian]] taun 1906, jalmi non-Éropa munggaran anu kenging [[Hadiah Nobél]]. Roosevelt [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1904|kapilih deui pikeun masa jabatan pinuh dina taun 1904]] sarta ngayakinkeun [[William Howard Taft]] pikeun ngagentos anjeunna dina taun 1908. Roosevelt lami-lami ngarasa kuciwa ku gaya konservatisme Taft, nanging gagal kéngingkeun [[Primér présidén Partéy Républik 1912|nominasi présidén ti Partéy Républik taun 1912]]. Anjeunna ngadegkeun [[Partéy Bull Moose]] sarta nyalonkeun deui dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1912|taun 1912]]; ayana dua calon ieu nyababkeun sora partéyna pecah sahingga tokoh [[Sajarah Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Serikat)|Démokrat]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] anu meunang. Roosevelt mingpin [[Ékspédisi Ilmiah Roosevelt–Rondon ka lembah Amazon|ékspédisi opat sasih ka lembah Amazon]], di mana anjeunna ampir-ampiran pupus alatan [[panyakit tropis]]. Nalika Perang Dunya I, anjeunna ngritik Wilson anu henteu ngiringkeun A.S. kana perang; tawaranana pikeun mingpin sukarelawan ka Perancis ditolak. Kaséhatan Roosevelt beuki nyirorot sarta anjeunna pupus dina taun 1919. [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Serikat|Hasil survéi para sajarawan sareng ilmuwan politik]] nempatkeun anjeunna salaku salah sahiji présidén Amérika anu panghébatna. ==Kahirupan awal== [[File:TR Age 11 Paris.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.75|Roosevelt nalika umur 11 taun]] Theodore Roosevelt Jr. dibabarkeun dina 27 Oktober 1858, di [[Tempat Babar Theodore Roosevelt|28 East 20th Street]] di [[Manhattan]].{{sfn|Morris|1979|p=3}} Kolotna nyaéta [[Martha Bulloch Roosevelt|Martha Stewart Bulloch]] sarta saurang pangusaha [[Theodore Roosevelt Sr.]] Anjeunna gaduh lanceuk awéwé jenenganana Anna (biasa digeroan [[Bamie Roosevelt|Bamie]]), adi lalaki [[Elliott Roosevelt (socialite)|Elliott]], sarta adi awéwé [[Corinne Roosevelt Robinson|Corinne]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Anna Roosevelt – Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)|url=https://www.nps.gov/thrb/learn/historyculture/annaroosevelt.htm|access-date=April 4, 2021|publisher=National Park Service|archive-date=May 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517084507/https://www.nps.gov/thrb/learn/historyculture/annaroosevelt.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mangsa ngora Roosevelt kapangaruhan ku kaayaan kaséhatanana anu ringkih sarta serangan kasakit [[asma]] anu parah, anu matak ngahariwangkeun anjeunna jeung kolotna. Harita, para dokter teu acan mendakan ubarna.{{Sfn|McCullough|1981|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nuzmvrqPvdIC&pg=PA93 93–108]}} Sanajan kitu, anjeunna téh budak anu pinuh ku tanaga sarta miboga rasa panasaran (kuriositas) anu kacida gedéna.{{Sfn|Putnam|1958|pp=23–27}} Karesepna kana widang [[zoologi]] anu lumangsung saumur hirup dimimitian nalika umur tujuh taun, nalika anjeunna ningali bangké [[Pinniped|anjing laut]] di pasar; saatos kenging sirah anjing laut éta, Roosevelt sareng dulur-dulur misanana ngadegkeun "Museum Sajarah Alam Roosevelt". Saatos diajar dasar-dasar [[taksidermi]] (ngawétkeun sato), anjeunna ngeusian museum basajanna ku sato-sato anu dipaéhan atanapi ditéwak ku anjeunna sorangan. Nalika umur salapan taun, anjeunna nyatet hasil observasina dina tulisan anu judulna "Sajarah Alam Serangga".<ref name="environment">{{Cite web | publisher = PBS | url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tr/envir.html | title = TR's Legacy — The Environment | access-date = March 6, 2006 | archive-date = December 24, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081224215129/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tr/envir.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224215129/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tr/envir.html |date=December 24, 2008 }}</ref> Lalampahan kulawarga, kalebet wisata ka Éropa dina taun 1869 sareng 1870, sarta ka [[Khedivate Mesir|Mesir]] dina taun 1872, ngawangun sawanganana anu kosmopolitan.{{Sfn|Roosevelt|1913|p=13}} Nalika nuju nanjak gunung (hiking) sareng kulawargana di pagunungan [[Alpen]] taun 1869, Roosevelt mendakan mangpaat tina kagiatan fisik pikeun ngurangan serangan asmana sarta ngagedékeun sumangetna.{{Sfn|Putnam|1958|pp=63–70}} Ti saprak éta, Roosevelt mimiti ngalakukeun latihan fisik anu beurat. Saatos dikerjakeun ku budak-budak anu langkung kolot nalika nuju angkat kémping, anjeunna milari palatih tinju pikeun ngalatih dirina sangkan tiasa béla diri.{{Sfn|Testi|1995|pp=1516–1517}}{{Sfn|Roosevelt|1913|pp=32–33}} ===Pangatikan=== Roosevelt dididik ku cara [[sakola di imah]] (''homeschooled''). Panulis biografi [[H. W. Brands]] nyerat yén, "Kakurangan anu paling nyata... nyaéta hanteu rata cakupanana... dina rupa-rupa widang... pangaweruh."{{Sfn|Brands|1997|page=49}} Anjeunna jembar dina widang géografi sarta calakan dina sajarah, biologi, basa Perancis, jeung basa Jérman; nanging, anjeunna rada hésé dina matematika jeung basa-basa klasik. Dina bulan Séptémber 1876, anjeunna asup ka [[Universitas Harvard]]. Ramana mapatahan anjeunna, "jaga ahlak anjeun pangheulana, tuluy kaséhatan, sarta pamungkas nyaéta pangajaran anjeun."<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward P.|last=Kohn|title=Heir to the Empire City: New York and the Making of Theodore Roosevelt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcZWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|year=2013|page=26|publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-06975-0|access-date=April 15, 2017|archive-date=April 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415213639/https://books.google.com/books?id=EcZWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|url-status=live}}</ref> Pupusna ramana anu ngadadak dina taun 1878 kacida matak sedihna pikeun Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=80–82}} Anjeunna nampi warisan sagedé US$60,000 (sarua jeung ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|60,000|1878|r=-4}}}} dina taun {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}), anu cukup pikeun anjeunna hirup senang saumur hirupna.<ref name=NYT14>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2014/07/18/1878-theodore-roosevelt-inherits-a-fortune/|title=First Glimpses: 1878: Theodore Roosevelt Inherits a Fortune|date=July 18, 2014|first=Mark|last=Bulik|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222113116/https://www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2014/07/18/1878-theodore-roosevelt-inherits-a-fortune/|access-date=December 22, 2020|archive-date=December 22, 2020}}</ref> Ramana, saurang panganut [[Présbitérianisme|Présbitérian]] anu taat, rutin mingpin kulawarga dina doa. Nalika di Harvard, Theodore anu tos sawawa nulad ramana ku cara ngajar sakola minggu salami langkung ti tilu taun di Épiskopal [[Christ Church (Cambridge, Massachusetts)|Christ Church]] di [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]. Nalika pandita di Christ Church maksa anjeunna kedah janten saurang Épiskopalian upami hoyong teras ngajar, Roosevelt nolak, sarta milih ngajar kelas misi di lingkungan miskin di Cambridge.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |author-link=David McCullough |title=[[Mornings on Horseback]]: The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-6714-4754-0 }}</ref> Roosevelt unggul dina kursus sains, filsafat, sareng rétorika, nanging rada beurat dina basa Latin sareng Yunani. Anjeunna tos janten naturalis anu mahér sareng saurang [[Ornitologi|ornitologis]] anu karyana tos diterbitkeun, sarta neuleuman biologi kalayan daria. Anjeunna rajin maca sarta miboga daya ingetan anu ampir fotografis.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=62}} Roosevelt miluan kagiatan dayung sareng [[Klub Tinju Harvard|tinju]], sarta janten anggota masarakat sastra [[Alpha Delta Phi]], babaturan sakelas [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]], sareng [[Porcellian Club]] anu gengsi. Dina taun 1880, Roosevelt lulus [[Phi Beta Kappa]] (réngking 22 ti 177 urang) kalayan gelar [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B.]] ''[[magna cum laude]]''. [[Henry F. Pringle]] nyerat: {{blockquote|Roosevelt, nalika nyobian nganalisis karir kuliahna sareng nimbang mangpaat anu katarima, ngarasa yén anjeunna meunang sakedik pisan ti Harvard. Anjeunna ngarasa kuciwa ku cara pangajaran anu formalistik dina seueur subjék, ku kakakuan, sarta perhatian kana hal-hal leutik anu sabenerna penting, tapi ku hiji cara henteu kantos dikaitkeun sareng gambaran anu gembleng (utuh).{{sfn|Pringle|1931|p=27}}}} Roosevelt ngabatalkeun rencanana pikeun neuleuman élmu alam sarta milih asup ka [[Sakola Hukum Columbia]], pindah deui ka bumi kulawargana di New York. Sanajan Roosevelt téh murid anu sanggup, anjeunna ngarasa yén hukum téh henteu rasional.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=110–112, 123–133. quote p. 126}} Kalayan tékad hoyong lebet ka dunya politik, Roosevelt mimiti ngiringan rapat-rapat di Morton Hall, markas Asosiasi Républik Distrik ka-21 New York. Sanajan ramana téh anggota nonjol di [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Serikat)|Partéy Républik]], pilihan karir Roosevelt ieu dianggap teu ilahar pikeun jalma tina golonganna, sabab kalolobaan batur sapantanna mah nyingkahan pikeun kalibet teuing jero dina dunya politik. Roosevelt mendakan sakutu di Partéy Républik lokal sarta hasil ngéléhkeun saurang anggota majelis nagara bagian ti Républik anu aya patalina rapet sareng mesin politik Sénator [[Roscoe Conkling]]. Saatos kameunanganana dina pamilihan, Roosevelt kaluar ti sakola hukum, anu engkéna anjeunna nyarios, "Kuring boga niat pikeun janten salah sahiji golongan anu maréntah."{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=110–112, 123–133. quote p. 126}} ==Karier politik awal== ===Anggota Majelis Nagara Bagian=== Dina [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1881|pamilihan 1881]], Roosevelt kenging korsi di [[Majelis Nagara Bagian New York]], ngawakilan [[Distrik Majelis Nagara Bagian New York ka-21|distrik ka-21]], anu puseurna di "Distrik Silk Stocking" di [[Upper East Side]] County New York. Anjeunna ngajabat dina sési législatif taun [[Législatur Nagara Bagian New York ka-105|1882]], [[Législatur Nagara Bagian New York ka-106|1883]], sareng [[Législatur Nagara Bagian New York ka-107|1884]]. Roosevelt mimiti némbongkeun taringna kalayan sakaligus. Anjeunna ngahalangan usaha korup ti saurang panyepeng modal (finansiér) [[Jay Gould]] anu hoyong nurunkeun pajegna. Roosevelt ngungkab ayana kolusi antara Gould sareng Hakim [[Theodoric R. Westbrook|Theodore Westbrook]] sarta hasil ngadesek ngayakeun panalungtikan (investigasi) kalayan tujuan sangkan éta hakim di-''impeach'' (dipecat sacara hukum). Sanajan komite panalungtikan nolak pamécatan éta, Roosevelt parantos hasil ngungkab korupsi di [[Albany, New York|Albany]] sarta kenging citra anu saé tur nonjol dina rupa-rupa publikasi di New York.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=134–140}} Usaha anti-korupsi Roosevelt ngabantu anjeunna kenging deui sora dina [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1882|pamilihan 1882]] kalayan kaunggulan sora dua kali lipat langkung seueur, hiji préstasi anu dianggap luar biasa margi calon gubernur ti Partéy Démokrat, [[Grover Cleveland]], sabenerna unggul di distrik Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=138–139}} Nalika faksi [[Stalwart (politik)|Stalwart]] ti Partéy Républik pimpinan Sénator Conkling nuju paburancat saatos [[Assasinasi Présidén James Garfield|kajantenan ditelasanna Présidén James Garfield]], Roosevelt kapilih janten pamingpin partéy di majelis nagara bagian. Anjeunna gawé bareng sareng Gubernur Cleveland pikeun ngaluluskeun rancangan undang-undang réformasi layanan sipil.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=140–142}} Roosevelt kapilih deui sarta nyobian ngudag jabatan [[Ketua Majelis Nagara Bagian New York|Ketua Majelis]], nanging [[Titus Sheard]] anu kenging éta jabatan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=January 1, 1884 |title=Mr Sheard to be Speaker |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1884/01/01/106134466.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225073137/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1884/01/01/106134466.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |access-date=June 13, 2018 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=153}} Roosevelt ngajabat janten Ketua Komite Urusan Kota, di mana salami mangsa éta anjeunna nyerat langkung seueur rancangan undang-undang dibandingkeun législator sanésna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kohn |first=Edward P. |date=2009 |title='A Most Revolting State of Affairs': Theodore Roosevelt's Aldermanic Bill and the New York Assembly City Investigating Committee of 1884 |journal=American Nineteenth Century History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=71–92|doi=10.1080/14664650802299909 |hdl=11693/48381 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ===Pamilihan présidén 1884=== {{See also|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1884}} Nalika seueur tokoh anu nyalonkeun présidén, Roosevelt ngarojong Sénator [[George F. Edmunds]] ti Vermont. Partéy Républik tingkat nagara bagian langkung milih présidén anu nuju ngajabat, [[Chester Arthur]], anu kawentar alatan ngaluarkeun [[Undang-undang Réformasi Layanan Sipil Pendleton]]. Roosevelt hasil mangaruhan delegasi Manhattan dina konvénsi nagara bagian. Anjeunna tuluy nyepeng kadali konvénsi, ngayakeun tawar-menawar sapeupeuting sarta hasil ngéléhkeun taktik para pangrojong Arthur jeung [[James G. Blaine]]; ku kituna, anjeunna kénging reputasi nasional salaku politikus konci di nagara bagianana.{{sfn|Putnam|1958|pp=413–424}} Roosevelt ngahadiran [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1884]] di [[Chicago]], di dinya anjeunna biantara pikeun ngayakinkeun para delegasi sangkan milih tokoh Afrika-Amérika [[John R. Lynch]], saurang pangrojong Edmunds, janten ketua samentara. Roosevelt berjuang bareng jeung para réformis [[Mugwump]] ngalawan Blaine. Nanging, Blaine kenging rojongan ti delegasi Arthur jeung Edmunds, sarta hasil kenging nominasi. Dina momen krusial dina karirna anu nuju mekar, Roosevelt nolak paménta batur-baturna di Mugwump pikeun misahkeun diri ti Blaine. Anjeunna agul: "Urang kenging kameunangan ku cara ngawangun kombinasi pikeun ngéléhkeun calon Blaine janten ketua samentara... ieu merlukeun... kaparigelan, kawani, jeung tanaga... sangkan rupa-rupa faksi kersa gabung... pikeun ngéléhkeun musuh babarengan."{{sfn|Brands|1997|p=171}} Anjeunna ngarasa reueus nalika diondang biantara di payuneun sapuluh rébu urang, jumlah panongton panglobana anu kantos disanghareupan ku anjeunna harita. Saatos ngarasaan dunya politik nasional, Roosevelt ngarasa kirang gairah pikeun bajoang di tingkat nagara bagian; anjeunna milih pensiun ka "Chimney Butte Ranch" anyarna di sisi [[Walungan Little Missouri (North Dakota)|Walungan Little Missouri]].{{sfn|Putnam|1958|pp=445–450}} Roosevelt nolak gabung sareng Mugwump sanésna pikeun ngarojong Cleveland, calon ti [[Sajarah Partéy Démokrat Amérika Serikat|Partéy Démokrat]] dina pamilihan umum. Saatos Blaine kenging nominasi, Roosevelt sacara gagabah nyarios yén anjeunna bakal masihan "rojongan sapinuh haté ka saha waé urang Démokrat anu pantes". Anjeunna tuluy ngajauhkeun diri tina jangji éta, nyebatkeun yén omonganana téh sanés "kanggo dipublikasikeun".{{sfn|Pringle|1956|p=61}} Nalika saurang wartawan naros naha anjeunna bakal ngarojong Blaine, Roosevelt ngajawab, "Kuring nolak ngajawab."{{sfn|Putnam|1958|p=445}} Ahirna, anjeunna sadar yén anjeunna kedah ngarojong Blaine pikeun ngajaga kalungguhanana di jero partéy, sarta anjeunna ngalakukeun éta ngaliwatan siaran pers.{{sfn|Putnam|1958|p=467}} Saatos kaleungitan rojongan ti seueur réformis, sarta masih ngarasa duka alatan pupusna pamajikan jeung ibuna, Roosevelt mutuskeun pikeun mundur tina dunya politik sarta pindah ka [[North Dakota]].{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=161}} ==Tukang ngangon sapi di Dakota== [[File:Theodore Roosevelt with hunting suit and rifle 3a24199u original.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt salaku pamburu di [[Badlands]] dina taun 1885]] Roosevelt munggaran nganjang ka [[Wilayah Dakota]] dina taun 1883 pikeun moro [[bison]]. Ku sabab kacida gumbirana ku [[gaya hirup urang kulon]] sarta ningali bisnis sapi anu nuju maju pisan, Roosevelt investasi $14.000 (sarua jeung ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|14,000|1883|r=-4}}}} dina taun {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) kalayan harepan janten pangusaha sapi anu makmur. Salami sababaraha taun, anjeunna bulak-balik antara bumina di New York sareng peternakanana di Dakota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Theodore Roosevelt the Rancher |url=https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902213054/https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm |archive-date=September 2, 2019 |access-date=November 27, 2019 |publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref> Saatos [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1884]], Roosevelt ngawangun [[Elkhorn Ranch]] {{cvt|35|mi|km}} kaléreun kota [[Medora, North Dakota]] anu nuju mekar. Roosevelt diajar numpak kuda gaya kulon, ngagunakeun laso, sarta moro di sisi [[Walungan Little Missouri (North Dakota)|Little Missouri]]. Saurang koboi, ceuk anjeunna, miboga "saeutik sipat lembut anu dipuji ku para pseudo-filantropis; nanging anjeunna miboga sipat tegep sarta maskulin anu kacida luhurna anu peryogi pisan pikeun hiji bangsa".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roosevelt |first=Theodore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BY4-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA56 |title=Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail |publisher=Century |others=Illustrated by [[Frederic Remington]] |year=1902 |location=New York |pages=55–56 |access-date=October 17, 2015 |orig-date=1888 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407023213/http://books.google.com/books?id=BY4-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA56 |archive-date=April 7, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Morrisey |first=Will |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oS2Kcqjl-VgC&pg=PA41 |title=The Dilemma of Progressivism: How Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson Reshaped the American Regime of Self-Government |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7425-6618-7 |page=41 |access-date=October 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406172847/http://books.google.com/books?id=oS2Kcqjl-VgC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=April 6, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Anjeunna nyerat ngeunaan kahirupan di wilayah wates (frontier) pikeun majalah nasional sarta medarkeun buku-buku: ''Hunting Trips of a Ranchman'', ''Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail'', sarta ''The Wilderness Hunter''.{{sfn|Brands|1997|p=191}} Roosevelt hasil mingpin usaha pikeun ngatur para peternak dina nungkulan masalah ngangon anu kaleuleuwihi (overgrazing) sarta pasualan babarengan sanésna, anu ngahasilkeun diwangunna Asosiasi Peternak Little Missouri. Anjeunna ogé ngadegkeun [[Klub Boone jeung Crockett]], anu tujuan utamana nyaéta konservasi sato buruan badag sarta habitatna.{{sfn|Brands|1997|p=189}} Dina taun 1886, Roosevelt ngajabat janten [[Sheriff di Amérika Serikat|wakil sheriff]] di [[County Billings, North Dakota]]. Anjeunna sareng para pagawé peternakanana hasil ngudag sarta néwak tilu jalma anu maling parahu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=[[Taman Nasional Theodore Roosevelt]] |title=Roosevelt Pursues the Boat Thieves |url=https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/roosevelt-pursues-boat-thieves.htm}}</ref> Kayaan [[usum tiris 1886–1887]] anu kacida parahna méakkeun sato ternakna sarta leuwih ti satengah tina investasi $80.000 (sarua jeung ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|80,000|1887|r=-4}}}} dina taun {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}).{{sfn|Morris|1979|p=376}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Theodore Roosevelt the Rancher |url=https://www.nps.gov/thro/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208112452/http://www.nps.gov/thro/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm |archive-date=February 8, 2015 |access-date=January 13, 2015 |website=nps.gov |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |quote=The blow proved disastrous for Roosevelt, who lost over half of his $80,000 investment, the equivalent of approximately $1.7 million today.}}</ref> Anjeunna mungkasan kahirupanana salaku peternak sarta mulang ka New York, di mana anjeunna hasil leupas tina labél négatif salaku saurang inteléktual anu henteu mampuh dina dunya nyata.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=163–164}} ==Pernikahan kadua== [[File:Smithsonian - NPG - Roosevelt - NPG 81 126.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt sareng anggota [[Kulawarga Roosevelt|kulawargana]]. Ti kenca ka katuhu: [[Ethel Roosevelt Derby|Ethel]], [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit]], [[Quentin Roosevelt|Quentin]], [[Edith Roosevelt|Edith]], [[Theodore Roosevelt Jr.|Theodore III (Ted)]], Theodore, [[Archibald Roosevelt|Archibald]], [[Alice Roosevelt Longworth|Alice]], sareng [[Nicholas Longworth]]]] Dina 2 Désémber 1886, Roosevelt nikah ka réngréngan ti mangsa leutikna, [[Edith Roosevelt|Edith Kermit Carow]], di [[St George's, Hanover Square]], di [[London]], Inggris.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forslund |first=Catherine |title=2016 |pages=298–319 |chapter=Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt: The Victorian Modern First Lady}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Letters and Friendships of Sir Cecil Spring Rice |date=1929 |publisher=Constable & Co |editor-last=Gwynn |editor-first=Stephen |page=121}}</ref> Roosevelt ngarasa rada kaganggu ku pikiran yén pernikahan kaduana ieu lumangsung teu lami saatos pupusna pamajikan kahiji, sarta anjeunna ogé nampi tantangan ti sadérék-sadérék awéwéna.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=181–182}} Ieu pasangan dipaparin lima murangkalih: [[Theodore Roosevelt Jr.|Theodore "Ted" III]] dina taun 1887, [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit]] dina 1889, [[Ethel Roosevelt Derby|Ethel]] dina 1891, [[Archibald Roosevelt|Archibald]] dina 1894, sareng [[Quentin Roosevelt|Quentin]] dina 1897. Maranéhna ogé ngasuh putra Roosevelt ti pernikahan kahijina, [[Alice Roosevelt Longworth|Alice]], anu sering papaséaan sareng indung téréna.{{sfn|Miller|1992|pp=193–194}} ==Mulang deui ka dunya publik== Saatos Roosevelt mulang ka New York, para pamingpin Républik ngadeukeutan anjeunna supados nyalonkeun diri janten [[Walikota Kota New York]] dina [[Pamilihan walikota Kota New York 1886|pamilihan 1886]].{{sfn|Kohn|2006}} Roosevelt nampi nominasi éta sanajan miboga harepan anu sakedik pikeun ngéléhkeun calon ti [[Partéy Buruh Serikat (Amérika Serikat, abad ka-19)|Partéy Buruh Serikat]] [[Henry George]] sareng tokoh Démokrat [[Abram Hewitt]]. Roosevelt kampanyé kalayan toh-tohan, nanging Hewitt meunang kalayan sora 41%, kenging sora ti seueur urang Républik anu sieun ku kawijakan radikal George. George kenging 31%, sarta Roosevelt aya di tempat katilu kalayan 27%.<ref name=everything>{{cite book|last=Sharp|first=Arthur G.|title=The Everything Theodore Roosevelt Book: The Extraordinary Life of an American Icon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSdqR6Wp31wC&pg=PA78|year=2011|publisher=Adams Media|pages=78–79|isbn=978-1-4405-2729-6|access-date=October 17, 2015|archive-date=April 7, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407023635/http://books.google.com/books?id=QSdqR6Wp31wC&pg=PA78|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Miller|1992|pp=183–185}} Ku sabab sieun karir politikna moal jagjag deui, Roosevelt fokus kana nyerat buku ''The Winning of the West'', anu medar ngeunaan gerakan urang Amérika ka wilayah kulon; ieu buku suksés pisan, nampi ulasan anu saé sarta payu pisan nepi ka béak dina citakan munggaranana.{{sfn|Miller|1992|pp=197–200}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Utley |first=George B. |date=1944 |title=Theodore Roosevelt's the Winning of the West: Some Unpublished Letters |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1916697 |journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=495–506 |doi=10.2307/1916697 |issn=0161-391X}}</ref> ===Komisi Layanan Sipil=== Saatos [[Benjamin Harrison]] sacara teu disangka-sangka ngéléhkeun Blaine dina nominasi présidén dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1888]], Roosevelt ngayakeun rupa-rupa [[Kampanyé politik|biantara kampanye]] di wilayah Midwest pikeun ngarojong Harrison.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=201}} Atas bongbolongan ti [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], Présidén Harrison ngangkat Roosevelt janten anggota [[Komisi Layanan Sipil Amérika Serikat]], di mana anjeunna ngajabat dugi ka taun 1895.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=203}} Nalika seueur nu ngajabat sateuacanna nganggap ieu posisi téh ngan saukur [[Jabatan ngeunaah|jabatan formalitas]] anu teu merlukeun gawé beurat,{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=206–207}} Roosevelt malah merangan para palaku [[Sistem spoils|sistem spoils]] sarta nungtut sangkan hukum layanan sipil ditegakkeun kalayan bener.{{Sfn|Thayer|1919|loc=ch. VI|pp=1–2}} Surat kabar ''[[The Sun (New York)|The Sun]]'' ngagambarkeun Roosevelt salaku jalma anu "henteu bisa diredam, resep gelut (wani), sarta pinuh ku sumanget".{{Sfn|Bishop|2007|p=51}} Roosevelt kungsi paséaa sareng Kepala Pos Umum [[John Wanamaker]], anu sering masihan jabatan ka para pangrojong Harrison; usaha Roosevelt pikeun mecat sababaraha pagawé pos malah matak ngarugikeun Harrison sacara politik.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=216–221}} Sanajan Roosevelt ngarojong Harrison dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1892|pamilihan 1892]], nu meunangna nyaéta Grover Cleveland, anu unikna kalah ngangkat deui Roosevelt dina jabatanana.{{Sfn|Bishop|2007|p=53}} Sahabat sarta panulis biografina, [[Joseph Bucklin Bishop]], ngagambarkeun kumaha Roosevelt narajang sistem korup éta: {{Blockquote|Bénténg utama politik sistem spoils, bénténg anu sateuacanna teu bisa ditembus sarta geus ajeg ti saprak diwangun luhureun pondasi anu diteundeun ku [[Andrew Jackson]], mimiti doyong sarta rék rugrug alatan narajangna ieu pamuda anu kacida wanina sarta henteu bisa diredam... Kumaha waé ogé parasaan Présidén (Harrison)—sarta taya deui mamang yén anjeunna henteu nyangka nalika ngangkat Roosevelt yén anjeunna bakal jadi saenyana "banténg di jero toko keramik"—anjeunna nolak mecat Roosevelt sarta tetep ngarojongna dugi ka mungkasan mangsa jabatanana.{{Sfn|Bishop|2007|p=51}}}} ===Komisaris Polisi Kota New York=== Dina taun 1894, kelompok Réformis Républik ngadeukeutan Roosevelt supados nyalonkeun deui janten Walikota New York; anjeunna nolak, utamana alatan pamajikanana henteu kersa upami kedah pindah tina lingkungan sosial di Washington. Teu lami ti dinya, anjeunna sadar yén anjeunna parantos kaleungitan kasempetan pikeun ngahirupkeun deui karir politikna anu nuju tiiseun. Anjeunna milih indit ka wilayah Dakota; Edith ngarasa kaduhung ku pangaruhna dina kaputusan éta sarta jangji moal ngulang deui hal sarupa.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=265–268}} [[William Lafayette Strong]] meunang dina pamilihan walikota taun 1884 sarta nawarkeun jabatan ka Roosevelt dina jajaran dewan [[Komisaris Polisi Kota New York]].{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=201}} Roosevelt janten présidén dewan komisaris sarta sacara radikal ngarobah kakuatan kapolisian: anjeunna ngayakeun inspeksi pakarang sarta pamariksaan fisik sacara rutin, ngangkat anggota dumasar kana kualifikasi fisik jeung méntal tinimbang patalina politik, ngadegkeun [[Medali Jasa Pinunjul]], nutup tempat panyalindungan polisi anu korup, sarta masang telepon di kantor-kantor polisi. Dina taun 1894, Roosevelt patepang sareng [[Jacob Riis]], wartawan ''[[The Sun (New York City)|Evening Sun]]'' anu sok ngungkab kabobrokan (''muckraking''), anu nuju muka panon warga New York ngeunaan kaayaan pikasidieun para imigran ngaliwatan bukuna sapertos ''[[How the Other Half Lives]]''. Riis nyaritakeun kumaha pangaruh bukuna ka Roosevelt: {{Blockquote|Nalika Roosevelt maca buku [kuring], anjeunna sumping... Taya jalma anu kantos ngabantu sapertos anjeunna. Salami dua taun urang parantos sapertos duduluran di [[Mulberry Street (Manhattan)|Mulberry Street]] (daérah anu pinuh ku kajahatan di New York). Nalika anjeunna angkat, kuring parantos nyaksian mangsa kaémasan éta tempat... Saeutik pisan aya katenangan di mana waé Theodore Roosevelt mingpin, sakumaha anu dirasakeun ku urang sadayana. Para palanggar hukum ogé sadar, anu tadina nyapéléké yén anjeunna bakal "tunduk kana politik sakumaha anu sanés", ahirna mah janten hormat ka anjeunna, sanajan bari nyarékan, salaku hiji-hijina jalma anu langkung kuat tinimbang pangaruh "nepotisme" (pull)... éta pisan anu ngajantenkeun éta mangsa janten mangsa kaémasan, yén pikeun munggaranana tujuan moral sumping ka jalanan. Dina cahayana, sagalana robah janten saé.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Riis | first = Jacob A | title = The Making of an American | chapter = XIII | page = 3 | publisher = Bartleby}}</ref>}} Roosevelt miboga kabiasaan leumpang mapay [[Wewengkon patroli|wilayah patroli]] para anggota polisi dina waktu peuting sarta subuh pikeun mastikeun yén maranéhna nuju pancén.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=277}} Anjeunna ogé satekah polah negakkeun hukum panutupan poé Minggu (hukum Raines) di New York sacara tegas; dina hal ieu, anjeunna bentrok sareng [[Thomas C. Platt|Tom Platt]] sarta [[Tammany Hall]]—anjeunna dibéré nyaho yén Komisi Polisi bakal dibubarkeun sacara hukum. Tindakan tegasna nimbulkeun rupa-rupa protés. Nalika diondang ka hiji démonstrasi badag, anjeunna lain ngan saukur sumping, tapi malah ngarasa resep ku rupa-rupa hinaan sarta karikatur anu ditujukeun ka anjeunna, sahingga ahirna kenging simpati ti masarakat. Roosevelt milih pikeun ngalah tinimbang kudu pecah sareng partéyna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=293}} ==Muncul salaku tokoh nasional== ===Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut=== [[File:LC-USZC4-701 (17518506711).jpg|thumb|[[Skuadron Asiatic]] ngancurkeun armada Spanyol dina [[Patempuran Teluk Manila]] dina 1 Méi 1898]] Dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1896|pamilihan présidén 1896]], Roosevelt ngarojong [[Thomas Brackett Reed]] pikeun nominasi Républik, nanging [[William McKinley]] anu kenging nominasi sarta hasil ngéléhkeun [[William Jennings Bryan]] dina pamilihan umum.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=242–243}} Roosevelt kacida nolakna kana platform [[pérak bébas]] Bryan, sarta nganggap seueur pangrojong Bryan salaku fanatik anu bahaya. Anjeunna ngayakeun biantara kampanyé pikeun McKinley.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=243–246}} Atas dorongan ti Sénator Henry Cabot Lodge, Présidén McKinley ngangkat Roosevelt janten [[Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] dina taun 1897.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=David |last=Lemelin |title=Theodore Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy: Preparing America for the World Stage |journal=History Matters |year=2011 |pages=13–34}}</ref> Sekretaris Angkatan Laut [[John D. Long]] nuju teu damang sarta masrahkeun seueur kaputusan penting ka Roosevelt. Kapangaruhan ku [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]], Roosevelt nungtut pangwangunan kakuatan angkatan laut, utamana pangwangunan [[kapal perang]] (battleship).{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=253}} Roosevelt ogé mimiti nekenkeun sawangan kaamanan nasionalna ngeunaan Pasifik sareng Karibia ka McKinley, sarta keukeuh yén Spanyol kedah diusir ti Kuba.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=310–212}} Anjeunna ngajelaskeun prioritasna ka salah sahiji nu ngarancang rencana Angkatan Laut dina ahir taun 1897: {{Blockquote|Kuring ningali perang sareng Spanyol tina dua sawangan: kahiji, tina dasar kamanusaan sarta kapentingan diri pikeun milu campur pikeun kapentingan urang Kuba, sarta salaku saléngkah deui pikeun ngabébaskeun Amérika sagemblengna tina kakawasaan Éropa; kadua, mangpaat pikeun rahayat urang ku cara masihan hiji hal anu dipikiran lian ti saukur kauntungan matéri, sarta utamana mangpaat pikeun kakuatan militér urang ku cara nguji Angkatan Laut jeung Angkatan Darat dina prakték nyata.{{Sfn|Roosevelt|2001|pp=157–158}}}} Dina 15 Pébruari 1898, kapal pangawal lapis baja {{USS|Maine|ACR-1|6}} ngabeledug di palabuhan [[Havana, Kuba]], sarta nelasan ratusan awak kapal. Nalika Roosevelt sareng seueur urang Amérika sanésna nyalahkeun Spanyol, McKinley milih jalan diplomasi.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=267–268}} Tanpa idin ti Long atanapi McKinley, Roosevelt ngirimkeun paréntah ka sababaraha kapal angkatan laut pikeun nyiapkeun perang.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=267–268}}{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=325–326}} [[George Dewey]], anu parantos nampi tugas mingpin [[Skuadron Asiatic]] atas rojongan Roosevelt, engkéna nyebatkeun yén kameunanganana dina [[Patempuran Teluk Manila]] téh alatan paréntah ti Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=261, 268}} Saatos taya harepan deui tina jalan damai, McKinley ménta Kongrés pikeun nyatakeun perang ka Spanyol, anu jadi mimiti [[Perang Amérika–Spanyol]].{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=271–272}} ===Perang di Kuba=== {{Further|Rough Riders}} [[File:Theodore Rooseveltnewtry.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Kolonél Roosevelt dina taun 1898]] Nalika [[Perang Amérika–Spanyol]] dimimitian dina taun 1898, Roosevelt mundur tina jabatanana salaku Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut. Bareng jeung Kolonél Angkatan Darat [[Leonard Wood]], anjeunna ngawangun [[Rough Riders|Réjimén Kavaleri Sukarelawan AS Kahiji]].<ref name="LOC">{{cite web | url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/roughriders.html | title=The World of 1989: The Spanish–American War; Rough Riders | publisher=Library of Congress | access-date=February 7, 2015 | archive-date=February 7, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207100632/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/roughriders.html | url-status=live }}</ref> Pamajikanana sarta seueur rénjangna ménta sangkan Roosevelt tetep cicing di Washington, nanging Roosevelt tos tékad hayong turun langsung ka medan perang. Nalika koran-koran nyebarkeun béja ngeunaan diwangunna réjimén anyar ieu, Roosevelt sareng Wood kabanjiran ku pendaftar.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=272–274}} Disebat ku pers salaku "Rough Riders", ieu téh salah sahiji tina seueur unit samentara anu aktip ngan salami perang.{{Sfn|Samuels|1997|p=148}} Ieu réjimén dilatih salami sababaraha minggu di [[San Antonio, Texas]]; dina otobiografina, Roosevelt nyerat yén pangalamanana dina [[Garda Nasional New York]] ngabantu anjeunna pikeun langsung ngajar dasar-dasar militér.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roosevelt |first=Theodore |date=2014 |title=Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwHCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244 |publisher=The Floating Press |page=244 |isbn=978-1-77653-337-4 |access-date=February 9, 2015 |archive-date=November 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119023721/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwHCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ieu réjimén diwangun ku rupa-rupa latar tukang, kalebet lulusan [[Ivy League]], atlét, urang wates (frontiersmen), [[Suku Asli Amérika Serikat|Suku Asli Amérika]], pamburu, panambang, tilas prajurit, padagang, sarta sheriff. Rough Riders janten bagian tina divisi kavaleri anu dipingpin ku tilas jénderal Konfédérasi [[Joseph Wheeler]]. Roosevelt sareng anak buahna badarat di [[Daiquirí]], Kuba, dina 23 Juni 1898, sarta maju ka [[Siboney, Kuba|Siboney]]. Wheeler ngirim Rough Riders dina jalan sajajar ka kalér-kulon mapay gawir luhureun basisir. Roosevelt nyepeng komando réjimén; anjeunna ngalaman patempuran munggaran nalika Rough Riders panggih jeung pasukan Spanyol dina hiji ''skirmish'' (patempuran leutik) anu katelah [[Patempuran Las Guasimas]]. Maranéhna hasil nembus pertahanan Spanyol sarta, babarengan jeung pasukan reguler, maksa pasukan Spanyol ninggalkeun posisina.<ref name="The Rough Riders">{{Cite book | last = Roosevelt | first = Theodore | author-link = Theodore Roosevelt | year = 1898 | chapter-url = http://www.bartleby.com/51/ | title = The Rough Riders | chapter = III | page = 2 | publisher = Bartleby | access-date = August 8, 2008 | archive-date = July 23, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080723190331/http://bartleby.com/51/ | url-status = live }}</ref> [[File:TR San Juan Hill 1898.jpg|thumb|Kolonél Roosevelt sareng [[Rough Riders]] babarengan jeung anggota Sukarelawan ka-3 sarta [[Réjimén Kavaleri ka-10 (Amérika Serikat)|Réjimén Kavaleri ka-10]] saatos ngarebut [[Kettle Hill]] di [[Kuba]] salami [[Perang Amérika–Spanyol]] dina Juli 1898]] Dina 1 Juli, dina hiji serangan gabungan sareng pasukan reguler, handapeun lulugu Roosevelt, Rough Riders janten kawentar alatan aksi narajang ka [[Kettle Hill]] sareng San Juan Hill. Roosevelt mangrupikeun hiji-hijina prajurit anu tumpak kuda, nalika anjeunna bulak-balik di antara parit-parit némbak di garis hareup nalika nanjak ka Kettle Hill, hiji gerakan anu didesek ku anjeunna sanajan euweuh paréntah resmi. Anjeunna kapaksa leumpang dina bagian ahir Kettle Hill sabab kudana kabeulit ku [[kawat leri]] (barbed wire). Ieu serangan engkéna katelah Patempuran San Juan Heights. Kameunangan ieu dibayar mahal ku 200 urang anu palastra sarta 1.000 urang tatu.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=356}} Dina bulan Agustus, Roosevelt sareng perwira sanésna nungtut sangkan para prajurit dipulangkan. Roosevelt nginget mangsa di San Juan Heights salaku "poé pangbadagna dina hirup kuring". Saatos mulang janten warga sipil, Roosevelt langkung resep disebut "Kolonél Roosevelt" atanapi "Sang Kolonél"; nanging landihan "Teddy" tetep langkung populer di masarakat, sanajan Roosevelt sacara terang-terangan teu resep kana éta landihan.<ref name= HandyBook>{{cite book| last= Matuz| first = Roger | title = The Handy Presidents Answer Book | url= https://archive.org/details/handypresidentsa0000matu| url-access= registration| year = 2004 | publisher=Visible Ink Press |page=474 |isbn=978-0-7808-0773-0}}</ref> ===Gubernur New York=== Teu lami saatos Roosevelt mulang, Anggota Kongrés ti Républik [[Lemuel E. Quigg]], bawahan ti bos mesin politik New York [[Thomas C. Platt]], ménta Roosevelt pikeun nyalonkeun diri dina [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1898|pamilihan gubernur 1898]]. Sanajan sacara politik diuntungkeun ku "mesin Platt", naékna kakawasaan Roosevelt dicirian ku kaputusan pragmatis ti Platt, anu sabenerna mah teu pati resep ka Roosevelt. Platt sieun Roosevelt bakal ngalawan kapentinganana nalika ngajabat sarta horéam pikeun nyorong Roosevelt ka tingkat politik nasional, nanging anjeunna merlukeun calon anu kuat lantaran gubernur Républik anu nuju ngajabat harita, [[Frank S. Black]], nuju teu dipikaresep ku masarakat. Roosevelt satuju janten nominé sarta nyoba pikeun henteu "ngajak perang" ka lingkungan mapan (establishment) Républik nalika engkéna ngajabat. Roosevelt ngéléhkeun Black dina kaukus Républik, sarta nyanghareupan tokoh Démokrat [[Augustus Van Wyck]], saurang hakim anu dipihormat, dina pamilihan umum.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=309–311, 318}} Roosevelt kampanye ngagunakeun catetan sajarah perangna, sarta meunang tipis kalayan sora ngan béda 1%.{{Sfn|Morris|1979|pp=674–687}} Salaku gubernur, Roosevelt diajar ngeunaan pasualan ékonomi sarta téhnik politik anu engkéna kabuktian kacida berhargana nalika anjeunna janten présidén. Anjeunna neuleuman masalah-masalah kakuatan korporasi (trust), monopoli, hubungan tanaga gawé, sarta konservasi. G. Wallace Chessman nyebutkeun yén program Roosevelt "dumasar kana konsép ''Square Deal'' (kasapukan anu adil) ku nagara anu nétral". Aturan pikeun ''Square Deal'' nyaéta "kajujuran dina urusan publik, babagi hak sarta tanggung jawab anu adil, sarta nempatkeun kapentingan nagara bagian di luhureun kapentingan partéy jeung lokal".{{Sfn|Chessman|1965|p=6}} Ku cara ngayakeun konferénsi pers dua kali sapoé—hiji hal anu anyar harita—Roosevelt tetep kabeungkeut sareng basis massa kelas menengahna.{{Sfn|Morris|1979|p=693}} Roosevelt hasil ngadesek lolosna rancangan undang-undang Pajeg-Franchise Ford, anu méré pajeg ka waralaba publik (public franchises) anu dibéré ku nagara bagian sarta dikontrol ku korporasi, bari nyatakeun yén "hiji korporasi anu meunang kakawasaan ti Nagara, kudu mayar ka Nagara perséntase anu adil tina panghasilanana salaku balesan pikeun hak husus anu ditarimana".<ref>{{cite book | first = Theodore | last = Roosevelt | title = The Roosevelt Policy: Speeches, Letters and State Papers, Relating to Corporate Wealth and Closely Allied Topics, of Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ8-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2 | year = 1908 | page = 2 | access-date = October 17, 2015 | archive-date = April 6, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150406171230/http://books.google.com/books?id=bJ8-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2 | url-status = live }}</ref> Anjeunna nolak kahaoat Platt yén ieu hal ampir sarua jeung Sosialisme gaya Bryan, kalayan ngajelaskeun yén tanpa aturan ieu, pamilih di New York bisa jadi ambek sarta milih kapamilikan publik pikeun jalur karéta sarta franchise séjénna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=378–379}} Wenang pikeun ngangkat jabatan dina posisi nangtukeun kawijakan mangrupikeun peran konci pikeun gubernur. Platt keukeuh yén anjeunna kedah ditaroskeun ngeunaan pangangkatan jabatan anu penting; Roosevelt katingalina nurut, nanging saenyana mah anjeunna nyieun kaputusan sorangan. Para sejarawan héran kumaha Roosevelt bisa ngangkat sakitu lobana jalma-jalma kelas wahid kalayan persetujuan Platt. Anjeunna malah ménta tulung ka Platt pikeun ngamankeun réformasi, sapertos dina musim semi 1899, nalika Platt neken para sénator nagara bagian pikeun milih undang-undang layanan sipil anu disebut ku sekretaris Asosiasi Réformasi Layanan Sipil salaku "langkung punjul ti batan statute layanan sipil mana waé anu kantos aya di Amérika".{{Sfn|Chessman|1965|p=79}} Chessman boga pamandangan yén salaku gubernur, Roosevelt mekarkeun prinsip-prinsip anu ngawangun mangsa présidénna, utamana ngeunaan tanggung jawab publik korporasi badag, transparansi salaku ubar munggaran pikeun monopoli, pangaturan tarif karéta api, mediasi konflik modal jeung tanaga gawé, konservasi sumber daya alam, sarta panangtayungan ka jalma miskin.{{Sfn|Chessman|1965|p=6}} Roosevelt nyoba nempatkeun dirina di tengah-tengah, ngalawan kaleuwihan ti korporasi badag sarta gerakan radikal.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=322}} Salaku pamingpin eksekutif ti nagara bagian anu panglobana pangeusina, Roosevelt sacara lega dianggap salaku calon présidén anu poténsial, sarta para pangrojongna sapertos [[William Allen White]] nyorong anjeunna pikeun nyalonkeun diri.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=331–333}} Roosevelt teu boga minat pikeun nangtang McKinley dina nominasi taun 1900 sarta kahayangna pikeun ngajabat [[Sekretaris Perang]] ogé ditolak. Nalika mangsa jabatanana maju, Roosevelt mikirkeun pikeun nyalonkeun diri dina taun 1904, nanging masih cangcaya naha anjeunna kedah nyalonkeun deui janten gubernur dina taun 1900.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=333–334}} ===Wakil Présidén (1901)=== {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1900}} Dina bulan Nopémber 1899, Wakil Présidén [[Garret Hobart]] pupus, sahingga aya lolongkrang keur posisi wakil dina tikét nasional Républik taun 1900. Sanajan Henry Cabot Lodge sarta nu sanésna ngadesek Roosevelt sangkan nyalonkeun diri janten wakil présidén dina taun 1900, Roosevelt ngaluarkeun pernyataan publik yén anjeunna moal nampi éta nominasi.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=333–334, 338}} Ku sabab hoyong leupas ti Roosevelt di New York, Platt tetep ngamimitian kampanye ngaliwatan surat kabar pikeun ngarojong nominasi Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=338}} Roosevelt ngahadiran [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1900]] salaku delegasi nagara bagian sarta ngayakeun kasapukan sareng Platt: Roosevelt bakal nampi nominasi upami konvénsi nawarkeun ka anjeunna, nanging upami henteu, anjeunna bakal neraskeun deui janten gubernur. Platt ménta bos partéy Pennsylvania [[Matthew Quay]] pikeun mingpin kampanye nominasi Roosevelt, sarta Quay hasil ngéléhkeun taktik [[Mark Hanna]] dina éta konvénsi pikeun nempatkeun Roosevelt dina tikét pencalonan.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=340–341}} Roosevelt kenging nominasi sacara mufakat (aklamasi).{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=342}} Kampanye Roosevelt salaku wakil présidén kabuktian kacida pinuh ku tanaga, nyalip gaya kampanye "barnstorming" (kampanye kaliling) ti calon présidén Démokrat William Jennings Bryan. Dina kampanye kilat anu némbongkeun tanagana ka masarakat, Roosevelt ngayakeun 480 titik panyimpangan di 23 nagara bagian. Anjeunna nyempad radikalisme Bryan, sarta ngabandingkeunana sareng kapahlawanan jalma-jalma anu meunang perang ngalawan Spanyol. Bryan sabenerna ngarojong pisan kana éta perang, nanging anjeunna nyempad anéksasi [[Filipina]] salaku tindakan [[imperialisme]]. Roosevelt ngawaler yén hal anu pangsaéna nyaéta pikeun urang [[Filipina]] miboga stabilitas sarta pikeun urang Amérika miboga tempat anu dipikareueus di dunya. Para pamilih masihan McKinley kameunangan anu langkung ageung dibandingkeun taun 1896.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=388–405}}<ref>John M. Hilpert, ''American Cyclone: Theodore Roosevelt and His 1900 Whistle-Stop Campaign'' (U Press of Mississippi, 2015).</ref> Roosevelt mimiti ngajabat janten wakil présidén dina bulan Maret 1901. Ieu jabatan téh saenyana mah saukur "jabatan ngeunaah" (sinecure) anu teu miboga kakawasaan nyata, sarta henteu cocog sareng watek Roosevelt anu agresif sarta resep gawé.<ref>{{Cite journal | first = G Wallace | last = Chessman | title = Theodore Roosevelt's Campaign Against the Vice-Presidency | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_historian_spring-1952_14_2/page/172 | journal = Historian | year = 1952 | volume = 14 | number = 2 | pages = 173–190 | doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1952.tb00132.x}}</ref> Genep bulan Roosevelt janten wakil présidén téh tiiseun pisan sarta matak bosen pikeun saurang jalma anu resep kana aksi nyata. Anjeunna teu miboga kakawasaan; anjeunna mingpin sési Sénat ngan ukur opat dinten sateuacan sési éta lekasan (resés).{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=346}} Dina 2 Séptémber 1901, Roosevelt munggaran mublikasikeun hiji [[apoftegma]] (paribasa) anu matak reueus para pangrojongna: "**[[Ideologi Big Stick|Ngomong kalayan lembut sarta bawa iteuk anu badag, sarta anjeun bakal hasil (maju jauh).]]**"<ref>{{cite news |last=Woltman |first=Nick |date=August 31, 2015 |title=Roosevelt's 'big stick' line at State Fair stuck...later |url=https://www.twincities.com/2015/08/31/roosevelts-big-stick-line-at-state-fair-stuck-later/ |work=[[Twin Cities Pioneer Press]] |access-date=June 9, 2020 |archive-date=June 10, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610043645/https://www.twincities.com/2015/08/31/roosevelts-big-stick-line-at-state-fair-stuck-later/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Mangsa Présidén (1901–1909)== {{Main|Mangsa Présidén Theodore Roosevelt}} [[File:Theodore Roosevelt by John Singer Sargent, 1903.jpg|thumb|Potrét resmi [[White House|Imah Bodas]] Roosevelt karya [[John Singer Sargent]] dina taun 1903]] Dina 6 Séptémber 1901, Présidén McKinley nuju ngahadiran [[Pan-American Exposition]] di [[Buffalo, New York]], nalika anjeunna [[Asasinasi William McKinley|ditémbak]] ku saurang anarkis [[Leon Czolgosz]]. Roosevelt, anu nuju pakansi di [[Isle La Motte, Vermont]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=74729|title=Theodore Roosevelt's Visit to Isle la Motte Historical Marker|access-date=February 22, 2022|archive-date=February 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222173837/https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=74729|url-status=live}}</ref> angkat ka Buffalo pikeun ngalongok McKinley di rumah sakit. Nalika McKinley katingalina nuju sakarat (saé deui), Roosevelt neraskeun deui pakansina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trsite.org/learn/the-day-of-the-inauguration|title=The Inauguration|access-date=February 22, 2022|archive-date=February 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222173838/https://www.trsite.org/learn/the-day-of-the-inauguration|url-status=live}}</ref> Nanging nalika kaayaan McKinley beuki parah, Roosevelt rurusuhan mulang deui ka Buffalo. Anjeunna nuju di [[North Creek, New York]] nalika nampi béja ngeunaan pupusna McKinley dina 14 Séptémber. Roosevelt tuluy neraskeun lalampahan ka Buffalo sarta [[Inaugurasi munggaran Theodore Roosevelt|dilantik janten présidén ka-26]] di Ansley Wilcox House (ayeuna [[Situs Sajarah Nasional Inaugurasi Theodore Roosevelt]]).{{sfn|Miller|1992|pp=348–352}} Para pangrojong McKinley ngarasa hariwang ka Roosevelt, utamana Sénator ti Ohio [[Mark Hanna]] anu kacida kuciwana, ngingetkeun kana perlawananana anu kuat dina mangsa konvénsi. Sanajan Roosevelt ngayakinkeun para pamingpin partéy yén anjeunna bakal neraskeun kawijakan McKinley sarta tetep ngagunakeun kabinét anu lami, anjeunna satekah polah netepkeun dirina salaku pamingpin partéy sarta nyiapkeun posisi pikeun pamilihan taun 1904.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=354–356}} Naékna Roosevelt janten présidén dipapag ku kahariwang ti kaom konservatif Républik, sakumaha anu dicatet ku sejarawan [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]]: {{blockquote|Kaom konservatif, anu parantos ngadominasi Partéy Républik salami tilu dékade, sieun yén ieu présidén ngora anu impulsif téh bakal jadi "kuda liar" (bucking bronco), anu bakal ngaruksak aliansi antara dunya usaha jeung pamaréntah anu parantos méré kamakmuran anu taya tandingna dina awal abad éta. Para réformis mah sabalikna, ngaharepkeun kapamingpinan Roosevelt anu motékar bakal ngarobah Partéy Républik janten kakuatan progresif sakumaha jaman Abraham Lincoln, anu narékahan pikeun nyebarkeun kamakmuran saluareun jalma-jalma beunghar ka rahayat biasa.{{Sfn|Goodwin|2013|p=279–280}}}} Nambahan kana hal éta, Kearns ogé nyatet yén: {{Blockquote|Salami karirna, Roosevelt parantos berjuang pikeun ngahijikeun kasatiaan ka partéy sareng dorongan pikeun nungkulan masalah sosial, hiji tindakan saimbang (balancing act) anu janten beuki hésé nalika aspék-aspék industrialisasi anu matak hariwang beuki parah. Sanajan anjeunna nganggap dirina konservatif upami dibandingkeun sareng kaom Populis, anjeunna yakin yén partéyna nuju dicekel ku kaom réaksionér anu sakitu "sieunna ku radikalisme" sahingga maranéhna "teu percaya kana sagala hal anu sipatna progresif." Justru jalma-jalma sapertos kitu anu ngadominasi kadua kamar di Kongrés, ceuk Roosevelt. Anjeunna bakal digawé pikeun "nyorong" maranéhna maju, nanging anjeunna sadar yén kamajuan anu nyata peryogi pangajak langsung ka rahayat, "dunungan urang duaan." Pikeun ngahontal masarakat umum, anjeunna bakal ngagunakeun jinis wartawan indepénden anyar, anu tanpa "rojongan aktip" maranéhna, anjeunna engkéna ngaku yén anjeunna "moal miboga kakuatan naon-naon."{{Sfn|Goodwin|2013|p=281}}}} Teu lami saatos ngajabat, Roosevelt ngondang [[Booker T. Washington]] pikeun tuang wengi di Imah Bodas, anu nimbulkeun réaksi keras ti sakuliah wilayah Kidul anu masih keneh kandel ku segregasi ras.<ref>Dewey W. Grantham, "Dinner at the White House: Theodore Roosevelt, Booker T. Washington, and the South." ''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' (1958) 17.2: 112–130 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/42621372 online].</ref> Sanajan awalna Roosevelt ngarencanakeun langkung seueur tuang wengi sareng Washington, anjeunna engkéna nyingkahan ondangan salajengna sarta langkung milih rapat-rapat bisnis demi ngajaga rojongan politik di wilayah Kidul (urang bodas).{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=422–423}}{{Sfn|Morris|2001|p=58}} ===Kawijakan domestik: The Square Deal=== {{Further|Square Deal}} ====Trust busting (merangan monopoli) sarta régulasi==== Roosevelt dipuji salaku "trust-buster" (pangancur monopoli) alatan tindakana anu agrésif dina ngagunakeun [[Undang-undang Antitrust Sherman]] taun 1890, upami dibandingkeun sareng para présidén sateuacanna.{{sfn|Ruddy|2016}} Anjeunna nganggap bisnis skala badag téh penting pikeun ékonomi Amérika, nanging anjeunna ngan nungtut "bad trusts" (monopoli jahat) anu ngawatesan perdagangan sarta nangtukeun harga anu teu adil.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=365–366}} Roosevelt ngajukeun 44 tungtutan antitrust, kaasup ngabubarkeun [[Northern Securities Company]], monopoli karéta api pangbadagna, sarta ngatur [[Standard Oil]], pausahaan minyak pangbadagna.{{sfn|Ruddy|2016}} Sabalikna, para présidén sateuacanna sapertos Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, sarta William McKinley, upami digabungkeun ngan saukur nungtut 18 palanggaran antitrust.{{sfn|Ruddy|2016}} Saatos kenging sora mayoritas dina [[Pamilihan Amérika Serikat 1902]], Roosevelt ngusulkeun pangbentukan [[Departemén Perdagangan sareng Tanaga Gawé Amérika Serikat]], anu di jerona kalebet [[Biro Korporasi]]. Kongrés nampi éta departemén, nanging cangcaya kana kawasa antitrust anu dipihoyong ku Roosevelt di jero éta biro. Roosevelt tuluy ménta dukungan langsung ti masarakat pikeun neken Kongrés, sahingga ahirna Kongrés ngaluluskeun éta rancangan undang-undang luyu sareng kahayang Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=378–381}} Ketua Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat (House Speaker) [[Joseph Gurney Cannon]] méré koméntar kana kahayang Roosevelt pikeun ngontrol cabang éksekutif: "Éta jalma di tungtung jalan ditu téh hayang sagalana, ti mimiti lahirna Kristus nepi ka maotna sétan." Panulis biografi Brands nyatet, "Malah babaturanana ogé sakapeung mah héran naha aya kabiasaan atanapi prakték anu sakitu leutikna nepi ka kudu diatur, diropéa, atanapi dironjatkeun ku anjeunna."{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=552–553}} Kawani Roosevelt dina ngagunakeun kakawasaan nepi ka nyabak urusan parobahan aturan dina [[Football Amérika]], maksa diteraskeunana kelas béla diri di [[Akademi Angkatan Laut AS]], ngarobah aturan disiplin, ngarobah desain koin anu teu dipikaresep ku anjeunna, sarta maréntahkeun panyederhanaan éjahan pikeun 300 kecap, sanajan anu pamungkas mah dibatalkeun saatosna diheureuykeun ku pers sarta diprotés ku DPR.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=553–556}} ====Mogok tambang batu bara==== {{main|Mogok batu bara 1902}} Dina bulan Méi 1902, para [[United Mine Workers|panambang batu bara antrasit]] ngayakeun aksi mogok, anu ngancam ayana kakurangan énergi nasional. Saatos ngancam para pangusaha batu bara ku pasukan féderal, Roosevelt hasil ngayakinkeun maranéhna sangkan méréskeun pasualanna ngaliwatan arbitrase ku hiji komisi, sahingga aksi mogokna eureun. Kasapukan sareng [[J. P. Morgan]] ngahasilkeun dironjatkeunana gajih panambang sarta jam gawé anu langkung saeutik, nanging serikat buruhna tetep teu diaku sacara resmi.{{Sfn|Harbaugh|1963|pp= 165–179}}{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=450–483}} Roosevelt nyarios, "Tindakan kuring dina urusan tanaga gawé kudu salawasna dianggap aya patalina jeung tindakan kuring dina urusan modal, sarta duanana bisa disimpulkeun kana rumus paporit kuring—kasapukan anu adil (square deal) pikeun unggal jalma."{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=509}} Anjeunna mangrupikeun présidén munggaran anu milu méréskeun pasulayan tanaga gawé.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=376–377}} ====Nindak kalakuan teu bener==== Salami taun kadua Roosevelt ngajabat, korupsi kaungkab di [[Biro Urusan India]], [[Kantor Pertanahan Umum Amérika Serikat]], sarta [[Departemén Kantor Pos Amérika Serikat]]. Anjeunna nungtut para agén India korup anu parantos nipu [[Suku Asli Amérika]] tina lahan-lahanna. Penipuan lahan sarta spékulasi anu ngalibetkeun leuweung kai di Oregon ngabalukarkeun anjeunna sareng [[Ethan A. Hitchcock (Interior)|Ethan A. Hitchcock]] maksa Komisaris Kantor Pertanahan Umum [[Binger Hermann]] turun tina jabatanna dina bulan Nopémber 1902. Jaksa husus [[Francis J. Heney]] kenging 146 dakwaan dina kasus suap di Kantor Pertanahan Oregon.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=207}} Roosevelt ogé nungtut 44 pagawé pos dina kasus suap sarta penipuan.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=208}} Para sejarawan sapuk yén anjeunna parantos méré tindakan "gancang sarta tegas" dina nungkulan kalakuan teu bener di jero pamaréntahanana.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=209}} ====Karéta Api==== {{Main|Hepburn Act}} Para padagang ngangluh yén sababaraha tarif karéta api luhur teuing. Dina [[Undang-undang Hepburn]] 1906, Roosevelt narékahan pikeun méré kakuatan ka [[Komisi Perdagangan Antar-Nagara Bagian]] (ICC) pikeun ngatur tarif, nanging Sénat anu dipingpin ku tokoh konservatif [[Nelson Aldrich]] ngalawan. Roosevelt gawé bareng jeung Sénator Démokrat [[Benjamin Tillman]] pikeun ngaluluskeun éta undang-undang. Maranéhna ahirna nepi ka hiji kompromi anu méré kakuatan ka ICC pikeun ngaganti tarif anu aya ku tarif maksimum anu "adil-jeung-mawa-akal", bari ngidinan pausahaan karéta api pikeun ngajukeun banding ka pangadilan féderal ngeunaan naon anu disebut "mawa akal" (reasonable).{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=453–459}}{{sfn|Blum|1977|pp=89–117}} Undang-undang Hepburn ogé méré kakuatan régulasi ka ICC kana biaya pipa saluran, kontrak gudang, sarta aspék séjén tina operasional karéta api.{{Sfn|Morris|2001|pp=445–448}} ====Kadaharan sarta ubat-ubatan anu murni==== Roosevelt ngaréspon amarah publik ngeunaan prakték curang dina industri pangolahan kadaharan ku cara ngadesek Kongrés sangkan ngesahkeun [[Undang-undang Inspeksi Daging]] 1906 sarta [[Undang-undang Kadaharan sarta Ubat Murni]]. Kaom konservatif mimitina nolak, nanging buku ''[[The Jungle]]'' karya [[Upton Sinclair]] anu dipedarkeun taun 1906 hasil ngahudangkeun rojongan pikeun réformasi.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=459–460}} Undang-undang Inspeksi Daging ngalarang labél anu nyasabkeun sarta [[bahan pangawét]] nu miboga bahan kimia bahaya. Undang-undang Kadaharan sarta Ubat Murni ngalarang dijieun, dijual, sarta dikirimna kadaharan jeung ubat-ubatan anu teu murni atanapi anu labélna palsu. Roosevelt ogé ngajabat salaku présidén honorér [[Asosiasi Higiénis Sakola Amérika]] ti 1907 dugi ka 1908 sarta ngayakeun Konferénsi Imah Bodas munggaran ngeunaan Pangurus Budak dina taun 1909. ====Konservasi==== {{Main|Mangsa Présidén Theodore Roosevelt#Konservasi}} [[File:President Theodore Roosevelt Driving Through the Wawona Tunnel Tree, in Yellowstone National Park (14994749857).jpg|thumb|Roosevelt nuju nyupiran ngaliwatan torowongan tangkal [[Sequoia raksasa|sequoia]]]] Roosevelt kacida reueusna ku karyana dina ngajaga (konservasi) sumber daya alam sarta ngalegaan panangtayungan féderal pikeun lahan jeung sato liar.{{sfn|Bakari|2016}} Anjeunna gawé bareng raket jeung Sekretaris Interior [[James Rudolph Garfield]] sarta Kepala Dinas Leuweung Amérika Serikat [[Gifford Pinchot]] pikeun ngajalankeun runtuyan program konservasi anu meunang tantangan ti anggota Kongrés wilayah Kulon, sapertos [[Charles William Fulton]].{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=469–471}} Sanajan kitu, Roosevelt hasil ngadegkeun [[Dinas Leuweung Amérika Serikat]], nandatanganan pangwangunan lima [[Taman Nasional (Amérika Serikat)|Taman Nasional]], sarta nandatanganan [[Undang-undang Barang Antik]] 1906, anu dipaké ku anjeunna pikeun netepkeun 18 [[Monumén Nasional AS]] anyar. Anjeunna ogé ngadegkeun 51 [[suaka manuk]] munggaran, opat [[pangraksa sato liar]], sarta 150 [[Leuweung Nasional Amérika Serikat]]. Lega wilayah Amérika Serikat anu ditepkeun ku anjeunna dina panangtayungan publik totalna sakitar {{convert|230|e6acre|km2|sp=us|abbr=off}}.{{sfn|Brinkley|2009}} Roosevelt loba pisan ngagunakeun [[Paréntah éksekutif (Amérika Serikat)|paréntah éksekutif]] pikeun nangtayungan leuweung sarta lahan sato liar salami mangsa présidénna. Dina ahir periode kaduana, Roosevelt parantos ngagunakeun paréntah éksekutif pikeun nyadangkeun {{convert|150|e6acre|km2|sigfig=1|abbr=off|sp=us}} lahan perhutanan. Roosevelt teu asa-asa dina ngagunakeun paréntah éksekutif pikeun nangtayungan lingkungan, sanajan Kongrés nganggap anjeunna parantos ngalunju teuing kana seueur lahan. Ahirna, Sénator [[Charles William Fulton]] nyelipkeun amandémén kana undang-undang anggaran tatanén anu ngahalangan présidén pikeun nyadangkeun lahan leuwih loba deui. Sateuacan nandatanganan éta undang-undang, Roosevelt gancang-gancang netepkeun [[leuweung tengah peuting|21 cadangan leuweung tambahan]], nungguan nepi ka detik-detik terakhir sateuacan anjeunna nandatanganan undang-undang éta janten hukum. Sacara total, Roosevelt ngaluarkeun 1.081 paréntah éksekutif, langkung seueur ti présidén mana waé sateuacanna. ====Kepanikan bisnis 1907==== {{Further|Kepanikan 1907}} [[File:Theodore Roosevelt by Harris & Ewing Studio, 1907.jpg|thumb|Potrét Roosevelt taun 1907 karya [[Harris & Ewing]]]] Dina taun 1907, Roosevelt nyanghareupan krisis ékonomi domestik pangbadagna ti saprak [[Kepanikan 1893]]. Pasar saham Wall Street anjlog dina awal 1907, sarta seueur investor anu nyalahkeun kawijakan régulasi Roosevelt salaku cukang lantaran turunna harga saham.{{Sfn|Morris|2001|pp=495–496}} Roosevelt ahirna ngabantu niiskeun krisis ku cara ngayakeun rapat jeung para pamingpin [[U.S. Steel]] dina 4 Nopémber 1907, sarta nyatujuan rencana maranéhna pikeun meuli pausahaan baja Tennessee anu ampir bangkrut—anu upami gagal bakal ngancurkeun bank badag di New York.{{sfn|Gould|2011|p=239}} Nanging, dina bulan Agustus, Roosevelt ngamuk ka jalma-jalma nu beunghar pisan alatan kasalahan ékonomi maranéhna, bari nyebut maranéhna salaku "**malefactors of great wealth**" (palaku kajahatan tina kabeungharan badag) dina biantara pentingna, "The Puritan Spirit and the Regulation of Corporations". Nalika nyoba mulangkeun kapercayaan, anjeunna nyalahkeun Éropa salaku sabab utama krisis, nanging saatos muji kajujuran kaom Puritan, anjeunna neraskeun: {{Blockquote|Bisa jadi kaputusan pamaréntah... pikeun ngahukum sababaraha palaku kajahatan tina kabeungharan badag (malefactors of great wealth), mémang miboga pangaruh kana ieu kaributan; sahenteuna dina hal anu ngabalukarkeun ieu jalma-jalma ngahiji pikeun nyiptakeun tekenan finansial sabisa-bisa, sangkan bisa ngaruksak ngaran kawijakan pamaréntah sarta ahirna bisa ngabatalkeun éta kawijakan, sangkan maranéhna bisa terus ngarasakeun hasil tina kajahatanana tanpa kaganggu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roosevelt |first=Theodore |editor-first=Hermann |editor-last=Hagedorn |title=The Works of Theodore Roosevelt |volume=18 - American Problems |date=1925 |publisher=[[Scribner & Sons]] |page=99}}</ref>}} Ngeunaan jalma anu beunghar pisan, Roosevelt sacara pribadi nyapéléké maranéhna, bari nyebut "maranéhna téh kacida teu pantesna pikeun mingpin nagara, sarta ... karuksakan langgeng anu dijieun ku maranéhna ngaliwatan naon anu dianggap ku maranéhna salaku operasi bisnis badag anu sah dina mangsa ayeuna". Lumangsung.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=215}} Dina taun 1906, saatos lumangsungna pamilihan anu dicarékéun, aya panyimpangan (insurréksi) di Kuba; Roosevelt ngirim Taft, Sekretaris Perang harita, pikeun ngawaskeun kaayaan; Roosevelt yakin yén anjeunna miboga wewenang sacara sapihak pikeun ngidinan Taft ngirimkeun pasukan Marinir, upami diperyogikeun, tanpa kedah aya persetujuan ti Kongrés.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=570}} Nalika mariksa karya ti sababaraha sarjana, Ricard ngalaporkeun yén: {{Blockquote|Parobahan anu pangmédokna dina historiografi Theodore Roosevelt di abad ka-21 nyaéta pindahna sawangan tina tuduhan sawaréh salaku tokoh impérialis janten pujian anu méh mufakat salaku diplomat ulung.... [Karya-karya anyar] parantos negeskeun kalayan mernah ngeunaan kamampuh Roosevelt anu luar biasa dina ngawangun "hubungan husus" anu nembe mekar di awal abad ka-20. ...Reputasi présidén ka-26 salaku diplomat anu brilian sarta politikus nyata (real politician) parantos nepi ka tingkat anu anyar di abad ka-21... nanging, kawijakanana di Filipina masih kénéh nampi rupa-rupa kritik.{{sfn|Ricard|2014}}}} Dina 6 Nopémber 1906, Roosevelt janten présidén munggaran anu angkat kaluar ti daratan utama Amérika Serikat dina hiji lalampahan diplomatik resmi. Roosevelt ngayakeun lalampahan salami 17 dinten ka Panama sarta Puérto Riko.<ref name="Forslund">{{cite web |last1=Forslund |first1=Catherine |title="Off for the Ditch" - Theodore and Edith Roosevelt Visit Panama in 1906 |url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/off-for-the-ditch |publisher=[[White House Historical Association]] |access-date=January 14, 2024 |date=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential and Secretaries Travels Abroad - Theodore Roosevelt |url=https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/roosevelt-theodore |publisher=Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, [[United States Department of State]] |access-date=January 14, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thomas |first1=Heather |title=Theodore Roosevelt: A President of "Firsts" |url=https://blogs.loc.gov/headlinesandheroes/2020/06/theodore-roosevelt-a-president-of-firsts/ |access-date=January 14, 2024 |date=June 4, 2020 |quote=The first president to leave the country during his time in office—On November 9, 1906, Roosevelt embarks from the Chesapeake Bay aboard the U.S.S. Louisiana to inspect the construction of the Panama Canal,}}</ref> Anjeunna nganjang ka lokasi pangwangunan Terusan Panama sarta ngahadiran rupa-rupa resépsi diplomatik boh di Panama atanapi di Puérto Riko.<ref name="Forslund"/> ===Média=== [[File:Go Away Little Man Charles Green Bush.jpg|thumb|Karikatur taun 1903, "Go Away, Little Man, and Don't Bother Me", anu ngagambarkeun Roosevelt nuju nyingsieunan [[Kolombia]] pikeun meunangkeun [[Zona Terusan Panama]]]] Nuluykeun cara McKinley anu éféktif dina ngagunakeun pers, Roosevelt ngajadikeun Imah Bodas (White House) salaku puseur béja unggal poé, bari nyadiakeun kasempetan wawancara sarta poto. Saatos ningali para wartawan anu kumpul di luar Imah Bodas bari kahujanan dina hiji poé, anjeunna masihan hiji rohangan husus di jero pikeun maranéhna, anu sacara éféktif jadi mimitina ayana [[Konferénsi pers|press briefing]] présidén. Pihak pers anu ngarasa nganuhunkeun alatan dibéré aksés anu luar biasa ka Imah Bodas, males ku cara méré liputan anu lega ka Roosevelt.<ref name="american chronicle">Robert Rouse (2006). "Happy Anniversary to the first scheduled presidential press conference—93 years young!". American Chronicle.</ref> Salian ti kasus Fitnah Roosevelt-Panama, Roosevelt biasana miboga hubungan anu raket pisan jeung pihak pers. Nalika keur teu ngajabat, anjeunna milari napakah salaku panulis sarta é ditor majalah. Anjeunna resep diskusi sareng para intelektual, sastrawan, sarta panulis. Nanging, anjeunna méré watesan anu tegas ka para wartawan anu resep ngungkit-ngungkit skandal (exposé-oriented) anu dina mangsa jabatanna nyieun oplas majalah naék drastis alatan narajang para politikus, walikota, sarta korporasi anu korup. Roosevelt nyalira biasana mah henteu janten targét, nanging hiji biantara anjeunna dina taun 1906 nyiptakeun istilah "**[[muckraker]]**" pikeun para wartawan anu teu boga étika sarta sok nyieun tuduhan sawenang-wenang.<ref>Weinberg, Arthur & Weinberg, Lila Shaffer (1961). "The Muckrakers". University of Illinois Press.</ref> ===Pamilihan 1904=== {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1904}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1904.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Hasil Electoral College dina pamilihan 1904]] Saatos kakawasaan Thomas Platt mimiti luntur, Roosevelt ampir teu miboga lawan anu hartosna pikeun nominasi taun 1904.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=437–438}} Pikeun ngahormatan para pangrojong konservatif [[Mark Hanna]], Roosevelt mimitina nawarkeun jabatan ketua partéy ka [[Cornelius Bliss]], nanging anjeunna nolak. Roosevelt tuluy milih jalma kapercayaanana nyalira, [[George B. Cortelyou]] ti New York, Sekretaris Perdagangan sarta Tanaga Gawé anu munggaran. Pikeun nguatkeun posisina dina nominasi partéy, Roosevelt negeskeun yén saha waé anu ngalawan Cortelyou bakal dianggap ngalawan Présidén.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=501–503}} Présidén hasil ngamankeun nominasi dirina, nanging calon wakil présidén pilihanana, [[Robert R. Hitt]], henteu kapilih jadi nominé.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=504}} Sénator [[Charles W. Fairbanks|Charles Warren Fairbanks]] ti Indiana, anu jadi paporit kaom konservatif, anu tungtungna meunang nominasi éta.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=437–438}} Nalika Roosevelt nuturkeun tradisi petahana (incumbent) anu henteu milu kampanye langsung di lapangan (on the stump), anjeunna nyoba ngontrol talatah kampanye ngaliwatan paréntah husus ka Cortelyou. Anjeunna ogé nyoba ngatur kumaha pers ngaluarkeun pernyataan Imah Bodas ku cara ngabentuk "**Ananias Club**". Saha waé wartawan anu ngulang pernyataan présidén tanpa idin bakal dihukum ku cara diwatesan aksésna ka hareupna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=507}} Calon ti Partéy Démokrat dina taun 1904 nyaéta [[Alton B. Parker|Alton Brooks Parker]]. Surat kabar Démokrat nuding yén urang Républik nuju meres kontribusi kampanye anu badag tina korporasi-korporasi, sarta nyebut yén tanggung jawab utama aya di Roosevelt nyalira.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|pp=215–216}} Roosevelt nolak tuduhan korupsi éta, bari dina waktu anu sarua maréntahkeun Cortelyou pikeun mulangkeun duit $100.000 tina kontribusi kampanye ti [[Standard Oil]].{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=216}} Parker nyebut yén Roosevelt nampi sumbangan korporasi sangkan inpormasi anu ngarugikeun ti [[Biro Korporasi]] henteu diumumkeun ka publik.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=216}} Roosevelt sacara tegas nolak tuduhan Parker sarta ngajawab yén anjeunna bakal "ngalaksanakeun jabatan Présidén tanpa kabeungkeut ku jangji, sumpah, atanapi kasapukan naon waé...".{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|pp=216–217}} Nanging, tuduhan ti Parker sarta Démokrat henteu miboga pangaruh badag kana pamilihan, sabab Roosevelt jangji bakal méré unggal urang Amérika hiji "**[[Square Deal|square deal]]**" (kasapukan anu adil).{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|pp=216–217}} Roosevelt meunang 56% sora rahayat (popular vote) dibandingkeun Parker anu ngan 38%, sarta meunang sora [[Electoral College (Amérika Serikat)|Electoral College]] 336 lawan 140. Sateuacan [[Inaugurasi kadua Theodore Roosevelt|upacara pelantikanana]], Roosevelt nyatakeun yén anjeunna moal nyalonkeun deui dina période salajengna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=513–514}} ===Période Kadua=== Nalika période kaduana jalan, Roosevelt mimiti pindah ka haluan kénca ti basis Partéy Républikna sarta ngusulkeun runtuyan réformasi, anu sabagéan badag gagal diluluskeun ku Kongrés. Pangaruh Roosevelt mimiti luntur nalika ngadeukeutan ahir période kaduana, ditambah ku janji anjeunna moal nyalonkeun deui, sarta konséntrasi kakawasaanana nimbulkeun réaksi keras ti seueur anggota Kongrés.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=463–464}} Anjeunna ngusahakeun undang-undang pangbadagan korporasi nasional, nungtut ayana [[Pajeg panghasilan di Amérika Serikat|pajeg panghasilan]] féderal, sarta pajeg warisan. Roosevelt ogé nungtut watesan kana pamakéan paréntah pangadilan (injunctions) ngalawan serikat buruh nalika mogok. Anjeunna hoyong aya undang-undang tanggung jawab dunungan pikeun kacilakaan industri sarta dalapan jam gawé pikeun pagawé féderal. Dina widang séjén, anjeunna ogé ngusahakeun sistem tabungan pos (pikeun méré saingan ka bank lokal), sarta ménta undang-undang réformasi kampanye.{{sfn|Ricard|2011|pp=160–166}} Pamilihan 1904 terus janten sumber perdebatan antara Républik sareng Démokrat. Hiji panalungtikan Kongrés dina taun 1905 ngungkabkeun yén para eksekutif korporasi nyumbang puluhan rébu dolar dina taun 1904 ka Komite Nasional Républik. Dina taun 1908, sabulan sateuacan pamilihan présidén umum, Gubernur [[Charles N. Haskell]] ti Oklahoma nyebutkeun yén para sénator anu aya dina pangaruh Standard Oil neken Roosevelt, dina usum panas 1904, pikeun ngidinan nyéwakeun lahan minyak milik suku India ka anak pausahaan Standard Oil. Anjeunna nyebut Roosevelt ngabolaykeun kaputusan Sekretaris Interiorna sarta méré ijin jalur pipa ngaliwatan [[Bangsa Osage|lahan Osage]] ka Prairie Oil and Gas Company. Surat kabar New York ''Sun'' nyieun tuduhan sarupa sarta nyebut yén Standard Oil parantos nyumbang $150.000 ka urang Républik dina taun 1904 saatos ayana kaputusan Roosevelt éta. Roosevelt nyebut tuduhan Haskell salaku "bohông saenyana".{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=219}} ====Rétorika kabeneran==== Rétorika Roosevelt dicirian ku moralisme anu kuat ngeunaan kabeneran pribadi (personal righteousness).{{Sfn|Dorsey|2003}}{{Sfn|Hawley|2008}} Nada ieu katingali tina panyempadna kana "kabeungharan prédator" (predatory wealth) dina talatah anu dikirimkeun ka Kongrés dina Januari 1908 pikeun ngadesek diluluskeunana undang-undang tanaga gawé anu anyar: {{Blockquote|Kabeungharan prédator--nyaéta kabeungharan anu dikumpulkeun dina skala raksasa ngaliwatan sagala rupa bentuk kajahatan, mimitian tina nindés pagawé upahan nepi ka cara-cara anu teu adil sarta teu séhat pikeun mareuman saingan, sarta nipu publik ku cara manipulasi saham sarta sekuritas. Jalma-jalma beunghar tina jinis ieu, anu kalakuanana kudu dianggap hina ku unggal jalma anu miboga haté nurani anu bener, sarta anu geus ngalakukeun kasalahan gedé ku cara ngajar para pamuda urang yén kasuksésan bisnis anu luar biasa téh kudu dumasar kana kateujujuran, dina sababaraha bulan terakhir ieu geus némbongkeun yén maranéhna geus ngahiji pikeun ngayakeun réaksi. Usaha maranéhna nyaéta pikeun ngagubragkeun sarta ngaruksak ngaran sakabéh jalma anu ngajalankeun hukum kalayan jujur, pikeun nyegah ayana panerapan tambahan anu bakal ngahalangan maranéhna, sarta pikeun meunangkeun kabébasan tina sagala rupa watesan anu bakal ngidinan unggal palaku kajahatan anu teu miboga étika pikeun ngalakukeun naon waé anu dipihoyongna salami maranéhna miboga cukup duit.... Cara-cara anu digunakeun ku urang Standard Oil sarta maranéhna anu kalibet dina kombinasi séjénna... ngan bisa diyakinkeun ku cara ngadukung sistem moralitas anu ogé bakal ngayakinkeun sagala rupa bentuk kriminalitas ti pihak serikat buruh, sarta sagala rupa bentuk kekerasan, korupsi, sarta penipuan, mimiti tina rajapati nepi ka suap sarta kacurangan kotak suara dina politik.{{Sfn|Roosevelt|1908}}}} ===Roosevelt sarta masalah rasial=== {{Further|Tuang wengi Booker T. Washington di Imah Bodas|Kajadian Brownsville|Posisi politik Theodore Roosevelt#Hubungan ras}} Dina taun 1890 nepi ka 1919, lumangsung panurunan anu seukeut—hiji "nadir" (titik panghandapna)—dina status politik sarta sosial warga Amérika katurunan Afrika boh di wilayah Kidul atanapi di Kalér. Dina sisi positipna, Roosevelt ngasupkeun prajurit kulit hideung kana unit Rough Rider-na dina taun 1898. Anjeunna ogé ngondang tokoh utama kulit hideung, [[Booker T. Washington]], pikeun tuang wengi di Imah Bodas dina Oktober 1901, sarta rutin ménta nasehat Washington ngeunaan kumaha cara ngabagi jabatan patronase ka urang Républik kulit hideung. Nanging, beuki lila anjeunna beuki ngadukung kana tren panurunan kasebut. Salami kunjungan ka wilayah Kidul dina taun 1905, anjeunna ngélingan para pamilih katurunan Afrika sangkan nampi "**supremasi kulit bodas**" sarta agul ka urang bodas yén indungna téh asalna ti Georgia. Di tengah période kaduana, Présidén ngabubarkeun sakabéh batalyon prajurit kulit hideung anu dianggap sakongkol sarta nolak nurut kana paréntahna pikeun ngalaporkeun ngaran-ngaran prajurit anu narajang warga sipil kulit bodas dina [[Kajadian Brownsville|Kajadian Brownsville, Téxas]]. Dina taun 1912, nalika ngadegkeun [[Bull Moose Party|Partéy Bull Moose]], anjeunna ngan ngerahkeun urang bodas di wilayah Kidul, sedengkeun Présidén Taft ngerahkeun duanana ras di dinya. ==Pasca-kaprésidénan (1909–1919)== ===Pamilihan 1908=== {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1908}} Roosevelt mikaresep janten présidén nanging yakin yén watesan période jabatan téh mangrupikeun pangahalang tina diktator. Anjeunna mutuskeun pikeun nuhunan jangjina dina taun 1904 pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui dina période katilu. Sanajan anjeunna leuwih milih Sekretaris Nagara [[Elihu Root]] salaku gagantina, kaayaan kaséhatan Root anu kirang saé ngajadikeun anjeunna teu cocog. Gubernur New York [[Charles Evans Hughes]] mangrupikeun calon anu kuat sarta miboga sumanget progresivisme anu sarua jeung Roosevelt, nanging Roosevelt nganggap Hughes teuing indepénden. Anjeunna ahirna milih Sekretaris Perangna, [[William Howard Taft]], anu parantos janten réjangna saprak 1890 sarta salawasna ngadukung kawijakan Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=483–485}} Roosevelt kacida hayongna nempatkeun gaganti pilihanna, sarta nyerat ka Taft: "Will nu bageur: Naha anjeun hayang kuring méré tindakan ka para pajabat féderal éta? Kuring bakal mileykeun beuheung maranéhna kalayan bungah pisan upami anjeun nyarios!" Sababaraha minggu saatosna, anjeunna nyebut "palsu sarta jahat" kana tuduhan yén anjeunna ngagunakeun jabatanna pikeun nguntungkeun Taft.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=626}} Dina konvénsi Républik 1908, seueur anu ngagorowok "opat taun deui" pikeun Roosevelt, nanging Taft kenging nominasi saatos Henry Cabot Lodge negeskeun yén Roosevelt mémang henteu minat.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=488–489}} Dina pamilihan 1908, Taft kalayan gampang ngéléhkeun calon Démokrat [[William Jennings Bryan]]. Taft ngamajukeun progresivisme anu nekenkeun kana aturan hukum; anjeunna leuwih milih hakim, lain politikus, anu nyieun kaputusan ngeunaan kaadilan. Nanging, Taft kabuktian kurang parigel dina politik dibandingkeun Roosevelt, kurang miboga tanaga, karisma pribadi, sarta rojongan publik anu ngajadikeun Roosevelt sakitu kuatna. Nalika Roosevelt sadar yén nurunkeun tarif bakal nyiptakeun tegangan di jero Partéy Républik, anjeunna eureun nyarioskeun hal éta. Taft, bari teu maliré kana résiko, neken pasualan tarif kalayan wani, anu ngahasilkeun [[Tarif Payne-Aldrich]] 1909, anu ahirna ngajauhkeun para réformis ti sagala sisi. Nalika krisis nuju mekar di jero Partéy, Roosevelt nuju lalampahan ka Afrika sarta Éropa, méré lolongkrang ka Taft. ===Afrika sarta Éropa (1909–1910)=== [[File:Roosevelt safari elephant.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt keur ngadeg di gigireun gajah beunang némbakna nalika safari di [[Afrika]]]] Dina Maret 1909, tilas présidén éta mangkat pikeun miluan [[Ékspédisi Afrika Smithsonian-Roosevelt]].<ref name="Science1908">"President Roosevelt's African Trip". Science (1908).</ref> Rombongan Roosevelt badarat di [[Mombasa]], [[Afrika Wétan Britania]], tuluy lumampah ka [[Kongo bélgia]] sateuacan nyusur Walungan Nil ka [[Khartoum]] di nagara [[Sudan]] ayeuna. Kalayan dukungan dana anu gedé ti [[Andrew Carnegie]] sarta tina hasil tulisanana sorangan, romongan Roosevelt moro rupa-rupa spésimén pikeun [[Smithsonian Institution]] sarta [[Museum sajarah Alam Amérika]].<ref name="SIA">"Roosevelt African Expedition Collects for SI". Smithsonian Institution Archives.</ref> Ieu grup dipingpin ku pangalun (hunter-tracker) R.J. Cunninghame, kaasup para élmuwan ti Smithsonian, sarta dibarengan ku [[Frederick Selous]], saurang pamburu sato badag sarta penjelajah kawentar. Peserta liana nyaéta [[Kermit Roosevelt]], [[Edgar Alexander Mearns]], [[Edmund Heller]], sarta [[John Alden Loring]]. Ieu tim hasil maéhan atawa néwak 11.400 sato,<ref name="SIA" /> ti mimiti serangga sarta beurit nepi ka kuda nil sarta gajah. Tina 1.000 sato badag, aya 512 sato pamburu (big game), kaasup genep [[Badak bodas]] anu langka. Beratna bangké sarta kulit sato anu parantos diawétkeun ku uyah dikirim ka Washington; peryogi mangtaun-taun pikeun nyusun éta kabéh. Ngeunaan jumlah sato anu kacida lobana éta, Roosevelt nyarios, "Kuring ngan bisa disalahkeun upami ayana [[Muséum Nasional Sajarah Alam]], Muséum Sajarah Alam Amérika, sarta sakabéh lembaga zoologi sarupa ogé dianggap salah".{{Sfn|O'Toole|2005|p=67}} Anjeunna nyerat catetan lengkep ngeunaan ieu lalampahan dina buku ''African Game Trails''. Saatos safari, Roosevelt lumampah ka kalér pikeun ngayakeun tur ka Éropa. Panyimpangan munggaran nyaéta di Mesir, di dinya anjeunna masihan koméntar positip ngeunaan pamaréntahan Britania, bari nyebutkeun yén Mesir tacan siap pikeun merdéka.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=505}} Anjeunna nolak pendak sareng [[Paus Pius X]] alatan ayana papaséaan ngeunaan grup [[Métodis]] anu aktif di Roma. Anjeunna ogé pendak sareng Kaisar [[Franz Joseph]] ti [[Austria-Hungaria]], Kaisar [[Wilhelm II]] ti Jérman, Raja [[George V]] ti Britania Raya, sarta pamingpin liana. Di Oslo, Roosevelt masihan biantara anu nungtut ayana watesan pakarang angkatan laut, panguatan [[Pangadilan Arbitrase Permanén]], sarta pangbentukan "Liga Perdamaian" di antara kakuatan dunya.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=505–509}} Anjeunna masihan Kuliah Romanes di Oxford, di dinya anjeunna nyempad jalma-jalma anu nyoba nyaruakeun évolusi sato jeung kamekaran masarakat.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=511}} Sanajan Roosevelt nyoba nyingkahan politik domestik, anjeunna sacara rerencepan pendak sareng [[Gifford Pinchot]], anu nyaritakeun kuciwana ka [[Pamaréntahan Taft]]. Roosevelt mulang ka AS dina Juni 1910. Opat bulan saatosna, Roosevelt janten présidén AS munggaran anu naék pesawat, ngalayang salami 4 menit dina pesawat rancangan [[Wright bersaudara]]. ===Hubungan Husus (Great Rapprochement) sareng Britania Raya=== [[Great Rapprochement]] nyaéta titik temu tujuan diplomatik, politik, militer, sarta ékonomi antara Amérika Serikat sarta Britania Raya ti taun 1895 dugi ka 1915. Roosevelt miboga peran séntral ngaliwatan hubungan raketna sareng para intelektual sarta politikus Britania, sarta dina karya diplomatikna ngeunaan Terusan Panama. Britania ngabagéakeun Roosevelt, sakumaha katingali dina pasualan wates Alaska. Para diplomat Britania milih sahaluan sareng diplomat Roosevelt pikeun nolak klaim Kanada kana palabuhan sagara anu bakal méré aksés ka tambang emas di Yukon, Kanada. Urang Kanada ngarasa dikhianatan ku Britania anu leuwih milih ngabungahkeun Amérika Serikat. Dina taun 1915–1917, Roosevelt janten pangrojong utama sangkan Amérika milu perang di pihak Britania Raya. Dina Oktober 1916, nalika kampanye pikeun ngéléhkeun Woodrow Wilson, Roosevelt nyempad: {{Blockquote|Sipat Présidén Wilson anu nyingkahan tanggung jawab parantos dibungkus ku frasa anu kacida nyasabkeunana, frasa saurang pecundang, ''Anjeunna ngajaga urang tina perang.'' Padahal saenyana, perang beuki deukeut sarta beuki deukeut... jeung urang nyanghareupanana tanpa kawijakan, rencana, tujuan, atawa persiapan naon waé.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|p=469}}}} ===Sasmita (Schism) di Partéy Républik=== Roosevelt mimitina nyoba ngabentuk Taft sangkan jadi "duplikat" dirina, nanging anjeunna mundur nalika Taft mimiti némbongkeun jati dirina sorangan. Anjeunna ngarasa kasinggung nalika Taft nyebutkeun yén kasuksésanana téh hasil tina bantuan lanceuk kawalona, lain saukur ku Roosevelt. Roosevelt beuki ngarasa pajauh nalika Taft henteu badami sareng anjeunna ngeunaan pangangkatan kabinét.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=665–666}} Roosevelt sarta kaom progresif liana ngarasa teu puas sacara idéologis kana kawijakan konservasi Taft sarta cara anjeunna nungkulan masalah tarif. Roosevelt ngadesek kaom progresif pikeun ngontrol Partéy Républik, sarta nyingkahan sasmita (pepecahan) anu bakal nguntungkeun Démokrat dina taun 1912. Pikeun tujuan éta, Roosevelt sacara publik nyatakeun optimismeu ngeunaan Pamaréntahan Taft saatos pendak sareng présidén dina Juni 1910.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=512–513}} ==== Pacengkadan ngeunaan kakawasaan pangadilan ==== Roosevelt masihan biantara di wilayah Kulon dina ahir usum panas sarta awal usum gugur taun 1910, di dinya anjeunna nyempad pisan kana sistem peradilan nagara. Roosevelt henteu ngan saukur narajang kaputusan [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Serikat]] taun 1905 dina kasus ''[[Lochner v. New York]]'', nanging anjeunna ogé nuding yén pangadilan féderal parantos ngaruksak démokrasi, bari nyebut para ahli hukum anu dicurigai salaku "hakim-hakim anu geus jadi fosil" (fossilized judges). Anjeunna ngabandingkeun kacenderungan maranéhna pikeun ngabatalkeun undang-undang réformasi progresif jeung kaputusan Hakim [[Roger B. Taney]] dina kasus ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' (1857). Pikeun mastikeun konstitusi bener-bener ngabéla kapentingan umum, Roosevelt milu jeung kaom progresif liana nungtut ayana "judicial recall", anu bakal ngidinan sora mayoritas rahayat pikeun nurunkeun hakim tina jabatanna sarta ngabatalkeun kaputusan pangadilan anu teu dipikaresep ku masarakat. Ieu serangan téh matak helok keur Taft. Sanajan sacara pribadi Taft satuju yén kasus ''Lochner'' sarta kaputusan liana téh mémang kurang merenah, anjeunna tetep percaya yén otoritas pangadilan diperlukeun pikeun ngajaga pamaréntahan konstitusional. Kahariwang Taft ieu ogé dirasakeun ku anggota elit komunitas hukum liana, sarta beuki nguatkeun pamadegan Taft yén Roosevelt ulah diidinan deui janten présidén.<ref>Istre, Logan Stagg (2021). "Bench over Ballot". The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.</ref> ==== "Nasionalisme Anyar" Roosevelt ==== [[File:TR smiling in automobile.tif|thumb|Roosevelt saatosna lungsur tina jabatan dina Oktober 1910]] [[File:Theodore Roosevelt and Archibald Hoxsey (1910).jpg|thumb|Roosevelt sarta pilot [[Archibald Hoxsey]] di [[St. Louis]], Oktober 1910]] Dina Agustus 1910, Roosevelt beuki rongkah dina ngayakeun persaingan ngaliwatan biantarana di [[Osawatomie, Kansas]], anu dianggap biantara paling radikal salami karirna. Ieu janten tanda Roosevelt sacara resmi papisah (pepegatan) sareng Taft sarta kaom Républik konservatif. Ngaliwatan program anu disebutna "**[[Nasionalisme Anyar (Theodore Roosevelt)|Nasionalisme Anyar]]**", Roosevelt nekenkeun yén kapentingan tanaga gawé kudu leuwih diutamakeun batan kapentingan modal, sarta diperlukeun kontrol kana pangbentukan sarta gabungan korporasi. Anjeunna ogé nungtut panyegahan sumbangan politik tina korporasi.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=675}} Nalika mulang ka New York, Roosevelt ngamimitian tarung pikeun ngarebut kontrol partéy Républik nagara bagian ti [[William Barnes Jr.]]. Taft mimitina jangji bakal ngadukung Roosevelt, nanging Roosevelt ngarasa dikhianatan nalika dukungan Taft henteu kabukti dina konvénsi nagara bagian 1910.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=515–516}} Roosevelt milu kampanye pikeun urang Républik dina [[Pamilihan Amérika Serikat 1910]], nanging hasilna urang Démokrat kenging kontrol DPR pikeun munggaranana saprak 1892. Salah sahiji urang Démokrat anu anyar kapilih nyaéta [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] (Sénator nagara bagian New York), anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna ngawakilan kawijakan misan jauhna (Theodore) leuwih hade batan lawan Républikna.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=517}} Para progresif Républik napsirkeun éta kaéléhan salaku alesan kuat pikeun ngayakeun reorganisasi partéy dina taun 1911.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=683}} Sénator [[Robert M. La Follette]] ngahiji sareng Pinchot sarta Gubernur California [[Hiram Johnson]] pikeun ngawangun Liga Républik Progresif Nasional; tujuanana nyaéta pikeun ngancurkeun kakuatan "bosisme" politik di tingkat nagara bagian sarta ngaganti Taft di tingkat nasional.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=518}} Sanajan Roosevelt rada cangcaya kana éta liga, anjeunna tetep ngadukung prinsip-prinsip progresifna. Hubungan Roosevelt jeung Taft ahirna bener-bener pegat saatos Departemén Kaadilan ngajukeun gugatan [[antitrust]] ngalawan [[US Steel]] dina Séptémber 1911; Roosevelt ngarasa dihina sabab anjeunna nyalira anu parantos nyatujuan akuisisi éta pausahaan nalika janten présidén. Nanging, Roosevelt harita tacan kersa nyalonkeun diri ngalawan Taft dina taun 1912; anjeunna leuwih milih ngantosan taun 1916.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=519}} ==== Papaséaan sareng Taft ngeunaan perjangjian arbitrase ==== Taft mangrupikeun pamingpin dunya dina urusan arbitrase salaku jaminan perdamaian dunya. Dina 1911, anjeunna sarta Sekretaris Nagara [[Philander C. Knox]] ngayakeun perjangjian sareng Britania sarta Perancis yén sagala pasulayan kudu méréskeun ngaliwatan arbitrase. Nanging, Roosevelt nyaleureukeun arbitrase salaku idéalisme anu konyol, sarta negeskeun yén perang téh mangrupikeun hiji-hijina jalan pikeun méréskeun pasulayan internasional anu serius. Roosevelt gawé bareng jeung sobatna, Sénator Henry Cabot Lodge, pikeun nyelipkeun amandémén anu ngagagalkeun éta perjangjian. Roosevelt sabenerna nuju nyabotaseu jangji kampanye Taft. Dina tingkat anu leuwih jero, Roosevelt yakin yén arbitrase téh solusi anu naif; anjeunna miboga kapercayaan ampir mistis yén perang téh miboga sipat anu mulya pikeun manusa. Hal ieu ngagambarkeun nasionalisme jingoistik Roosevelt anu kacida béda jeung itungan kauntungan ékonomi ti para pangusaha anu ngadukung Taft. === Pamilihan 1912 === {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1912}} ==== Primari sarta konvénsi Républik ==== [[File:For Auld Lang Syne - Leonard Raven-Hill.jpg|thumb|Karikatur ''Punch'' dina Méi 1912, ngagambarkeun tarung campuh antara William Howard Taft sarta Roosevelt]] Dina Nopémber 1911, sakelompok urang Républik ti Ohio ngadukung Roosevelt pikeun nominasi présidén ti éta partéy. Roosevelt sacara nyata henteu nolak éta nominasi. Teu lila saatosna, Roosevelt nyarios, "Kuring sabenerna karunya ka Taft... Kuring yakin anjeunna boga niat hadé, nanging niat hadéna téh leuleus, sarta anjeunna teu nyaho carana! Anjeunna pisan teu pantes pikeun mingpin, sarta ieu téh mangsa di mana urang butuh kapamingpinan." Dina Januari 1912, Roosevelt nyatakeun "upami rahayat milih kuring, kuring moal nolak pikeun ngabakti".{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=698}} Roosevelt mimiti ngabayangkeun dirina salaku juru salamet partéy tina kaéléhan dina pamilihan anu bakal datang. Dina Pébruari 1912 di [[Boston]], Roosevelt nyarios, "Kuring bakal nampi nominasi présidén upami ditawarkeun ka kuring".{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=705}} Elihu Root sarta Henry Cabot Lodge nyangka yén pepecahan bakal mawa kaéléhan dina pamilihan, sedengkeun Taft yakin yén anjeunna bakal éléh boh dina primari atanapi dina pamilihan umum.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=706}} Pamilihan primari 1912 mangrupikeun pamakéan munggaran [[Primari présidén Amérika Serikat|primari présidén]] sacara lega, hasil réformasi ti gerakan progresif. [[Primari présidén Partéy Républik 1912|Primari Républik]] di wilayah Kidul dimeunangkeun ku Taft, kitu ogé New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky, sarta Massachusetts. Samentara éta, Roosevelt meunang di Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, California, Maryland, Ohio, sarta Pennsylvania. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1912]] di Chicago, Taft kenging nominasi dina sora munggaran.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=524–526}} Roosevelt yakin yén nominasi éta parantos dipaling ti dirina. Anjeunna nyarios ka para pangrojongna yén aya "masalah moral anu gedé" anu nuju dipertaruhkeun. Roosevelt mungkas biantarana ku nyarios: "Teu sieun ku mangsa ka hareup; teu maliré kana nasib urang masing-masing; kalayan haté anu tegep sarta panon anu awas; urang nangtung di Armageddon, sarta urang tarung demi Gusti!" ==== Partéy Progresif (Bull Moose) ==== {{See also|Nasionalisme Anyar (Theodore Roosevelt)|Partéy Bull Moose}} [[File:Perkins-pinchot.JPG|thumb|Karikatur taun 1912 anu ngagambarkeun rebutan kontrol Partéy Progresif antara George Perkins (kénca) sarta Amos Pinchot]] Nalika kaéléhanana geus katingali, Roosevelt ngumumkeun yén anjeunna bakal "nampi nominasi progresif dina platform progresif sarta kuring bakal tarung nepi ka ahir, boh meunang boh éléh". Roosevelt méré ramalan, "Rasaan kuring mah urang Démokrat bakal meunang upami maranéhna nyalonkeun tokoh anu progresif".{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=717}} Roosevelt ahirna kaluar ti Partéy Républik sarta ngadegkeun **Partéy Progresif** (nu kawentar ku landihan Partéy **Bull Moose**).{{sfn|Miller|1992|p=526}} Kapamingpinan partéy anyar ieu ngawengku rupa-rupa tokoh réformis. [[Jane Addams]] kampanye satékah polah pikeun ieu partéy salaku taratas réformasi sosial. [[Gifford Pinchot]] ngawakilan kaom lingkungan, sedengkeun pangusaha [[Frank Munsey]] sarta bankir Wall Street [[George Walbridge Perkins]] nyadiakeun dukungan dana. Gubernur [[Hiram Johnson]] ngontrol partéy di California sarta diangkat janten calon wakil présidén Roosevelt. Platform Roosevelt nyuuarakeun usulan radikalna taun 1907–1908, nungtut campur tangan pamaréntah anu kuat pikeun nangtayungan rahayat tina kapentingan pribadi anu sarakah: {{blockquote|Ngancurkeun Pamaréntahan siluman ieu, ngabubarkeun **[[wikt:unholy alliance|aliansi jahat]]** antara bisnis anu korup sarta politik anu korup, nyaéta tugas munggaran pikeun nagarawan mangsa ayeuna. Nagara ieu milik rahayat. Sumber dayana, bisnisna, hukumna, sarta lembagana kudu dimangpaatkeun, dijaga, atanapi dirobah ku cara naon waé anu panghadéna pikeun kapentingan umum.}} Sanajan loba aktivis Partéy Progresif di Kalér anu nolak leungitna hak-hak sipil warga kulit hideung, Roosevelt ngajalankeun kampanye "**lily-white**" (ngan pikeun urang bodas) di wilayah Kidul. Nalika delegasi saingan antara urang bodas sarta urang hideung ti nagara bagian Kidul datang ka konvénsi, Roosevelt milih pikeun narima delegasi anu ngan urang bodas wungkul. Akibatna, anjeunna kenging sora anu sakedik pisan di luar basis tradisional Républik. Ti 1.100 county di wilayah Kidul, Roosevelt ngan meunang di sababaraha tempat sarta henteu meunang pisan di Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, atanapi South Carolina. [[Walungan Amazon]]. Walungan Duvida sababaraha waktu saatosna dingaranan deui janten [[Walungan Roosevelt]]. Rombongan Roosevelt ngawengku putrana, [[Kermit Roosevelt]], Kolonél Rondon, ahli alam [[George Kruck Cherrie]], Léttnan Brasil João Lira, dokter tim José Antonio Cajazeira, sarta 16 tukang dayung jeung kuli angkut anu parigel.<ref>{{Cite wikisource |last=Roosevelt |first=Theodore |date=1914 |chapter=The Start |title=Through the Brazilian Wilderness}}</ref> Ékspédisi awal dimimitian kalayan pinuh ku bangbaluh dina 9 Désémber 1913, di puncak usum hujan. Perjalanan nyusur Walungan Duvida dimimitian dina 27 Pébruari 1914.{{sfn|Millard|2009|pp=267–270}} Roosevelt nampi tatu leutik dina sukuna saatos anjeunna luncat pikeun nyoba nyegah parahu sangkan teu nempuh batu. Nanging, éta tatu luar téh teu lila langsung nyababkeun anjeunna katarajang [[panyakit tropis]] anu mirip jeung [[malaria]] anu kantos katarajang ku anjeunna nalika di Kuba.<ref name="oimjjac">{{Cite book |last=Marx |first=Rudolph |title=The Health of The President: Theodore Roosevelt |date=October 31, 2011 |publisher=Health guidance}}</ref> Éta inféksi ngaleuleuskeun Roosevelt sakitu rongkahna dugi ka dina minggu kagenep, anjeunna kedah dirawat sacara maneuh ku dokter ékspédisi sarta Kermit. Nalika éta, anjeunna parantos teu tiasa leumpang alatan inféksi sarta tatu lami dina suku nu hiji deui akibat [[Kacilakaan Trém Pittsfield 1902|kacilakaan lalu lintas]] sapuluh taun sateuacanna. Roosevelt nandang nyeri dada sarta panas awakna naék dugi ka **39°C**, anu ngajadikeun anjeunna ngalindur (delirious). Ku margi nganggap kaayaanana janten ancaman pikeun kasalametan romongan liana, Roosevelt maksa sangkan anjeunna ditinggalkeun baé supados ékspédisi anu kirang bekel éta tiasa terus jalan, malah anjeunna parantos nyiapkeun diri pikeun maéhan manéh ku [[morfin]]. Ngan saukur panyambat ti putrana anu hasil ngayakinkeun anjeunna sangkan kersa neraskeun perjalanan.{{sfn|Millard|2009|pp=267–270}} Sanajan kaayaan Roosevelt beuki parah sarta beurat awakna turun nepi ka **23 kg**, Rondon tetep ngalaunkeun léngkah perjalanan demi kaperluan nyieun peta, anu merlukeun eureun sacara rutin pikeun nangtukeun posisi dumasar kana panonpoé. Nalika Roosevelt mulang ka New York, babaturan sarta kulawargana kacida reuwasna ningali parobahan fisik sarta kacapéanana. Roosevelt nyerat ka sobatna, anu sigana mangrupikeun ramalan, yén éta lalampahan parantos motong umur hirupna sapuluh taun. Salami sésa hirupna anu kantun sababaraha taun deui, anjeunna sering kanceuh ku malaria sarta bareuh suku anu kacida parahna dugi ka kedah dioperasi.{{Sfn|Thayer|1919|pp=4–7}} Sateuacan Roosevelt nepi ka bumi, para kritikus parantos cangcaya kana klaimna yén anjeunna parantos ngajajah sarta nyusur walungan sapanjang **1.000 km** anu bener-bener tacan aya dina peta. Saatos jagjag deui, anjeunna masihan guaran dina hiji konvénsi anu diayakeun di Washington ku [[National Geographic Society]] sarta hasil ngabuktikeun yén klaimna téh bener.{{sfn|Millard|2009|pp=267–270}} ===Taun-taun pamungkas=== {{See also|Relawan Perang Dunya I Roosevelt}} [[File:TheodoreRooseveltportrait.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt {{circa}} 1914–1918]] Roosevelt mulang ka AS dina Méi 1914. Sanajan anjeunna ngarasa ambek ku ayana perjangjian pamaréntahan Wilson anu nyatakeun "kaduhung anu jero" (sincere regret) kana cara AS meunangkeun [[Zona Terusan Panama]], anjeunna tetep kataji ku sababaraha réformasi anu diluluskeun. Roosevelt milu kampanye pikeun Partéy Progresif, nanging [[Pamilihan Amérika Serikat 1914|pamilihan 1914]] janten musibah pikeun éta partéy katilu anu nembé ngadeg téh.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=539–540}} Roosevelt mimiti ngabayangkeun kampanye présidén deui, ayeuna mah salaku pamingpin Partéy Républik, nanging para pamingpin konservatif partéy tetep nolak anjeunna.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=548–549}} Kalayan harepan bisa ngayakeun nominasi babarengan, Partéy Progresif ngajadwalkeun konvénsina bareng jeung [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1916]]. Nalika Républik milih Charles Evans Hughes, Roosevelt nolak nominasi Progresif sarta ngadesek para pangrojongna sangkan ngadukung calon Républik.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=550–551}} Sanajan Roosevelt parantos lami teu resep ka Hughes, anjeunna leuwih teu resep deui ka Wilson, sarta antukna kampanye satékah polah pikeun Hughes. Nanging, Wilson kenging deui dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1916|pamilihan 1916]] ku sora anu tipis pisan.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=552–553}} Partéy Progresif ahirna bubar, sarta Roosevelt bareng jeung para pangrojongna asup deui ka Partéy Républik. ====Perang Dunya I==== Nalika Perang Dunya Kahiji dimimitian dina taun 1914, Roosevelt sacara kuat ngadukung pihak [[Sekutu Perang Dunya I|Sekutu]] sarta nungtut kawijakan anu leuwih keras ka Jérman, utamana ngeunaan perang kapal selam. Roosevelt nyempad pisan kana kawijakan luar nagri Wilson, nyebutna salaku kagagalan dina nyanghareupan [[Kakejaman di bélgia|kakejaman di bélgia]] sarta palanggaran hak-hak Amérika.{{sfn|Brands|1997|pp=749–751, 806–809}} Dina taun 1916, Roosevelt terus-terusan nyempad warga Amérika katurunan Irlandia sarta Jérman anu disebutna teu patriotik; anjeunna negeskeun yén hiji jalma kudu jadi 100% urang Amérika, lain "**[[hyphenated American]]**" (urang Amérika nu miboga tanda sambung/dua kasatiaan). Dina Maret 1917, Kongrés masihan wewenang ka Roosevelt pikeun ngawangun maksimal opat divisi anu sarupa jeung [[Rough Riders]]. Nanging, Présidén Wilson ngumumkeun ka pers yén anjeunna moal ngirim Roosevelt sarta para relawanna ka Perancis, tapi bakal ngirim Pasukan Ekspedisi Amérika di handapeun paréntah Jenderal [[John J. Pershing]]. Roosevelt henteu kantos ngahampura Wilson pikeun hal ieu. Putra bungsu Roosevelt, [[Quentin Roosevelt]], saurang pilot di Perancis, gugur saatos pesawatna ditémbak ragrag di tukangeun garis pertahanan Jérman dina 14 Juli 1918 dina yuswa 20 taun. Roosevelt henteu kantos leres-leres jagjag deui saatos kaleungitan putrana éta.{{sfn|Dalton|2002|p=507}} ====Liga Bangsa-Bangsa==== Roosevelt mangrupikeun salah sahiji pangrojong awal tina sawangan modérn yén diperlukeun ayana tatanan dunya global. Dina biantara nampi Nobel taun 1910, anjeunna nyarios, "bakal janten hiji léngkah anu hébat upami kakuatan-kakuatan dunya anu jujur hoyong daméy ngawangun hiji Liga Perdamaian, lain saukur pikeun ngajaga perdamaian di antara maranéhna, tapi ogé pikeun nyegah, ku kakuatan upami diperyogikeun, jalma lian anu nyoba ngaruksak éta perdamaian."{{Sfn|Pringle|1931|p=519}} Nalika Perang Dunya I peupeus, Roosevelt ngusulkeun "Liga Dunya pikeun Perdamaian anu Bener" dina Séptémber 1914, anu bakal ngajaga kadaulatan nanging ngawatesan pakarang sarta merlukeun arbitrase. Anjeunna nambihan yén kudu aya "jangji suci yén upami aya nagara anu nolak nuturkeun kaputusan pangadilan kasebut, maka nagara lianna kudu nyabut pedang (perang) demi perdamaian sarta kaadilan." Dina taun 1915, anjeunna ngajéntrékeun rencana ieu leuwih spésifik. Sanajan Roosevelt miboga kahariwang ngeunaan dampakna kana kadaulatan Amérika Serikat, anjeunna negeskeun yén liga saperti kitu ngan bakal jalan upami Amérika Serikat milu salaku salah sahiji "penjamin babarengan". Dina taun 1918, Wilson ngembangkeun rencanana sorangan pikeun [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]] anu béda, anu ahirna jadi kanyataan dina [[Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris (1919–1920)|Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris]]. Roosevelt nyempad cara Wilson, nanging anjeunna pupus sateuacan rencana éta disatujuan di Paris. Carita-carita éta disebut ku anjeunna salaku "**yellow journalism of the woods**" (jurnalisme konéng ti leuweung). Présidén nyalira anu ngapopulérkeun istilah négatif "**nature faker**" pikeun ngagambarkeun para panulis anu ngagambarkeun sato-sato dina caritana kalayan sipat manusa (antropomorfisme) anu kaleuleuwihi. == Karakter sarta kapercayaan == [[File:SagamoreHill.JPG|thumb|[[Sagamore Hill]], bumi milik Roosevelt di [[Long Island]]]] Sarjana Britania [[Marcus Cunliffe]] ngaévaluasi argumén liberal yén Roosevelt téh saurang oportunis, éksibisionis, sarta impérialis. Nanging, Cunliffe muji kamampuh Roosevelt anu sarwa bisa, rasa hormatna kana hukum, sarta sipat ihlasna. Anjeunna boga pamadegan yén kawijakan luar nagri Roosevelt téh leuwih hadé batan naon anu dituduhkeun ku para pangritikna. Cunliffe nyebut anjeunna "jalma gedé dina sagala rupa widang".{{sfn|Cunliffe|1955}} Roosevelt mangrupikeun saurang [[Fréémasion]] sarta anggota [[Sons of the American Revolution]] (Putra Révolusi Amérika). Anjeunna ogé anggota [[The Explorers Club]]. Roosevelt miboga minat saumur hirup pikeun ngajalankeun naon anu disebut ku anjeunna dina biantara taun 1899 salaku "**[[The Strenuous Life]]**" (Hirup anu Giat). Pikeun tujuan ieu, anjeunna rutin olahraga sarta miluan tinju, ténis, hiking, ngadayung, polo, sarta nunggang kuda. Nalika janten gubernur New York, anjeunna tinju sareng batur latihan sababaraha kali saminggu, hiji kabiasaan anu diteruskeun nalika janten présidén dugi ka beungeutna ditéwel sakitu tarikna nepi ka panon kencana janten lolong (fakta ieu tacan dibuka ka publik dugi ka sababaraha taun saatosna). Roosevelt ogé mimiti percaya kana mangpaat latihan **jiu-jitsu** saatos latihan sareng [[Yamashita Yoshitsugu]]. Hariwang yén AS bakal kaleungitan kakuatan militérna ku kakuatan anyar saperti Jepang, Roosevelt mimiti ngajurung latihan jiu-jitsu pikeun para prajurit Amérika. Roosevelt ogé saurang pamaén **singlestick** (tarung iteuk) anu sumanget; dumasar kana ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', anjeunna kantos sumping ka resépsi Imah Bodas kalayan leungeun anu dibébéd saatos tarung sareng Jenderal [[Leonard Wood]] dina taun 1905. [[File:1905 cartoon Theodore Roosevelt first and war first in peace.jpg|thumb|"The Man of the Hour", ngagambarkeun Roosevelt salaku prajurit dina 1898 sarta juru daméy dina 1905, méréskeun perang antara [[Rusia]] sarta [[Jepang]]]] Para sejarawan sering nekenkeun kana sisi Roosevelt salaku sosok prajurit (warrior persona). Richard D. White Jr nyatakeun yén "sumanget prajurit Roosevelt mangaruhan sawanganana kana politik nasional sarta hubungan internasional." Anjeunna nyandak posisi agrésif ngeunaan perang sareng Spanyol dina 1898, [[Sajarah Terusan Panama|Kolombia dina 1903]], sarta utamana sareng Jérman tina taun 1915 dugi ka 1917. Salaku démonstrasi kakuatan laut Amérika, anjeunna ngirimkeun "**[[Great White Fleet]]**" (Armada Bodas Besar) pikeun kuriling dunya dina 1907–1909. Anjeunna agul dina otobiografina: {{blockquote|Nalika kuring lungsur tina korsi Kaprésidénan, kuring parantos ngaréngsékeun tujuh satengah taun pamaréntahan, di mana teu aya hiji-hiji acan pélor anu ditémbakkeun ka musuh luar nagri. Urang aya dina kaayaan daméy anu mutlak... Pelayaran armada tempur sanés mangrupikeun sabab anu saeutik anu mastikeun kaayaan daméy sapertos kitu.{{sfn|Roosevelt|1913|p=602}}}} Nanging, sejarawan [[Howard K. Beale]] boga pamadegan: {{blockquote|Anjeunna sarta réjangna ampir milarian perang demi perang éta sorangan. Teu nyaho kana perang modérn, Roosevelt ngaromantisasi perang... Pikeun anjeunna, aya hal anu matak bosen sarta kurang jalu (effeminate) ngeunaan perdamaian... Anjeunna agul ku perang, sumanget ku sajarah militér, sarta nempatkeun kualitas tempur dina tingkat anu luhur dina ajén-inajénna.{{sfn|Beale|1956|p=48}}}} Roosevelt sering muji paripolah moral nanging sigana tara kantos sacara kabuka nyatakeun kapercayaan spiritual pribadina. Saatos pupusna pamajikanana dina taun 1884, anjeunna ampir tara nyabit-nyabit nami Yesus boh sacara publik atanapi pribadi. Roosevelt sacara publik ngajurung jalma sangkan rajin ka garéja, sarta anjeunna nyalira mangrupikeun jamaah anu taat ti **Garéja Réformasi Walanda**. Nalika aturan jatah béngsin lumaku salami Perang Dunya Kahiji, anjeunna kersa mapay tilu mil (kira-kira 4,8 km) ti bumina ka garéja lokal sarta balik deui ka bumi, sanajan saatos ngalaman operasi anu serius. Nurutkeun Christian Reisner, "Agama téh geus jadi hal anu alami keur Mr. Roosevelt kawas narik napas". Dina biantara di Long Island Bible Society dina taun 1901, Roosevelt nyatakeun yén: {{blockquote|Ampir unggal jalma anu ngaliwatan karya hirupna parantos nambihan hasil anu dibanggakeun ku manusa, parantos dumasar kana karya hirupna sabagian ageung tina ajaran Alkitab... Di antara jalma-jalma panghébatna, jumlah anu kacida lobana nyaéta jalma anu rajin sarta diajar Alkitab sacara langsung.{{sfn|Reisner|1922|p=306}}}} == Posisi politik == {{Main|Posisi politik Theodore Roosevelt}} Nalika janten présidén, Roosevelt ngayakeun deui kapercayaan para [[Konservatisme fiskal|konservatif fiskal]] ku nyatakeun yén "mékanisme bisnis modérn téh sakitu hipuna nepi ka urang kudu ati-ati pisan sangkan teu ngaganggu éta mékanisme ku sumangat kabodoan."{{Sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=30–31}} Taun saatosna, Roosevelt negeskeun kamerdékaan présidén tina kapentingan bisnis ku cara nolak ngahijina pausahaan anu ngawangun [[Northern Securities Company]]. Loba jalma anu reuwas yén aya présidén anu wani nangtang bankir kawentar [[J.P. Morgan]].{{Sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=32–33}} Dina dua taun pamungkasna salaku présidén, Roosevelt beuki teu percaya ka "**big business**" (bisnis skala raksasa). Roosevelt nyoba ngaganti lingkungan ékonomi ''[[laissez-faire]]'' abad ka-19 ku modél ékonomi anyar di mana pamaréntah féderal miboga peran pangaturan anu leuwih badag. Ieu mangrupikeun inti tina idéologi politikna, nyaéta **konservatisme progresif**. Anjeunna hariwang yén upami kabeungharan henteu dibagikeun sacara adil tina kelas luhur, nagara bakal murag ka leungeun kaom radikal atanapi révolusi.{{Sfn|Morris|2001|pp=430–431}} Program domestikna, "**[[Square Deal]]**", miboga tilu tujuan utama: konservasi sumber daya alam, kontrol korporasi, sarta panyalindungan konsumén. === Sawangan kawijakan luar nagri === Dina analisis [[Henry Kissinger]], Roosevelt mangrupikeun présidén munggaran anu ngamekarkeun padoman yén Amérika Serikat miboga kawajiban pikeun némbongkeun kakuatan sarta pangaruhna sacara global. Roosevelt nolak modél nagara anu ngan saukur pasif. Salaku jalma anu dididik dina widang biologi, anjeunna mangrupikeun saurang "**social Darwinist**" anu percaya kana konsép ''survival of the fittest'' (sing saha nu kuat, nya manéhna nu salamet).{{Sfn|Kissinger|1994|pp=38–40}} Roosevelt mangrupikeun saurang **réalis** dina kawijakan luar nagrina. Anjeunna nyaleureukeun téma-téma idéalis liberal anu dipromosikeun ku tokoh saperti Woodrow Wilson. Kissinger nyebutkeun yén Roosevelt nolak éféktivitas hukum internasional; anjeunna boga pamadegan yén upami hiji nagara teu tiasa nangtayungan kapentinganana sorangan, komunitas internasional moal tiasa nulungan loba. Pikeun Roosevelt, perdamaian anu henteu didukung ku kakuatan téh sarua jahatna jeung kakuatan anu dipaké tanpa kabeneran.{{Sfn|Kissinger|1994|p=40}} == Warisan == Para sejarawan méré kiridit ka Roosevelt pikeun parobahan sistem politik nagara ku cara nempatkeun jabatan présidén salaku puseur perhatian ("[[bully pulpit]]") sarta nekenkeun kana karakter pribadi. Hasil gawéna ngawengku pangancuran monopoli (trust busting) sarta konservasi lingkungan. Anjeunna dianggap pahlawan ku kaom liberal sarta progresif alatan usulan awalna ngeunaan nagara karaharjaan (welfare state), réformasi tanaga gawé, sarta démokrasi langsung. Kaom konservatif sarta nasionalis ogé ngahormatan anjeunna alatan komitmenna kana hukum, katertiban, sarta ajén-inajén militér. Dalton nyatakeun yén ayeuna Roosevelt diaku salaku arsiték tina kaprésidénan modérn.{{Sfn|Dalton|2002|pp=4–5}} Sajaba ti éta, Roosevelt rutin nempatan réngking lima luhur dina daptar présidén Amérika Serikat anu panghadéna nurutkeun para ahli sajarah. === Persona sarta maskulinitas === Roosevelt diinget salaku salah sahiji kapribadian anu paling narik dina sajarah Amérika. Babaturanana, sejarawan Henry Adams, nyebutkeun yén Roosevelt téh "murni aksi" (pure act). Dalton nekenkeun kana gaya hirupna anu giat (strenuous life), sedengkeun Brands nyebut anjeunna salaku "kaom romantis terakhir" anu percaya yén kawani fisik mangrupikeun kautamaan anu pangluhurna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=x}} Téma maskulinitas (sipat lalaki) Amérika ogé janten puseur tina gambaran Roosevelt. Anjeunna sering ngingetan yén lalaki ulah teuing léléda sarta kudu némbongkeun kakuatan maskulinna. Roosevelt ngamajukeun olahraga kompetitif pikeun nguatkeun fisik lalaki Amérika sarta ngadukung organisasi saperti **Boy Scouts** (Pramuka) pikeun ngawangun karakter budak lalaki Amérika sangkan jadi kuat. [[Minor Planet Center]] dina 8 Nopémber 2019 ({{small|[[Minor Planet Circulars|M.P.C.]] 118221}}).<ref name="MPC-Circulars-Archive">"MPC/MPO/MPS Archive". Minor Planet Center.</ref> [[Robert Peary]] ogé méré ngaran [[Pagunungan Roosevelt]] sarta [[Tanah Roosevelt]] dumasar kana ngaran anjeunna.<ref>Bart, Sheldon. "Race to the Top of the World". Scribd.</ref> Roosevelt ogé parantos ditémbongkeun dina sababaraha film sarta sérial tipi saperti ''[[Brighty of the Grand Canyon]]'', ''[[The Wind and the Lion]]'', ''[[Rough Riders (film)|Rough Riders]]'', ''[[My Friend Flicka (sérial TV)|My Friend Flicka]]'',<ref>Classic Television Archives. "My Friend Flicka".</ref> sarta ''[[Law of the Plainsman]]''. Aktor [[Robin Williams]] méré rupa pikeun Roosevelt dina wangun [[manekin]] lilin anu bisa hirup dina film ''[[Night at the Museum]]'' sarta sekuelna.{{sfn|Cullinane|2017}}<ref>Chi, Paul (2014). "Ben Stiller, 'Night at the Museum' Cast Honor Robin Williams". Variety.</ref> Roosevelt ogé janten pamingpin peradaban Amérika dina gim vidéo ''[[Civilization VI]]''.<ref>Gurwin, Gabe (2016). "Teddy Roosevelt will kill you with culture in 'Civilization VI'". Digital Trends.</ref> Ti mimiti taun 1965, [[Al Sheehan]] mroduksi acara musik taunan ngeunaan [[sajarah North Dakota]] anu dipidangkeun dina [[Medora Musical]], anu di jerona aya pintonan sosok Roosevelt nalika di wilayah [[Badlands]].<ref>Kvamme, Thomas A. (2003). "Wollan is mastermind behind Medora Musical". Williston Herald.</ref> Salami 80 taun, [[Patung Theodore Roosevelt Nunggang Kuda (New York City)|hiji patung Roosevelt nunggang kuda]], anu di gigireunana aya sosok [[Indian Amérika]] sarta saurang [[Amérika Afrika]], nangtung di hareupeun [[Museum Sejarah Alam Amerika]] di New York. Dina taun 2022, saatos mangtaun-taun ayana desakan ti para aktivis, éta patung ahirna dimumut (dipiceun). Présidén muséum, [[Ellen V. Futter]], nyatakeun yén ieu kaputusan sanés mangrupikeun panghukuman ka Roosevelt sacara pribadi, nanging dumasar kana "komposisi hiérarkis" (undak-usuk kakuatan) anu ditémbongkeun ku éta patung.<ref>Sutton, Benjamin (2022). "Controversial statue of Theodore Roosevelt removed". The Art Newspaper.</ref> === Média audiovisuall === Roosevelt mangrupikeun salah sahiji présidén munggaran anu sorana dirékam pikeun sajarah. Sababaraha rékaman biantarana masih kénéh aya dugi ka ayeuna. Hiji rékaman sora taun 1912 anu judulna ''The Right of the People to Rule'' (Hak Rahayat pikeun Maréntah), anu ngarékam sora Roosevelt kalayan jéntré pisan pikeun ukuran jaman harita, tiasa diaksés ngaliwatan perpustakaan [[Universitas Nagara Bagian Michigan]]. Klip audio kasebut ngawengku pamadeganana dina ngabéla Partéy Progresif dina taun 1912, di dinya anjeunna nyatakeun yén éta partéy téh mangrupikeun "partéyna rahayat" – béda pisan jeung partéy-partéy gedé lianna. {{multiple image | align = center | width = 300 | image1 = Teddy Roosevelt, San Francisco, 1903.ogg | caption1 = Parade pikeun barudak sakola di [[Van Ness Avenue]], [[San Francisco]] | image2 = Teddy Roosevelt video montage.ogg | caption2 = Koléksi klip film pondok Theodore Roosevelt }} == Témbongkeun ogé == * [[Sajarah éléktoral Theodore Roosevelt]] * [[Daptar pemburu sato gedé anu kawentar]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Serikat]] * [[Boneka Teddy bear]] (anu dingaranan dumasar kana landihan anjeunna) * [[Perpustakaan Digital Theodore Roosevelt]] * {{cite web | last = Roosevelt | first = Theodore | title = Theodore Roosevelt Association Cyclopedia | orig-date = 1941| url=https://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/content.aspx?page_id=22&club_id=991271&module_id=339179 | date=1989| edition=Édisi ka-2 nu geus Dirévisi | editor1-last = Hart | editor2-last = Ferleger | editor1-first = Albert Bushnell | editor2-first = Herbert Ronald|ref=none}} * {{cite book | last = Roosevelt | first = Theodore | title = The Selected Letters | year = 2001 | publisher = Cooper Square Press | isbn = 978-0-8154-1126-0| editor-last = Brands | editor-first = HW|url=https://archive.org/details/selectedletterso00roos}} * {{cite book |last=Ruddy|first=Daniel|title=Theodore the Great: Conservative Crusader|publisher=Regnery History |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-62157-441-5}} * {{cite book| last=Samuels| first=Peggy| year=1997| title=Teddy Roosevelt at San Juan: The Making of a President| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1v7PSGbzhDwC| publisher=Texas A&M UP| isbn=978-0-89096-771-3| access-date=17 Oktober 2015}} * {{Cite journal|first=Arnaldo |last=Testi|title=The gender of reform politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the culture of masculinity|journal=Journal of American History|volume= 81|issue=4 |year=1995|pages=1509–1533|doi=10.2307/2081647 |jstor=2081647}} * {{cite book| last = Thayer| first = William Roscoe| year = 1919| title = Theodore Roosevelt: an intimate biography| url = https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.168636| publisher = Houghton Mifflin}} * {{cite book | last = Watts | first = Sarah | year = 2003 | title = Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire| url = https://archive.org/details/roughriderinwhit0000watt |ref=none}} {{refend}} == Tumbu luar == {{Sister project links|wikt=Roosevelt |b=no |n=no |s=Author:Theodore Roosevelt |v=no}} === Organisasi === * [http://www.boone-crockett.org Klub Boone jeung Crockett] * [http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org Asosiasi Theodore Roosevelt] === Perpustakaan sarta koléksi === * [https://www.trlibrary.com/ Perpustakaan Présidén Theodore Roosevelt] Medora, North Dakota. * [http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/ Puseur Theodore Roosevelt] di [[Universitas Nagara Bagian Dickinson]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180606131421/http://www.hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/houghton/collections/roosevelt.cfm Koléksi Theodore Roosevelt], di [[Perpustakaan Houghton]], Universitas Harvard * [https://guides.loc.gov/theodore-roosevelt-hunting-library Perpustakaan Pangburuan Theodore Roosevelt] di [https://www.loc.gov Perpustakaan Kongrés], Washington, DC. * [http://www.historicjournalism.com/theodore-roosevelt.html Jurnalisme Theodore Roosevelt di Arsip Jurnalisme Amérika] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170814084741/http://www.amnh.org/explore/science-topics/theodore-roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt di Museum Sajarah Alam Amérika] * {{Gutenberg author | id=729}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Theodore Roosevelt}} * {{Librivox author |id=1471}} ===Média=== * [[iarchive:theoroos1912|Theodore Roosevelt Speech Edison Recordings Campaign - 1912]], rekaman audio * {{NYTtopic|people/r/theodore_roosevelt}} * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151618-1/life-portrait-theodore-roosevelt "Life Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt"], ti [[C-SPAN]] ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', 3 Séptémber 1999 * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?165366-1/writings-theodore-roosevelt "Writings of Theodore Roosevelt"] ti [[C-SPAN]] ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' * [https://theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record?libID=o285073 "The Abyssinian treatment administered to Standard Oil"], nu mana Roosevelt kadéngé ngucapkeun ngaran tukangna ===Nu lianna=== * [http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/ Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt]; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501200726/http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/ |date=May 1, 2021 }} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/troosevelt/index.html Theodore Roosevelt: A Resource Guide]&nbsp;– [[Library of Congress]] * {{Nobelprize}} {{Theodore Roosevelt}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan jeung pangajén |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-ny-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[William J. 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Black]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Governor of New York|Gubernur New York]]|years=1899–1900}} {{s-aft|after=[[Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Garret Hobart]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Vice President of the United States|Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]]|years=1901}} {{s-aft|after=[[Charles W. Fairbanks]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William McKinley]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States|Présidén Amérika Serikat]]|years=1901–1909}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Howard Taft]]}} {{s-ach}} {{s-bef|before=[[Bertha von Suttner]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Panampi [[Pangajén Nobel widang Perdamaian]]|years=1906}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ernesto Teodoro Moneta]]|after2=[[Louis Renault (jurist)|Louis Renault]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Navboxes |title=Artikel nu patali jeung Theodore Roosevelt |list1= {{American Historical Association presidents}} {{Conservatism US footer}} {{Eleanor Roosevelt}} {{Governors of New York}} {{Hall of Fame for Great Americans}} {{Historical left-wing third party presidential tickets (U.S.)}} {{1906 Nobel Prize winners}} {{Mount Rushmore}} {{Nobel Peace Prize Laureates 1901–1925}} {{Progressivism US footer}} {{Rough Riders}} {{Teddy bears}} {{T Roosevelt cabinet}} {{United States presidential election, 1900}} {{United States presidential election, 1904}} {{United States presidential 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ti Parté Républik]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat ti Parté Républik]] [[Kategori:Wakil présidén Amérika Serikat ti Parté Républik]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Roosevelt|Theodore]] [[Kategori:Rough Riders]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Schuyler]] [[Kategori:Panampi Medal of Honor Perang Spanyol–Amérika]] [[Kategori:Panampi Medal of Honor Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Perwira Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Asistén sekretaris angkatan laut Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil présidén Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] roc4g9adqfit9idzw8ysn4kuv3vkiux 0 108051 711509 707185 2026-08-06T21:54:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711509 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Filogénétik | image = Phylogenetic tree.svg | image_caption = Diagram tangkal filogénétik (phylogenetic tree) anu némbongkeun hubungan kekerabatan antar mahluk hirup. }} '''Filogénétik''' nyaéta widang élmu [[biologi]] anu nalungtik hubungan évolusi sarta sajarah katurunan antara rupa-rupa kelompok [[organismeu]] <ref name="Hennig1966">{{cite book |last=Hennig |first=W. |title=Phylogenetic Systematics |year=1966 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location=Urbana |page=7}}</ref>. Hasil tina panalungtikan filogénétik biasana digambarkeun dina wangun ''diagram'' anu disebut '''tangkal filogénétik''' (''phylogenetic tree'') atanapi '''kladogram''' <ref name="Felsenstein2004">{{cite book |last=Felsenstein |first=J. |title=Inferring Phylogenies |url=https://archive.org/details/inferringphyloge0000fels |year=2004 |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland |page=[https://archive.org/details/inferringphyloge0000fels/page/3 3]}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Kecap '''filogénétik''' asalna tina basa [[Yunani]] kuna, nyaéta ''phylon'' (φῦλον) anu hartina "sélér" atanapi "turunan", sarta ''genetikos'' (γενετικός) anu hartina "asal-usul" atanapi "kalahiran" <ref name="Wittstein1852">{{cite book |last=Wittstein |first=G.C. |title=Etymologisch-botanisches Handwörterbuch |year=1852 |publisher=Ansbach |page=691}}</ref>. Istilah ieu mimiti diwanohkeun ku ahli biologi Jérman, '''Ernst Haeckel''', dina taun 1866 pikeun ngajelaskeun hubungan évolusionér antara mahluk hirup <ref name="Haeckel1866">{{cite book |last=Haeckel |first=E. |title=Generelle Morphologie der Organismen |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wghbAAAAQAAJ |year=1866 |publisher=Georg Reimer |location=Berlin |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wghbAAAAQAAJ/page/456 456]}}</ref>. == Tangkal Filogénétik == Tangkal filogénétik mangrupakeun [[hipotésis]] ngeunaan hubungan babarayaan antar mahluk hirup <ref name="Heyne205">{{cite book |last=Heyne |first=K. |title=De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indië |url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten01heyn/page/205/mode/1up |year=1913 |publisher=Ruygrok & Co. |location=Batavia |page=205}}</ref>. Dina ieu diagram, aya sababaraha bagian utama: * '''Gurat (Branches):''' Ngagambarkeun gurat katurunan sapanjang waktu <ref name="Felsenstein2004" />. * '''Simpul (Nodes):''' Titik perpisahan dimana salasahiji garis katurunan meulah jadi dua atawa leuwih (ngagambarkeun karuhun babarengan) <ref name="Hennig1966" />. * '''Unit Taksonomi (Taxa):''' Aya di tungtung gurat, bisa mangrupa spésiés, genus, atanapi kulawarga <ref name="Haeckel1866" />. == Métode Panalungtikan == Dina jaman baheula, filogénétik ngan saukur dumasar kana babandingan fisik (fenotip), saperti wangun huntu atawa tulang <ref name="Haeckel1866" />. Nanging ayeuna, téknologi [[biomolekulér]] ngamungkinkeun para élmuwan pikeun ngabandingkeun runtuyan [[DNA]] sarta [[RNA]] pikeun meunangkeun hasil anu leuwih saklek <ref name="Felsenstein2004" />. Ieu téh kacida pentingna pikeun nangtukeun klasifikasi mahluk hirup anu bener, contona dina nangtukeun kulawarga cau ([[Musaceae]]) atanapi paku-pakuan ([[Pteridophyta]]) <ref name="Heyne205" />. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Biologi Évolusi]] [[Kategori:Sistématika]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] 167qpp0uwkvr88jb6p2sikr6rj099d3 0 108102 711692 707364 2026-08-07T01:38:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711692 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | title = Nafsu Luwamah | image = Allah-ca-apple.png | caption = Simbol spiritual dina ngajalankeun muhasabah diri. | label1 = Basa Arab | data1 = النفس اللوامة | label2 = Hartosna | data2 = Jiwa anu nyempad diri (kaduhung) | label3 = Warna Lambang | data3 = Bodas | label4 = Unsur | data4 = Taneuh / Cai | label5 = Arah | data5 = Wétan | label6 = Tingkatan | data6 = Kadua (sanggeus Amarah) | label7 = Sumber Utama | data7 = [[Al-Qur'an]] (QS. 75:2) }} '''Nafsu Luwamah''' (basa Arab: '''النفس اللوامة''', ''an-nafs al-lawwamah'') nyaéta salasahiji tingkatan jiwa manusa anu geus miboga kasadaran pikeun nyempad kana kalakuanana sorangan anu salah. Dina filosofi [[Sunda]], ieu nafsu téh mangrupikeun bagian integral tina "Opat Nafsu" (Amarah, Luwamah, Sapiyah, sarta Mutmainah) anu kedah dikadalikeun sangkan manusa ngahontal kasampurnaan hirup <ref name="Sunda1">{{cite book |author=Rusyana, Yus |title=Sastra Lisan Sunda |year=1981 |publisher=Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Ngaran '''Luwamah''' asalna tina akar kecap basa [[Arab]] ''lauma'' (لوم) anu hartina nyacad, nyempad, atanapi nyalahkeun <ref name="Wehr1976">{{cite book |author=Wehr, Hans |title=A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmode0000wehr_s1n3 |year=1976 |publisher=Spoken Language Services}}</ref>. Dina kontéks spiritual, ieu nujul kana kaayaan jiwa anu terus-terusan ngoréksi diri (''muhasabah'') sarta ngarasa hanjelu (kaduhung) nalika migawé dosa atanapi kaluluputan <ref name="Ghazali">{{cite book |author=Al-Ghazali |title=Ihya Ulumuddin |year=1100-an}}</ref>. == Dasar tina Al-Qur'an sarta Hadits == Konsép Nafsu Luwamah sumberna langsung tina wahyu kaagamaan: === Al-Qur'an === Disebutkeun sacara éksplisit dina '''[[Surah Al-Qiyamah]]''' ayat 2: <center> وَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِالنَّفْسِ اللَّوَّامَةِ </center> ''Walā uqsimu bin-nafsil-lawwāmah.'' > '''Hartosna:''' "Sarta Kami sumpah demi jiwa anu kacida nyempadna (ka dirina sorangan)." <ref name="Kemenag">{{cite web |title=Surah Al-Qiyamah Ayat 2 |url=https://quran.kemenag.go.id/}}</ref> === Hadits === Gambaran sipat jalma mukmin anu miboga jiwa Luwamah dijelaskeun dina ''atsar'': <center> إِنَّ الْمُؤْمِنَ لَا تَرَاهُ إلَّا يَلُومُ نَفْسَهُ: مَاذَا أَرَدْتُ بِكَلِمَتِي؟ مَاذَا أَرَدْتُ بِأَكْلَتِي؟ </center> > '''Hartosna:''' "Saéstuna anjeun moal manggihan saurang mukmin iwal ti anjeunna téh sok nyempad dirina sorangan: 'Naon anu dimaksud ku ucapan kuring tadi? Naon anu dimaksud ku tuangeun kuring tadi?'" (Riwayat [[Al-Hasan al-Basri]]) <ref name="IbnulQayyim">{{cite book |author=Ibnul Qayyim |title=Ighatsatul Lahfan}}</ref> == Ciri-ciri Utama == Nafsu Luwamah miboga sababaraha ciri biologis sarta psikologis anu mandiri: * '''Rasa Kaduhung:''' Ayana parasaan teu tenang sarta hanjelu saatos ngalakukeun hal anu teu merenah. * '''Mawas Diri:''' Kamampuh pikeun nempo kakurangan diri sorangan tinimbang nempo kasalahan batur. * '''Sipat Biologis:''' Dina budaya Sunda, mindeng dipatalikeun sareng kabutuhan raga saperti dahar, nginum, sarta saré. Upami teu dikadalikeun, ieu nafsu tiasa janten rakus atanapi teuing mikiran dunya <ref name="Sunda1" />. * '''Warna sarta Perlambang:''' Ilaharna dilambangkeun ku warna '''bodas''', unsur taneuh atanapi cai, sarta arah wétan. == Makna Filosofis == Sacara filosofis, Nafsu Luwamah miboga peran krusial dina kamonésan jiwa: * '''Jembatan Spiritual:''' Luwamah téh mangrupikeun tahapan transisi (''transisi'') ti arah kagoréngan ([[Nafsu Amarah]]) nuju kana katenangan ([[Nafsu Mutmainah]]). Tanpa ayana rasa kaduhung, manusa moal boga motivasi pikeun ngoméan akhlakna. * '''Eunteung Kalbu:''' Dina falsafah Sunda, Luwamah téh ibarat eunteung batin. Nalika manusa nempo kagoréngan dina dirina, anjeunna bakal éra sarta narékahan pikeun "mulung udaneun" (ngoméan diri). * '''Rem tina Karahak:''' Ngajarkeun manusa sangkan henteu kabawa palid ku urusan dunya sacara kaleuleuwihi, anu janten pondasi tina sipat ''[[Zuhud]]'' atanapi saderhana <ref name="Ghazali" />. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Tasawuf]] [[Kategori:Budaya Sunda]] [[Kategori:Filsafat Islam]] [[Kategori:Etika]] abgebo170939h76fhyoox58xmnd5a3c 0 108107 711630 707373 2026-08-07T00:32:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711630 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | title = Nafsu Mutmainah | image = | caption = Simbol katenangan sarta kasampurnaan jiwa. | label1 = Basa Arab | data1 = النفس المطمئنة | label2 = Hartosna | data2 = Jiwa anu tenang (tumaninah) | label3 = Warna Lambang | data4 = Hideung / Héjo | label4 = Unsur | data5 = Angin / Udara | label5 = Arah | data6 = Kidul | label6 = Tingkatan | data7 = Pangluhurna (sanggeus Sapiyah) | label7 = Sumber Utama | data8 = [[Al-Qur'an]] (QS. 89:27-28) }} '''Nafsu Mutmainah''' (basa Arab: '''النفس المطمئنة''', ''an-nafs al-mutma'innah'') nyaéta tingkatan jiwa manusa anu pangluhurna, di mana batin geus ngarasa tenang, tumaninah, sarta jauh tina sagala kahariwang dunya kusabab geus caket ka Gusti [[Alloh]] SWT. Dina filosofi [[Sunda]], ieu nafsu téh mangrupikeun puncak tina "Opat Nafsu" (Amarah, Luwamah, Sapiyah, sarta Mutmainah) anu janten tujuan utama dina ngahontal kasampurnaan hirup atanapi ''insan kamil'' <ref name="Sunda1">{{cite book |author=Rusyana, Yus |title=Sastra Lisan Sunda |year=1981 |publisher=Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Ngaran '''Mutmainah''' asalna tina akar kecap basa [[Arab]] ''itma'anna'' (طمأن) anu hartina tenang, tingtrim, atanapi tumaninah <ref name="Wehr1976">{{cite book |author=Wehr, Hans |title=A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmode0000wehr_s1n3 |year=1976 |publisher=Spoken Language Services}}</ref>. Dina kontéks spiritual, ieu nujul kana kaayaan jiwa anu geus teu kagégét ku hawa nafsu angkara murka sarta geus rido kana sagala katangtosan ti nu Maha Kawasa <ref name="Ghazali">{{cite book |author=Al-Ghazali |title=Ihya Ulumuddin |year=1100-an}}</ref>. == Dasar tina Al-Qur'an sarta Hadits == Konsép Nafsu Mutmainah miboga dasar anu kacida kiatna dina ajaran agama: === Al-Qur'an === Disebutkeun kalayan éndah dina '''[[Surah Al-Fajr]]''' ayat 27-28: <center> يَا أَيَّتُهَا النَّفْسُ الْمُطْمَئِنَّةُ ارْجِعِي إِلَىٰ رَبِّكِ رَاضِيَةً مَرْضِيَّةً </center> ''Yā ayyatuhan-nafsul-mutma'innah, irji'ī ilā Rabbiki rādiyatan mardiyyah.'' > '''Hartosna:''' "Wahai jiwa anu tenang. Balik deui hidep ka Pangéran hidep kalayan rido sarta diridoan." <ref name="Kemenag">{{cite web |title=Surah Al-Fajr Ayat 27-28 |url=https://quran.kemenag.go.id/}}</ref> === Hadits === Para ulama sering ngaitkeun ieu nafsu sareng hadits ngeunaan katenangan batin dina ibadah: <center> أَنْ تَعْبُدَ اللهَ كَأَنَّكَ تَرَاهُ، فَإِنْ لَمْ تَكُنْ تَرَاهُ فَإِنَّهُ يَرَاكَ </center> > '''Hartosna:''' "Hidep ibadah ka Alloh saolah-olah hidep ningali Mantenna, upami hidep teu tiasa ningali Mantenna, saéstuna Mantenna ningali hidep." (Hadits Jibril ngeunaan ''Ihsan'') <ref name="Muslim">{{cite book |author=Imam Muslim |title=Shahih Muslim|url=https://archive.org/details/sahihmuslim0003imam }}</ref> == Ciri-ciri Utama == Nafsu Mutmainah tiasa ditingal tina sababaraha pasipatan: * '''Tumaninah:''' Ayana katenangan jero haté sanajan nuju disorang ku cocoba. * '''Tawakal sarta Rido:''' Narima kalayan ikhlas kana sagala takdir (''qada'' sarta ''qadar''). * '''Luhur Budi:''' Jauh tina sipat hiri, dengki, sarta sombong. * '''Warna sarta Perlambang:''' Dina budaya Sunda, sering dilambangkeun ku warna '''hideung''' (warna anu murni/manteng) atanapi '''héjo''', unsur angin (hawa), sarta arah kidul. == Makna Filosofis == Sacara filosofis, Nafsu Mutmainah mangrupikeun titik akhir tina lalampahan spiritual: * '''Kamanunggalan Rasa:''' Mutmainah nyaéta kaayaan di mana kahayang manusa geus saluyu (''manunggal'') sareng kersaning Gusti. * '''Puncak Mawas Diri:''' Upami Luwamah téh mimiti sadar kana kasalahan, Mutmainah mah geus bersih tina éta kasalahan sarta matak jadi panyalindungan pikeun batur. * '''Kahirupan anu Sajati:''' Jalma anu geus nepi kana ieu tahapan dianggap geus manggihan kabagjaan anu sajati (''sa'adah''), lain kabagjaan dunya anu sipatna samentara <ref name="Ghazali" />. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Tasawuf]] [[Kategori:Budaya Sunda]] [[Kategori:Filsafat Islam]] [[Kategori:Etika]] t6e6tts810yz8klnau5e9i1a2to8u4z 0 108171 711816 707664 2026-08-07T05:12:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711816 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Belekék (Jaka Tuwa) | image = Tyto alba (Scopoli, 1769).jpg | image_caption = Belekék (''Tyto alba javanica'') keur nangkring. [[File:Barn Owl (Tyto alba) call.ogg|centre|thumb|Sora jeritan Belekék]] | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Aves]] | ordo = [[Strigiformes]] | familia = [[Tytonidae]] | genus = ''[[Tyto]]'' | species = '''''T. alba''''' | binomial = ''Tyto alba'' | binomial_authority = ([[Giovanni Antonio Scopoli|Scopoli]], 1769) | color = #FFFFFF }} '''Belekék''' atanapi '''Jaka Tuwa''' (''Tyto alba'') nyaéta salah sahiji jenis [[bueuk]] (burung hantu) tina kulawarga [[Tytonidae]]. Ieu manuk kawéntar salaku "sahabat patani" margi pinter pisan moro beurit di pasawahan. == Nami Vérnakular == Salian ti nami ilmiah, ieu manuk miboga rupa-rupa nami lokal: * '''Basa Sunda:''' Belekék, Jaka Tuwa. * '''Basa Indonésia:''' Burung hantu serak jawa (Barn owl). * '''Basa Inggris:''' ''Barn owl''. == Taksonomi == Dina dunya ilmiah, sub-spésiés anu aya di [[Pulo Jawa]] sarta katingal dina poto arsip ''Tropenmuseum'' (TMnr 10006600) nyaéta ''Tyto alba javanica''. Nami ''javanica'' némbongkeun yén ieu ras téh asalna ti Jawa. Manuk ieu miboga ciri has piringan beungeut anu ngawangun jantung (''heart-shaped facial disc'').<ref name="Scopoli">{{cite book |last=Scopoli |first=Giovanni Antonio |title=Annus I Historico-Naturalis |url=https://archive.org/details/ioannisantonii00scop |year=1769}}</ref> == Morfologi == Belekék miboga ciri fisik anu kacida béda sareng jenis bueuk sanésna: * '''Beungeut:''' Piringan beungeutna warna bodas bersih sarta ngawangun jantung kalayan tepi warna coklat. Matana hideung leutik. * '''Warna Bulu:''' Bagian luhur (tonggong sarta jangjang) warna coklat muda semu konéng kalayan totol-totol abu-abu sarta bodas. Bagian handapna (dada sarta beuteung) warna bodas mulus, sakali-kali aya totol hideung leutik. * '''Suku:''' Sukuna panjang sarta pinuh ku bulu lemes dugi ka ramo-ramona. == Habitat sarta Paripolah == * '''Habitat:''' Hirup di daérah terbuka, pasawahan, kebon, dugi ka wangunan kolot atanapi gudang (ku kituna disebut ''Barn owl''). * '''Spesialis Moro Beurit:''' Salaku sato ''nokturnal'', belekék miboga pangéngé talingaling (pangrungu) anu kacida seukeutna pikeun néwak beurit dina kaayaan poék mongkléng. * '''Sora:''' Béda sareng bueuk sanésna anu sorana "''hoo-hoo''", belekék mah sorana mangrupa jeritan anu melengking sarta serak (''shriek''). == Status Konservasi == Dumasar kana daptar ''IUCN Red List'', belekék miboga status '''Resiko Handap''' (''Least Concern''). Di sababaraha wewengkon di Jawa, ieu manuk sering dilepaskeun sacara ngahaja ku patani pikeun ngabasmi hama beurit sacara alami (biokontrol). == Référénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Strigiformes]] [[Kategori:Tytonidae]] [[Kategori:Tyto]] [[Kategori:Sato]] [[Kategori:Aves]] o7uapxi5t5yxwta83q16vijmi447rwk 0 108173 711541 707662 2026-08-06T22:44:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711541 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Julang Emas | image = Wreathed Hornbill male RWD14.jpg | image_caption = Julang emas (''Rhyticeros undulatus'') jalu. | status = VU | status_system = IUCN3.1 | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Aves]] | ordo = [[Bucerotiformes]] | familia = [[Bucerotidae]] | genus = ''[[Rhyticeros]]'' | species = '''''R. undulatus''''' | binomial = ''Rhyticeros undulatus'' | binomial_authority = ([[George Shaw|Shaw]], 1811) | color = #FFFFFF }} '''Julang Emas''' (''Rhyticeros undulatus'') nyaéta salah sahiji jinis manuk [[Rangkong]] (''hornbill'') anu miboga ukuran awak kacida ageungna. Ieu manuk kawéntar ku pamatukna anu kuat sarta kantong tikoro anu warnana mencolok. == Nami Vérnakular == Salian ti nami ilmiah, ieu manuk miboga sababaraha nami lokal: * '''Basa Sunda:''' Julang, Julang emas. * '''Basa Indonésia:''' Julang emas. * '''Basa Inggris:''' ''Wreathed hornbill''. * '''Basa Walanda:''' ''Jaarvogel'' (manuk taun). == Taksonomi == Dina dunya ilmiah, Julang Emas munggaran didéskripsikeun ku ahli alam [[George Shaw]] dina taun 1811. Kapungkur, ieu manuk asup kana génus ''Aceros'' (saperti anu kacatet dina arsip ''Tropenmuseum'' TMnr 10006517), nanging dumasar kana klasifikasi ayeuna parantos dipindahkeun kana génus ''[[Rhyticeros]]''.<ref name="Shaw1811">{{cite book |last=Shaw |first=George |title=General Zoology, or Systematic Natural History |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.02282 |year=1811}}</ref> == Morfologi == Julang emas miboga ciri fisik anu kacida unikna: * '''Ukuran:''' Panjang awakna tiasa dugi ka 75-100 cm. * '''Pamatuk:''' Pamatukna warna gading kalayan garis-garis (''wreathed'') dina bagian luhur pamatuk handapna. * '''Kantong Tikoro:''' Jinis jalu miboga kantong tikoro warna konéng caang kalayan garis hideung, sedengkeun jinis bikang miboga kantong tikoro warna bulao. * '''Bulu:''' Awakna didominasi ku warna hideung, buntutna warna bodas mulus, sarta bagian sirahna warna coklat semu emas pikeun anu jalu. == Habitat sarta Paripolah == * '''Habitat:''' Hirup di leuweung dataran handap sarta leuweung pasir dugi ka katingalan 2.000 méter luhureun beungeut laut. Julang emas sumebar di sakuliah [[Asia Tenggara]], kaasup [[Sumatra]], [[Jawa]], sarta [[Kalimantan]]. * '''Kadaharan:''' Kadaharan utamana nyaéta rupa-rupa buah leuweung, utamana buah caringin (''Ficus''). Sakali-kali ogé ngahakan sato leutik saperti [[cakcak]] atanapi serangga. * '''Hiber:''' Sora jangjangna nalika hiber kacida tarikna, kadéngé saperti sora mesin pesawat kusabab henteuna bulu panutup dina bagian handap jangjangna. == Status Konservasi == Dumasar kana daptar ''IUCN Red List'', julang emas miboga status '''Rentan''' (''Vulnerable''). Populasi manuk ieu nyirorot kusabab ruksakna leuweung primér sarta ayana moro liar pikeun dicandak pamatukna atanapi dijual janten sato piaraan. == Référénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Bucerotiformes]] [[Kategori:Bucerotidae]] [[Kategori:Rhyticeros]] [[Kategori:Sato]] [[Kategori:Aves]] pwxkxbjon7dpo7x3csr2dl7f0f44skr 0 108223 711739 707872 2026-08-07T03:07:55Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711739 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Osteoglossiformes | image = Scleropages formosus Prague 2012 1.jpg | image_caption = Arwana Asia, salah sahiji anggota ordo Osteoglossiformes anu paling kawéntar. | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = '''Osteoglossiformes''' | ordo_authority = [[Berg]], 1940 | subdivision_ranks = Sub-ordo & Kulawarga | subdivision = * [[Osteoglossoidei]] ** [[Osteoglossidae]] (Arwana) ** [[Pantodontidae]] * [[Notopteroidei]] ** [[Balida|Notopteridae]] (Lauk Belida) ** [[Mormyridae]] ** [[Gymnarchidae]] | color = #FFFFFF }} '''Osteoglossiformes''' nyaéta salah sahiji ordo [[Lauk]] cai tawar anu diwangun ku rupa-rupa jinis lauk purba. Ordo ieu miboga ciri mandiri nyaéta ayana tulang anu huntu-an dina bagian handap sungutna (ilat) anu diadu sareng huntu dina lalangit sungutna nalika nyapék mangsana.<ref name="NelsonFish">{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Joseph S. |title=Fishes of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/fishesofworld0000nels_q3j5 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2006 |isbn=0-471-25031-7}}</ref> == [[Karakteristik]] == Salian ti "ilat tulang", anggota Osteoglossiformes miboga ciri séjén: * '''[[Anatomi]]:''' Lolobana miboga sirip tonggong (''dorsal'') sarta sirip bujur (''anal'') anu perenahna rada ka tukang. * '''[[Engapan]]:''' Sababaraha anggota ordo ieu, saperti [[Scleropages formosus|Arwana]] sarta [[Arapaima]], tiasa nyokot oksigén langsung tina hawa (engapan tambahan). * '''[[Sénsor Listrik]]:''' Sababaraha kulawarga dina ordo ieu (saperti [[Mormyridae]] ti Afrika) miboga kamampuh ngahasilkeun sarta ngarasakeun sasmita listrik leutik pikeun navigasi dina cai nu kiruh. == [[Klasifikasi]] Utama == Ordo ieu kabagi kana sababaraha kulawarga anu sumebar di sakuliah dunya: # '''[[Osteoglossidae]]:''' Ngawengku sakabéh jinis [[Arwana]] ti Asia, Australia, sarta Amérika Kidul. # '''[[Notopteridae]]:''' Lauk anu bentukna saperti péso, di Indonésia kawéntar ku nami lauk '''[[Balida|Belida]]'''. # '''[[Arapaimidae]]:''' Ngawengku lauk [[Arapaima]] ti walungan Amazon anu mangrupa salah sahiji lauk cai tawar pangbadagna di dunya. == [[Ékosistem]] == Anggota Osteoglossiformes lolobana hirup di wewengkon tropis. Di Indonésia, pusat karagaman ordo ieu aya di walungan-walungan badag sarta situ-situ di [[Kalimantan]] (saperti '''[[Taman Nasional Danau Sentarum]]''') sarta [[Sumatra]].<ref name="FishBaseOrder">{{cite web |url=https://www.fishbase.se/summary/OrdersSummary.php?order=Osteoglossiformes |title=Order Summary for Osteoglossiformes |publisher=FishBase |accessdate=2026-04-06}}</ref> == [[Référénsi]] == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Osteoglossiformes]] [[Kategori:Lauk cai tawar]] [[Kategori:Lauk purba]] [[Kategori:Lauk darat]] [[Kategori:Notopteridae]] bby12xs8oqg1azw4i0ocissun6e87oy 0 108346 711710 708411 2026-08-07T02:19:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 11 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711710 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = President Woodrow Wilson Harris & Ewing (3x4 cropped b).jpg | caption = Wilson in 1914 | order = 28th | office = President of the United States | vice_president = [[Thomas R. Marshall]] | term_start = March 4, 1913 | term_end = March 4, 1921 | predecessor = [[William Howard Taft]] | successor = [[Warren G. Harding]] | order1 = 34th | office1 = Governor of New Jersey | term_start1 = January 17, 1911 | term_end1 = March 1, 1913 | predecessor1 = [[John Franklin Fort]] | successor1 = [[James Fairman Fielder]] | order3 = 13th | office3 = President of Princeton University | term_start3 = October 25, 1902 | term_end3 = October 21, 1910 | predecessor3 = [[Francis Landey Patton]] | successor3 = [[John Grier Hibben]] | birth_name = Thomas Woodrow Wilson | birth_date = {{birth date|1856|12|28}} | birth_place = [[Staunton, Virginia]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1924|2|3|1856|12|28}} | death_place = Washington, D.C.,<!--Links not needed per MOS:OVERLINK--> U.S. | resting_place = [[Washington National Cathedral]] | party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | spouse = {{plainlist| * {{marriage|[[Ellen Axson Wilson|Ellen Axson]]|June 24, 1885|August 6, 1914|end=died}} * {{marriage|[[Edith Wilson|Edith Bolling]]|December 18, 1915}} }} | children = {{flatlist| * [[Margaret Woodrow Wilson|Margaret]] * [[Jessie Wilson Sayre|Jessie]] * [[Eleanor Wilson McAdoo|Eleanor]] }} | father = [[Joseph Ruggles Wilson]] | occupation = {{flatlist| * Politician * academic }} | education = {{plainlist| * [[Princeton University|College of New Jersey (later Princeton University)]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|AB]]) * {{nowrap|[[Johns Hopkins University]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])}} }} | awards = [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1919) | signature = Woodrow Wilson Signature 2.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | module = {{Infobox scientist | embed = yes | workplaces = Princeton University<br />Johns Hopkins University | field = [[Political science]] | thesis_title = Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics | thesis_url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231216211634if_/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/590be125ff7c502a07752a5b/t/62aa585097c42950b160b6a5/1655330908037/Wilson%2C+Thomas+Woodrow%2C+Congressional+Government.pdf | thesis_year = 1886 }} | module2 = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Woodrow Wilson speaks on Democratic principles.ogg|title=Woodrow Wilson's voice|type=speech|description=On [[democratic principles]]<br />Recorded August 7, 1912}} }} '''Thomas Woodrow Wilson''' (28 Désémber 1856{{snd}}3 Pébruari 1924) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-28 anu ngajabat ti taun 1913 nepi ka 1921. Anjeunna mangrupa hiji-hijina présidén ti [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]] anu mingpin dina [[Éra Progrésif]], nyaéta mangsa nalika [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]] mahabu nguasaan korsi kaprésidénan sarta lembaga [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat|législatif]]. Nalika nyepeng kalungguhan présidén, Wilson ngayakeun parobahan (réformasi) ékonomi anu kacida gedéna sarta mingpin Amérika Sarikat ngaliwatan [[Perang Dunya I]]. Anjeunna ogé mangrupa arsiték utama diadegkeunna [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], sarta haluan kawijakan luar nagrina katelah ku istilah [[Wilsonianisme]]. Wilson gumelar di [[Staunton, Virginia]], sarta [[Woodrow Wilson#Mangsa budak|gedé]] di wewengkon [[Amérika Sarikat Kidul]] dina mangsa [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] jeung [[Éra Rékonstruksi]]. Saatos nampi gelar [[Doktor Filosopi]] (Ph.D.) dina widang sajarah sarta élmu politik ti [[Universitas Johns Hopkins]], Wilson ngajar di sababaraha paguron luhur sateuacan diangkat janten présidén [[Universitas Princeton]]. Di dinya, anjeunna muncul salaku juru bicara utama pikeun [[Progrésivisme dina pendidikan luhur|gerakan progrésif dina widang pendidikan luhur]]. Wilson dianggap salasahiji "bapa pangadeg" dina widang [[administrasi publik]] alatan tulisanana dina taun 1887 anu judulna ''[[The Study of Administration]]''. Wilson kungsi ngajabat janten [[Gubernur New Jersey]] ti taun 1911 nepi ka 1913. Dina mangsa harita, anjeunna luncat tina pangaruh para "boss" partéy sarta hasil ngagolgolkeun sababaraha réformasi [[Progrésivisme di Amérika Sarikat|progrésif]]. Dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1912|pamilu taun 1912]], Wilson hasil ngéléhkeun présidén petahana ti Partéy Républik, [[William Howard Taft]], sarta calon ti pihak katilu anu ogé tilas présidén, [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. Ieu meunangna ngajadikeun anjeunna urang [[Urang Amérika Sarikat Kidul|Kidul]] munggaran anu hasil nempatan korsi kaprésidénan saprak [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|taun 1848]]. Dina taun munggaran janten présidén, Wilson méré wewenang pikeun lumangsungna [[Woodrow Wilson jeung ras|ségregasi ras]] sacara lega di lingkungan birokrasi féderal, sarta sikep anjeunna anu nolak [[Hak pilih awéwé di Amérika Sarikat|hak pilih awéwé]] ngondang rupa-rupa protés. Mangsa jabatan munggaranna sabagéan ageung dipaké pikeun ngagolgolkeun agenda domestikna anu progrésif, katelah ku sebutan [[The New Freedom|New Freedom]] (Kabébasan Anyar). Prioritas utamana nyaéta [[Undang-undang Panghasilan 1913]], anu jadi asal-muasal [[Pajeg panghasilan di Amérika Sarikat|pajeg panghasilan]] modéren, sarta [[Undang-undang Federal Reserve]], anu ngalahirkeun sistem bank sentral [[Federal Reserve]]. Nalika [[Pecahna Perang Dunya I|Perang Dunya I peupeus]] dina taun 1914, Amérika Sarikat nyatakeun nétralitasna nalika Wilson nyobian jadi cukang lantaran perdamaian antara [[Pihak Sekutu dina Perang Dunya I|Pihak Sekutu]] jeung [[Pihak Séntral]]. Wilson meunang deui kalayan sora anu ipis dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1916|pamilu taun 1916]], ngéléhkeun calon ti Partéy Républik, [[Charles Evans Hughes]]. Dina April 1917, Wilson ménta Kongrés pikeun ngaluarkeun deklarasi perang ngalawan Jérman salaku réspon kana kawijakan perang kapal silem Jérman anu taya watesna, anu geus ngarempeun kapal-kapal dagang Amérika. Wilson museurkeun perhatianana kana widang diplomasi, kalayan ngaluarkeun ''[[Fourteen Points]]'' (Opat Belas Poin) anu ditarima ku Pihak Sekutu sarta Jérman salaku dadasar pikeun perdamaian sanggeus perang. Anjeunna miharep pamilu sela taun 1918 jadi ajang referéndum pikeun ngarojong kawijakanana, nanging sabalikna, Partéy Républik kalah hasil ngawasa Kongrés. Saatos [[Gencatan Sanjata 11 Nopémber 1918|meunangna Pihak Sekutu]] dina Nopémber 1918, Wilson sumping ka [[Konferénsi Perdamaian Paris (1919–1920)|Konferénsi Perdamaian Paris]]. Wilson hasil merjuangkeun diadegkeunna organisasi multinasional, nyaéta [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], anu diasupkeun kana [[Perjangjian Versailles]] anu ditandatanganan ku anjeunna. Nanging di nagarana sorangan, Wilson nolak [[Kaum Irreconcilables|kompromi]] ti Partéy Républik anu sabenerna bisa ngidinan Sénat pikeun ngasahkeun Perjangjian Versailles sarta gabung jeung Liga Bangsa-Bangsa. Wilson sabenerna mibanda niat pikeun nyalonkeun deui dina période katilu, nanging anjeunna katarajang stroke dina Oktober 1919 anu ngabalukarkeun anjeunna lumpuh (incapacitated). Dina mangsa harita, pamajikan sarta dokter pribadina anu ngadalikeun Wilson, sahingga taya kawijakan penting anu dihasilkeun. Samentara éta, kawijakan-kawijakanana ngabalukarkeun urang Amérika turunan Jérman sarta Irlandia di Partéy Démokrat ngarasa teu dianggap, nepi ka tungtungna Partéy Républik meunang mutlak (landslide) dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920|pamilu taun 1920]]. Dina Pébruari 1924, anjeunna tilar dunya dina yuswa 67 taun. Nepi ka abad ka-21, para ahli sajarah loba anu nyawad (mengkritik) Wilson alatan anjeunna ngarojong [[Ségregasi ras di Amérika Sarikat|ségregasi ras]], sanajan kitu aranjeunna tetep [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Wilson salaku présidén anu préstasi sarta ajénna di luhur rata-rata. Kaum [[Konsérvatisme di Amérika Sarikat|konsérvatif]] utamana nyawad anjeunna alatan ngalegaan pangaruh pamaréntah féderal, sedengkeun pihak séjénna mah muji Wilson alatan hasil ngaréngkédan kakawasaan korporasi-korporasi gedé sarta dianggap salaku tokoh anu ngadegkeun [[Liberalisme modéren di Amérika Sarikat|liberalisme modéren]]. == Mangsa budak sarta pendidikan == {{utama|Mangsa budak sarta karir akademik Woodrow Wilson}} [[File:Woodrow Wilson by Pach Bros c1875.jpg|thumb|Wilson, {{circa|1875}}|left]] {{Woodrow Wilson series}} Thomas Woodrow Wilson gumelar ti kulawarga turunan [[Urang Amérika turunan Skotlandia-Irlandia|Skotlandia-Irlandia]] sarta [[Urang Amérika turunan Skotlandia|Skotlandia]] di [[Staunton, Virginia]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 4</ref> Anjeunna mangrupa anak katilu ti opat duduluran, sarta putra lalaki munggaran ti pasangan [[Joseph Ruggles Wilson]] jeung Jessie Janet Woodrow. Aki sarta nini ti pihak bapakna hijrah ka Amérika Sarikat ti [[Strabane]], County Tyrone, Irlandia, dina taun 1807, sarta matuh di [[Steubenville, Ohio]]. Aki ti pihak bapakna, [[James Wilson (wartawan)|James Wilson]], ngédit surat kabar ''[[The Western Herald and Gazette]]'' anu ngarojong [[tarif]] sarta [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|anti-perbudakan]].<ref>Walworth (1958, vol. 1), p. 4</ref> Aki ti pihak indungna, Pendéta Thomas Woodrow, ngalih ti [[Paisley, Renfrewshire]], Skotlandia, ka [[Carlisle, Cumbria]], Inggris, sateuacan hijrah ka [[Chillicothe, Ohio]], dina ahir taun 1830-an.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 27–28</ref> Joseph patepang sareng Jessie nalika Jessie nuju sakola di akademi awéwé di Steubenville, sarta duanana nikah dina ping 7 Juni 1849. Teu lami saatos nikah, Joseph ditahbiskeun janten pastur [[Présbitérian]] sarta ditugaskeun ngawula di Staunton.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 28–29</ref> Putrana, Woodrow, gumelar di [[The Manse (Woodrow Wilson)|the Manse]], hiji imah di lingkungan Garéja Présbitérian munggaran Staunton tempat Joseph ngawula. Sateuacan yuswana genep dua taun, kulawargana ngalih ka Augusta, Georgia.<ref name="0'Toole 2018">{{cite book|title=The Moralist: Woodrow Wilson and the World He Made|url=https://archive.org/details/moralistwoodroww0000otoo|last=O'Toole|first=Patricia|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2018|isbn=978-0-7432-9809-4}}</ref> Pangéling-ngéling Wilson anu pangmunggaranna ngeunaan mangsa budakna nyaéta nalika anjeunna nuju ulin di buruan caket panto hareup imahna di Augusta dina yuswa tilu taun. Harita, anjeunna nguping saurang anu ngalangkung ngumumkeun kalayan rasa ijid yén [[Abraham Lincoln]] parantos [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|kapilih janten présidén]] sarta perang bakal geura peupeus.<ref name="0'Toole 2018" /><ref>Auchinloss (2000), ch. 1</ref> Wilson mangrupa salasahiji ti dua présidén Amérika Sarikat anu kungsi janten warga nagara [[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]]; Présidén séjénna nyaéta [[John Tyler]], anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén John Tyler|présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-10]] ti taun 1841 nepi ka 1845. Rama Wilson mibanda jati diri sabagé urang [[Amérika Sarikat Kidul]] sarta mangrupa pangrojong satia Konfédérasi salila Perang Sipil Amérika.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 17</ref> Rama Wilson mangrupa salasahiji pangadeg [[Garéja Présbitérian di Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]], anu saterusna diganti ngaranna janten [[Garéja Présbitérian di Amérika Sarikat]] (PCUS), saatos pipisahan ti Garéja Présbitérian kalér dina taun 1861. Ramana janten pandéta di [[First Presbyterian Church (Augusta, Georgia)|First Presbyterian Church]] di Augusta, sarta kulawargana cicing di dinya dugi ka taun 1870.<ref>White (1925), ch. 2</ref> Ti taun 1870 dugi ka 1874, Wilson cicing di [[Columbia, South Carolina]], tempat ramana janten profésor téologi di [[Columbia Theological Seminary]].<ref>Walworth (1958, vol. 1), ch. 4</ref> Dina taun 1873, Wilson janten anggota komunikan [[Columbia First Presbyterian Church]]; anjeunna tetep janten anggota di dinya saumur hirupna.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 23.</ref> Wilson sakola di [[Davidson College]] di [[Davidson, North Carolina]], dina taun ajaran 1873–74, nanging pindah janten mahasiswa taun kahiji ka College of New Jersey, anu ayeuna katelah [[Universitas Princeton]],<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 45–49</ref> tempat anjeunna neuleuman [[filsafat politik]] sarta [[sajarah]]. Di dinya anjeunna ngagabung jeung faternitas [[Phi Kappa Psi]], sarta aktif dina [[Whig literary and debating society|perkumpulan sastra jeung debat Whig]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 58–60, 64, 78</ref> Anjeunna ogé kapilih janten sékrétaris asosiasi [[Ménbal|maén bal]] sakola, présidén asosiasi [[Bisebal|bisbol]], sarta janten rédaktur pelaksana surat kabar mahasiswa.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 64–66</ref> Dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1876|pamilu présidén 1876]] anu lumangsung panas, Wilson ngarojong [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]] sarta calonna, [[Samuel J. Tilden]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 35.</ref> Saatos lulus ti Princeton dina taun 1879,<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 72–73</ref> Wilson neraskeun kuliah di [[Universitas Virginia School of Law]] di [[Charlottesville, Virginia]]. Di dinya anjeunna kalibet dina [[Virginia Glee Club]] sarta ngajabat janten présidén [[Jefferson Literary and Debating Society]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 53.</ref> Masalah kaséhatan maksa Wilson pikeun kaluar ti sakola hukum, nanging anjeunna tetep diajar hukum sacara mandiri nalika cicing sareng sepuhna di [[Wilmington, North Carolina]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 82–83</ref> Wilson tungtungna ditarima janten anggota [[Georgia bar|advokat Georgia]] sarta nyobi ngadegkeun [[Firma hukum|firma hukum]] di [[Atlanta]] dina taun 1882.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 84–86</ref> Sanajan anjeunna mikaresep sajarah hukum sarta yurisprudénsi substantif, anjeunna ijid (ngarasa teu resep) kana aspék prosédural sapopoé dina prakték hukum. Kirang ti sataun, Wilson ninggalkeun prakték hukumna pikeun neuleuman élmu politik sarta sajarah.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 58–59.</ref> Dina ahir taun 1883, Wilson daptar ka Universitas Johns Hopkins anu nembé diadegkeun di [[Baltimore]] pikeun nyandak studi doktoral dina widang sajarah, élmu politik, [[Basa Jérman|basa Jérman]], sarta widang séjénna.<ref>Pestritto (2005), 34.</ref><ref>Mulder (1978), pp. 71–72</ref> Wilson boga harepan janten profésor, kalayan nulis yén: "jabatan profésor nyaéta hiji-hijina tempat anu méré luang pikeun maca sarta migawé karya asli, hiji-hijina posisi literér anu boga panghasilan."<ref>Berg (2013), p. 92</ref> Wilson mépéskeun sabagian ageung waktosna di Universitas Johns Hopkins pikeun nulis ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics'', anu mangrupa mekarna tina runtuyan éséy nalika anjeunna neuleuman kumaha jalanna pamaréntah féderal.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 95–98</ref> Dina taun 1886, Wilson dilélér gelar Ph.D. dina widang sajarah sarta pamaréntahan ti Universitas Johns Hopkins,<ref>Pestritto (2005), p. 34</ref> anu ngajadikeun anjeunna hiji-hijina présidén dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat anu mibanda gelar Ph.D.<ref>{{cite web |title=President Woodrow Wilson |url=https://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/president-woodrow-wilson |website=The President Woodrow Wilson House |date=November 18, 2020 |access-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420151628/https://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/president-woodrow-wilson |url-status=live }}</ref> Dina awal taun 1885, [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin]] medarkeun buku Wilson anu judulna ''Congressional Government''. Ieu buku nampi réspon anu kacida hadéna, malah salasahiji kritikus nyebutkeun yén éta tulisan téh "tulisan kritis panghadéna ngeunaan [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|konstitusi Amérika]] anu kungsi aya saprak medalna tulisan [[Federalist Papers|'Federalist']]."<ref>{{cite book|last=Milne|first=David|year=2015|title=Worldmaking: The Art and Science of American Diplomacy|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UPe5BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 79]|isbn=978-0-3747-1423-9}}</ref> == Kawin sarta kulawarga == [[Berkas:ELWilson.jpg|thumb|Dina Séptémber 1883, Wilson ngalamar calon pamajikanana, [[Ellen Axson Wilson]], putri saurang pandéta [[Présbitérian]] di [[Savannah, Georgia]].]] Dina taun 1883, Wilson patepang sarta murag asih ka [[Ellen Louise Axson]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 62–65.</ref> Anjeunna ngalamar Ellen dina Séptémber 1883; lamaranana ditarima, nanging duanana sapuk pikeun nunda pernikahan samentara Wilson nuju kuliah pascasarjana.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 89–92</ref> Axson mangrupa lulusan ti [[Art Students League of New York]], damel dina widang seni lukis potrét, sarta kungsi nampi medali pikeun salah sahiji karyana tina ajang [[Esposisi Univérsal (1878)]] di Paris.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ellen Wilson Biography |url=http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009085710/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=28 |archive-date=2018-10-09 |website=National First Ladies' Library }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009085710/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=28 |date=2018-10-09 }}</ref> Ellen rido ngorbankeun karir senina demi nikah sareng Wilson dina taun 1885.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 71–73.</ref> Ellen ogé diajar [[Basa Jérman]] supados tiasa mantuan narjamahkeun publikasi élmu politik dina basa Jérman anu luyu sareng panalungtikan Woodrow.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 107</ref> Dina April 1886, putra munggaran maranéhanana, [[Margaret Woodrow Wilson|Margaret]], gumelar. Putra kadua maranéhanana, [[Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre|Jessie]], gumelar dina Agustus 1887.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 85.</ref> Putra katilu sarta anu pamungkas, [[Eleanor Wilson McAdoo|Eleanor]], gumelar dina Oktober 1889.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 112</ref> Dina taun 1913, Jessie nikah ka [[Francis Bowes Sayre Sr.]], anu saterusna janten [[Komisioner Luhur pikeun Filipina]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 317</ref> Dina taun 1914, putra katilu maranéhanana, Eleanor, nikah ka [[William Gibbs McAdoo]], [[Sékrétaris Perbendaharaan Amérika Sarikat]] dina mangsa pamaréntahan Woodrow Wilson anu saterusna janten [[Sénator AS ti California]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 328</ref> == Karir akademik == === Profésor === Ti taun 1885 dugi ka 1888, Wilson ngajar di [[Bryn Mawr College]], hiji [[Paguron luhur awéwé di Amérika Sarikat|paguron luhur awéwé]] anu nembé diadegkeun di [[Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania]], di luar kota [[Philadelphia]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 98–100</ref> Wilson ngajar sajarah Yunani sarta Romawi kuna, sajarah Amérika, élmu politik, sarta widang séjénna. Dina mangsa harita, artikel jurnalna taun 1887 anu judulna [[The Study of Administration]] dipedalkeun dina ''[[Political Science Quarterly]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shafritz |first=Jay M. |title=Classics of Public Administration |url=https://archive.org/details/classicsofpublic0000unse_q7r4 |last2=Hyde |first2=Albert C. |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-63903-4 |edition=8th |location=Boston |publication-date=2017 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/classicsofpublic0000unse_q7r4/page/35 35]}}</ref> Éta artikel negaskeun yén administrasi publik kudu dianggap salaku widang studi mandiri, lain saukur sub-widang tina élmu politik. Administratur ogé kudu dipisahkeun nanging tetep tanggung jawab ka pamingpin politik, anu saterusna tanggung jawab ka rahayat. Ieu artikel dianggap kacida pentingna salaku dadasar dina widang administrasi publik, sarta Wilson dilélér salaku salasahiji bapa pangadeg éta widang.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hood |first=Christopher |title=The art of the state: culture, rhetoric, and public management |url=https://archive.org/details/artofstatecultur0000chri |last2= |first2= |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-829765-9 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artofstatecultur0000chri/page/76 76]}}</ref> Harita, ngan aya 42 mahasiswa di éta kampus, sarta méh kabéhanana dianggap pasif teuing numutkeun selerana. [[M. Carey Thomas]], dekan di dinya, mangrupa saurang féminis fanatik, sarta Wilson papaséan sareng anjeunna ngeunaan kontrak gawéna nepi ka jadi papaséan anu rongkah. Dina taun 1888, Wilson ninggalkeun Bryn Mawr College tanpa aya acara perpisahan.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 80–93.</ref> Wilson nampi tawaran janten dosén di [[Wesleyan University]], hiji kampus sarjana élit pikeun lalaki di [[Middletown, Connecticut]]. Anjeunna ngajar kuliah pascasarjana dina widang ékonomi politik sarta [[Sajarah Kulon]], ngalatih tim [[Ménbal Amérika|maén bal]] Wesleyan, sarta ngadegkeun tim debat.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 109–110</ref><ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 93–96.</ref> Dina Pébruari 1890, kalayan bantosan ti réngréngan sobatna, Wilson diangkat janten Ketua Jurusan Yurisprudénsi sarta Ékonomi Politik di College of New Jersey (ngaran harita pikeun Universitas Princeton), kalayan gaji $3.000 sataun ({{Inflation|US|3000|1890|fmt=eq}}).<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 104.</ref> Wilson gancang kawentar di Princeton salaku orator anu matak ngirut.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 117–118</ref> Dina taun 1896, [[Francis Landey Patton]] ngumumkeun yén College of New Jersey resmi diganti ngaranna janten Universitas Princeton; program ékspansi universitas anu ambisius marengan éta parobahan ngaran.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 128</ref> Dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1876|pamilu présidén 1896]], Wilson nolak calon Démokrat [[William Jennings Bryan]] sabab dianggap teuing ka kénca, sarta kalah ngarojong calon konsérvatif "[[Gold Democrat]]", [[John M. Palmer (pulitikus)|John M. Palmer]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 130</ref> Reputasi akademik Wilson terus nérékél sapanjang taun 1890-an, sarta anjeunna nolak sababaraha tawaran ti tempat séjén, kaasup ti Universitas Johns Hopkins sarta [[Universitas Virginia]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 132</ref> Di Universitas Princeton, Wilson medalkeun sababaraha karya sajarah sarta élmu politik sarta rutin nulis pikeun ''[[Political Science Quarterly]]''. Buku téksna, ''The State'', loba dipaké dina perkuliahan di Amérika dugi ka taun 1920-an.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 83, 101.</ref> Dina buku ''The State'', Wilson nulis yén pamaréntah boga hak anu sah pikeun ngamajukeun karaharjaan umum "ku cara nyaram pagawé budak, ngawaskeun kaayaan sanitasis pabrik, ngawatesan pagawéan awéwé dina widang anu ngabahayakeun kaséhatanana, ngayakeun tés resmi pikeun kamurnian atawa kualitas barang anu dijual, ngawatesan jam gawé dina widang nu tangtu, [sarta] ku saratus hiji deui watesan kana kakawasaan jalma-jalma anu teu boga haté sangkan teu ngéléhkeun jalma anu boga karunya dina dunya dagang atawa industri."<ref>Clements (1992) p. 9</ref> Anjeunna ogé nulis yén usaha amal kudu dipindahkeun tina ranah swasta sarta "dijantenkeun kawajiban hukum anu mutlak pikeun balaréa", hiji posisi anu, numutkeun sajarahwan Robert M. Saunders, némbongkeun yén Wilson "nuju neundeun dadasar pikeun nagara karaharjaan modéren."<ref>Saunders (1998), p. 13</ref> Buku katiluna, ''Division and Reunion'' (1893),<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 103.</ref> janten buku téks standar universitas pikeun ngajar sajarah AS pertengahan sarta ahir abad ka-19.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 121–122</ref> Wilson mibanda reputasi anu luhur salaku sajarahwan sarta janten anggota awal ti [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter=American Academy of Arts and Letters|title=World Almanac and Encyclopedia 1919|date=February 19, 2024 |location=New York|publisher=The Press Publishing Co. (The New York World)|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faBtNh34xREC&pg=PA216|page=216}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé kapilih janten anggota [[American Philosophical Society]] dina taun 1897.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Woodrow+Wilson&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=July 31, 2025 |website=search.amphilsoc.org |archive-date=February 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223144531/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Woodrow+Wilson&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |url-status=live }}</ref> === Présidén Universitas Princeton === {{Tempo ogé|Sajarah Universitas Princeton#Woodrow Wilson}} [[File:Woodrow Wilson 1902 cph.3b11773.jpg|thumb|Wilson dina taun 1902]] [[File:Princeton University Prospect.jpg|thumb|Salaku présidén Universitas Princeton, Wilson cicing di Prospect House di jero kampus universitas.]] Dina Juni 1902, para wali (trustees) Princeton naékkeun jabatan Profésor Wilson janten présidén universitas, ngagentos Patton anu dianggap ku para wali henteu éfisién dina ngajalankeun administrasi.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 110.</ref> Wilson mibanda cita-cita, sakumaha anu dicaritakeun ka para alumni, pikeun "ngarobah barudak anu haré-haré dina migawé pancén janten lalaki anu boga pamikiran." Anjeunna nyobi naékkeun standar pangonshoran (penerimaan) mahasiswa sarta ngagentos budaya "gentleman's C" (peunteun pas-pasan) ku diajar anu daria. Wilson ngadegkeun departemén-departemén akademik sarta sistem kurikulum inti pikeun nekenkeun kana pamekaran kaahlian. Mahasiswa kudu kumpul dina kelompok leutik anu diwangun ku genep urang di handapeun bingbingan asistén dosén anu katelah [[Preceptor dina pendidikan|preceptor]].<ref>Link (1947); Walworth (1958, vol. 1); Bragdon (1967).</ref> Pikeun ngabayaran ieu program-program anyar, Wilson ngayakeun kampanye pangumpulan dana anu ambisius sarta hasil, ngayakinkeun para alumni saperti [[Moses Taylor Pyne]] sarta filantropis saperti [[Andrew Carnegie]] pikeun nyumbang ka sakola.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 140–144</ref> Wilson ngangkat urang Yahudi sarta Katolik Roma munggaran janten tanaga pangajar (fakultas), sarta mantuan ngabébaskeun dewan tina dominasi kaum Présbitérian konsérvatif.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 155.</ref> Nanging, anjeunna ogé narékahan sangkan urang Amérika turunan Afrika (kulit hideung) teu tiasa asup ka éta sakola, padahal sakola-sakola [[Ivy League]] séjénna harita parantos nampi sajumlah leutik mahasiswa kulit hideung.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=O'Reilly|first1=Kenneth|title=The Jim Crow Policies of Woodrow Wilson|journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education|issue=17|year=1997|pages=117–121|issn=1077-3711|doi=10.2307/2963252|jstor=2963252}}</ref> Profésor filsafat [[John Grier Hibben]] parantos wanoh ka Wilson saprak maranéhanana masih janten mahasiswa. Duanana janten sobat dalit. Malah, nalika Wilson janten présidén Princeton dina taun 1902, Hibben mangrupa panaséhat utamana. Nanging dina taun 1912, Hibben ngareureuwas Wilson ku cara mingpin gerakan nolak rencana réformasi anu dipikanyaah ku Wilson. Hubungan duanana peupeus sarta Wilson kawéléh (kéléh mutlak). Dina taun 1912, dua taun saatos Wilson ninggalkeun Princeton, Hibben janten présidén Princeton.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cooper, Jr. |first=John Milton |title=Woodrow Wilson: A Biography |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-307-27301-7 |location=Westminster |pages=70–102}}</ref> Usaha Wilson pikeun ngoméan Princeton ngajadikeun anjeunna kawentar di tingkat nasional, nanging hal ieu ogé mangaruhan kana kaséhatanana.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 151–153</ref> Dina taun 1906, Wilson hudang sarta mendakan panon kencana teu tiasa ningali, alatan ayana gumpalan getih sarta hiperténsi. Sawangan médis modéren nyebutkeun yén Wilson harita katarajang stroke; anjeunna saterusna didiagnosa katarajang [[panyatoan pembuluh darah]] (pengerasan arteri), sami sareng ramana. Anjeunna mimiti némbongkeun sipat ramana anu teu sabaran sarta teu boga toléransi, anu sakapeung ngabalukarkeun kasalahan dina nyandak kaputusan.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 156.</ref> Dina taun 1906, nalika nuju pakansi di [[Bermuda]], Wilson patepang sareng Mary Hulbert Peck, saurang inohong sosial. Numutkeun panulis biografi [[August Heckscher II]], sosobatan Wilson sareng Peck janten jejer sawala anu terus terang antara Wilson sareng pamajikanana, sanajan para sajarahwan Wilson can bisa mastikeun naha aya hubungan asih (affair) atawa henteu.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 174.</ref> Wilson ogé ngirim serat-serat anu kacida pribadina ka Mary Peck, anu saterusna dipaké ku musuh-musuh politikna pikeun nyerang anjeunna.<ref>Cooper (2009) pp. 99–101.</ref> Saatos ngarobah kurikulum Universitas Princeton sarta ngadegkeun sistem perceptorial, Wilson salajengna nyobian ngawatesan pangaruh élit sosial di Princeton ku cara ngabubarkeun [[Princeton University eating clubs|klub-klub dahar]] kelas luhur.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 154–155</ref> Anjeunna ngusulkeun sangkan mahasiswa dipindahkeun ka asrama-asrama (quadrangles), nanging rencana Wilson ieu nampi tantangan keras ti para alumni Princeton.<ref>Walworth (1958, vol. 1), p. 109</ref> Dina Oktober 1907, alatan kuatna panolakan alumni, dewan wali Princeton maréntahkeun Wilson sangkan narik deui rencanana. Di ahir masa jabatanna, Wilson papaséan sareng [[Andrew Fleming West]], dekan sakola pascasarjana Princeton, sarta sekutuna, tilas Présidén [[Grover Cleveland]], anu janten wali Princeton. Wilson hoyong ngahijikeun gedong sakola pascasarjana ka puseur kampus, nanging West leuwih milih lokasi anu rada jauh. Dina taun 1909, dewan Princeton nampi sumbangan pikeun sakola pascasarjana kalayan sarat lokasina kedah di luar kampus puseur.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 183.</ref> Wilson janten kuciwa (disenchanted) kana jabatanna salaku présidén Princeton alatan lobana panolakan kana usulan-usulanana, sarta anjeunna mimiti mikirkeun pikeun terjun ka dunya politik. Sateuacan [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1908]], Wilson méré isarat ka sababaraha tokoh pangaruh di Partéy Démokrat ngeunaan karepna asup kana bursa calon. Sanajan anjeunna teu boga harepan teuing, Wilson méré paréntah sangkan anjeunna ulah ditawaran janten calon wakil présidén. Para pangurus partéy harita nganggap ideu-idena jauh teuing tina kanyataan sarta ngan saukur implengan, nanging binih-binih kabetot parantos dipelak.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 176.</ref> Dina taun 1956, [[McGeorge Bundy]] ngagambarkeun kontribusi Wilson pikeun Princeton: "Wilson bener dina kayakinanana yén Princeton kudu leuwih ti saukur imah anu genah sarta merenah pikeun barudak ngora anu bageur; Princeton geus jadi leuwih ti kitu saprak mangsa anjeunna."<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 203.</ref> == Gubernur New Jersey (1911–1913) == {{Tempo ogé|Pamilu gubernur New Jersey 1910}} [[File:Woodrow Wilson, New Jersey Governor - 1911.jpg|thumb|Wilson salaku gubernur New Jersey dina taun 1911]] Dina Januari 1910, Wilson mimiti narik perhatian [[James Smith Jr.]] sarta [[George Brinton McClellan Harvey]], dua pamingpin [[Komite Nagara Démokrat New Jersey|Partéy Démokrat New Jersey]], salaku calon poténsial pikeun [[Pamilu gubernur New Jersey 1910|pamilu gubernur]] anu bakal datang.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 208.</ref> Saatos kéléh dina lima pamilu gubernur ka tukang, para pamingpin Démokrat New Jersey mutuskeun pikeun ngarojong Wilson, saurang calon anu can kauji sarta mahiwal (unconventional). Para pamingpin partéy yakin yén reputasi akademik Wilson ngajantenkeun anjeunna juru bicara anu idéal pikeun ngalawan [[trust (bisnis)|trust]] sarta korupsi, nanging maranéhanana ogé miharep yén kurangna pangalaman Wilson dina pamaréntahan bakal ngajantenkeun anjeunna gampang dipangaruhan.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 181–182</ref> Wilson sapuk nampi nominasi kasebut kalayan sarat yén éta pencalonan "datang ka kuring tanpa dipénta, sacara buleud (unanimous), sarta tanpa jangji ka sasaha ngeunaan nanaon."<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 192–193</ref> Dina konvénsi partéy tingkat nagara bagian, para [[political boss|boss politik]] ngerahkeun kakuatanana sarta hasil meunangkeun nominasi pikeun Wilson. Dina 20 Oktober, Wilson ngintunkeun surat pangunduran diri ka Universitas Princeton.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 194, 202–203</ref> Kampanye Wilson museur kana jangjina pikeun mandiri (independen) tina pangaruh para boss partéy. Anjeunna gancang ngarobah gaya "profésor"-na janten gaya pidato anu leuwih wanian sarta némbongkeun dirina salaku saurang [[Progrésivisme di Amérika Sarikat|progrésif]] tulén.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 214.</ref> Sanajan Républikan William Howard Taft kungsi unggul di New Jersey dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1908]] kalayan sora leuwih ti 82.000, Wilson hasil ngéléhkeun calon gubernur Républik [[Vivian M. Lewis]] kalayan sela leuwih ti 65.000 sora.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 215.</ref> Kaum Démokrat ogé hasil ngawasa [[Majelis Umum New Jersey]] dina [[Pamilu Amérika Sarikat 1910]], sanajan [[Sénat New Jersey]] tetep dicepeng ku Républik.<ref name="heckscher220"/> Saatos meunang pamilu, Wilson ngangkat [[Joseph Patrick Tumulty]] janten sékrétaris pribadina, hiji jabatan anu dicepeng sapanjang karir politik Wilson.<ref name="heckscher220">Heckscher (1991), p. 220.</ref> Wilson mimiti nyusun agenda réformasi, kalayan niat pikeun nyapékéun tungtutan tina [[Mesin politik|mesin partéyna]]. Smith ménta Wilson pikeun ngarojong anjeunna maju ka Sénat AS, nanging Wilson nolak sarta kalah ngarojong lawan Smith, [[James Edgar Martine]], anu parantos meunang dina primari Démokrat. Meunangna Martine dina pamilu Sénat mantuan Wilson nempatkeun dirina salaku kakuatan mandiri dina Partéy Démokrat New Jersey.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 216–217.</ref> Nalika Wilson mimiti ngajabat, New Jersey parantos kawentar ku korupsi publik; éta nagara bagian katelah "Indungna Trust" sabab ngidinan pausahaan-pausahaan saperti [[Standard Oil]] pikeun nyingkahan [[Undang-undang antitrust Amérika Sarikat|undang-undang antitrust]] ti nagara bagian séjén.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 189–190</ref> Wilson sarta sakutu-sekutuna gancang ngagolgolkeun rUU Geran, anu motong kakuatan para boss politik ku cara ngawajibkeun [[Pamilu primari|primari]] pikeun sakabéh jabatan anu dipilih sarta pajabat partéy. Anjeunna ogé hasil ngaluarkeun undang-undang ngeunaan prakték korupsi anu ngawajibkeun sakabéh calon pikeun ngalaporkeun kauangan kampanye, ngawatesan pengeluaran kampanye, sarta nyaram sumbangan korporasi kana kampanye politik. Salian ti éta, Wilson ngarojong disahkeunna undang-undang [[kompénsasi pagawé]] pikeun mantuan kulawarga pagawé anu palastra atawa cilaka nalika digawé.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 225–227</ref> Alatan kasuksésanana ngagolgolkeun ieu undang-undang dina bulan-bulan munggaran janten gubernur, Wilson nampi pangakuan nasional sarta dukungan ti dua pihak (bipartisan) salaku saurang réformer sarta pamingpin gerakan Progrésif.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 216–217</ref> Kaum Républikan hasil ngawasa majelis nagara bagian dina awal taun 1912, sahingga Wilson mépéskeun lolobana sésa jabatanna pikeun méré véto kana rupa-rupa RUU.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 228–229</ref> Sanajan kitu, anjeunna tetep hasil ngagolgolkeun rupa-rupa undang-undang réformasi kaasup anu ngawatesan pagawé budak sarta awéwé, sarta ningkatkeun standar kaayaan gawé di pabrik.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 135</ref> Déwan Atikan Nagara Bagian anu anyar diadegkeun "kalayan wewenang pikeun ngayakeun pamariksaan sarta negakkeun standar, ngatur wewenang nginjeum ti distrik, sarta ngawajibkeun kelas husus pikeun mahasiswa anu mibanda kabutuhan husus."<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 134</ref> Sateuacan béres jabatanna, Wilson ngawaskeun diadegkeunna klinik huntu gratis sarta ngaluarkeun undang-undang jalma miskin anu "kompréhénsif sarta ilmiah". Profési perawat ogé distandarisasi, samentara tanaga gawé kontrak di sakabéh lembaga pamasyarakatan sarta panjara dihapus sarta undang-undang hukuman anu teu ditangtukeun (indeterminate sentence) disahkeun.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=Apr 26, 1913 |title=WILSON LEGISLATION IN NEW JERSEY |journal=The Survey |publisher=Survey Associates |volume=30 |issue=4 |page=140 |hdl=2027/uc1.32106015659722?urlappend=%3Bseq=214 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.32106015659722?urlappend=%3Bseq=214%3Bownerid=9007199273643693-218}}</ref> Aya ogé hukum anu diwanohkeun pikeun maksa pausahaan kareta api "mayar pagawéna dua kali dina sabulan", sarta pangaturan jam gawé, kaséhatan, kasalametan, sarta yuswa jalma anu digawé di tempat dagang dilaksanakeun.<ref>{{cite book |title=Woodrow Wilson and New Jersey Made Over |url=https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonnew00hosfuoft |first=Hester E. |last=Hosford |location=New York |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |year=1912 |page=[https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonnew00hosfuoft/page/90 88]}}</ref> Sakedap sateuacan ninggalkeun jabatan, Wilson nandatanganan runtuyan undang-undang antitrust anu katelah "Seven Sisters", sarta undang-undang séjén anu nyabut wewenang milih [[Juri di Amérika Sarikat|juri]] tina tangan shériff lokal.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 257</ref> == Presidential election of 1912 == {{Main|1912 United States presidential election}} === Democratic nomination === {{Main|1912 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1912 Democratic National Convention}} Wilson became a prominent 1912 presidential contender immediately upon his election as [[Governor of New Jersey]] in 1910, and his clashes with state party bosses enhanced his reputation with the rising Progressive movement.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 140–141</ref> In addition to progressives, Wilson enjoyed the support of Princeton alumni such as [[Cyrus McCormick Jr.]] and Southerners such as [[Walter Hines Page]], who believed that Wilson's status as a transplanted Southerner gave him broad appeal.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 212–213</ref> [[Edward M. House]] from Texas was also instrumental in securing Wilson's bid for the presidency as campaign manager and became his Wilson's chief advisor when he became president, where Wilson offered him any cabinet position he wanted, except Secretary of State, but House declined.<ref>{{cite book|author=Godfrey Hodgson|title=Woodrow Wilson's right hand: the life of Colonel Edward M. House|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jcL20ZS_KUC&pg=PA126|year=2006|publisher=Yale University Press|page=126|isbn=0300092695}}</ref> Though Wilson's shift to the left won the admiration of many, it also created enemies such as [[George Brinton McClellan Harvey]], a former Wilson supporter who had close ties to [[Wall Street]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 224–225</ref> In July 1911, Wilson brought [[William Gibbs McAdoo]] in to manage the campaign.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 238.</ref> Prior to the [[1912 Democratic National Convention]], Wilson made a special effort to win the approval of three-time Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan, whose followers had largely dominated the Democratic Party since the [[1896 United States presidential election|1896 presidential election]].<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 141–142</ref> Speaker of the House [[Champ Clark]] of Missouri was viewed by many as the front-runner for the nomination, while House Majority Leader [[Oscar Underwood]] of Alabama also loomed as a challenger. Clark found support among the Bryan wing of the party, while Underwood appealed to the conservative [[Bourbon Democrat]]s, especially in the South.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 149–150</ref> In the [[1912 Democratic Party presidential primaries]], Clark won several of the early contests, but Wilson finished strong with victories in Texas, the Northeast, and the Midwest.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 229–230</ref> On the first presidential ballot of the Democratic convention, Clark won a plurality of delegates; his support continued to grow after the New York [[Tammany Hall]] machine swung behind him on the tenth ballot.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 155–156</ref> Tammany's support backfired for Clark, as Bryan announced that he would not support any candidate that had Tammany's backing, and Clark began losing delegates on subsequent ballots.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 233</ref> Wilson gained the support of [[Roger Charles Sullivan]] and [[Thomas Taggart]] by promising the vice presidency to Governor [[Thomas R. Marshall]] of Indiana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Richard Allen |title=Roger C. Sullivan and the Triumph of the Chicago Democratic Machine, 1908–1920 |date=2019-01-23 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-7501-5 |chapter=Chapter 5, Roger Sullivan and the 1912 Democratic Convention}}</ref> and several Southern delegations shifted their support from Underwood to Wilson. Wilson finally won two-thirds of the vote on the convention's 46th ballot, and Marshall became Wilson's running mate.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 157–158</ref> == Pamilu umum == [[Berkas:ElectoralCollege1912.svg|thumb|Peta electoral college pamilu présidén 1912]] Dina pamilu umum taun 1912, Wilson adu hareupan jeung dua lawan utama: William Howard Taft, saurang petahana ti Républik, sarta tilas Présidén Républik [[Theodore Roosevelt]], anu maju tina jalur [[partéy katilu (Amérika Sarikat)|partéy katilu]] salaku calon ti [[Partéy Progrésif (Amérika Sarikat, 1912)|Partéy "Bull Moose"]]. Calon kaopat nyaéta [[Eugene V. Debs]] ti [[Partéy Sosialis Amérika]]. Roosevelt peupeus hubungan jeung partéy asalna nalika [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1912]] saatos Taft unggul tipis dina pencalonan deui. Beulahna Partéy Républik ieu méré harepan badag pikeun kaum Démokrat yén maranéhanana bisa meunangkeun korsi présidén pikeun munggaranana saprak [[Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1892|pamilu présidén 1892]].<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 154–155</ref> Roosevelt muncul salaku lawan utama Wilson. Wilson sarta Roosevelt silih serang salila kampanye sanajan duanana mibanda platform progrésif anu sarupa, nyaéta merlukeun campur tangan pamaréntah puseur.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 166–167, 174–175</ref> Wilson maréntahkeun pupuhu kauangan kampanyena, [[Henry Morgenthau, Sr.|Henry Morgenthau]], sangkan teu nampi sumbangan tina korporasi sarta leuwih ngutamakeun sumbangan leutik ti masarakat lega.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 254–255.</ref> Salila kampanye, Wilson negaskeun yén tugas pamaréntah nyaéta "ngatur kahirupan anu bakal nempatkeun unggal jalma dina posisi pikeun nungtut hak normalna salaku mahluk hirup."<ref>Cooper (1983), p. 184</ref> Kalayan bantosan ahli hukum [[Louis Brandeis]], anjeunna nyusun platform [[The New Freedom|Kabébasan Anyar]] (New Freedom), anu museur kana ngabubarkeun trust sarta nurunkeun tarif [[tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|pajak impor]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 239–242</ref> Brandeis sarta Wilson nolak usulan Roosevelt pikeun ngadegkeun [[birokrasi]] kuat anu boga tugas ngatur korporasi badag; maranéhanana leuwih milih ngabubarkeun korporasi badag kasebut sangkan tercipta kaayaan ékonomi anu adil pikeun sararéa.<ref>Ruiz (1989), pp. 169–171</ref> Wilson ngayakeun kampanye anu kacida sumangetna, ngulilingan nagara pikeun nepikeun rupa-rupa pidato.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 237–244</ref> Tungtungna, anjeunna meunangkeun 41,8 persén sora rahayat (popular vote) sarta 435 ti 531 [[Electoral College (Amérika Sarikat)|sora éléktoral]].<ref>Gould (2008), p. vii</ref> Roosevelt meunangkeun sabagian sésa sora éléktoral sarta 27,4 persén sora rahayat, salasahiji [[Daptar hasil partéy katilu dina pamilu Amérika Sarikat|pencapaian partéy katilu pangkuatna]] dina sajarah AS. Taft meunang 23,2 persén sora rahayat nanging ngan nampi 8 sora éléktoral, samentara Debs meunang 6 persén sora rahayat. Dina [[Pamilu Amérika Sarikat 1910|pamilu législatif]] anu bareng lumangsungna, Démokrat hasil ngawasa [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat|DPR]] sarta meunangkeun mayoritas di [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 173–174</ref> Kameunangan Wilson ngajantenkeun anjeunna urang Kidul munggaran anu meunang pamilu présidén saprak Perang Sipil, présidén Démokrat munggaran saprak Grover Cleveland pangsiun dina taun 1897,<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 154–155, 173–174</ref> sarta hiji-hijina présidén anu mibanda gelar Ph.D.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 8</ref> Saatos kapilih, Wilson ngirim télégrap ka [[William F. McCombs]], Pupuhu Komite Nasional Démokrat, anu isina: {{Blockquote|Hiji cita-cita mulya parantos unggul. Unggal urang Démokrat, unggal pejuang progrésif tulén ti pihak mana waé, ayeuna kudu ngerahkeun sakabéh kakuatan sarta sumanget pikeun ngawujudkeun harepan rahayat, negakkeun hak-hak rahayat, sangkan kaadilan sarta kamajuan bisa jalan babarengan.<ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Theodore_Roosevelt_and_the_Assassin/F3VBBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=theodore+roosevelt+and+the+assassin+Every+Democrat,+every+true+progressive&pg=PA220&printsec=frontcover Theodore Roosevelt and the Assassin Madness, Vengeance, and the Campaign of 1912 By Gerard Helferich, 2013, P.220]</ref>}} == Masa jabatan Présidén (1913–1921) == {{Progressivism US|politicians}} {{Utama|Masa jabatan présidén Woodrow Wilson}} {{Pikeun lini masa|Lini masa masa jabatan présidén Woodrow Wilson}} [[Berkas:WILSON, WOODROW. WITH CABINET LCCN2016858384 (restored).jpg|thumb|Wilson sarta jajaran kabinétna dina taun 1916]] Saatos pamilu, Wilson milih William Jennings Bryan janten Sekretaris Nagara (Menteri Luar Negeri), sarta Bryan méré saran ngeunaan anggota kabinét Wilson séjénna.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 185</ref> William Gibbs McAdoo, saurang pangrojong satia Wilson anu nikah ka putra Wilson dina taun 1914, janten Sekretaris Perbendaharaan (Menteri Kauangan), sarta [[James Clark McReynolds]], anu parantos hasil ngagugat sababaraha kasus antitrust anu kawentar, kapilih janten Jaksa Agung.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 190–192</ref> Penerbit [[Josephus Daniels]], saurang loyalis partéy sarta tokoh panyokong supremasi kulit bodas ti North Carolina,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joseph Campbell |first=W. |date=1999 |title="One of the fine figures of American journalism": A Closer Look at Josephus Daniels of the Raleigh News and Observer |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08821127.1999.10739206 |journal=American Journalism |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=37–55 |doi=10.1080/08821127.1999.10739206 |issn=0882-1127|url-access=subscription }}</ref> kapilih janten Sekretaris Angkatan Laut, samentara pangacara ngora ti New York [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] janten Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 263–264</ref> Kapala staf ("sekretaris") Wilson nyaéta [[Joseph Patrick Tumulty]], anu boga peran salaku taméng politik sarta perantara jeung pihak pers.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 277.</ref> Panaséhat kabijakan luar negeri sarta sobat kapercayaan anu pangpentingna nyaéta "Kolonél" [[Edward M. House]]; Berg nulis yén, "dina hal aksés sarta pangaruh, [House] ngaleuwihan sakabéh anggota Kabinét Wilson."<ref>Berg (2013), p. 19</ref> === Agenda domestik New Freedom === [[Berkas:CONGRESS, U.S. OPENING MESSAGE, 63RD CONGRESS.jpg|thumb|Wilson nepikeun biantara [[Amanat Présidén (Amérika Sarikat)|State of the Union]] munggaranana dina taun 1913 di payuneun sidang gabungan [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat|Kongrés]], anu ngamimitian prakték modéren nepikeun biantara sacara langsung di payuneun sakabéh anggota Kongrés.]] Wilson ngawanohkeun hiji program léglislasi domestik anu kompréhénsif dina awal pamaréntahanana, hiji hal anu tacan kantos dilakukeun ku présidén mana waé sateuacanna.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 183–184</ref> Anjeunna ngumumkeun opat prioritas domestik utama: [[Gerakan konservasi|konservasi]] sumber daya alam, réformasi perbankan, pangurangan [[tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|tarif pajak impor]], sarta aksés anu leuwih gampang kana bahan baku pikeun para patani ku cara ngabubarkeun trust pertambangan di wilayah Kulon.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 186–187</ref> Wilson nepikeun ieu usulan dina April 1913 dina biantara di payuneun sidang gabungan Kongrés, ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran saprak [[John Adams]] anu nepikeun biantara ka Kongrés sacara langsung.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 292–293</ref> Dua taun munggaran Wilson ngajabat lolobana museur kana agenda domestikna. Nanging, ku ayana masalah jeung Méksiko sarta pecahna Perang Dunya I dina taun 1914, urusan luar negeri beuki lila beuki ngadominasi masa jabatanna.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 212–213, 274</ref> ==== Léglislasi tarif sarta pajak ==== Kaum Démokrat parantos lami nganggep yén tarif anu luhur téh sarua jeung pajak anu teu adil pikeun konsumén, sahingga pangurangan tarif janten prioritas utama maranéhanana.<ref name="Clements3637"/> Wilson negaskeun yén sistem tarif luhur "mutuskeun urang tina bagian anu sakuduna dina padagangan dunya, ngarémpak prinsip perpajakan anu adil, sarta ngajantenkeun pamaréntah salaku pakakas anu gampang dipaké ku kapentingan swasta."<ref>{{Cite web |year=2008 |title=First Inaugural Address of Woodrow Wilson |url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/wilson1.asp |website=Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States : from George Washington 1789 to George Bush 1989}}</ref> Dina ahir Méi 1913, Pamingpin Mayoritas DPR [[Oscar Underwood]] parantos ngaluluskeun hiji RUU di DPR anu motong rata-rata tarif sagedé 10 persén sarta nerapkeun pajak kana panghasilan pribadi di luhur $4.000.<ref name=cooper216218/> RUU Underwood ieu mangrupa parobahan tarif pangbadagna ka handap saprak Perang Sipil. Ieu aturan sacara agrésif motong tarif pikeun bahan baku, barang anu dianggap "kabutuhan poko", sarta produk-produk domestik anu dihasilkeun ku trust, nanging tetep mertahankeun tarif anu luhur pikeun barang-barang méwah.<ref>Weisman (2002), p. 271</ref> Nanging, ngaluluskeun éta RUU tarif di Sénat mangrupa hiji tantangan. Sababaraha urang Démokrat ti Kidul sarta Kulon hoyong tetep aya panangtayungan (prontéksi) pikeun industri wol sarta gula di daérahna, sarta Démokrat mibanda mayoritas anu leuwih saeutik di luhur (Sénat).<ref name="Clements3637">Clements (1992), pp. 36–37</ref> Wilson ngayakeun pasamoan sacara intensif sareng para sénator Démokrat sarta nepikeun panyambat langsung ka rahayat ngaliwatan pers. Saatos sababaraha minggu pamariksaan sarta debat, Wilson sareng Sekretaris Nagara Bryan hasil ngahijikeun sora Démokrat di Sénat pikeun ngarojong éta RUU.<ref name="cooper216218" /> Sénat méré sora 44 banding 37 pikeun ngarojong RUU kasebut, kalayan ngan saurang Démokrat anu nolak sarta ngan saurang Républikan anu satuju. Wilson nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Pajak 1913]] (anu katelah Tarif Underwood) janten hukum dina 3 Oktober 1913.<ref name="cooper216218">Cooper (2009), pp. 216–218</ref> Ieu undang-undang ngurangan tarif sarta ngagentos kakirangan pendapatan nagara ku pajak panghasilan féderal sagedé hiji persén pikeun panghasilan di luhur $3.000, anu mangaruhan tilu persén pangeusi anu pangbeungharna.<ref>Weisman (2002), pp. 230–232, 278–282</ref> Kabijakan pamaréntahan Wilson mibanda dampak anu awét kana wangunan pendapatan pamaréntah, anu ayeuna utamana asalna tina perpajakan, lain tina tarif deui.<ref>Gould (2003), pp. 175–176</ref> ==== Sistem Federal Reserve ==== {{tempo ogé|Sajarah Sistem Federal Reserve}} [[Berkas:Federal Reserve Districts Map - Banks & Branches.png|thumb|Peta Distrik Federal Reserve kalayan bank-bank Federal Reserve (bunderan hideung), cabang Distrik (kotak hideung), sarta kantor puseur nasional Federal Reserve (warna beureum)]] Wilson teu ngantosan rengséna Undang-Undang Pajak 1913 sateuacan neraskeun kana agenda salajengna—perbankan. Nalika Wilson mimiti ngajabat, nagara-nagara sapertos Inggris sarta Jérman parantos ngadegkeun [[bank sentral]] anu dikelola ku pamaréntah, nanging Amérika Sarikat mah tacan mibanda bank séntral saprak [[Perang Bank]] dina taun 1830-an.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 219–220</ref> Saatos kajadian krisis kauangan nasional dina [[Panik 1907|taun 1907]], aya kasepakatan umum pikeun nyieun hiji sistem perbankan séntral anu bisa nyadiakeun mata uang anu leuwih fléksibel sarta koordinasi dina nyanghareupan panik kauangan. Wilson nyobian milari jalan tengah antara kaum progrésif sapertos Bryan sarta kaum Républikan konsérvatif sapertos [[Nelson Aldrich]], anu salaku pupuhu [[Komisi Monétér Nasional]], parantos ngusulkeun rencana bank séntral anu masih méré kakawasaan badag ka pihak swasta dina ngatur sistem monétér.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 40–42</ref> Wilson negaskeun yén sistem perbankan kedah "umum lain swasta, [sarta] kedah dipasrahkeun ka pamaréntah sorangan sangkan bank janten pakakas, lain dunungan, pikeun dunya bisnis."<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 316–317</ref> Kaum Démokrat nyusun rencana kompromi dimana bank-bank swasta bakal ngontrol dua belas [[Bank Federal Reserve]] régional, nanging kendali utama sistem kasebut dipasrahkeun ka hiji dewan pusat anu diusi ku jalma-jalma pilihan présidén. Wilson hasil ngayakinkeun kaum Démokrat sayap kénca yén ieu rencana anyar parantos luyu jeung paménta maranéhanana.<ref>Link (1954), pp. 43–53</ref> Di antara [[Kritik ka Federal Reserve|anu nolak]] ieu RUU téh nyaéta Anggota DPR AS [[Charles August Lindbergh]], anu boga pamikiran yén hal ieu bakal nyiptakeun "pamaréntah siluman" tina [[Kadaulatan monétér|kakuatan monétér]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-06-22 |title=The Federal Reserve's Framers Would Be Shocked (Published 2013) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/23/business/the-federal-reserves-framers-would-be-shocked.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424211149/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/23/business/the-federal-reserves-framers-would-be-shocked.html |archive-date=2023-04-24 |access-date=2025-11-25 |language=en}}</ref> sarta museurkeun kontrol ékonomi ka "kelompok anu saukur milari kauntungan."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lindbergh, Sr. |first=Charles A. |title=Lindbergh on the Federal Reserve |url=https://ia801007.us.archive.org/21/items/CharlesLindberghLindberghOnTheFederalReserve_201905/Charles%20Lindbergh%20-%20Lindbergh%20on%20the%20Federal%20Reserve.pdf}}</ref> Sénat méré sora 54–34 pikeun nyatujuan [[Undang-Undang Federal Reserve]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 42–44</ref> Sistem anyar ieu mimiti jalan dina taun 1915, sarta mibanda peran penting dina ngabiayaan usaha perang Sekutu sarta Amérika dina Perang Dunya I.<ref>Link (1956), pp. 199–240</ref> ==== Léglislasi antitrust ==== {{tempo ogé|Sajarah undang-undang antitrust Amérika Sarikat}} [[Berkas:Woodrow Wilson Priming the Prosperity Pump, 1914 political cartoon by Berryman.jpg|thumb|Kartun taun 1913 karya [[Clifford K. Berryman]] anu némbongkeun Wilson nuju "ngompa" ékonomi ku rupa-rupa undang-undang tarif, mata uang, sarta antitrust]] Saatos ngaluluskeun léglislasi penting pikeun nurunkeun tarif sarta ngoméan struktur perbankan, Wilson salajengna narékahan ayana undang-undang antitrust pikeun nguatkeun [[Undang-Undang Antitrust Sherman]] taun 1890.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 226–227</ref> Undang-Undang Sherman nyaram sakabéh "kontrak, kombinasi... atawa konspirasi, anu ngawatesan perdagangan", nanging tétéla teu mampuh nyegah munculna gabungan bisnis raksasa anu katelah [[Trust (bisnis)|trust]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 46–47</ref> Sahandapeun kelompok élit pangusaha, maranéhanana ngawasa dewan direksi bank-bank sarta pausahaan karéta api gedé, sarta ngagunakeun kakawasaanana pikeun nyegah ayana persaingan ti pausahaan anyar.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 326–327</ref> Kalayan pangrojong Wilson, Anggota DPR [[Henry De Lamar Clayton Jr.|Henry Clayton, Jr.]] ngasongkeun RUU anu bakal nyaram sababaraha prakték anti-persaingan saperti [[Diskriminasi harga|panyasuaian harga anu teu adil]], [[Tying (perdagangan)|prakték meungkeut (tying)]], [[perjangjian éksklusif]], sarta [[jabatan rangkap (interlocking directorates)]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 48–49</ref> Nalika Wilson sadar yén nyaram sakabéh prakték anti-persaingan ngaliwatan undang-undang téh hésé, anjeunna milih ngarojong léglislasi anu bakal ngadegkeun lembaga anyar, nyaéta [[Komisi Perdagangan Féderal]] (FTC). Ieu lembaga boga tugas pikeun nalungtik palanggaran antitrust sarta negakkeun hukum antitrust sacara mandiri tina Departemén Kaadilan. Kalayan dukungan ti dua partéy (bipartisan), Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Komisi Perdagangan Féderal 1914]], anu ngasupkeun ideu-ideu Wilson ngeunaan FTC.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 49–50</ref> Sabulan saatos nandatanganan éta undang-undang, Wilson ogé nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Antitrust Clayton 1914]], anu ngalengkepan Undang-Undang Sherman ku cara netepkeun sarta nyaram rupa-rupa prakték anti-persaingan.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 50–51</ref> ==== Buruh sarta pertanian ==== {{tempo ogé|Sajarah perburuhan di Amérika Sarikat}} [[Berkas:Presidentwoodrowwilson.jpeg|thumb|Potrét resmi présidén Wilson taun 1913]] Wilson mimitina boga pamikiran yén undang-undang ngeunaan pagawé budak (child labor) téh kamungkinan bakal dianggap inkonstitusional, nanging anjeunna ngarobah sawanganana dina taun 1916 kusabab pamilu parantos caket. Dina taun 1916, saatos kampanye gégékan ti [[Komite Pagawé Budak Nasional]] (NCLC) sarta Liga Konsumén Nasional, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Keating–Owen]]. Ieu undang-undang nyaram pangiriman barang dina perdagangan antar-nagara bagian upami barang kasebut dijieun di pabrik anu ngagunakeun tanaga budak di handapeun umur anu ditangtukeun. Kaum Démokrat ti Kidul nolak, nanging henteu ngayakeun filibuster. Wilson nandatanganan ieu RUU dina detik-detik pamungkas alatan tekenan ti para pamingpin partéy anu negaskeun yén ieu ideu kacida populérna, utamana di kalangan pamilih awéwé anu nuju mekar. Wilson nyarios ka para anggota Kongrés Démokrat yén maranéhanana kudu ngaluluskeun ieu hukum sarta ogé hukum kompénsasi pagawé pikeun nyugemakeun gerakan progrésif nasional sarta pikeun meunangkeun pamilu 1916 ngalawan Partéy Républik anu parantos ngahiji deui. Ieu mangrupa undang-undang féderal munggaran ngeunaan pagawé budak. Nanging, [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]] ngabatalkeun ieu hukum dina kasus ''[[Hammer v. Dagenhart]]'' (1918). Kongrés saterusna ngaluarkeun hukum anu nerapkeun pajak ka bisnis anu maké tanaga budak, nanging éta ogé dibatalkeun ku Mahkamah Agung dina kasus ''[[Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.|Bailey v. Drexel Furniture]]'' (1923). Masalah pagawé budak nembé bener-bener réngsé dina taun 1930-an.<ref>{{cite book |first=Arthur S. |last=Link |title=Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917 |volume=5 |year=1965 |pages=56–59}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé nyatujuan udagan pikeun ngoméan kaayaan gawé anu beurat pikeun para pelaut sarta nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Pelaut]] LaFollette taun 1915.<ref>Clements, pp. 44, 81.</ref> Salila karir politikna, Wilson méré pancén ka anggota [[Fraternal Order of Eagles]] pikeun nalungtik undang-undang pénsiun kolot di luar nagri pikeun nangtukeun naha hukum saperti kitu bisa dilarapkeun di Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UsFIAAAAIBAJ&dq=President+Wilson+commissioned+members+of+the+Fraternal+Order+of+Eagles+old+age+pension+laws&pg=PA5&article_id=1042,2085282|title=Women Voters Hear Talks By Two Speakers|newspaper=The Meriden Daily Journal|via=Google Books |date=Jan 7, 1936}}</ref> Pénsiun pikeun pagawé nagri sipil (PNS) anu digawé di pamaréntah féderal mimiti diwanohkeun dina taun terakhir Wilson ngajabat.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Johnson | first1=Ronald N. | last2=Libecap | first2=Gary D. | title=The Federal Civil Service System and the Problem of Bureaucracy | publisher=University of Chicago Press | publication-place=Chicago | date=2007-12-01 | isbn=978-0-226-40177-5 | page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Joa6AzdM96MC&dq=Federal+civil+service+pensions+1920&pg=PA91 }}</ref> Wilson nyambat Departemén Tanaga Gawé pikeun nengahkeun (mediasi) konflik antara buruh sarta manajémen. Dina taun 1914, Wilson ngintunkeun prajurit pikeun mantuan ngeureunkeun [[Perang Tambang Batubara Colorado]], salasahiji sengketa tanaga gawé anu pangmautna dina sajarah Amérika.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 332</ref> Dina taun 1916, anjeunna ngadorong Kongrés pikeun nerapkeun [[Dalapan jam gawé|dalapan jam gawé]] pikeun pagawé karéta api, anu hasil ngeureunkeun mogok gawé badag. Hal ieu disebut salaku "intervénsi anu pangwanianna dina urusan perburuhan anu kungsi dilakukeun ku présidén mana waé."<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 345–346.</ref> Wilson saenyana kurang satuju kana campur tangan pamaréntah anu kaleuleuwihi dina [[Undang-Undang Pinjaman Ladang Féderal]], anu ngadegkeun dua belas bank régional kalayan wewenang pikeun méré pinjaman bunga rendah ka para patani. Nanging, anjeunna peryogi sora ti para patani sangkan bisa salamet dina pamilu 1916 anu bakal datang, janten anjeunna tetep nandatanganan éta undang-undang.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 63–64</ref> ==== Wewengkon sarta imigrasi ==== {{tempo ogé|Sajarah imigrasi ka Amérika Sarikat}} Wilson ngagem kawijakan anu parantos lami dicepeng ku Partéy Démokrat, nyaéta nolak mibanda jajahan (koloni). Anjeunna ngusahakeun otonomi sacara bertahap sarta kamerdékaan pinuh pikeun [[Filipina]], anu parantos dikawasa ku AS saprak taun 1898. Neraskeun kawijakan ti para miheulaanna, Wilson ningkatkeun tata kelola pamaréntahan mandiri di éta kapuloan ku cara méré wewenang anu leuwih badag ka [[Urang Filipina]] pikeun ngatur Législatif Filipina. [[Undang-Undang Jones 1916]] negaskeun komitmen Amérika Sarikat pikeun méré kamerdékaan ka Filipina dina mangsa nu bakal datang, sarta méré otonomi leuwih lega kalayan diadegkeunna [[Sénat Filipina]] sarta [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Filipina]], anu masing-masing ngagantikeun [[Komisi Filipina]] anu dikelola ku urang Amérika sarta [[Majelis Filipina]] anu dikelola ku urang Filipina.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 249</ref> Dina taun 1916, Wilson [[Perjangjian Hindia Kulon Dénmark|meuli ku jalan perjangjian]] wilayah [[Hindia Kulon Dénmark]], anu saterusna diganti namina janten [[Kapuloan Virgin Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Ambar|first=Saladin|url=https://millercenter.org/president/wilson/foreign-affairs|title=Woodrow Wilson: Foreign Affairs|website=Miller Center|publisher=University of Virginia|date=October 4, 2016|access-date=August 24, 2022}}</ref> Imigrasi ti Éropa nyirorot kacida nalika Perang Dunya I dimimitian, sarta Wilson kurang merhatoskeun ieu pasualan salila masa jabatanna.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allerfeldt|first=Saladin|year=2013|chapter=Wilson's Views on Immigration and Ethnicity|editor-last=Kennedy|editor-first=Ross A.|title=A Companion to Woodrow Wilson|edition=1st hardcover|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|pages=152–172|doi=10.1002/9781118445693|isbn=978-1-4443-3737-2}}</ref> Nanging, anjeunna mibanda sawangan anu saé ka "imigran anyar" ti Éropa kidul sarta wétan. Wilson ogé dua kali méré véto kana undang-undang anu dikaluarkeun ku Kongrés anu tujuanna pikeun ngawatesan asupna para imigran, sanajan véto anu terakhir mah tungtungna dibatalkeun (overridden) ku Kongrés.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 252–253, 376–377</ref> ==== Ngangkat hakim ==== {{Utama|Calon Mahkamah Agung Woodrow Wilson}} {{Daptar utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku Woodrow Wilson}} Wilson nyalonkeun tilu urang pikeun [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]], anu sadayana disatujuan ku Sénat AS. Dina taun 1914, Wilson nyalonkeun jaksa agung anu nuju ngajabat, [[James Clark McReynolds]]. Sanajan mibanda kréndénsial salaku pajoang "trust buster" (pangbubar trust) anu kuat,<ref>{{cite web |last=Fox |first=John |title=James Clark McReynolds |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/robes_mcreynolds.html |website=Capitalism and Conflict: Supreme Court History, Law, Power & Personality, Biographies of the Robes |date=December 2006 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System (PBS) |access-date=July 31, 2025 |archive-date=April 24, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424130119/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/robes_mcreynolds.html |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424130119/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/robes_mcreynolds.html |date=April 24, 2011 }}</ref> McReynolds malah janten tokoh utama blok konservatif di mahkamah dugi ka pangsiun dina taun 1941.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 273</ref> Numutkeun Berg, Wilson nganggap yén ngangkat McReynolds mangrupa salasahiji kasalahan pangbadagna salila anjeunna ngajabat.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 400</ref> Dina taun 1916, Wilson [[Pencalonan Mahkamah Agung Louis Brandeis|nyalonkeun Louis Brandeis ka Mahkamah Agung]], anu ngahudangkeun debat panas di Sénat alatan idéologi Brandeis anu progrésif sarta agamana; Brandeis mangrupa calon munggaran ti turunan [[Yahudi]] di Mahkamah Agung. Tungtungna, Wilson hasil ngayakinkeun Sénator Démokrat pikeun nyatujuan Brandeis, anu ngabakti di mahkamah dugi ka taun 1939. Sabalikna ti McReynolds, Brandeis janten salasahiji sora progrésif utama di mahkamah.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 330–332</ref> Nalika aya korsi kosong kadua dina taun 1916, Wilson ngangkat pangacara progrésif [[John Hessin Clarke]]. Clarke disatujuan ku Sénat sarta ngabakti di Mahkamah dugi ka pangsiun dina taun 1922.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 340, 586</ref> === Kawijakan luar negeri mangsa jabatan kahiji === {{utama|Kawijakan luar negeri pamaréntahan Woodrow Wilson}} ==== Amérika Latin ==== {{tempo ogé|Katerlibatan Amérika Sarikat dina Révolusi Méksiko|Perang Pisang}} [[Berkas:VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png|thumb|Kartun anu némbongkeun [[Uncle Sam]] asup ka [[Méksiko]] dina taun 1916 pikeun ngahukum Pancho Villa kalayan ucapan Uncle Sam, "I've had about enough of this" (Kuring geus cukup sabar ku kieu téh).]] Wilson narékahan pikeun ngajauh tina kawijakan luar negeri para miheulaanna anu dianggap imperialistik, sarta anjeunna nolak [[Diplomasi Dolar]] gaya Taft.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 289–290</ref> Sanajan kitu, anjeunna mindeng ngayakeun intervénsi di [[Amérika Latin]], kalayan nyarios dina taun 1913, "Kuring bakal ngajarkeun républik-républik di [[Amérika Kidul]] pikeun milih jalma-jalma anu bener."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horgan |first=Paul |title=Great River: the Rio Grande in North American History |publisher=Wesleyan University Press |year=1984 |location=Middletown, CT |page=913}}</ref> [[Perjangjian Bryan–Chamorro]] taun 1914 ngajantenkeun [[Nikaragua]] wilayah protéktorat sacara ''de facto'', sarta AS [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Nikaragua|nempatkeun prajurit]] di dinya salila Wilson ngajabat. Pamaréntahan Wilson ogé [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Républik Dominika (1916–24)|ngirim pasukan pikeun nempatan]] [[Républik Dominika]] sarta [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Haiti|ngayakeun intervénsi]] di [[Haiti]]. Salian ti éta, Wilson ogé méré ijin pikeun intervénsi militer di [[Kuba]], [[Panama]], sarta [[Honduras]].<ref>Herring (2008), pp. 388–390</ref> Wilson mimiti ngajabat nalika lumangsungna [[Révolusi Méksiko]], anu dimimitian taun 1911 saatos kaum liberal ngagulingkeun diktator militer [[Porfirio Díaz]]. Sakedap sateuacan Wilson ngajabat, kaum konservatif ngarebut deui kakawasaan ngaliwatan kudéta anu dipingpin ku [[Victoriano Huerta]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 96–97</ref> Wilson nolak légitimasi "pamaréntahan tukang jagal" (government of butchers) pimpinan Huerta sarta nungtut Méksiko ngayakeun pamilu anu démokratis.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1007454|title = Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico|journal = The Americas|volume = 41|issue = 2|pages = 151–176|last1 = Henderson|first1 = Peter V. N.|year = 1984|doi = 10.2307/1007454| s2cid=147620955 }}</ref> Saatos Huerta nangkep personél Angkatan Laut AS anu teu kahaja badarat di zona terlarang deukeut kota palabuan [[Tampico]], Wilson [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Veracruz|ngirim Angkatan Laut pikeun nempatan]] kota [[Veracruz]], Méksiko. Intervénsi Amérika ieu meunangkeun réaksi keras ti sakabéh lapisan politik di Méksiko, anu tungtungna ngayakinkeun Wilson pikeun ngabatalkeun rencana perluasan militer. Nanging, intervénsi éta hasil ngajantenkeun Huerta kabur ti éta nagara.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 98–99</ref> Hiji kelompok anu dipingpin ku [[Venustiano Carranza]] hasil ngawasa sabagian badag Méksiko, sarta Wilson ngaku ka pamaréntahan Carranza dina Oktober 1915.<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 99–100">Clements (1992), pp. 99–100</ref> Carranza terus nyanghareupan rupa-rupa lawan di Méksiko, kaasup [[Pancho Villa]], anu sateuacanna ku Wilson disebut salaku "sajenis Robin Hood."<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 99–100"/> Dina awal taun 1916, Pancho Villa nyerang désa [[Columbus, New Mexico]], anu nyababkeun palastrana sarta tatu warga Amérika. Hal ieu ngahudangkeun amarah warga AS anu nungtut hukuman pikeun Villa. Wilson maréntahkeun Jenderal [[John J. Pershing]] sarta 4.000 pasukan pikeun nyebrang wates demi nangkep Villa. Dugi ka April, pasukan Pershing parantos hasil ngabubarkeun kelompok Villa, nanging Villa sorangan teu kacepeng sarta Pershing terus ngudag dugi ka jero wilayah Méksiko. Carranza saterusna balik ngalawan Amérika sarta nuduh yén éta téh invasi anu ngahina, anu méh waé ngabalukarkeun perang. Kaayaan mimiti tenang saatos Méksiko satuju ngaleupaskeun tahanan Amérika, sarta rundayan diplomasi dimimitian. Kusabab Wilson hoyong geuwat narik pasukan ti Méksiko alatan tegangan di Éropa, anjeunna maréntahkeun Pershing pikeun mundur. Pasukan Amérika terakhir ninggalkan Méksiko dina Pébruari 1917.<ref>Link (1964), 194–221, 280–318; Link (1965), 51–54, 328–339</ref> ==== Nétralitas dina Perang Dunya I ==== [[Berkas:The American War-Dog by Oscar Cesare 1916.jpg|thumb|Kartun Wilson sarta "Jingo", anjing perang Amérika, anu nyindekkeun kaum "jingo" (chauvinis) anu hayang pisan perang]] [[Perang Dunya I]] peupeus dina Juli 1914, nyanghareupkeun [[Kakuatan Séntral]] (Jérman, [[Austria-Hungaria]], [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]], sarta saterusna [[Bulgaria]]) ngalawan [[Sakutu Perang Dunya I|Pasukan Sakutu]] (Britania, [[Prancis]], [[Rusia]], [[Sérbia]], sarta sababaraha nagara séjénna). Perang ragot dina kaayaan anu statis (stalemate) kalayan korban jiwa anu kacida loba di [[Front Kulon (Perang Dunya I)|Front Kulon]], Prancis. Duanana nolak tawaran Wilson sarta House pikeun nengahkeun (mediasi) sangkan konflik lekasan.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 123–124</ref> Ti mimiti 1914 dugi ka awal 1917, udagan utama kawijakan luar negeri Wilson nyaéta ngajaga Amérika Sarikat sangkan teu kalibet dina perang di Éropa sarta jadi calo perjangjian daméy.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 339.</ref> Anjeunna negaskeun yén sakabéh tindakan pamaréntah AS kudu nétral, kalayan nyebutkeun yén urang Amérika "kudu teu beurat sabeulah dina pamikiran boh dina tindakan, kudu nahan parasaan sarta nahan unggal transaksi anu bisa dianggap salaku condong ka salasahiji pihak anu nuju parébat."<ref>Link (1960), p. 66.</ref> Salaku kakuatan nétral, AS nungtut hakna pikeun dagang jeung dua pihak. Nanging, Angkatan Laut Karajaan Britania anu kuat nerapkeun [[Blokade Jérman (1914–1919)|blokade ka Jérman]]. Pikeun ngabungahkeun Washington, London satuju pikeun terus meuli sababaraha komoditas utama Amérika saperti kapas kalayan harga sateuacan perang. Upami aya kapal dagang Amérika anu kacepeng mawa barang terlarang (kontraband), Angkatan Laut Karajaan diparéntahkeun pikeun meuli sakabéh muatanana sarta ngaleupaskeun éta kapal.<ref>Lake, 1960.</ref> Wilson nampi ieu kaayaan sacara pasif.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 119–123</ref> Pikeun ngawaler blokade Britania, Jérman ngaluncurkeun [[Kampanye U-boat (Perang Dunya I)|kampanye kapal selam]] ngalawan kapal-kapal dagang di laut sakuriling Kapuloan Britania.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 124–125</ref> Dina awal 1915, Jérman nilemkeun tilu kapal Amérika; Wilson mibanda sawangan, dumasar kana bukti anu asup akal, yén éta kajadian téh teu dihaja, sarta urusan ganti rugi bisa ditunda dugi ka perang réngsé.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 362.</ref> Dina Méi 1915, kapal selam Jérman nembak torpédo ka kapal pesiar Britania [[RMS Lusitania|RMS ''Lusitania'']], anu nelasan 1.198 panumpang, kaasup 128 warga nagara Amérika.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 362</ref> Wilson ngawaler sacara publik ku nyebatkeun, "aya kaayaan dimana saurang lalaki ngarasa teuing agung (too proud) pikeun gelut. Aya kaayaan dimana hiji bangsa ngarasa bener pisan sahingga teu perlu ngayakinkeun batur ku kakuatan yén manéhna bener."<ref>Brands (2003), pp. 60–61</ref> Wilson nungtut pamaréntah Jérman "ngalakukeun léngkah saharita pikeun nyegah kacilakaan sarupa" saperti tilemna ''Lusitania''. Alatan hal ieu, Bryan, anu percaya yén Wilson leuwih milih ngabéla hak dagang Amérika batan nétralitas, mundur tina Kabinét.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 125–127</ref> Dina Maret 1916, [[SS Sussex|SS ''Sussex'']], hiji kapal féri Prancis anu teu mawa pakarang, ditorpédo di Selat Inggris sarta opat urang Amérika palastra. Wilson hasil nandeskeun jangji ti Jérman pikeun ngawatesan perang kapal selam luyu jeung aturan perang kapal pangawal (cruiser warfare), anu mangrupa kameunangan diplomatik badag.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 384–387</ref> Kaum intervénsionis, anu dipingpin ku Theodore Roosevelt, hoyong perang ngalawan Jérman sarta nyerang Wilson anu nolak ngawangun kakuatan angkatan darat. Saatos tilemna ''Lusitania'' sarta mundurna Bryan, Wilson sacara publik komit kana hal anu katelah "[[Gerakan Kasiapsiagaan|gerakan kasiapsiagaan]]" (preparedness movement), sarta mimiti nguatkeun angkatan darat sarta angkatan laut.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 128–129</ref> Dina Juni 1916, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Pertahanan Nasional 1916]], anu ngadegkeun [[ROTC|Korps Pelatihan Perwira Cadangan]] sarta ngalegaan [[Garda Nasional Amérika Sarikat|Garda Nasional]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 394</ref> Saterusna dina taun éta, Kongrés ogé ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Angkatan Laut 1916]] pikeun perluasan armada laut sacara badag.<ref>Link (1954), p. 179.</ref> === Pernikahan kadua === [[Berkas:Mr. and Mrs. Woodrow Wilson seated outdoors with their three daughters standing behind them-(left to right) Margaret, Eleanor, and Jessie, in Cornish, New Hampshire LCCN2013649731 (restored).jpg|thumb|Kulawarga Wilson dina taun 1912]] Kaséhatan Ellen Wilson nyirorot saatos salakina mimiti ngajabat, sarta dokter ngadiagnosa anjeunna kakeunaan [[Panyakit Bright]] dina Juli 1914.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 332–333</ref> Ellen tilar dunya dina 6 Agustus 1914.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 334–335</ref> Présidén Wilson kacida katarajangna ku éta musibah dugi ka kakeunaan déprési.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 333–335</ref> Dina 18 Maret 1915, Wilson patepang sareng [[Edith Bolling Galt]] dina hiji acara entéh di Gedong Bodas.<ref>Haskins (2016), p. 166</ref> Galt mangrupa saurang randa sarta pangusaha perhiasan anu asalna ogé ti Kidul. Saatos sababaraha kali patepang, Wilson murag asih ka anjeunna, sarta ngalamar dina Méi 1915. Galt mimitina nolak, nanging Wilson teu nyerah saterusna terus ngadeukeutan.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 348–350.</ref> Edith laun-laun nampi éta hubungan, sarta maranéhanana rasmian tunangan dina Séptémber 1915.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 361, 372–374</ref> Maranéhanana nikah dina 18 Désémber 1915. Woodrow Wilson nyusul [[John Tyler]] sarta Grover Cleveland salaku présidén anu nikah nalika nuju ngajabat.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 350, 356.</ref> === Pamilu présidén 1916 === {{Utama|Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1916}} [[Berkas:Woodrow Wilson, accepting Democratic nomination, 1916.JPG|thumb|Wilson nampi nominasi Partéy Démokrat pikeun présidén dina taun 1916]] [[Berkas:ElectoralCollege1916.svg|thumb|Peta electoral college 1916]] Wilson dicalonkeun deui dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1916]] tanpa lawan.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 405–406</ref> Pikeun narik pamilih progrésif, Wilson nyambat léglislasi anu nyadiakeun dalapan jam gawé sarta genep poé gawé dina saminggu, ukuran kaséhatan sarta kasalametan, larangan pagawé budak, sarta panangtayungan pikeun pagawé awéwé. Anjeunna ogé ngarojong upah minimum pikeun sakabéh pagawé féderal.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 335</ref> Kaum Démokrat ogé kampanye kalayan slogan "Anjeunna Ngajaga Urang tina Perang" (He Kept Us Out of War), sarta méré gorowok yén kameunangan Républikan hartosna perang jeung Jérman.<ref>Cooper (2009) pp. 341–342, 352</ref> Pikeun ngahijikeun deui sayap progrésif sarta konservatif, [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1916]] nyalonkeun hakim Mahkamah Agung [[Charles Evans Hughes]]; salaku saurang yurists, anjeunna parantos lami teu kalibet dina dunya politik saprak 1912. Sanajan Républikan nyerang kawijakan luar negeri Wilson, urusan domestik leuwih ngadominasi kampanye. Républikan ngalawan kawijakan New Freedom Wilson, utamana pangurangan tarif sarta pajak panghasilan anyar, ogé [[Undang-Undang Adamson]] anu ku maranéhanana disebut salaku "léglislasi kelas".<ref>Cooper (1990), pp. 248–249, 252–253</ref> Pamilu lumangsung kacida ketatna. Hughes unggul di wilayah Wétan, samentara Wilson unggul di Kidul sarta Kulon. Kaputusan ahir aya di California. Dina 10 Novémber, California mastikeun yén Wilson meunang di éta nagara bagian kalayan sela 3.806 sora, anu méré anjeunna mayoritas sora éléktoral. Sacara nasional, Wilson meunang 277 sora éléktoral sarta 49,2 persén sora rahayat, samentara Hughes meunang 254 sora éléktoral sarta 46,1 persén sora rahayat.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 415–416</ref> Wilson hasil meunang ku cara nyokot loba sora anu sateuacanna asup ka Roosevelt atawa Debs dina taun 1912.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1900319|title = Woodrow Wilson, Irish Americans, and the Election of 1916|journal = The Journal of American History|volume = 54|issue = 1|pages = 57–72|last1 = Leary|first1 = William M.|year = 1967|doi = 10.2307/1900319|author1-link=William M. Leary}}</ref> Anjeunna nyapu beres wilayah [[Solid South]] sarta meunang di ampir sakabéh nagara bagian Kulon. Kapilihna deui Wilson ngajantenkeun anjeunna urang Démokrat munggaran saprak [[Andrew Jackson]] (taun 1832) anu meunang dua masa jabatan berturut-turut. Démokrat ogé tetep ngawasa Kongrés.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 311–312</ref> ==== Amérika Sarikat lebet kana Perang Dunya I ==== {{Utama|Lebetna Amérika kana Perang Dunya I}} {{Tempo ogé|Amérika Sarikat dina Perang Dunya I|Kawijakan luar negeri pamaréntahan Woodrow Wilson}} Dina Januari 1917, [[Kakaisaran Jérman]] ngamimitian kawijakan anyar nyaéta [[perang kapal selam teu kawates]] ngalawan kapal-kapal di laut sakuriling Kapuloan Britania. Pamingpin Jérman terang yén ieu kawijakan kamungkinan badé ngahudang amarah AS dugi ka lebet kana perang, nanging maranéhanana miharep bisa ngéléhkeun Pasukan Sakutu sateuacan AS mampuh mobilisasi kakuatan sapinuhna.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 137–138</ref> Dina ahir Pébruari, publik AS nampi béja ngeunaan [[Télégraf Zimmermann]], hiji komunikasi diplomatik rusiah dimana Jérman nyoba ngayakinkeun Méksiko pikeun ngagabung perang ngalawan Amérika Sarikat.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 138–139</ref> Saatos runtuyan serangan ka kapal-kapal Amérika, Wilson ngayakeun rapat Kabinét dina 20 Maret; sakabéh anggota Kabinét satuju yén parantos waktosna Amérika Sarikat lebet kana perang.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 139–140</ref> Para anggota Kabinét percaya yén Jérman nuju ngayakeun perang komérsial ngalawan Amérika Sarikat, sarta AS kedah ngawaler ku deklarasi perang resmi.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 430–432</ref> Dina 2 April 1917, Wilson nepikeun biantara di payuneun [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat|Kongrés AS]], ménta deklarasi perang ngalawan Jérman. Anjeunna nyebatkeun yén Jérman nuju ngayakeun "tindakan anu taya lian ti perang ngalawan pamaréntah sarta rahayat Amérika Sarikat." Anjeunna ménta ayana wajib militer (draft) pikeun ningkatkeun jumlah pasukan, naékeun pajak pikeun waragad militér, méré pinjaman ka pamaréntah Sakutu, sarta ningkatkeun produksi industri jeung tatanén.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 140–141</ref> Anjeunna nandeskeun, "urang teu mibanda udagan pribadi. Urang teu hayang nalukkeun, teu hayang ngawasa... teu ménta kompensasi materi pikeun pangurbanan anu bakal urang pasrahkeun sacara rido. Urang ngan saukur salasahiji pajoang pikeun hak-hak umat manusa. Urang bakal ngarasa sugema nalika éta hak-hak parantos aman sakumaha amanna kapercayaan sarta kabébasan bangsa-bangsa."<ref>Berg (2013), p. 437</ref> [[Déklarasi perang ku Amérika Sarikat]] [[Déklarasi perang Amérika Sarikat ka Jérman 1917|ngalawan Jérman]] ditarima ku Kongrés kalayan sora mayoritas mutlak ti dua partéy dina 6 April 1917.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 439</ref> Amérika Sarikat saterusna ogé [[Déklarasi perang Amérika Sarikat ka Austria-Hungaria|nyatakeun perang]] ngalawan Austria-Hungaria dina Désémber 1917.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 462–463</ref> Kalayan asupna AS kana kancah perang, Wilson sarta Sekretaris Perang [[Newton D. Baker]] ngalaksanakeun perluasan angkatan darat, kalayan udagan ngabentuk 300.000 anggota [[Angkatan Darat Régulér (Amérika Sarikat)|Angkatan Darat Régulér]], 440.000 anggota [[Garda Nasional Amérika Sarikat|Garda Nasional]], sarta 500.000 pasukan wajib militer anu katelah "[[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat (1917–1919)|Angkatan Darat Nasional]]". Sanajan aya sababaraha panolakan kana wajib militer (konkripsi) sarta pangiriman prajurit ka luar nagri, mayoritas badag di dua kamar Kongrés satuju nerapkeun wajib militer ngaliwatan [[Undang-Undang Layanan Sélektif 1917]]. Pikeun nyegah ayana karusuhan wajib militer saperti jaman Perang Sipil, ieu undang-undang ngadegkeun dewan wajib militer lokal anu boga tugas nangtukeun saha waé anu kudu mangkat perang. Dugi ka ahir perang, ampir 3 juta jalma parantos asup wajib militer.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 143–146</ref> Angkatan laut ogé ngalaman kamekaran anu kacida badag, sarta angka kaleungitan kapal Sakutu nyirorot pisan alatan kontribusi AS sarta nerapkeun [[Konvoy dina Perang Dunya I|sistem konvoy]] anu anyar.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 147–149</ref> ==== Opat Belas Poin ==== {{Utama|Opat Belas Poin}} Wilson narékahan pikeun ngadegkeun "katengtreman babarengan anu kaorganisir" pikeun nyegah konflik di mangsa nu bakal datang. Dina ieu udagan, anjeunna ditolak lain waé ku Kakuatan Séntral, nanging ogé ku nagara-nagara Sakutu séjénna, anu dina rupa-rupa tingkatan, hayang meunangkeun konsési sarta nerapkeun perjangjian daméy anu boga sipat ngahukum (punitive) ka Kakuatan Séntral.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 164–165</ref> Dina 8 Januari 1918, Wilson nepikeun biantara anu katelah Opat Belas Poin, dimana anjeunna nétélakeun udagan perang jangka panjang pamaréntahanna. Wilson nyambat diadegkeunna asosiasi bangsa-bangsa pikeun ngajamin kamerdékaan sarta integritas wilayah sakabéh nagara—nu saterusna janten [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 471.</ref> Poin séjénna kaasup pangosongan wilayah anu diokupasi, pangadegan nagara [[Polandia]] anu merdéka, sarta [[hak nangtukeun nasib sorangan]] (self-determination) pikeun bangsa-bangsa di handapeun kakuasaan Austria-Hungaria sarta Kasultanan Utsmaniyah.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 469–471</ref> ==== Jalanna perang ==== {{Utama|Perang Dunya I}} Di handapeun paréntah Jenderal Pershing, [[Pasukan Ékspédisi Amérika]] mimiti anjog ka Prancis dina pertengahan taun 1917.<ref>Clements (1992), p. 144</ref> Wilson sarta Pershing nolak usulan Britania jeung Prancis sangkan prajurit Amérika dihijikeun kana unit Sakutu anu parantos aya. Ieu hal méré Amérika kabébasan pikeun nindak, nanging merlukeun pangadegan organisasi sarta jalur suplai anu anyar.<ref>Clements (1992), p. 150</ref> Rusia kaluar tina kancah perang saatos nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Brest-Litovsk]] dina Maret 1918, anu ngamungkinkeun Jérman mindahkeun pasukanana ti [[Front Wétan (Perang Dunya I)|Front Wétan]].<ref name="clements149151">Clements (1992), pp. 149–151</ref> Kalayan harepan bisa nembus garis pertahanan Sakutu sateuacan pasukan Amérika sumping sapinuhna, Jérman ngaluncurkeun [[Serangan Musim Semi Jérman|Serangan Musim Semi]] di [[Front Kulon (Perang Dunya I)|Front Kulon]]. Duanana nandangan korban ratusan rébu jiwa nalika Jérman hasil nyered mundur Britania jeung Prancis, nanging Jérman teu hasil ngarebut ibu kota Prancis, [[Paris]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 474</ref> Dina ahir taun 1917 ngan aya 175.000 prajurit Amérika di Éropa, nanging dina pertengahan 1918, saloba 10.000 urang Amérika anjog ka Éropa unggal poéna.<ref name="clements149151"/> Saatos pasukan Amérika ngagabung dina campuh, Sakutu hasil ngéléhkeun Jérman dina [[Patempuran Belleau Wood]] sarta [[Patempuran Château-Thierry (1918)]]. Ti mimiti Agustus, Sakutu ngaluncurkeun [[Serangan Saratus Poé]], anu hasil nyered mundur pasukan Jérman anu tos lungsé.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 479–481</ref> Samentara éta, pamingpin Prancis jeung Britania ngayakinkeun Wilson pikeun ngirim sababaraha rébu prajurit Amérika guna ngagabung dina [[Intervénsi Sakutu dina Perang Sipil Rusia|intervénsi Sakutu]] di Rusia, anu nuju ditarajang [[Perang Sipil Rusia]] antara komunis [[Bolshevik]] ngalawan [[Gerakan Bodas]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 498–500</ref> Dina ahir Séptémber 1918, pamingpin Jérman tos teu percaya deui yén maranéhanana bisa meunangkeun perang, sarta Kaisar [[Wilhelm II, Kaisar Jérman|Wilhelm II]] ngangkat pamaréntahan anyar anu dipingpin ku [[Pangéran Maximilian ti Baden]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 165–166</ref> Baden geuwat ménta gencatan senjata ka Wilson, kalayan ngajantenkeun Opat Belas Poin salaku dadasar sumerahna Jérman.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 503</ref> [[Edward M. House|House]] hasil nanggung kasepakatan gencatan senjata ti Prancis jeung Britania, nanging saatos ngancem yén Amérika bakal ngayakeun gencatan senjata sapihak tanpa maranéhanana.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 479–488.</ref> Jérman sarta Pasukan Sakutu mungkas campuh ku nandatanganan [[Gencatan Senjata 11 Novémber 1918]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 511–512</ref> Austria-Hungaria parantos nandatanganan [[Gencatan Senjata Villa Giusti]] dalapan poé sateuacanna, samentara Kasultanan Utsmaniyah parantos nandatanganan [[Gencatan Senjata Mudros]] dina bulan Oktober. Dina ahir perang, 116.000 anggota militer Amérika palastra, sarta 200.000 séjénna tatu.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 20</ref> ==== Urusan jero nagri (Home front) ==== {{Utama|Urusan jero nagri Amérika Sarikat salila Perang Dunya I}} [[Berkas:FoodWillWinTheGreatWarNOLA.jpg|thumb|Hiji spanduk anu unina, "Food will win the war—don't waste it" (Kadaharan bakal meunangkeun perang—ulah dihambur-hambur), di payuneun balé kota [[New Orleans]] dina Oktober 1918]] [[Berkas:Women workers in ordnance shops, Midvale Steel and Ordnance Company, Nicetown, Pennsylvania. Hand chipping with pneumati - NARA - 530774.jpg|thumb|Pagawé awéwé di bengkel sanjata di [[Pennsylvania]], taun 1918]] Kalayan asupna Amérika kana Perang Dunya I dina April 1917, Wilson janten présidén dina mangsa perang. [[Déwan Industri Perang]], anu dipingpin ku [[Bernard Baruch]], diadegkeun pikeun nangtukeun kawijakan sarta udagan manufaktur perang AS. Calon présidén di mangsa hareup, [[Herbert Hoover]], mingpin [[Administrasi Kadaharan Amérika Sarikat]]; [[Administrasi Bahan Bakar Féderal]], anu dijalankeun ku [[Harry Augustus Garfield]], ngenalkeun [[Waktu usum panas|daylight saving time]] sarta ngatur jatah suplai bahan bakar; William McAdoo tanggung jawab dina urusan obligasi perang; sarta [[Vance C. McCormick]] mingpin Déwan Perdagangan Perang. Tokoh-tokoh ieu, anu sacara koléktif katelah salaku "kabinét perang", ngayakeun rapat mingguan sareng Wilson.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 469.</ref> Kusabab Wilson kacida fokusna kana kawijakan luar negeri, anjeunna méré wewenang anu lega pikeun urusan jero nagri ka para bawahanana.<ref>Cooper (1990), pp. 296–297</ref> Dina mangsa perang, anggaran féderal naék drastis tina $1 miliar dina [[taun fiskal]] 1916 janten $19 miliar dina taun fiskal 1919.<ref name="clements156157"/> Salian ti waragad pikeun kaperluan militérna sorangan, Wall Street (1914–1916) sarta Departemén Kauangan (1917–1918) méré pinjaman badag ka nagara-nagara Sakutu pikeun ngabiayaan perang Britania jeung Prancis.<ref>Cooper (1990), pp. 276, 319</ref> Pikeun nyegah inflasi luhur sapertos anu lumangsung dina Perang Sipil, pamaréntahan Wilson naékeun pajak salila perang.<ref>Weisman (2002), pp. 320</ref> [[Undang-Undang Pendapatan Perang 1917]] sarta [[Undang-Undang Pendapatan 1918]] naékeun tarif pajak pangluhurna janten 77 persén, ningkatkeun jumlah warga Amérika anu mayar pajak panghasilan sacara signifikan, sarta nerapkeun [[pajak kauntungan leuwih]] pikeun bisnis sarta individu.<ref>Weisman (2002), pp. 325–329, 345</ref> Sanajan kitu, AS tetep kedah nginjeum artos dina jumlah anu badag. Sekretaris Kauangan McAdoo ngaluarkeun obligasi perang kalayan bunga rendah, sarta pikeun narik minat investor, bunga obligasi éta dibébaskeun tina pajak. Obligasi ieu kacida populérna dugi ka loba investor anu nginjeum duit demi bisa meuli leuwih loba obligasi. Hal ieu, ditambah ku tekenan mangsa perang séjénna, ngabalukarkeun naékna inflasi, sanajan inflasi ieu sabagian bisa diimbangan ku naékna upah sarta kauntungan bisnis.<ref name="clements156157">Clements (1992), pp. 156–157</ref> Pikeun ngawangun opini publik, dina taun 1917 Wilson ngadegkeun kantor propaganda modéren munggaran, nyaéta [[Komite Informasi Publik]] (CPI) anu dipingpin ku [[George Creel]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 449–450</ref> Wilson nyambat para pamilih dina [[Pamilu sela Amérika Sarikat 1918]] pikeun milih Démokrat salaku bentuk dukungan kana kawijakanana. Nanging, Républikan hasil narik sora urang [[Jérman-Amérika]] anu ngarasa kasingkir sarta tungtungna ngawasa Kongrés.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Livermore |first=Seward W. |date=1948 |title=The Sectional Issue in the 1918 Congressional Elections |journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=29–60 |doi=10.2307/1895138 |jstor=1895138}}</ref> Wilson nolak gawé bareng atawa kompromi jeung pamingpin anyar di DPR sarta Sénat—Sénator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] janten musuh buyutna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parsons |first=Edward B. |date=1989 |title=Some International Implications of the 1918 Roosevelt-Lodge Campaign Against Wilson and a Democratic Congress |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=141–157 |jstor=40574571}}</ref> Dina Novémber 1919, Jaksa Agung Wilson, [[A. Mitchell Palmer]], mimiti nargétkeun kelompok anarkis, anggota [[Pagawé Industri Dunya]] (IWW), sarta kelompok anti-perang séjénna dina aksi anu katelah [[Palmer Raids]]. Rébuan jalma ditéwak kalayan tuduhan ngasud kekerasan, spionase, atawa sedisi (hasutan ngalawan nagara). Dina mangsa éta, kaayaan fisik Wilson parantos sakarat (incapacitated) sarta anjeunna henteu dibéjaan ngeunaan naon anu nuju lumangsung.<ref>Cooper (2008), pp. 201, 209</ref> ==== Konférénsi Daméy Paris ==== {{Utama|Balukar tina Perang Dunya I|Konférénsi Daméy Paris (1919–1920)}} [[Berkas:Big four.jpg|thumb|Kaum "Big Four" dina [[Konférénsi Daméy Paris]] ping 27 Méi 1919, saatos réngséna [[Perang Dunya I]] kalayan Wilson nangtung gigireun [[Georges Clemenceau]] di palebah katuhu]] [[Berkas:Review of reviews and world's work (1890) (14586729460).jpg|thumb|Lobana rahayat Itali di [[Milan]] kumpul pikeun ngabagéakeun Wilson.]] Saatos nandatanganan gencatan senjata, Wilson angkat ka Éropa pikeun mingpin délégasi Amérika dina Konférénsi Daméy Paris, anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran anu nuju ngajabat anu nganjang ka Éropa.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 458.</ref> Sanajan ayeuna kaum Républikan ngawasa Kongrés, Wilson nyisihkeun maranéhanana. Sénat Républikan sarta sawatara Sénat Démokrat humandeuar alatan kurangna wakil maranéhanana dina délégasi. Délégasi éta diwangun ku Wilson, Kolonél House,{{efn|House sarta Wilson peunggas silaturahmi nalika Konférénsi Daméy Paris, sarta House teu mibanda peran deui dina pamaréntahan saatos Juni 1919.<ref name="Berg 2013, pp. 570–572, 601">Berg (2013), pp. 570–572, 601</ref>}} Sekretaris Nagara [[Robert Lansing]], Jenderal [[Tasker H. Bliss]], sarta diplomat [[Henry White (diplomat)|Henry White]], anu mangrupa hiji-hijina urang Républikan, éta ogé lain partisan anu aktip.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 516–518</ref> Salian ti balik dua minggu ka Amérika Sarikat, Wilson netep di Éropa salila genep bulan, dimana anjeunna fokus kana ngahontal perjangjian daméy pikeun mungkas perang sacara resmi. Wilson, Perdana Menteri Britania [[David Lloyd George]], Perdana Menteri Prancis [[Georges Clemenceau]], sarta Perdana Menteri Itali [[Vittorio Emanuele Orlando]] ngawangun kelompok "[[Big Four (Perang Dunya I)|Big Four]]", pamingpin Sakutu anu mibanda pangaruh pangbadagna dina Konférénsi Daméy Paris.<ref>Herring (2008), pp. 417–420</ref> Wilson kungsi teu damang nalika konférénsi lumangsung, sarta sawatara ahli yakin yén [[Flu Spanyol]] mangrupa sababna.<ref>{{cite news|last=Baker|first=Peter|date=October 2, 2020|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/us/politics/trump-covid.html|title=Trump Tests Positive for the Coronavirus|work=The New York Times|access-date=August 24, 2022}}</ref> Béda jeung pamingpin Sakutu séjénna, Wilson teu narékahan pikeun meunangkeun wilayah anyar atawa ganti rugi materi ti Kakuatan Séntral. Udagan utama anjeunna nyaéta pangadegan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, anu ku anjeunna dianggap salaku "batu konci tina sakabéh program".<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 533–535</ref> Wilson nyalira anu mingpin komite anu nyusun [[Kovenan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 177–178</ref> Kovenan éta nandeskeun para anggota pikeun ngahormatan [[kabébasan agaman]], méré kaadilan ka minoritas ras, sarta ngabéréskeun parébat sacara daméy ngaliwatan organisasi saperti [[Mahkamah Internasional Permanén]]. Pasal X tina Kovenan Liga merlukeun sakabéh nagara pikeun ngabéla anggota Liga tina agrési luar.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 538–539</ref> Jepang ngusulkeun sangkan konférénsi ngarojong [[Usulan Kasaruaan Ras]]; Wilson salaku pupuhu nolak éta usulan ku cara nyebutkeun yén sanajan usulan éta disatujuan ku mayoritas, aya panolakan kuat anu nyata (sanajan teu aya sora anu sacara resmi nolak) sarta dina urusan ieu, sora kudu buleud (unanimous). Délégasi Jepang hoyong transkrip nunjukkeun yén mayoritas sora saenyana mah parantos satuju kana amandemén éta.<ref>{{cite book|first=Naoko|last=Shimazu|year=1998|title=Japan, Race, and Equality: The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919|url=https://archive.org/details/japanraceequalit0000shim|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/japanraceequalit0000shim/page/154 154] ff}}</ref> Kovenan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa saterusna diasupkeun kana [[Perjangjian Versailles]], anu mungkas perang jeung Jérman, sarta kana perjangjian daméy séjénna.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 180–185</ref> Salian ti Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, udagan utama Wilson séjénna nyaéta sangkan hak nangtukeun nasib sorangan (self-determination) janten dadasar utama dina nangtukeun wates-wates internasional anyar.<ref name="Berg 2013, pp. 534, 563">Berg (2013), pp. 534, 563</ref> Nanging, demi ngawujudkeun Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, Wilson kapaksa ngalah dina sababaraha poin ka kakuatan séjén. Jérman diwajibkeun masrahkeun wilayahna sacara permanén, mayar ganti rugi perang (reparasi), nyerahkeun sakabéh koloni di luar nagri, sarta nampi [[okupasi militér Sakutu di Rhineland]]. Tambahanana, aya [[Pasal 231 Perjangjian Versailles|klausa]] anu sacara husus nyebutkeun yén Jérman tanggung jawab kana peupeusna perang. Wilson satuju ngantepkeun nagara-nagara Sakutu Éropa sarta Jepang pikeun ngalegaan kakawasaanana ku cara ngadegkeun koloni ''de facto'' di Wétan Tengah, Afrika, sarta Asia tina uras-uras Kakaisaran Jérman sarta Utsmaniyah; wilayah-wilayah ieu dibéré landihan "[[Mandat Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]]". Jepang anu meunangkeun kapentingan Jérman di [[Semenanjung Shandong]], Cina, janten kacida [[Masalah Shandong|teu populérna]], sabab hal ieu mungkusan jangji Wilson ngeunaan pamaréntahan mandiri. Harepan Wilson pikeun hak nangtukeun nasib sorangan mibanda sawatara kameunangan nalika konférénsi ngaku sababaraha nagara anyar di Éropa Wétan, kaasup [[Prinsipait Albania|Albania]], [[Républik Cékoslowakia Kahiji|Cékoslowakia]], [[Républik Polandia Kadua|Polandia]], sarta [[Karajaan Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Berg 2013, pp. 534, 563"/><ref>Herring (2008), pp. 421–423</ref> Negosiasi réngsé dina Méi 1919, dimana harita pamingpin anyar [[Jérman Républikan]] ningal éta perjangjian pikeun munggaranana. Sawatara pamingpin Jérman milih nolak éta perdamaian alatan syarat-syaratna anu kacida beuratna, nanging tungtungna Jérman nandatanganan perjangjian éta dina 28 Juni 1919.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 185–186</ref> Wilson teu mampuh ngayakinkeun kakuatan Sakutu séjénna, utamana Prancis, pikeun ngurangan "paitna" hukuman ka Kakuatan Séntral anu éléh. Alatan usahana pikeun nyiptakeun katengtreman dunya anu langgeng, Wilson dilélér pangajén [[Pangajén Nobél Widang Padaméian]] taun 1919.<ref>{{cite news|last=Glass|first=Andrew|date=December 10, 2012|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2012/12/woodrow-wilson-nobel-peace-prize-dec-10-1920-084809|title=Woodrow Wilson receives Nobel Peace Price, Dec. 10, 1920|work=Politico}}</ref> ==== Debat ratifikasi sarta kasoran ==== [[Berkas:President Woodrow Wilson - NH 18.jpeg|thumb|Wilson mulang ti [[Konférénsi Daméy Versailles]] nunggang [[USS George Washington|USS ''George Washington'']], nalika kapal éta nuju ka [[Palabuhan New York]] dina 8 Juli 1919; [[Majelis Nasional Weimar]] di Jérman sacara resmi ngaratifikasi éta perjangjian poé saterusna ku sora 209 lawan 116.<ref>{{cite book|author=Koppel S. Pinson|title=Modern Germany: Its History and Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-DHU-892|year=1964|page=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-DHU-892/page/397 397] f}}</ref>]] Ratifikasi Perjangjian Versailles merlukeun pangrojong dua per tilu sora Sénat, hiji hal anu kacida héséna sabab kaum Républikan mibanda mayoritas tipis di Sénat saatos [[Pamilu AS 1918]].<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 190–191">Clements (1992), pp. 190–191</ref> Kaum Républikan ngarasa ambek alatan Wilson teu daék sawala ngeunaan perang atawa balukarna sareng maranéhanana, nepi ka muncak janten campuh partisan anu kacida panasna di Sénat. Sénator Républikan [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] ngarojong vérsi perjangjian anu merlukeun Wilson pikeun kompromi. Wilson nolak.<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 190–191"/> Sawatara urang Républikan, kaasup manten Présidén Taft sarta manten Sekretaris Nagara [[Elihu Root]], sabenerna mah milih ratifikasi perjangjian kalayan sababaraha parobahan, sarta pangrojong publik maranéhanana méré harepan pikeun Wilson sangkan éta perjangjian bisa ditarima.<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 190–191"/> Debat ngeunaan perjangjian ieu museur kana sawala ngeunaan peran Amérika dina komunitas dunya di mangsa saatos perang, sarta para sénator kabagi janten tilu kelompok utama. Kelompok munggaran, diwangun ku kalolobaan urang Démokrat, satuju kana éta perjangjian.<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 190–191"/> Opat belas sénator, kalolobaanana urang Républikan, katelah kelompok "[[irreconcilables]]" (anu teu bisa dirukunkeun) sabab maranéhanana sacara mutlak nolak AS asup ka Liga Bangsa-Bangsa. Sababaraha urang di antarana nolak perjangjian alatan dianggap gagal nekenkeun dékolonisasi sarta pangaributan pakarang (disarmament), samentara nu séjénna sieun masrahkeun kabébasan nindak Amérika ka organisasi internasional.<ref name="herring427430">Herring (2008), pp. 427–430</ref> Kelompok sésana, katelah "reservationists" (nu mibanda catetan), nampi ide Liga Bangsa-Bangsa nanging ménta rupa-rupa parobahan pikeun mastikeun panangtayungan kedaulatan Amérika sarta hak Kongrés pikeun mutuskeun mangkat perang.<ref name="herring427430"/> Pasal X tina Kovenan Liga, anu narékahan nyiptakeun sistem [[kaamanan koléktif]] ku cara ngawajibkeun anggota Liga pikeun silih jaga tina agrési luar, dianggap bakal maksa AS pikeun aub dina perang naon waé anu diputuskeun ku Liga.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 652–653</ref> Wilson tetep nolak pikeun kompromi, sabagian alatan anjeunna hariwang kudu muka deui negosiasi jeung nagara-nagara séjén anu parantos nandatanganan perjangjian.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 191–192, 200</ref> Nalika Lodge méh hasil ngawangun dua per tilu mayoritas pikeun ngaratifikasi Perjangjian kalayan sapuluh catetan (reservasi), Wilson kalah maksa para pangrojongna pikeun milih "Nay" (Nolak) dina 19 Maret 1920, anu tungtungna nutup éta pasualan. Cooper nyebutkeun yén "ampir sakabéh pangrojong Liga" satuju jeung Lodge, nanging usaha maranéhanana "gagal ngan saukur kusabab Wilson sacara sadar nolak sakabéh reservasi anu diajukeun di Sénat."<ref>{{cite book|last=Cooper|first=John Milton Jr.|year=2001|title=Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations|url=https://archive.org/details/breakingheartofw00coop|page=[https://archive.org/details/breakingheartofw00coop/page/283 283]}}</ref> [[Thomas A. Bailey]] nyebut tindakan Wilson ieu salaku "puncak tina tindakan nelasan anak sorangan" (infanticide).<ref>{{cite book|last=Bailey|first=Thomas A.|year=1945|title=Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal|url=https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsongre0000thom_a1q3|page=[https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsongre0000thom_a1q3/page/277 277]}}</ref> Anjeunna nambahan: "Éta perjangjian ditelasan di imah babaturanana, lain di imah musuhna. Dina analisis pamungkas, sanés aturan dua per tilu, atawa kelompok 'irreconcilables', atawa Lodge, nanging Wilson sarta para pangiringna anu nurut baé anu parantos méré tancaban pati."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ambrosius|first=Lloyd E.|date=1987|title=Woodrow Wilson's Health and the Treaty Fight, 1919–1920|journal=The International History Review}}</ref> ==== Ambrukna kaséhatan ==== Pikeun ngahudang pangrojong publik kana ratifikasi, Wilson ngayakeun tur biantara ka nagara-nagara bagian Kulon, nanging anjeunna kapaksa mulang ka Gedong Bodas dina ahir Séptémber alatan masalah kaséhatan.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 619, 628–638</ref> Dina 2 Oktober 1919, Wilson kakeunaan stroke anu parna, anu ngabalukarkeun awak bagian kencana lumpuh, sarta paningalna ngan kantun sabagian dina panon katuhu.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 615–622.</ref> Anjeunna ngan bisa ngagolér di ranjang salila sababaraha minggu sarta papisah ti sing saha waé iwal ti pamajaganna, dokterna nyaéta [[Cary Grayson]], sarta ahli saraf konsultan [[Francis Xavier Dercum]].<ref>Aminoff & Daroff (2014), pp. 983–986</ref> Bert E. Park, saurang ahli bedah saraf anu mariksa catetan médis Wilson saatos anjeunna tilar dunya, nyerat yén panyakit Wilson mangaruhan kapribadianana dina rupa-rupa cara, ngajantenkeun anjeunna gampang kakeunaan "gangguan émosi, kontrol impuls anu lemah, sarta gangguan dina nyandak kaputusan."<ref>Clements (1992), p. 198</ref> Alatan hoyong mantuan présidén sangkan jagjag deui, Tumulty, Grayson, sarta Ibu Nagara nangtukeun dokumén naon waé anu tiasa dibaca ku présidén sarta saha waé anu meunang komunikasi sareng anjeunna. Alatan pangaruhna anu kacida gedéna dina pamaréntahan, sababaraha pihak nyebut Edith Wilson salaku "présidén awéwé munggaran di Amérika Sarikat."<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 643–644, 648–650</ref> Link nyatakeun yén dina Novémber 1919, "pamulihan Wilson ngan saukur sabagian. Pikiranna kawilang masih tétéla, nanging fisikna tos lungse, sarta éta panyakit parantos ngancurkeun émosina sarta ngaparah sipat-sipat pribadina anu kurang saé."<ref>Link (1979), p. 121</ref> Salila ahir taun 1919, jalma-jalma kapercayaan Wilson nyumputkeun parnana kaayaan kaséhatan anjeunna.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 659–661, 668–669</ref> Dugi ka Pébruari 1920, kaayaan présidén anu sabenerna mimiti kanyahoan ku publik. Loba anu ngarasa cangcaya kana kamampuh Wilson pikeun mingpin présidén nalika perjuangan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa nuju muncak, sarta masalah domestik sapertos aksi mogok gawé, pangangguran, inflasi, sarta ancaman Komunisme nuju ragot. Dina pertengahan Maret 1920, Lodge sarta kaum Républikan ngawangun koalisi sareng urang Démokrat anu pro-perjangjian pikeun ngaratifikasi perjangjian kalayan catetan (reservasi), nanging Wilson nolak kompromi ieu sarta cukup loba urang Démokrat anu nurut kana paréntahna pikeun ngéléhkeun ratifikasi éta.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 544, 557–560</ref> Taya saurang ogé jalma deukeut Wilson anu kersa mastikeun, sakumaha anu diwajibkeun ku Konstitusi, ngeunaan "kateumampuhna dina ngalaksanakeun wewenang sarta tugas jabatan kasebut."<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 555</ref> Sanajan sababaraha anggota Kongrés ngadorong Wakil Présidén Marshall pikeun nyokot alih jabatan présidén, Marshall teu kungsi nyoba pikeun ngaganti Wilson.<ref>United States Senate, "Thomas R. Marshall"</ref> Mangsa kateumampuh Wilson anu kacida lila nalika ngajabat présidén ieu méh taya tandingna dina sajarah; tina présidén-présidén sateuacanna, ngan [[James Garfield]] anu kantos aya dina kaayaan sarupa, nanging Garfield masih kénéh mibanda kontrol méntal anu leuwih hadé sarta teu nyanghareupan loba masalah anu kacida gentingna.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 535</ref> ==== Démobilisasi ==== Nalika perang lekasan, Pamaréntahan Wilson ngabubarkeun dewan-dewan mangsa perang sarta lembaga-lembaga régulasi.<ref>Kennedy (2004), pp. 249–250</ref> Prosés démobilisasi lumangsung pabaliut sarta sakapeung diwarnaan ku kekerasan; opat juta prajurit dipulangkeun ka imahna kalayan mawa saeutik artos sarta fasilitas anu minim. Dina taun 1919, aksi mogok gawé di industri-industri badag peupeus, anu ngaganggu ékonomi nagara.<ref>Levy & Fisher (1994), p. 494</ref> Nagara ogé ngalaman kaributan saterusna nalika runtuyan karusuhan ras peupeus dina usum panas 1919 anu katelah [[Red Summer 1919|Red Summer]] (Usum Panas Beureum).<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 609–610, 626</ref> Dina taun 1920, ékonomi nyirorot kana [[Déprési 1920–21|déprési ékonomi anu parna]], pangangguran naék janten 12 persén, sarta harga produk tatanén turun drastis.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 207, 217–218</ref> ==== Ambrukna kaséhatan ==== Pikeun ngahudang pangrojong publik kana ratifikasi, Wilson ngayakeun tur biantara ka nagara-nagara bagian Kulon, nanging anjeunna kapaksa mulang ka Gedong Bodas dina ahir Séptémber alatan masalah kaséhatan.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 619, 628–638</ref> Dina 2 Oktober 1919, Wilson kakeunaan stroke anu parna, anu ngabalukarkeun awak bagian kencana lumpuh, sarta paningalna ngan kantun sabagian dina panon katuhu.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 615–622.</ref> Anjeunna ngan bisa ngagolér di ranjang salila sababaraha minggu sarta papisah ti sing saha waé iwal ti pamajaganna, dokterna nyaéta [[Cary Grayson]], sarta ahli saraf konsultan [[Francis Xavier Dercum]].<ref>Aminoff & Daroff (2014), pp. 983–986</ref> ==== Red Scare sarta Palmer Raids ==== [[Berkas:June 3 1919 Newspapers of the 1919 United States anarchist bombings.png|thumb|Judul berita dina koran ping 3 Juni 1919, ngeunaan [[Pengeboman anarkis Amérika Sarikat 1919|kajadian bom]]]] Nyusul [[Révolusi Bolshevik]] di [[Rusia]] sarta usaha révolusi sarupa di [[Jérman]] jeung [[Hungaria]], loba urang Amérika anu sieun ku kamungkinan ayana térorisme di Amérika Sarikat. Kasieun ieu beuki parna alatan [[Pengeboman anarkis Amérika Sarikat 1919|kajadian bom]] dina April 1919 nalika kaum anarkis ngirimkeun 38 bom ngaliwatan surat ka tokoh-tokoh penting Amérika; saurang palastra nanging kalolobaan pakét hasil ditéwak. Salapan bom surat séjénna dikirimkeun dina bulan Juni, anu nyababkeun sababaraha urang tatu.<ref>Avrich (1991), pp. 140–153</ref> Kasieun anyar ieu, ditambah ku sumanget patriotik nasional, ngahudangkeun "[[Red Scare Munggaran]]" dina taun 1919. Jaksa Agung Palmer, ti mimiti Novémber 1919 dugi ka Januari 1920, ngaluncurkeun aksi [[Palmer Raids]] pikeun nindes organisasi-organisasi radikal. Leuwih ti 10.000 jalma ditéwak sarta 556 urang asing didéportasi, kaasup [[Emma Goldman]].<ref>Coben (1963), pp. 217–245</ref> Tindakan Palmer ieu meunang palawanan tina pangadilan sarta sawatara pajabat senior administrasi. Taya saurang ogé anu ngalaporkeun ka Wilson ngeunaan naon anu nuju dipidamel ku Palmer.<ref>Cooper (1990), p. 329</ref> Saterusna dina taun 1920, [[Pengeboman Wall Street]] dina 16 Séptémber nelasan 40 urang sarta nyababkeun ratusan tatu, janten serangan téroris pangmautna dina sajarah Amérika nepi ka mangsa éta. Kaum anarkis ngaku tanggung jawab sarta jangji bakal ngayakeun kekerasan deui; maranéhanana teu hasil ditéwak.<ref>Gage (2009), pp. 179–182</ref> ==== Prohibisi sarta hak pilih awéwé ==== [[Prohibisi di Amérika Sarikat|Prohibisi]] (larangan inuman keras) mekar salaku gerakan réformasi anu teu kabendung salila Perang Dunya I, nanging [[Kapérésidénan Woodrow Wilson|administrasi Wilson]] ngan saukur mibanda peran leutik.<ref>Timberlake (2013).</ref> [[Amandemén Kadalapan Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén Kadalapan Belas]] lulus di Kongrés sarta diratifikasi ku nagara-nagara bagian dina taun 1919. Dina Oktober 1919, Wilson ngavéto [[Undang-Undang Volstead]], nyaéta aturan pikeun ngajalankeun Prohibisi, nanging véto anjeunna dibatalkeun (overridden) ku Kongrés.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 648</ref> Wilson asalna nolak [[Hak pilih awéwé di Amérika Sarikat|hak pilih awéwé]] dina taun 1911 sabab anjeunna percaya yén kaum awéwé kurang mibanda pangalaman publik pikeun janten pamilih anu saé. Bukti nyata ngeunaan kumaha pamilih awéwé nindak di nagara-nagara bagian Kulon ngarobah pamikiranana, sarta anjeunna mimiti ngarasa yén awéwé saenyana mah bisa janten pamilih anu hadé. Anjeunna teu nyarios sacara publik ngeunaan ieu pasualan, iwal ti ngan saukur niron posisi Partéy Démokrat yén hak pilih mangrupa urusan nagara bagian, utamana alatan palawanan kuat ti warga kulit bodas di bagian Kidul (South) ka hak pilih warga kulit hideung.<ref>Steinson (2013), pp. 343–365</ref> Dina biantara taun 1918 di payuneun Kongrés, Wilson pikeun munggaranana ngarojong hak milih nasional: "Urang parantos ngajantenkeun kaum awéwé salaku mitra dina ieu perang.... Naha urang bakal ngantep maranéhanana ngan saukur janten mitra dina sangsara, pangorbanan, sarta kasusah, nanging sanés mitra dina hak sarta kaistiméwaan?"<ref>Wilson Center (2013).</ref> DPR ngaluluskeun amandemén konstitusi pikeun hak pilih awéwé di sakuliah nagara, nanging kapegat di Sénat. Wilson terus neken Sénat sangkan milih éta amandemén, nyebatkeun yén ratifikasina kacida pentingna pikeun meunangkeun perang.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 492–494</ref> Sénat tungtungna nyatujuan dina Juni 1919, sarta jumlah nagara bagian anu diperlukeun ngaratifikasi [[Amandemén Kasalapan Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén Kasalapan Belas]] dina Agustus 1920.<ref>Clements (1992), p. 159</ref> ==== Pamilu 1920 ==== {{Utama|Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920}} [[Berkas:ElectoralCollege1920.svg|thumb|Nomine présidén [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] [[Warren G. Harding]] ngéléhkeun nomine Démokrat James Cox dina [[Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920]].]] Sanajan kaayaan fisikna teu mampuh alatan panyakit, Wilson saenyana mah masih hoyong nyalonkeun deui pikeun période katilu. Nalika [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1920]] sacara kuat ngarojong kabijakan-kabijakan Wilson, para pamingpin Démokrat nolak anjeunna, sarta kalah milih masangkeun Gubernur [[James M. Cox]] sareng Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut Franklin D. Roosevelt.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 565–569.</ref> Kaum Républikan museurkeun kampanyena kana palawanan ka kabijakan Wilson, kalayan Sénator Warren G. Harding ngajangjikeun "[[return to normalcy]]" (mulang ka kaayaan normal). Wilson kalolobaanana cicing baé salila kampanye, sanajan anjeunna ngarojong Cox sarta terus ngajak AS sangkan asup janten anggota Liga Bangsa-Bangsa. Harding meunang mutlak dina éta pamilu, kalayan mibanda leuwih ti 60% sora rahayat sarta meunang di unggal nagara bagian [[Solid South|di luar wewengkon Kidul]].<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 569–572.</ref> Wilson papanggih sareng Harding pikeun nginum entéh dina poé terakhirna ngajabat, 3 Maret 1921. Alatan kaséhatanana, Wilson teu tiasa ngahadiran [[Inaugurasi Warren G. Harding|pelantikan Harding]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 700–701.</ref> Dina 10 Désémber 1920, Wilson dilélér Pangajén Nobél Widang Padaméian taun 1919 "alatan péranna salaku pangadeg Liga Bangsa-Bangsa".<ref>Nobel Prize Institute, "The Nobel Peace Prize 1919"</ref> Wilson janten présidén Amérika Sarikat kadua anu nuju ngajabat saatos Theodore Roosevelt anu janten [[Daptar pamingpin nagara anu meunang Nobél|Penerima Nobél Padaméian]].<ref>History.com, "Woodrow Wilson awarded Nobel Peace Prize"</ref> == Pasca-kapérésidénan sarta tilar dunya (1921–1924) == [[Berkas:Wilson funeral, 2-6-24 LOC npcc.10360.jpg|thumb|Iring-iringan pamakaman manten présidén Woodrow Wilson dugi ka Katedral Nasional Washington]] [[Berkas:Woodrow Wilson tomb 2.jpg|thumb|Pamakaman pamungkas Woodrow Wilson di Katedral Nasional Washington]] Saatos réngsé période kaduana dina taun 1921, Wilson sareng pamajaganna pindah ti [[Gedong Bodas]] ka hiji imah kota (townhouse) di bagian [[Sheridan-Kalorama Historic District|Kalorama]], [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 697–704</ref> Anjeunna tetep nuturkeun kamekaran pulitik nalika Présidén Harding sarta Kongrés Républik nolak janten anggota Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, neukteuk pajeg, sarta naékkeun tarif.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 713</ref> Dina taun 1921, Wilson muka prakték hukum sareng manten sekretaris nagara [[Bainbridge Colby]]. Wilson sumping dina poé munggaran nanging teu kungsi deui balik deui, sarta éta prakték hukum téh ditutup dina ahir taun 1922. Wilson nyoba nyerat, sarta anjeunna ngahasilkeun sababaraha éséy pondok saatos usaha anu kacida beuratna; tulisan-tulisan éta "nandaan panutup anu sedih pikeun karir sastra anu sateuacanna kacida agungna."<ref>Cooper 2009, p. 585.</ref> Anjeunna nolak nyerat mémoar, nanging sering papanggih sareng [[Ray Stannard Baker]], anu nyerat biografi Wilson tilu jilid anu dipedar dina taun 1922.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 698, 706, 718</ref> Dina Agustus 1923, Wilson ngahadiran pamakaman panerusna, Warren Harding.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 581–590</ref> Dina 10 Novémber 1923, Wilson méré biantara nasional terakhirna, ngaliwatan radio dina poé [[Armistice Day]] (Poé Gencatan Senjata) ti perpustakaan imahna.<ref>NPS.gov, "Woodrow Wilson's last address"</ref> ==== Tilar dunya ==== Kaséhatan Wilson teu nunjukkeun kamajuan anu hartosna saatos lungsur ti jabatan,<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 711, 728</ref> malah beuki nyirorot dina Januari 1924. Anjeunna tilar dunya dina 3 Pébruari 1924, dina yuswa 67 taun. Présidén sarta Ibu Nagara harita, [[Calvin Coolidge|Calvin]] jeung [[Grace Coolidge]], sumping ka pamakamanana, kitu ogé mantan Ibu Nagara [[Florence Harding]]. Mantan Ibu Nagara [[Helen Herron Taft]] ngawakilan salakina, Ketua Mahkamah Agung sarta mantan présidén [[William Howard Taft]], anu nuju teu damang dugi ka teu tiasa sumping. Di antara 2.000 tamu anu diondang, aya 11 sénator, loba anggota DPR (House of Representatives), sarta sababaraha pajabat luhur ti luar nagri.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 735–738</ref> Wilson dimakamkeun di [[Katedral Nasional Washington]], janten hiji-hijina présidén anu tempat peristirahatan terakhirna aya di jero ibukota nagara.<ref>Whitcomb (2002), p. 262</ref> == Hubungan ras == {{Utama|Woodrow Wilson sarta masalah ras}} [[Berkas:Wilson-quote-in-birth-of-a-nation.jpg|thumb|alt="Warga kulit bodas kageuing ku insting pikeun mertahankeun diri ... dugi ka ahirna lahir Ku Klux Klan anu hébat, hiji kakaisaran sajati di Kidul, pikeun nangtayungan nagri Kidul."|Kutipan tina buku ''History of the American People'' karya Woodrow Wilson sakumaha anu dipidangkeun dina film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'']] Wilson lahir sarta digedékeun di wewengkon Kidul (South) ku kolot anu kacida ngadukungna kana ayana perbudakan sarta [[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika|Konfédérasi]]. Sacara akademis, Wilson dianggap salaku apologis (pembéla) perbudakan sarta kelompok [[Redeemers]], sarta salasahiji promotor utama mitos [[Lost Cause]] (Panyabab anu Leungit).<ref>Benbow (2010), pp. 509–533</ref> Wilson mangrupa urang Kidul munggaran anu kapilih janten présidén saatos [[Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|Zachary Taylor dina 1848]], sarta hiji-hijina mantan warga Konfédérasi. Kameunangan Wilson dirayakeun ku para pangrojong [[Ségregasi ras di Amérika Sarikat|ségregasi di wewengkon Kidul]]. Nalika di Universitas Princeton, Wilson sacara aktif nyegah mahasiswa turunan Afrika-Amérika (kulit hideung) sangkan teu bisa asup kuliah.<ref>O'Reilly (1997), pp. 117–121</ref> Sababaraha ahli sajarah nyorot rupa-rupa conto kawijakan Wilson anu sacara terang-terangan rasialis sarta kaputusanana pikeun neundeun jalma-jalma anu pro-ségregasi dina Kabinétna.<ref>Foner (2006)</ref><ref>Turner-Sadler (2009), p. 100</ref> Ahli séjénna nyebutkeun yén Wilson ngabéla ségregasi salaku "kawijakan anu rasional sarta ilmiah" dina sawala pribadi, sarta ngagambarkeun anjeunna salaku jalma anu "resep ngalalakonkeun heureuy 'darky' (heureuy rasial) ngeunaan warga kulit hideung Amérika."<ref>Feagin (2006), p. 162</ref> Salila masa kapérésidénan Wilson, film karya [[D. W. Griffith]] anu pro-[[Ku Klux Klan]], nyaéta ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915), janten film munggaran anu dipidangkeun di [[Gedong Bodas]].<ref>Stokes (2007), p. 111.</ref> Sanajan mimitina mah anjeunna teu pati kritis kana éta film, Wilson tungtungna ngajaga jarak saatos meunang protés ti publik sarta ngaluarkeun pernyataan anu ngutuk pesen dina éta film, bari nolak yén anjeunna parantos terang eusina sateuacan diputer.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 349–350.</ref> ==== Ségregasi birokrasi féderal ==== Dina taun 1910-an, warga [[Afrika-Amérika]] parantos ampir sagemblengna taya kasempetan pikeun kapilih dina jabatan publik. Meunangkeun jabatan éksekutif ngaliwatan pajabat luhur (appointment) dina birokrasi féderal biasana janten hiji-hijina pilihan pikeun para inohong Afrika-Amérika. Numutkeun Berg, Wilson sabenerna mah terus nunjuk warga Afrika-Amérika pikeun posisi-posisi anu sacara tradisi sok dieusi ku warga kulit hideung, sanajan kudu nyanghareupan palawanan ti loba sénator wewengkon Kidul. [[Oswald Garrison Villard]], anu saterusna janten lawan politikna, mimitina mah nyangka yén Wilson sanés jalma anu fanatik (bigot) sarta ngarojong kamajuan warga kulit hideung, nanging anjeunna ngarasa hanjelu ku palawanan urang Kidul di Sénat anu tungtungna méré pangaruh ka Wilson.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 307–311.</ref> Dina sawala sareng Wilson, wartawan John Palmer Gavit nyindekkeun yén nangtang pandangan urang Kidul "pastina bakal micu konflik anu bakal ngeureunkeun sakabéh program législatif sacara total."<ref name="Jacobs & Milkins 2017">Jacobs & Milkis (2017), pp. 193–217.</ref> Ti saprak réngséna jaman Rekonstruksi, boh Partéy Démokrat boh Républik mikawanoh yén aya sababaraha jabatan anu sacara unofisial "disadiakeun" pikeun warga Afrika-Amérika anu mibanda kualifikasi. Wilson nunjuk total salapan urang Afrika-Amérika pikeun posisi penting dina birokrasi féderal, dimana dalapan urang di antarana mangrupa jalma-jalma ti jaman Républik sateuacanna. Salaku babandingan, William Howard Taft kungsi nampa amukan ti urang Républik alatan anjeunna ngan saukur nunjuk 31 pajabat kulit hideung, angka panghandapna pikeun présidén ti Partéy Républik. Saatos ngajabat, Wilson mecat ampir kabéh iwal ti dua urang tina 17 pangawas kulit hideung dina birokrasi féderal anu sateuacanna ditunjuk ku Taft.<ref>George Mason University, "Missed Manners: Wilson Lectures a Black Leader"</ref> Ti saprak taun 1863, misi diplomatik AS ka Haiti sarta Santo Domingo ampir sok dipingpin ku diplomat Afrika-Amérika tanpa ningal ti partéy mana présidénna; Wilson mungkas éta tradisi anu parantos lumangsung satengah abad kasebut, nanging anjeunna terus nunjuk diplomat kulit hideung, sapertos [[George Washington Buckner]] sarta [[Joseph L. Johnson]], pikeun mingpin misi ka [[Libéria]].<ref>Lovett & Coffee (1984), pp. 4–8</ref> Ti saprak ahir Rekonstruksi, birokrasi féderal mangrupa hiji-hijina jalan karir dimana warga Afrika-Amérika bisa ngalaman sakedik kasaruaan hak, sarta janten pondasi utama pikeun tumuwuhna kelas menengah warga kulit hideung.<ref>USPS, "African-American Postal Workers in the 20th Century"</ref> ==== Ségregasi birokrasi féderal ==== Pamaréntahan Wilson ningkatkeun kawijakan rékrutmen anu diskriminatif sarta ségregasi di kantor-kantor pamaréntahan anu parantos dimimitian dina mangsa Theodore Roosevelt sarta dituluykeun ku Taft.<ref>Meier & Rudwick (1967), pp. 178–184</ref> Dina bulan munggaran Wilson ngajabat, Diréktur Jéndral Pos [[Albert S. Burleson]] ngadesek présidén sangkan ngadegkeun kantor-kantor pamaréntahan anu papisah dumasar ras.<ref name="wolgemuth">Wolgemuth (1959), pp. 158–173</ref> Wilson teu narima usulan Burleson sacara sagemblengna, nanging anjeunna méré kawenangan ka para menteri kabinét pikeun ngatur ségregasi di departeménna masing-masing.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 307</ref> Dina ahir taun 1913, loba departemén, kaasup Angkatan Laut, Departemén Kauangan, sarta Kantor Pos, parantos mibanda tempat gawé, jamban, sarta kantin anu dipisahkeun.<ref name="wolgemuth"/> Loba lembaga nagara ngagunakeun ségregasi salaku alesan pikeun nerapkeun kawijakan "khusus kulit bodas", kalayan alesan yén maranéhanana teu mibanda fasilitas pikeun pagawé kulit hideung. Dina kaayaan kieu, warga Afrika-Amérika anu parantos didamel sateuacan pamaréntahan Wilson dipaksa pangsiun dini, dipindahkeun, atawa langsung dipecat.<ref>Lewis (1993), p. 332</ref> Atas saran Sénator Oklahoma [[Thomas Gore]], Wilson nunjuk Adam E. Patterson, saurang Démokrat kulit hideung ti Oklahoma, pikeun jabatan [[Register of the Treasury]] dina Juli 1913; nanging Patterson narik diri saatos meunang palawanan ti sénator Démokrat urang Kidul sapertos [[James K. Vardaman]] sarta [[Benjamin Tillman]]. Wilson saterusna kalah nunjuk [[Gabe E. Parker]], anu mibanda turunan campuran Éropa sarta [[Choctaw]], sarta saatos éta anjeunna teu kantos deui nunjuk warga kulit hideung pikeun jabatan féderal.<ref name="Jacobs & Milkins 2017"/><ref>Yellin (2013), pp. 81–112</ref> Diskriminasi ras dina rékrutmen féderal beuki parna nalika saatos taun 1914, Komisi Layanan Sipil AS ngayakeun aturan anyar anu ngawajibkeun unggal pelamar gawé pikeun ngalampirkeun poto pribadi. Alesan resmina mah nyaéta pikeun nyegah penipuan; nanging saenyana mah ngan aya 14 kasus penipuan identitas anu kapanggih dina taun sateuacanna.<ref>Glenn (1957), p. 91</ref> Salaku wilayah féderal, Washington, D.C. parantos lila janten tempat anu méré kasempetan gawé leuwih jembar sarta kurang diskriminasi pikeun warga Afrika-Amérika. Nanging dina taun 1919, para véteran kulit hideung anu mulang ka D.C. kaget nalika mendakan aturan [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow]] parantos lumaku; loba anu teu tiasa deui balik kana padamelan lami maranéhanana atawa malah teu meunang asup ka gedong tempat maranéhanana kungsi didamel alatan warna kulit. [[Booker T. Washington]] ngagambarkeun kaayaan ieu: "Kuring tacan kantos ningal warga kulit hideung sakitu pundungna sarta pait haténa sapertos dina mangsa ayeuna."<ref>Politico (2015), "How Woodrow Wilson Stoked the First Urban Race Riot"</ref> ==== Afrika-Amérika dina pasukan pakarang ==== {{Utama|Ségregasi ras dina Pasukan Pakarang Amérika Sarikat}} [[Berkas:King, Stoddard WW1 draft card.jpg|thumb|Kartu pendaftaran wajib militer Perang Dunya I. Bagian handap kencana tiasa diteukteuk pikeun nandaan lalaki turunan Afrika sangkan ségregasi militér tetep kajaga.]] Sanajan ségregasi parantos aya di Angkatan Darat sateuacan Wilson, tingkat kapeurihna ningkat kacida dina mangsa pamaréntahanana. Dina période munggaran Wilson, Angkatan Darat sarta Angkatan Laut nolak ngangkat perwira anyar tina warga kulit hideung.<ref>Lewis, p. 332</ref> Perwira kulit hideung anu parantos ngajabat ngalaman diskriminasi anu beuki parna sarta sering dipaksa kaluar atawa dipecat kalayan alesan anu teu tétéla.<ref>James (2013), pp. 49–51</ref> Saatos AS asup kana Perang Dunya I, Departemén Perang ngayakeun wajib militer ka ratusan rébu warga kulit hideung, sarta para pamilon wajib militer éta dibayar sarua tanpa ningal ras. Pangangkatan perwira Afrika-Amérika dimimitian deui, nanging unit-unitna tetep dipisahkeun (ségregasi) sarta ampir kabéh unit husus kulit hideung dipingpin ku perwira kulit bodas.<ref>Cooke (1999)</ref> Béda sareng Angkatan Darat, Angkatan Laut AS saenyana mah teu kantos sacara resmi nerapkeun ségregasi. Nanging, saatos Wilson nunjuk [[Josephus Daniels]] janten [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]], sistem Jim Crow langsung dilarapkeun; kapal, fasilitas latihan, jamban, sarta kantin kabéhanana janten dipisahkeun.<ref name="wolgemuth"/> Nalika Daniels méré loba kasempetan pikeun pelaut kulit bodas sangkan naék pangkat, para pelaut Afrika-Amérika kalah diturunkeun darajatna janten ngan saukur pagawé dapur sarta kabersihan, malah sering dititah janten palayan pikeun perwira kulit bodas.<ref>Foner (1974), p. 124</ref> === Réspons kana kekerasan rasial === [[Berkas:East St Louis Massacre cartoon, Morris.jpg|thumb|Kartun pulitik taun 1917 anu dipedar dina ''[[New York Evening Mail]]'' ngeunaan [[Karusuhan East St. Louis]] 1917 kalayan téks: "Pa Présidén, naha henteu jantenkeun Amérika aman pikeun démokrasi?"]] Pikeun nyumponan kabutuhan tanaga gawé industri, [[Migrasi Gedé (Afrika-Amérika)|Migrasi Gedé]] warga Afrika-Amérika kaluar ti wewengkon Kidul ningkat drastis dina taun 1917 sarta 1918. Ieu migrasi janten cukang lantaran [[Kekerasan rasial massal di Amérika Sarikat|karusuhan ras]], kaasup [[Karusuhan East St. Louis]] taun 1917. Pikeun ngaréspons éta karusuhan, nanging saatos meunang protés keras ti publik, Wilson naros ka Jaksa Agung [[Thomas Watt Gregory]] naha pamaréntah féderal tiasa pipilueun pikeun "nahan tindakan nista ieu". Atas saran Gregory, Wilson milih pikeun teu nyandak tindakan langsung pikeun nangani éta karusuhan.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 407–408</ref> Dina taun 1918, Wilson tungtungna nyarita sacara kabuka pikeun nangtang [[pancaka (lynching) di Amérika Sarikat]], kalayan nyebutkeun: "Kuring nyarita kalayan tétéla yén unggal urang Amérika anu milu dina tindakan mob (massa) atawa méré dukungan dina wangun naon baé lain putra sajati tina ieu démokrasi anu hébat, nanging janten panghianatna... [sarta] ngérakeun nagara ku hianat kana standar hukum sarta hak-hakna."<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 409–410</ref> Dina taun 1919, [[Red Summer of 1919|rangkaian karusuhan ras séjénna]] lumangsung di [[Karusuhan Ras Chicago 1919|Chicago]], [[Karusuhan Ras Omaha 1919|Omaha]], sarta dua lusin kota gedé séjénna di wewengkon Kalér. Ahli sajarah ngira-ngira leuwih ti 250 warga Afrika-Amérika nemasing pati.<ref>PBS, "Hundreds of black deaths during 1919's Red Summer are being remembered"</ref> Pamaréntah féderal tetep teu pipilueun, sakumaha anu parantos lumangsung sateuacanana.<ref>Rucker & Upton (2007), p. 310</ref> == Warisan == === Reputasi sajarah === [[Berkas:US-$100000-GC-1934-Fr-2413.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Sertifikat emas taun 1934 saharga $100.000 anu mintonkeun gambar Wilson]] Wilson sacara umum [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|dipeunteun ku para ahli sajarah sarta élmuwan pulitik]] salaku présidén anu mibanda préstasi di luhur rata-rata.<ref name="jschuessler1"/> Dina pandangan sababaraha ahli sajarah, Wilson, leuwih ti para pangheulana, parantos nyandak léngkah-léngkah pikeun nyiptakeun pamaréntah féderal anu kuat pikeun nangtayungan rahayat biasa tina kakuatan korporasi gedé anu kaleuleuwihi.<ref>Politico (2015), "What Woodrow Wilson Did For Black America"</ref> Anjeunna sacara umum dianggap salaku tokoh konci dina ngadegkeun [[liberalisme Amérika modern]], sarta mibanda pangaruh kuat ka présidén-présidén ka hareupna sapertos [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] sarta [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].<ref name="jschuessler1"/> Cooper boga pamanggih yén dina hal pangaruh sarta ambisi, ngan saukur [[New Deal]] sarta [[Great Society]] anu tiasa nyalip préstasi domestik mangsa kapérésidénan Wilson.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 213</ref> Loba préstasi Wilson, kaasup Federal Reserve (Bank Sentral), Federal Trade Commission (Komisi Perdagangan), pajeg panghasilan, sarta hukum tanaga gawé, terus mangaruhan Amérika Sarikat lila saatos Wilson tilar dunya.<ref name="jschuessler1"/> Loba kaum [[Konservatisme di Amérika Sarikat|konservatif]] anu nyerang Wilson alatan péranna dina ngalegaan kakawasaan pamaréntah féderal.<ref>The New Yorker (2009)</ref> Dina taun 2018, kolumnis konservatif George Will nyerat dina ''The Washington Post'' yén Theodore Roosevelt sarta Wilson mangrupa "karuhun tina sistem [[imperial presidency]] (kapérésidénan imperial) jaman ayeuna".<ref>The Washington Post (2018)</ref> Kawijakan luar nagri Wilson, anu katelah salaku [[Wilsonianisme]], ogé méré pangaruh anu jero kana [[kawijakan luar nagri Amérika]], sarta Liga Bangsa-Bangsa karya Wilson mangaruhan lahirna [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB)]].<ref name="jschuessler1"/> Saladin Ambar nyerat yén Wilson mangrupa "negarawan munggaran di tingkat dunya anu nyarita lain ngan saukur ngalawan [[imperialisme]] Éropa, nanging ogé ngalawan wangun anyar dominasi ékonomi anu sakapeung disebut salaku 'imperialisme informal'."<ref name="millerlegacy"/> [[Berkas:Woodrow Wilson postage stamp issues.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.7|Kantor Pos AS ngaluarkeun perangko pikeun ngahormatan Wilson: 17 sén (1925), 1 dollar (1938), sarta 7 sén (1956)]] Sanajan mibanda loba préstasi salila ngajabat, Wilson nampa kritik keras alatan catetanana ngeunaan hubungan ras sarta kabébasan sipil, intervensina di Amérika Latin, sarta kagagalanana dina ngasahkeun Perjangjian Versailles.<ref name="millerlegacy"/> Sanajan anjeunna boga akar budaya Kidul sarta catetan rasis di Princeton, Wilson janten urang Démokrat munggaran anu nampa rojongan lega tina komunitas Afrika-Amérika dina pamilu présidén.<ref>O'Reilly (1997), pp. 117–121</ref> Nanging, para pangrojong Afrika-Amérika Wilson, anu loba meuntas garis partéy pikeun milih anjeunna dina taun 1912, ngarasa kacida kuciwana ku pamaréntahan Wilson, utamana kaputusanana pikeun nerapkeun aturan Jim Crow (ségregasi) dina birokrasi féderal.<ref name="wolgemuth"/> == Kawijakan ékonomi: New Freedom == Saatos dilantik, Wilson langsung ngajalankeun agenda "**New Freedom**" pikeun ngarombak tilu pilar utama ékonomi: tarif, perbankan, sarta kakuatan korporasi (trust). === Undang-Undang Underwood sarta Pajeg Panghasilan === Pikeun nurunkeun harga barang pikeun rahayat, Wilson ngadesek Kongrés sangkan ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Underwood]] dina taun 1913, anu nurunkeun tarif impor sacara drastis pikeun munggaranana ti saprak Perang Sadulur. Pikeun ngagentos kakirangan pendapatan nagara alatan turunna tarif, anjeunna nerapkeun pajeg panghasilan féderal (graduated income tax) dumasar kana [[Amandemén Kagenep Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén Kagenep Belas]]. === Sistim Federal Reserve === Salasahiji warisan Wilson anu paling pangaruh nyaéta pangadegan [[Federal Reserve]] (Bank Sentral AS) ngaliwatan Undang-Undang Federal Reserve 1913. Ieu sistim diciptakeun pikeun nyadiakeun mata uang anu fléksibel sarta méré stabilitas kana sistim kauangan nasional, sangkan kakuatan bank-bank badé di Wall Street bisa dikontrol ku pamaréntah féderal. === Federal Trade Commission (FTC) === Pikeun ngajaga persaingan usaha anu adil, Wilson ngadegkeun [[Federal Trade Commission]] dina taun 1914. Tugasna nyaéta pikeun nalungtik sarta ngeureunkeun prakték bisnis anu teu jujur sarta nyegah tumuwuhna monopoli anu ngarugikeun padagang leutik sarta konsumen. === Budaya popular === Dina taun 1944, [[20th Century Fox]] ngaluarkeun film ''[[Wilson (film 1944)|Wilson]]'', hiji [[biopic]] ngeunaan Wilson anu dibéntangan ku [[Alexander Knox]] sarta diarahkeun ku sutradara [[Henry King (sutradara)|Henry King]]. Ieu film dianggap mintonkeun sosok Wilson sacara "idéalistik". Film ieu mangrupa proyék pribadi sarta karesep ti présidén studio sakaligus produser [[Darryl F. Zanuck]], anu kacida mikahéman sosok Wilson. Ieu film nampa pamuji ti para kritikus film sarta para pangrojong Wilson,<ref>Manny, Farner (14 Agustus 1944). ''The New Republic''.</ref> sarta hasil meunang sapuluh nominasi [[Piala Oscar|Academy Awards]], dimana [[Academy Awards ka-17|lima di antarana hasil dimeunangkeun]].<ref name="Erickson 1944">Erickson (2013). "Wilson (1944) – Review Summary"</ref> Sanajan populér di kalangan elit, film ''Wilson'' gagal pisan di bioskop (box-office bomb), nepi ka ngabalukarkeun karugian ampir $2 juta pikeun studio.<ref>Variety (20 Maret 1946). "'You Can Sell Almost Anything But Politics or Religion Via Pix' – Zanuck"</ref> Kagagalan film ieu disebut mibanda pangaruh anu jero sarta lila ka Zanuck, sarta nepi ka ayeuna tacan aya deui studio gedé anu nyoba nyieun film dumasar kana lalakon hirup Wilson.<ref name="Erickson 1944"/> == Karya == * [https://archive.org/details/congressionalgov00wilsiala/ ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics.''] Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1885. * [https://archive.org/details/stateelementshi06wilsgoog ''The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics.''] Boston: D.C. Heath, 1889. * [https://archive.org/details/divisionandreun00wilsgoog ''Division and Reunion, 1829–1889.''] New York, London, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1893. * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924032634960 ''An Old Master and Other Political Essays.''] New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893. * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924014329274 ''Mere Literature and Other Essays.''] Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1896. * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924032749149 ''George Washington.''] New York: Harper & Brothers, 1897. * ''[[A History of the American People (Séri lima jilid)|A History of the American People]].'' Dina lima jilid. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1901–02. * [https://archive.org/details/constitutionalgo0000wils_h2r1/ ''Constitutional Government in the United States.''] New York: Columbia University Press, 1908. * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924029052558 ''The Free Life: A Baccalaureate Address.''] New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1908. * [https://archive.org/details/newfreedomacall01halegoog/ ''The New Freedom: A Call for the Emancipation of the Energies of a Generous People.''] New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1913. —Pidato-pidato. * [https://archive.org/details/roadawayfromrevo00wils/ ''The Road Away from Revolution.''] Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1923. * ''The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson.'' Ray Stannard Baker sarta William E. Dodd (éd.) Dina genep jilid. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1925–27. * ''Study of public administration'' (Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1955). * ''A Crossroads of Freedom: The 1912 Campaign Speeches of Woodrow Wilson.'' John Wells Davidson (éd.) New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1956. * ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson.'' Arthur S. Link (éd.) Dina 69 jilid. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967–1994. & Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-9809-4}} * {{cite book |last=Pestritto|first=Ronald J. |title=Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism |url=https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonroo0000pest|date=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-1517-8}} * {{cite journal |last1=Ruiz |first1=George W. |title=The Ideological Convergence of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |date=1989 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=159–177 |jstor=40574572}} * {{cite book|last1=Saunders|first1=Robert M.|title=In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofwoodro0000saun|isbn=978-0-313-30520-7|year=1998|publisher=Greenwood Press}} * {{cite book |last=Stokes |first= Melvyn |title=D. W. Griffith's ''The Birth of a Nation: A History of "The Most Controversial Motion Picture of All Time"'' |url=https://archive.org/details/dwgriffithsbirth0000stok | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=2007 | isbn=978-0-19-533679-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Walworth |first=Arthur |title=Woodrow Wilson, Volume I, Volume II |publisher=Longmans, Green |year=1958 |oclc=1031728326 |url=https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilson00walw }} * {{cite book |last=Weisman |first=Steven R. |title=The Great Tax Wars: Lincoln to Wilson – The Fierce Battles over Money That Transformed the Nation |date=2002 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-85068-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/greattaxwars00weis }} * {{cite book |last=White|first=William Allen|title=Woodrow Wilson – The Man, His Times and His Task|isbn=978-1-4067-7685-0|publisher=Read Books|date=2007|orig-year=1925}} * {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Woodrow |url=https://archive.org/stream/congressionalgov00wilsiala#page/n5/mode/2up |title=Congressional Government, A Study in American Politics |year=1885 |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Company |via=Internet Archive |oclc=504641398 }} * Wright, Esmond. "The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson: A Re-Assessment. Part 1: Woodrow Wilson and the First World War" ''History Today''. (Mar 1960) 10#3 pp.&nbsp;149–157. ** Wright, Esmond. "The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson: A Re-Assessment. Part 2: Wilson and the Dream of Reason" ''History Today'' (Apr 1960) 19#4 pp.&nbsp;223–231. {{refend}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{Daptar utama|Bibliografi Woodrow Wilson}} === Pikeun pelajar === * Archer, Jules. ''World citizen: Woodrow Wilson'' (1967) [https://archive.org/details/worldcitizenwood00arch/page/n9/mode/2up online], pikeun tingkat sakola menengah atas. * Frith, Margaret. ''Who was Woodrow Wilson?'' (2015) [https://archive.org/details/whowaswoodrowwil0000frit online], pikeun tingkat sakola menengah pertama. === Historiografi === Bagean ieu ngawengku analisis ngeunaan kumaha para ahli sajarah meunteun Wilson sarta warisanana tina rupa-rupa jihat pandang: * Ambrosius, Lloyd. ''Wilsonianism: Woodrow Wilson and his legacy in American foreign relations'' (Springer, 2002). * [[John M. Cooper (sajarahwan)|Cooper, John Milton]], ed. ''Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson: Progressivism, Internationalism, War, and Peace'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008). * {{cite journal|last1=Janis |first1=Mark Weston |title=How Wilsonian Was Woodrow Wilson? |journal=Dartmouth Law Journal |year=2007 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–15}} * {{cite journal|doi=10.1111/0145-2096.00247|title=Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and American National Security |year=2001 |last1=Kennedy |first1=Ross A. |journal=Diplomatic History |volume=25 |pages=1–31}} * {{cite journal|jstor=27551193|title=History, Health and Herons: The Historiography of Woodrow Wilson's Personality and Decision-Making |last1=Saunders |first1=Robert M. |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1994 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=57–77}} * {{cite journal |doi=10.1177/106591297703000203|title=Woodrow Wilson as 'Corporate-Liberal': Toward a Reconsideration of Left Revisionist Historiography |year=1977 |last1=Seltzer |first1=Alan L. |journal=Western Political Quarterly |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=183–212}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sister project links|wikt=Wilson|commons=Woodrow Wilson|b=no|n=no|q=Woodrow Wilson|s=Author:Thomas Woodrow Wilson|v=no}} ;Resmi * [https://www.wilsoncenter.org/about-woodrow-wilson Ngeunaan Woodrow Wilson – Wilson Center] * [http://www.woodrowwilson.org/ Perpustakaan Presidén & Muséum Woodrow Wilson] ;Koléksi digital * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/woodrow-wilson}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=1689|name=Woodrow Wilson}} * {{Internet Archive author|sname=Woodrow Wilson}} * {{Librivox author|id=2417}} ;Séjénna * {{nobelprize}} {{Woodrow Wilson|state=collapsed}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta pangajén |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-aca}} {{s-bef|before=[[Francis Landey Patton]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Universitas Princeton]]|years=1902–1910}} {{s-aft|after=[[John Aikman Stewart]]<br />''acting'' (pj)}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Frank S. 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Harding]]}} {{s-ach}} {{s-bef|before=[[Komite Internasional Palang Merah]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Penerima Hadiah Nobél Padaméian|years=1919}} {{s-aft|after=[[Léon Bourgeois]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Giulio Gatti-Casazza]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar sampul majalah Time (1920-an)|Sampul majalah ''Time'']]|years=12 Nopémber 1923}} {{s-aft|after=[[Erich Ludendorff]]}} {{s-end}} }} [[Kategori:Présiden Amérika]] cwrn96hook2sq2uatkmn6b5upqlgz5s 0 108405 711826 711446 2026-08-07T05:24:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 10 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711826 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Warren G. Harding | image = Warren G. Harding 1920s portrait (3x4 cropped).jpg | caption = Potrét, {{circa|1920–1923}} | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-29 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | term_start = 4 Maret 1921 | term_end = 2 Agustus 1923 | predecessor = [[Woodrow Wilson]] | successor = [[Calvin Coolidge]] | vice_president = [[Calvin Coolidge]] | jr/sr1 = Sénator Amérika Sarikat | state1 = [[Ohio]] | term_start1 = 4 Maret 1915 | term_end1 = 13 Januari 1921 | predecessor1 = [[Theodore E. Burton]] | successor1 = [[Frank B. Willis]] | order2 = Létnan Gubernur Ohio ka-28 | office2 = Létnan Gubernur Ohio | governor2 = [[Myron T. Herrick]] | term_start2 = 11 Januari 1904 | term_end2 = 8 Januari 1906 | predecessor2 = [[Harry L. Gordon]] | successor2 = [[Andrew L. Harris]] | state_senate3 = Ohio | district3 = ka-13 | term_start4 = 1 Januari 1900 | term_end4 = 4 Januari 1904 | predecessor4 = Henry May | successor4 = [[Samuel H. West]] | birth_name = Warren Gamaliel Harding | birth_date = {{birth date|1865|11|2}} | birth_place = [[Blooming Grove, Ohio]], AS | death_date = {{death date and age|1923|8|2|1865|11|2}} | death_place = San Francisco, Kalifornia, AS | resting_place = [[Makam Harding]] | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Florence Kling]]|8 Juli 1891}} | children = [[Elizabeth Ann Blaesing|Elizabeth]] (sareng [[Nan Britton]]) | father = [[George Tryon Harding]] | occupation = {{flatlist| * Wartawan * politikus }} | education = [[Ohio Central College]] ([[Sarjana Sastra|BA]]) | signature = Warren G Harding Signature2.svg | signature_alt = Tanda tangan kursif dina mangsi | module = {{listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Portion of a speech by Harding.ogg|title=Sora Warren G. Harding|type=speech|description=Sempalan biantara Harding<br />Dirékam taun 1920}} }} '''Warren Gamaliel Harding''' (2 Nopémber 1865 – 2 Agustus 1923) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-29, anu ngajabat ti taun 1921 dugi ka pupusna dina taun 1923. Salaku anggota [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]], anjeunna mangrupa salah sahiji présidén anu pangpopulérna nalika harita. Nanging saatos anjeunna pupus, sababaraha skandal mimiti kabongkar anu ahirna ngaruksak pisan kana reputasi sarta jenenganana dina sajarah. Harding matuh di padésan [[Ohio]] saumur hirupna, iwal nalika pancén politik nganteur anjeunna ka daérah sanés. Nalika anom kénéh, anjeunna mésér surat kabar ''[[The Marion Star]]'' sarta ngawangun éta média dugi ka suksés. Harding ngajabat di [[Sénat Nagara Bagian Ohio]] ti taun 1900 dugi ka 1904, sarta janten [[Létnan Gubernur Ohio]] salami dua taun. Sanajan anjeunna kawon dina [[Pamilihan gubernur Ohio 1910|pamilihan gubernur taun 1910]], Harding hasil kapilih janten anggota [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]] dina [[Pamilihan Sénat Amérika Sarikat 1914 di Ohio|taun 1914]]—anu mangrupa pamilihan langsung munggaran pikeun éta kalungguhan di nagara bagian kasebut. Dina taun 1920, Harding maju janten calon présidén ti Partéy Républik, nanging mimitina mah anjeunna henteu pati diunggulkeun sateuacan [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1920|konvénsi]] dimimitian. Nalika para calon utama henteu tiasa kénging sora mayoritas sarta konvénsi nincak jalan buntu (''deadlock''), dukungan ka Harding teras ningkat, dugi ka ahirna anjeunna dicalonkeun dina sora (''ballot'') kasapuluh. Dina mangsa kampanye, anjeunna ngagunakeun stratégi ''[[front porch campaign]]'', nyaéta cicing di Marion bari ngantosan jalma-jalma nu sumping ka anjeunna. Harding ngajanjikeun "[[mulih deui kana kaayaan normal]]" (''return to normalcy'') sapertos mangsa sateuacan [[Amérika Sarikat dina Perang Dunya I|Perang Dunya I]]. Anjeunna hasil ngéléhkeun calon ti [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]], [[James M. Cox]], kalayan sora anu mutlak (''landslide''), sarta janten sénator munggaran anu nuju ngajabat anu kapilih janten présidén. Harding ngangkat sababaraha inohong anu dipihormat pikeun ngeusian [[Kabinet Warren G. Harding|kabinetna]], di antarana [[Andrew Mellon]] di [[Departemén Kauangan Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Kauangan]], [[Herbert Hoover]] di [[Departemén Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Perdagangan]], sarta [[Charles Evans Hughes]] di [[Departemén Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Luar Nagri]]. Salah sahiji préstasi utama dina kawijakan luar nagrina nyaéta [[Konférénsi Angkatan Laut Washington]] 1921–1922, dimana kakuatan angkatan laut utama dunya sapuk kana program pangwatesan pakarang laut anu lumangsung salami dasawarsa. Harding ogé ngabébaskeun tahanan politik anu ditéwak alatan [[Oposisi kana Perang Dunya I di Amérika Sarikat|nampik Perang Dunya I]]. Dina taun 1923, anjeunna pupus alatan serangan jantung di San Francisco nalika nuju ngayakeun lalampahan ka wilayah kulon, sarta kalungguhanana ditéruskeun ku Wakil Présidén [[Calvin Coolidge]]. Kabongkarna rupa-rupa skandal saatos Harding pupus, kalebet [[Skandal Teapot Dome]], sarta ayana hubungan di luar nikah sareng [[Nan Britton]], parantos ngaleungitkeun popularitas anjeunna. Sekretaris jero nagrina, [[Albert B. Fall]], sarta [[Jaksa Agung Amérika Sarikat|Jaksa Agungna]], [[Harry Daugherty]], duanana dikiatkeun kana dakwaan korupsi nalika nuju ngajabat; Fall kabuktian salah sarta dihukum, sedengkeun Daugherty mah henteu. Ieu runtuyan prosés hukum téh parantos ngaruksak pisan kana [[Reputasi sajarah Warren G. Harding|reputasi Harding saatos anjeunna pupus]]. Dina [[Peringkat sajarah Présidén AS]] salami sababaraha dasawarsa saatos anjeunna ngajabat, Harding sering pisan ditempatkeun dina jajaran présidén anu panggoréngna. Nanging dina dasawarsa-dasawarsa salajengna, sababaraha ahli sajarah mimiti marios deui sarta ngajén deui catetan préstasi Harding salami anjeunna ngajabat. == Awal kahirupan sarta karir == === Mangsa budak sarta atikan === {{Warren G. Harding series}} [[File:Home of Warren G. Harding 2011.jpg|jmpl|kénca|Imah Harding di [[Marion, Ohio]]]] Warren Harding lahir dina ping 2 Nopémber 1865, di [[Blooming Grove, Ohio]].{{sfn|Russell|p=33}} Nalika alit, anjeunna kagungan jujuluk "Winnie". Harding mangrupa putra cikal ti dalapan sadulur pasangan [[George Tryon Harding]] (biasana nelah Tryon) sareng Phoebe Elizabeth (née Dickerson) Harding.{{sfn|Russell|p=33}} Phoebe téh saurang [[paraji]] anu miboga lisénsi ti nagara bagian. Tryon damel salaku patani sarta ngajar sakola caket [[Mount Gilead, Ohio|Mount Gilead]]. Ngaliwatan magang, diajar mandiri, sarta sataun kuliah di sakola kedokteran, Tryon ahirna janten dokter sarta muka prakték alit.{{sfn|Russell|p=35}} Karuhun munggaran Harding di Amérika nyaéta Richard Harding, anu sumping ti [[Inggris]] ka [[Teluk Massachusetts]] sakitar taun 1624.<ref>{{cite book|title=The New England Historical and Genealogical Register|publisher=New England Historic Genealogical Society|year=1922}}</ref> Harding ogé ngagaduhan garis katurunan ti Wales sarta Skotlandia,<ref>The New England Historical and Genealogical Register, Volumes 76–77. October 1923, p. 244</ref> sarta sawatara karuhun ti pihak ibuna mah asalna ti Walanda, kalebet kulawarga Van Kirk anu beunghar.<ref>{{cite book |title=The illustrious life and work of Warren G. Harding, twenty-ninth President of the United States |last=Russell |first=Thomas |page=51 |year=1923 |publisher=the University of Wisconsin–Madison}}</ref> Aya béja (rumor) ti lawan politikna di Blooming Grove yén salah saurang nini buyut Harding téh mangrupa urang [[Afrit-Amérika]].<ref name = "first black president">{{cite news|last=Gage|first=Beverly|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/06/magazine/06wwln-essay-t.html?ref=warrengharding|title=Our First Black President?|newspaper=The New York Times|date=April 6, 2008|access-date=June 15, 2015}}</ref> Aki buyutna, Amos Harding, nétélakeun yén éta béja téh mimiti ditiupkeun ku saurang bangsat anu kanyahoan maling ku kulawargana, kalayan tujuan pikeun meres atanapi males dendam.{{sfn|Russell|p=26}} Dina taun 2015, [[tés genetik]] ka turunan Harding ngabuktikeun kalayan akurasi langkung ti 95%, yén anjeunna henteu gaduh katurunan Afrika sub-Sahara dina opat generasi ka tukang.<ref name="DNA" /><ref name=Baker18Aug>{{cite news|work=The New York Times|first=Peter|last=Baker|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/19/us/politics/dna-that-confirmed-one-warren-harding-rumor-refutes-another.html|title=DNA Shows Warren Harding Wasn't America's First Black President|date=August 18, 2015|access-date=August 18, 2015}}</ref> Dina taun 1870, kulawarga Harding anu mangrupa panganut [[Abolisionismeu di Amérika Sarikat|abolisionismeu]] (gerakan anti-perbudakan), pindah ka [[Caledonia, Ohio|Caledonia]]. Di dinya, Tryon ngokolakeun ''The Argus'', hiji surat kabar mingguan lokal. Ti yuswa 11 taun, Harding mimiti neuleuman dunya surat kabar di ''The Argus''.{{sfn|Dean|p=6}} Dina ahir taun 1879, nalika yuswana 14 taun, anjeunna sakola di ''alma mater'' ramana—[[Ohio Central College]] di [[Iberia, Ohio|Iberia]]. Di dinya, anjeunna kabuktian salaku murid anu parigel. Dina taun pamungkasna, anjeunna sareng rerencanganana medarkeun surat kabar alit, ''Iberia Spectator''. Dina taun éta kénéh, kulawarga Harding pindah ka [[Marion, Ohio|Marion]], sakitar 6 mil ti Caledonia, sarta saatos lulus dina taun 1882, anjeunna nyusul kulawargana ka dinya.{{sfn|Dean|pp=7–9}} Dina ping 6 Méi 1883, Harding janten anggota [[Garéja Baptis Bébas]] (''Free Baptist Church'') di Marion. Anjeunna ngajabat salaku wali (''trustee'') salami 25 taun sarta tetep janten anggota dugi ka pupusna.<ref name="TBC">{{citation |title=Trinity Baptist Church — Marion, Ohio: History and Development |publisher=Trinity Baptist Church, Marion, Ohio |url=http://www.tbcmarion.org/pdf/trinity%20baptist%20church.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325184835/http://www.tbcmarion.org/pdf/trinity%20baptist%20church.pdf |archive-date=March 25, 2009 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |url-status=dead }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>{{rp|6}} Ieu jamaah garéja ngagabung sareng [[Konvénsi Baptis Kalér]] dina taun 1911<ref name="TBC" />{{rp|4}} sarta katelah ku nami Garéja Baptis Trinity dina taun 1912.<ref name="TBC" />{{rp|7}} === Éeditor === Nalika Harding anom kénéh, sabagian ageung padumuk Amérika Sarikat masih kénéh matuh di padésan sarta kota-kota alit. Harding méakkeun ampir sakabéh hirupna di Marion, hiji kota alit di wilayah désa puseur Ohio, sarta janten raket pisan sareng éta kota. Nalika anjeunna nincak kalungguhan luhur, anjeunna nétélakeun kacida nyaahna ka Marion sarta cara hirup di dinya; anjeunna nyarioskeun seueur nonoman Marion anu angkat sarta suksés di tempat sanés, bari nyebatkeun yén jalma anu kantos janten "kareueus sakola" nanging milih tetep di lembur sarta janten purah beberesih (''janitor''), saenyana mangrupa "jalma anu pangbagajana ti sakabéh kelompok".{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=6–9}} Saatos lulus, Harding kantos nyobian damel janten guru sarta agén asuransi, ogé sakedap neuleuman widang hukum. Anjeunna teras ngumpulkeun modal $300 (sarimbag sareng {{Inflation|US|300|1883|fmt=eq|r=-2}}) babarengan sareng rénjangna pikeun mésér hiji surat kabar anu ampir bangkrut, ''[[The Marion Star]]'', média panglemahna ti tilu surat kabar anu aya di éta kota. Harding anu harita yuswana 18 taun ngagunakeun kartu pas karéta api anu janten fasilitas éta média pikeun sumping ka [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1884]]. Di dinya, anjeunna gaul sareng wartawan-wartawan anu langkung kawentar sarta ngadukung calon présidén, mantan [[Menteri Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat|Menteri Luar Nagri]] [[James G. Blaine]]. Nalika Harding mulang ti Chicago, anjeunna mendakan yén pihak kaamanan parantos nyita éta surat kabar.{{sfn|Dean|pp=9–13}} Salami kampanye pamilihan, Harding damel di ''Democratic Mirror'' Marion sarta ngarasa keuheul margi kedah muji calon présidén ti Partéy Démokrat, Gubernur New York [[Grover Cleveland]], anu ahirna meunang [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1884|pamilihan]].{{sfn|Nevins|p=252}} Saatos éta, kalayan bantuan kauangan ti ramana, Harding hasil ngagaduhan deui éta surat kabar.{{sfn|Dean|pp=9–13}} Dina ahir taun 1880-an, Harding ngawangun sarta ngamajukeun ''Star''. Kota Marion mémang condong milih Républik, nanging [[Wewengkon Marion, Ohio|Wewengkon Marion]] mah condong ka Démokrat. Ku kituna, Harding nyandak sikep ééditorial anu adil; anjeunna nyatakeun yén ''Star'' édisi harian mah nétral (non-partisan), sedengkeun édisi mingguan mah condong ka Républik. Ieu kabijakan hasil narik minat pamasang iklan sarta ngajantenkeun mingguan Républik sanésna di éta kota gulung tikar. Nurutkeun nu nulis biografina, Andrew Sinclair: {{blockquote| Kasuksésan Harding sareng ''Star'' mémang luyu sareng modél [[Horatio Alger]]. Anjeunna ngamimitian tina nol, sarta ngaliwatan rupa-rupa cara—digawe teuas, nunda pamayaran, nambut deui gajih, nepi ka pinter maénkeun kaayaan—anjeunna ngarobah média anu ampir paéh janten surat kabar kota alit anu pangaruhna kuat. Sabagian ageung kasuksésanna aya patalina sareng rupa anu kasép, sipat anu soméah, sumanget, sarta katatabanana, nanging anjeunna ogé kawilang untung. Sakumaha anu kantos ditepikeun ku [[Machiavelli]], kacalakan tiasa mawa jalma kana kasuksésan, nanging moal sampurna upami teu dibarengan ku kaberuntungan.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=12–13}}}} Padumuk Marion ningkat tina 4.000 jiwa dina taun 1880 janten dua kalieunana dina taun 1890, sarta janten 12.000 dina taun 1900. Ieu kamekaran nguntungkeun pisan pikeun ''Star''. Harding ogé satékah polah ngamajukeun éta kota ku cara nanem modal dina rupa-rupa usaha lokal. Nepi ka ayeuna, Harding mangrupa hiji-hijina Présidén AS anu miboga pangalaman pinuh dina widang jurnalistik.{{sfn|Dean|pp=9–13}} Anjeunna ogé janten pangrojong satia Gubernur [[Joseph B. Foraker]] ti Partéy Républik.{{sfn|Russell|pp = 56–68}} Harding mimiti wanoh ka [[Florence Harding|Florence Kling]], anu yuswana lima taun langkung sepuh, salaku putra ti bankir lokal, [[Amos Kling]]. Amos téh jalma anu biasa kedah diturutan kahayangna, nanging Harding sering nyerang anjeunna ngaliwatan tulisan dina surat kabar. Florence miboga sipat anu teuas sapertos ramana, nu ngajantenkeun anjeunna bentrok sareng ramana saatos mulang ti kuliah musik. Saatos Florence pirak (divorce) dina taun 1886, anjeunna sareng Harding mimiti aya hubungan (''courting'').{{sfn|Dean|pp=14–19}} Ieu hubungan téh ngabalukarkeun Amos Kling murka. Amos percanten yén kulawarga Harding miboga [[Urang Amérika Multirasial|getih turunan Afrika]], sarta anjeunna ogé ngarasa kaganggu ku tulisan-tulisan Harding. Amos mimiti nyebarkeun béja (rumor) ngeunaan turunan Afrika Harding sarta ngajurung para pangusaha pikeun ngaboikot usaha Harding. Nalika Harding terang kana peta Amos, anjeunna ngingetan Amos sangkan eureun nyebarkeun éta béja upami teu hoyong ditarajang fisik ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Dean|pp=18–19}} Pasangan Harding nikah dina ping 8 Juli 1891,{{sfn|Russell|p=81}} di bumi énggalna di Mount Vernon Avenue, Marion. Éta bumi téh dirancang babarengan ku maranéhna nganggo gaya [[Arsitéktur gaya Queen Anne di Amérika Sarikat|Queen Anne]].<ref name=MarionHome>{{cite news|url=http://www.marionstar.com/story/news/local/2015/08/13/genetic-testing-confirms-hardings-daughter/31639995/|title=Genetic testing confirms Harding's daughter|work=The Marion Star|author=Marion Star staff report|date=August 13, 2015|access-date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> tina pernikahan ieu, maranéhna henteu dipasihan putra.<ref name = "anb">{{cite web|title=Harding, Warren Gamaliel|work=American National Biography Online|last=Hawley|first=Ellis W.|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/06/06-00253.html?a=1&n=Warren%20G.%20Harding&d=10&ss=0&q=1}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Harding gaduh jujuluk kadeudeuh pikeun pamajanana, nyaéta "the Duchess" (''Sang Adipatni''), dumasar kana karakter dina carita nyambung tina ''[[The New York Sun]]'' anu sok taliti ngawaskeun "the Duke" sarta kauangan maranéhna.{{sfn|Dean|pp=20–21}} Florence Harding janten inohong anu kalintang aubna dina karir carogéna, boh nalika di ''Star'' atanapi saatos Harding lebet ka dunya politik.<ref name = "floranb">{{cite web|title=Harding, Florence Kling deWolfe|work=American National Biography Online|last=Gutin|first=Myra G.|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/06/06-00764.html?from=../06/06-00253.html&from_nm=Harding%2C%20Warren%20Gamaliel}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Kalayan némbongkeun sipat katataban sarta kacalakan bisnis sapertos ramana, anjeunna ngabantosan ''Star'' janten pausahaan anu nguntungkeun ngaliwatan manajemén anu ketat dina bagian sirkulasi surat kabar.{{sfn|Russell|p=90}} Florence dianggap boga andil ageung dina ngabantosan Harding ngahontal kasuksésan anu leuwih luhur dibandingkeun upami Harding bajuang nyalira; sawatara pihak malah nyebutkeun yén Florence anu nyorong anjeunna dugi ka bisa lebet ka [[Gedong Bodas]].{{sfn|Schlesinger|p=50}} === Ngawitan di dunya politik === Teu lami saatos mésér ''Star'', Harding mimiti museurkeun perhatianana kana dunya politik ku cara ngadukung Foraker dina usaha munggaranna anu suksés janten gubernur dina [[Pamilihan gubernur Ohio 1885|pamilihan taun 1885]]. Foraker mangrupa bagian tina [[Ohio dina Perang Sipil Amérika|generasi perang]] anu nangtang kelompok senior Partéy Républik di Ohio, sapertos Sénator [[John Sherman]], dina parebutan kakawasaan politik di nagara bagian. Harding, anu salawasna satia ka partéy, ngadukung Foraker dina campuhna konflik internal politik Républik di Ohio. Harding tiasa toléransi ka urang Démokrat salaku bagian tina [[sistem dua partéy]], nanging anjeunna kacida cua (ngéwa) ka jalma-jalma anu kaluar ti Partéy Républik demi ngagabung ka gerakan partéy katilu.{{sfn|Russell|pp=68–70}} Dina yuswa 22 taun (taun 1888), anjeunna janten utusan (delegasi) dina [[konvénsi politik]] nagara bagian ngawakilan Wewengkon Marion, sarta terus kapilih janten delegasi ampir unggal taun dugi ka anjeunna janten présidén.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=35}} Kasuksésan Harding salaku ééditor méré pangaruh kana kaséhatanana. Antara taun 1889 (nalika yuswana 23 taun) dugi ka taun 1901, anjeunna lima kali dirawat di [[Sanatorium Battle Creek]] kalayan alesan anu disebut ku Sinclair salaku "kacapéan, kaleuleuwihi gawé, sarta gangguan saraf".{{sfn|Sinclair|p=286}} Dean nyindekkeun yén ieu pangobatan téh aya patalina sareng gejala awal panyakit jantung anu engkéna bakal ngabalukarkeun Harding pupus dina taun 1923. Nalika anjeunna nuju teu aya di Marion dina taun 1894, manajer bisnis ''Star'' mundur, sarta kalungguhanana digantikeun ku Florence Harding. Florence janten asisten utama carogéna di ''Star'' dina widang bisnis, sarta terus ngajalanan éta peran dugi ka maranéhna pindah ka Washington dina taun 1915. Kamampuh Florence dina ngokolakeun pausahaan ngajantenkeun Harding tiasa laluasa indit-inditan pikeun biantara—panganggoan kartu pas karéta api gratisna ogé ningkat pisan saatos nikah.{{sfn|Dean|pp=21–23}} Florence Harding nerapkeun sistem ékonomi anu ketat{{sfn|Russell|p=90}} sarta kantos nyerat ngeunaan Harding, "anjeunna bakal hasil upami ngupingkeun abdi, sarta bakal gagal upami henteu."{{sfn|Sibley|p=20}} Dina taun 1892, Harding angkat ka Washington, di dinya anjeunna pendak sareng anggota Kongrés Démokrat ti Nebraska, [[William Jennings Bryan]], sarta ngupingkeun biantara éta inohong dina sidang [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat|DPR AS]]. Harding ogé angkat ka [[Éksposisi Kolumbia]] di Chicago dina taun 1893. Duanana dilakukeun tanpa dibarengan ku Florence. Urang Démokrat biasana unggul dina kalungguhan-kalungguhan di Wewengkon Marion; nalika Harding maju janten calon [[auditor daérah]] dina taun 1895, anjeunna kawon, nanging hasil sorana langkung saé tinimbang anu disangka-sangka. Taun salajengna, Harding janten salah saurang orator anu ngurilingan Ohio salaku bagian tina [[Kampanye présidén William McKinley 1896|kampanye]] calon présidén Républik, [[William McKinley]]. Nurutkeun Dean, "nalika digawe pikeun McKinley, [Harding] mimiti kasohor jenenganana di sakuliah Ohio".{{sfn|Dean|pp=21–23}} == Politikus anu nuju nanjeur (1897–1919) == {{salajengna|Sajarah pamilihan Warren G. Harding}} === Sénator nagara bagian === [[File:Warren Gamaliel Harding.jpg|jmpl|katuhu|Harding {{circa}} taun 1900-an]] Harding gaduh kahoyong pikeun nyobian deui maju dina pamilihan jabatan publik. Sanajan anjeunna parantos lami janten pangagum Foraker (nu harita parantos janten Sénator AS), anjeunna tetep ati-ati dina ngajaga hubungan saé sareng faksi partéy anu dipingpin ku Sénator AS Ohio sanésna, [[Mark Hanna]], anu mangrupa manajer politik McKinley sakaligus pupuhu [[Komite Nasional Républik]] (RNC). Boh Foraker boh Hanna ngadukung Harding pikeun maju ka Sénat nagara bagian dina taun 1899; anjeunna kénging nominasi ti Partéy Républik sarta kalayan gampang kapilih pikeun masa jabatan dua taun.{{sfn|Russell|pp=105–108}} Harding ngamimitian opat taun janten sénator nagara bagian salaku inohong anu teu pati dipikawanoh; nanging anjeunna mungkas éta jabatan kalayan janten salah sahiji tokoh pangpopulérna di Partéy Républik Ohio. Anjeunna salawasna katingal tenang sarta némbongkeun sikep handap asor, ciri has anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna dipikaresep ku sasama urang Républik sanajan karir politikna terus nanjak ngaleuwihan maranéhna. Para pamingpin législatif sering badami sareng anjeunna ngeunaan rupa-rupa pasualan anu hésé.{{sfn|Dean|pp=23–24}} Harita mémang geus ilahar pikeun sénator nagara bagian di Ohio ngan ukur ngajabat salaku sataun, nanging Harding hasil kéngingkeun deui nominasi dina taun 1901. Saatos kajadian [[Assassination of William McKinley|pamaténi McKinley]] dina bulan Séptémber (anu digantikeun ku Wakil Présidén [[Theodore Roosevelt]]), gairah politik di Ohio sempet suda sakedap. Dina bulan Nopémber, Harding unggul dina masa jabatan kadua, kalayan hasil sora anu ningkat dua kali lipat dugi ka sélisih 3.563 sora.{{sfn|Russell|pp=172–173}} Dina mangsa ieu, Harding janten anggota [[Freemasonry|Freemason]]. Dina taun 1901, anjeunna diinisiasi kana ''Marion Lodge No. 7''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GWMNMA |title=Preparing to Lay the Memorial's Cornerstone |url=https://gwmemorial.org/blogs/news/preparing-to-lay-the-cornerstone |access-date=January 27, 2025 |publisher=[[George Washington Masonic National Memorial]]}}</ref> Sapertos sabagian ageung politikus dina mangsana, Harding nampi yén sistem patronase sarta panyogokan (''graft'') biasa dianggo pikeun males jasa politik. Anjeunna ngatur supados lanceukna, Mary (anu tunanétra), diangkat janten guru di [[Sakola pikeun nu Lolong di Ohio]], sanajan aya calon sanés anu langkung mumpuni. Dina transaksi sanésna, anjeunna nawarkeun publikasi dina surat kabarna salaku gaganti kartu pas karéta api gratis pikeun anjeunna sarta kulawargana. Nurutkeun Sinclair, "diragukeun naha Harding kantos mikir yén aya anu teu jujur dina nampi fasilitas jabatan atanapi kantor kasebut. Patronase sarta jasa bales budi katingalna dianggap salaku balesan anu wajar pikeun pangabdian ka partéy dina jaman Hanna."{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=40–42}} Teu lami saatos pamilihan munggaran Harding salaku sénator, anjeunna pendak sareng [[Harry M. Daugherty]], anu engkéna bakal nyepeng peran penting dina karir politikna. Salaku jalma anu remen maju dina pamilihan sarta kantos ngajabat dua kali di DPR nagara bagian dina awal taun 1890-an, Daugherty parantos janten calo politik (''political fixer'') sarta lobiis di ibu kota nagara bagian, Columbus. Saatos munggaran pendak sarta ngobrol sareng Harding, Daugherty masihan koméntar, "Geuning, katingalna bakal gagah pisan upami anjeunna janten Présidén."{{sfn|Russell|pp=108–112}} === Inohong nagara bagian Ohio === [[File:Warren G. Harding 1910 gubernatorial button.png|jmpl|katuhu|Pin kampanye Warren G. Harding pikeun Gubernur taun 1910]] Dina awal taun 1903, Harding ngumumkeun badé maju janten [[Gubernur Ohio]], dipicu ku mundurna calon utama, anggota Kongrés [[Charles W. F. Dick]]. Hanna sareng George Cox ngaraos yén Harding moal tiasa kapilih alatan hubunganana sareng Foraker—nalika [[Éra Progrésif]] dimimitian, masarakat mimiti méré pandangan négatif kana prakték jual-beuli jasa politik sarta ayana "bos" politik sapertos Cox. Ku kituna, maranéhna ngajurung bankir ti Cleveland, [[Myron T. Herrick]], anu mangrupa rénjang McKinley, pikeun maju. Herrick ogé dianggap langkung tiasa narik sora ti calon kuat Démokrat, Wali Kota Cleveland anu réformis, [[Tom L. Johnson]]. Alatan lolongkrangna alit pikeun janten calon gubernur, Harding ahirna milari nominasi janten létnan gubernur, sarta boh Herrick boh Harding dicalonkeun sacara aklamasi.{{sfn|Russell|pp=147–155}} Foraker sareng Hanna (nu pupus alatan [[tipes]] dina Pébruari 1904) duanana milu kampanye pikeun pasangan anu disebut "Tikét Empat-H" kasebut. Herrick sareng Harding unggul kalayan sélisih sora anu mutlak.{{sfn|Russell|pp=155–157}} Saatos anjeunna sareng Herrick dilantik, Herrick nyandak sababaraha kaputusan anu kirang merenah sahingga ngabalukarkeun para pangrojong Républik malik cua, utamana para patani anu teu sapuk kana kawijakanana nampik pangwangunan sakola luhur tatanén.{{sfn|Russell|pp=155–157}} Di sisi sanésna, nurutkeun Sinclair, "Harding mah teu pati seueur padamelan, nanging anjeunna ngajalankeunana kalayan saé pisan".{{sfn|Sinclair|p=44}} Tanggung jawabna pikeun mingpin Sénat nagara bagian ngalegaan jaringan hubungan politikna anu nuju mekar.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=44}} Harding sareng sababaraha pihak ngabayangkeun kasuksésan maju janten gubernur dina taun 1905, nanging Herrick nampik pikeun mundur. Dina awal taun 1905, Harding ngumumkeun badé nampi nominasi gubernur upami ditawarkeun, nanging nyanghareupan amarah ti para pamingpin sapertos Cox, Foraker sarta Dick, anjeunna ahirna mutuskeun moal milari jabatan naon waé dina taun 1905. Herrick kawon dina pamilihan, nanging pasangan énggalna, [[Andrew L. Harris]], kapilih sarta janten gubernur lima sasih ti saprak harita saatos gubernur ti Partéy Démokrat, [[John M. Pattison]], pupus. Saurang pajabat Républik nyerat ka Harding, "Naha anjeun henteu hanjelu yén Dick henteu ngidinan anjeun maju janten Létnan Gubernur?"{{sfn|Russell|pp=163–168}} [[File:Foraker in 1908.png|jmpl|katuhu|lebar=0.8|Sénator [[Joseph B. Foraker]] dina taun 1908]] Salian ti milih présidén, para pamilih di Ohio dina taun 1908 ogé kedah milih anggota législatif anu bakal nangtukeun naha Foraker bakal kapilih deui janten sénator. Éta sénator parantos parébat sareng Présidén Roosevelt ngeunaan [[Insidén Brownsville]]. Sanajan Foraker miboga lolongkrang anu alit pikeun meunang, anjeunna tetep milari nominasi présidén ti Partéy Républik ngalawan batur salemburna ti Cincinnati, Menteri Perang [[William Howard Taft]], anu mangrupa calon anu dipilih ku Roosevelt.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=42–45}} Dina ping 6 Januari 1908, surat kabar ''Star'' kagungan Harding masihan dukungan ka Foraker sarta nyempad Roosevelt anu dianggap nyobian ngaruksak karir éta sénator. Nanging dina ping 22 Januari, Harding ngaliwatan ''Star'' malik haluan sarta nyatakeun dukungan ka Taft, bari nganggap Foraker parantos kawon.{{sfn|Russell|p=188}} Nurutkeun Sinclair, parobahan sikep Harding ka Taft téh "lain alatan anjeunna ningal bebeneran (''the light''), nanging alatan anjeunna ngarasakeun panasna tekenan (''the heat'')".{{sfn|Sinclair|p=46}} Ku cara milu ngarojong Taft, Harding hasil salamet tina kahancuran nu kaalaman ku nu ngajaga karirna (Foraker)—Foraker gagal kéngingkeun nominasi présidén sarta kawon dina pamilihan sénator periode katilu. Hal sanés anu ngabantu nyalametkeun karir Harding nyaéta anjeunna dipikaresep ku kelompok progrésif anu harita mimiti ngawasa Partéy Républik di Ohio.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=46–47}} Harding maju sarta kéngingkeun nominasi gubernur ti Partéy Républik dina taun 1910. Harita, partéy nuju kabagi pisan antara kelompok progrésif sareng konservatif, sahingga teu tiasa ngéléhkeun kakuatan Démokrat anu ngahiji; anjeunna kawon ku petahana [[Judson Harmon]].{{sfn|Russell|pp=197, 208–210}} Harry Daugherty janten manajer kampanye Harding, nanging Harding henteu nyalahkeun Daugherty alatan éta kakawonanna. Sanajan aya perpecahan, boh Présidén Taft boh mantan présidén Roosevelt sumping ka Ohio pikeun kampanye pikeun Harding, nanging parébatna maranéhna malah ngabagi sora Partéy Républik sarta mastikeun kakawonanna Harding.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=47–49}} Perpecahan partéy beuki jero, sarta dina taun 1912, Taft sareng Roosevelt janten saingan dina parebutan nominasi Républik. [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1912]] lumangsung kalayan pajeuet. Atas paménta Taft, Harding masihan biantara nominasi pikeun sang présidén, nanging para delegasi anu nuju ambek henteu pati nampi orasi Harding. Taft ahirna dicalonkeun deui, nanging para pangrojong Roosevelt kaluar ti partéy. Harding, salaku urang Républik anu satia, tetep ngadukung Taft. Sora Républik ahirna kabagi antara Taft sareng Roosevelt anu maju ngaliwatan [[Partéy Progrésif (Amérika Sarikat, 1912)|Partéy Progrésif]]. Ieu hal ngajantenkeun calon ti Partéy Démokrat, Gubernur New Jersey [[Woodrow Wilson]], kapilih janten présidén.{{sfn|Russell|pp=227–235}} === Sénator AS === ==== Pamilihan taun 1914 ==== {{salajengna|Pamilihan Sénat Amérika Sarikat 1914 di Ohio}} Anggota Kongrés [[Theodore E. Burton]] parantos kapilih janten sénator ku parlemén nagara bagian pikeun ngagentos Foraker dina taun 1909, sarta anjeunna ngumumkeun badé nyalonkeun deui pikeun periode kadua dina pamilihan taun 1914. Nalika harita, [[Amandemén ka-17 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] parantos disahkeun, anu masihan hak ka rahayat pikeun milih sénator sacara langsung, sarta Ohio parantos ngamimitian [[Pamilihan primér|pamilihan primér]] pikeun éta jabatan. Foraker sarta mantan anggota kongrés [[Ralph D. Cole]] ogé milu daptar dina primér Républik. Nalika Burton mundur, Foraker janten calon anu paling diunggulkeun, nanging paham Républikan ''Old Guard'' (kolot) anjeunna dianggap parantos tinggaleun jaman, sahingga Harding didorong pikeun milu mitembeyan. Daugherty ngaku yén anjeunna anu hasil ngolo Harding sangkan kersa maju: "Abdi mendakan anjeunna sapertos penyu anu nuju moyan dina luhureun kai, teras ku abdi disuntrungkeun ka jero cai."{{sfn|Russell|p=246}} Nurutkeun panulis biografi Harding, Randolph Downes, "anjeunna ngayakeun kampanye anu kacida leuleuy sarta matak pikaresepeun sahingga bakal kénging pangpuji ti para malaikat. Éta kampanye dirancang sangkan teu nyinggung sasaha, iwal ti urang Démokrat."{{sfn|Dean|pp=34–35}} Sanajan Harding henteu nyerang Foraker, para pangrojongna mah teu miboga rasa sungkan sapertos kitu. Harding ahirna meunang dina primér kalayan sélisih 12.000 sora saluhureun Foraker.{{sfn|Walters|pp=291–293}} {{quote box | align = right | width = 19em | salign = right | quote = Baca ''The Menace'' sarta panyahoan eusina,<br />Sumping ka TPS sarta éléhkeun Pausna. | source =Slogan anu ditalis dina témbok sarta pager di Ohio, 1914{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=54–55}}}} Lawan Harding dina [[Pamilihan Sénat Amérika Sarikat di Ohio, 1914|pamilihan umum]] nyaéta Jaksa Agung Ohio, [[Timothy Sylvester Hogan (politikus)|Timothy Hogan]], anu hasil naék kana jabatan tingkat nagara bagian sanajan aya [[Anti-Katolik di Amérika Sarikat|prasangka anti-Katolik]] anu lega di wewengkon padésan. Dina taun 1914, dimimitianna [[Perang Dunya I]] sarta ayana lolongkrang saurang Katolik janten sénator ti Ohio ningkatkeun sentimén [[nativismeu (politik)|nativis]]. Selebaran propaganda kalayan nami sapertos ''The Menace'' sarta ''The Defender'' eusina mangrupa peringatan yén Hogan téh utusan dina hiji plot anu dipingpin ku Paus [[Benediktus XV]] ngaliwatan [[Knights of Columbus]] pikeun ngawasa Ohio. Harding henteu nyerang Hogan (anu mangrupa rénjang lami anjeunna) ngeunaan ieu pasualan, nanging anjeunna ogé henteu nyempad kana rasa kaceuceub nativis ka lawanna kasebut.{{sfn|Russell|pp=250–251}}{{sfn|Sinclair|p=54}} Gaya kampanye Harding anu [[wikt:conciliatory|leuleuy (konsiliatori)]] ngabantu pisan ka anjeunna;{{sfn|Sinclair|p=54}} salah saurang rénjang Harding nganggap [[Biantara kampanye|biantara]] Harding salami kampanye usum gugur 1914 salaku "campuran tina omongan kosong anu gaya, patriotismeu, sarta hal-hal anu teu aya hartosna pisan".{{sfn|Dean|p=35}} Dean nyatet, "Harding ngagunakeun orasina kalayan hasil anu saé; éta ngajantenkeun anjeunna kapilih, bari miboga musuh anu saeutik pisan dina éta prosés."{{sfn|Dean|p=35}} Harding unggul leuwih ti 100.000 sora dina sora mutlak (''landslide'') anu ogé mawa gubernur ti Partéy Républik, [[Frank B. Willis]], kana korsi jabatan.{{sfn|Dean|p=35}} ==== Sénator junior ==== Nalika Harding gabung ka Sénat AS, Partéy Démokrat nuju ngawasa duanana [[Kongrés ka-64 Amérika Sarikat|majelis Kongrés]], sarta dipingpin ku Présidén Wilson. Salaku sénator junior ti partéy minoritas, Harding nampi pancén dina komite-komite anu henteu pati penting, nanging anjeunna ngajalankeun éta tugas kalayan daria.{{sfn|Dean|p=44}} Anjeunna mangrupa sora Républikan anu aman sarta konservatif.{{sfn|Nevins|p=253}} Sakumaha nalika anjeunna di Sénat Ohio, Harding janten inohong anu dipikaresep ku seueur jalma.{{sfn|Dean|pp=38, 44}} Dina dua pasualan utama, nyaéta [[hak pilih awéwé]] sarta [[Prohibisi di Amérika Sarikat|prohibisi (larangan) alkohol]], dimana upami salah milih pihak bakal ngaruksak lolongkrangna janten présidén dina taun 1920, Harding hasil salamet ku cara nyandak sikep anu parigel. Salaku sénator-kapilih, anjeunna mimitina nyatakeun yén anjeunna moal ngadukung hak pilih pikeun awéwé sateuacan Ohio ngalakukeunana. Nanging, nalika dukungan pikeun hak pilih ningkat di Ohio sarta di kalangan Sénator Républik, dina waktos Kongrés ngayakeun sora ngeunaan éta pasualan, Harding parantos janten pangrojong anu teguh. Harding, anu saenyana sok nginum alkohol ogé,{{sfn|Russell|p=141}} mimitina milih nolak larangan alkohol. Anjeunna milih ngadukung [[Amandemén ka-18 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], anu nerapkeun prohibisi, saatos hasil ngusulkeun parobahan pikeun nerapkeun wates waktos ratifikasi—anu mimitina disangka bakal ngagagalkeun éta amandemén. Nanging, saatos éta amandemén tetep disahkeun, Harding milih pikeun ngabatalkeun véto Wilson kana [[Undang-Undang Volstead]], anu janten dasar palaksanaan amandemén kasebut. Ieu léngkah mastikeun anjeunna kéngingkeun dukungan ti ''[[Anti-Saloon League]]''.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=63–65}} Harding, salaku politikus anu dipihormat ku urang Républik boh kelompok Progrésif, dipénta janten pupuhu samentara dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1916]] sakaligus nepikeun [[biantara utama]] (''keynote address''). Anjeunna ngajurung para delegasi sangkan ngahiji salaku partéy anu kuat. Éta konvénsi ahirna nyalonkeun Hakim [[Charles Evans Hughes]].{{sfn|Dean|pp=37–39}} Harding ogé ngayakeun hubungan sareng Roosevelt nalika mantan présidén éta [[Konvénsi Nasional Progrésif 1916|nampik nominasi ti Partéy Progrésif taun 1916]], hiji panolakan anu sacara éféktif ngabubarkeun éta partéy. Dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1916|pamilihan présidén Nopémber 1916]], sanajan Partéy Républik beuki ngahiji, Hughes kawon tipis ku Wilson.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=70}} Harding nepikeun biantara sarta milih ngarojong [[Deklarasi perang Amérika Sarikat ka Jérman (1917)|résolusi perang]] anu dipénta ku Wilson dina April 1917, anu ngalibetkeun Amérika Sarikat kana Perang Dunya I.{{sfn|Russell|p=283}} Dina bulan Agustus, Harding boga pamandangan yén Wilson kedah dipasihan kakawasaan anu méh diktatorial, kalayan nyatakeun yén démokrasi teu pati miboga tempat dina mangsa perang.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=77}} Harding milih ngarojong sabagian ageung undang-undang perang, kalebet [[Undang-Undang Éspionase 1917]], anu ngawatesan kabébasan sipil, sanajan anjeunna nampik [[pajeg kaleuwihan kauntungan]] alatan dianggap anti-bisnis. Dina Méi 1918, Harding anu mimiti kurang panuju ka Wilson, nampik rancangan undang-undang pikeun ngalegaan kakawasaan présidén.{{sfn|Russell|p=299}} Dina pamilihan législatif sela taun 1918, anu dilaksanakeun sateuacan [[Gencatan sanjata 11 Nopémber 1918|gencatan sanjata]], Partéy Républik hasil ngawasa Sénat kalayan sélisih sora anu saeutik.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=82}} Harding diangkat janten anggota [[Komite Hubungan Luar Nagri Sénat]].{{sfn|Dean|p=47}} Wilson henteu nyandak saurang-urang acan anggota Sénat nalika angkat ka [[Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris 1919]], kalayan kayakinan yén anjeunna tiasa maksa [[Perjangjian Versailles]] sangkan disahkeun ku Sénat ku cara ménta dukungan langsung ti rahayat.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=82}} Nalika Wilson mulang bari mawa perjangjian anu netepkeun perdamaian sakaligus ngadegkeun [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], sabagian ageung masarakat mémang mihak ka anjeunna. Nanging, seueur sénator anu teu sapuk kana Pasal X tina [[Kovénan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], anu marentahkeun nagara-nagara anggotana pikeun ngabela nagara anggota sanés anu ditarajang; maranéhna nganggap hal ieu bakal maksa Amérika Sarikat milu perang tanpa kasapukan ti Kongrés. Harding mangrupa salah sahiji ti 39 sénator anu nandatanganan surat [[Round-robin (dokumén)|''round-robin'']] anu nampik éta Liga. Nalika Wilson ngondang Komite Hubungan Luar Nagri ka Gedong Bodas pikeun sawala informal ngeunaan éta perjangjian, Harding kalayan parigel nanyakeun Wilson ngeunaan Pasal X; nanging présidén kalah nyingkahan éta patarosan. Sénat ngayakeun perdebatan ngeunaan Versailles dina Séptémber 1919, sarta Harding nepikeun biantara utama pikeun nampik éta perjangjian. Nalika harita, Wilson katerap stroke nalika nuju ngayakeun lalampahan biantara. Kalayan kaayaan [[Kandeganana Woodrow Wilson 1919–1921|présidén anu teu daya]] di Gedong Bodas sarta dukungan masarakat anu mimiti suda, éta perjangjian ahirna kawon (teu disahkeun).{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=91–100}} == Pamilihan présidén taun 1920 == {{utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920}} === Kampanye primér === [[File:Sen. Warren S. (G.) Harding LCCN2016819939 (cropped).jpg|jmpl|katuhu|Harding {{circa}} taun 1919]] Kusabab sabagian ageung kelompok Progrésif parantos ngagabung deui ka Partéy Républik, mantan pamimpin maranéhna, Theodore Roosevelt, dianggap bakal maju deui pikeun katilu kalina ka Gedong Bodas dina taun 1920, sarta janten calon anu paling diunggulkeun pikeun kéngingkeun nominasi Républik. Nanging, rencana ieu lirén nalika Roosevelt pupus sacara ngadadak dina ping 6 Januari 1919. Sababaraha calon gancang bermunculan, kalebet Jenderal [[Leonard Wood]], Gubernur Illinois [[Frank Lowden]], Sénator Kalifornia [[Hiram Johnson]] (anu kantos janten pasangan Roosevelt dina pamilihan taun 1912), sarta sababaraha calon sanésna sapertos [[Herbert Hoover]] (kawentar alatan jasa kamanusaanana dina Perang Dunya I), Gubernur Massachusetts [[Calvin Coolidge]], sarta Jenderal [[John J. Pershing]].{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=21}} Sanaos Harding hoyong janten présidén, motivasina maju téh sabagian ageung didorong ku kahoyongna pikeun tetep ngawasa politik Républik di Ohio, anu bakal ngajamin anjeunna kapilih deui janten Sénator dina taun 1920. Di antara jalma-jalma anu nuju ngincer korsi Harding téh nyaéta mantan gubernur Willis (anu kawon ku [[James M. Cox]] dina taun 1916) sarta Kolonél [[William Cooper Procter]] (pamingpin [[Procter & Gamble]]). Dina ping 17 Désémber 1919, Harding ngayakeun bewara basajan ngeunaan pencalonan présidénna.{{sfn|Dean|pp=49–51}} Pamingpin Républik teu pati mikaresep Wood sarta Johnson, anu duanana asalna ti faksi progrésif partéy; Lowden ogé, anu miboga sipat indepénden, dianggap teu pati hadé. Harding jauh leuwih bisa ditarima ku para pamingpin "Old Guard" (kelompok senior konservatif) di éta partéy.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=659–660}} Daugherty, anu janten manajer kampanye Harding, yakin yén moal aya calon sanés anu tiasa kéngingkeun sora mayoritas. Stratégina nyaéta ngajantenkeun Harding salaku pilihan anu bisa ditarima ku para delegasi nalika para calon utama mimiti laleuleus (falter). Daugherty ngadegkeun kantor kampanye "Harding for President" di Washington (anu dikokolakeun ku jalma kapercayaanana, [[Jess Smith]]), sarta ngawangun jaringan rérénjang sarta pangrojong Harding, kalebet [[Frank Scobey]] ti Téksas (panitera Sénat Nagara Bagian Ohio nalika Harding ngajabat di dinya).{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=26–27}} Harding ogé diikhtiar ku cara terus-terusan nyerat surat pikeun nguatkeun dukunganana. Nurutkeun Russell, "tanpa usaha [[Mépistopéléan]] (cerdik sarta licik) ti Daugherty, Harding moal kungsi bisa nincak kana nominasi."{{sfn|Russell|pp=336–339}} {{quote box | align = right | width = 26em | salign = right | quote = Kabutuh Amérika ayeuna téh sanés hal-hal anu hébat (heroics), nanging pamulihan (healing); sanés ubar mujarab (nostrums), nanging kayaan normal (normalcy); sanés révolusi, nanging réstorasi; sanés agitasi, nanging panyaluyuan; sanés bédah, nanging katengtreman; sanés hal anu dramatis, nanging hal anu tenang (dispassionate); sanés ékspérimén, nanging kasaimbangan (equipoise); sanés kalelep dina internasionalitas, nanging ketahanan dina kamilangan nasional anu unggul. | source =Warren G. Harding, biantara di payuneun Home Market Club, Boston, 14 Méi 1920{{sfn|Dean|p=56}}}} === Konvénsi === {{salajengna|Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1920}} [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1920]] dibuka di [[Chicago Coliseum#The third Coliseum|Chicago Coliseum]] dina ping 8 Juni 1920. Éta konvénsi ngumpulkeun para delegasi anu nuju papaséan kacida rongkahna, utamana alatan ayana laporan hasil panalungtikan Sénat ngeunaan waragad kampanye anu nembé pisan dipedalkeun. Éta laporan nétélakeun yén Wood parantos ngaluarkeun modal $1,8 juta (sarimbag sareng ${{Inflation|US|1.8|1920|r=2}} juta dina {{Inflation-year|US}}), anu nguatkeun tuduhan Johnson yén Wood nuju nyobian "mésér" korsi présidén. Sabagian tina $600.000 anu dikaluarkeun ku Lowden tétéla ngocor ka saku dua delegasi konvénsi. Samentara éta, Johnson ngaluarkeun $194.000, sarta Harding mung $113.000. Johnson dianggap janten aktor di balik éta panalungtikan, sarta amarah ti faksi Lowden sareng Wood nutup sagala lolongkrang kompromi di antara para calon unggulan. Ti ampir 1.000 delegasi, 27 di antarana nyaéta awéwé—[[Amandemén ka-19 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], anu ngajamin hak pilih pikeun awéwé, nuju ngantosan persatujuan ti hiji nagara bagian deui pikeun diratifikasi, sarta bakal disahkeun sateuacan ahir Agustus.{{sfn|Bagby|p=660}}{{sfn|Russell|pp=351–356, 363}} Ieu konvénsi henteu gaduh "bos" (pamingpin tunggal), seueur delegasi anu milih sakahayangna sorangan, sarta kusabab di Gedong Bodas nuju aya urang Démokrat, para pamingpin partéy henteu tiasa ngagunakeun sistem patronase pikeun ngatur sora.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=33}} Para wartawan nganggap Harding moal mungkin dicalonkeun alatan hasilna anu goréng dina pamilihan primér, sarta nempatkeun anjeunna dina jajaran [[Kuda hideung|kuda hideung]].{{sfn|Bagby|p=660}} Harding, anu sapertos calon sanésna nuju aya di Chicago pikeun ngawas kampanyena, nempatan urutan kagenep dina hasil poling opini publik panganyarna, di handapeun tilu calon utama sarta mantan Hakim Hughes sarta Herbert Hoover, sarta mung rada unggul sakedik ti Coolidge.{{sfn|Russell|p=335}}{{sfn|Dean|p=60}} Saatos konvénsi ngabahas pasualan sanésna, prosés nominasi présidén dibuka dina Jumaah énjing, ping 11 Juni. Harding parantos ménta Willis pikeun ngajukeun namina dina nominasi. Mantan gubernur éta ngalaksanakeunana kalayan biantara anu dipikaresep ku para delegasi, boh alatan gaya basana anu deukeut ka rahayat (''folksiness'') boh alatan ringkesna éta biantara di tengah hawa Chicago anu kacida panasna.{{sfn|Russell|pp=374–375}} Wartawan Mark Sullivan anu hadir di dinya nyebat éta biantara salaku campuran anu hébat antara "orasi, opera agung, sarta [[Nyalukan babi|sorat panyalukan babi]] (''hog calling'')." Willis nyarita bari condong kana pager podium, "Dangu, barudak—kaasup nu gareulis ogé—naha urang teu milih Warren Harding waé?"{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=34}} Seuri sarta keprok anu nuturkeun éta ucapan nyiptakeun suasana anu haneut sarta simpati pikeun Harding.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=34}} {{quote box | align = right | width = 23em | salign = right | quote = Abdi henteu ngarepkeun Sénator Harding bakal dicalonkeun dina sora (''ballot'') kahiji, kadua, atanapi katilu, nanging abdi mikir urang tiasa nyandak lolongkrang nalika sakitar tabuh dua sabelas menit dina Jumaah énjing-énjing di konvénsi, nalika lima belas atanapi dua puluh urang, anu parantos lungse, nuju diuk ngariung dina méja, salah saurang di antarana bakal nyarios: "Saha anu bakal ku urang dicalonkeun?" Dina waktos anu nangtukeun éta, rerencangan Sénator Harding tiasa ngajukeun namina sarta nampi naon waé hasilna. | source =Harry M. Daugherty{{sfn|Bagby|p=661}}}} Opat kali prosés sora (''ballot'') dilaksanakeun dina Jumaah sonten ping 11 Juni, sarta tétéla hasilna nincak jalan buntu (''deadlock''). Kalayan 493 sora anu diperlukeun pikeun dicalonkeun, Wood mangrupa anu pangcaketna kalayan 314{{frac|1|2}} sora; Lowden kénging 289{{frac|1|2}}. Hasil pangsaéna pikeun Harding mung 65{{frac|1|2}}. Pupuhu [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] ti Massachusetts, anu mangrupa [[Pamingpin Mayoritas Sénat]], nutup sidang konvénsi sakitar tabuh 7 sonten.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=34}}{{sfn|Dean|p=61}} Wengi ping 11–12 Juni 1920 janten kasohor dina sajarah politik salaku wengi "[[kamar anu pinuh ku haseup]]" (''[[smoke-filled room]]''). Numutkeun carita anu sumebar, para sesepuh partéy sapuk pikeun maksa konvénsi nyalonkeun Harding. Para sejarawan museurkeun perhatian kana sési anu dilaksanakeun di suite Pupuhu [[Komite Nasional Républik]] (RNC) [[Will H. Hays|Will Hays]] di [[Hotél Blackstone]]. Di dinya, para sénator sarta inohong sanésna sumping silih ganti, sarta sawatara calon poténsial dibahas. Sénator Utah [[Reed Smoot]], sateuacan angkat dina awal wengi, ngadukung Harding sarta nyarios ka Hays yén jalaran Partéy Démokrat kamungkinan ageung bakal nyalonkeun Gubernur Cox, maranéhna kedah milih Harding supados tiasa unggul di Ohio. Smoot ogé nyarios ka ''[[The New York Times]]'' yén parantos aya kasapukan pikeun nyalonkeun Harding, nanging hal éta moal langsung kajantenan dina sababaraha sora (''ballot'') munggaran.{{sfn|Bagby|pp=662–663}} Hal ieu saenyana henteu leres: sawatara pamilon mémang ngadukung Harding (nu sanésna mah ngadukung sainganna), nanging teu aya pakta resmi pikeun nyalonkeun anjeunna, sarta para sénator ogé teu miboga kakawasaan pikeun maksa éta kasapukan. Dua pamilon sanésna dina éta diskusi, Sénator Kansas [[Charles Curtis]] sarta Kolonél [[George Brinton McClellan Harvey]], ngaramalkeun ka pers yén Harding bakal dicalonkeun margi calon sanés miboga kakurangan anu dianggap ngabeuratkeun (''liabilities'').{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=38}} Judul-judul dina surat kabar énjingna méré kesan yén aya intrik di balik layar. Sejarawan Wesley M. Bagby nyerat, "Rupa-rupa kelompok saenyana digawe masing-masing pikeun ngawujudkeun éta nominasi—tanpa ayana gabungan sarta mung sakedik pisan ngayakeun kontak." Bagby nyatakeun yén faktor konci dina dicalonkeunana Harding nyaéta kawentarna anjeunna di kalangan delegasi umum (''rank and file'').{{sfn|Bagby|pp=657-674}} Para delegasi anu kumpul deui parantos nguping béja yén Harding mangrupa pilihan ti sakelompok sénator (''cabal''). Sanajan hal ieu henteu leres, para delegasi percanten sarta milari jalan kaluar ku cara milih Harding. Nalika prosés sora dimimitian deui dina énjing-énjing ping 12 Juni, sora pikeun Harding terus ningkat dina opat sora salajengna, dugi ka nincak 133{{frac|1|2}} sora, sedengkeun dua calon unggulan mah henteu seueur robah. Lodge teras ngumumkeun reureuh (''recess'') salami tilu jam, anu ngajantenkeun Daugherty ambek. Daugherty lumpat ka podium sarta nyanghareupan Lodge, "Anjeun moal tiasa ngéléhkeun ieu jalma ku cara kieu! Éta usulan teu disahkeun! Anjeun moal tiasa ngéléhkeun ieu jalma!"{{sfn|Russell|pp=387–390}} Lodge sarta nu sanésna ngagunakeun waktu reureuh pikeun nyobian ngeureunkeun moméntum Harding sarta nyalonkeun Pupuhu RNC Hays, nanging Hays nampik sarta embung kalibet.{{sfn|Dean|p=65}} Dina prosés sora kasalapan, saatos aya sakedik tegangan, hiji-hiji delegasi mimiti malik ngadukung Harding. Anjeunna mingpin kalayan 374{{frac|1|2}} sora, dibandingkeun Wood (249) sarta Lowden (121{{frac|1|2}}). Lowden ahirna ngaleupaskeun delegasina pikeun milih Harding, sarta dina sora kasapuluh anu dilaksanakeun tabuh 6 sonten, prosésna mung kantun formalitas; Harding mungkas kalayan 672{{frac|1|5}} sora ngalawan 156 pikeun Wood. Nominasi kasebut ahirna disatujuan sacara buleud (unanimous). Para delegasi, anu hoyong énggal mulang supados teu kedah mayar deui biaya hotél, teras neraskeun kana nominasi wakil présidén. Harding hoyong Sénator [[Irvine Lenroot]] ti Wisconsin, nanging Lenroot teu kersa. Sateuacan nami Lenroot ditarik sarta calon sanés diputuskeun, delegasi Oregon [[Wallace McCamant]] ngusulkeun Gubernur Coolidge sarta nampi dukungan anu kacida raména. Coolidge, anu kasohor alatan peranna dina ngeureunkeun [[Mogok pulisi Boston|mogokna pulisi Boston]] taun 1919, dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén kalayan kénging sora anu langkung seueur tinimbang Harding. James Morgan nyerat dina ''[[The Boston Globe]]'': "Para delegasi embung cicing di Chicago dugi ka dinten Minggu... para nu nyieun Présidén (''President makers'') malah parantos teu gaduh kaos bersih deui. Dumasar kana hal-hal sapertos kitu, Rollo, nasib bangsa-bangsa ditangtukeun."{{sfn|Russell|pp=392–394}}{{sfn|Dean|pp=66–67}} === Kampanye pamilihan umum === [[File:Harding front porch campaign.jpg|jmpl|lebar=1.2|Harding ngamimitian kampanye "téras hareup" (front porch) ku cara nampi nominasi Républik, 22 Juli 1920.]] Pasangan Harding/Coolidge gancang meunang dukungan tina surat kabar Républik, nanging koran-koran anu gaduh pamandangan sanés mah nyatakeun rasa kuciwana. ''[[New York World]]'' nganggap Harding salaku calon anu pangsaeutikna kualifikasi saprak jaman [[James Buchanan]], bari nyebat sénator Ohio éta téh saurang jalma anu "lemah sarta médiocére" (biasa waé) anu "teu kantos gaduh ideu orisinal."{{sfn|Dean|p=67}} Surat kabar [[Hearst Corporation]] nyebat Harding salaku "pamawa bandera otokrasi Sénatorial énggal."{{sfn|Sinclair|p=156}} ''[[The New York Times]]'' ngagambarkeun calon présidén Républik éta salaku "politikus Ohio kelas dua anu cukup dipihormat."{{sfn|Dean|p=67}} [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1920]] dibuka di San Francisco dina ping 28 Juni 1920, di handapeun kalangkang Woodrow Wilson anu saenyana hoyong dicalonkeun deui pikeun periode katilu. Para delegasi yakin yén kaséhatan Wilson moal ngidinan anjeunna ngajabat deui, sahingga maranéhna milari calon sanés. Mantan Menteri Kauangan [[William G. McAdoo]] janten calon utama, nanging anjeunna téh minantu Wilson, sarta nampik pikeun dicalonkeun salami présidén masih kénéh hoyong ngajabat. Sanajan kitu, seueur delegasi anu tetep milih McAdoo, sahingga kajantenan jalan buntu (''deadlock'') sareng Jaksa Agung [[A. Mitchell Palmer]]. Dina sora (''ballot'') ka-44, Partéy Démokrat ahirna nyalonkeun Gubernur Cox janten présidén, kalayan pasanganna nyaéta [[Asistén Menteri Angkatan Laut]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. Jalaran Cox ogé saurang nu gaduh sarta ééditor surat kabar, ieu hal ngajantenkeun dua ééditor ti Ohio silih hareupan pikeun korsi présidén. Sababaraha pihak ngarasula yén teu aya pilihan politik anu nyata margi boh Cox boh Harding dianggap salaku jalma anu konservatif dina widang ékonomi.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=157–159}} Nanging sacara idéologi, duanana miboga bédana anu nyata, dimana Cox saurang liberal sarta Harding saurang konservatif. [[File:Harding Cox and Ruth.jpg|jmpl|kenca|"Kumaha Anjeunna Tiasa Ngalakukeunana?" Dina kartun [[Clifford Berryman]] ieu, Harding sareng Cox nuju mikiran wartos ageung sanésna dina taun 1920: rékor ''home run'' [[Babe Ruth]].]] Harding milih pikeun ngayakeun [[Kampanye téras hareup|kampanye téras hareup]] (''front porch campaign''), sapertos McKinley dina taun 1896.{{sfn|Dean|pp=71–73}} Sababaraha taun sateuacan éta, Harding parantos ngaropéa téras hareup bumina sangkan nyarupaan téras bumina McKinley, anu nurutkeun tatanggana mah éta téh mangrupa tanda anjeunna gaduh ambisi janten présidén.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=61}} Éta calon présidén tetep cicing di bumina di Marion, sarta nepikeun biantara ka para delegasi anu sumping nganjang. Samentara éta, Cox sareng Roosevelt ngurilingan nagara (''stumped the nation'') bari nepikeun ratusan biantara. Coolidge kampanye di wewengkon Timur Laut, sarta engkéna di kidul, nanging anjeunna henteu janten faktor anu signifikan dina éta pamilihan.{{sfn|Dean|pp=71–73}} Di Marion, Harding ngokolakeun kampanyena. Salaku saurang wartawan, anjeunna miboga hubungan anu akrab (''camaraderie'') sareng para pers anu ngaliput anjeunna, hiji hubungan anu jarang bisa disaruaan ku présidén-présidén sanésna. Téma kampanye anjeunna, nyaéta "[[Mulang ka kaayaan normal]]" (''return to normalcy''), dibantuan ku suasana kota Marion anu méré kesan tempat anu tartib sarta méré rasa nostalgia pikeun seueur pamilih. Kampanye téras hareup ieu ngamungkinkeun Harding nyingkahan rupa-rupa kasalahan, sarta nalika waktu pamilihan beuki deukeut, kakuatanana beuki ningkat. Lalampahan calon ti Partéy Démokrat ahirna maksa Harding pikeun ngayakeun sababaraha kunjungan biantara anu pondok, nanging sabagian ageung waktosna mah anjeunna tetep aya di Marion. Amérika Sarikat henteu peryogi inohong sapertos Wilson deui, saur Harding, bari ngajukeun présidén anu "deukeut ka kaayaan normal".{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=163–165}} [[File:FDR and James M Cox cph.3b03395.jpg|jmpl|katuhu|Calon ti Démokrat, Cox (katuhu) sarta Roosevelt nalika kampanye di Washington, D.C., 1920]] Orasi Harding anu sakapeung "teu jelas" eusina ngajantenkeun sababaraha pihak ngarasa keuheul; McAdoo ngagambarkeun biantara Harding salaku "pasukan kalimah anu gaya nuju leumpang ngurilingan bentang alam pikeun milari hiji ideu. Sakapeung, éta kecap-kecap anu ngulampreng téh hasil nangkep hiji pamikiran anu sasar sarta mawa éta pamikiran kalayan bangga, janten tahanan di tengah-tengah maranéhna, dugi ka éta pamikiran téh maot alatan dijadikeun budak sarta gawé kaleuleuwihi."{{sfn|Dean|p=72}} [[H. L. Mencken]] ogé satuju, "ieu ngingetkeun kuring kana rupa-rupa spons baseuh, ngingetkeun kuring kana poéan anu parantos soék dina tali jemuran; ngingetkeun kuring kana sop kacang anu parantos haseum, kana gogorowokan mahasiswa, kana anjing anu ngagogog tanpa hartos salami wengi. Ieu téh sakitu goréngna dugi ka aya sakedik kesan kaagungan di jerona... Ieu téh sora anu ngageleter (''rumble'') sarta ngahiung (''bumble''). Ieu téh ngan ukur basa basi anu kosong (''balderdash'')."{{efn|Mencken sanajan kitu tetep milih Harding. Tempo {{harvnb|Sinclair|p=165}}.}}{{sfn|Dean|p=72}} ''The New York Times'' méré pandangan anu langkung positip, nyebutkeun yén dina biantara Harding, sabagian ageung masarakat tiasa mendakan "eunteung tina pamikiran maranéhna sorangan anu can pati jelas."{{sfn|Sinclair|p=166}} Wilson parantos nyatakeun yén pamilihan taun 1920 bakal janten "referendum anu agung sarta khidmat" ngeunaan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, anu ngajantenkeun Cox hésé pikeun nyandak sikep—sanajan Roosevelt kacida ngadukungna, Cox mah kurang sumanget.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=43–45}} Harding nolak asup ka Liga Bangsa-Bangsa sakumaha anu parantos dirundingkeun ku Wilson, nanging anjeunna sapuk kana hiji "asosiasi nagara-nagara,"<ref name = "anb" /> dumasar kana [[Mahkamah Arbitrasé Permanén]] di [[Den Haag]]. Ieu hal dianggap cukup umum pikeun muaskeun sabagian ageung urang Républik. Dina bulan Oktober, Cox mimiti sadar yén aya panolakan masarakat anu lega kana Pasal X, sarta nyebutkeun yén [[reservasi (hukum)|catetan-catetan]] dina éta perjangjian mungkin diperlukeun; parobahan sikep ieu ngamungkinkeun Harding pikeun henteu kedah nyarios seueur deui ngeunaan éta pasualan.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=27–28}} [[File:WGHarding.jpg|jmpl|kenca|Harding nuju kampanye dina taun 1920]] RNC nyéwa [[Albert Lasker]], saurang éksékutif iklan ti Chicago, pikeun ngapublikasikeun Harding. Lasker ngaluncurkeun kampanye iklan anu jembar sarta ngagunakeun rupa-rupa téhnik iklan standar nu harita mah nembe pisan dilarapkeun dina pamilihan présidén. Pendekatan Lasker ngawengku warta film (''newsreels'') sarta rékaman sora. Para pangunjung ka Marion dipoto sareng Sénator sarta Ibu Harding, teras salinan potona dikirimkeun ka surat kabar di kota asalna masing-masing.{{sfn|Dean|p=69}} Poster papan reklame (''billboard''), surat kabar, sarta majalah dianggo salian ti film layar lébar. [[Telemarketer]] ogé dianggo pikeun ngayakeun telepon kalayan naskah dialog nu parantos disusun pikeun ngamajukeun Harding.{{sfn|Morello|pp=64–65}} Salami kampanye, pihak lawan nyebarkeun béja lami yén aki buyut Harding téh saurang [[Hindia Kulon]] [[Wanoja atawa lalaki hideung|turunan hideung]] sarta yén aya [[Turunan Amérika-Afrika présidén Amérika Sarikat|turunan hideung sanésna dina tangkal kulawargana]].{{sfn|Russell|p=372}} Manajer kampanye Harding nolak éta tuduhan. Profésor ti [[Wooster College]], [[William Estabrook Chancellor]], ngapublikasikeun éta béja dumasar kana panalungtikan kulawarga anu sakapeung mah ngan ukur mangrupa gosip lokal hungkul.{{sfn|Russell|pp=403–405}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1920.svg|katuhu|jmpl|Hasil sora éléktoral 1920]] Dina poéan pamilihan, 2 Nopémber 1920, ampir teu aya anu mangmang yén pasangan Républik bakal unggul.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=62}} Harding kéngingkeun 60,2 persén sora rahayat (''popular vote''), perséntase pangluhurna ti saprak mekarna [[Sistem dua partéy]], sarta kéngingkeun 404 sora [[Lembaga Pamilihan (Amérika Sarikat)|éléktoral]]. Cox mung kéngingkeun 34 persén sora nasional sarta 127 sora éléktoral.{{sfn|Russell|p=418}} Kampanye ti jero panjara fédéral alatan nolak perang, tokoh [[Partéy Sosialis Amérika|Sosialis]] [[Eugene V. Debs]] kéngingkeun 3 persén sora nasional. Partéy Républik ogé hasil ngaronjatkeun mayoritasna di unggal majelis Kongrés sacara signifikan.{{sfn|Russell|p=420}}{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=66}} == Masa jabatan Présidén (1921–1923) == {{utama|Masa jabatan Présidén Warren G. Harding}} {{Pikeun|garis waktu|Garis waktu masa jabatan Présidén Warren G. Harding}} === Pelantikan sarta pangangkatan jabatan === [[File:Harding swearing in.jpg|jmpl|kenca|Harding nuju ngucapkeun sumpah jabatan.]] {{salajengna|Transisi kapersidénan Warren G. Harding|Pelantikan Warren G. Harding}} Harding dilantik dina ping 4 Maret 1921, disaksian ku pamajikan sarta ramana. Harding langkung milih pelantikan anu basajan tanpa parade adat, sahingga mung aya upacara inti sarta resépsi singget di Gedong Bodas. Dina biantara pelantikanana, anjeunna nyatakeun, "Kacenderungan urang anu paling bahaya nyaéta ngarep-ngarep teuing ka pamaréntah, nanging dina waktos anu sami mung sakedik masihan kontribusi ka pamaréntah."{{sfn|Russell|pp=2,14}} Saatos pamilihan, Harding ngumumkeun yén moal aya kaputusan ngeunaan pangangkatan jabatan dugi ka anjeunna mulang ti liburan dina bulan Désémber. Anjeunna indit ka Téksas pikeun nguseup sarta maén golf sareng rénjangna, [[Frank Scobey]] (anu engkéna janten [[Diréktur Percétakan Duit]]), teras balayar ka [[Zona Terusan Panama]]. Anjeunna nganjang ka Washington nalika [[Kongrés ka-66 Amérika Sarikat]] dibuka dina awal Désémber, sarta anjeunna nampi pangbagéa anu luar biasa salaku sénator aktif munggaran anu kapilih janten présidén.{{efn|Harding mundur tina Sénat dina Januari 1921, ngantosan dugi ka masa jabatan Cox salaku gubernur réngsé. Gubernur ti Partéy Républik, [[Harry L. Davis]], ngangkat Willis pikeun ngalengkepan sésa masa jabatan Harding. Tempo {{harvnb|Dean|p=92}}.}} Nalika mulang ka Ohio, Harding ngarencanakeun pikeun ngayakeun konsultasi sareng jalma-jalma pinter di nagara éta, anu sumping ka Marion pikeun masihan naséhat ngeunaan pangangkatan kabinét.{{sfn|Russell|pp=420–424}}{{sfn|Sinclair|p=181}} Harding milih Charles Evans Hughes anu pro-Liga Bangsa-Bangsa salaku Menteri Luar Nagri, bari teu maliré kana naséhat Sénator Lodge sarta nu sanésna. Saatos [[Charles G. Dawes]] nampik jabatan Menteri Kauangan, Harding milih bankir ti Pittsburgh, [[Andrew W. Mellon]], salah saurang jalma pangbeungharna di nagara éta. Anjeunna ogé ngangkat Herbert Hoover janten [[Menteri Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat|Menteri Perdagangan]].{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=38–39}} Pupuhu RNC Will Hays diangkat janten [[Menteri Pos Amérika Sarikat|Menteri Pos]], anu harita mah masih kénéh mangrupa jabatan kabinét; anjeunna mundur saatos sataun ngajabat pikeun janten kapala sénsor industri film.{{sfn|Dean|p=89}} Dua jalma anu diangkat ku Harding kana kabinét anu engkéna ngotoran reputasi pamaréntahanana alatan kalibet skandal nyaéta rénjang Harding di Sénat, [[Albert B. Fall]] ti New Mexico salaku [[Menteri Dalam Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Menteri Jero Nagri]], sarta Daugherty salaku jaksa agung. Fall nyaéta saurang peternak sarta mantan penambang ti wewengkon Kulon anu langkung mihak kana pangwangunan lahan.{{sfn|Dean|p=89}} Anjeunna ditentang ku para konservasionis sapertos [[Gifford Pinchot]], anu nyerat, "mungkin waé pikeun milih jalma anu leuwih goréng ti Fall pikeun janten Menteri Jero Nagri, nanging éta hal téh moal gampil pisan."{{sfn|Noggle|p=242}} ''The New York Times'' ogé nyempad pangangkatan Daugherty, bari nyerat yén tinimbang milih salah saurang jalma anu pinter, Harding kalah "milih ukur saurang rénjang panghadéna."{{sfn|Sinclair|p=188}} Eugene P. Trani sarta David L. Wilson nyebutkeun yén éta pangangkatan téh asup akal harita, margi Daugherty nyaéta "saurang pengacara kompetén anu paham pisan kana sisi 'poék' politik... saurang paleres masalah (''troubleshooter'') politik kelas hiji sarta jalma anu tiasa dipercaya ku Harding."{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=43}} === Kawijakan luar nagri === [[File:Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922).jpg|jmpl|katuhu|Konférénsi Angkatan Laut Washington, salah sahiji kasuksésan kawijakan luar nagri Harding.]] Harding negeskeun yén anjeunna nolak asupna Amérika Sarikat kana Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, sanajan Hughes hayang aya gawé bareng anu leuwih raket. Hughes ngirimkeun catetan resmi ka Jenéwa (markas Liga) anu nétélakeun yén Amérika Sarikat moal milu aub, nanging Hughes tetep nempatkeun "pangawas" ti Amérika dina sababaraha komisi Liga. Harding ogé nandatanganan résolusi gabungan Kongrés anu sacara resmi mungkas kaayaan perang sareng Jérman, Austria, sarta Hungaria dina taun 1921.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=108–109}} Puncak tina kawijakan luar nagri Harding nyaéta [[Konférénsi Angkatan Laut Washington]] (1921–1922). Hughes nepikeun usulan anu wani pikeun ngawatesan pangwangunan kapal perang gedé ku kakuatan-kakuatan utama dunya (AS, Britania Raya, Jepang, Perancis, sarta Itali). Ieu konférénsi hasil ngahasilkeun [[Perjangjian Washington (1922)|Perjangjian Washington]] anu hasil nyegah lomba pakarang laut salami ampir sapuluh taun.{{sfn|Dean|pp=101–105}} Dina urusan Amérika Latin, Harding nyobian menerkeun hubungan anu ruksak alatan kawijakan Wilson. Anjeunna narik pasukan Marinir ti Kuba dina taun 1921 sarta ngarencanakeun panarikan pasukan ti Républik Dominika. Harding ogé nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Thomson-Urrutia]] sareng Kolombia, anu masihan santunan $25 juta ka nagara éta salaku pamulihan hubungan saatos kajantenan pamisahan Panama taun 1903.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=225–226}} ==== Hubungan sareng Éropa sarta mungkas perang sacara resmi ==== [[File:League of Nations (Warren G. Harding).ogg|jmpl|Warren G. Harding nerangkeun naha anjeunna embung Amérika Sarikat asup ka [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]].]] Harding negeskeun nalika anjeunna ngangkat Hughes janten Menteri Luar Nagri yén mantan hakim éta anu bakal ngokolakeun kawijakan luar nagri, hiji parobahan tina gaya Wilson anu campur tangan langsung dina urusan internasional.{{sfn|Russell|p=43}} Hughes kedah damel dina garis-garis ageung anu parantos ditangtukeun; saatos ngajabat, Harding mingkin teges kana sikepna nolak Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, sarta mutuskeun yén AS moal gabung sanajan kana vérsi Liga anu parantos dirévisi. Jalaran Perjangjian Versailles teu diratifikasi ku Sénat, AS sacara téknis masih kénéh dina kaayaan perang sareng [[Républik Weimar|Jérman]], [[Républik Austria Kahiji|Austria]], sarta [[Karajaan Hungaria (1920–1946)|Hungaria]]. Prosés perdamaian dimimitian ku [[Résolusi Knox–Porter]], anu nyatakeun yén AS parantos daméy sarta tetep nyepeng hak-hak anu dipasihkeun ku Versailles. Perjangjian daméy [[Perjangjian Daméy AS–Jérman (1921)|sareng Jérman]], [[Perjangjian Daméy AS–Austria (1921)|Austria]], sarta [[Perjangjian Daméy AS–Hungaria (1921)|Hungaria]], anu masing-masing eusina ngawengku rupa-rupa katangtuan non-Liga tina Perjangjian Versailles, ahirna diratifikasi dina taun 1921.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=142–145}} Ieu hal masih nyésakeun patarosan ngeunaan hubungan antara AS sareng Liga Bangsa-Bangsa. Departemén Luar Nagri pimpinan Hughes mimitina mah teu maliré kana komunikasi ti Liga, atanapi nyobian nyingkahanana ku cara ngayakeun kontak langsung sareng nagara-nagara anggota. Nanging dina taun 1922, AS ngaliwatan konsulna di Jenéwa mimiti ngayakeun hubungan sareng Liga. Sanajan AS nolak milu aub dina rapat-rapat anu aya pakuat-pakaitna sareng politik, AS ngirimkeun pangawas (''observers'') kana sési-sési ngeunaan urusan téknis sarta kamanusaan.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=145–147}} Nalika Harding mimiti ngajabat, aya tungtutan ti pamaréntah luar nagri pikeun ngurangan hutang perang anu kacida badagna ka Amérika Sarikat, sarta pamaréntah Jérman nyobian ngurangan [[Réparasi Perang Dunya I|réparasi]] (ganti rugi perang) anu kedah dibayar ku maranéhna. AS nolak mertimbangkeun sagala jinis kacindekan multilateral. Harding nyobian ngasahkeun rencana anu diajukeun ku Mellon pikeun masihan kakawasaan anu lega ka pamaréntah dina negosiasi pangurangan hutang perang, nanging [[Kongrés ka-67 Amérika Sarikat]] dina taun 1922 kalah ngasahkeun undang-undang anu langkung ketat. Hughes hasil negosiasi kasapukan sangkan [[Karajaan Ngahiji Britania Raya sarta Irlandia|Britania]] mayar hutang perangna salami 62 taun kalayan bunga anu alit, anu sacara éféktif ngurangan [[ajén ayeuna]] (''present value'') tina éta kawajiban. Ieu kasapukan, anu disatujuan ku Kongrés dina taun 1923, janten modél pikeun negosiasi sareng nagara-nagara sanés. Sawala sareng Jérman ngeunaan pangurangan pamayaran réparasi ahirna ngahasilkeun [[Rencana Dawes]] dina taun 1924.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=162–163}} Pasualan anu can réngsé dina jaman Wilson nyaéta kawijakan AS ka Rusia [[Bolshevik]]. AS mangrupa salah sahiji nagara anu [[Pasukan Ékspédisi Amérika, Rusia Kalér|ngirimkeun pasukan ka dinya]] saatos [[Révolusi Rusia]]. Saatosna, Wilson nolak ngaku kadaulatan [[RSFS Rusia]]. Menteri Perdagangan pimpinan Harding, Hoover, anu miboga pangalaman jembar dina urusan Rusia, janten pamingpin dina nangtukeun kawijakan. Nalika [[Kalaparan Rusia 1921|kalaparan narajang Rusia dina taun 1921]], Hoover ngagunakeun [[Administrasi Relief Amérika]], anu dipingpin ku anjeunna, pikeun negosiasi sareng urang Rusia dina masihan bantuan. Para pamingpin [[U.S.S.R.]] (anu diadegkeun taun 1922) miboga harepan yén éta kasapukan bakal mawa kana pangakuan diplomatik, nanging harita mah teu kawujud. Hoover ngadukung ayana perdagangan sareng Soviét margi sieun pausahaan-pausahaan AS moal bisa asup ka pasar Soviét, nanging Hughes nolak hal ieu, sahingga éta pasualan can réngsé salami Harding ngajabat.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=116–126}} ==== Pangeureunan pakarang (Disarmament) ==== {{utama|Konférénsi Angkatan Laut Washington}} [[File:Charles Evans Hughes-01.jpg|jmpl|katuhu|[[Charles Evans Hughes]], mantan hakim Agung sarta Menteri Luar Nagri pimpinan Harding]] Harding ngajurung ayana pangeureunan pakarang (''disarmament'') sarta pangurangan biaya pertahanan salami mangsa kampanye, nanging hal éta sanés mangrupa pasualan utama harita. Anjeunna nepikeun biantara dina sési gabungan Kongrés dina April 1921, netepkeun prioritas législatifna. Di antara sababaraha pasualan luar nagri anu disabit ku anjeunna nyaéta pangeureunan pakarang; anjeunna nyatakeun yén pamaréntah moal tiasa "teu maliré kana panyambat pikeun ngirangan pengeluaran" dina widang pertahanan.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=149–150}} Sénator Idaho [[William Borah]] parantos ngusulkeun hiji konférénsi dimana kakuatan angkatan laut utama, nyaéta AS, Britania, sarta Jepang, bakal sapuk pikeun ngurangan jumlah armada kapalna. Harding satuju, sarta saatos ngayakeun sawala diplomatik, wawakil ti salapan nagara kumpul di Washington dina bulan Nopémber 1921. Sabagian ageung diplomat mimitina ngahadiran upacara [[Poé Veteran|Poé Gencatan Sanjata]] di [[Pasaréan Nasional Arlington]], dimana Harding nepikeun biantara dina upacara pamakaman [[Makam Prajurit Teu Dikenal|Prajurit Teu Dikenal Perang Dunya I]]. Harding nyarios yén identitas éta prajurit, "mumbul babarengan sareng jiwana anu langgeng. Urang teu terang ti mana anjeunna asalna, mung terang yén maotna méré tanda kamulyaan anu langgeng salaku urang Amérika anu gugur pikeun nagarana."{{sfn|Dean|pp=130–131}} Hughes, dina biantarana nalika bubuka konférénsi ping 12 Nopémber 1921, ngajukeun usulan Amérika—yén AS bakal ngeureunkeun operasi atanapi moal ngawangun 30 kapal perang upami Britania Raya ngalakukeun hal anu sami pikeun 19 kapal, sarta Jepang pikeun 17 kapal.{{sfn|Russell|p=481}} Hughes sacara umum hasil, kalayan dihontalna kasapukan dina ieu pasualan sarta sababaraha poin sanésna, kalebet kacindekan tina sengketa pulo-pulo di Pasifik, sarta watesan dina panggunaan gas racun. Perjangjian angkatan laut ieu mung dilarapkeun ka kapal perang (''battleships''), sarta dina sababaraha tingkat ka kapal induk (''aircraft carriers''), sarta dina ahirna mah henteu tiasa nyegah ayana pangwangunan pakarang deui di hareupna. Sanajan kitu, Harding sarta Hughes nampi pujian anu jembar ti média alatan usahana. Sénator Lodge sarta [[Pamingpin Minoritas Sénat]], [[Oscar Underwood]] ti Alabama, mangrupa bagian ti dèlègasi AS, sarta maranéhna mantuan mastikeun yén éta perjangjian bisa ditarima ku Sénat kalayan ampir tanpa parobahan, sanajan lembaga éta nambihan sababaraha catetan (''reservations'').{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=241–245}}{{sfn|Dean|pp=132–134}} AS parantos miboga leuwih ti sarébu kapal salami Perang Dunya I, sarta masih kénéh miboga sabagian ageungna nalika Harding mimiti ngajabat. Kongrés parantos ngidinan panyingkiran éta kapal-kapal dina [[Undang-Undang Marinir Padagang 1920]], nanging Sénat henteu daék mastikeun calon-calon Wilson pikeun [[Dewan Pengiriman Amérika Sarikat|Dewan Pangiriman]] (''Shipping Board''). Harding ngangkat Albert Lasker janten pupuhuna; éta éksékutif iklan nyobian ngajalankeun éta armada sangkan meunang untung sabisa-bisa dugi ka éta kapal tiasa dijual. Nanging, mung sakedik kapal anu laku dijual kalayan harga anu nyaketan modal pamaréntah. Lasker nyarankeun ayana subsidi anu ageung pikeun [[marinir padagang]] pikeun ngagampangkeun penjualan, sarta Harding terus-terusan ngajurung Kongrés sangkan ngasahkeunana. Nanging, éta rancangan undang-undang téh henteu dipikaresep di wilayah Midwest, sarta sanajan lolos di DPR (''House''), éta usulan kawon ku [[filibuster]] di Sénat, sahingga sabagian ageung kapal pamaréntah ahirna mah dijadikeun beusi tua (''scrapped'').{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=174–178}} ==== Amérika Latin ==== Campur tangan (intervénsi) di Amérika Latin mangrupa pasualan kampanye anu sakedik dibahas, sanajan Harding kungsi nyarita nentang kaputusan Wilson pikeun [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Républik Dominika (1916–24)|ngirimkeun pasukan AS ka Républik Dominika]] sarta Haiti. Harding ogé narajang calon wakil présidén ti Partéy Démokrat, Franklin Roosevelt, alatan peranna dina [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Haiti|intervénsi Haiti]]. Saatos Harding dilantik, Hughes digawé pikeun ngaronjatkeun hubungan sareng nagara-nagara Amérika Latin anu ngarasa waspada kana panggunaan [[Doktrin Monroe]] ku Amérika pikeun menerkeun intervénsi; nalika pelantikan Harding, AS ogé masih miboga pasukan di Kuba sarta Nikaragua. Pasukan anu ditempatkeun di Kuba ditarik dina taun 1921, nanging pasukan AS tetep aya di tilu nagara sanésna salami mangsa jabatan Harding.{{efn|Nalika Hughes mundur tina jabatanna dina taun 1925, pasukan Amérika parantos ninggalkeun Républik Dominika sarta nuju prosés ninggalkeun Nikaragua. Panarikan pasukan ti Haiti masih kénéh direncanakeun. Tempo {{harvnb|Trani & Wilson|p=135}}.}}{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=133–135}} Dina April 1921, Harding hasil meunangkeun ratifikasi [[Perjangjian Thomson–Urrutia]] sareng Kolombia, anu masihan éta nagara santunan $25 juta (sarimbag sareng ${{Inflation|US|25|1921|r=2}} juta dina {{Inflation-year|US}}) salaku kacindekan tina [[Pamisahan Panama ti Kolombia|révolusi Panama taun 1903]] anu diprovokasi ku AS.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=340–341}} Nagara-nagara Amérika Latin henteu sagemblengna sugema, jalaran AS nolak pikeun ngeureunkeun kabijakan intervénsionisme, sanajan Hughes jangji bakal ngawatesan hal éta mung ka nagara-nagara anu deukeut sareng Terusan Panama sarta bakal ngajelaskeun naon baé tujuan AS sabenerna.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=136–137}} AS parantos sababaraha kali ngayakeun intervénsi di Méksiko dina jaman Wilson, sarta parantos mutuskeun hubungan diplomatik bari nangtukeun sarat-sarat pikeun pamulihanana. Pamaréntah Méksiko di handapeun Présidén [[Álvaro Obregón]] hoyong ayana pangakuan diplomatik sateuacan ngayakeun negosiasi, nanging Wilson sarta menteri luar nagri terakhirna, [[Bainbridge Colby]], nolak hal éta. Boh Hughes boh Fall nolak ayana pangakuan; Hughes kalah ngirimkeun draf perjangjian ka urang Méksiko dina Méi 1921, anu eusina kaasup jangji pikeun ngaganti rugi ka urang Amérika alatan karugian di Méksiko saprak [[Révolusi Méksiko|révolusi 1910]]. Obregón embung nandatanganan perjangjian sateuacan diaku kadaulatanana, sarta anjeunna digawé pikeun ngaronjatkeun hubungan antara dunya bisnis Amérika sareng Méksiko ku cara ngayakeun kasapukan sareng para krédiur sarta ngayakeun kampanye hubungan masarakat (PR) di Amérika Sarikat. Hal ieu miboga pangaruh, sarta dina pertengahan taun 1922, pangaruh Fall mimiti ngurangan, sahingga panolakan kana pangakuan diplomatik ogé milu ngurangan. Kadua présidén teras ngangkat komisaris pikeun ngahontal kasapukan, sarta AS resmi ngaku kadaulatan pamaréntah Obregón dina ping 31 Agustus 1923, kirang ti sasasih saatos Harding pupus, kalayan katangtuan anu sabagian ageungna saluyu sareng kahoyong Méksiko.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=130–132}} === Kawijakan jero nagri === ==== Résési sarta pamulihan pasca-perang ==== {{utama|Depresi 1920–1921}} [[File:Chas G Dawes-H&E.jpg|jmpl|katuhu|[[Charles G. Dawes|Charles Dawes]]—diréktur anggaran munggaran sarta engkéna janten wakil présidén dina jaman Coolidge]] Nalika Harding mimiti ngajabat dina ping 4 Maret 1921, nagara nuju aya di tengah-tengah [[Déprési 1920–21|panurunan ékonomi pasca-perang]].{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=40–41}} Dumasar saran ti para pamingpin législatif, Harding ngayakeun sési husus Kongrés anu dimimitian dina ping 11 April. Nalika Harding nepikeun biantara dina sési gabungan poé isukna, anjeunna ngajurung ayana pangurangan pajeg panghasilan (anu ditaékeun salami perang), paningkatan tarif barang tatanén pikeun ngajaga patani Amérika, sarta rupa-rupa réformasi anu leuwih jembar, sapertos rojongan pikeun pangwangunan jalan raya, penerbangan, sarta radio.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=54–57}}{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=52–55}} Kakara dina ping 27 Méi Kongrés ngasahkeun kanaékan tarif darurat pikeun produk tatanén. [[Undang-Undang Anggaran sarta Akuntansi 1921|Hiji undang-undang]] anu ngidinan dibentukna [[Biro Anggaran]] disatujuan dina ping 10 Juni, sarta Harding ngangkat Charles Dawes janten diréktur biro kasebut kalayan mandat pikeun neukteuk pengeluaran pamaréntah.{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=51–52}} ==== Pangurangan pajeg Mellon ==== Menteri Kauangan Mellon ogé nyarankeun sangkan Kongrés nurunkeun tarif pajeg panghasilan, sarta [[pajeg kaleuwihan kauntungan]] pausahaan (''excess profits tax'') dileungitkeun. [[Komite Urusan Keuangan DPR]] (''House Ways and Means Committee'') nyaluyuan usulan Mellon, nanging sababaraha anggota kongrés anu hoyong naékeun tarif pajeg pausahaan nolak éta léngkah. Harding sorangan ngarasa bingung kudu mihak ka mana, anjeunna nyarios ka rénjangna, "Kuring teu ngarti pisan kana ieu masalah pajeg. Kuring ngadéngékeun hiji pihak, maranéhna sigana bener, teras—Gusti!—kuring ngobrol sareng pihak sanésna, sarta maranéhna ogé sigana sarua benerna."{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=52–55}} Harding nyobian ngayakeun kompromi, sarta hasil ngasahkeun rancangan undang-undang di DPR saatos panyingkiran pajeg kaleuwihan kauntungan ditunda sataun. Di Sénat, éta rancangan undang-undang janten pajeuet alatan ayana usaha pikeun masihan bonus ka para véteran Perang Dunya I. Ku sabab ngarasa kaganggu ku reureuhna prosés ieu, dina ping 12 Juli, Harding sumping ka Sénat pikeun ngajurung panyahkeun undang-undang pajeg tanpa bonus kasebut. Kakara dina bulan Nopémber [[Undang-Undang Pendapatan 1921|rancangan undang-undang pendapatan]] ahirna disahkeun, kalayan tarif anu langkung luhur tinimbang anu diajukeun ku Mellon.{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=55–58}}{{sfn|Dean|p=108}} [[File:AWMellon.jpg|jmpl|kenca|Menteri Kauangan [[Andrew W. Mellon]] ngajurung pangurangan tarif pajeg.]] Dina nolak bonus véteran, Harding nyatakeun dina biantarana di Sénat yén nagara parantos ngalakukeun seueur hal pikeun maranéhna salaku tanda nganuhunkeun, sarta yén éta undang-undang bakal "ngaruksak Kas Nagara urang, anu engkéna bakal dipiharep kacida badagna".{{sfn|Dean|pp=107–108}} Sénat ngirimkeun deui rancangan undang-undang bonus éta ka komite, nanging pasualan ieu muncul deui nalika Kongrés kumpul deui dina Désémber 1921.{{sfn|Dean|pp=107–108}} Hiji undang-undang anu nyadiakeun bonus, sanajan tanpa sumber waragad anu jelas, disahkeun ku kadua majelis dina Séptémber 1922, nanging véto ti Harding hasil dipertahankeun ku béda sora anu saeutik. [[Undang-Undang Kompénsasi Perang Dunya|Bonus non-tunai]] pikeun para prajurit ahirna disahkeun dina taun 1924, sanajan harita aya véto ti Coolidge.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=78–79}} Dina [[Amanat Présidén (Amérika Sarikat)|amanat taunan munggaranna ka Kongrés]], Harding ménta kawenang pikeun nyaluyukeun tarif pajeg. Panyahkeun undang-undang tarif di Sénat sarta dina [[komite konférénsi]] janten rebutan rupa-rupa kapentingan lobi.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=74–75}} Nalika Harding nandatanganan Undang-Undang [[Tarif Fordney–McCumber]] dina ping 21 Séptémber 1922, anjeunna masihan [[pernyataan nandatanganan|pernyataan singget]], anu mung muji éta undang-undang alatan masihan kawenang ka anjeunna pikeun ngarobah tarif. Numutkeun Trani sarta Wilson, éta undang-undang téh "henteu dipertimbangkeun kalayan asak. Hal éta ngabalukarkeun karuksakan dina perdagangan internasional sarta ngajantenkeun pamayaran hutang perang janten langkung hésé."{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=74}} Mellon maréntahkeun ayana hiji panalungtikan anu némbongkeun sacara historis yén nalika tarif pajeg panghasilan ditaékeun, duit kalah "disumputkeun" (ka jero taneuh) atanapi dilarikeun ka luar nagri. Anjeunna nyimpulkeun yén tarif anu langkung handap justru bakal ningkatkeun pendapatan pajeg.<ref>{{cite book|first=Andrew.W.|last= Mellon|title=Taxation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UMRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|page=16|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=9785879551631|year=1924}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Joel|author1-link=Joel Slemrod|last=Slemrod|title=Does Atlas Shrug?: The Economic Consequences of Taxing the Rich|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mpiqxjB9AgC&pg=PA48|year=2000|publisher=Harvard UP|pages=48–49|isbn=9780674001541}}</ref> Dumasar kana éta naséhat, undang-undang pendapatan Harding neukteuk pajeg ti mimiti taun 1922. Tarif marjinal pangluhurna diréduksi sacara bertahap dina opat tahap, tina 73% dina taun 1921 janten 25% dina taun 1925. Pajeg pikeun panghasilan anu langkung handap ogé diteukteuk ti mimiti taun 1923, sarta éta tarif anu langkung handap téh sacara substansial ningkatkeun aliran duit ka kas nagara. Maranéhna ogé ngajalankeun dérégulasi sacara masif, sahingga pengeluaran fédéral dibandingkeun GDP lungsur tina 6,5% janten 3,5%. Dina ahir taun 1922, ékonomi mimiti pulih. Angka pangangguran anu tadina luhur pisan dina taun 1921 nyaéta 12%, hasil dipangkas janten rata-rata 3,3% salami sésa dékadé éta. Indéks kasangsaraan (''misery index''), gabungan antara angka pangangguran sarta inflasi, ngalaman panurunan anu pangseukeutna dina sajarah AS di handapeun pamaréntahan Harding. Gaji, kauntungan, sarta produktivitas sadayana ngalaman kanaékan anu signifikan; rata-rata kanaékan GDP taunan nincak leuwih ti 5% salami taun 1920-an. Sejarawan libertarian Larry Schweikart sarta Michael Allen boga pamandangan yén, "Kabijakan pajeg Mellon nyiapkeun panggung pikeun kamekaran anu paling narik ati anu kantos katingal dina ékonomi Amérika anu mémang parantos hébat."<ref>{{cite book|first1=Larry|last1=Schweikart|first2=Michael|last2=Allen|title=A Patriot's History of the United States|publisher=Penguin|year=2004|location=New York|page=536}}</ref> ==== Nanggeuy téknologi anyar ==== Taun 1920-an mangrupa mangsa modérenisasi pikeun Amérika—panggunaan listrik janten hal anu beuki umum. Produksi masal kandaraan bermotor ogé ngarangsang industri sanésna, sapertos pangwangunan jalan raya, karét, waja, sarta konstruksi, jalaran seueur hotél diadegkeun pikeun nampung para wisatawan anu mimiti wani nyorang jalan-jalan darat. Dorongan ékonomi ieu mantuan nagara kaluar tina résési.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=206}} Pikeun ngoméan sarta ngalegaan sistem jalan raya nasional, Harding nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Jalan Raya Fédéral 1921 (Undang-Undang Phipps)]]. Ti taun 1921 dugi ka 1923, pamaréntah fédéral ngaluarkeun dana $162 juta (sarimbag sareng ${{Inflation|US|.162|1923|r=1}} milyar dina {{Inflation-year|US}}) pikeun sistem jalan raya Amérika, anu nyuntikkeun modal kacida badagna kana ékonomi AS.{{sfn|Wynn|pp=217–218}} Dina taun 1922, Harding nyatakeun yén Amérika parantos asup kana "jaman mobil", anu "ngagambarkeun standar hirup urang sarta ngukur kacepetan hirup urang di jaman ayeuna".<ref>{{cite web|last=Harding|first=Warren G.|title=Second Annual Message to Congress|publisher=American Presidency Project|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29563|date=December 8, 1922|access-date=August 3, 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125130846/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/second-annual-message-20 |date=January 25, 2021 }}</ref> Harding ngajurung ayana régulasi pikeun siaran radio dina biantarana di payuneun Kongrés bulan April 1921.{{sfn|Murray 1973|p=46}} Menteri Perdagangan Hoover tanggung jawab kana ieu proyék, sarta ngayakeun konférénsi para panyiar radio dina taun 1922, anu ngahasilkeun kasapukan sukarela pikeun lisénsi [[frékuénsi radio]] ngaliwatan [[Departemén Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat]]. Boh Harding boh Hoover nyadar yén diperyogikeun hal anu langkung kiat tinimbang saukur kasapukan, nanging Kongrés rada laun dina meta, sahingga régulasi radio nembé resmi lumaku dina taun 1927.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=88}} Harding ogé hoyong ngamajukeun dunya penerbangan, sarta deui-deui Hoover anu mingpin ku cara ngayakeun konférénsi nasional ngeunaan penerbangan komérsial. Sawala kasebut museur kana urusan kasalametan, pamariksaan kapal udara, sarta lisénsi pikeun pilot. Harding deui-deui ngajurung panyahkeun undang-undang, nanging teu aya hasilna dugi ka taun 1926, nalika [[Undang-Undang Perdagangan Udara 1926]] ngadegkeun [[Biro Aéronautika]] di handapeun Departemén Perdagangan pimpinan Hoover.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=88}} ==== Dunya bisnis sarta tanaga gawé ==== [[File:Wharding.jpeg|jmpl|katuhu|Potrét resmi Gedong Bodas Harding, {{kira-kira|1922}} ku [[Edmund Hodgson Smart]]]] {{salajengna|Mogok Gedé Karéta Api 1922}} Sikep Harding kana dunya bisnis nyaéta pamaréntah kedah ngabantuan sabisa-bisa.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=83}} Anjeunna miboga kacurigaan ka [[serikat buruh]], sarta nganggap hal éta salaku konspirasi ngalawan dunya bisnis.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=253–254}} Anjeunna nyobian sangkan dunya bisnis sarta buruh tiasa damel babarengan dina hiji konférénsi ngeunaan pangangguran anu diayakeun dina Séptémber 1921 dumasar saran ti Hoover. Harding ngingetkeun dina biantara bubukana yén moal aya dana fédéral anu disadiakeun. Teu aya undang-undang penting anu dihasilkeun, sanajan sababaraha proyék [[padamelan umum]] (''public works'') diakselérasi.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=92–93}} Dina watesan anu jembar, Harding ngantepkeun unggal menteri kabinét pikeun ngokolakeun departeménna masing-masing sakumaha mistina.{{sfn|Murray 1973|p=29}} Hoover ngalegaan Departemén Perdagangan sangkan langkung mangpaat pikeun dunya bisnis. Hal ieu luyu sareng pamandangan Hoover yén séktor swasta kedah janten pamingpin dina ngokolakeun ékonomi.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=84}} Harding kacida ngahormatna ka Menteri Perdaganganana, sering naroskeun naséhatna, sarta ngadukung anjeunna sapinuhna, bari nyebat Hoover salaku "jalma (''[[wikt:gink|gink]]'') pangpinterna anu kuring terang".{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=32–33}} Mogok gawé anu sumebar lumaku dina taun 1922, nalika para buruh nungtut ganti rugi alatan turunna gaji sarta naékna angka pangangguran. Dina bulan April, 500.000 panambang batubara anu dipingpin ku [[John L. Lewis]] ngayakeun mogok gawé alatan pamangkasan gaji. Para éksékutif tambang nyatakeun yén industri nuju dina mangsa hésé; Lewis nuding maranéhna nuju nyobian ngancurkeun serikat buruh. Jalaran éta mogok janten lami pisan, Harding nawarkeun kompromi pikeun ngabéréskeunana. Salaku usulan ti Harding, para panambang sapuk pikeun mulang damel, sarta Kongrés ngadegkeun hiji komisi pikeun mariksa keluhan maranéhna.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=97–99}} Dina ping 1 Juli 1922, 400.000 padamel karéta api ngayakeun mogok gawé. Harding nyarankeun hiji kacindekan anu masihan sababaraha konsési, nanging pihak manajemén nolak. Jaksa Agung Daugherty ngayakinkeun Hakim [[James H. Wilkerson]] pikeun ngaluarkeun paréntah pangadilan (''injunction'') anu jembar pikeun ngeureunkeun éta mogok. Sanajan aya rojongan masarakat kana paréntah Wilkerson kasebut, Harding ngarasa éta paréntah téh kaleuleuwihi, sarta ménta Daugherty sarta Wilkerson pikeun ngarobahna. Paréntah éta ahirna ngeureunkeun mogok, nanging katégangan tetep aya antara padamel karéta api sarta manajemén salami mangtaun-taun salajengna.{{sfn|Russell|pp=546–549}} Dina taun 1922, sistem [[dalapan jam gawé]] parantos janten hal anu umum dina industri Amérika. Salah sahiji pangecualianana nyaéta di [[pabrik waja]], dimana para buruh masih kénéh damel salami dua belas jam sapoé, tujuh dinten saminggu. Hoover nganggap prakték ieu biadab sarta ménta Harding ngayakeun konférénsi para produsi waja kalayan tujuan pikeun mungkas éta sistem. Konférénsi éta ngadegkeun hiji komite di handapeun pamingpin pupuhu [[U. S. Steel]], [[Elbert Gary]], anu dina awal taun 1923 nyarankeun sangkan éta prakték ulah dironjatkeun (tetep lumaku). Harding ngirimkeun surat ka Gary anu nyatakeun kuciwa kana éta hasil, anu teras dicitak dina pers. Protes ti masarakat ahirna maksa para produsi pikeun ngarobah kaputusanana sarta nerapkeun standar dalapan jam gawé.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=255–256}} ==== Hak-hak sipil sarta imigrasi ==== [[File:Harding at Birmingham.jpg|jmpl|Harding nepikeun biantara di hareupeun balaréa anu dipisahkeun dumasar ras di Birmingham, Alabama, 26 Oktober 1921.]] Sanajan dina biantara munggaranna di payuneun Kongrés Harding ngajurung panyahkeun undang-undang anti-''lynching'' (pamaéhan massa sacara liar),<ref name=Baker18Aug/> mimitina mah anjeunna katingalna moal ngalakukeun leuwih loba pikeun urang Amérika-Afrika dibandingkeun para présidén Républik saméméhna; anjeunna ngan saukur ménta para menteri kabinétna milari tempat pikeun urang hideung di departeménna masing-masing. Sinclair nyebutkeun yén kanyataan Harding nampi dua per lima sora ti wilayah Kidul dina taun 1920 ngajantenkeun anjeunna ningali ayana kasempetan politik pikeun partéyna di wilayah [[Kidul anu Solid]] (''Solid South''). Dina ping 26 Oktober 1921, Harding nepikeun biantara di [[Birmingham, Alabama]], di hareupeun 20.000 urang kulit bodas sarta 10.000 urang kulit hideung anu [[Ségregasi ras|dipisahkeun diukna]]. Harding, bari nyatakeun yén bédana sosial sarta rasial antara kulit bodas sarta kulit hideung moal tiasa dijembatanan, tetep ngajurung ayana hak pulitik anu sarua pikeun urang kulit hideung. Harita, seueur urang Amérika-Afrika anu milih Républik, sarta Harding nyatakeun anjeunna teu kabéberatan upami rojongan éta réngsé asalkan hasilna nyaéta sistem dua partéy anu kiat di Kidul. Anjeunna ogé nyatujuan upami [[Uji litarasi|tés maca-tulis]] pikeun milih tetep lumaku, asalkan dilarapkeun sacara adil ka pamilih kulit bodas boh kulit hideung.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=230–234}} "Naha anjeun resep atanapi henteu," saur Harding ka hadirin, "iwal démokrasi urang téh bohong, anjeun kedah ngadukung kana kasaruaan éta."<ref name=Baker18Aug/> Kelompok kulit bodas ngadangukeun kalayan jempe, sedengkeun kelompok kulit hideung surak gumbira.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Radosh |first1=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Radosh |last2=Radosh |first2=Allis|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/hey_wait_a_minute/2014/07/warren_harding_letters_could_they_spark_a_revisionist_view_of_the_much_maligned.single.html |title=What If Warren Harding Wasn't a Terrible President? |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date=July 16, 2014 |access-date=July 18, 2014}}</ref> Tilu dinten saatos [[Pamaéhan rasial Tulsa]] 1921, Harding nyarios di [[Universitas Lincoln (Pennsylvania)|Universitas Lincoln]] anu mahasiswana sadayana urang kulit hideung. Anjeunna nyatakeun, "Sanajan aya para demagog, ideu ngeunaan kahijian urang salaku urang Amérika parantos unggul luhureun unggal panyambat golongan. Sarta kuring miharep éta hal lumaku ogé dina pasualan ras nasional urang." Nyarios langsung ngeunaan kajantenan di Tulsa, anjeunna nyarios, "Gusti muga maparin, dina kaayaan sadar, kaadilan, sarta kajujuran di nagara ieu, urang moal ningali deui tontonan jiga kitu."<ref>{{cite news |last=Robenalt |first=James D. |title=The Republican president who called for racial justice in America after Tulsa massacre |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=June 21, 2020 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/06/21/warren-harding-tulsa-race-massacre-trump/| access-date = June 22, 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200622065637/https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/06/21/warren-harding-tulsa-race-massacre-trump/| archive-date = June 22, 2020| url-status = live}}</ref> [[File:Taft Harding Robert Lincoln 1922.jpg|jmpl|kenca|Harding (tengah) sareng Hakim Agung [[William Howard Taft|Taft]] (kénca) sarta [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] dina upacara peresmian [[Lincoln Memorial]], 30 Méi 1922]] Harding ngadukung rancangan undang-undang anti-''lynching'' fédéral anu diajukeun ku anggota Déwan [[Leonidas Dyer]], anu lolos di DPR dina Januari 1922.{{sfn|Dean|p=123}} Nalika éta usulan dugi ka Sénat dina Nopémber 1922, éta usulan kahambat ku [[filibuster]] ti urang Démokrat wilayah Kidul. Lodge ahirna narik éta usulan supados undang-undang subsidi kapal anu dipikahoyong ku Harding tiasa dibahas, sanajan ahirna mah sarua kahambat ogé. Urang kulit hideung nyalahkeun Harding alatan kawon éta Undang-Undang Dyer; biografer Harding, Robert K. Murray, nyatet yén hal ieu gancang réngsé alatan kahayang Harding supados undang-undang subsidi kapal tiasa leuwih tiheula dibahas.{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=89–90}} Kusabab masarakat harita waspada ka para imigran, utamana anu dianggap [[sosialis]] atanapi [[komunis]], Kongrés ngasahkeun [[Undang-Undang Kuota Darurat|Undang-Undang Per Centum 1921]], anu ditandatanganan ku Harding dina ping 19 Méi 1921. Ieu undang-undang ngurangan jumlah imigran janten 3% tina jumlah urang ti nagara kasebut anu parantos cicing di AS dumasar sénsus taun 1910. Sacara prakték, hal ieu henteu ngawatesan imigran ti Irlandia sarta Jérman, nanging bakal ngahalangan seueur urang Itali sarta Yahudi Éropa Wétan.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=215}} Harding sarta Menteri Tanaga Gawé [[James J. Davis]] yakin yén palaksanaan aturan ieu kedah dilakukeun sacara manusiawi, sarta dumasar saran menteri kasebut, Harding ngantepkeun ampir 1.000 imigran anu sakuduna dideportasi pikeun tetep cicing di AS.{{sfn|Dean|pp=101–102}} Coolidge engkéna nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Imigrasi 1924]] anu ngawatesan imigrasi ka AS sacara permanén.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=217}} ==== Eugene Debs sarta tahanan politik ==== Lawan Harding tina Partéy Sosialis dina pamilihan taun 1920, [[Eugene Debs]], nuju ngajalanan hukuman sapuluh taun di [[Panjara Atlanta]] alatan nyarita nentang perang. Wilson parantos nolak masihan pangampunan (''pardon'') ka anjeunna sateuacan lungsur kalungguhan. Daugherty pendak sareng Debs, sarta anjeunna kacida katarikna ku kapribadian Debs. Harita aya panolakan ti para véteran, kalebet ti [[Legiun Amérika]], sarta ogé ti Florence Harding. Présidén ngarasa anjeunna teu tiasa ngabébaskeun Debs dugi ka perang sacara resmi réngsé, nanging saatos perjangjian daméy ditandatanganan, Harding ngarobah (''commuted'') hukuman Debs dina ping 23 Désémber 1921. Dumasar pamundut Harding, Debs nganjang ka Présidén di Gedong Bodas sateuacan mulang ka bumina di Indiana.{{sfn|Dean|pp=126–129}} Harding ngabébaskeun 23 jalma sanésna anu nentang perang dina waktos anu sami sareng Debs, sarta terus mariksa deui rupa-rupa kasus sarta ngabébaskeun para tahanan politik salami mangsa jabatanna. Harding ngabéla kaputusanana ngabébaskeun para tahanan éta salaku hal anu diperyogikeun pikeun mulangkeun nagara kana kaayaan normal.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=168–169}} ==== Pangangkatan yudisial ==== {{salajengna|Daptar hakim fédéral anu diangkat ku Warren G. Harding|Calon Mahkamah Agung Warren G. Harding}} Harding ngangkat opat hakim ka [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]]. Nalika Hakim Agung [[Edward Douglass White]] pupus dina Méi 1921, Harding ngarasa bingung naha kedah ngangkat mantan présidén Taft atanapi mantan sénator Utah [[George Sutherland]]—jalaran anjeunna parantos jangji bakal masihan korsi hakim ka duanana. Saatos sakedap mertimbangkeun pikeun ngantosan lowongan sanésna supados tiasa ngangkat duanana sakaligus, anjeunna milih Taft janten Hakim Agung. Sutherland ahirna diangkat ka pangadilan dina taun 1922, anu teras diteraskeun ku dua hakim konservatif ékonomi sanésna, [[Pierce Butler (hakim)|Pierce Butler]] sarta [[Edward Terry Sanford]], dina taun 1923.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=48–49}} Harding ogé ngangkat genep hakim ka [[Pangadilan Banding Amérika Sarikat]], 42 hakim ka [[Pangadilan Distrik Amérika Sarikat]], sarta dua hakim ka [[Pangadilan Banding Béa Cukai Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Biographical Dictionary of the Federal Judiciary |publisher=Federal Judicial Center |url=http://www.fjc.gov/public/home.nsf/hisj |access-date=June 14, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730115701/http://www.fjc.gov/public/home.nsf/hisj |archive-date=July 30, 2016 }} Milarian dina kaca kasebut ku cara milih "select research categories" teras pariksa "court type" sarta "nominating president", teras pilih jinis pangadilan sarta Warren G. Harding.</ref> === Kamunduran politik sarta lalampahan ka wilayah Kulon === {{Tempo ogé|Gerbong Karéta Api Harding}} [[File:President Harding in Alaska on Presidential Train.jpg|jmpl|Harding dina jero karéta kapersidénan di Alaska, Juli 1923, sareng Ibu Harding sarta menteri-menteri: Hoover, Wallace, sarta Work]] Nincak mangsa kampanye pamilihan législatif sela (''midterm'') taun 1922, Harding sarta Partéy Républik parantos ngalaksanakeun seueur jangji kampanyena. Nanging, sababaraha jangji anu parantos ditedunan, sapertos neukteuk pajeg pikeun jalma beunghar, tétéla teu dipikaresep ku para pamilih. Ékonomi ogé can mulang sagemblengna kana kaayaan normal, kalayan angka pangangguran masih dina 11 persén, sarta serikat buruh ogé ngambek alatan hasil tina mogok gawé saméméhna. Tina 303 korsi Républik di DPR hasil pamilihan 1920, dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-68]] mah éta partéy téh lungsur janten mung miboga mayoritas 221–213. Di Sénat, Républik kaleungitan dalapan korsi, sahingga mung miboga 51 tina 96 sénator dina Kongrés énggal, anu tétéla Harding sorangan teu kaburu nepungan jalaran kabujeng pupus.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=80–81}} Sasih saatos pamilihan, sési ''lame-duck'' (mangsa transisi) Kongrés ka-67 lumaku. Harita Harding mimiti sadar yén pamandangan mimitina ngeunaan kapersidénan—yén présidén mung saukur ngusulkeun kawijakan nanging panyahkeunana mah kumaha Kongrés—téh parantos teu cekap deui. Anjeunna teras ngalobi Kongrés, sanajan teu hasil, supados undang-undang subsidi kapalna tiasa disahkeun.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=80–81}} Nalika anggota Kongrés mimiti ninggalkeun kota dina awal Maret 1923, popularitas Harding mimiti pulih deui. Ékonomi mingkin saé, sarta program-program menteri kabinét Harding anu parigel sapertos Hughes, Mellon, sarta Hoover, mimiti némbongkeun hasil. Sabagian ageung urang Républik sadar yén teu aya pilihan sanés iwal ti ngadukung Harding deui dina kampanye pamilihan taun 1924.{{sfn|Murray 1973|p=95}} Dina satengah munggaran taun 1923, Harding ngalakukeun dua hal anu engkéna dianggap salaku tanda yén anjeunna parantos miboga firasat ngeunaan ajjalna: anjeunna ngajual koran ''Star'' (sanajan jangji bakal tetep janten éditor kontributor salami sapuluh taun saatos masa jabatanna réngsé), sarta anjeunna ngadamel surat wasiat énggal.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=172–173}} Harding parantos lami ngalaman masalah kaséhatan, nanging upami nuju teu karaos gejala, anjeunna sok kaleuleuwihi dina barangtuang, ngaleueut, sarta ngaroko. Dina taun 1919, anjeunna parantos terang yén anjeunna miboga panyakit jantung. Tekanan janten présidén sarta panyakit ginjal kronis anu diderita ku Florence Harding mingkin ngaleueutkeun kondisina, sarta anjeunna henteu kantos leres-leres pulih saatos katarajang influnza dina Januari 1923. Saatos éta, Harding anu tadina resep maén golf, ngarasa hésé pikeun namatkeun sakali tanding. Dina Juni 1923, Sénator Ohio Willis pendak sareng Harding, nanging mung nyabitkeun dua tina lima pasualan anu sakuduna dibahas. Nalika ditaros naha, Willis ngajawab, "Warren katingalna capé pisan."{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=438–439}} Dina awal Juni 1923, Harding ngamimitian lalampahan anu ku anjeunna dingaranan "[[Lalampahan Pamahaman]]" (''Voyage of Understanding'').{{sfn|Murray 1973|p=95}} Présidén ngarencanakeun meuntasan nagara, angkat ka kalér nuju [[Wilayah Alaska]], teras ka kidul mapay basisir Kulon, teras numpak kapal Angkatan Laut AS ti San Diego mapay basisir kulon Méksiko sarta Amérika Tengah, ngaliwatan Terusan Panama nuju Puerto Rico, sarta mulang ka Washington dina ahir Agustus.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=441}} Harding kacida resepna kana lalampahan (''traveling'') sarta parantos lami hoyong angkat ka Alaska.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=172}} Ieu lalampahan ogé dimangpaatkeun ku anjeunna pikeun nepikeun biantara di sapanjang nagara, ngayakeun lobi politik sarta [[bloviate|ngobrol panjang lébar]] sateuacan kampanye 1924, sarta sakantenan reureuh{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=439–440}} tina panasna hawa usum panas di Washington anu nyiksa.{{sfn|Murray 1973|p=95}} Para panaséhat politik Harding parantos nyusun jadwal anu kacida padetna, sanajan présidén parantos ménta supados dikirangan.{{sfn|Dean|p=147}} Di Kansas City, Harding nyarios ngeunaan pasualan transportasi; di [[Hutchinson, Kansas]], témana nyaéta tatanén. Di Denver, anjeunna nyarioskeun dukunganna kana Larangan Minuman Keras (''Prohibition''), sarta terus ka kulon nepikeun runtuyan biantara anu jumlahna moal tiasa ditandingan ku présidén sanésna dugi ka jaman Franklin Roosevelt. Harding ogé janten pangrojong [[Mahkamah Internasional Permanén]] (''World Court''), sarta hoyong AS janten anggotana. Salian ti nepikeun biantara, anjeunna ogé nganjang ka Taman Nasional [[Yellowstone]] sarta [[Zion]],{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=442–443}} sarta ngaresmikeun monumén di [[Jalur Oregon]] dina hiji perayaan anu diayakeun ku pionir sepuh [[Ezra Meeker]] sarta nu sanésna.{{sfn|Dary|pp=322–323}} Dina ping 5 Juli, Harding naék kapal {{USS|Henderson|AP-1|6}} di nagara bagian Washington. Anjeunna mangrupa présidén munggaran anu nganjang ka Alaska, sarta nyéépkeun waktos mangjam-jam ningali pamandangan anu éndah tina dek kapal ''Henderson''.{{sfn|Dean|p=149}} Saatos sababaraha kali eureun di basisir, rombongan présidén ninggalkeun kapal di [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] pikeun numpak [[Jalur Karéta Api Alaska]] nuju [[Taman McKinley, Alaska|Taman McKinley]] sarta [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], dimana anjeunna nepikeun biantara di hareupeun 1.500 jalma dina hawa panas anu nincak 34°C. Rombongan sakuduna mulang ka Seward ngaliwatan [[Richardson Highway|Jalur Richardson]], nanging alatan Harding capé pisan, maranéhna kalah numpak karéta api.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=446–447}} Dina ping 26 Juli 1923, Harding nganjang ka [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], salaku présidén AS aktif munggaran anu nganjang ka Kanada. Anjeunna dibagéakeun ku [[Gubernur Létnan British Columbia]] [[Walter Cameron Nichol|Walter Nichol]], [[Perdana Menteri British Columbia]] [[John Oliver (politikus British Columbia)|John Oliver]], sarta Walikota Vancouver, sarta nyarita di hareupeun leuwih ti 50.000 urang. Dua taun saatos pupusna, hiji monumén pikeun Harding diresmikeun di [[Taman Stanley]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vancouverhistory.ca/archives_harding.htm |website=The History of Metropolitan Vancouver |title=Warren G. Harding & Stanley Park |access-date=June 14, 2015 |archive-date=September 16, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916212018/http://www.vancouverhistory.ca/archives_harding.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Harding sempet nganjang ka lapangan golf, nanging mung kiat namatkeun genep liang sateuacan ngarasa lungsé. Saatos reureuh sajam, anjeunna maénkeun liang ka-17 sarta ka-18 supados katingalna mah anjeunna parantos namatkeun sakali tanding. Nanging, anjeunna teu hasil nyumputkeun rasa kacapéna; saurang wartawan nyatakeun yén Harding katingal kacida lungséna sahingga reureuh sababaraha dinten ogé moal cekap pikeun mulangkeun tanagana.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=447–448}} Di [[Seattle]] poé isukna, Harding tetep ngajalankeun jadwalna anu padet, nepikeun biantara ka 25.000 urang di [[Stadion Husky|stadion]] [[Universitas Washington]]. Dina biantara terakhir anu ditepikeun ku anjeunna, Harding ngaramal yén Alaska bakal janten nagara bagian.<ref name=aaaaiblf>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=775XAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bvQDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5690%2C4345509 |work=Spokane Daily Chronicle |location=Washington |agency=Associated Press |title=Alaska all right is belief of president after visit |date=July 28, 1923 |page=2}}</ref>{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=448}} Présidén nepikeun biantarana kalayan rurusuhan, malah teu ngantosan surak gumbira ti para hadirin.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lange|first=Greg|title=U.S. President Warren G. Harding makes his last speech in Seattle on July&nbsp;27, 1923|url=http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=878|publisher=HistoryLink.org|date=February 10, 1999|access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> == Pupusna sarta pamakaman nagara == {{gambar loba |lebar_total = 500 |gambar1 = HardingFuneral.jpg |katerangan1 = Iring-iringan pamakaman Harding ngaliwat ka hareupeun [[Gedong Bodas]] |gambar2 = Harding Memorial Marion Ohio.jpg |katerangan2 = [[Makam Harding]] di Marion }} Harding kulem langkung awal dina sonten ping 27 Juli 1923, sababaraha jam saatos nepikeun biantara di Universitas Washington. Peutingna, anjeunna nyaur dokterna, [[Charles E. Sawyer]], bari ngarasula nyeri dina bagian luhur beuteungna. Sawyer nyangka yén éta téh mung saukur gangguan lambung anu kumat deui, nanging Dr. [[Joel T. Boone]] nyangka aya masalah dina jantungna. Pihak pers dibéjaan yén Harding katarajang "serangan [[gastrointestinal]] akut" sahingga jadwal sabtu-minggu di Portland dibatalkeun. Anjeunna ngarasa rada mendingan poé isukna nalika karéta rurusuhan nuju ka San Francisco, dimana rombongan dugi dina éjing ping 29 Juli. Anjeunna maksa hoyong mapah tina karéta nuju mobil, nanging teras rurusuhan dibawa ka [[Hotél Palace, San Francisco|Hotél Palace]],{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=449–450}}<ref name="SF Gate; December 9, 2012">{{cite news |last=Ziv |first=Stav |date=December 9, 2012 |title=President Harding's mysterious S.F. death |url=http://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/President-Harding-s-mysterious-S-F-death-4097303.php |newspaper=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |publisher=[[Hearst Newspapers]]|location=San Francisco, California |access-date=August 17, 2015}}</ref> dimana kaayaanana kalah mingkin parah deui. Dokter manggihan yén sanés mung jantungna anu bermasalah, nanging anjeunna ogé katarajang [[pneumonia]] (paru-paru baseuh), sahingga anjeunna kedah istirahat total (''bed rest'') di kamar hotélna. Dokter ngubaran anjeunna ku cairan [[kaféin]] sarta [[Digoxin|digitalis]], sarta kaayaanana katingalna mimiti pulih. Hoover ngumumkeun biantara kawijakan luar nagri Harding anu ngadukung kaanggotaan dina Mahkamah Internasional, sarta présidén ngarasa bungah yén éta biantara ditarima kalayan saé. Dina sonten ping 2 Agustus, kaayaan Harding katingalna masih kénéh mingkin saé sahingga dokter ngidinan anjeunna calik dina ranjangna. Kira-kira tabuh 19.30 harita, Florence nuju macakeun artikel "A Calm Review of a Calm Man" pikeun anjeunna, hiji artikel pujian ngeunaan Harding tina ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]''; Florence lirén sakedap teras Harding nyarios, "Éta saé. Lajengkeun, baca deui." Éta mangrupa kekecapan terakhirna. Florence nuju lajeng maca nalika sababaraha detik saatosna, awak Harding ngeleper (konvulsi) teras ngalempréh dina ranjangna bari eungap. Florence langsung nyaur para dokter ka kamar, nanging maranéhna teu hasil nyageurkeun deui sanajan parantos nganggo rupa-rupa ubar pacu (''stimulant''). Harding dinyatakeun pupus sababaraha menit saatosna dina yuswa 57 taun.<ref>{{cite web|title=After 91 Years, President Warren Harding's Sudden Death Recalled|url=http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2014/08/after-90-years-president-warren-hardings-death-still-unsettled/|publisher=National Constitution Center|access-date=February 28, 2017|date=August 1, 2014|archive-date=February 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228171608/http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2014/08/after-90-years-president-warren-hardings-death-still-unsettled/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pupusna Harding mimitina disangka alatan [[pendarahan otak]], jalaran dokter harita sacara umum teu acan ngartos kana gejala [[henti jantung]]. Florence Harding henteu masihan idin supados layon présidén di-[[otopsi]].<ref name = "anb" />{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=449–450}} Pupusna Harding anu teu sangka-sangka janten reuwas ageung pikeun sakumna nagara. Anjeunna dipikaresep sarta dipikahormat, boh pers boh masarakat parantos nuturkeun panyakitna kalayan taliti, sarta parantos ngarasa tenang alatan anjeunna katingalna nuju pulih.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=450}} Layon Harding dibawa nganggo peti mati kana karétana pikeun lalampahan meuntasan nagara, anu terus diawaskeun ku koran-koran. Salapan juta jalma ngantri di sisi jalur karéta api nalika karéta anu mawa layonna angkat ti San Francisco nuju Washington, D.C., dimana anjeunna disemahkeun di [[Rotunda United States Capitol|Rotunda Capitol Amérika Sarikat]]. Saatos upacara pamakaman di dinya, layon Harding dibawa ka Marion, Ohio, pikeun dikuburkeun.{{sfn|Dean|pp=152–153}} Di Marion, layon Harding disimpen dina karéta jenazah anu ditarik ku kuda, anu dituturkeun ku Présidén Coolidge sarta Hakim Agung Taft, teras ku randa Harding sarta ramana.{{sfn|Russell|pp=601–602}} Maranéhna nuturkeun karéta jenazah mapay kota, ngalangkungan gedong koran ''Star'' sarta ahirna nepi ka Pasaréan Marion dimana peti mati disimpen dina [[Marion Cemetery Receiving Vault|rohangan panyimpenan samentara pasaréan]].{{sfn|Russell|p=602}}{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=454}} Tamu pamakaman kalebet panemu [[Thomas Edison]] sarta pangusaha industri [[Henry Ford]] sarta [[Harvey S. Firestone|Harvey Firestone]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.ohiomagazine.com/ohio-life/article/1923-president-warren-g.-harding-s-funeral|title=1923: President Warren G. Harding's Funeral|publisher=Ohio Magazine|access-date=December 28, 2021}}</ref> Warren Harding sarta Florence Harding, anu pupus dina taun salajengna, dimakamkeun di [[Makam Harding]], anu diresmikeun dina taun 1931 ku Présidén AS [[Herbert Hoover]].{{sfn|Russell|pp=633, 640}} == Skandal == [[File:Scobey Mint medal obv.jpg|jmpl|lempeng=0.7|Harding ngangkat rénjangna, [[Frank E. Scobey]], janten [[Diréktur Percétakan Duit]]. Medali ku Kapala Ukir [[George T. Morgan]].]] Harding ngangkat rerencangan sarta kenalanana kana rupa-rupa kalungguhan fédéral. Sababaraha di antarana digawé kalayan parigel, sapertos [[Charles E. Sawyer]], dokter pribadi kulawarga Harding ti Marion anu ngurus maranéhna di Gedong Bodas sarta méré nyaho Harding ngeunaan skandal Biro Véteran. Nu sanésna mah kabuktian teu mampuh migawé pancénna, sapertos [[Daniel R. Crissinger]], saurang pokrol (pangacara) ti Marion anu diangkat ku Harding janten [[Kontroler Mata Uang]] sarta engkéna janten gubernur dewan [[Federal Reserve]]; nu sanésna deui nyaéta rénjang lawas Harding, Frank Scobey, Diréktur Percétakan Duit, anu ku Trani sarta Wilson dicatet yén anjeunna "teu pati ngabalukarkeun karuksakan salami mangsa jabatanna." Nanging, sabagian deui tina ieu babaturan téh tétéla korup sarta engkéna dijulukan salaku "[[Geng Ohio]]".{{sfn|Nevins|p=256}} Lolobana skandal anu ngotoran reputasi pamaréntahan Harding téh nembé kabuka saatos anjeunna pupus. Skandal Biro Véteran saenyana parantos kanyahoan ku Harding dina Januari 1923, nanging numutkeun Trani sarta Wilson, "cara présidén nanganan éta pasualan henteu méré peunteun saé ka anjeunna."{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=181–182}} Harding ngantepkeun diréktur biro anu korup kasebut, [[Charles R. Forbes]], kabur ka Éropa, sanajan engkéna anjeunna mulang deui sarta dipanjara.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=182}} Harding ogé parantos terang yén leungeun katuhu Daugherty di Departemén Kaadilan, [[Jess Smith]], kalibet dina korupsi. Présidén maréntahkeun Daugherty supados ngaluarkeun Smith ti Washington sarta ngahapus namina tina daptar lalampahan kapersidénan ka Alaska anu bakal datang. Smith ahirna maéhan manéh dina ping 30 Méi 1923.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=179–180}} Teu kanyahoan sacara pasti sabaraha loba hal anu dipikaterang ku Harding ngeunaan kagiatan haram Smith.{{sfn|Dean|pp=139–141}} Murray nyatet yén Harding sorangan henteu kalibet dina éta korupsi sarta henteu nyatujuan hal kasebut.{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=125–126}} Hoover maturan Harding dina lalampahan ka wilayah Kulon sarta engkéna nulis yén Harding kungsi naros naon anu bakal dilakukeun ku Hoover upami terang aya hiji skandal gedé, naha kedah diumumkeun ka masarakat atanapi dipendem baé. Hoover ngajawab yén Harding kedah ngumumkeunana supados kanyahoan integritasna, sarta naroskeun rincianana. Harding nyebatkeun yén éta pasualan téh aya patalina sareng Smith, nanging nalika Hoover naros naha Daugherty ogé kalibet, Harding nolak ngajawab.{{sfn|Sinclair|pp=284–285}} === Teapot Dome === {{Utama|Skandal Teapot Dome}} [[File:Albert B. Fall c. 1923.jpg|jmpl|lempeng=0.7|[[Albert B. Fall]], Menteri Jero Nagri munggaran dina jaman Harding, janten mantan anggota kabinét munggaran anu diasupkeun ka panjara alatan kajahatan nalika ngajabat.]] Skandal anu sigana paling ngaruksak reputasi Harding nyaéta [[Skandal Teapot Dome|Teapot Dome]]. Sapertos kalolobaan skandal pamaréntahanana, ieu pasualan nembé kabongkar saatos Harding pupus, sarta anjeunna henteu terang kana aspék-aspék haramna. Teapot Dome téh patali sareng cadangan minyak di Wyoming, anu mangrupa salah sahiji tina tilu wilayah anu disadiakeun husus pikeun kaperluan Angkatan Laut dina kaayaan darurat nasional. Parantos lami aya perdebatan yén éta cadangan téh kedah dikokolakeun; Menteri Jero Nagri jaman Wilson, [[Franklin Knight Lane]], mangrupa salah sahiji anu ngadukung pandangan ieu. Nalika pamaréntahan Harding ngawitan ngajabat, Menteri Jero Nagri Fall neraskeun arguméntasi Lane, sarta Harding nandatanganan paréntah éksékutif dina Méi 1921 anu mindahkeun éta cadangan tina Departemén Angkatan Laut ka Departemén Jero Nagri. Hal ieu dilakukeun dumasar kana idin ti [[Menteri Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat|Menteri Angkatan Laut]] [[Edwin C. Denby]].{{sfn|Murray 1973|p=107}}{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=183, 185}} Departemén Jero Nagri ngumumkeun dina Juli 1921 yén [[Edward Doheny]] parantos kéngingkeun hak séwa (''lease'') pikeun ngebor di sisi cadangan angkatan laut [[Ladang Minyak Elk Hills|Elk Hills]] di California. Éta béwara henteu pati ngabalukarkeun kontrovérsi, jalaran éta minyak téh dianggap bakal "leungit" kasedot ku sumur-sumur di lahan swasta sakurilingna.{{sfn|Noggle|pp=254–256}} Sénator Wyoming [[John B. Kendrick|John Kendrick]] nampi laporan ti wargana yén Teapot Dome ogé tétéla parantos diséwakeun, nanging teu aya béwara resmi. Departemén Jero Nagri nolak masihan dokuménna, sahingga Kendrick hasil ngasahkeun résolusi Sénat pikeun maksa panyingkapan éta dokumén. Departemén teras ngirimkeun salinan séwa Teapot Dome anu masihan hak pangeboran ka pausahaan [[Mammoth Oil Company]] milik [[Harry Ford Sinclair|Harry Sinclair]], bari dibarengan ku pernyataan yén teu aya lélang kabuka (''competitive bidding'') jalaran ieu patali sareng kasiapan militer—Mammoth kedah ngawangun bak panampungan minyak pikeun Angkatan Laut salaku bagian tina kasapukan éta. Hal ieu nyugemakeun sababaraha pihak, nanging sababaraha aktivis lingkungan sapertos [[Gifford Pinchot]], [[Harry A. Slattery]], sarta nu sanésna, teras ngadesek supados dilakukeun panalungtikan lengkep kana kagiatan Fall. Maranéhna hasil ngayakinkeun Sénator Wisconsin [[Robert M. La Follette]] pikeun ngamimitian panalungtikan Sénat ngeunaan séwa minyak kasebut. La Follette ngayakinkeun Sénator Démokrat ti Montana, [[Thomas J. Walsh]], pikeun mingpin panalungtikan, sarta Walsh mariksa sakitu lobana dokumén ti Departemén Jero Nagri sapanjang taun 1922 dugi ka 1923. Éta dokumén kalebet surat ti Harding anu nyatakeun yén pamindahan sarta séwa kasebut téh parantos kanyahoan sarta disatujuan ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=463–465}} Sidang dangu ngeunaan Teapot Dome dimimitian dina Oktober 1923, dua sasih saatos Harding pupus. Fall parantos lungsur kalungguhan ti awal taun éta, sarta anjeunna nolak yén anjeunna nampi duit ti Sinclair atanapi Doheny; Sinclair ogé nyatakeun hal anu sami. Sasih salajengna, Walsh terang yén Fall parantos méspentoskeun duit kacida seueurna pikeun ngalegaan sarta ngoméan kebon (''ranch'') milikna di New Mexico. Fall sumping deui sarta nyatakeun yén éta duit téh asalna tina injeuman ti rénjang Harding anu ogé penerbit ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[Edward B. McLean]], nanging McLean nolak hal kasebut nalika masihan kasaksian. Doheny ahirna nyarios ka komite yén anjeunna parantos masihan duit tunai ka Fall salaku injeuman pribadi dumasar kana hubungan babaturanana di mangsa ka tukang, nanging Fall [[Amandemén Kalima|ngagunakeun hak Amandemén Kalima]] pikeun nolak masihan katerangan nalika dipaksa sumping deui supados henteu ngabahayakeun dirina sorangan.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=465–471}} Para panalungtik manggihan yén Fall sarta baraya caketna parantos nampi total sakitar $400,000 ti Doheny sarta Sinclair, sarta mindahkeunna duit éta lumaku babarengan sareng séséwa anu kontrovérsial kasebut.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=471–472}} Fall dinyatakeun bersalah dina taun 1929 alatan nampi suap, sarta dina taun 1931 anjeunna janten anggota kabinét AS munggaran anu dipanjara alatan kajahatan nalika ngajabat.{{sfn|Russell|pp=497–498}} Sinclair mung dinyatakeun bersalah alatan [[panghinaan ka pangadilan]] (''contempt of court'') jalaran nyoba mangaruhan juri. Doheny dibawa ka pangadilan dina April 1930 alatan tuduhan masihan suap anu parantos ngajantenkeun Fall dipanjara, nanging anjeunna kalah dinyatakeun bébas.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=472}} === Departemén Kaadilan === [[File:Harry Daugherty, bw photo portrait 1920.jpg|jmpl|lempeng=0.7|[[Harry M. Daugherty]] kalibet dina rupa-rupa skandal nanging anjeunna henteu kantos dinyatakeun bersalah alatan palanggaran naon waé.]] Pangangkatan Harry M. Daugherty ku Harding janten Jaksa Agung nampi kritik anu langkung seueur tinimbang pangangkatan sanésna. Kagiatan lobi sarta manuver "di tukangeun layar" anu dilakukeun ku Daugherty di Ohio dianggap ngajantenkeun anjeunna teu pantes nempatan éta jabatan.{{sfn|Russell|p=444}} Nalika rincian ngeunaan rupa-rupa skandal mimiti kabuka dina taun 1923 sarta 1924, musuh-musuh Daugherty kacida bungahna kusabab aya harepan tiasa ngaitkeun anjeunna kana kateujujuran kasebut, sarta nyangka anjeunna milu aub dina Teapot Dome, sanajan saenyana Fall sarta Daugherty téh sanés babaturan deukeut. Dina bulan Pébruari 1924, Sénat sapuk pikeun nalungtik Departemén Kaadilan, dimana Daugherty masih ngajabat janten Jaksa Agung.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=473–475}} Sénat Démokrat ti Montana, [[Burton K. Wheeler]], janten anggota komite panalungtik sarta nyepeng lalakon janten jaksa penuntut nalika sidang dangu dimimitian dina ping 12 Maret 1924.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=478}} Jess Smith kabuktian ngalakukeun praktik [[dagang pangaruh]] (''influence peddling''), gawé bareng sareng dua urang Ohio sanésna, Howard Mannington sarta Fred A. Caskey, pikeun nampi opahan (suap) tina [[Larangan di Amérika Sarikat|penyelundup inuman keras]] (''bootleggers'') supados maranéhna bébas tina tungtutan hukum atanapi supados inuman keras tiasa dikaluarkeun tina gudang pamaréntah. Imah padumukan Mannington sarta Caskey janten kawentar kalayan sebutan [[Imah Héjo Leutik di Jalan K]] (''Little Green House on K Street'').{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=180}} Sababaraha saksi, sapertos mantan pamajikan Smith, Roxy Stinson, sarta mantan agén [[FBI]] anu korup, [[Gaston Means]], nuding yén Daugherty sacara pribadi kalibet. Coolidge ahirna ménta Daugherty supados mundur nalika Jaksa Agung kasebut nyatakeun yén anjeunna moal masihan idin ka komite Wheeler pikeun mariksa catetan Departemén Kaadilan. Daugherty ahirna nurut sarta mundur dina ping 28 Maret 1924.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=478–479}} Kagiatan haram anu paling ngabeuratkeun Daugherty nyaéta kasapukan Smith sareng Kolonél [[Thomas W. Miller]], mantan anggota Kongrés ti Delaware anu diangkat ku Harding janten [[Wali Harta Banda Asing]] (''Alien Property Custodian''). Smith sarta Miller nampi suap ampir satengah juta dolar pikeun ngabébaskeun hiji pausahaan milik Jérman, American Metal Company, supados tiasa dipimilik ku nu gaduh énggal ti AS. Smith nyimpen $50,000 dina [[rekening babarengan]] sareng Daugherty, anu dianggo pikeun kapentingan politik. Catetan anu patali sareng éta rekening dimusnahkeun ku Daugherty sarta lanceukna. Miller sarta Daugherty didakwa alatan nipu pamaréntah. Sidang munggaran dina Séptémber 1926 ngahasilkeun kaputusan juri anu buntu (''[[hung jury]]''); dina sidang kadua dina awal 1927, Miller dinyatakeun bersalah sarta dipanjara, nanging juri deui-deui buntu pikeun mutuskeun nasib Daugherty. Sanajan tuduhan ka Daugherty ahirna ditarik sarta anjeunna henteu kantos dinyatakeun bersalah, sikepna anu nolak masihan katerangan di pangadilan ngancurkeun sésa-sésa reputasina. Mantan Jaksa Agung éta tetep nangtang, nyalahkeun musuh-musuhna dina gerakan buruh sarta urang Komunis atas masalahna, bari nulis yén anjeunna "henteu ngalakukeun nanaon anu ngahalangan kuring pikeun neuteup dunya kalayan tegep."{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|pp=180–181}}{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=480–481}} === Biro Véteran === [[File:Cforbes.jpg|jmpl|kenca|lempeng=0.7|[[Charles R. Forbes]], diréktur Biro Véteran, anu dipanjara alatan nipu pamaréntah]] [[Charles R. Forbes]], diréktur [[Biro Véteran]] anu pinuh ku énergi, nyobian ngahijikeun kadali rumah sakit véteran sarta pangwangunanana di handapeun birona. Dina awal kapersidénan Harding, wewenang ieu aya di handapeun Departemén Kaeuangan. Organisasi [[Legiun Amérika]] anu kuat sacara politik ngadukung Forbes sarta nyawad jalma-jalma anu nolak anjeunna, sapertos Menteri Mellon. Dina April 1922, Harding sapuk pikeun mindahkeun éta kadali ka Biro Véteran.{{sfn|Murray 1969|pp=459–460}} Tugas utama Forbes nyaéta mastikeun rumah sakit anyar diwangun di sakumna nagara pikeun mantuan 300.000 véteran Perang Dunya I anu tatu.{{sfn|Adams|p=287}} Dina awal taun 1922, Forbes pendak sareng Elias Mortimer, agén ti Thompson-Black Construction Company asal St. Louis anu hoyong ngawangun éta rumah sakit. Duanana janten akrab, sarta Mortimer mayaran sagala lalampahan Forbes ka wilayah Kulon nalika milihan lokasi rumah sakit. Forbes ogé akrab sareng Charles F. Hurley, nu gaduh Hurley-Mason Construction Company ti nagara bagian Washington.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=460}} Harding parantos maréntahkeun supados sadaya kontrak dilakukeun dumasar kana béwara umum (lélang),{{sfn|Russell|p=526}} nanging Forbes sarta para kontraktor kalah ngatur siasat supados éta dua pausahaan kéngingkeun kontrak kalayan kauntungan anu dibagi tilu. Sabagian duitna ogé ngalir ka panaséhat hukum biro, Charles F. Cramer.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=460}} Forbes nipu pamaréntah ku cara naékkeun biaya konstruksi tina $3.000 janten $4.000 per ranjang.{{sfn|Russell|p=525}} Sapersepuluh tina biaya konstruksi anu parantos ditaékkeun téh disisihkeun pikeun para konspirator, dimana Forbes nampi sapertilu tina éta jatah.{{sfn|Ferrell|loc=2369}} Ieu korupsi teras nyebar kana urusan mésér lahan; Forbes ngaresmikeun pameseran lahan di San Francisco anu ajina kirang ti $20.000 janten $105.000. Sahenteuna $25.000 tina kaleuwihan duit éta dibagi antara Forbes sarta Cramer.{{sfn|Murray 1969|p=460}} [[File:Charles E. Sawyer (1920).jpg|jmpl|[[Charles E. Sawyer]]]] Alatan hayang meunang duit leuwih loba, dina Nopémber 1922 Forbes mimiti ngajual rupa-rupa kabutuhan rumah sakit anu hargana mahal anu aya di gudang Perryville Depot di Maryland.{{sfn|Adams|pp=289, 292}} Pamaréntah parantos nyimpen stok kabutuhan rumah sakit anu sakitu lobana salami Perang Dunya I, anu teras dijual murah pisan ku Forbes ka pausahaan Thompson and Kelly di Boston, padahal dina waktos anu sami Biro Véteran nuju mésér kabutuhan rumah sakit kalayan harga anu jauh langkung mahal.{{sfn|Russell|pp=524–525}} Anu ngahalangan wewenang Forbes di Perryville téh nyaéta Dr. Sawyer, dokter pribadi Harding anu ogé pupuhu Déwan Hospitalisasi Fédéral.{{sfn|Adams|pp=232, 292, 294}} Sawyer méré nyaho Harding yén Forbes nuju ngajual rupa-rupa kabutuhan rumah sakit ka kontraktor "jalma jero".{{sfn|Adams|p=294}} Mimitina Harding teu percaya, nanging Sawyer hasil kéngingkeun buktina dina Januari 1923.{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=182}} Harding anu kaget—anu parantos campur aduk antara amarah sarta rasa putus asa alatan korupsi di pamaréntahanana—nyaur Forbes ka Gedong Bodas sarta ménta anjeunna mundur. Harding teu hoyong ieu janten skandal anu kabuka, sahingga anjeunna ngantepkeun Forbes kabur ka Éropa, dimana anjeunna mundur dina ping 15 Pébruari 1923. Sanajan Harding parantos nyobian nyumputkeunana, gosip ngeunaan kalakuan Forbes ngabalukarkeun Sénat maréntahkeun ayana panalungtikan dua minggu saatosna,{{sfn|Murray 1973|p=103}} sarta dina pertengahan Maret, Cramer ahirna maéhan manéh.{{sfn|Russell|p=563}} Mortimer daék ngabongkar sadayana, jalaran Forbes tétéla boga selingkuhan sareng pamajikanana, anu ogé ngabalukarkeun karuksakan rumah tangga Forbes. Éksékutif konstruksi éta janten saksi konci dina sidang dangu dina ahir taun 1923, saatos Harding pupus. Forbes mulang deui ti Éropa pikeun masihan kasaksian, nanging teu pati ngayakinkeun. Dina taun 1924, anjeunna sarta John W. Thompson (ti Thompson–Black) disidang di Chicago alatan konspirasi nipu pamaréntah. Duanana dinyatakeun bersalah sarta dihukum dua taun panjara. Forbes mimiti ngajalanan hukumanana dina taun 1926; sedengkeun Thompson, anu miboga panyakit jantung, pupus dina taun éta kénéh sateuacan kaburu asup panjara.{{sfn|Murray 1973|pp=106–107}} Numutkeun Trani sarta Wilson, "Salah sahiji aspék anu paling matak jadi masalah dina kapersidénan Harding nyaéta anjeunna katingalna langkung hariwang ku résiko politik tina hiji skandal tinimbang negakkeun kaadilan."{{sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=182}} === Hubungan luar nikah === Harding miboga hubungan luar nikah sareng [[Carrie Fulton Phillips]] ti Marion, anu lumangsung sakitar 15 taun sateuacan réngsé dina taun 1920. Ieu hubungan kabongkar nalika biografer Harding, [[Francis Russell (panulis)|Francis Russell]], nalika nuju nalungtik bukuna dina taun 1963, mendakan serat-serat cinta ti Harding ka Phillips. Éta serat-serat téh disumbangkeun ka [[Ohio Historical Society]], sarta sababaraha urang di dinya hoyong éta serat dimusnahkeun supados ngajaga sésa-sésa reputasi Harding. Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun ayana tungtutan hukum, dimana ahli waris Harding ngaku miboga hak cipta kana éta serat. Ieu kasus ahirna réngsé dina taun 1971, sarta serat-seratna disumbangkeun ka [[Perpustakaan Kongrés]]. Éta serat-serat téh disegel dugi ka taun 2014, nanging sateuacan dibuka ogé, para sajarahwan parantos ngagunakeun salinanana di [[Western Reserve Historical Society]] sarta dina dokumén Russell di [[Universitas Wyoming]].{{sfn|Coffey|p=84}}{{sfn|Russell|pp=650–663}}{{sfn|Ferrell|loc=3207}} Russell nyimpulkeun tina éta serat yén Phillips téh mangrupa cinta sajati dina hirupna Harding. Harding ogé miboga anak, [[Elizabeth Ann Blaesing]], tina hubungan luar nikah sareng selingkuhanana, [[Nan Britton]]. Dina taun 2015, [[Tés DNA silsilah|tés DNA]] ngabuktikeun yén Blaesing téh leres-leres putrana. Harding sorangan parantos sababaraha kali nolak yén anjeunna ramana. Numutkeun carita kulawarga, Harding téh mandul sarta moal tiasa miboga anak jalaran kantos katarajang panyakit [[gondongeun]] (''mumps'') nalika budak,<ref name=DNA/> sarta duduluran, kapiadi, sarta alo-alona terus nyepeng éta kayakinan salami 90 taun.<ref name="DNA">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/13/us/dna-is-said-to-solve-a-mystery-of-warren-hardings-love-life.html |date=August 12, 2015|access-date=August 13, 2015|last=Baker|first=Peter|title=DNA Is Said to Solve a Mystery of Warren Harding's Love Life|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Dina taun 1927, Britton, anu ogé asalna ti Marion, nyebarkeun buku ''[[Putri Présidén (buku Britton)|The President's Daughter]]'', anu nyatakeun yén Harding téh ramana Elizabeth Ann Blaesing. Éta buku, anu didédisikasikeun pikeun "sadaya ibu anu teu nikah" sarta "barudak maranéhna anu polos anu ramana biasana teu dipikaterang ku dunya", dijual panto-ka-panto kalayan dibungkus ku kertas coklat jiga pornografi.<ref name="Robenalt13Aug">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/08/13/if-we-werent-so-obsessed-with-warren-g-hardings-sex-life-wed-realize-he-was-a-pretty-good-president/|title=If we weren't so obsessed with Warren G. Harding's sex life, we'd realize he was a pretty good president|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|last=Robenalt|first=James D.|date=August 13, 2015|access-date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> Reputasi Harding parantos ruksak ti saprak pupusna dina taun 1923, sarta seueur jalma anu percaya ka Britton.{{sfn|Coffey|p=80}} Masarakat kacida katarikna ku rincian anu panas (''salacious''), sapertos klaim Britton yén maranéhna kantos hubungan badan di hiji goah (''closet'') caket [[Ruang Oval]], bari dijaga ku agén [[Secret Service]] supados teu aya nu asup.{{sfn|Coffey|p=80}} Sanajan seueur anu percaya, Britton kawon dina gugatan hukum fitnah (''libel'') ngalawan buku anu nolak klaimna.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=293}} Britton nyatakeun yén Harding parantos masihan santunan anak sakitar $500 per sasih pikeun putrana anu teu kantos ditepunganana,<ref name="Strochlic14Aug">{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/08/14/our-dirtiest-president-s-mistress-tells-all.html|title=Our Dirtiest President's Mistress Tells All|work=The Daily Beast|first=Nina|last=Strochlic|date=August 14, 2015|access-date=August 15, 2015}}</ref> nanging anjeunna parantos ngaduruk serat-serat romantis tina Harding dumasar kana pamundut Harding nyalira.<ref name="DNA" /><ref name="Strochlic14Aug" /> Sinclair nyebatkeun yén standar anu langkung beurat dilarapkeun ka Harding dibandingkeun ka [[Grover Cleveland]], anu kapilih janten présidén dina taun 1884 sanajan dipikaterang miboga selingkuhan sarta kamungkinan miboga putra luar nikah.{{sfn|Sinclair|p=293}} == Sawangan sajarah == {{Utama|Reputasi sajarah Warren G. Harding}} Nalika pupusna, Harding kacida dikolébétna—sanés mung di Amérika Sarikat, nanging ogé di sakumna dunya. Anjeunna dijulukan salaku jalma anu mawa katengtreman ku seueur koran di Éropa. Wartawan Amérika muji anjeunna kalayan jor-joran, malah aya nu nyebatkeun yén anjeunna parantos masrahkeun jiwa ragana pikeun nagara. Rénjang-rénjangna ogé kacida kagetna ku pupusna Harding. Daugherty nulis, "Kuring hésé pisan pikeun nuliskeunana atanapi ngantepkeun diri kuring mikiran hal ieu."{{Sfn|Murray 1969|pp=456–457}} Hughes nyatakeun, "Kuring teu nyangka yén Pamimpin urang anu dipikacinta téh parantos teu aya deui di antarana urang."{{Sfn|Murray 1969|p=457}} Catetan-catetan [[hagiografi]] (anu muji kaleuleuwihi) ngeunaan hirupna Harding gancang muncul saatos pupusna. Nanging harita kénéh, skandal-skandal mimiti kabongkar, sarta pamaréntahan Harding gancang janten kacapangan (''byword'') pikeun korupsi di panon masarakat. Karya-karya anu ditulis dina ahir taun 1920-an milu ngawangun reputasi sajarah Harding anu dianggap goreng: ''Masks in a Pageant'' karya [[William Allen White]] ngalecehkeun Harding, kitu ogé carita fiksi ngeunaan pamaréntahan Harding, ''Revelry'', karya [[Samuel Hopkins Adams]].{{Sfn|Coffey|p=80}} Ieu buku-buku téh ngagambarkeun masa jabatan Harding salaku mangsa dimana kakuatan présidén kacida lemahna.{{Sfn|Ferrell|loc=2970}} Pamedalan buku laris Nan Britton anu ngabongkar hubungan luar nikah maranéhna ogé mingkin nurunkeun ajén anjeunna di masarakat. Présidén Coolidge, anu hoyong ngajaga jarak ti nu miheulaanna, nolak ngaresmikeun Makam Harding. Hoover ogé mimitina wegah, nanging ahirna mingpin peresmian dina taun 1931. Harita, nalika [[Déprési Ageung]] nuju lumaku, Hoover ogé parantos kaleungitan kapercayaan masarakat méh jiga Harding.{{Sfn|Russell|pp=632–633, 639–640}}{{Sfn|Payne|2014|pp=125, 127}} Adams terus ngawangun sawangan négatif ngeunaan Harding ngaliwatan sababaraha karya non-fiksi dina taun 1930-an, anu puncagna dina buku ''The Incredible Era: The Life and Times of Warren G. Harding'' (1939). Di dinya anjeunna nyebat Harding salaku "saurang wartawan kota leutik anu satengah dididik... Ieu moal jalan. Éta memang teu jalan."{{Sfn|Trani & Wilson|p=209}} John Dean ningali yén karya White sarta Adams téh "catetan anu kacida teu saimbang sarta teu adil, ngaleuleuwihi hal négatif, sarta nuding Harding salaku nu tanggung jawab kana sagala kasalahan."{{Sfn|Dean|p=163}} [[File:President Warren G. Harding and First Lady Florence Harding.jpg|jmpl|kenca|Warren sarta [[Florence Harding]], {{circa|1922}}. Florence kacida ngajaga pisan warisan sarta ngaran saé carogéna.]] Dibukana dokumén-dokumén Harding pikeun panalungtikan dina taun 1964 ngahasilkeun sababaraha biografi anyar. Anu paling kontrovérsial nyaéta buku Russell, ''The Shadow of Blooming Grove'' (1968), anu nyimpulkeun yén gosip ngeunaan katurunan kulit hideung (''shadow'' dina judulna) kacida mangaruhanana ka Harding dina mangsa rumajana. Murray dina ''The Harding Era'' (1969) méré sawangan anu leuwih positif sarta nempatkeun Harding dina kontéks jamanna. Dina dékade-dékade salajengna, aya buku-buku révisionis anu dipedalkeun. [[Robert Ferrell]] dina ''The Strange Deaths of President Harding'' (1996) nyoba ngalawan unggal carita négatif ngeunaan Harding sarta nyimpulkeun yén méh sadayana anu diajarkeun ngeunaan Harding téh salah.{{Sfn|Coffey|pp=88–89}} Dina taun 2004, John Dean, anu kawentar alatan kalibetna dina skandal [[Watergate]], nulis biografi pondok Harding anu dianggap paling révisionis nepi ka kiwari.{{Sfn|Coffey|p=89}} Harding sacara tradisional parantos [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|ditempatkeun salaku salah sahiji présidén anu paling goréng]].{{Sfn|Ferrell|loc=3474–3485}} Dina jajapén (''poll'') taun 1948 ku [[Universitas Harvard]], sajarahwan [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.]] nempatkeun Harding dina urutan terakhir tina 29 présidén.{{Refn|Schlesinger, Arthur M. "Historians Rate the U.S. Presidents". ''Life'', 1 Nopémber 1948.}} Anjeunna ogé terus nempatan posisi terakhir dina rupa-rupa jajapén sanésna ti saprak harita. Ferrell nyatakeun yén peunteun négatif pikeun Harding téh alatan para sarjana anu kirang maca sumber anu substansial sarta leuwih fokus kana carita-carita anu sensasional.{{Sfn|Ferrell|loc=3474–3485}} Coffey ogé percaya yén "kurangna minat akademik ka Harding parantos ngaruksak reputasina."{{Sfn|Coffey|p=86}} === Peniléian deui === Dina réngking sajarah présidén AS salami sababaraha dékadé saatos masa jabatanna, Harding sering dianggap salah sahiji anu panggoréngna. Nanging dina taun 2010-an, sababaraha panulis sarta sajarahwan mimiti meunteun deui catetan jasa Harding nalika ngajabat.<ref name=Robenalt13Aug /><ref name="Reputation">{{cite journal |url=http://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_21_01_02_pecquet-thies.pdf |title=Reputation Overrides Record: How Warren G. Harding Mistakenly Became the 'Worst' President of the United States |last1=Pecquet |first1=Gary M. |last2=Thies |first2=Clifford F. |journal=[[The Independent Review]] |publisher=[[Independent Institute]] |volume=21 |date=Summer 2016 |issn=1086-1653 |pages=29–45 }}</ref> Dina buku ''The Spoils of War'' (2016), [[Bruce Bueno de Mesquita]] sarta Alastair Smith nempatkeun Harding dina urutan kahiji dina réngking gabungan antara angka maot pangsaeutikna nalika perang sarta pertumbuhan panghasilan per kapita taunan pangluhurna salami mangsa jabatan unggal présidén.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Spoils of War |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2901610396621 |last1=Bueno de Mesquita |first1=Bruce |last2=Smith |first2=Alastair |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_2901610396621/page/255 255] |year=2016 |publisher=PublicAffairs}}</ref> Murray ngadugikeun arguméntasi dina bukuna ''The Harding Era'' yén Harding pantes nampi pangajén anu langkung ageung tinimbang anu parantos dipaparinkeun ku para sajarahwan: "Anjeunna pastina sarimbag sareng [[Franklin Pierce]], [[Andrew Johnson]], [[Benjamin Harrison]], atanapi malah Calvin Coolidge. Dina hal pacaulan (''concrete accomplishments''), pamaréntahanana langkung punjul ti sabagian ageung pamaréntahan sanésna dina sajarah nagara ieu."{{Sfn|Murray 1969|p=536}} Murray nyatet sababaraha poin umum ngeunaan posisi Harding anu goréng, anu némbongkeun yén kritik négatif ka Harding téh sabenerna mah dumasar kana hal anu kurang jero. Nyaéta, pandangan konvensional sering teuing maliré kana kritik atanapi analisis nyata tina tindakan Harding, sarta seringna mung museur sacara sawenang-wenang kana sifat jalma-jalma anu diangkat ku Harding, bari mopohokeun analisis anu langkung jembar ngeunaan fakta sajarah. Murray nyatakeun: {{Blockquote|Dina sistem Amérika, teu aya anu namina "nu lalajo anu polos" (''innocent bystander'') di Gedong Bodas. Upami Harding tiasa sacara sah ngaku kana prestasi Hughes di Departemén Luar Nagri atanapi Hoover di Departemén Perdagangan, anjeunna ogé kedah tanggung jawab ka Daugherty di Departemén Kaadilan sarta Fall di Departemén Jero Nagri. Anjeunna kedah nanggung beban tina kurangna tindakan hukuman ka jalma-jalma sapertos Forbes sarta Smith. Ku sabab anjeunna cicing baé (''inaction''), anjeunna kaleungitan kasempetan naon waé pikeun ngajaga integritas posisina sarta nyalametkeun citra anu saé pikeun dirina sarta pamaréntahanana. Sakumaha anu parantos lumaku, vonis négatif ti masarakat sarta para sarjana saatosna téh mémang teu tiasa dihindari, sanajan éta téh teu sagemblengna pantes ditarima ku anjeunna.{{Sfn|Murray 1969|p=536}}}} ==See also== {{Portal|1920s|Biography|Ohio|Politics|United States}} * [[Cultural depictions of Warren G. Harding]] * [[Harding Home]] * [[Laddie Boy]], Harding's dog * [[List of memorials to Warren G. Harding]] * [[List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s|List of people on the cover of ''Time'' Magazine: 1920s]]: March 10, 1923 * [[List of presidents of the United States]] * [[List of presidents of the United States by previous experience]] * [[List of presidents of the United States who died in office]] * [[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps]] * [[Warren G. Harding Presidential Center]] ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite book|last=Adams|first=Samuel Hopkins|title=The Incredible Era: The Life and Times of Warren Gamaliel Harding|url=https://archive.org/details/incredibleeralif0000adam|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|year=1939|isbn=0-374-90051-5|ref={{sfnRef|Adams}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Bagby|first=Wesley M.|title=The 'Smoke Filled Room' and the Nomination of Warren G. Harding|journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review|date=March 1955|volume=41|issue=4|pages=657–674|jstor=1889182|ref={{sfnRef|Bagby}}|doi=10.2307/1889182|issn=0161-391X }} * {{Citation | first =Justin P. | last =Coffey | editor-last =Sibley | editor-first =Katherine A. S. | contribution =Harding Biographies | title =A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover | year =2014 | pages =79–93 | publisher =John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | location =Chichester, UK| ref ={{sfnRef|Coffey}} | isbn =978-1-4443-5003-6}} * {{cite book | last = Dary | first = David | title = The Oregon Trail: An American Saga | year = 2004 | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-375-41399-5 | ref = {{sfnRef|Dary}} | url = https://archive.org/details/oregontrailameri00dary }} * {{Cite book|last=Dean|first=John W.|author-link=John Dean|title=Warren Harding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=12I6tyg8no4C|publisher=Henry Holt and Co|location=New York|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8050-6956-3|edition=Kindle|ref={{sfnRef|Dean}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Downes|first=Randolph C.|title=The Rise of Warren Gamaliel Harding, 1865–1920|publisher=Ohio University Press|location=Columbus, OH|year=1970|isbn=978-0-8142-0140-4|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofwarrengama00down|ref={{sfnRef|Downes}}}} * {{Cite book |last=Felzenberg |first=Alvin S. |author-link=Alvin S. Felzenberg |year=2010 |title=The Leaders We Deserved (and a Few We Didn't): Rethinking the Presidential Rating Game |url=https://archive.org/details/leaderswedeserve0000felz_u7d1 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-4650-1890-1 }} * {{Cite book|last=Ferrell|first=Robert H.|title=The Strange Deaths of President Harding|url=https://archive.org/details/strangedeathsofp0000ferr|publisher=University of Missouri Press|location=Columbia, MO|edition=Kindle|year=1996|isbn=978-0-8262-1202-3|ref={{sfnRef|Ferrell}}}} * {{Cite book|author=Morello, John A.|title=Selling the President, 1920: Albert D. Lasker, Advertising, and the Election of Warren G. Harding|url=https://archive.org/details/sellingpresident0000more|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, CT|date=2001|isbn= 978-0-275-97030-7 |ref={{sfnRef|Morello}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Murray|first=Robert K.|title=The Harding Era 1921–1923: Warren G. Harding and his Administration|url=https://archive.org/details/hardingerawarren0000univ|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis|date=1969|ref={{sfnRef|Murray 1969}}|isbn=978-0-8166-0541-5}} * {{Cite book|last=Murray|first=Robert K.|title=The Politics of Normalcy: Governmental Theory and Practice in the Harding–Coolidge Era|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|location=New York|date=1973|ref={{sfnRef|Murray 1973}}|isbn=978-0-393-05474-3|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofnormal00robe}} * {{cite book |ref={{sfnRef|Nevins}} |first=Allan |last=Nevins |author-link=Allan Nevins |title=Dictionary of American Biography: Harding, Warren Gamaliel |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofamer08ilamer#page/252/mode/1up |pages=252–257 |oclc=4171403 |date=1932 }} * {{cite journal|last=Noggle|first=Burl|title=The Origins of the Teapot Dome Investigation|journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review|volume=44|issue=2|date=September 1957|pages=237–266|publisher=Organization of American Historians|jstor=1887189|ref={{sfnRef|Noggle}}|doi=10.2307/1887189}} * {{Citation |last=Payne |first=Phillip G. |title=A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover |pages=79–93 |year=2014 |editor-last=Sibley |editor-first=Katherine A. S. |contribution=The Harding Presidency: Scandals, Legacy, and Memory |location=Chichester, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4443-5003-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Russell|first=Francis|author-link=Francis Russell (author)|title=The Shadow of Blooming Grove: Warren G. Harding In His Times|publisher=Easton Press|location=Norwalk, CT|year=1968|isbn=0-07-054338-0|ref={{sfnRef|Russell}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Schlesinger|first=Arthur M. Jr.|author-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.|title=The Age of Roosevelt: The Crisis of the Old Order, 1919–1933|url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofoldorder00schl_1|publisher=Heinemann|location=London|year=1957|isbn=978-0-618-34085-9|ref={{sfnRef|Schlesinger}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Sibley|first=Katherine A. S.|title=First Lady Florence Harding: Behind the Tragedy and Controversy|url=https://archive.org/details/firstladyflorenc0000sibl|date=2009|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, KS|isbn=978-0-7006-1649-7|ref={{sfnRef|Sibley}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Sinclair|first=Andrew|title=The Available Man: The Life behind the Masks of Warren Gamaliel Harding|publisher=Quadrangle Books|location=Chicago|oclc=422550801|edition=1st Quadrangle Paperback|ref={{sfnRef|Sinclair}}|year=1969|orig-year=1965}} * Sullivan, Mark. ''Our Times: 1900-1925: Volume 6: The Twenties'' (1935) pp. 16–371. [https://archive.org/details/ourtimestwenties0000mark/page/n8/mode/1up online], by a leading journalist. * {{cite book|last1=Trani|first1=Eugene P.|last2=Wilson|first2=David L.|title=The Presidency of Warren G. Harding|publisher=The Regents Press of Kansas|series=American Presidency|location=Lawrence, KS|year=1977|isbn=978-0-7006-0152-3|ref={{sfnRef|Trani & Wilson}}|url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofwarr00tran}} * {{cite book | last = Walters | first = Everett | title = Joseph Benson Foraker: An Uncompromising Republican | url = https://archive.org/details/josephbensonfora0000ever | year = 1948 | publisher = The Ohio History Press | oclc=477641 | ref ={{sfnRef|Walters}}}} * Walters, Ryan S. ''The Jazz Age President: Defending Warren G. Harding'' (2022) [https://www.amazon.com/Jazz-Age-President-Defending-Harding/dp/1621578844/ excerpt] also [https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-jazz-age-president-review-correcting-the-record-11649020056?mod=books_arts_featured_pos2 online review] * {{Cite book|last=Wynn|first=Neil|title=From Progressivism to Prosperity: World War I and American Society|url=https://archive.org/details/fromprogressivis1986wynn|publisher=Holmes & Meier|location=New York|year=1986|ref={{sfnRef|Wynn}}|isbn=978-0-8419-1107-9}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links |wikt=Harding |commons=Warren G. Harding |b=no |n=no |q=Warren G. Harding |s=Author:Warren G. Harding |v=no}} * [https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/warren-g-harding/ White House biography] * {{CongBio|H000192}} * [http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#harding Full audio and text of a number of Harding speeches], [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * {{NYT topic|people/h/warren_g_harding}} * ''[https://www.loc.gov/item/mp76000342/ President Harding and Calvin Coolidge]'', a film from 1920 * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/harding/ Warren Harding: A Resource Guide], [[Library of Congress]] * [http://millercenter.org/president/harding Extensive essays on Warren Harding] and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151625-1/life-portrait-warren-g-harding "Life Portrait of Warren G. Harding"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', September 20, 1999 * {{Gutenberg author | id=1660}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Warren Gamaliel Harding}} * {{Librivox author |id=11297}} * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Presidents/Harding-Warren-G Warren G. Harding Personal Manuscripts] * {{IMDb name|1136403}} * {{PM20|FID=pe/007126}} {{Warren G. Harding}} {{Navboxes |title=Offices and distinctions |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Woodrow Wilson]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States]]|years=1921–1923}} {{s-aft|after=[[Calvin Coolidge]]}} {{s-bef|before= [[Theodore E. Burton]]}} {{s-ttl|title= [[List of United States senators from Ohio|United States Senator (Class 3) from Ohio]]|years=1915–1921}} {{s-aft|after= [[Frank B. Willis]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Harry L. Gordon|Harry Gordon]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Lieutenant Governor of Ohio]]|years=1904–1906}} {{s-aft|after=[[Andrew L. Harris|Andrew Harris]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Andrew L. Harris]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee for [[Governor of Ohio]]|years=[[1910 Ohio gubernatorial election|1910]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Robert B. Brown]]}} {{s-new|first}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee for [[List of United States senators from Ohio|U.S. Senator]] from [[Ohio]]<br />([[Classes of United States senators|Class 3]])|years=[[United States Senate election in Ohio, 1914|1914]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Frank B. Willis]]}} {{s-vac|last=[[John R. Lynch]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Keynote Speaker of the [[Republican National Convention]]|years=[[1916 Republican National Convention|1916]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Henry Cabot Lodge]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Charles Evans Hughes|Charles Hughes]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|nominee]] for President of the United States|years=[[1920 United States presidential election|1920]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Calvin Coolidge]]}} {{s-par|us-sen}} {{s-bef|before=[[Theodore E. Burton|Theodore Burton]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States senators from Ohio|United States Senator (Class 3) from Ohio]]|years=1915–1921|alongside=[[Atlee Pomerene]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Frank B. Willis|Frank Willis]]}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Tomb of the Unknowns#The Unknown of World War I|Unknown Soldier]]<br />of [[World War I]]}} {{s-ttl|title=People who have [[lying in state|lain in state or honor]] in the [[United States Capitol rotunda]]|years=1923}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Howard Taft]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Navboxes |title= Articles related to Warren G. Harding |list1= {{US Presidents}} {{Harding cabinet}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{United States presidential election, 1920}} {{USSenOH}} {{Governors of Ohio}} {{Lain in State (USA)|state=collapsed}}}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Warren G. Harding| ]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran taun 1865]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1923]] [[Kategori:Baptis abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Baptis abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Anggota Majelis Umum Ohio abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Amérika katurunan Walanda]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Baptis ti Ohio]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1916]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Harding|Warren G.]] [[Kategori:Létnan Gubernur Ohio]] [[Kategori:Anggota Sons of the American Revolution]] [[Kategori:Alumni Ohio Central College]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Marion, Ohio]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Morrow County, Ohio]] [[Kategori:Kapersidénan Warren G. Harding]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu pupus nalika ngajabat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu mangrupa Freemason]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Nomine présidén Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)]] [[Kategori:Sénator nagara bagian Ohio ti Partéy Républik]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Républik]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Républik asal Ohio]] dwzioiuzjfnetg0fru0cugdb35ge2uu 0 108408 711829 708700 2026-08-07T05:27:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711829 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 270px; font-size: 90%; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #aaa; background: #f9f9f9; line-height: 1.5em;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: #ccf; padding: 0.5em; font-size: 120%;" | Ordo |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.5em;" | [[File:Taxonomic Rank Graph.svg|250px|center|Hierarki Taksonomi]]<br /><small>Tingkatan Ordo dina hierarki klasifikasi biologis (warna oranyeu).</small> |- ! style="text-align: left; background: #ddf; width: 40%;" | Tingkatan | [[Takson]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Di luhureun | [[Kulawarga [[Suku (biologi)|(biologi)|Kulawarga]] (Famili)]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Di handapeun | [[Kelas (biologi)|Kelas]] |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: #ccf;" | Conto Ordo |- | colspan="2" style="padding: 0.5em;" | * '''Carnivora''' (Sato galak) * '''Primates''' (Monyét, kera) * '''Rosales''' (Mawar, apel) * '''Fabales''' (Kacang-kacangan) |} '''Ordo''' mangrupa hiji tingkatan [[takson]] dina [[klasifikasi ilmiah]] organisme anu nempatan posisi di antara [[kelas (biologi)|kelas]] sarta [[kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]].<ref name="ICZN">{{cite book |title=International Code of Zoological Nomenclature |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalcod1999inte |publisher=International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature |year=1999 |isbn=0-85301-006-4}}</ref> == Étimologi == Kecap "ordo" asalna tina basa [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ''ordo'', anu hartina "runtuyan", "garis", atawa "susunan".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/order |title=Order (n.) |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=2026-04-28}}</ref> Dina kontéks biologi, istilah ieu dipaké pikeun ngagambarkeun susunan organisme dumasar kana kasaruaan ciri tinangtu anu geus dibakukeun dina sistem taksonomi. == Sajarah == Konsep ordo salaku tingkatan husus dina klasifikasi biologis munggaran diwanohkeun ku ahli botani Jérman, [[Augustus Quirinus Rivinus]], dina taun 1690-an.<ref name="Wheeler">{{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Quentin |title=The New Taxonomy |publisher=CRC Press |year=2008 |pages=25-27}}</ref> Rivinus ngagunakeun istilah ieu pikeun ngelompokkeun tutuwuhan dina karyana. Salajengna, [[Carl Linnaeus]] ngasupkeun ordo kana sistem klasifikasi utama dina bukuna anu kawentar, ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' (1735).<ref name="Linnaeus">{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |title=Systema Naturae |year=1735}}</ref> Linnaeus ngabagi sakumna organisme kana lima tingkatan utama: karajaan, kelas, ordo, marga, sarta spésiés. Sanajan harti ordo dina jaman harita béda jeung kontéks modéren, sistem Linnaeus ieu anu janten dadasar pikeun [[taksonomi]] kiwari.<ref name="Wheeler" /> == Pamakéan dina Taksonomi == Dina hierarki biologis, ordo dipaké pikeun ngelompokkeun kelas-kelas anu miboga ciri anu leuwih spésifik dibandingkeun jeung tingkatan luhureunana.<ref name="ICN">{{cite book |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants |publisher=Koeltz Botanical Books |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-946583-16-5}}</ref> Dina widang [[botani]], ngaran ordo sacara internasional kudu miboga ahiran standar '''-ales'''.<ref name="ICN" /> Contona: * ''Asparagales'' (kulawarga bawang sarta lili) * ''Poales'' (kulawarga jujukutan) Sedengkeun dina widang [[zoologi]], teu aya aturan ahiran anu kaku jiga dina botani, tapi rupa-rupa ngaran ordo geus dipaké sacara standar ti saprak abad ka-19.<ref name="ICZN" /> Contona ordo ''Carnivora'' pikeun sato nu ngahakan daging sarta ''Primates'' pikeun monyét jeung kera. == Tempo ogé == * [[Taksonomi]] * [[Klasifikasi ilmiah]] * [[Sistematika]] == Référénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Taksonomi]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] m3yyptbcagqzt9rdpwpzs7ag4a6f45a 0 108427 711717 708783 2026-08-07T02:29:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711717 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = President Calvin Coolidge, 1924 portrait photograph (3x4 cropped).jpeg | caption = Coolidge in 1924 | alt = Black-and-white head shot of Coolidge facing slightly right | order = 30th | office = President of the United States | term_start = August 2, 1923 | term_end = March 4, 1929 | vice_president = {{plainlist| * Vacant {{nowrap|(1923–1925)}}{{Efn|Coolidge was vice president under Warren G. Harding and became president upon Harding's death on August 2, 1923. As this was prior to the adoption of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] in 1967, the vacancy was not filled until the next election and inauguration.}} * {{longitem|[[Charles G. Dawes]]<br/>(1925–1929)}} }} | predecessor = [[Warren G. Harding]] | successor = [[Herbert Hoover]] | order2 = 29th | office2 = Vice President of the United States | term_start2 = March 4, 1921 | term_end2 = August 2, 1923 | president2 = Warren G. Harding | predecessor2 = [[Thomas R. Marshall]] | successor2 = Charles G. Dawes | order3 = 48th | office3 = Governor of Massachusetts | lieutenant3 = Channing H. Cox | term_start3 = January 2, 1919 | term_end3 = January 6, 1921 | predecessor3 = [[Samuel W. McCall]] | successor3 = [[Channing H. Cox]] | order4 = 46th | office4 = Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts | governor4 = Samuel W. McCall | term_start4 = January 6, 1916 | term_end4 = January 2, 1919 | predecessor4 = [[Grafton D. Cushing]] | successor4 = Channing H. Cox | office5 = 16th [[Northampton, Massachusetts#Government|Mayor of Northampton]] | term_start5 = January 3, 1910 | term_end5 = January 1, 1912 | predecessor5 = James W. O'Brien | successor5 = William Feiker {{Collapsed infobox section begin | Legislative offices | titlestyle = border:1px dashed lightgrey}} | office6 = [[President of the Massachusetts Senate]] | term_start6 = January 7, 1914 | term_end6 = January 6, 1915 | predecessor6 = [[Levi H. Greenwood]] | successor6 = [[Henry Gordon Wells]] | office7 = Member of the [[Massachusetts Senate]] | term_start7 = January 3, 1912 | term_end7 = January 6, 1915 | predecessor7 = [[Allen T. Treadway]] | successor7 = John B. Hull | constituency7 = Berkshire, Hampden, and Hampshire counties | state_house8 = Massachusetts | district8 = [[Massachusetts House of Representatives' 1st Hampshire district|1st Hampshire]] | term_start8 = January 2, 1907 | term_end8 = January 6, 1909 | predecessor8 = Moses M. Bassett | successor8 = Charles A. Montgomery {{Collapsed infobox section end}} | birth_name = John Calvin Coolidge Jr. | birth_date = {{birth date|1872|7|4}} | birth_place = [[Plymouth Notch, Vermont]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1933|1|5|1872|7|4}} | death_place = [[Northampton, Massachusetts]], U.S. | resting_place = [[Plymouth Notch Cemetery]] | party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | father = [[John Calvin Coolidge Sr.]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Grace Coolidge|Grace Goodhue]]|October 4, 1905}} | children = 2, including [[John Coolidge|John]] | relatives = {{plainlist| * [[Calvin Galusha Coolidge]] (grandfather) * [[Park Pollard]] (cousin) }} | education = [[Amherst College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|AB]]) | occupation = {{hlist|Politician|lawyer}} | blank1 = Other names | data1 = Wamblee-Tokaha | nickname = "Silent Cal" | signature = C Coolidge signature.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Speech on Taxes, Liberty, and the Philosophy of Government, by Calvin Coolidge.ogg|title=Calvin Coolidge's voice|type=speech|description=Coolidge speaking on [[Government spending in the United States|government spending]]<br/>Recorded August 11, 1924}} }} '''John Calvin Coolidge Jr.''' (ᮏᮧᮔ᮪ ᮎᮜ᮪ᮗᮤᮔ᮪ ᮊᮥᮜᮤᮓ᮪ᮏ᮪; gumelar 4 Juli 1872 – tilar dunya 5 Januari 1933) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-30, anu ngajabat ti taun 1923 dugi ka 1929. Salaku pengacara ti partéy [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] asal [[Massachusetts]], anjeunna sateuacanna ngajabat salaku Wakil Présidén ka-29 (1921–1923) dina mangsa pamaréntahan Présidén [[Warren G. Harding]], sarta kungsi janten Gubernur Massachusetts ka-48 (1919–1921). Coolidge kawéntar salaku sosok konservatif anu nyepeng prinsip pamaréntahan leutik (''small-government''), boga watek nu carang takol (henteu loba catur), sarta humorna anu garing nepi ka anjeunna meunang jujuluk "'''Silent Cal'''" (Cal nu Simé). Coolidge ngamimitian karirna salaku anggota Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Massachusetts. Karir politikna terus nanjak nepi ka kapilih janten gubernur dina taun 1918. Nalika janten gubernur, anjeunna panceg dina kawijakan ékonomi nu irit (konservatisme fiskal), ngarojong pisan kana hak pilih awéwé (''women's suffrage''), sarta nembongkeun sikep nu teges nalika kajadian mogokna pulisi di Boston taun 1919. Peta paréntahna anu gancang tur éféktif harita ngajadikeun anjeunna sorotan nasional. Dina taun 1920, anjeunna dicalonkeun janten wakilna Warren G. Harding sarta meunang mutlak. Coolidge naék janten présidén saatos Harding tilar dunya dina taun 1923. Nalika janten présidén, Coolidge hasil malikkeun deui kapercayaan masarakat ka [[Gedong Bodas]] saatos rupa-rupa skandal dina mangsa Harding. Sababaraha kawijakan pentingna nyaéta: * Néken Undang-Undang Kawarganagaraan Indian 1924, anu maparin status warga nagara ka sakumna urang pribumi (Native Americans). * Néken Undang-Undang Imigrasi 1924 pikeun ngatur watesan imigran sarta ngadegkeun Patroli Wates Amérika Sarikat. * Ngaping mangsa kamekaran ékonomi anu gancang sarta lega anu katelah "[[Roaring Twenties]]". Coolidge dipikahormat ku sabab kateguhanana dina ngarojong kasaruaan ras dina mangsa tegangan rasial anu luhur harita. Sanajan kitu, para kritikus boga pamadegan yén anjeunna gagal ngagunakeun kamekaran ékonomi harita pikeun mantuan para patani sarta pagawé industri anu keur sangsara. Aya ogé perdebatan di kalangan sejarawan ngeunaan sakumaha gedé pangaruh kawijakan ékonomina kana kajadian Depresi Gedé (''Great Depression'') anu lumangsung teu lila saatos anjeunna lungsur jabatan. Coolidge mutuskeun pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui dina Pemilu 1928, kalayan nyebutkeun yén sapuluh taun janten présidén téh geus "leuwih lila ti batan jalma séjén—teuing ku lila!" == Mangsa leutik sarta sajarah kulawarga == John Calvin Coolidge Jr. gumelar dina kaping 4 Juli 1872, di [[Plymouth, Vermont|Plymouth Notch]], Vermont—hiji-hijina [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] anu babar dina poé [[Poé Kamardikaan Amérika Sarikat|Kamardikaan Amérika Sarikat]]. Anjeunna téh putra cikal ti dua sadulur pasangan [[John Calvin Coolidge Sr.]] sarta Victoria Josephine Moor. Sanajan jenenganana dicokot tina nami ramana, ti leuleutik kénéh Coolidge leuwih mindeng ditalingakeun ku nami tengahna. Nami "Calvin" téh geus dipaké turun-tumurun dina kulawarga Coolidge, anu sigana mah dicokot pikeun ngahormat ka [[John Calvin]], saurang tokoh [[Réformasi Protéstan]]. Dina otobiografina, Coolidge nyebutkeun yén karuhunna téh nyaéta "turunan Puritan Inggris."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Pilgrim's Faith: Coolidge and Religion |url=https://www.coolidgefoundation.org/blog/the-pilgrims-faith-coolidge-and-religion/ |website=coolidgefoundation.org |access-date=December 15, 2019}}</ref> Karuhun pangheulana anu netep di Amérika nyaéta John Coolidge, anu hijrah ti [[Cottenham]], Cambridgeshire, Inggris, kira-kira taun 1630 sarta matuh di [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]. Coolidge ogé miboga turunan ti [[Samuel Appleton]], saurang tokoh anu matuh di [[Ipswich, Massachusetts|Ipswich]] sarta mingpin [[Koloni Teluk Massachusetts]] nalika [[Perang Raja Philip]]. Buyut Coolidge, anu ogé jenenganana John Coolidge, nyaéta saurang perwira militér dina [[Perang Revolusi Amérika]] sarta janten salah sahiji aparat pamingpin (selectman) munggaran di kota Plymouth. Akina, [[Calvin Galusha Coolidge]], kungsi ngabdikeun diri di Déwan Perwakilan Vermont. Dulur misanna, [[Park Pollard]], nyaéta saurang pangusaha di [[Cavendish, Vermont]], sarta lila janten pupuhu Partéy Démokrat Vermont. Indung Coolidge nyaéta putri ti Hiram Dunlap Moor, saurang patani di Plymouth Notch, sarta Abigail Franklin. <gallery mode="packed" heights="150px"> File:PlymouthVT_CalvinCoolidgeHouse.jpg|Imah kulawarga Coolidge di [[Plymouth Notch, Vermont]] File:CoolidgeAmherst.png|Coolidge nalika janten mahasiswa di [[Amherst College]] </gallery> Ramana Coolidge téh jalma anu tapis dina rupa-rupa widang sarta boga jenengan di sakuliah nagara bagian salaku patani anu suksés, nu boga toko, sarta abdi nagara. Anjeunna nyepeng rupa-rupa kalungguhan lokal, kalebet [[Hakim perdamaian|hakim perdamaian]] sarta koléktor pajeg, sarta kungsi ngabdi di dua kamar [[Majelis Umum Vermont]]. Nalika Coolidge yuswa 12 taun, ibuna anu parantos lami teu damang pupus dina yuswa 39 taun, sigana mah ku sabab [[tuberculosis|TBC]]. Adina, Abigail Grace Coolidge (1875–1890), pupus dina yuswa 15 taun, sigana mah ku sabab amandel (appendicitis), nalika Coolidge yuswa 18 taun. Ramana Coolidge nikah deui ka saurang guru sakola di Plymouth dina taun 1891, sarta jumeneng dugi ka yuswa 80 taun. == Karir awal sarta panganténan == === Atikan sarta prakték hukum === Coolidge sakola di [[Black River Academy]] saterusna di [[St. Johnsbury Academy]] saméméh asup ka [[Amherst College]], di dinya anjeunna mimiti katémbong onjoy dina kelas debat. Nalika tingkat ahir, anjeunna ngagabung ka fraternitias [[Phi Gamma Delta]] sarta lulus kalayan prédikat ''[[cum laude]]''. Salila di Amherst, Coolidge kapangaruhan pisan ku profésor filsafat [[Charles Edward Garman]], saurang mistikus [[Congregationalism in the United States|Kongrégasional]] anu miboga filosofi [[Neo-Hegelianism|neo-Héngélian]]. Opat puluh taun saatosna, Coolidge ngécéskeun étika Garman: {{Quote|[A]ya standar bebeneran yén kakuatan téh lain hartina bener, yén tujuan téh lain hartina ngahalalkeun sagala cara, sarta yén kabijakan anu ngan saukur neangan kauntungan (expediency) salaku prinsip gawé pasti bakal gagal. Hiji-hijina harepan pikeun nyampurnakeun hubungan antar manusa nyaéta saluyu jeung hukum pangabdian, di mana manusa henteu pati paduli kana naon anu bakal ditarima, tapi leuwih paduli kana naon anu bakal dibikeun ku maranéhna. Sanajan kitu, jalma téh boga hak kana ganjaran tina hasil usahana. Naon anu dihasilkeun ku maranéhna nyaéta milik maranéhna, boh saeutik boh loba. Tapi miboga harta banda téh mawa kawajiban pikeun ngagunakeunana dina pangabdian anu leuwih jembar.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=William Allen|year=1938|title=A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge|url=https://archive.org/details/puritaninbabylon0000unse_u3u3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/puritaninbabylon0000unse_u3u3/page/43 43]–44}}</ref>}} Sabada lulus, dumasar kana pangjurung ramana, Coolidge pindah ka [[Northampton, Massachusetts]], pikeun janten pengacara. Coolidge nuturkeun kabiasaan umum harita nyaéta magang di firma hukum lokal, Hammond & Field, sarta neuleuman hukum ("reading law") di dinya. [[John C Hammond|John C. Hammond]] jeung Henry P. Field, anu duanana lulusan Amherst, ngenalkeun Coolidge kana prakték hukum di puseur dayeuh [[Hampshire County, Massachusetts]]. Dina taun 1897, Coolidge ditarima janten anggota [[Massachusetts Bar Association|asosiasi advokat Massachusetts]], sarta janten [[country lawyer]] (pengacara di daérah).<ref>{{cite book|last=Shlaes|first=Amity|year=2013|title=Coolidge|url=https://archive.org/details/coolidge0000shla_h2q1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/coolidge0000shla_h2q1/page/66 66]–68}}</ref> Ngagunakeun tabunganana sarta warisan saeutik ti akina, Coolidge muka kantor hukumna sorangan di Northampton dina taun 1898. Anjeunna mokuskeun kana hukum komérsial, kalayan kayakinan yén anjeunna méré palayanan pangalusna ka klien ku cara nyingkahan prosés pangadilan. Sabot reputasina salaku pengacara anu getol tur telik beuki sumebar, bank-bank lokal sarta pausahaan séjénna mimiti ngagunakeun jasana.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fuess|first=Claude M.|year=1940|title=Calvin Coolidge: The Man from Vermont|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-EJA-487|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-EJA-487/page/74 74]–81}}</ref> {| class="toccolours" style="width: 90%; margin: 1em auto; padding: 1em; font-style: italic; border-left: 5px solid #ccc;" | "Aya standar bebeneran yén kakuatan téh lain hartina bener, yén tujuan téh lain hartina ngahalalkeun sagala cara, sarta yén kabijakan anu ngan saukur neangan kauntungan (expediency) salaku prinsip gawé pasti bakal gagal." |- | style="text-align: right; font-style: normal;" | — '''Calvin Coolidge''', ''Autobiography'' (1938) |} === Panganténan sarta kulawarga === [[File:Coolidge family LCCN2014716433.jpg|thumb|upright|Coolidge sareng kulawargana, k. 1915.]] Dina taun 1903, Coolidge patepang sareng [[Grace Goodhue]], saurang lulusan [[Universitas Vermont]] sarta guru di Sakola Clarke pikeun Tunarungu (''Clarke School for the Deaf'') di Northampton. Maranéhna nikah dina kaping 4 Oktober 1905, tabuh 14.30 dina hiji upacara basajan anu lumangsung di rohang tamu imah kulawarga Grace, saatos hasil nungkulan panyaram ti indungna Grace.{{sfn|Bryson|2013|p=187}} Pangantén anyar éta tuluy [[bulan madu]] ka [[Montreal]], anu mimitina direncanakeun dua minggu tapi dicepetkeun janten saminggu dumasar pamenta Coolidge. Saatos 25 taun ti harita, anjeunna nulis ngeunaan Grace, "kurang leuwih saparapat abad manéhna geus sabar nyanghareupan kakurangan kuring sarta kuring geus kabagjaan ku sagala kahadéanana."{{sfn|White|1938|p=61}} Kulawarga Coolidge dipaparin dua putra: [[John Coolidge|John]] (1906–2000) sarta Calvin Jr. (1908–1924). Dina kaping 30 Juni 1924, Calvin Jr. maén [[ténis]] sareng lanceukna di lapangan ténis [[Gedong Bodas]] tanpa nganggo kaos kaki, anu ngabalukarkeun dampal sukuna molotok. Éta tatu téh saterusna janten inféksi getih ([[sepsis]]). Anjeunna pupus saminggu ti harita dina yuswa 16 taun.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shapell |first1=Benjamin |last2=Willen |first2=Sara |title=The Death of Calvin Coolidge Jr. |url=https://www.shapell.org/historical-perspectives/between-the-lines/death-calvin-coolidge-jr/ |publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation |access-date=April 8, 2019 |date=July 6, 2017}}</ref> Coolidge henteu kantos tiasa ngahampura dirina sorangan alatan pupusna Calvin Jr.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Remini |editor1-first=Robert V. |editor2-last=Golway |editor2-first=Terry |title=Fellow Citizens: The Penguin Book of U.S. Presidential Inaugural Addresses |url=https://archive.org/details/fellowcitizenspe00remi |date=2008 |publisher=Penguin Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/fellowcitizenspe00remi/page/307 307] |isbn=978-1440631573 }}</ref> Putra cikalna, John, nyebatkeun yén kajadian éta "matak nyerieun kacida" pikeun Coolidge. Ahli biografi psikiatri Robert E. Gilbert nyebatkeun yén Coolidge "eureun fungsina salaku Présidén saatos pupusna putra anu yuswa genep belas taun éta." Gilbert nulis yén Coolidge némbongkeun sakumna gejala [[gangguan déprési mayor]] dumasar kana catetan [[Asosiasi Psikiatri Amérika]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2003/12/president-coolidges-burden/303175/|title= President Coolidge's Burden |work= The Atlantic |date= 2003|access-date= December 12, 2021}}</ref> John saterusna janten éksékutif karéta api, ngabantu ngadegkeun Yayasan Coolidge, sarta miboga peran penting dina nyieun Situs Sajarah Nagara Présidén Calvin Coolidge.{{sfn|Martin|2000}} Coolidge téh jalma anu hirupna irit (''frugal''), malah dina urusan tempat cicing ogé anjeunna leuwih milih nyéwa imah tinimbang mésér. Anjeunna sarta pamajaganna rajin ibadah di Gréja Kongrégasional Edwards di Northampton sateuacan sareng saatos janten présidén.{{sfn|Shlaes|2013|p=91}} == Jabatan pulitik lokal: 1898–1915 == === Jabatan di kota === [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]] mangrupa kakuatan anu dominan di New England harita, sarta Coolidge nuturkeun tapak lacak Hammond jeung Field ku cara aktip dina pulitik lokal.{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|pp=49–51}} Dina taun 1896, Coolidge milu kampanye pikeun calon présidén ti Partéy Républik, [[William McKinley]], sarta kapilih janten anggota Komite Kota Partéy Républik dina taun saatosna.{{sfn|White|1938|pp=51–53}} Dina taun 1898, anjeunna meunangkeun pamilihan pikeun Déwan Kota Northampton, nempatan urutan kadua di hiji distrik (ward) di mana tilu calon pang luhurna bakal kapilih.{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|pp=49–51}} Ieu kalungguhan téh teu aya gajihanana, tapi méré luang (pangalaman) pulitik anu kacida berhargana pikeun Coolidge.{{sfn|Fuess|1940|p=83}} Dina taun 1899, déwan kota milih Coolidge janten panaséhat hukum kota (''city solicitor''). Anjeunna kapilih pikeun masa jabatan sataun dina taun 1900, sarta kapilih deui dina taun 1901.{{sfn|Fuess|1940|pp=84–85}} Ieu jabatan méré Coolidge leuwih loba luang salaku pengacara sarta dibayar gajih $600 (sarua jeung kira-kira $18.000 jaman ayeuna).{{sfn|Fuess|1940|pp=84–85}} Dina taun 1902, déwan kota milih saurang Démokrat janten panaséhat hukum, janten Coolidge mulang deui kana prakték hukum swasta. Teu lami ti harita, panitera pangadilan (''clerk of courts'') pikeun wilayah kasebut tilar dunya, sarta Coolidge kapilih pikeun ngagentoskeunana. Ieu jabatan téh gajihna lumayan badag, tapi anjeunna dicaram pikeun buka prakték hukum, janten anjeunna ngan ukur sataun nyepeng éta jabatan.{{sfn|McCoy|1967|p=29}} Dina taun 1904, Coolidge ngarandapan hiji-hijina kasorangan (éléh) dina kotak sora, nalika anjeunna éléh dina pamilihan déwan sakola Northampton. Nalika dibéjaan yén sababaraha tatanggana milih ngalawan anjeunna ku sabab anjeunna teu acan miboga putra anu sakola di dinya, Coolidge anu kakara nikah harita ngajawab sakedap: "Béré atuh kuring waktu!"{{sfn|McCoy|1967|p=29}} === Anggota legislatif sarta walikota Massachusetts === {{tempo ogé|Legislatur Massachusetts ka-134 (1913)|Legislatur Massachusetts ka-135 (1914)|Legislatur Massachusetts ka-136 (1915)}} [[File:1908 Calvin Coolidge Massachusetts House of Representatives.png|thumb|upright|Coolidge salaku anggota déwan (state representative), 1908.]] Dina taun 1906, komite Républik lokal nyalonkeun Coolidge pikeun [[Déwan Perwakilan Massachusetts]]. Anjeunna meunang tipis ti calon petahana Démokrat, sarta mimiti ngantor di [[Boston]] pikeun sidang taun 1907.{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|p=61}} Salaku anggota anyar (freshman), Coolidge ditempatkeun dina komite-komite leutik. Sanajan anjeunna satia ka partéy, Coolidge dipikawanoh salaku urang Républik anu Progrésif, anu ngarojong kawijakan sapertos hak pilih awéwé sarta pamilihan langsung Sénator.{{sfnm|Sobel|1998a|1p=62|Fuess|1940|2p=99}} Nalika di Boston, Coolidge janten batur sakutu sarta saterusna janten pangrojong satia Sénator AS [[Winthrop Murray Crane]], anu ngawasa faksi kulon Partéy Républik Massachusetts. Coolidge ogé ngawangun aliansi strategis sareng [[Guy Currier]], saurang tokoh anu miboga kabeungharan sarta jaring parantosan anu lega, anu méré pangaruh gedé kana karir pulitikna.{{sfn|White|1938|pp=99–102}} Ganti tinimbang nyalonkeun deui ka Déwan Nagara Bagian, Coolidge milih mulang ka lemburna pikeun kulawargana anu beuki gedé, tuluy nyalonkeun janten walikota Northampton. Anjeunna dipikaresep ku warga kota, sarta meunang dina pamilihan kalayan sora 1.597 ngalawan 1.409.{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|p=72}} Salila masa jabatan munggaranna (1910–1911), anjeunna naékeun gajih guru sarta ngalunasan sababaraha hutang kota bari tetep bisa nurunkeun pajeg sakedik.{{sfnm|Fuess|1940|1pp=106–107|Sobel|1998a|2p=74}} Dina taun 1911, Coolidge kapilih janten Sénator Nagara Bagian. Anjeunna janten pupuhu komite anu nungkulan aksi mogok "[[Bread and Roses]]" ku para pagawé di [[Lawrence, Massachusetts]]. Saatos dua bulan anu tegang, pihak pausahaan tungtungna satuju kana tungtutan pagawé dumasar usulan komite Coolidge.{{sfnm|Fuess|1940|1pp=110–111|McCoy|1967|2pp=45–46}} Dina taun 1914, Coolidge kapilih janten Présidén Sénat Massachusetts. Nalika dilantik, anjeunna nepikeun biantara anu kawéntar kalayan judul ''Have Faith in Massachusetts'' (Sing Percaya ka Massachusetts): {| class="toccolours" style="width: 90%; margin: 1em auto; padding: 1em; font-style: italic; border-left: 5px solid #ccc;" | "Tungtukeun pagawéan poé ieu. Upami éta pikeun nangtayungan hak-hak jalma nu lemah, sing saha waé anu ngalawan, pigawe baé. Upami éta pikeun mantuan korporasi badag sangkan bisa ngaladénan masarakat kalayan leuwih hadé, naon waé tantanganana, pigawe baé. Harepkeun anjeun disebut 'stand-patter' (nu maceuh), tapi ulah jadi stand-patter. Harepkeun anjeun disebut 'demagog', tapi ulah jadi demagog. Ulah asa-asa pikeun jadi révolusionér sakumaha sains. Ulah asa-asa pikeun jadi réaksionér sakumaha tabél kali-kalian. Ulah miharep bisa ngawangun nu lemah ku cara ngaruntuhkeun nu kuat. Ulah rusuh teuing nyieun undang-undang. Béré kasempetan ka administrasi pikeun ngudag undang-undang anu aya." |- | style="text-align: right; font-style: normal;" | — '''Calvin Coolidge''', ''Have Faith in Massachusetts'' (1914) |} Biantara ieu ditarima kacida hadéna sarta ngajadikeun Coolidge mimiti dipikawanoh di tingkat nasional. Pangrojong ka anjeunna, dipingpin ku [[Frank Stearns]], ngajurung Coolidge pikeun nyalonkeun janten wakil gubernur dina pamilihan taun 1915.{{sfn|White|1938|p=117}} ==vWakil Gubernur sarta Gubernur Massachusetts: 1916–1921 == Coolidge milu dina [[Pamilihan primér|pamilihan primér]] pikeun wakil gubernur sarta dicalonkeun pikeun marengan calon gubernur [[Samuel W. McCall]]. Coolidge janten pameunang sora pangseueurna dina primér Républik, sarta méré kasaimbangan dina tiket Républik ku cara nambihan kakuatan ti daérah kulon pikeun ngarojong McCall anu basisna di daérah wétan.{{sfn|Fuess|1940|pp=139–142}} McCall sarta Coolidge meunang dina pamilihan taun 1915 pikeun masa jabatan sataun, di mana Coolidge ngéléhkeun lawanana kalayan béda leuwih ti 50.000 sora.{{sfn|Fuess|1940|p=145}} Di Massachusetts, wakil gubernur téh henteu mingpin Sénat nagara bagian, sakumaha ilaharna di nagara bagian séjén; sanajan kitu, salaku wakil gubernur, Coolidge janten wakil gubernur anu boga fungsi salaku pamariksa administratif sarta janten anggota déwan gubernur. Anjeunna ogé janten pupuhu komite kauangan sarta komite pangampura (grasi).{{sfn|White|1938|p=125}} Salaku pajabat kapilih anu digawé pinuh waktu, Coolidge ngeureunkeun prakték hukumna dina taun 1916, sanajan kulawargana tetep matuh di Northampton.{{sfn|Fuess|1940|pp=151–152}} McCall sarta Coolidge duanana kapilih deui dina taun 1916 sarta 1917. Nalika McCall mutuskeun pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui pikeun kaopat kalina, Coolidge ngumumkeun niatna pikeun nyalonkeun janten gubernur.{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|pp=107–110}} === Pamilihan 1918 === Coolidge maju tanpa saingan pikeun nominasi Républik dina [[Daptar Gubernur Massachusetts|pamilihan gubernur Massachusetts]] taun [[Pamilihan gubernur Massachusetts 1918|1918]]. Anjeunna sareng pasanganana, [[Channing Cox]], saurang pengacara ti Boston sarta Juru Ngomong [[Déwan Perwakilan Massachusetts]], kampanye dumasar kana catetan prestasi pamaréntahan sateuacanna: [[konservatisme fiskal]], sikep nu samar dina nolak [[Larangan inuman keras di Amérika Sarikat|Larangan (Prohibition)]], rojongan kana hak pilih awéwé, sarta rojongan kana kalibetna Amérika dina [[Perang Dunya I]].{{sfnm|Sobel|1998a|1p=111|McCoy|1967|2pp=75–76}} Masalah perang janten pasalia anu rongkah, utamana di kalangan warga [[Amérika-Irlandia]] sarta [[Amérika-Jérman]].{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|p=112}} Coolidge kapilih kalayan béda 16.773 sora ti lawanana, [[Richard H. Long]], anu mangrupa béda sora pangleutikna dina sakuliah kampanye tingkat nagara bagian anu kantos djalankeun ku anjeunna.{{sfnm|Sobel|1998a|1p=115|McCoy|1967|2p=76}} === Aksi mogok pulisi Boston === {{Utama|Aksi mogok pulisi Boston}} [[File:Coolidge inspects militia.jpg|thumb|upright|Coolidge nuju mariksa milisi nalika kajadian [[Aksi mogok pulisi Boston]] taun 1919.]] Dina taun 1919, salaku réaksi kana rarancang para pulisi ti Departemén Pulisi Boston pikeun ngagabung ka [[Sarekat dagang|sarekat buruh]], Komisaris Pulisi [[Edwin U. Curtis]] ngumumkeun yén peta kitu téh moal bisa diantep. Dina bulan Agustus taun éta, [[American Federation of Labor]] (AFL) ngaluarkeun piagam pikeun Sarekat Pulisi Boston.{{sfnm|Russell|1975|1pp=77–79|Sobel|1998a|2p=129}} Curtis nyatakeun yén para pamingpin sarekat éta salah alatan baha (insubordinasi) sarta bakal diberhentikeun, tapi anjeunna méré kasempetan pikeun ngabatalkeun skorsing upami éta sarekat dibubarkeun sateuacan kaping 4 Séptémber.{{sfn|Russell|1975|pp=86–87}} Walikota Boston, [[Andrew James Peters]], hasil ngarayu Curtis sangkan nunda tindakanana sababaraha poé, tapi taya hasilna, nepi ka tungtungna Curtis nyékors para pamingpin sarekat dina kaping 8 Séptémber.{{sfnm|Russell|1975|1pp=111–113|Sobel|1998a|2pp=133–136}} Poé isukna, kurang leuwih tilu parapat pulisi di Boston ngalakukeun aksi mogok.{{sfn|Russell|1975|p=113}} Coolidge, anu sacara cicingeun ngarojong pinuh kana sikep Curtis, terus ngawaskeun kaayaan kalayan taliti, sanajan mimitina mah masrahkeun urusan éta ka otoritas lokal. Anjeunna boga kayakinan yén kaayaan anu teu tartib (chaos) bakal janten palajaran pikeun masarakat sangkan ngarti kana prinsip utama: yén pulisi téh teu meunang mogok. Peuting éta sarta peuting isukna, karusuhan sarta tindak kekerasan lumangsung di sakuliah kota.{{sfn|White|1938|pp=162–164}} Alatan hariwang ku ayana aksi mogok susulan ti patugas pamadam kahuruan sarta nu séjénna, Walikota Peters manggil sababaraha unit [[Garda Nasional Massachusetts]] sarta ngaberhentikeun Curtis tina jabatanna.{{sfn|Russell|1975|p=120}} Ngarasa yén kaayaan geus beuki parna sarta merlukeun campur tanganana, Coolidge tuluy sasaduan sareng William Butler (jalma kapercayaan Crane) sarta tuluy meta.{{sfn|White|1938|pp=164–165}} Anjeunna manggil deui unit Garda Nasional anu leuwih loba, malikkeun deui jabatan Curtis, sarta nyandak alih kadali pinuh kana kakuatan pulisi.{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|p=142}} Curtis ngumumkeun yén sakumna pulisi anu mogok diberhentikeun tina pagawéanana, sarta Coolidge maréntahkeun sangkan ditéangan tanaga pulisi anyar.{{sfn|Russell|1975|pp=182–183}} Peuting harita, Coolidge nampi télégram ti pamingpin AFL, [[Samuel Gompers]]. "Naon waé karusuhan anu geus lumangsung," tulis Gompers, "éta téh alatan paréntah Curtis anu geus nolak hak-hak pulisi."{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|p=143}} Coolidge ngajawab télégram Gompers sacara kabuka, nolak sagala rupa alesan pikeun aksi mogok éta—sarta jawaban ieu pisan anu ngangkat jenenganana ka tingkat nasional.{{sfn|Sobel|1998a|p=143}} Surat kabar di sakuliah nagara ngamuat pernyataan Coolidge, sarta anjeunna janten pahlawan anyar pikeun pihak anu nolak aksi mogok. Di tengah mangsa "First Red Scare" (sieun ku paham komunis), loba urang Amérika anu muringkak ku sumebarna révolusi komunis saperti di Rusia, Hungaria, jeung Jérman. Sanajan Coolidge kaleungitan sababaraha babaturan ti kalangan buruh, para konservatif nempo anjeunna salaku "bentang anyar" anu keur nanjak.{{sfn|Shlaes|2013|pp=174–179}} Aksi mogok pulisi Boston méré Coolidge reputasi nasional salaku pamingpin anu teges sarta nu panceg dina ngajaga hukum sarta katartiban (''law and order''). {| class="toccolours" style="width: 90%; margin: 1em auto; padding: 1em; font-style: italic; border-left: 5px solid #ccc;" | "Panyatujuan anjeun yén Komisaris téh salah, moal bisa jadi dadasar benerna lampah ninggalkeun kota tanpa panangtayungan. Éta téh méré lolongkrang; sarta unsur kriminal anu meta. Teu aya hak pikeun mogok ngalawan kasalametan umum ku saha waé, di mana waé, sarta iraha waé. ... Kuring sarua pancegna pikeun ngabéla kadaulatan Massachusetts sarta ngajaga wewenang sarta yurisdiksi pikeun para pajabat publikna sakumaha anu geus ditangtukeun ku Konstitusi sarta hukum masarakatna." |- | style="text-align: right; font-style: normal;" | — '''Télégram ti Gubernur Calvin Coolidge ka Samuel Gompers''', 14 Séptémber 1919 |} ==Tutumbu Ka Luar== {{Sister project links |wikt=Coolidge |b=no |n=no |s=Author:Calvin Coolidge |v=no}} {{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?310540-1/amity-shlaes ''Q&A'' interview with Amity Shlaes on ''Coolidge'', February 10, 2013], [[C-SPAN]]| video2 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?110049-1/coolidge-american-enigma ''Booknotes'' interview with Robert Sobel on ''Coolidge: An American Enigma'', August 30, 1998], [[C-SPAN]]}} '''Biographical information''' * [https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/calvin-coolidge/ White House biography] * {{CongBio|C000738}} '''Digital collections''' * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/calvin-coolidge}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=1661}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Calvin Coolidge}} * [http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#coolidge Text of a number of Coolidge speeches], [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * {{librivox author|id=7190}} '''Physical collections''' * [https://forbeslibrary.org/coolidge/ Calvin Coolidge Presidential Library & Museum] * [https://www.coolidgefoundation.org/ Calvin Coolidge Presidential Foundation] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/coolidge/index.html Calvin Coolidge: A Resource Guide], [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Presidents/Coolidge-Calvin Calvin Coolidge Personal Manuscripts] '''Other''' * {{NYT topic|people/c/calvin_coolidge}} * ''[https://archive.org/details/coolidge_1924 President Coolidge, Taken on the White House Ground]'', the first presidential film with sound recording * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151626-1/life-portrait-calvin-coolidge "Life Portrait of Calvin Coolidge"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', September 27, 1999 * {{C-SPAN|39815}} * {{IMDb name}} * {{PM20|FID=pe/003451}} {{Calvin Coolidge}} {{navboxes |title = Offices and distinctions |list1 = {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-ma-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[Moses M. Bassett]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[Massachusetts House of Representatives]]|years=1907–1909}} {{s-aft|after=[[Charles A. Montgomery]]}} {{s-par|us-ma-sen}} {{s-bef|before=[[Allen T. Treadway]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[Massachusetts Senate]]|years=1912–1915}} {{s-aft|after=[[John B. Hull]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James W. O'Brien]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Mayor of [[Northampton, Massachusetts]]|years=1910–1912}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Feiker]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Levi H. Greenwood]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of the Massachusetts Senate]]|years=1914–1915}} {{s-aft|after=[[Henry Gordon Wells]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Grafton D. Cushing]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts]]|years=1916–1919}} {{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Channing H. Cox]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Samuel W. McCall]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Governor of Massachusetts]]|years=1919–1921}} {{s-bef|before=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|years=1921–1923}} {{s-aft|after=[[Charles G. Dawes]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Warren G. Harding]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States]]|years=1923–1929}} {{s-aft|after=[[Herbert Hoover]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Grafton D. Cushing]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee for [[Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts]]|years=1915, 1916, 1917}} {{s-aft|after=[[Channing H. Cox]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Samuel W. McCall]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee for [[Governor of Massachusetts]]|years=[[1918 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1918]], [[1919 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1919]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Channing H. Cox]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Charles W. Fairbanks]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|nominee]] for Vice President of the United States|years=[[1920 United States presidential election|1920]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Frank Orren Lowden]]<br/>{{small|Withdrew}}}} {{s-bef|before=[[Warren G. Harding]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|nominee]] for President of the United States|years=[[1924 United States presidential election|1924]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Herbert Hoover]]}} {{s-end}} }} [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] 2h7wkh63unnrf302mt4vzwgpdrlvtsc 0 108432 711862 708916 2026-08-07T06:00:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711862 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; border-spacing: 0px; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background-color: #eeeeee !important; color: #000000 !important; border-bottom: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 5px;" | Faring |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 15px !important; background-color: #ffffff !important;" | [[File:Recurrent laryngeal nerve.svg|250px|center|Anatomi faring sarta saraf laringeal]]<br/><span style="color: #000000 !important;">Anatomi faring sarta hubunganana jeung saraf laringeal.</span> |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; width: 40%; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | Nami Latin | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | ''Pharynx'' |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Sistem | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | [[Sistem pencernaan]], [[Sistem pernapasan]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Arteri | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Faringeal asendén |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Saraf | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Pléksus faringeal |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Perenahna | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Tukangeun rongga baham |} '''Faring''' (tina basa [[Basa Yunani|Yunani]]: ''pharynx''); '''tikoro''' nyaéta bagian tina [[sistem pencernaan]] sarta [[sistem ngambekan]]/ngarénghap anu perenahna aya di tukangeun ''rongga'' baham sarta ''rongga'' irung, sarta di luhureun [[ésophagus]] jeung [[laring]] (tikoro). Faring mangrupa saluran anu wangunna siga [[Corong|corong]] sarta diwangun ku otot-otot anu penting pikeun prosés [[neureuy]] sarta ngalirkeun hawa kana [[Bayah|paru-paru]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Tortora |first=Gerard J. |last2=Derrickson |first2=Bryan |title=Principles of Anatomy and Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofanat0000tort |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |ISBN=978-1118345009}}</ref> == Fungsi == Faring miboga sababaraha fungsi utama dina awak [[mamalia]], di antarana: * Jalur dahareun jeung hawa: Faring janten tempat patepungna hawa tina irung sarta dahareun tina baham sateuacan diteraskeun ka saluran masing-masing. * Prosés neureuy (Deglutisi): Dina faring, aya koordinasi otot anu mastikeun dahareun asup kana ésophagus sarta henteu asup kana saluran pernapasan. * Resonansi sora: Faring mantuan dina prosés ngahasilkeun sora ku cara meta salaku rohangan résonansi. * Kasaimbangan tekanan: Ngaliwatan saluran [[Eustachius]], faring mantuan nyaruakeun tekanan hawa antara ceuli bagian tengah jeung atmosfir.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/pharynx |title=Pharynx |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref> == Bagian-bagian == Faring sacara anatomis kabagi janten tilu bagian utama: # '''Nasofaring:''' Bagian luhur anu perenahna di tukangeun rongga irung. Di dieu aya saluran Eustachius sarta [[amandel]] (tonsil) pharyngeal. # '''Orofaring:''' Bagian tengah anu aya di tukangeun rongga baham. Ieu bagian diwatesanan ku uvula di luhur sarta épiglotis di handap. # '''Laringofaring:''' Bagian handap sateuacan saluran misah janten laring (jalur hawa) sarta ésophagus (jalur dahareun). == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Sistim cerna}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] 90uhyxye5x5i1lx0juud3hh0jshb8bj 0 108435 711641 708915 2026-08-07T00:45:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711641 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; border-spacing: 0px; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background-color: #eeeeee !important; color: #000000 !important; border-bottom: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 5px;" | Peujit Leutik |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 15px !important; background-color: #ffffff !important;" | [[File:Digestive system diagram en.svg|250px|center|Diagram sistem pencernaan]]<br/><span style="color: #000000 !important;">Perenah peujit leutik (warna bungur/ungu) dina sistem pencernaan.</span> |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; width: 40%; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | Nami Latin | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | ''Intestinum tenue'' |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Sistem | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | [[Sistem pencernaan]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Panjang | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | ± 6 - 7 méter |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Bagian | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | [[Duodénum]], [[Jéjunum]], [[Iléum]] |} '''Peujit leutik; Small intestine anatomy''' nyaéta bagian tina saluran pencernaan anu perenahna antara [[lambung]] sarta [[peujit badag]]. Ieu organ mangrupa tempat utama lumangsungna prosés nyerepna sari-sari kadaharan (nutrisi) kana aliran getih. Dina manusa sawawa, panjangna bisa nepi ka 6-7 méter kalayan diaméter sakira-kira 2,5 cm.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tortora |first=Gerard J. |title=Principles of Anatomy and Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofanat0000tort |publisher=Wiley |year=2014}}</ref> == Bagian-bagian Peujit Leutik == Peujit leutik kabagi janten tilu bagian utama: # '''[[Duodénum]] (Usus dua belas ramo):''' Bagian pangmimitina anu nyambung langsung ka lambung. Di dieu kadaharan dicampurkeun jeung énzim tina [[pankréas]] sarta cairan [[hampru]]. # '''[[Jéjunum]] (Usus kosong):''' Bagian tengah anu fungsina pikeun nyerep nutrisi utama saperti gula, asam amino, sarta asam lemak. # '''[[Iléum]] (Usus panyerepan):''' Bagian pamungkas anu nyerep sésa nutrisi anu teu kaserep ku jéjunum, utamana vitamin B12 sarta uyah hampru. == Fungsi == Fungsi utama peujit leutik nyaéta: * Pencernaan Kimiawi: Ngarecah molekul kadaharan anu kompléks janten basajan kalayan bantuan énzim. * Panyerepan Nutrisi: Nyerep vitamin, mineral, karbohidrat, lemak, sarta protéin ngaliwatan ''vili'' (rambut-rambut halus dina pinding peujit). * Nyorong Kadaharan: Ngagunakeun gerakan [[peristaltik]] pikeun mindahkeun sésa kadaharan ka peujit badag. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Sistim cerna}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Sistem pencernaan]] mbdpvr3ef7emyxnf7ncdplbbjw9w52v 0 108437 711842 708919 2026-08-07T05:39:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711842 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; border-spacing: 0px; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background-color: #eeeeee !important; color: #000000 !important; border-bottom: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 5px;" | Jéjunum |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 15px !important; background-color: #ffffff !important;" | [[File:Tractus intestinalis jejunum et ileum.svg|250px|center|Diagram jéjunum sarta iléum]]<br/><span style="color: #000000 !important;">Perenah jéjunum (warna anu langkung caang) dina sistem peujit.</span> |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; width: 40%; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | Nami Latin | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | ''Jejunum'' |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Sistem | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | [[Sistem pencernaan]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Panjang | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | ± 2,5 méter |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Arteri | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Arteri jéjunal |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Perenahna | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Antara [[duodénum]] sarta [[iléum]] |} '''Jéjunum''' atanapi sering disebut ogé '''usus kosong''' nyaéta bagian tengah tina [[peujit leutik]], perenahna antara [[duodénum]] sarta [[iléum]]. Nami "jéjunum" asalna tina basa [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ''jejunus'', anu hartosna "kosong", margi dina kaayaan maot, ieu organ mindeng kapanggih dina kaayaan kosong tina kadaharan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tortora |first=Gerard J. |title=Principles of Anatomy and Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofanat0000tort |publisher=Wiley |year=2014}}</ref> == Fungsi == Jéjunum miboga peran utama dina prosés panyerepan [[nutrisi]]: * Panyerepan Nutrisi Utama: Sabagéan ageung nutrisi saperti [[gula]] (glukosa), [[asam amino]], sarta [[asam lemak]] diserep di dieu kana aliran getih. * Luas Permukaan: Pinding jero jéjunum miboga lipatan-lipatan sarta rambut halus anu disebut ''vili'', anu fungsina pikeun ngalegaan permukaan panyerepan nutrisi supados langkung éfisién. * Pencernaan Kimiawi: Énzim-énzim dina pinding jéjunum terus ngarecah sésa-sésa kadaharan anu parantos dimimitian dina duodénum.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/jejunum |title=Jejunum Anatomy and Function |publisher=Healthline |access-date=2026-05-06}}</ref> == Struktur == Dina manusa sawawa, panjang jéjunum téh sakira-kira 2,5 méter. Sacara anatomi, jéjunum miboga warna anu langkung beureum margi seueur ngandung pembuluh getih, sarta pindingna langkung kandel upami dibandingkeun sareng iléum. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Sistim cerna}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Sistem pencernaan]] 40szk070wunjqkzsz128dko0it1z0uw 0 108439 711532 711104 2026-08-06T22:29:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711532 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; border-spacing: 0px; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background-color: #eeeeee !important; color: #000000 !important; border-bottom: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 5px;" | Kolon (Peujit Badag) |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 15px !important; background-color: #ffffff !important;" | <br/><span style="color: #000000 !important;">Gambar sinar-X anu némbongkeun struktur kolon manusa.</span> |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; width: 40%; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | Nami Latin | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | ''Colon'' |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Sistem | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | [[Sistem pencernaan]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Panjang | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | ± 1,5 méter |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Bagian Utama | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Aséndén, Transvérsum, Déséndén, Sigmoid |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Perenahna | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Antara [[ileum]] sarta [[réktum]] |} '''Kolon''' atanapi sering disebut ogé '''peujit badag''' nyaéta bagian pamungkas tina saluran pencernaan [[vertebrata]]. Fungsi utama ieu organ nyaéta pikeun nyerep cai sarta éléktrolit tina sésa kadaharan anu teu tiasa dicerna ku peujit leutik, sarta nyimpen sésa éta dina wangun kokotor (fésés) sateuacan dikaluarkeun.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tortora |first=Gerard J. |title=Principles of Anatomy and Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofanat0000tort |publisher=Wiley |year=2014}}</ref> == Bagian-bagian Kolon == Kolon kabagi janten sababaraha bagian utama dumasar kana perenahna: # '''Kolon aséndén:''' Bagian anu naék ka luhur dina sisi katuhu beuteung. # '''Kolon transvérsum:''' Bagian anu malang ti katuhu ka kénca. # '''Kolon déséndén:''' Bagian anu turun ka handap dina sisi kénca beuteung. # '''Kolon sigmoid:''' Bagian tungtung anu wangunna siga hurup "S" sarta nyambung kana [[réktum]]. == Fungsi == Salian ti nyerep cai, kolon miboga fungsi séjén: * Produksi Vitamin: Baktéri anu hirup dina kolon (saperti ''E. coli'') mantuan ngahasilkeun vitamin K sarta sababaraha vitamin B. * Fermentasi: Ngarecah sésa karbohidrat sarta protéin ngaliwatan prosés fermentasi baktéri. * ''Pembentukan'' Fésés: Ngarobah sésa kadaharan anu éncér janten langkung padet.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/the-digestive-process-the-large-intestine |title=The Large Intestine |publisher=Johns Hopkins Medicine |access-date=2026-05-06 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Sistim cerna}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Sistem pencernaan]] j104w2syrna7yrft70z8qvp33qdfej2 0 108441 711626 708926 2026-08-07T00:30:02Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711626 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; border-spacing: 0px; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background-color: #eeeeee !important; color: #000000 !important; border-bottom: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 5px;" | Réktum |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 15px !important; background-color: #ffffff !important;" | [[File:Stomach colon rectum diagram-en.svg|250px|center|Diagram sistem pencernaan]]<br/><span style="color: #000000 !important;">Perenah réktum salaku bagian tungtung saluran pencernaan.</span> |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; width: 40%; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | Nami Latin | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | ''Rectum'' |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Sistem | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | [[Sistem pencernaan]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Arteri | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Arteri réktal |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Perenahna | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Antara [[kolon sigmoid]] sarta [[anus]] |} '''Réktum''' (asalna tina basa [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ''rectum intestinum'', anu hartosna "peujit lempeng") nyaéta bagian pamungkas tina [[peujit badag]] anu perenahna sateuacan [[anus]]. Dina manusa sawawa, panjang réktum téh kira-kira 12 cm. Ieu organ fungsina salaku tempat panyimpenan samentara pikeun kokotor (fésés).<ref>{{cite book |last=Tortora |first=Gerard J. |title=Principles of Anatomy and Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofanat0000tort |publisher=Wiley |year=2014}}</ref> == Fungsi == Réktum miboga peran penting dina prosés ékskrési (piceun): * Panyimpenan Samentara: Nalika [[Kolon|kolon]] geus pinuh, kokotor bakal asup kana réktum sarta diteundeun di dinya. * Sénsor Rangsangan: Nalika pinding réktum katarik (mélar) ku lobana kokotor, saraf-saraf di dinya bakal ngirimkeun sinyal ka [[otak]] anu nimbulkeun rasa hoyong miceun (défékasi). * Nahan Kokotor: Réktum babarengan jeung otot sphincter dina anus mantuan nahan kokotor supados henteu kaluar sateuacan waktosna. == Struktur == Réktum nyambung ka luhur jeung [[kolon|kolon sigmoid]] sarta ka handap nyambung kana saluran [[anus]]. Teu siga kolon anu miboga sakatan (haustra), pinding réktum mah kawilang rata sarta lempeng dumasar kana ngaranna.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/rectum |title=Rectum |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2026-05-06}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Sistim cerna}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Sistem pencernaan]] 2hz4q4174s6n2bzrre7ypqy82daalcu 0 108442 711544 708927 2026-08-06T22:50:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711544 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; border-spacing: 0px; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background-color: #eeeeee !important; color: #000000 !important; border-bottom: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 5px;" | Anus |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 15px !important; background-color: #ffffff !important;" | [[File:Stomach colon rectum diagram-en.svg|250px|center|Diagram sistem pencernaan]]<br/><span style="color: #000000 !important;">Perenah anus salaku liang pamungkas dina sistem pencernaan.</span> |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; width: 40%; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | Nami Latin | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1;" | ''Anus'' |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Sistem | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | [[Sistem pencernaan]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Otot Utama | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Sphincter ani |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #fcfcfc !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Perenahna | style="background-color: #ffffff !important; color: #000000 !important; padding: 4px; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" | Handapeun [[réktum]] |} '''Anus''' nyaéta liang di tungtung saluran pencernaan anu fungsina pikeun ngaluarkeun kokotor (fésés) tina jero awak. Prosés ngaluarkeun kokotor ieu disebut défékasi atanapi piceun dina basa sapopoé.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tortora |first=Gerard J. |title=Principles of Anatomy and Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofanat0000tort |publisher=Wiley |year=2014}}</ref> Dina basa Sunda, ieu organ téh miboga istilah asli nyaéta '''bool''', nanging dina konteks ilmiah atanapi anatomi, istilah '''anus''' langkung umum dianggo pikeun ngajaga kasopanan sarta katepatan istilah médis. == Fungsi == Anus miboga fungsi utama salaku panto pamungkas pikeun ngatur kaluarna sésa pencernaan: * Kontrol Otot: Anus dikurilingan ku otot ''sphincter'' anu tiasa nahan atanapi ngaluarkeun fésés dumasar kana kahoyong urang (sadar) sarta sacara otomatis (teu sadar). * Nyorong Sésa: Babarengan jeung réktum, anus mantuan prosés miceun sangkan lumangsung kalayan lancar. == Struktur == Saluran anus diwangun ku jaringan anu sénsitip sarta miboga seueur pembuluh getih. Upami aya gangguan dina ieu pembuluh getih, tiasa nimbulkeun panyakit anu disebut wasir (ambeien).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/anus |title=Anus |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2026-05-06}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Sistim cerna}} [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Sistem pencernaan]] 9j6yuxumjokabcyquyijujt2hydub1x 0 108497 711645 710999 2026-08-07T00:52:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711645 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = President Hoover portrait.jpg | caption = Hoover dina taun 1928 | office = [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-31 | vice_president = [[Charles Curtis]] | term_start = 4 Maret 1929 | term_end = 4 Maret 1933 | predecessor = [[Calvin Coolidge]] | successor = [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] | office1 = [[Menteri Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat]] ka-3 | president1 = {{plainlist| * [[Warren G. Harding]] * Calvin Coolidge}} | term_start1 = 5 Maret 1921 | term_end1 = 21 Agustus 1928 | predecessor1 = [[Joshua W. Alexander]] | successor1 = [[William F. Whiting]] | office2 = Diréktur [[Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat]] | president2 = [[Woodrow Wilson]] | term_start2 = 21 Agustus 1917 | term_end2 = 16 Nopémber 1918 | predecessor2 = Jabatan anyar | successor2 = Jabatan dilaungkeun | birth_name = Herbert Clark Hoover | birth_date = {{birth date|1874|8|10}} | birth_place = [[West Branch, Iowa]], AS. | death_date = {{death date and age|1964|10|20|1874|8|10}} | death_place = New York City, AS. | resting_place = [[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]] | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] (ti taun 1920) | other_party = [[Politikus indepénden|Indepénden]] (saméméh 1920) | spouse = {{marriage|[[Lou Henry Hoover|Lou Henry]]|10 Pébruari 1899|7 Januari 1944|end=died}} | children = {{flatlist| * [[Herbert Hoover Jr.|Herbert Jr.]] * [[Allan Hoover|Allan]]}} | education = [[Universitas Stanford]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]]) | signature = Herbert Clark Hoover Signature.svg | signature_alt = Tanda tangan kursif mangsi | module = {{Listen |pos = center |embed = yes |filename = Hoover moment.ogg |title = Sorana Hoover |type = speech |description = Hoover nembé ngumumkeun [[Rencana stimulus ékonomi 1931]]<br>Dirékam 18 Oktober 1931}} }} '''Herbert Clark Hoover''' (10 Agustus 1874 – 20 Oktober 1964) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-31, ngajabat ti taun 1929 nepi ka 1933. Saméméh asup ka dunya pulitik, Hoover digawé salaku [[insinyur]] sarta pangusaha dina industri pertambangan. Sanggeus kalibet dina layanan ''publik'', manéhna diangkat pikeun mingpin sababaraha tarékah kamanusaan utama, kaasup jadi pupuhu ''Commission for Relief in Belgium]]'', anu hasil mulangkeun leuwih ti 100.000 urang Amérika anu kapiuhan di Éropa, diréktur [[U.S. Food Administration]], anu nyadiakeun jatah keur prajurit sarta kadaharan keur warga anu kalaparan di Éropa, diréktur [[American Relief Administration]], anu mingpin infrastruktur sarta bantuan pangan pasca-perang di Éropa, sarta ngadegkeun [[Commission for Polish Relief]]. Salaku anggota [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]], manéhna ngajabat salaku [[Menteri Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat]] ka-3 ti taun 1921 nepi ka 1928 saméméh [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1928|kapilih jadi présidén dina taun 1928]]. [[Masa kapersidénan Herbert Hoover|Masa kapersidénanana]] didominasi ku [[Depresi Besar]], sarta kawijakan ogé métodena pikeun merangan krisis éta dianggap teu nyukupan sarta kolot teuing (konservatif). Di tengah kaayaan manéhna anu teu dipikaresep ku rahayat, manéhna éléh mutlak dina usaha kapilih deui ku [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] dina taun [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1932|1932]]. Lahir ti kulawarga [[Quaker]] di [[West Branch, Iowa]], Hoover digedékeun di [[Oregon]]. Manéhna mangrupa salah sahiji lulusan munggaran ti [[Universitas Stanford]] anu anyar dina taun 1895. Hoover nyokot posisi di hiji pausahaan pertambangan anu puseurna di [[London]] anu digawé di [[Australia]] sarta [[Tiongkok]]. Manéhna gancang jadi insinyur pertambangan anu beunghar. Dina taun 1914, nalika bituna [[Perang Dunya I]], manéhna ngatur sarta mingpin ''Commission for Relief in Belgium'', hiji organisasi bantuan internasional anu nyadiakeun kadaharan ka Bélgia anu dikoasa ku Jérman. Nalika [[Amérika Sarikat|AS]] asup ka jero perang dina taun 1917, Présidén [[Woodrow Wilson]] nunjuk Hoover pikeun mingpin ''Food Administration''. Manéhna jadi kawentar salaku "diktator pangan" di nagarana. Sanggeus perang, Hoover mingpin ''American Relief Administration'', anu nyadiakeun kadaharan keur jutaan jalma anu kalaparan di [[Éropa Tengah]] sarta Wétan, utamana [[Rusia]]. Jasa-jasana nalika mangsa perang ngajadikeun manéhna jadi favorit loba pihak [[Progresivisme di Amérika Sarikat|progrisif]], sarta manéhna gagal nyiar nominasi Républik dina [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920|Pemilu 1920]]. Hoover ngajabat salaku Menteri Perdagangan di sahandapeun présidén [[Warren G. Harding]] sarta [[Calvin Coolidge]]. Hoover mangrupa anggota Kabinét anu aktif sarta katingali pisan, nepi ka katelah salaku "Menteri Perdagangan sarta Wakil Menteri keur sakabéh departemén séjénna." Manéhna boga pangaruh dina kamekaran transportasi udara sarta radio. Hoover mingpin réspon féderal kana [[Banjir Gedé Mississippi 1927]]. Manéhna meunangkeun nominasi Républik dina [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1928|Pemilu 1928]] sarta ngéléhkeun calon Démokrat [[Al Smith]] kalayan sora anu kacida mutlakna. Dina taun 1929, Hoover mimiti ngajabat présidén. Nanging, dina taun kahiji jabatanna, [[Pasar saham ancur 1929|pasar saham ancur]], anu nandaan mimitina Depresi Besar. Hoover ngarojong [[Repatriasi Méksiko]] sarta résponna kana Depresi Besar dianggap sacara lega kurang sumanget. Di tengah-tengah Depresi Besar, manéhna éléh mutlak ku calon Démokrat Franklin D. Roosevelt dina [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1932|Pemilu 1932]]. Masa pangsiun Hoover lumangsung leuwih ti 31 taun, salah sahiji mangsa pangsiun présidén anu panglilana. Manéhna nulis loba karya sarta jadi beuki [[Konservatisme di Amérika Sarikat|konservatif]] dina mangsa pangsiunna. Manéhna sacara kuat ngritik kawijakan luar nagri Roosevelt sarta [[New Deal]]. Dina taun 1940-an sarta 1950-an, sawangan umum ka Hoover ningkat, sabagéan gedé alatan jasa-jasana dina sababaraha pancén keur présidén [[Harry S. Truman]] sarta [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], kaasup mingpin [[Komisi Hoover]] anu boga pangaruh. Penilaian kritis kana kapersidénanana ku para sajarahwan sarta élmuwan pulitik sacara umum [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun manéhna]] di antara présidén anu panggoréngna dina sajarah Amérika, sanajan Hoover kenging pamuji kana tindakanana salaku tokoh kamanusaan sarta pajabat publik.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levinson|first=Martin H.|title=Indexing and Dating America's 'Worst' Presidents |date=2011 |journal=ETC: A Review of General Semantics |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=147–155 |jstor=42579110 |issn=0014-164X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Merry |first=Robert W. |date=January 3, 2021|title=RANKED: Historians Don't Think Much of These Five U.S. Presidents |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/reboot/ranked-historians-dont-much-these-five-us-presidents-175654 |access-date=February 25, 2022 |magazine=The National Interest}}</ref> == Mangsa leutik sarta pendidikan == {{stack|float=left|[[File:Herbert Hoover birthplace.jpg|left|thumb|Imah pondok tempat lahirna Hoover di [[West Branch, Iowa]]]]}} Herbert Clark Hoover lahir dina 10 Agustus 1874, di [[West Branch, Iowa]].{{efn|Hoover satuluyna jadi présidén munggaran anu lahir di kuloneun [[Walungan Mississippi]], sarta tetep jadi hiji-hijina présidén anu lahir di Iowa.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=4}}}} Bapana, Jesse Hoover, nyaéta saurang [[tukang panday]] sarta nu boga toko pakakas tatanén turunan Jérman, Swiss, sarta Inggris.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=4}} Indungna Hoover, Hulda Randall Minthorn, digedékeun di [[Norwich, Ontario]], Kanada, méméh pindah ka [[Iowa]] dina taun 1859. Kawas kalolobaan warga West Branch séjénna, Jesse sarta Hulda téh urang [[Quakers]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=5–10}} Sabudeureun umur dua taun "Bertie", nénéhna harita, katarajang panyakit [[croup]] anu parna, sarta sempet dianggap geus maot nepi ka dihirupkeun deui ku emangna, John Minthorn.<ref>Burner, p. 6.</ref> Nalika budak leutik, manéhna mindeng disebut ku bapana salaku "stick in the mud" (budak leutik nu kapepet na leutak) alatan mindeng kajebak dina leutak nalika meuntas jalan anu can diaspal.<ref>Burner, p. 7.</ref> Kulawarga Herbert boga peran penting dina kahirupan ibadah di éta kota, utamana alatan peran indungna, Hulda, di garéja.<ref>Burner, p. 9.</ref> Nalika keur budak, Hoover rutin sakola, tapi manéhna jarang maca buku sorangan salian ti Alkitab.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=13–14, 31}} Bapana Hoover, anu kacatat ku koran lokal boga sipat "pikabungaheun sarta dareuda", tilar dunya dina taun 1880 dina umur 34 taun alatan serangan jantung dadakan.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=10}} Indungna Hoover tilar dunya dina taun 1884 alatan [[tipes]], ninggalkeun Hoover, lanceukna Theodore, sarta adina May, jadi budak yatim piatu.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=17–18}} Hoover hirup 18 bulan saterusna jeung emangna, Allen Hoover, di hiji tegalan deukeut dinya.<ref>{{cite web | last=Crippen | first=Ray | title=Column: President spent days of his boyhood only 90 miles away | website=Worthington Globe | date=August 19, 2017 | url=https://www.dglobe.com/community/column-president-spent-days-of-his-boyhood-only-90-miles-away | access-date=August 8, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/presidents/bio31.htm| title = National Park Service – The Presidents (Herbert Hoover)<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> [[File:Photograph of Herbert Hoover as a Young Child - DPLA - 2081d35b8c65741f0f3db55c82d4790e.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.57|Hoover dina taun 1877]] Dina Nopémber 1885, Hoover dikirim ka [[Newberg, Oregon]], pikeun hirup bareng emangna John Minthorn, saurang dokter sarta pangusaha Quaker anu anakna sorangan geus tilar dunya sataun méméhna.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://hoover.archives.gov/timeline#event-/timeline/item/hoover-moved-newberg-oregon |title = Timeline|date = December 6, 2017}}</ref> Kulawarga Minthorn dianggap boga budaya sarta méré atikan, sarta nanamkeun étika gawé anu kuat.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=12}} Sarua jeung West Branch, Newberg téh kota wates anu dicicingan ku urang Quaker ti Wétan Tengah.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=20–21}} Minthorn mastikeun yén Hoover meunang atikan, tapi Hoover teu resep kana loba pancén anu dibikeun ka manéhna sarta mindeng ngarasa keuheul ka Minthorn. Saurang panitén ngagambarkeun Hoover salaku "budak yatim [anu] sigana dipaliré dina loba hal".{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=22–24}} Hoover sakola di Friends Pacific Academy (ayeuna [[Universitas George Fox]]), tapi kaluar dina umur tilu belas taun pikeun jadi asisten kantor di kantor real estate emangna (Oregon Land Company)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://hoover.archives.gov/timeline#event-/timeline/item/hoover-worked-oregon-land-company-salem-oregon |title = Timeline|date = December 6, 2017}}</ref> di [[Salem, Oregon]]. Sanajan manéhna teu sakola SMA, Hoover diajar pembukuan, ngetik, sarta matematika di sakola peuting.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=4–6}} Hoover mangrupa anggota angkatan munggaran "Pioneer Class" ti [[Universitas Stanford]], asup dina taun 1891 sanajan gagal dina sakabéh [[Ujian asup pendidikan|ujian asup]] iwal matematika.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=16}}{{efn|Hoover satuluyna ngaku salaku mahasiswa munggaran di Stanford, kalayan alesan yén manéhna téh jalma munggaran dina angkatan munggaran anu saré di asrama.<ref name=e1>{{Citation | first = David 'Dave' | last = Revsine | url = https://www.espn.com/college-football/columns/story?columnist=revsine_dave&id=2680873 | title = One-sided numbers dominate Saturday's rivalry games | newspaper = ESPN | date = November 30, 2006 | publisher = Go | access-date = November 30, 2006}}</ref>}} Nalika taun kahiji, manéhna pindah jurusan tina téknik mesin ka géologi sanggeus digawé pikeun [[John Casper Branner]], pupuhu departemén géologi Stanford. Dina taun kadua, Sam Collins ngajukeun pangadegan ''Romero Hall Boarding Club'', imah mondok koperasi mahasiswa munggaran di Romero Hall, pikeun "pergaulan sarta ékonomi", anu diadegkeun babarengan ku Hoover sarta [[Hidden Houses|William Foster Hidden]].<ref name="Lane">{{cite book |last1=Lane |first1=Rose Wilder |title=The Making of Herbert Hoover |date=1920 |publisher=The Century Co. |location=New York |pages=130–139 |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924030938983 |access-date=November 2, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Irwin |first1=Will |author1-link=Will Irwin |title=Herbert Hoover: A Reminiscent Biography |date=1928 |publisher=[[Century Company]] |url=https://archive.org/details/herberthooverare007945mbp |access-date=September 15, 2024 |via=[[archive.org]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lockley |first1=Fred |title=History of the Columbia River Valley from the Dalles to the Sea |date=1928 |publisher=[[S. J. Clarke Publishing Company]] |page=498 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7AxNswEACAAJ |access-date=September 15, 2024 |chapter=W. Foster Hidden (William Foster Hidden (1871–1963)) |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Hoover nyaéta mahasiswa anu biasa-biasa waé, sarta manéhna méakkeun loba waktuna pikeun digawé part-time atawa milu dina kagiatan kampus.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=35–39}} Sanajan awalna éraan di antara papada mahasiswa, Hoover meunang pamilihan salaku bendahara mahasiswa sarta jadi kawentar alatan rasa teu resepna kana [[fraternities and sororities]] (organisasi mahasiswa).{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=6–9}} Manéhna ngajabat salaku manajer mahasiswa pikeun tim [[Bisbol Stanford Cardinal|bisbol]] sarta [[Sepak bola Stanford Cardinal|sepak bola]], sarta mantuan ngatur [[Big Game (sepak bola Amérika)|Big Game]] munggaran ngalawan [[Universitas California, Berkeley]].<ref>Big Games: College Football's Greatest Rivalries – Page 222</ref> Nalika usum panas méméh sarta sanggeus taun pamungkasna, Hoover magang di handapeun géolog ékonomi [[Waldemar Lindgren]] ti [[United States Geological Survey]]; pangalaman-pangalaman ieu ngayakinkeun Hoover pikeun ngudag karir salaku géolog pertambangan.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=39–41}} == Karir téknik sarta bisnis == === Bewick, Moreing & Co. === [[File:Herbert Hoover in 1898.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Hoover, umur 23 taun; dipoto di [[Perth]], Australia Kulon, dina taun 1898]] Nalika Hoover lulus ti Stanford dina taun 1895, nagarana nuju aya di tengah [[Panic of 1893]] sarta manéhna awalna hésé néangan gawé.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=6–9}} Manéhna digawé dina rupa-rupa pagawéan tambang tingkat handap di [[Pagunungan Sierra Nevada]] nepi ka hasil ngayakinkeun insinyur pertambangan kawentar Louis Janin pikeun nyéwa manéhna.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=46–48}} Sanggeus digawé salaku pangawas tambang salila sataun, Hoover ditarima gawé ku Bewick, Moreing & Co. ("Bewick"), hiji pausahaan pusatna di London anu ngajalankeun [[Pertambangan emas|tambang emas]] di [[Australia Kulon]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=48–50}} Manéhna mimitina indit ka [[Coolgardie, Australia Kulon|Coolgardie]], anu harita jadi pusat [[Eastern Goldfields]], kalayan gajih $5,000 ({{Inflation|US|5000|1897|fmt=eq}}). Kaayaan di wewengkon tambang emas kacida teuasna; Hoover ngagambarkeun tegalan [[Coolgardie (wilayah biogeografis)|Coolgardie]] sarta [[Murchison (wilayah biogeografis)|Murchison]] di sisi [[Gurun Victoria Gedé]] salaku tanah "laleur hideung, lebu beureum, sarta panas bodas".<ref name="Hoover biography">{{cite web|url=http://hooverinstitutionla.blogspot.com/2011/06/herbert-hoover-just-another-stanford.html?m=1|title=Herbert Hoover, the graduate: Have Stanford degree, will travel |date=June 15, 2011|publisher=Hoover Institution |access-date=January 24, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | url = http://hoover.archives.gov/info/faq.html#Australia | publisher = Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum | title = FAQ | contribution = What did the President do in Western Australia? | access-date = January 18, 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120118014403/http://www.hoover.archives.gov/info/faq.html#Australia | archive-date = January 18, 2012 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118014403/http://www.hoover.archives.gov/info/faq.html#Australia |date=January 18, 2012 }}</ref> Hoover terus-terusan indit-inditan meuntas [[Outback]] pikeun meunteun sarta ngatur tambang-tambang pausahaan.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=54–55}} Manéhna ngayakinkeun Bewick pikeun meuli tambang emas [[Sons of Gwalia]], anu tétéla jadi salah sahiji tambang paling suksés di wewengkon éta.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=56}} Sabagian alatan tarékah Hoover, pausahaan tungtungna ngawasa kurang leuwih 50 persén produksi emas di [[Australia Kulon]].{{sfn|Nash|1983|p=283}} Hoover mawa loba [[Imigran Italia di Australia|imigran Italia]] pikeun neukteuk biaya sarta ngalawan [[Gerakan buruh Australia|gerakan buruh]] para panambang Australia.<ref name=HG>{{Citation | url = http://www.gwalia.org.au/ | title = Gwalia Historic Site | place = AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/programsales/studyguide/StG_Hoovers_Gold.pdf | publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|year=2005|title=Hoover's Gold|access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref> Nalika digawé di pausahaan tambang, Hoover jadi teu satuju kana aturan saperti [[upah minimum]] sarta [[kompensasi pagawé]], manéhna ngarasa hal éta teu adil keur nu boga pausahaan. Gawéna Hoover narik perhatian dunyana, sarta dina taun 1898 manéhna ditaékkeun pangkat jadi mitra junior (''junior partner'').{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=10–13}} Pepecahan kabuka lumangsung antara Hoover jeung bosna, Ernest Williams, tapi pamingpin Bewick niiskeun kaayaan ku cara nawarkeun Hoover posisi anu narik di [[Dinasti Qing|Tiongkok]].{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=32}} Nalika nepi di Tiongkok, Hoover ngembangkeun tambang emas deukeut [[Tianjin]] atas nami Bewick sarta pausahaan milik Tiongkok, [[Chinese Engineering and Mining Company]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=70–71, 76}} Manéhna jadi kacida katarikna kana [[Sajarah Tiongkok]], tapi manéhna henteu neruskeun diajar [[Basa Mandarin|basana]] nepi ka tingkat mahér. Manéhna sacara kabuka méré pépéling yén pagawé Tiongkok téh teu éfisién sarta sacara rasial leuwih handap.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=72–73}} Manéhna méré bongbolongan pikeun ngoméan nasib pagawé Tiongkok, nyoba ngeureunkeun prakték kontrak budak jangka panjang sarta ngayakeun réformasi pagawé dumasar kana préstasi.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=34}} [[Pemberontakan Boxer]] peupeus teu lila sanggeus kulawarga Hoover nepi di Tiongkok, ngajebak maranéhna sarta loba warga nagara asing séjénna nepi ka [[Aliansi Dalapan Nagara|pasukan militer multinasional]] ngéléhkeun pasukan Boxer dina [[Pertempuran Tientsin]]. Alatan sieun pamaréntah Tiongkok bakal runtuh, diréktur pausahaan Chinese Engineering and Mining Company sapuk pikeun ngadegkeun usaha patungan Sino-Inggris anyar jeung Bewick. Sanggeus maranéhna hasil ngawasa pausahaan tambang Tiongkok anyar éta, Hoover jadi mitra operasional dina tungtung taun 1901.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=77–81, 85–89}} Dina peran ieu, Hoover terus indit-inditan ka sakuliah dunya atas nami Bewick, ngadatangan tambang-tambang anu dijalankeun ku pausahaan di buana anu béda-béda. Dimimitian dina Désémber 1902, pausahaan nyanghareupan masalah hukum sarta kauangan anu numpuk sanggeus salah sahiji mitra ngaku geus sacara curang ngajual saham di hiji tambang. Masalah séjénna muncul dina taun 1904 sanggeus pamaréntah Inggris ngawangun dua [[Komisi Karajaan|komisi karajaan]] anu misah pikeun nalungtik prakték tanaga gawé sarta urusan kauangan Bewick di Australia Kulon. Sanggeus pausahaan éléh dina gugatan hukum, Hoover mimiti néangan jalan pikeun kaluar tina kemitraan éta, sarta manéhna ngajual sahamna dina pertengahan taun 1908.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=88–93, 98, 102–104}} ===Usaha mandiri=== [[File:HHoover (retouched).jpg|thumb|upright|Hoover dina taun 1917 nalika jadi insinyur pertambangan]] Sanggeus ninggalkeun Bewick, Moreing, Hoover digawé salaku konsultan pertambangan sarta bankir mandiri anu pusatna di London. Sanajan manéhna geus kakoncara salaku géolog sarta operator tambang, Hoover museurkeun loba perhatianana kana néangan dana, ngaropéa organisasi korporasi, sarta ngabiayaan usaha-usaha anyar.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=112–115}} Manéhna boga spésialisasi dina ngahirupkeun deui operasi pertambangan anu nuju dinesah (bermasalah), nyokot bagian tina kauntungan salaku imbalan tina kaahlian téknis sarta kauanganana.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=11–13}} Hoover nganggap dirina sarta batur-baturna salaku "dokter téknik keur pausahaan anu gering", sarta manéhna meunang jujuluk salaku "dokter tambang gering".{{sfn|Nash|1983|p=392}} Manéhna investasi di unggal buana sarta boga kantor di San Francisco; London; New York City; Paris; Petrograd; sarta [[Mandalay]], [[Myanmar|Burma Britania]].<ref>Hoover, Herbert C. (1952). ''The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover Years of Adventure 1874–1920''. London: Hollis & Carter. p. 99</ref> Dina taun 1914, Hoover geus jadi jalma anu kacida beungharna, kalayan perkiraan kabeungharan pribadi salaku $4 juta (sarua jeung ${{Inflation|US|4|1914|r=2}} juta dina taun {{Inflation-year|US}}).{{sfn|Nash|1983|p=569}} Hoover milu ngadegkeun [[Consolidated Zinc|Zinc Corporation]] pikeun ékstraksi [[séng]] deukeut kota [[Broken Hill, New South Wales|Broken Hill]] di Australia.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=115}} Zinc Corporation ngamekarkeun prosés [[froth flotation]] pikeun misahkeun séng tina bijih timah-pérak{{sfn|Burner|1996|pp=24–43}} sarta ngajalankeun pabrik flotasi diferensial bijih selektif munggaran di dunya.<ref name="Blainey">{{cite book|last1=Blainey|first1=Geoffrey|title=The Rush That Never Ended|url=https://archive.org/details/rushthatneverend0000blai|url-access=registration|date=1963|publisher=Melbourne University Press|location=Melbourne|pages=[https://archive.org/details/rushthatneverend0000blai/page/265 265–268]}}</ref> Hoover digawé bareng jeung Burma Corporation, hiji firma Inggris anu ngahasilkeun pérak, timah, sarta séng dina jumlah badag di [[Tambang Bawdwin]] [[Namtu]].<ref name="Hoover" />{{rp|90–96,101–102}}{{sfn|Nash|1983|p=381}} Manéhna ogé mantuan ngaronjatkeun [[Ékstraksi tambaga|produksi tambaga]] di [[Kyshtym]], [[Kaisar Rusia|Rusia]], ngaliwatan pamakéan peléburan piritik. Manéhna ogé sapuk pikeun ngatur tambang misah di [[Pagunungan Altai]] anu, nurutkeun Hoover, "ngamekarkeun meureun kumpulan bijih tunggal panggedéna sarta pangbeungharna anu kanyahoan di dunya".<ref name="Hoover">Hoover, Herbert C. (1952). ''The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover Years of Adventure 1874–1920''. London: Hollis & Carter</ref>{{rp|102–108}}<ref name="Kennan">{{cite book|last1=Kennan|first1=George|title=Siberia and the Exile System|date=1891|publisher=James R. Osgood, McIlvaine & Co.|location=London|pages=165, 286}}</ref> Dina waktu luangna, Hoover nulis. Kuliah-kuliahna di universitas [[Universitas Columbia|Columbia]] sarta Stanford diterbitkeun dina taun 1909 kalayan judul ''Principles of Mining'' (Prinsip-Prinsip Pertambangan), anu jadi buku téks standar. Éta buku ngagambarkeun parobahan pamikiranana kana idé-idé [[Progresivisme di Amérika Sarikat|progrisif]], nalika Hoover mimiti ngarojong [[Dalapan jam gawé|dalapan jam gawé sapoé]] sarta [[Serikat buruh|serikat buruh]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=18–20}} Hoover jadi kacida katarikna kana [[sajarah sains]], sarta manéhna utamana katarik ku ''[[De re metallica]]'', hiji karya boga pangaruh ti abad ka-16 ngeunaan pertambangan sarta metalurgi ku [[Georgius Agricola]]. Dina taun 1912, Hoover sarta pamajidanna nerbitkeun tarjamahan basa Inggris munggaran tina ''De re metallica''.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=119–120}} Hoover ogé asup jadi déwan pangawas di Stanford, sarta mingpin kampanye anu suksés pikeun nunjuk John Branner salaku présidén universitas éta.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=124–125}} == Awal karir politik == === Pupuhu komite Komisi Bantuan di Bélgia (1914–1919) === {{Further|Presidénsi Woodrow Wilson}} {{Main|Komisi Bantuan di Bélgia}} [[Perang Dunya I]] peupeus dina Agustus 1914, nyanghareupkeun Jérman sarta sekutuna ngalawan Perancis sarta sekutuna. [[Rencana Schlieffen]] Jérman nyaéta pikeun ngahontal kameunangan gancang ku cara narajang ngaliwatan Bélgia anu nétral pikeun ngepung Tentara Perancis di wétaneun Paris. Éta manuver gagal nepi ka Paris, tapi Jérman hasil ngarebut ampir sakabéh Bélgia sarta ngajajah sabagéan badag éta nagara salila sésa perang. Hoover sarta pangusaha Amérika séjénna anu pusatna di London ngadegkeun komite pikeun ngatur mulangna kira-kira 100,000 urang Amérika anu kajebak di Éropa. Hoover diangkat salaku pupuhu komite sarta, kalayan idin ti Kongrés sarta [[Presidénsi Woodrow Wilson|pamaréntahan Wilson]], tanggung jawab kana distribusi bantuan ka urang Amérika di Éropa.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=132–136}} Hoover satuluyna nyebutkeun, "Kuring henteu nyadar harita, tapi dina 3 Agustus 1914, karir kuring geus réngsé salawasna. Kuring geus aya dina jalan leueur tina kahirupan publik."<ref>{{cite web|title=The Humanitarian Years|url=http://hoover.archives.gov/exhibits/Hooverstory/gallery02/index.html|publisher=[[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]]|access-date=February 16, 2011|mode=cs2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109151702/http://hoover.archives.gov/exhibits/Hooverstory/gallery02/index.html|archive-date=January 9, 2011|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109151702/http://hoover.archives.gov/exhibits/Hooverstory/gallery02/index.html |date=January 9, 2011 }}</ref> Dina awal Oktober 1914, organisasi Hoover geus ngadistribusikeun bantuan ka saeutikna 40,000 urang Amérika.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=137–138}} [[Invasi Jérman ka Bélgia (1914)|Invasi Jérman ka Bélgia]] dina Agustus 1914 nyababkeun krisis pangan di Bélgia, hiji nagara anu kacida gumantungna kana impor pangan. Jérman nolak tanggung jawab pikeun méré dahar warga Bélgia di wilayah anu direbut, sarta Inggris nolak ngaleupaskeun [[Blokade Jérman (1914–1919)|blokade]] maranéhna ka [[Pendudukan Jérman di Bélgia nalika Perang Dunya I|Bélgia anu dijajah Jérman]] iwal pamaréntah AS ngawas impor pangan Bélgia salaku pihak nétral dina perang.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=140–142}} Kalayan gawé bareng pamaréntahan Wilson sarta [[Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation|CNSA]], hiji organisasi bantuan Bélgia, Hoover ngadegkeun [[Komisi Bantuan di Bélgia]] (CRB).{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=143–144}} CRB meunangkeun sarta ngimpor jutaan ton bahan pangan pikeun didistribusikeun ku CNSA, sarta mantuan mastikeun yén tentara Jérman henteu nyokot éta kadaharan. Sumbangan pribadi sarta hibah pamaréntah nyadiakeun sabagéan badag tina anggaran $11-juta-sabulan, sarta CRB jadi sabenerna "républik bantuan" anu mandiri, kalayan bandéra, angkatan laut, pabrik, panggilingan, sarta jalan karéta sorangan.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=79}}<ref>George H. Nash, "The "Great Humanitarian": Herbert Hoover, the Relief of Belgium, and the Reconstruction of Europe after War I." ''The Tocqueville Review'' 38.2 (2017): 55–70.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=December 2023}} Hoover digawé 14 jam sapoé ti London, ngatur distribusi leuwih ti dua juta ton kadaharan ka salapan juta korban perang. Dina bentuk awal [[diplomasi jemput-anteur]] (''shuttle diplomacy''), manéhna meuntas [[Laut Kalér]] opat puluh kali pikeun panggih jeung otoritas Jérman sarta ngayakinkeun maranéhna pikeun ngidinan pangiriman kadaharan.<ref name="Hudson2014">{{cite book|first=John|last=Hudson|title=Christmas 1914: The First World War at Home and Abroad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1YTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT31|date=October 6, 2014|publisher=History Press|isbn=978-0-7509-6038-0|pages=31}}</ref> Manéhna ogé ngayakinkeun [[Menteri Kauangan Inggris]] [[David Lloyd George]] pikeun ngidinan individu ngirim duit ka urang Bélgia, sahingga ngurangan beban gawé CRB.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=158–159}} Atas paménta pamaréntah Perancis, CRB mimiti ngirimkeun pasokan ka masarakat di [[Pendudukan Jérman di timur laut Perancis nalika Perang Dunya I|Perancis Kalér anu dijajah Jérman]] dina taun 1915.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=163}} Dina taun 1926, diplomat Amérika [[Walter Hines Page|Walter Page]] ngagambarkeun Hoover salaku "meureun hiji-hijina jalma anu hirup anu sacara pribadi (hartina, tanpa nyekel jabatan resmi) geus ngayakeun rundayan pamahaman jeung pamaréntah Inggris, Perancis, Jérman, Walanda, sarta Bélgia".<ref name="HendrickWilson1926">{{cite book|first1=Burton Jesse|last1=Hendrick|first2=Woodrow|last2=Wilson|title=The life and letters of Walter H. Page|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJonAQAAMAAJ|year=1926|publisher=Doubleday, Page|page=313}}</ref><ref name="WilsonLink1982">{{cite book|first1=Woodrow|last1=Wilson|first2=Arthur Stanley|last2=Link|title=The Papers of Woodrow Wilson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjsJAQAAIAAJ|year=1982|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=369|isbn=978-0-691-04690-7}} vol 40 p 369.</ref> === Diréktur Administrasi Pangan AS (1917–1918) === {{Main|Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat}} [[File:"Wanted Immediately. 2,000,000 Garments for destitute Men, Women, and children in occupied Northern France and... - NARA - 512616.jpg|upright|thumb|Poster [[Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat|Administrasi Pangan AS]]]] Perang ngalawan Jérman diumumkeun dina April 1917, sarta pangan Amérika kacida pentingna pikeun kameunangan Sekutu. Nalika AS nuju mobilisasi perang, Présidén Wilson nunjuk Hoover pikeun mingpin [[Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat|Administrasi Pangan AS]], anu ditugaskeun pikeun mastikeun kaperluan pangan nagara salila perang.{{sfn|Burner|1996|pp=96–97}} Hoover geus boga harepan pikeun asup ka pamaréntahan saprak taun 1916, sarta manéhna meunangkeun éta posisi sanggeus lobi ka sababaraha anggota Kongrés sarta kapercayaan Wilson, [[Edward M. House]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=178, 187–191}} Meunang jujuluk "czar pangan", Hoover ngarékrut kakuatan rélawan ratusan rébu awéwé sarta ngagunakeun [[Propaganda dina Perang Dunya I|propaganda]] di bioskop, sakola, sarta garéja.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43}} Manéhna kalayan taliti milih jalma-jalma pikeun mantuan kapamingpinan lembaga—[[Alonzo E. Taylor]] (kaahlian téknis), [[Robert A. Taft|Robert Taft]] (hubungan politik), [[Gifford Pinchot]] (pangaruh tatanén), sarta Julius Barnes (kaahlian bisnis).{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=101}} [[Perang Dunya I]] geus nyiptakeun krisis pangan global anu sacara drastis ngaronjatkeun harga pangan sarta ngabalukarkeun karusuhan pangan sarta kalaparan di nagara-nagara anu perang. Tujuan utama Hoover salaku czar pangan nyaéta nyadiakeun pasokan pikeun Pihak Sekutu, tapi manéhna ogé narékahan pikeun nyetabilkeun harga domestik sarta nyegah kakurangan di jero nagara.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=183–185}} Dina kawasa lega anu dibikeun ku [[Food and Fuel Control Act]] (Undang-Undang Kontrol Pangan sarta Bahan Bakar), Administrasi Pangan ngawas produksi pangan di sakuliah Amérika Sarikat, sarta administrasi ngagunakeun kakuatanana pikeun meuli, ngimpor, nyimpen, sarta ngajual kadaharan.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=198–199}} Alatan hayang nyingkahan jatah (ransum) resmi, Hoover netepkeun poé-poé husus sangkan masarakat nyingkahan dahar kadaharan nu tangtu pikeun disimpen keur ransum prajurit: [[Senén tanpa daging]] (''meatless Monday''), Rebo tanpa gandum, sarta "lamun ragu-ragu, dahar kentang". Kawijakan ieu disebut "Hooverizing" ku tukang publikasi pamaréntah, sanajan Hoover terus-terusan méré paréntah sangkan publikasi henteu nyebut ngaran manéhna.{{sfn|Burner|1996|pp=104–109}} Administrasi Pangan ngirimkeun 23 juta métrik ton kadaharan ka Pihak Sekutu, nyegah karuntuhan maranéhna sarta matak Hoover meunang pujian gedé.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=212–213}} Salaku kapala Administrasi Pangan, Hoover meunang loba pangrojong di Amérika Sarikat, utamana di kalangan progrisif anu nempo Hoover salaku administrator ahli sarta simbol éfisiénsi.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=204–206}} Manéhna kapilih jadi anggota [[American Philosophical Society]] salila masa jabatanna.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Herbert+Hoover&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=October 2, 2023 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> === Diréktur Administrasi Bantuan Amérika (1919–1923) === {{Main|Administrasi Bantuan Amérika}} Perang Dunya I réngsé dina bulan Nopémber 1918, tapi Éropa terus nyanghareupan kaayaan pangan anu kritis; Hoover ngira-ngira yén aya 400 juta jalma anu nyanghareupan kamungkinan kalaparan.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=214–215}} Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat dirobah jadi [[Administrasi Bantuan Amérika]] (ARA), sarta Hoover ditugaskeun nyadiakeun kadaharan ka Éropa Tengah sarta Wétan.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43, 57–58}} Salian ti nyadiakeun bantuan, ARA ngawangun deui infrastruktur dina upaya ngahirupkeun deui ékonomi Éropa.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=215–217}} Salila [[Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris, 1919]], Hoover ngabulaé salaku panaséhat deukeut Présidén Wilson, sarta manéhna sapikiran jeung tujuan Wilson pikeun ngadegkeun [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], nangtukeun wates dumasar kana [[hak nangtukeun nasib sorangan]], sarta nyingkahan méré hukuman anu beurat ka Pihak Tengah anu éléh.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=216–222}} Taun saterusna, ékonom Inggris kawentar [[John Maynard Keynes]] nulis dina ''[[The Economic Consequences of the Peace]]'' yén lamun réalime, "kanyaho, kamurahan haté sarta sikep teu milih pihak" Hoover dipaké leuwih lega dina rundayan di Paris, dunya bakal meunang "Perdamaian anu Alus".{{sfn|Keynes|1919|p=247}} Sanggeus waragad pamaréntah AS pikeun ARA béak dina pertengahan 1919, Hoover ngarobah ARA jadi organisasi swasta, ngumpulkeun jutaan dolar ti donatur swasta.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43, 57–58}} Manéhna ogé ngadegkeun European Children's Fund (Dana Barudak Éropa), anu nyadiakeun bantuan ka lima belas juta barudak di opat belas nagara.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=224}} Sanajan ditentang ku Sénator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] sarta urang Républik séjénna, Hoover tetep nyadiakeun bantuan ka bangsa Jérman anu éléh sanggeus perang, sarta bantuan ka [[Kalaparan Rusia 1921–1922|kalaparan]] anu narajang [[Républik Sosialis Federasi Soviét Rusia]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43, 57–58}} Hoover ngutuk kaum [[Bolshevik]] tapi méré pépéling ka Présidén Wilson sangkan ulah [[Intervénsi Sekutu dina Perang Sipil Rusia|pipilueun]] dina [[Perang Sipil Rusia]], sabab manéhna nempo pasukan [[Gerakan Bodas|Rusia Bodas]] henteu leuwih alus ti batan Bolshevik sarta sieun ku kamungkinan keterlibatan AS anu lila.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=43–45}} Kalaparan Rusia 1921–22 nelasan genep juta jalma, tapi intervénsi ARA meureun geus nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa.<ref>{{Citation | url = https://www.hoover.org/research/food-weapon| publisher = Hoover Institution | title = Hoover Digest | contribution = Food as a Weapon.}}</ref> Nalika ditanya naha manéhna téh kalah mantuan Bolshevisme ku cara méré bantuan, Hoover némbalan, "dua puluh juta jalma nuju kalaparan. Naon baé politikna, maranéhna kudu dipéré dahar!"{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43, 57–58}} Ngagambarkeun rasa nuhun loba urang Éropa, dina Juli 1922, panulis Soviét [[Maxim Gorky]] ngomong ka Hoover yén "bantuan anjeun bakal asup kana sajarah salaku pencapaian anu unik sarta raksasa, pantes meunang kamulyaan panggedéna, anu bakal lila diinget ku jutaan urang Rusia anu geus disalametkeun ku anjeun tina pati".<ref>[http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2011/pr-famine-040411.html How the U.S. saved a starving Soviet Russia: PBS film highlights Stanford scholar's research on the 1921–23 famine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130064356/http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2011/pr-famine-040411.html |date=January 30, 2012 }}". Stanford University. April 4, 2011</ref> Dina taun 1919, Hoover ngadegkeun [[Perpustakaan sarta Arsip Institusi Hoover|Koléksi Perang Hoover]] di Universitas Stanford. Manéhna nyumbangkeun sakabéh berkas Komisi Bantuan di Bélgia, Administrasi Pangan AS, sarta Administrasi Bantuan Amérika, sarta jangji méré $50,000 salaku dana abadi ({{Inflation|US|50000|1919|fmt=eq}}). Para sarjana dikirim ka Éropa pikeun ngumpulkeun pamflét, publikasi masarakat, dokumén pamaréntah, koran, poster, proklamasi, sarta bahan-bahan séjénna anu patali jeung perang sarta révolusi anu lumangsung sanggeusna. Éta koléksi dingaranan deui jadi Perpustakaan Perang Hoover dina taun 1922 sarta ayeuna katelah [[Perpustakaan sarta Arsip Institusi Hoover]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hoover Institution Timeline |url=http://www.hoover.org/about/timeline |publisher=Hoover Institution |access-date=September 25, 2017}}</ref> Salila mangsa sanggeus perang, Hoover ogé ngajabat salaku présidén Federated American Engineering Societies.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7e4eBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Republicans and Labor: 1919—1929|first=Robert H.|last=Zieger|date=January 13, 2015|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-8131-6499-1}}</ref><ref name=Himmelberg>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KqqgTB8Q_wC&pg=PA169|title=Antitrust and Regulation During World War I and the Republican Era, 1917-1932|first=Robert F.|last=Himmelberg|date=1994|orig-date=1st pub. January 16, 1962|publisher=Taylor & Francis|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-8153-1406-6}}</ref> == Pemilu présidén 1920 == {{Further|Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920}} Hoover teu pati dipikawanoh ku masarakat Amérika méméh taun 1914, tapi jasana dina pamaréntahan Wilson ngajadikeun manéhna saurang contender dina pemilu présidén 1920. Usaha Hoover salila mangsa perang pikeun pajeg anu leuwih luhur, kritikna kana tindakan Jaksa Agung [[A. Mitchell Palmer]] nalika [[Red Scare Munggaran]], sarta pangrojongna kana aturan saperti [[Upah minimum di Amérika Sarikat|upah minimum]], opat puluh dalapan jam gawé saminggu, sarta [[Undang-undang tanaga gawé budak di Amérika Sarikat|ngaleungitkeun tanaga gawé budak]] ngajadikeun manéhna narik perhatian urang progrisif ti kadua partéy.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=45–50}} Sanajan manéhna digawé dina pamaréntahan [[Sajarah Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] Woodrow Wilson, Hoover henteu kungsi kabeungkeut rapet boh ka Démokrat atawa [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]]. Mimitina manéhna nyoba nyingkahan pikeun mihak ka salah sahiji partéy dina pemilu 1920, kalayan harepan salah sahiji ti dua partéy gedé éta bakal nyalonkeun manéhna jadi présidén dina konvénsi nasional maranéhna.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=232–234}} Dina Maret 1920, manéhna ngarobah stratégi sarta nyatakeun dirina salaku urang Républik; hal ieu didorong sabagéan gedé ku kapercayaan yén Démokrat boga lolongkrang leutik pikeun meunang.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=235–236}} Sanajan kawentar di tingkat nasional, jasa Hoover dina pamaréntahan Wilson geus ngajauhkeun manéhna tina patani sarta [[Old Right (Amérika Sarikat)|Old Guard konservatif di GOP]], sarta pancalonan présidénna kandas sanggeus éléh dina primér California ku [[favorite son]] [[Hiram Johnson]]. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1920]], [[Warren G. Harding]] muncul salaku calon kompromi sanggeus konvénsi macét di antara pangrojong Johnson, [[Leonard Wood]], sarta [[Frank Orren Lowden]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=45–50}} Hoover ngarojong kampanye Harding anu suksés dina pemilu umum, sarta manéhna mimiti neundeun dasar pikeun maju jadi présidén di mangsa hareup ku cara ngawangun basis pangrojong anu kuat di Partéy Républik.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=237–238}} == Menteri Perdagangan (1921–1928) == {{Further|Presidénsi Warren G. Harding|Presidénsi Calvin Coolidge}} [[File:HooverCommerce1926.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Asistén William McCracken (kénca) sarta Walter Drake (katuhu) bareng Menteri Hoover (tengah)]] Sanggeus kapilih jadi présidén dina taun 1920, Harding méré ganjaran ka Hoover pikeun pangrojongna, kalayan nawarkeun jabatan boh salaku [[Menteri Jero Nagri Amérika Sarikat]] atawa [[Menteri Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat]]. Menteri Perdagangan harita dianggap jabatan Kabinét anu leutik, kalayan tanggung jawab anu kawates sarta kurang jéntré, tapi Hoover mutuskeun pikeun nampa éta posisi.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=51–52}} Sikep progrisif Hoover, pangrojongna anu terus-terusan ka [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], sarta pindahna manéhna ka Partéy Républik anyar kénéh, nimbulkeun pertentangan kana jabatanna ti loba [[Konférénsi Républik Sénat|urang Républik di Sénat]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=247–248}} Pikeun nungkulan ieu tantangan, Harding ngapasangkeun nominasi Hoover jeung tokoh favorit konservatif [[Andrew Mellon]] salaku [[Menteri Kauangan Amérika Sarikat]], sarta nominasi Hoover boh Mellon tungtungna disahkeun ku Sénat. Hoover ngajabat salaku Menteri Perdagangan ti taun 1921 nepi ka 1928, digawé di sahandapeun Harding sarta, sanggeus Harding tilar dunya dina taun 1923, Présidén [[Calvin Coolidge]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=51–52}} Nalika sawatara anggota paling nonjol dina pamaréntahan Harding, kaasup Jaksa Agung [[Harry M. Daugherty]] sarta Menteri Jero Nagri [[Albert B. Fall]], kalibet dina [[Presidénsi Warren G. Harding#Skandal pamaréntahan|skandal gedé]], Hoover muncul kalayan bersih tina rupa-rupa pamariksaan ka pamaréntahan Harding.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=288–292}} Hoover ngabayangkeun Departemén Perdagangan salaku puseur kamekaran sarta stabilitas nagara.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=53–63}} Pangalamanana dina mobilisasi ékonomi mangsa perang ngayakinkeun manéhna yén pamaréntah féderal bisa ngamajukeun éfisiénsi ku cara ngaleungitkeun runtah (kabubujal), ningkatkeun produksi, nyorong pamakéan prakték dumasar data, investasi dina infrastruktur, sarta ngajaga sumber daya alam. Manéhna ngamajukeun skéma "Super Power" pikeun interkonéksi utilitas listrik,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeGraaf |first=Leonard |date=1990 |title=Corporate Liberalism and Electric Power System Planning in the 1920s |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3115843 |journal=The Business History Review |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.2307/3115843 |jstor=3115843 |issn=0007-6805}}</ref> sarta nampa telepon [[Vidéo-telepon|Picturephone]] térémonial munggaran di Washington dina April 1927 ti Walter Gifford, Pupuhu AT&T di New York City.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Norcross |first=Amy |date=April 7, 2019 |title=Hoover joins 1st American demo of long-distance TV, April 7, 1927 |url=https://www.edn.com/hoover-joins-1st-american-demo-of-long-distance-tv-april-7-1927/ |access-date=September 12, 2025 |magazine=[[EDN (magazine)|EDN]]}}</ref> Jalma-jalma sajamanana ngagambarkeun pamikiran Hoover salaku "alternatif katilu" antara "kapitalisme anu teu kakontrol" sarta [[sosialisme]], anu beuki kawentar di Éropa.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=254–257}} Hoover narékahan pikeun nyiptakeun kasaimbangan antara buruh, modal, sarta pamaréntah, sarta ku sabab ieu, manéhna rupa-rupa disebut salaku urang [[korporatisme]] atawa [[asosiasionalisme]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=106}} Prioritas luhurna nyaéta diplomasi ékonomi, kaasup ngamajukeun kamekaran ékspor, sarta panyalindungan tina prakték monopoli pamaréntah asing, utamana ngeunaan karét sarta kopi.<ref>Joseph Brandes, ''Herbert Hoover and Economic Diplomacy: Department of Commerce Policy, 1921–1928'' (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1970) pp 83–74. [https://archive.org/details/herberthoovereco00bran online].</ref> Hoover ngarojong loba program pangurangan pajeg ti Mellon tapi leuwih mihak kana sistem [[pajeg progrisif]] sarta nentang usaha menteri kauangan éta pikeun ngaleungitkeun [[pajeg warisan di Amérika Sarikat|pajeg warisan]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=303–304}} Manéhna ogé ménta, sarta meunangkeun, kawasa pikeun koordinasi urusan ékonomi di sakuliah pamaréntahan. Manéhna nyiptakeun loba sub-departemén sarta komite, ngawas sarta ngatur sagala hal ti mimiti statistik manufaktur nepi ka [[transportasi hawa]]. Dina sababaraha hal, manéhna "nyokot" kadali tanggung jawab ti departemén Kabinét séjén nalika manéhna nganggap yén maranéhna henteu ngajalankeun tanggung jawabna kalayan hadé; sawatara jalma mimiti nyebut manéhna salaku "Menteri Perdagangan sarta Wakil Menteri pikeun sakabéh departemén séjénna".{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=53–63}} Pikeun ngaréspon [[Depresi 1920–21]], manéhna ngayakinkeun Harding pikeun ngawangun komisi présidén ngeunaan pangangguran, anu nyorong pamaréntah lokal pikeun ngalakukeun belanja infrastruktur kontrasiklikal.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=260–264}} Hiji konférénsi dilaksanakeun pikeun ngabahas kaayaan pangangguran dina taun 1921, kalayan Hoover boga argumén yén "henteu aya kagagalan ékonomi anu kacida pikasieuneunana hartina jiga hiji nagara anu boga kaleuwihan tina unggal kabutuhan hirup, tapi anggotana anu daék sarta hayang digawé kalah dicabut tina éta kabutuhan."<ref>Herbert Hoover, Unemployment, and the Public Sphere A Conceptual History, 1919-1933 By Vincent Gaddis, 2005, P.19</ref> Sanajan kitu, Hoover boga pamandangan yén solusi pikeun kaayaan pangangguran nagara lain dina intervénsi féderal tapi dina tindakan sacara sukaréla sarta lokal.<ref>Herbert Hoover As Secretary of Commerce Studies in New Era Thought and Practice, Editor: Ellis Wayne Hawley, 1981, P.25</ref> Manéhna ogé nentang pangmayaran langsung ti pamaréntah ka individu anu nganggur, boga kapercayaan yén hal ieu moal ngan ngabalukarkeun belanja defisit anu badé tapi ogé ngajadikeun jalma gumantung ka pamaréntah.<ref>Herbert Hoover, Unemployment, and the Public Sphere A Conceptual History, 1919-1933 By Vincent Gaddis, 2005, P.19</ref> Sakumaha anu ditepikeun ku Hoover salila éta konférénsi: {{Blockquote|It is not consonant with the spirit or institutions of the American people that a demand should be made upon the public treasury for the solution of every difficulty. The Administration has felt that a large degree of solution could be expected through the mobilization of the fine cooperative action of our manufacturers and employers and of our public bodies and local authorities. And that if a solution could be found in these directions we should accomplish even more than the care of our unemployed-that we will again demonstrate that independence and ability of action amongst our own people which saves our Government from that ultimate paternalism that would undermine our whole political system. In the other countries that have been primarily affected by the War, solution has been had by direct doles to individuals by their Governments. We have so far escaped this most vicious of solutions, and I am hopeful, and I believe you will be, that it is within the intelligence and initiative of our people that we may find remedies against hardship and bitterness that do not, except in exceptional cases, come within the range of charity.<ref>THE PRESIDENCY VS. HOOVER By Samuel Crowther, GARDEN CITY NEW YORK, DOUBLEDAY, DORAN AND COMPANY, INC. 1928, P.143-144</ref>}} ===Regulation of radio and transportation=== {{Main|Regulation of radio broadcast in the United States}} [[File:HerbertClarkHoover.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Hoover listening to a [[radio receiver]], 1925]] Between 1923 and 1929, the number of families with radios grew from 300,000 to 10 million,{{sfn|Ferrell|1998|pp=32–33}} and Hoover's tenure as Secretary of Commerce heavily influenced radio use in the United States. Between 1922 and 1925, Hoover organized conferences among radio manufacturers, news agencies, and government organizations which played a key role in the organization, development, and regulation of [[radio broadcasting]]. Hoover also helped pass the [[Radio Act of 1927]], which allowed the government to intervene and abolish radio stations that were deemed "non-useful" to the public. Hoover's attempts at regulating radio were not supported by all congressmen, and he received much opposition from the Senate and from radio station owners.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Lepore |first=Jill |title=These Truths |url=https://archive.org/details/thesetruthshisto0000lepo |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. |year=2018 |isbn=9780393635249 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thesetruthshisto0000lepo/page/427 427]–428 |chapter=A Constitution of the Air |lccn=2018019180}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Barnouw|first=Erik|title=A Tower In Babel; A history of Broadcasting in the United States to 1933|year=1966|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of 91st Congress, First Session. Volume 115, Part 4|journal=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of 91st Congress}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|others=United States Congress|author-link=Edith Green|last=Green|first=Edith|title=Program Practices of Television Networks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85wTj3YZGL4C&q=Congressional+Record:+%22herbert+hoover%22+radio&pg=PA3558|journal=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 87th Congress, Second Session|volume=108|issue=part 3 (Pages 2851 to 4340)|date=March 7, 1962|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=85wTj3YZGL4C&pg=PA3558&dq=Congressional+Record:+%22herbert+hoover%22+radio&hl=en 3558]|quote=Interestingly, ... an American ... recognized the problem that arose with general dissemination, as opposed to [[Point-to-point (telecommunications)|point-to-point transmission]], of messages by wireless. ... The American was Herbert Hoover.}}</ref> Hoover was also influential in the early development of air travel, and he sought to create a thriving private industry boosted by government subsidies. He encouraged the development of emergency landing fields, required all runways to be equipped with lights and radio beams, and encouraged farmers to make use of planes for [[Aerial application|crop dusting]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=53–54}} Hoover also established the federal government's power to inspect planes and license pilots, setting a precedent for the later [[Federal Aviation Administration]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=271}} As Commerce Secretary, he hosted national conferences on street traffic collectively known as the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety. His chief objective was to address the growing casualty toll of [[Traffic collision|traffic accidents]], but the scope of the conferences grew and soon embraced motor vehicle standards, rules of the road, and urban traffic control. He left the invited interest groups to negotiate agreements among themselves, which were then presented for adoption by states and localities. Because automotive trade associations were the best organized, many of the positions taken by the conferences reflected their interests. The conferences issued a model Uniform Vehicle Code for adoption by the states and a Model Municipal Traffic Ordinance for adoption by cities. Both were widely influential, promoting greater uniformity among jurisdictions and tending to promote the automobile's priority in city streets.<ref>Peter D. Norton, ''Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City'' (MIT Press, 2008), pp. 178–197 {{ISBN|0-262-14100-0}}</ref> === Ngawangun citra diri Hoover === [[Phillips Payson O'Brien]] boga pamandangan yén Hoover boga masalah jeung Inggris. Manéhna geus mangtaun-taun cicing di Britania Raya sarta Australia salaku pagawé pausahaan Inggris, sahingga aya résiko manéhna bakal dicap salaku "pakakas" Inggris. Aya tilu solusi, anu sakabéhna dicoba ku manéhna kalayan gawé bareng rapet jeung média anu kacida mujina ka manéhna.<ref>George H. Nash, "The Great Enigma and the Great Engineer", in John E. Haynes, ed., ''Calvin Coolidge and the Coolidge Era,'' (1998) pp 149–80.</ref> Kahiji nyaéta citra salaku élmuwan anu tenang, henteu kabawa ku parasaan (émosi) tapi salawasna komitmen pikeun néangan sarta ngajalankeun solusi pangalusna. Solusi kadua nyaéta ku cara meunangkeun reputasi salaku saurang kamanusaan (humanitarian), anu kacida padulina kana kasusah dunya, saperti kalaparan di Bélgia, sarta masalah-masalah husus di Amérika anu geus diréngsékeun ku manéhna salaku komisaris pangan salila perang dunya. Solusi katilu nyaéta ngagunakeun taktik heubeul "twisting the British tail" (nyigeung kangeunahan Inggris), anu dipaké ku manéhna salaku pakarang nalika [[Rencana Stevenson|krisis karét dunya 1925–1926]]. [[Industri otomotif di Amérika Sarikat|Industri mobil Amérika]] meakkeun 70% tina hasil dunya, tapi investor Inggris ngawasa sabagéan badag pasokanana. Rencana maranéhna nyaéta pikeun neukteuk sacara drastis hasil ti [[Malaya Britania]], anu boga pangaruh naékkeun harga karét nepi ka tikel tilu. Hoover kalayan sumanget méré runtuyan biantara sarta wawancara anu ngutuk prakték [[Monopoli|monopoli]] éta sarta ménta sangkan éta hal diureunkeun. [[Departemén Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Luar Nagri Amérika]] teu hayang aya krisis saperti kitu sarta ngalakukeun kompromi dina taun 1926. Harita, Hoover geus hasil ngaréngsékeun masalah citrana, sarta salila kampanye taun 1928 manéhna hasil ngbungkem serangan anu nyebutkeun yén manéhna deukeut teuing jeung kapentingan Inggris.<ref>Phillips Payson O'Brien, "Herbert Hoover, Anglo–American Relations and Republican Party Politics in the 1920s." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 22.2 (2011): 200–218.</ref> === Banjir Mississippi === [[Banjir Gedé Mississippi 1927]] ngabobol sisi walungan sarta [[tanggul]] [[walungan Mississippi bagian handap]] dina awal taun 1927, anu ngabalukarkeun banjir di jutaan héktar lahan sarta nyababkeun 1,5 juta jalma kudu ngungsi ti imahna. Sanajan penanganan bencana lain mangrupa tugas [[Departemén Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Perdagangan]], para gubernur ti genep nagara bagian di sapanjang walungan Mississippi sacara husus ménta ka Présidén Coolidge pikeun nunjuk Hoover jadi koordinator penanganan banjir.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=68–71}} Boga kapercayaan yén penanganan bencana lain urusan pamaréntah féderal, Coolidge mimitina nolak pikeun kalibet, tapi tungtungna manéhna nurut kana tekenan politik sarta nunjuk Hoover pikeun mingpin komite husus pikeun mantuan éta wewengkon.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=328–329}} Hoover ngadegkeun leuwih ti saratus [[Kota tenda|tenda pangungsian]] sarta armada leuwih ti genep ratus kapal, sarta hasil ngumpulkeun dana $17 juta (sarua jeung ${{Inflation|US|17|1927|r=2}} juta dina taun {{Inflation-year|US}}). Sabagéan badag alatan kapamingpinanana salila krisis banjir, dina taun 1928, Hoover mimiti leuwih kawentar batan Présidén Coolidge sorangan.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=68–71}} Sanajan Hoover meunang pujian anu lega pikeun peranna dina éta krisis, manéhna méré paréntah pikeun nyumputkeun laporan ngeunaan perlakuan anu salah ka urang Amérika turunan Afrika di [[kémp pangungsian]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=333–335}} Manéhna ngalakukeun hal éta kalayan gawé bareng jeung tokoh kulit hideung Amérika [[Robert Russa Moton]], anu dijangjikeun bakal meunang pangaruh anu gedé sanggeus Hoover jadi présidén.<ref name="pbs">[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/flood-moton-cac/ 'Robert Moton and the Colored Advisory Commission'], PBS.org</ref> === Inisiatif séjénna === [[File:Hoover and Harding at baseball game.jpg|thumb|Hoover (kénca) bareng [[Florence Harding]] sarta Présidén [[Warren Harding]] dina hiji pertandingan baseball taun 1921]] Kalayan tujuan pikeun nyorong investasi bisnis anu bijaksana, Hoover ngajadikeun Departemén Perdagangan salaku puseur informasi (''clearinghouse''). Manéhna ngarékrut loba akademisi ti rupa-rupa widang sarta ditugaskeun pikeun nerbitkeun laporan ngeunaan rupa-rupa aspék ékonomi, kaasup [[Industri beusi sarta baja di Amérika Sarikat|produksi baja]] sarta film. Pikeun ngaleungitkeun kabubujal (runtah), manéhna nyorong [[standardisasi]] produk saperti [[ban]] mobil sarta dot botol orok.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=257–200}} Usaha séjénna pikeun ngurangan kabubujal kaasup ngurangan karugian tanaga gawé tina sengketa dagang sarta parobahan musiman, ngurangan karugian industri tina kacilakaan sarta tatu, sarta ngurangan jumlah [[minyak bumi]] anu tumpah salila ékstraksi sarta pangiriman. Manéhna ngamajukeun perdagangan internasional ku cara muka kantor-kantor di luar nagri pikeun méré naséhat ka para pangusaha. Hoover utamana kacida sumangetna pikeun ngamajukeun film-film [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] di luar nagri.{{sfn|Hart|1998}} Kampanye "Own Your Own Home" (Boga Imah Sorangan) nyaéta hiji kolaborasi pikeun ngamajukeun kapimilik imah kulawarga tunggal, jeung grup-grup saperti gerakan Better Houses in America, Architects' Small House Service Bureau, sarta Home Modernizing Bureau. Manéhna digawé bareng jeung para bankir sarta industri [[Asosiasi simpen pinjam|simpen pinjam]] pikeun ngamajukeun kiridit imah (KPR) jangka panjang anyar, anu sacara drastis ngarangsang pangwangunan imah.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hutchison |first=Janet |title=Building for Babbitt: the State and the Suburban Home Ideal |journal=Journal of Policy History |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=184–210 |year=1997 |doi=10.1017/S0898030600005923 |issn=0898-0306 |s2cid=155048376}}</ref> Pencapaian séjénna kaasup hasil ngayakinkeun [[U.S. Steel]] pikeun ngajalankeun dalapan jam gawé sapoé, sarta ngabantu kana ayana [[Kasapukan Walungan Colorado]], hiji kasapukan [[hak cai]] di antara nagara-nagara bagian di [[Amérika Sarikat Bagian Kidul-kulon]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=269–271}} {{Main|Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1928}} Hoover cicing-cicing ngumpulkeun pangrojong pikeun maju jadi présidén sapanjang taun 1920-an, tapi manéhna kalayan taliti nyingkahan parasaan Coolidge anu kurang merenah, anu harita aya kamungkinan maju deui pikeun jabatan saterusna dina [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1928]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=322–323}} Bareng jeung sakumna nagara, manéhna kaget nalika Coolidge dina Agustus 1927 nyatakeun "[[I do not choose to run]]" (kuring milih moal maju deui) pikeun jabatan saterusna. Kalayan pangunduran diri Coolidge anu geus deukeut, Hoover langsung muncul salaku calon unggulan pikeun nominasi Républik taun 1928, sarta manéhna kalayan gancang nyusun tim kampanye anu kuat anu dipingpin ku [[Hubert Work]], [[Will H. Hays]], sarta [[Reed Smoot]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=335–338}} Coolidge henteu kersa nunjuk Hoover salaku panerusna, malah kungsi nyarita "salila genep taun éta jalma méré kuring naséhat anu teu dipénta—anu sakabéhna goréng".{{sfn|Ferrell|1957|p=195}} Sanajan parasaanana biasa-biasa waé ka Hoover, Coolidge teu boga niat pikeun meulah partéy ku cara nentang sacara kabuka kana pancalonan Menteri Perdagangan anu keur populér éta.{{sfnm|McCoy|1967|1pp=390–391|Wilson|1975|2pp=122–123}} Salah sahiji tokoh publik anu ngarojong Hoover pikeun pancalonan présidén ti Républik nyaéta [[William Randolph Hearst]], anu boga pamandangan yén "Kaayaan ayeuna merlukeun konservatisme, sarta konservatisme Menteri Hoover téh mangrupa tipe anu konstruktif, lain tipe anu réaksionér."<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCNPAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA18&dq=Hearst+The+present+situation+demands+conservatism,+and+Secretary+Hoover%E2%80%99s+conservatism+is+of+the+constructive+and+not+the+reactionary+type&article_id=7187,2028328&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjrlcecnqOMAxVYUkEAHYW7G-gQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=Hearst%20The%20present%20situation%20demands%20conservatism%2C%20and%20Secretary%20Hoover%E2%80%99s%20conservatism%20is%20of%20the%20constructive%20and%20not%20the%20reactionary%20type&f=falseSt. Petersburg Times 10 Jun 1928]</ref> Loba pamingpin Républik anu waspada sarta nyoba néangan calon alternatif, saperti Menteri Kauangan Andrew Mellon atawa urut menteri luar nagri [[Charles Evans Hughes]].<ref name="rusnak">{{cite journal|last1=Rusnak|first1=Robert J.|title=Andrew W. Mellon: Reluctant Kingmaker|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|date=Spring 1983|volume=13|issue=2|pages=269–278|jstor=27547924}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Hughes sarta Mellon nolak pikeun maju, sarta calon poténsial séjénna saperti [[Frank Orren Lowden]] sarta Wakil Présidén [[Charles G. Dawes]] gagal meunangkeun pangrojong anu lega.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=338–339}} Hoover meunangkeun nominasi présidén dina sora (ballot) munggaran dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1928]]. Delegasi konvénsi kungsi mertimbangkeun pikeun nyalonkeun deui Wakil Présidén Charles Dawes salaku [[pendamping kampanye]] (''running mate'') Hoover, tapi Coolidge, anu ngéwa ka Dawes, nyatakeun yén hal éta bakal jadi "panghina pribadi" pikeun dirina. Konvénsi kalah milih Sénator [[Charles Curtis]] ti Kansas.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Mencken | first1 = Henry Louis | last2= Nathan | first2= George Jean | title = The American Mercury | year = 1929 | page = 404 }}</ref> Hoover nampa éta nominasi di [[Stadion Stanford]], nyarita ka balaréa yén manéhna bakal neruskeun kawijakan-kawijakan pamaréntahan Harding sarta Coolidge.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=71–72}} Urang Démokrat nyalonkeun gubernur New York [[Al Smith]], anu jadi calon munggaran ti [[Geréja Katolik di Amérika Sarikat|Katolik]] ti partéy gedé pikeun posisi présidén.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=344–345, 350}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1928.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Hasil sora éléktoral 1928]] Hoover masrahkeun surat pangunduran diri salaku Menteri Perdagangan dina 7 Juli, tapi Coolidge nahan manéhna nepi ka 21 Agustus pikeun ngaréngsékeun urusan anu tunda.<ref>{{cite news |title=Coolidge Defers Action on Hoover; President's Wishes as to Date of Resignation's Acceptance Are Not Revealed. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1928/07/08/archives/coolidge-defers-action-on-hoover-presidents-wishes-as-to-date-of.html |access-date=July 24, 2024 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=July 8, 1928 |page=2 col. 2}}</ref>{{sfn|Clements|2010|pp=413–414}} Hoover museurkeun kampanyeana kana catetan Républik ngeunaan katengtreman sarta kamakmuran, sarta reputasi dirina salaku insinyur sarta pajabat publik anu suksés. Alatan teu pati resep méré biantara politik, Hoover leuwih loba cicing sarta masrahkeun urusan kampanye ka Curtis sarta urang Républik séjénna.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=343–346}} Smith leuwih karismatik sarta gampang campur gaul batan Hoover, tapi kampanyena ruksak ku [[anti-Katolik di Amérika Sarikat|sikep anti-Katolik]] sarta pertentanganana anu jelas kana Prohibisi (larangan inuman keras). Hoover sorangan henteu kungsi jadi pangrojong kuat Prohibisi, tapi manéhna nampa platform Partéy Républik anu ngarojong hal éta sarta ngaluarkeun pernyataan anu ambivalén kalayan nyebut Prohibisi salaku "hiji éksperimén sosial sarta ékonomi anu agung, mulya dina motifna sarta lega tujuanna".{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=349–351}} Di wilayah Kidul, Hoover sarta partéy nasional ngagunakeun stratégi "[[Gerakan lily-white|lily-white]]", nyaéta nyingkirkeun urang Républik kulit hideung tina posisi kapamingpinan dina usaha pikeun metot simpati urang Kidul kulit bodas.{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=462–463}} Salila kampanye pemilu, Hoover ngutuk usulan Démokrat pikeun kontrol publik kana tanaga cai, modifikasi prohibisi, sarta bantuan tatanén salaku “sosialisme nagara”<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dbwwAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA1&dq=herbert+hoover+democratic+program+socialism&article_id=5712,2708952&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiT2pr50saRAxUmUEEAHbvRIhcQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=herbert%20hoover%20democratic%20program%20socialism&f=false St. Petersburg Times 25 Oct 1928]</ref> sarta ogé ngabandingkeun naon anu disebut ku manéhna salaku “rugged individualism” (individualisme tangguh) Amérika jeung naon anu dianggap négatif ku manéhna salaku sosialisme nagara sarta paternalisme Éropa: {{Blockquote|Nalika perang réngsé, hal anu pangpentingna tina sakabéh pasualan, boh di nagara urang sorangan boh di sakuliah dunya, nyaéta naha pamaréntah kudu neruskeun kapamilikan sarta operasional mangsa perangna kana rupa-rupa alat produksi sarta distribusi. Urang nangtang ku hiji pilihan mangsa damai antara sistem individualisme tangguh Amérika sarta filosofi Éropa ngeunaan doktrin-doktrin anu papalingan pisan—doktrin paternalisme sarta sosialisme nagara. Panampa kana ieu idé-idé bakal hartina karuksakan tina pamaréntahan mandiri ngaliwatan sentralisasi pamaréntah. Hal éta bakal hartina ngaruksak inisiatif sarta usaha individu anu geus ngajadikeun raayat urang tumuwuh kana kaagungan anu taya tandingna.'<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XNJbAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=herbert+hoover+speech+new+york+paternalism&article_id=1524,4809789&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-hsqk0caRAxU9V0EAHUy0BaMQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q=herbert%20hoover%20speech%20new%20york%20paternalism&f=false St. Joseph Gazette 23 Oct 1928]</ref>}} Hoover terus unggul dina hasil poling sapanjang kampanye taun 1928, sarta manéhna sacara mutlak ngéléhkeun Smith dina poé pamilihan, kalayan meunangkeun 58 persén sora raayat sarta 444 ti 531 sora éléktoral.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=355, 360}} Para sajarawan sapuk yén reputasi nasional Hoover sarta ékonomi anu nuju meujeuhna alus, ditambah deui ku perpecahan jero di Partéy Démokrat ngeunaan agama sarta Prohibisi, ngajamin kameunangan mutlakna.<ref>Elesha Coffman, 'The "Religious Issue" in Presidential Politics', ''American Catholic Studies'', (Winter 2008) 119#4 pp 1–20</ref> Daya tarik Hoover ka pamilih kulit bodas di Kidul hasil ngabobol "[[Solid South]]", sarta manéhna meunang di lima nagara bagian Kidul.{{sfn|Garcia 1980}} Kameunangan Hoover ditarima kalayan positip ku surat kabar; salah sahijina nulis yén Hoover bakal "digawé kacida tohaga dina tugas-tugas anu aya di hareupeun bangsa sahingga dina ahir dalapan taun jabatanna salaku présidén, urang bakal nempo deui ka tukang kana hiji éra pencapaian anu luar biasa".{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=369–370}} Pihak anu nentang Hoover panaséhat naha manéhna henteu ngalakukeun nanaon pikeun [[Alokasi korsi kongrés Amérika Sarikat|ngalokasikeun deui korsi kongrés]] sanggeus [[Sénsus Amérika Sarikat 1920]] anu némbongkeun ayana kanaékan populasi kota sarta imigran. Sénsus 1920 nyaéta sénsus sapuluh taunan anu munggaran sarta hiji-hijina anu hasilna henteu dipaké pikeun nangtukeun deui alokasi korsi Kongrés, anu tungtungna mangaruhan Éléktoral College taun 1928 sarta méré dampak kana pemilu présidén.<ref name=slayton>{{cite book |last=Slayton |first=Robert A. |date=June 2, 2002 |title=Empire Statesman: The Rise and Redemption of Al Smith |url=https://archive.org/details/empirestatesmanr00robe/page/13 |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |page=[https://archive.org/details/empirestatesmanr00robe/page/13 13] |isbn=978-0-684-86302-3 }}</ref><ref name=finan>{{cite book |last=Finan |first=Christomer M. |date=June 2, 2002 |title=Alfred E. Smith: The Happy Warrior |url=https://archive.org/details/alfredesmithhapp00fina |publisher=Hill and Wang |isbn=0-8090-3033-0 }}</ref> == Kapersidénan (1929–1933) == {{Main|Kapersidénan Herbert Hoover}} [[File:Taft Hebert Hoover Oath.jpg|thumb|Hoover keur disumpah ku Hakim Agung [[William Howard Taft]] dina 4 Maret 1929]] Hoover nempo kapersidénan salaku pakakas pikeun ngabenerkeun kaayaan sakabéh urang Amérika ku cara nyorong gawé bareng antara publik jeung swasta—anu ku manéhna disebut "voluntarisme" (sukarelawan). Manéhna boga kacenderungan nolak paksaan atawa pipilueun pamaréntah, sabab manéhna nganggap hal éta ngalanggar idé-idé Amérika ngeunaan individualisme sarta kamerdikaan diri.<ref name="9iopl">{{Citation | title = Biography | date = October 4, 2016 | publisher = Miller center | url = http://millercenter.org/president/hoover/essays/biography/1}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Hoover ngadukung ayana béaya pangsiun anu dibiayaan ku pamaréntah pikeun maranéhna anu umurna di luhur 65 taun, sanajan usulan ieu henteu kungsi dilaksanakeun salila mangsa jabatanna.<ref>100 Turning Points in American History By Alan Axelrod, 2019, P.195</ref> Undang-undang utama munggaran anu ditandatanganan ku manéhna nyaéta [[Undang-Undang Pamasaran Tatanén 1929]], anu ngadegkeun [[Déwan Ladang Féderal]] pikeun nyetabilkeun harga hasil tatanén.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=65–66}} Hoover loba ngagunakeun komisi-komisi pikeun nalungtik pasualan sarta ngusulkeun solusi, sarta loba tina komisi éta téh disponsoran ku donor swasta lain ku pamaréntah. Salah sahiji komisi anu dimimitian ku Hoover, nyaéta Komite Panalungtikan ngeunaan Trén Sosial, ditugaskeun pikeun nalungtik sakabéh kahirupan masarakat Amérika.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=84–85}} Manéhna nunjuk Kabinét anu lolobana diusi ku jalma beunghar, konservatif anu pro-bisnis,{{sfn|Fausold 1985|p=34}} kaasup Menteri Kauangan [[Andrew Mellon]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=81–82}} [[Lou Henry Hoover]] nyaéta saurang Ibu Nagara anu aktip. Manéhna jadi conto pikeun [[Awéwé Anyar|awéwé anyar]] dina éra sanggeus Perang Dunya I: calakan, jagat, sarta sadar kana rupa-rupa poténsi awéwé.<ref>Tempo sacara umum Nancy Beck Young, ''Lou Henry Hoover: Activist First Lady'' (University Press of Kansas, 2005)</ref> === Kawijakan jero nagri === ==== Déprési Gedé ==== {{See also|Déprési Gedé di Amérika Sarikat}} Nalika mimiti ngajabat, Hoover nyarita yén "upami dipaparin kasempetan pikeun maju kalayan kawijakan dalapan taun ka tukang, urang bakal geura-giru kalayan pitulung Gusti, nempo poé dimana kamiskinan bakal dileungitkeun tina ieu bangsa".<ref>{{cite book|first1=James L. |last1=Roark |first2=Michael P.|last2=Johnson|first3=Patricia Cline|last3=Cohen|first4=Sarah|last4=Stage|first5=Susan M.|last5=Hartmann|title=The American Promise, Volume C: A History of the United States: Since 1890|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ozj_o6POIssC&pg=PA772|year=2012|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|page=772|isbn=978-0-312-56944-0}}</ref> Sanggeus nempo hasil kamakmuran anu dibawa ku kamajuan téknologi, loba jalma anu milu ngarasa optimis saperti Hoover, sarta pasar saham anu geus ramé beuki naék luhur nalika Hoover mimiti ngajabat.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=80–81}} Ieu rasa optimis téh sabenerna nyumputkeun sababaraha ancaman pikeun pertumbuhan ékonomi AS anu tuluy-tuluyan, kaasup [[Krisis tatanén 1920-an|krisis tatanén]] anu terus lumangsung, jenuhna [[barang konsumsi]] saperti [[Mobil|mobil]], sarta tumuwuhna [[Kateusaruaan panghasilan di Amérika Sarikat|kateusaruaan panghasilan]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=65–68}} Anu pangbahayana pikeun ékonomi nyaéta spékulasi kalebihan anu geus naékkeun [[Harga saham|harga saham]] jauh saluhureun ajén sabenerna.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=35–36}} Sababaraha régulator sarta bankir geus ngingetan Coolidge sarta Hoover yén kagagalan pikeun nahan spékulasi bakal ngabalukarkeun "salah sahiji musibah kauangan panggedéna anu kungsi katingali ku ieu nagara," tapi duanana présidén éta asa-asa pikeun kalibet dina urusan [[Sistem Cadangan Féderal]], anu ngatur bank-bank.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=68–71}} Dina ahir Oktober 1929, [[Pasar Saham Ancur 1929|pasar saham ancur]], sarta ékonomi dunya mimiti turun drastis kana mangsa [[Déprési Gedé]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=72–74}} Anu jadi [[sabab Déprési Gedé]] masih jadi bahan padu omong,{{sfn|Kaufman|2012|p=502}} tapi Hoover nempo yén kurangna kapercayaan kana sistem kauangan mangrupa masalah ékonomi anu paling dasar anu disanghareupan ku bangsa.{{sfn|Houck|2000|pp=155–156}} Manéhna nyoba nyingkahan pipilueun féderal, percaya yén cara pangalusna pikeun nguatkeun ékonomi nyaéta ngaliwatan pangiatan bisnis-bisnis saperti bank sarta jalan karéta api. Manéhna ogé sieun yén ngantepkeun individu narima "[[belanja karaharjaan|santunan]]" (''dole'') bakal ngaleutikan nagara sacara permanén,{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=350–351}} sarta percaya yén "bantuan pikeun individu ti pamaréntah féderal bakal mawa runtuyan korupsi sarta kabubujal (pemborosan) anu can pernah kasaksian ku bangsa urang."<ref>History of the U.S., Vol. 2 By Thomas V. DiBacco, 1991, P.353</ref> Sabalikna, Hoover percaya pisan yén pamaréntah lokal sarta sumbangan swasta anu kudu nanganan pangabutuh individu.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009b}} ##### Kawijakan awal ##### [[File:President Herbert Hoover Sitting At His Desk (31-1930-A17).jpg|thumb|Hoover keur calik dina méjana dina 20 Désémber 1930. Ieu mangrupa poto munggaran Hoover di Gedong Bodas, sarta poto munggaran anu némbongkeun telepon dina méja saurang présidén.]] Sanajan manéhna nyoba méré gambaran positip kana [[Wall Street Ancur 1929|Salasa Hideung]], Hoover gancang gerak pikeun nanganan runtagna pasar saham.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=74–75}} Dina poé-poé sanggeus Salasa Hideung, Hoover ngumpulkeun para pamingpin bisnis sarta buruh, ménta maranéhna pikeun nyingkahan pamotongan gajih sarta panghentian gawé nalika nagara nyanghareupan naon anu diyakini ku manéhna salaku résési pondok, sarupa jeung Déprési 1920–21.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=104105}} Hoover ogé ngayakinkeun pausahaan jalan karéta sarta utilitas publik pikeun ningkatkeun belanja pangwangunan sarta pangropéa, sarta [[Federal Reserve]] ngumumkeun yén maranéhna bakal nurunkeun suku bunga.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=53–55}} Dina awal taun 1930, Hoover meunangkeun tambahan dana $100 juta ti Kongrés pikeun neruskeun kawijakan pinjaman sarta pameulian [[Déwan Ladang Féderal]].<ref>Harris Gaylord Warren, ''Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 175.</ref> Ieu léngkah-léngkah téh sacara koléktif dirancang pikeun nyegah siklus [[déflasi]] sarta méré [[Stimulus (ékonomi)|stimulus fiskal]].{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=53–55}} Dina waktu anu sarua, Hoover nentang usulan kongrés pikeun méré bantuan féderal ka nu pangangguran, sabab manéhna percaya yén program saperti kitu téh mangrupa tanggung jawab pamaréntah nagara bagian, lokal, sarta organisasi filantropi.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=147–149}} Hoover mimiti ngajabat kalayan harepan bisa naékkeun tarif tatanén pikeun mantuan para patani anu keur kasusah alatan krisis ladang taun 1920-an, tapi usahana ieu jadi kabeungkeut kana hiji rarancang undang-undang anu naékkeun tarif sacara lega.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=93–97}} Hoover nolak pikeun kalibet jero dina debat kongrés ngeunaan tarif éta, sarta Kongrés ngahasilkeun hiji RUU tarif anu naékkeun tingkat pajeg pikeun loba barang.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=399–402, 414}} Sanajan éta RUU téh teu dipikaresep ku balaréa, Hoover ngarasa manéhna teu bisa nolak hasil législatif utama ti [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-71]] anu dikawasa ku Républik. Ngaliwatan protés ti loba ahli ékonomi, Hoover nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Tarif Smoot–Hawley]] jadi hukum dina Juni 1930.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=414–415}} Kanada, Perancis, sarta nagara-nagara séjénna males ku cara naékkeun tarif ogé, anu ngabalukarkeun kontraksi dina [[perdagangan internasional]] sarta ngajadikeun ékonomi beuki parah.<ref>Kumiko Koyama, "The Passage of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act: Why Did the President Sign the Bill?" ''Journal of Policy History'' (2009) 21#2 pp. 163–86</ref> Urang Républik Progrésif saperti Sénator [[William E. Borah]] ti Idaho kacida ambekna nalika Hoover nandatanganan éta undang-undang tarif, sarta hubungan Hoover jeung faksi éta di partéy teu kungsi pulih deui.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=91–92}} ===== Kawijakan satuluyna ===== [[File:Herbert Hoover and Ted Joslin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Hoover di Oval Office bareng [[Theodore Joslin|Ted Joslin]], 1932]] Dina ahir taun 1930, [[Pangangguran di Amérika Sarikat|tingkat pangangguran nasional]] geus nepi ka 11,9 persén, tapi can pati jelas pikeun sabagéan badag urang Amérika yén kamunduran ékonomi ieu bakal leuwih parah batan Déprési 1920–21.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=58–59}} Runtuyan [[bank bangkrut|kagagalan bank]] dina ahir taun 1930 nandakeun [[Runtagna ékonomi|runtagna ékonomi]] anu leuwih gedé dina taun 1931.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=65–66}} Nalika nagara-nagara séjén ninggalkeun [[standar emas]], Hoover nolak pikeun ngaleupaskeunana;{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=77–78}} manéhna ngécé kana sagala [[sistem monétér]] séjénna salaku "[[Koléktivisme sarta individualisme|koléktivisme]]".{{sfn|Eichengreen|Temin|2000|pp=196–197}} Hoover nempo yén lemahna [[Ékonomi Éropa]] mangrupa sabab utama tina masalah ékonomi di Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=143–144}} Salaku réspon kana runtugna [[Ékonomi Jérman]], Hoover ngumpulkeun rojongan kongrés pikeun moratorium sataun kana hutang perang Éropa.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=441–444, 449}} [[Moratorium Hoover]] ditarima kalayan hadé di Éropa sarta Amérika Sarikat, tapi Jérman tetep aya dina bangku [[Gagal bayar|kagagalan bayar]] tina pinjamanna.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=450–452}} Nalika ékonomi dunya beuki parah, pamaréntahan démokratis loba anu runtag; di Jérman, pamingpin [[Partéy Nazi]] [[Adolf Hitler]] nyekel kakawasaan sarta ngabubarkeun [[Républik Weimar]].{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=485–486}} Nepi ka pertengahan 1931, tingkat pangangguran geus nepi ka 15 persén, anu ngabalukarkeun kasieun anu beuki ningkat yén nagara keur ngalaman déprési anu jauh leuwih parah batan kamunduran ékonomi saméméhna.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=140–141}} Salaku jalma anu rada katutup sarta boga kasieun pikeun nyarita di hareupeun umum, Hoover ngantepkeun lawan-lawanna di Partéy Démokrat ngagambarkeun dirina salaku jalma anu tiis, teu mampuh, réaksionér, sarta kurang gaul.{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=351–352}} Lawan-lawan Hoover nyiptakeun rupa-rupa [[Landihan (julukan)|landihan]] anu ngahina pikeun ngaruksak reputasina, saperti "[[Hooverville]]" (padumukan kumuh sarta kémp pangungsian), "kulit Hoover" (kardus anu dipaké pikeun nambal sol sapatu anu bolong), sarta "simbut Hoover" (koran urut anu dipaké pikeun nyimbut diri tina hawa tiis).<ref>{{cite book| title=The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 1918–1924| last=Cabanes| first=Bruno| page=206| publisher=Cambridge University Press| date=2014|isbn=978-1-107-02062-7}}</ref> Nalika Hoover terus nolak usaha bantuan féderal, Gubernur [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] ti New York ngaluncurkeun Administrasi Bantuan Darurat Samentara pikeun méré bantuan ka nu pangangguran. Urang Démokrat mosisikeun éta program salaku alternatif anu leuwih merhatoskeun batan naon anu disebut sikép apatis Hoover ka nu pangangguran, sanajan Hoover percaya yén program kitu téh tanggung jawab nagara bagian sarta lokal.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=457–459}} Ékonomi terus nyirorot, kalayan tingkat pangangguran ampir nepi ka 23 persén dina awal taun 1932,{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=162–166}} sarta Hoover tungtungna ngadéngékeun pamenta pikeun leuwih loba pipilueun féderal.{{sfn|Olson 1972|pp=508–511}} Dina Januari 1932, manéhna ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngesahkeun pangadegan [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] (RFC), anu bakal méré pinjaman anu dijamin ku pamaréntah ka lembaga kauangan, jalan karéta, sarta pamaréntah lokal.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=153–154}} RFC nyalametkeun loba bisnis tina kabangkrutan, tapi gagal ngarangsang pinjaman komérsial saloba anu dipiharep ku Hoover, sabagéan alatan RFC dijalankeun ku bankir konservatif anu teu kersa méré pinjaman anu boga résiko luhur.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=162–163}} Dina bulan anu sarua nalika RFC diadegkeun, Hoover nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Bank Pinjaman Imah Féderal]], anu ngadegkeun 12 bank distrik anu diawasi ku Déwan Bank Pinjaman Imah Féderal kalayan cara anu sarupa jeung Sistem Federal Reserve.{{sfn|Rappleye|2016|pp=309}} Manéhna ogé mantuan dina pengesahan [[Undang-Undang Glass–Steagall 1932]], hiji panerapan perbankan darurat anu dirancang pikeun ngalegaan kiridit perbankan ku cara ngalegaan jaminan dimana bank Federal Reserve diwenangkeun pikeun méré pinjaman.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=483–484}} Nalika ieu léngkah-léngkah téh gagal nahan krisis ékonomi, Hoover nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Bantuan Darurat sarta Pangwangunan]], hiji RUU proyék umum saharga $2 miliar, dina Juli 1932.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=162–166}} ====Budget policy==== [[File:Debt1929-50.jpg|thumb|left|National debt as a fraction of GNP up from 20% to 40% under Hoover. From ''Historical Statistics US'' (1976).]] After a decade of [[budget surplus]]es, the federal government experienced a [[Budget deficits|budget deficit]] in 1931.{{sfn|Rappleye|2016|p=303}} Though some economists, like [[William Trufant Foster]], favored [[deficit spending]] to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a [[balanced budget]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=158–159}} In late 1931, Hoover proposed a tax plan to increase [[tax revenue]] by 30 percent, resulting in the passage of the [[Revenue Act of 1932]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=472, 488–489}} The act increased taxes across the board, rolling back much of the [[tax cut]] reduction program Mellon had presided over during the 1920s. Top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, the highest rate since the early 1920s. The act also doubled the top [[Estate tax in the United States|estate tax]] rate, cut [[Income tax in the United States|personal income tax]] exemptions, eliminated the [[Corporate tax in the United States|corporate income tax]] exemption, and raised corporate tax rates.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ippolito |first1=Dennis S. |title=Deficits, Debt, and the New Politics of Tax Policy |url=https://archive.org/details/deficitsdebtnewp0000ippo |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-85157-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/deficitsdebtnewp0000ippo/page/35 35]}}</ref> Prior to its passage, the legislation included a sales tax, but this part of the bill was defeated in the House of Representatives by 211 to 178 votes.<ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/LaGuardia_in_Congress/2hNdePcjrdUC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=la+guardia+in+congress+sales+tax+211+votes&pg=PA224&printsec=frontcover LaGuardia in Congress By Howard Zinn, 2010, P.224]</ref> Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=159–161}} {{Clear left}} {{Further|Gerakan Lily-white|Repatriasi Méksiko}} [[File:President & Mrs Hoover in Belvidere IL cph.3b12319.jpg|thumb|upright|Herbert sarta [[Lou Henry Hoover]] dina karéta api di Illinois]] Hoover jarang nyabit-nyabit ngeunaan [[Gerakan hak sipil (1896–1954)|hak sipil]] nalika manéhna jadi présidén. Manéhna percaya yén urang Afrika-Amérika sarta ras séjénna bisa ningkatkeun darajatna sorangan ngaliwatan pendidikan sarta inisiatif individu.<ref>Lisio, Donald J. ''Hoover, Blacks, & Lily-Whites: A Study of Southern Strategies'', University of North Carolina Press, 1985 ([https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=105110361 excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605043201/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=105110361 |date=June 5, 2011 }})</ref> Hoover nunjuk leuwih loba urang Afrika-Amérika kana jabatan féderal batan Harding sarta Coolidge digabungkeun, tapi loba pamingpin Afrika-Amérika anu ngutuk rupa-rupa aspék administrasi Hoover, kaasup kateukersa Hoover pikeun ngadorong undang-undang féderal [[Gerakan anti-lynching|anti-panyiksa (anti-lynching)]].{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=471–474}} Hoover ogé terus ngajalankeun strategi lily-white, nyaéta nyoplokkeun urang Afrika-Amérika tina posisi pamingpin di Partéy Républik dina usaha pikeun mungkas [[Solid South|dominasi Partéy Démokrat di Kidul]].{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=462–464}} Sanajan [[Robert Russa Moton|Robert Moton]] sarta sababaraha pamingpin kulit hideung séjénna nampa strategi lily-white salaku léngkah samentara, lolobana pamingpin Afrika-Amérika mah kacida ambekna.{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=464–465}} Hoover beuki ngajauhan pamingpin kulit hideung ku cara nyalonkeun hakim konservatif ti Kidul, [[John J. Parker]], ka [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]]; pencalonan Parker tungtungna gagal di Sénat alatan ayana perlawanan ti [[NAACP]] sarta organisasi buruh.{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=465–467}} Loba pamilih kulit hideung anu pindah ka Partéy Démokrat dina pemilu 1932, sarta urang Afrika-Amérika engkéna bakal jadi bagian penting tina [[Koalisi New Deal]] Franklin Roosevelt.{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=476–477}} Salaku bagian tina usahana pikeun ngawatesan pangangguran, Hoover nyoba neukteuk [[imigrasi ka Amérika Sarikat]], sarta dina taun 1930 manéhna ngaluarkeun paréntah éksékutip anu ngawajibkeun individu boga pagawéan saméméh pindah ka Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Rappleye|2016|p=247}} Administrasi Hoover ngamimitian kampanye pikeun nungtut [[Imigrasi ilegal ka Amérika Sarikat|imigran ilegal di Amérika Sarikat]], anu pangaruhna kacida kuatna ka [[Urang Méksiko-Amérika]], utamana maranéhna anu cicing di [[California Kidul]].{{sfn|Hoffman 1973|pp=206–207}} Pamaréntah féderal ogé ngarojong repatriasi Méksiko dimana aya sakitar 300.000 nepi ka dua juta urang Méksiko sarta Méksiko-Amérika anu dipulangkeun, didéportasi, atawa diusir ka Méksiko salila taun 1930-an, utamana dina mangsa jabatan Hoover. Opat puluh nepi ka genep puluh persén ti maranéhna téh sabenerna [[Kawasarganagaraan Amérika Sarikat|warga nagara Amérika]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Byza6YM2bukC|title=The Praeger Handbook of Latino Education in the U.S.|last=Rosales|first=F. Arturo|date=January 1, 2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313338304|editor-last=Soto|editor-first=Lourdes Diaz|pages=400–403|chapter=Repatriation of Mexicans from the US}}</ref><ref name="gratton">{{cite news|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/102163/imre12054.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|title=Immigration, Repatriation, and Deportation: The Mexican-Origin Population in the United States, 1920–1950|last1=Gratton|first1=Brian|last2=Merchant |first2=Emily|date=December 2013|pages=944–975|publisher=The International migration review|issue=4|volume=47}}</ref>{{sfn|Johnson 2005|p=4–5}} Sanajan pamaréntah féderal nyorong repatriasi, hal ieu lolobana diatur ku otoritas nagara bagian sarta lokal kalayan pangrojong ti pihak swasta. Administrasi Hoover ngadéportasi 34.000 urang ka Méksiko antara taun 1930 nepi ka 1933. Tapi, leuwih loba jalma anu milih repatriasi sacara sukarela.{{sfn|Hoffman 1973|pp=208, 217–218}}<ref name="gratton" /> Sababaraha ahli boga pamadegan yén repatriasi massal ieu mangrupa kawijakan ti administrasi Hoover.<ref name="gratton" /> Numutkeun profésor hukum Kevin R. Johnson, kampanye repatriasi ieu minuhan standar hukum modern ngeunaan [[ethnic cleansing]] (pembersihan étnis), sabab ngalibatkeun panyabutan paksa hiji minoritas ras ku aktor pamaréntah.{{sfn|Johnson 2005|p=6}} Hoover ngatur deui [[Biro Urusan India]] pikeun ngawatesan éksploitasi ka urang pribumi Amérika (Native Americans).<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 15, 2016 |title=The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/hoover-1.html |access-date=May 2, 2022 |website=National Archives}}</ref> ==== Prohibisi ==== Nalika mimiti ngajabat, Hoover ngadesek urang Amérika pikeun matuh kana [[Amandemén Kadalapan Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén Kadalapan Belas]] sarta [[Undang-Undang Volstead]], anu geus netepkeun [[Prohibisi di Amérika Sarikat|Prohibisi]] di sakuliah Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=372–373}} Pikeun méré rékoméndasi kawijakan publik ngeunaan Prohibisi, manéhna ngadegkeun [[Komisi Wickersham]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|p=85}} Hoover tadina miharep yén laporan publik komisi éta bakal nguatkeun siképna anu pro-Prohibisi, tapi éta laporan téh kalah nyawad kana palaksanaan Undang-Undang Volstead sarta nyatet ayana tumuwuhna panolakan publik kana Prohibisi. Sanggeus Laporan Wickersham dipublikasikeun dina taun 1931, Hoover nolak saran ti sababaraha babaturan deukeutna sarta nolak pikeun nyatujuan révisi naon waé kana Undang-Undang Volstead atawa Amandemén Kadalapan Belas, sabab manéhna sieun hal éta bakal ngaruksak rojongan ti para panganjur Prohibisi.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=433–435}} Nalika opini publik beuki malik nentang Prohibisi, beuki loba jalma anu ngarémpak hukum, sarta gerakan akar jukut mimiti digawé satékah polah pikeun ngabolaykeun Prohibisi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Repealing National Prohibition|url=https://archive.org/details/repealingnationa0000kyvi|last=Kyvig|first=David E.|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|year=1979|location=Chicago, IL|pages=[https://archive.org/details/repealingnationa0000kyvi/page/49 49]}}</ref> Dina Januari 1933, hiji amandemén konstitusi pikeun ngabolaykeun Amandemén Kadalapan Belas disatujuan ku Kongrés sarta diajukeun ka nagara-nagara bagian pikeun diratifikasi. Nepi ka Désémber 1933, éta amandemén geus diratifikasi ku jumlah nagara bagian anu diperlukeun pikeun jadi [[Amandemén Kasalapan Likur Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name=DCHuckabee>{{cite web|last=Huckabee|first=David C.|title=Ratification of Amendments to the U.S. Constitution|url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/97-922.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627015810/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/97-922.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 27, 2004|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service reports]]|date=September 30, 1997}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627015810/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/97-922.pdf |date=June 27, 2004 }}</ref> ==== Protés Bonus Army ==== {{Main|Bonus Army}} Rébuan véteran Perang Dunya I sarta kulawargana ngayakeun démonstrasi sarta masang kémp di Washington, DC, salila bulan Juni 1932, nungtut pamayaran saharita tina bonus anu geus dijanjikeun ku [[Undang-Undang Kompénsasi Disaluyukeun Perang Dunya]] dina taun 1924; katangtuan dina éta undang-undang nyebutkeun yén pamayaran bonus téh kakara bakal dilaksanakeun dina taun 1945. Sanajan ditawaran duit ku [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat]] pikeun marulang ka lemburna, sababaraha anggota "Bonus Army" tetep cicing di dinya. Pulisi Washington nyoba ngabubarkeun para démonstran, tapi jumlahna éléh loba sarta teu hasil. Pulisi ngaleupaskeun témbakan dina usaha anu taya gunana pikeun nyiptakeun katartiban, anu ngabalukarkeun dua démonstran tiwas sarta loba petugas anu tatu. Hoover ngirimkeun pasukan Angkatan Darat AS anu dipingpin ku Jéndral [[Douglas MacArthur]] ka tempat protés. MacArthur, anu percaya yén manéhna keur merangan [[Révolusi Komunis]], milih pikeun ngabersihkeun éta kémp ku kakuatan militér. Sanajan Hoover teu maréntahkeun MacArthur pikeun ngabubarkeun démonstran ku cara kitu, manéhna nyatujuan tindakan éta sanggeus kajadianana lumangsung.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=136–138}} Ieu kajadian téh jadi hal anu ngerakeun pikeun administrasi Hoover sarta ngaruksak usahana pikeun kapilih deui dina pemilu.<ref name="dickson1">{{cite magazine|last1=Dickson|first1=Paul|last2=Allen|first2=Thomas B.|title=Marching on History|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/marching-on-history-75797769/|access-date=February 7, 2017|magazine=Smithsonian|date=February 2003}}</ref> === Kawijakan luar nagri === Numutkeun Leuchtenburg, Hoover téh "présidén Amérika pamungkas anu mimiti ngajabat tanpa boga kabutuhan anu nyata pikeun merhatoskeun dunya luar". Sanajan kitu, salila mangsa jabatan Hoover, tatanan dunya anu diadegkeun sanggeus Perang Dunya I mimiti runtag.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|p=117}} Salaku présidén, Hoover umumna nedunan jangjina saméméh ngajabat pikeun henteu pipilueun kana urusan jero nagri Amérika Latin. Dina taun 1930, manéhna ngaluarkeun [[Mémorandum Clark]], hiji panolakan kana [[Roosevelt Corollary]] sarta léngkah nuju non-intervénsionisme di Amérika Latin. Hoover henteu sagemblengna nahan diri tina pamakéan militér dina [[hubungan Amérika Latin–Amérika Sarikat|urusan Amérika Latin]]; manéhna tilu kali ngancem bakal ngayakeun intervénsi di [[Républik Dominika]], sarta ngirimkeun kapal perang ka [[Él Salvador]] pikeun ngarojong pamaréntah dina nyanghareupan révolusi sayap kénca.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=120–121}} Sanajan aya tindakan-tindakan éta, manéhna mungkas [[Perang Cau]] (Banana Wars), ngaréngsékeun [[pangeureutan Amérika Sarikat di Nikaragua|pangeureutan Nikaragua]] sarta ampir mungkas [[pangeureutan Amérika Sarikat di Haiti|pangeureutan Haiti]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=183–186}} Hoover méré prioritas kana [[pancaténan pakarang]] (disarmament), anu dipiharep ku manéhna bisa mindahkeun dana ti militér kana kabutuhan jero nagri.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|p=58}} Hoover sarta Menteri Luar Nagri [[Henry L. Stimson]] museurkeun perhatian kana ngalegaan [[Perjangjian Angkatan Laut Washington]] 1922, anu tujuanna pikeun nyegah balapan [[pakara pakarang]] angkatan laut.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=479–480}} Alatan usaha Hoover, Amérika Sarikat sarta kakuatan angkatan laut utama séjénna nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Angkatan Laut London]] 1930.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=175–176}} Ieu perjangjian téh mangrupa munggaran kalina kakuatan-kakuatan angkatan laut sapuk pikeun ngawatesan tonase [[Kapal pangrojong|kapal tambahan]], sabab perjangjian saméméhna mah ngan ukur mangaruhan kana [[kapal utama]] (capital ships).{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=117–119}} Dina [[Konférénsi Pancaténan Pakarang Dunya]] 1932, Hoover ngadesek pangurangan pakarang anu leuwih loba sarta ngalarang pamakéan [[tank]] sarta [[kapal nu mawa bom]], tapi usulna henteu ditarima.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=117–119}} Dina taun 1931, Jepang [[invasi Jepang ka Manchuria|nginvasi]] [[Manchuria]], ngéléhkeun [[Angkatan Révolusionér Nasional]] [[Républik Cina (1912–1949)]] sarta ngadegkeun [[Manchukuo]], hiji nagara bonéka. Administrasi Hoover ngutuk éta invasi, tapi ogé nyoba nyingkahan konflik jeung urang Jepang, sabab sieun yén nyokot sikép anu teuing keras bakal ngaleutikan kakuatan moderat di pamaréntahan Jepang sarta ngajauhkeun poténsi sekutu pikeun ngalawan [[Uni Soviét]], anu ku manéhna dianggap salaku ancaman anu jauh leuwih gedé.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=122–123}} Salaku réspon kana invasi Jepang, Hoover sarta Menteri Luar Nagri Stimson nyieun garis badag [[Doktrin Stimson]], anu nétépkeun yén Amérika Sarikat moal ngaku kana wilayah-wilayah anu dimeunangkeun ku cara kekerasan.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1844715|title = The Stimson Doctrine and the Hoover Doctrine|journal = The American Historical Review|volume = 59|issue = 3|pages = 513–542|last1 = Current|first1 = Richard N.|year = 1954|doi = 10.2307/1844715}}</ref> == Kampanye pamilihan deui 1932 == {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1932}} Nepi ka pertengahan 1931, saeutik pisan pangamat anu mikir yén Hoover boga harepan gedé pikeun meunangkeun jabatan kadua di tengah krisis ékonomi anu terus lumangsung.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=193–194}} Harepan urang Républik kacida murepna nepi ka Hoover teu nyanghareupan perlawanan anu hartosna pikeun dicalonkeun deui dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1932]]. Coolidge sarta inohong Républik séjénna kabéhanana ngaliwatkeun kasempetan pikeun nangtang Hoover.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=194–195}} Franklin D. Roosevelt meunangkeun pencalonan présidén dina sora (ballot) kaopat dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1932]], ngéléhkeun calon Démokrat taun 1928, Al Smith. Urang Démokrat nyerang Hoover salaku cukang lantaran Déprési Gedé, sarta dianggap teu paduli kana sangsara anu dialaman ku jutaan jalma.{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=353}} Salaku Gubernur New York, Roosevelt geus ménta législatur New York pikeun méré bantuan ka jalma-jalma anu merlukeun, anu ngawangun reputasi Roosevelt salaku jalma anu leuwih satuju kana intervénsionisme pamaréntah salila krisis ékonomi.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=138–140}} Partéy Démokrat, kaasup Al Smith sarta pamingpin nasional séjénna, ngahiji di tukangeun Roosevelt, samentara urang Républik progrésif saperti George Norris sarta [[Robert M. La Follette Jr.|Robert La Follette Jr.]] ninggalkeun Hoover.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=211–212}} Prohibisi beuki teu dipikaresep sarta golongan "wet" (anti-prohibisi) méré argumén yén nagara bagian sarta lokal merlukeun duit pajeg. Hoover ngusulkeun amandemén konstitusi anyar anu teu jelas sacara hususna. Program Roosevelt ngajanjikeun pangabolayan Amandemén ka-18.<ref>"Prohibition After the 1932 Elections" [https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1932081100 ''CQ Researcher'']</ref><ref>Herbert Brucker, "How Long, O Prohibition?" ''The North American Review'', 234#4 (1932), pp. 347–357. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25114102 online]</ref> [[File:ElectoralCollege1932.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Hasil sora éléktoral 1932]] Hoover mimitina ngarencanakeun ngan ukur bakal ngayakeun hiji atawa dua biantara utama sarta masrahkeun sésa kampanyena ka utusan (proxy), sakumaha anu biasana dilakukeun ku présidén anu keur ngajabat. Sanajan kitu, didorong ku paménta urang Républik sarta ngarasa ambek ku klaim-klaim urang Démokrat, Hoover tungtungna turun langsung ka masarakat. Dina salapan biantara radio utamana, Hoover utamana ngabéla administrasina sarta [[Filsafat politik|filsafat pamaréntahanana]], ngadesek para pamilih pikeun tetep nyekel kana "dasar pangalaman" sarta nolak anggapan yén intervénsionisme pamaréntah bisa nyalametkeun nagara tina Déprési.{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=359}} Para sejarawan boga pamadegan yén biantara radiona henteu ditarima kalayan hadé, sabagéan alatan cara nyaritana anu monoton sarta kaku.<ref name=":0" /> Dina lalampahan kampanyena ka sakuliah nagara, Hoover nyanghareupan balaréa anu bisa jadi pangmushuhna anu kungsi katingali ku hiji présidén anu keur ngajabat. Dina unggal pangeureutan kampanye, manéhna mindeng diganggu (heckled) sarta dipoyok, malah di [[Beloit, Wisconsin]], saurang lalaki ditahan kalayan tuduhan yén manéhna geus nyoplokkeun paku tina jalur karéta api saméméh karéta Hoover ngaliwat. Saurang anggota [[United States Secret Service | Secret Service]] nyatet, "Kuring geus ngarénjangan Présidén-Présidén saprak [[Theodore Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] sarta can kungsi ningali présidén bener-bener dipoyok, kalayan jalma-jalma lalumpatan ka jalan bari némbongkeun sikép ngahina ka manéhna."<ref name="rehoming">{{Cite news |author=<!-- not stated --> |url=https://time.com/archive/6890906/republicans-homing-hoover/ |magazine=Time |date=November 14, 1932 |title=Republicans: Rehoming Hoover |access-date=April 21, 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Tungtungna, usaha Hoover pikeun ngabenerkeun administrasina henteu didéngé ku masarakat, sabab sabagéan badag publik nyalahkeun administrasina salaku cukang lantaran déprési.{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=361–362}} Dina sora éléktoral, Hoover éléh 59–472, sarta ngan meunang di genep nagara bagian.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=212–213}} Hoover meunangkeun 39,6 persén tina sora populer (popular vote), turun drastis 18,6 poin perséntase tina hasilna dina pemilu 1928.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=142}} </ref> Anu ngajadikeun manéhna kuciwa pisan, Hoover henteu diondang pikeun ngabantosan nagara sanggeus [[Sajarah militér Amérika Sarikat nalika Perang Dunya II|Amérika Sarikat aub dina Perang Dunya II]] alatan ayana pabéantar pamadegan jeung Roosevelt sarta popularitasna anu tetep murep.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=155–156}} Manéhna henteu ngudag pencalonan présidén dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1944]], sarta, dumasar kana paménta calon ti Républik [[Thomas E. Dewey]], manéhna nahan diri pikeun henteu milu kampanye salila pamilihan umum.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=572}} Dina taun 1945, Hoover méré saran ka Présidén [[Harry S. Truman]] sangkan ngabolaykeun tungtutan Amérika Sarikat ngeunaan [[penyerahan tanpa sarat]] ti Jepang alatan tingginya proyéksi korban jiwa tina [[Operasi Downfall|rencana invasi ka Jepang]], sanajan harita Hoover teu nyahoeun ngeunaan ayana [[Proyék Manhattan]] sarta [[Pakarang nuklir Amérika Sarikat|bom atom]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cohen |first=Jared |title=Accidental presidents: eight men who changed America|url=https://archive.org/details/accidentalpresid0000cohe_i0y0 |date=April 9, 2019 |publisher= Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1-5011-0982-9|edition=First hardcover |location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/accidentalpresid0000cohe_i0y0/page/313 313]|oclc=1039375326}}</ref> Dina awal mangsa perang, [[Bernard Baruch]] ngusulkeun ka Franklin Roosevelt yén Hoover bisa waé dimangpaatkeun dina kapasitas administratif pikeun usaha perang. Roosevelt ngajawab, "Kuring téh lain Yésus Kristus. Kuring moal ngahudangkeun Hoover tina maotna," sarta éta ideu téh dipopohokeun kitu waé.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schaefer |first1=Matthew |title=Hoover and 20th Century Presidents: Franklin Roosevelt |url=https://hoover.blogs.archives.gov/2020/04/08/hoover-and-20th-century-presidents-franklin-roosevelt/ |website=hoover.blogs.archives.gov |access-date=2 May 2026 |date=8 April 2020 |quote=‘I’m not Jesus Christ.  I’m not raising Hoover from the dead.’}}</ref> Sanajan Roosevelt nolak ngagunakeun jasa Hoover, manéhna tetep méré hormat ku cara ngutus Jéndral [[Albert Coady Wedemeyer]] pikeun rutin nganjang ka Hoover di suite-na di Hotel Waldorf Astoria, New York City, pikeun méré béja panganyarna ngeunaan rencana perang Sekutu. Tapi tetep waé, manéhna teu dibéré nyaho ngeunaan program pakarang atom ku Wedemeyer.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schwartz |first1=Thomas |title=A Troubled Relationship |url=https://hoover.blogs.archives.gov/2021/05/05/a-troubled-relationship/ |website=hoover.blogs.archives.gov |access-date=2 May 2026 |date=5 May 2021}}</ref> Dina taun 1943, Hoover nyatakeun dukunganna kana [[Zionisme]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Herbert Hoover's Plan for Palestine | url=https://cooperative-individualism.org/medoff-rafael_herbert-hoover's-plan-for-palestine-1990-summer.pdf | access-date=December 29, 2024}}</ref> === Pasca-Perang Dunya II === {{Further|Kapersidénan Harry S. Truman|Kapersidénan Dwight D. Eisenhower}} [[File:Hoover men Allan Herbert Sr Andrew 1950.jpg|thumb|Hoover bareng jeung putrana [[Allan Hoover|Allan]] (kénca) sarta incuna Andrew (luhur), 1950]] Saatos Perang Dunya II, Hoover sosobatan jeung Présidén Truman sanajan maranéhna boga bédana idéologi.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=157–158}} Alatan pangalaman Hoover jeung Jérman dina ahir Perang Dunya I, dina taun 1946 Truman milih tilas présidén éta pikeun ngulilingan [[Jérman anu dikawasa Sekutu]] sarta [[Roma]], Itali pikeun mastikeun kabutuhan pangan nagara-nagara anu dikawasa éta. Sanggeus ngulilingan Jérman, Hoover ngahasilkeun [[Misi Ékonomi Présidén ka Jérman sarta Austria|sajumlah laporan]] anu kritis kana kawijakan pangeureutan AS.<ref>{{cite book | first = Michael R. | last = Beschloss | title = The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945 | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743244541 | url-access = registration | publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|location=New York City|date = 2002 |isbn=978-0-7432-4454-1|page = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743244541/page/277 277]}}</ref> Manéhna nyatakeun dina salah sahiji laporanna yén "aya ilusi yén Jérman Anyar anu nyésa sanggeus [[Jérman Wétan sacara Sajarah#Konférénsi Potsdam|anéksasi]] bisa diréduksi jadi '[[Rencana Morgenthau|nagara pastor]] (pastoral state).' Hal éta moal bisa dilakukeun iwal urang maéhan atawa mindahkeun 25.000.000 jalma ti dinya."<ref>{{cite web|author=UN Chronicle |url=https://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2008/webarticles/080103_marshallplan.html |title=The Marshall Plan at 60: The General's Successful War on Poverty |publisher=The United Nations |date=March 18, 1947 |access-date=June 17, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414103548/http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2008/webarticles/080103_marshallplan.html |archive-date=April 14, 2008 }}</ref> Atas inisiatif Hoover, program kadaharan sakola di [[Bizone|zona pangeureutan Amérika sarta Inggris di Jérman]] dimimitian dina 14 April 1947; éta program méré dahar ka 3.500.000 barudak.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shephard |first=Roy J. |author-link=Roy J. Shephard |year=2014 |title=An Illustrated History of Health and Fitness, from Pre-History to our Post-Modern World |publisher=[[Axel Springer SE]]|location=New York City|page=782 }}</ref> {{external media | width = 210px | float = right | audio1 = [https://www.loc.gov/rr/record/pressclub/hoover.html National Press Club Luncheon Speakers], Herbert Hoover, March 10, 1954, 37:23, Hoover speaks starting at 7:25 about the second reorganization commission, [[Library of Congress]]<ref name="loc">{{cite web | title =National Press Club Luncheon Speakers, Herbert Hoover, March 10, 1954 | publisher =[[Library of Congress]] | url =https://www.loc.gov/rr/record/pressclub/hoover.html | access-date =October 20, 2016 }}</ref> }} Anu leuwih penting deui, dina taun 1947 Truman nunjuk Hoover pikeun mingpin [[Komisi Hoover|Komisi Organisasi Cabang Éksékutip Pamaréntah]], hiji studi tingkat luhur anu anyar. Truman nampa sababaraha rékoméndasi ti "Komisi Hoover" pikeun ngaleungitkeun pemborosan, penipuan, sarta inéfisiénsi, ngahijikeun lembaga-lembaga, sarta nguatkeun kontrol Gedong Bodas kana kawijakan.<ref>Richard Norton Smith, ''An Uncommon Man,'' (1984) pp 371–380.</ref><ref>Christopher D. McKenna, "Agents of adhocracy: management consultants and the reorganization of the executive branch, 1947–1949." ''Business and Economic History'' (1996): 101–111.</ref> Sanajan Hoover kungsi nentang konséntrasi kakawasaan Roosevelt dina taun 1930-an, manéhna percaya yén kapersidénan anu leuwih kuat diperlukeun ku ayana [[Zaman Atom]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=158–159}} Salila [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1948|pamilihan présidén 1948]], Hoover ngarojong kampanye calon Républik [[Thomas E. Dewey]] anu gagal ngalawan Truman, tapi manéhna tetep boga hubungan anu hadé jeung Truman.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=587–588}} Hoover satuju kana ayana Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (UN) sacara prinsip, tapi manéhna nolak méré kaanggotaan ka [[Uni Soviét]] sarta nagara-nagara [[Nagara komunis|Komunis]] séjénna. Manéhna nganggap Uni Soviét sarua hinana sacara moral jeung Jérman Nazi sarta ngarojong usaha [[Richard Nixon]] jeung nu séjénna pikeun ngungkab urang Komunis di Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=592–594}} [[File:President John F. Kennedy and former President Herbert Hoover.jpg|thumb|Hoover bareng jeung Présidén [[John F. Kennedy]] dina taun 1961]] Dina taun 1949, Dewey salaku gubernur New York nawarkeun korsi Sénat ka Hoover anu ditinggalkeun ku [[Robert F. Wagner]]. Éta téh ngan ukur pikeun jadi sénator salila dua bulan, sarta manéhna nolak.<ref>Herbert Hoover, ''The Crusade Years, 1933–1955: Herbert Hoover's Lost Memoir of the New Deal Era and Its Aftermath'', edited by George H. Nash, (Hoover Institution Press, 2013) p 13.</ref> [[File:Hoover Truman Eisenhower.jpg|thumb|left|Hoover (katuhu) bareng jeung Présidén [[Harry S. Truman]] (tengah) sarta Jéndral [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (kénca) di [[Universitas Princeton]]]] Hoover ngarojong pamingpin konservatif [[Robert A. Taft]] dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1952]], tapi pencalonan présidén ti partéy kalah labuh ka [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], anu satuluyna meunangkeun [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1952|pamilihan 1952]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=595}} Sanajan Eisenhower nunjuk Hoover kana komisi présidén séjénna, Hoover teu pati resep ka Eisenhower, manéhna nyalahkeun Eisenhower alatan gagalna dina ngabolaykeun New Deal.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=158–159}} Kagiatan publik Hoover mantuan mulihkeun reputasina, kitu ogé carana anu sok ngagunakeun humor anu ngarendahkeun diri sorangan; manéhna sakapeung nyarita yén "Kuring téh hiji-hijina jalma pinunjul anu ngaranna kungsi dijadikeun ngaran déprési."{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=592}} Dina taun 1958, Kongrés ngaluarkeun [[Undang-Undang Tilas Présidén]], anu méré pénsiun taunan $25.000 (sarua jeung {{Inflation|US|25000|1958|fmt=eq}}) ka unggal tilas présidén.<ref name="Smith 2008">{{cite web |title=Former Presidents: Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits |date=March 18, 2008 |website=[[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/98-249.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120224024/https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/98-249.pdf |archive-date=January 20, 2011 |access-date=November 18, 2008 |first=Stephanie |last=Smith }}</ref> Hoover nampa éta duit pénsiun sanajan manéhna teu butuh duitna, bisa jadi pikeun nyingkahan Truman ngarasa éra, sabab kaayaan kauangan Truman anu dikabarkan kurang hadé jadi salah sahiji pemicu disahkeunna éta undang-undang.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Joseph William Jr. |author-link=Joseph William Martin Jr. |year=1960 |title=My First Fifty Years in Politics as Told to Robert J. Donovan |publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=249 }}</ref> Dina awal taun 1960-an, Présidén [[John F. Kennedy]] nawarkeun rupa-rupa posisi ka Hoover; Hoover nolak éta tawaran tapi manéhna ngabéla administrasi Kennedy sanggeus [[Invasi Teluk Babi]], [[Krisis Misil Kuba]], sarta manéhna ngarasa sedih pisan ku ayana [[pamaténian John F. Kennedy]] dina taun 1963.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=601}} Hoover nulis sababaraha buku salila mangsa pangsiunna, kaasup ''The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson'', dimana manéhna satékah polah ngabéla tindakan-tindakan Wilson dina Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=571, 604–605}} Dina taun 1944, manéhna mimiti nulis ''Freedom Betrayed'', anu sering disebut ku manéhna salaku "[[magnum opus]]"-na. Dina ''Freedom Betrayed'', Hoover sacara keras ngritik [[Kawijakan luar nagri administrasi Franklin D. Roosevelt|kawijakan luar nagri Roosevelt]], utamana kaputusan Roosevelt pikeun ngaku ka Uni Soviét pikeun méré bantuan ka nagara éta salila Perang Dunya II.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=606}} Ieu buku téh kakara dipublikasikeun dina taun 2012 sanggeus diédit ku sejarawan [[George H. Nash]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Yerxa|first=Donald A|title=Freedom Betrayed: An interview with George H. Nash about Herbert Hoover's Magnum Opus|journal=Historically Speaking|date=September 2012|volume=XIII| issue = 4}}</ref> === Pupusna sarta Umur Panjang === {{anchor|Death}} [[File:Herbert Hoover Presidential Library 009.jpg|thumb|right|Makam Herbert sarta [[Lou Henry Hoover]]]] Hoover nyanghareupan tilu panyakit utama salila dua taun pamungkas hirupna, kaasup operasi dina Agustus 1962 pikeun ngangkat sél nu tumuwuh dina [[Peujit gedé|peujit gedéna]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=606–607}}<ref name=Hoover90NYT>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/08/10/archives/hoover-marks-90th-year-today-predicts-new-gains-for-nation-because.html| title=Hoover Marks 90th Year Today; Predicts New Gains for Nation Because of Its Freedoms| newspaper=The New York Times| date=August 10, 1964| access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref> Manéhna pupus di New York City dina 20 Oktober 1964, alatan ayana [[pendarahan internal]] anu hébat.<ref>{{Cite news| title=Herbert Hoover Is Dead; Ex-President, 90, Served Country in Varied Fields| last=Phillips| first=McCandlish| date=October 21, 1964|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0810.html| newspaper=[[The New York Times]] on the web| access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref><ref name=bbupidan>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=FzxYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=aPcDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1272%2C2733112 |via=[[The Bulletin (Bend)|''The Bulletin'']] |agency=United Press International |last=Justice |first=Charles J. |title=Ex-President Herbert Hoover dead at 90 |date=October 20, 1964 |page=1}}</ref><ref name=hdanali>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=wH1IAAAAIBAJ&sjid=g2wDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5537%2C2967559 |via=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |agency=Associated Press |last=Everett |first=Arthur |title=Hoover dies at 90 after long illness |date=October 21, 1964 |page=1}}</ref> Sanajan kekecapan pamungkas anu diucapkeun ku Hoover teu kanyahoan, tulisan pamungkasna anu kanyahoan nyaéta pesen "get-well" pikeun sobatna, tilas Présidén Harry S. Truman, genep poé saméméh manéhna pupus, sanggeus manéhna ngadéngé yén Truman tatu alatan tiroseuleu di kamar mandi:<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mancini |first1=Mark |title=Harry Truman and Herbert Hoover: An Unlikely Friendship |url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/52420/harry-truman-and-herbert-hoover-unlikely-friendship |website=Mentalfloss.org |date=August 30, 2013 |publisher=Mentalfloss |access-date=April 6, 2019}}</ref> {{blockquote|"Bak mandi téh mangrupa ancaman pikeun para tilas présidén, sakumaha anu meureun inget ku anjeun yén hiji bak mandi nangtang kuring sarta [[Parihna tulang tonggong|méréngpékkeun tulang tonggong]] kuring nalika kuring keur di [[Vénézuéla]] dina misi kalaparan dunya anjeun dina taun 1946. Simpati panghaneutna sarta harepan panghadéna ti kuring sangkan anjeun énggal damang."}} Dua bulan saméméhna dina 10 Agustus, Hoover nincak umur 90 taun,<ref name=bbaugtn>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=M_hYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TvcDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1352%2C5635225 |newspaper=The Bulletin |agency=United Press International |last=Wilson |first=Lyle |title=Hoover, 90 years today, wants no honors |date=August 10, 1964 |page=4}}</ref><ref name=pipgnin>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NtgNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yGwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7143%2C1046713 |via=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |agency=Associated Press |last=Daniell |first=Raymond |title=Hoover marking 90th birthday |date=August 10, 1964 |page=7}}</ref> manéhna jadi présidén AS kadua (sanggeus [[John Adams]]) anu nincak umur sakitu. Nalika ditanya kumaha parasaanana nalika nincak umur sakitu, Hoover ngajawab, "Teuing ku kolot."<ref name=Hoover90NYT/> Nalika pupusna, Hoover geus teu ngajabat salila leuwih ti 31 taun (sakabéhna {{age in days|1933|3|4|1964|10|20|format=commas}} poé). Ieu téh mangrupa mangsa pangsiun panglilana dina sajarah kapersidénan, ngalangkungan John Adams anu lilana 25 taun, nepi ka [[Jimmy Carter]] meupeuskeun éta rékor dina Séptémber 2012.<ref>{{cite magazine|first=John| last=Dillon| title=The Record-Setting Ex-Presidency of Jimmy Carter| url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/09/the-record-setting-ex-presidency-of-jimmy-carter/262143/| magazine=[[The Atlantic]]|date=September 9, 2012|access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref> Présidén [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] maréntahkeun sangkan bandera dikibarkeun satengah tihang sarta jadi salah sahiji ti 500 tamu anu diondang kana upacara pangureunan anu dilaksanakeun di [[Gereja Episkopal St. Bartholomew (Manhattan)|Gréja Épiskopal St. Bartholomew]]. Inohong séjénna anu hadir nyaéta tilas Wakil Présidén sarta bakal calon Présidén Richard Nixon, Perwakilan [[William E. Miller]], Gubernur [[Nelson Rockefeller]], tilas Gubernur Thomas E. Dewey, tilas Jaksa Agung [[Robert F. Kennedy]], tilas Menteri Pos [[James A. Farley]], Laksamana Muda [[Lewis L. Strauss]] sarta para Sénator [[Hubert Humphrey]], [[Barry Goldwater]], [[Kenneth Keating]], sarta [[Jacob Javits]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 23, 1964 |title=LEADERS ATTEND HOOVER FUNERAL |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/10/23/archives/leaders-attend-hoover-funeral-johnson-and-goldwater-join-city-in.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713124424/https://www.nytimes.com/1964/10/23/archives/leaders-attend-hoover-funeral-johnson-and-goldwater-join-city-in.html |archive-date=July 13, 2024 |access-date=October 30, 2025 |newspaper=The New York Times |pages=1 }}</ref> Hoover dipasihan panghormatan kalayan [[Pamulasaraan nagara di Amérika Sarikat|pamulasaraan nagara]] dimana layonna [[persemayaman|disemayamkeun]] di [[rotunda United States Capitol]].<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.aoc.gov/nations-stage/lying-state-honor| title=Lying in State or in Honor | publisher=Architect of the Capitol| location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref> Présidén Johnson sarta Ibu Nagara [[Lady Bird Johnson]] hadir, tapi tilas présidén Truman sarta Eisenhower duanana teu bisa hadir alatan nuju teu damang. Satuluyna, dina 25 Oktober, manéhna dikureubkeun di West Branch, Iowa, deukeut [[Perpustakaan sarta Muséum Présidén Herbert Hoover|perpustakaan présidénna]] sarta tempat lahirna di kawasan [[Situs Sajarah Nasional Herbert Hoover]]. Sanggeusna, pamajikan Hoover, Lou Henry Hoover, anu geus dikureubkeun di Palo Alto, California, sanggeus pupusna dina taun 1944, dipindahkeun pikeun dikureubkeun deui di gigireunana.<ref>{{cite web| title=Gravesite| website=nps.gov| url=https://www.nps.gov/heho/learn/historyculture/gravesite.htm| publisher=National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior| access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref> Pamulasaraan nagara ieu téh mangrupa anu katilu dina jangka waktu dua belas bulan, sanggeus [[Pamulasaraan nagara John F. Kennedy|Présidén John F. Kennedy]] sarta [[Jéndral Besar]] [[Douglas MacArthur]]. [[Black Jack (kuda)|Black Jack]] nyaéta kuda tanpa nu tumpak (riderless horse) anu milu dina tilu upacara pamulasaraan éta.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} ==Warisan== === Reputasi sajarah === Hoover kacida teu dipikaresepna nalika manéhna ninggalkeun jabatan sanggeus pamilihan 1932, sarta reputasi sajarahna kakara mimiti pulih dina taun 1970-an. Nurutkeun Profésor David E. Hamilton, para sejarawan méré aprésiasi ka Hoover pikeun kapercayaanana anu tulus kana boluntarisme sarta gawé bareng, ogé inovasi dina sababaraha programna. Sanajan kitu, Hamilton ogé nyatet yén Hoover téh kurang tapis sacara pulitik sarta gagal mikawanoh parahna Déprési Gedé.{{sfn|Hamilton 2016}} [[Nicholas Lemann]] nulis yén Hoover geus diinget "salaku jalma anu kaku teuing sacara konservatif pikeun méré réaksi anu tapis kana Déprési, salaku lawan anu apes pikeun Franklin Roosevelt anu hébat, sarta salaku politisi anu hasil ngarobah nagara anu tadina pro-Républik jadi pro-Démokrat".<ref name="lemann">{{cite magazine |last1=Lemann |first1=Nicholas |title=Hating on Herbert Hoover |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/10/23/hating-on-herbert-hoover |access-date=February 18, 2019 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=October 23, 2017}}</ref> Poling ka para sejarawan sarta élmuwan pulitik umumna [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Hoover dina jajaran sapertilu panghandapna ti sakabéh présidén. Poling taun 2018 ti bagian Présidén sarta Pulitik Éksékutip [[Asosiasi Élmu Pulitik Amérika]] nempatkeun Hoover salaku présidén panghadéna ka-36.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Brandon|last1=Rottinghaus|first2=Justin S.|last2=Vaughn|title=How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=February 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190310203020/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/|archive-date=March 10, 2019}}</ref> Poling [[C-SPAN]] taun 2017 ka para sejarawan ogé nempatkeun Hoover salaku présidén panghadéna ka-36.<ref>{{cite web|title=Presidential Historians Survey 2017|url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|website=[[C-SPAN]]|access-date=May 14, 2018}}</ref> Sanajan Hoover umumna dianggap boga mangsa kapersidénan anu gagal, manéhna ogé meunang pamuji pikeun tindakanana salaku kamanusaan sarta pajabat publik.<ref name="lemann"/> Panulis biografi Glen Jeansonne nulis dina taun 2016 yén Hoover téh "salah sahiji urang Amérika anu paling luar biasa dina jaman modéren," sarta nambahan yén Hoover "ngajalanan hirup anu jadi conto carita [[Horatio Alger]], iwal ti carita Horatio Alger mah eureun dina puncak kasuksésan".{{sfn|Jeansonne 2016|pp=1–2}} Panulis biografi [[Kenneth Whyte]] nulis yén, "pananya ngeunaan dimana posisi Hoover dina tradisi pulitik Amérika tetep jadi hal anu pinuh ku perdebatan nepi ka poé ieu. Sanajan manéhna écés maénkeun peran penting dina kamekaran tradisi progrésif sarta konservatif, duanana pihak moal daék ngaku ka manéhna alatan sieun kacampuran ku pihak séjénna."{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=610}} Sejarawan [[Richard Pipes]], ngeunaan tindakanana nalika mingpin [[Administrasi Bantuan Amérika]], nyebutkeun: "Loba negarawan nempatan tempat anu nonjol dina sajarah alatan geus ngirim jutaan jalma kana pati; Herbert Hoover, anu dihina alatan kinerjana salaku Présidén, sarta geura dipopohokeun di Rusia, boga kaistiméwaan anu langka nyaéta geus nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa."<ref>{{cite book|first=Richard|last=Pipes|title=Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime|url=https://archive.org/details/russiaunderbolsh00rich|year=1993|publisher=Knopf|page=[https://archive.org/details/russiaunderbolsh00rich/page/421 419]}}</ref> ===Sawangan kana ras === Sanajan omongan sarta humor rasis téh umum dina mangsa harita, Hoover teu kungsi ngalakukeun hal éta nalika jadi présidén, sarta diskriminasi anu dihaja téh mangrupa hal anu [[Anatéma|paling dipantang]] ku manéhna. Saperti loba batur sapantaranna, Hoover nganggap urang bodas sacara alamiah leuwih unggul ti batan urang hideung, nganggap yén "percampuran getih téh ngarugi keun". Manéhna mikir yén atikan sarta pagawéan bakal ngaronjatkeun darajat urang hideung, ku kituna manéhna ngarojong [[Universitas Tuskegee|Institut Tuskegee]].<ref name="garcia"/> Pamajikanana, [[Lou Henry Hoover]], meupeuskeun batasan warna kulit salaku ibu nagara ku cara ngondang [[Jessie De Priest]], pamajikan anggota kongrés hideung munggaran anu kapilih sanggeus sababaraha dékadeu, kana [[Acara téh Jessie De Priest di Gedong Bodas|acara téh tradisional pikeun para pamajikan anggota kongrés]], ogé saterusna ngondang paduan sora Institut Tuskegee (anu harita dipingpin ku [[William L. Dawson (komponis)|William Dawson]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=William L. Dawson Tribute {{!}} Tuskegee University |url=https://www.tuskegee.edu/student-life/student-organizations/choir/william-l-dawson-tribute |website=www.tuskegee.edu |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> Sanajan manéhna nganggap dirina salaku babaturan pikeun urang hideung sarta nu ngarojong kamajuan maranéhna,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jeansonne |first=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQZfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT257 |title=The Life of Herbert Hoover: Fighting Quaker, 1928–1933 |date=April 3, 2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-11189-0}}</ref> loba urang hideung sapantaranna anu boga sawangan bédé. [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] ngagambarkeun Hoover salaku "rasis anu teu démokratis anu ningali urang hideung salaku spésiés 'sub-manusa'".<ref name="garcia">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.17077/0003-4827.8609| issn = 0003-4827| volume = 44| issue = 7| pages = 507–515| last = Garcia| first = George F.| title = Herbert Hoover and the Issue of Race| journal = The Annals of Iowa| access-date = May 11, 2019| date = 1979| url = https://pubs.lib.uiowa.edu/annals-of-iowa/article/id/3996/| doi-access = free}}</ref> Sababaraha sejarawan maluruh leungitna kapercayaan urang Amérika-Afrika ka partéy Républik téh dimimitian dina mangsa jabatanana, utamana alatan usahana pikeun nyingkirkeun urang Amérika-Afrika tina kapamingpinan partéy Républik di wilayah Kidul.<ref name="garcia"/> Mangsa Hoover di Cina ogé mangaruhan sawanganana ka urang Asia sarta urang Amérika-Asia. Manéhna nulis yén "euweuh pamanggih mékanis anu ngagejleugkeun dunya" anu asalna ti Cina, manéhna ngklaim yén ieu téh alatan urang Cina teu boga insting mékanis anu sarua jeung urang Éropa.<ref name="garcia" /> Hal ieu meureun mangaruhan kaputusanana pikeun ngurangan imigrasi ngaliwatan pangwatesan visa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Howard |first=Spencer |date=August 4, 2016 |title=Hoover on Immigration |url=https://hoover.blogs.archives.gov/2016/08/04/hoover-on-immigration/ |access-date=August 24, 2024 |publisher=[[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]]}}</ref> ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} === Catetan === <references group="lower-alpha"/> [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] qaus4r2xicw3eigksqv9hk7b1az2qcq 0 108578 711564 709582 2026-08-06T23:12:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711564 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sél otot''' anu katelah ogé miosit (''myocyte''), nyaéta sél kontraksi anu geus sawawa dina otot sato. Dina manusa jeung sato boga tulang tonggong (vértebrata) séjénna, aya tilu jenis sél otot: sél otot ruruntuyan/rangka (''skeletal''), sél otot polos (''smooth''), jeung sél otot jajantung (''cardiac'' atawa ''cardiomyocytes'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brunet|first=Thibaut|last2=Fischer|first2=Antje Hl|last3=Steinmetz|first3=Patrick Rh|last4=Lauri|first4=Antonella|last5=Bertucci|first5=Paola|last6=Arendt|first6=Detlev|date=2016-12-01|title=The evolutionary origin of bilaterian smooth and striated myocytes|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5167519/|journal=eLife|volume=5|pages=e19607|doi=10.7554/eLife.19607|issn=2050-084X|pmc=5167519|pmid=27906129}}</ref> Sél otot rangka mah bentukna panjang jeung jiga benang sarta boga loba inti sél (''nuclei''), nu matak disebutna serat otot.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|edition=3rd ed|title=Human anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomy0000sala_v6k1|publisher=McGraw-Hill|date=2011|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-352560-0|first=Kenneth S.|last=Saladin}}</ref> Sél otot téh mekar tina sél prékursor émbrio anu disebut mioblas (''myoblasts''). Sél otot rangka kabentuk tina prosés ngahijina mioblas pikeun ngahasilkeun sél anu boga loba inti (''syncytia'') dina prosés anu disebut miogénésis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scott|first=Wayne|last2=Stevens|first2=Jennifer|last3=Binder–Macleod|first3=Stuart A|date=2001-11-01|title=Human Skeletal Muscle Fiber Type Classifications|url=http://ptjournal.apta.org/content/81/11/1810.full|journal=Physical Therapy|language=en|volume=81|issue=11|issn=0031-9023}}</ref> Sél otot rangka jeung sél otot jajantung dua-duana ngandung miofibril jeung sarkomér, sahingga ngabentuk jaringan otot lurik (boga garis-garis).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cardiac Muscle Tissue|url=https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiologyopenstax/chapter/cardiac-muscle-tissue/|publisher=OpenStax|date=2013-03-06|language=en}}</ref> Sél otot jajantung ngabentuk otot jajantung dina bilik-bilik jajantung, sarta boga hiji inti sél anu perenahna di tengah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/mammal/muscle.htm|title=Muscle tissue|website=www.botany.uwc.ac.za|accessdate=2026-05-20}}</ref> Sél otot jajantung ieu ngahiji jeung sél tatanggana ku lempengan interkalasi (''intercalated discs''), sarta lamun geus ngahiji jadi hiji Beungkeutan anu katémbong, disebutna serat otot jajantung. Sél otot polos nefungsina pikeun ngadalikeun gerakan anu teu kahaja (di luar kasadaran), saperti kontraksi peristaltik dina genggerong (ésophagus) jeung jero waduk/beuteung (lambung). Otot polos mah teu boga miofibril atawa sarkomér, ku kituna disebutna otot teu lurik (polos). Sél otot polos ogé ngan boga hiji inti sél. == Struktur == Anatomi mikroskopis sél otot anu teu biasa (unik) ngalahirkeun istilah-istilah hususna sorangan. Sitoplasma dina sél otot disebutna sarkoplasma; rétikulum éndoplasma lemes dina sél otot disebutna rétikulum sarkoplasma; sarta mémbran sél dina sél otot disebutna sarkoléma.<ref name=":0" /> Jalaran kitu, sarkoléma boga fungsi pikeun narima jeung ngalirkeun rangsangan (stimulus). === Sél Otot Rangka === Sél otot rangka nyaéta sél kontraksi mandiri di jero otot, sarta ilaharna leuwih katelah serat otot kusabab bentukna anu panjang sarta jiga benang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/muscular/structure.html|title=Structure of Skeletal Muscle {{!}} SEER Training|website=training.seer.cancer.gov|accessdate=2026-05-20}}</ref> Secara gurat badag, aya dua jenis serat otot anu boga peran dina kontraksi otot, nyaéta sél otot kedutan lambat (''slow twitch'' / tipe I) jeung kedutan gancang (''fast twitch'' / tipe II). Hiji otot tunggal, saperti otot bisép (''biceps brachii'') dina lalaki sawawa anu ngora, ngandung kurang leuwih 253.000 serat otot.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Cliff S.|last2=Marsh|first2=Greg D.|last3=Petrella|first3=Robert J.|last4=Rice|first4=Charles L.|date=2003-07|title=Muscle fiber number in the biceps brachii muscle of young and old men|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mus.10386|journal=Muscle & Nerve|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=62–68|doi=10.1002/mus.10386|issn=0148-639X}}</ref> Serat otot rangka mangrupakeun hiji-hijina sél otot anu boga loba inti sél (multinukléat), sarta inti sélna téh biasana disebut mionukléi. Hal ieu kajadian nalika prosés miogénésis ku cara ngahijina mioblas, anu mana unggal mioblas nyumbangkeun hiji inti sél kana sél otot atawa miotub (''myotube'') anu nembé kabentuk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cho|first=Chung-Hyun|last2=Lee|first2=Keon Jin|last3=Lee|first3=Eun Hui|date=2018-08|title=With the greatest care, stromal interaction molecule (STIM) proteins verify what skeletal muscle is doing|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6130827/|journal=BMB reports|volume=51|issue=8|pages=378–387|doi=10.5483/bmbrep.2018.51.8.128|issn=1976-670X|pmc=6130827|pmid=29898810}}</ref> Prosés ngahiji ieu gumantung kana protéin husus otot anu katelah ''fusogens'', nyaéta ''myomaker'' jeung ''myomerger''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Prasad|first=Vikram|last2=Millay|first2=Douglas P.|date=2021-11|title=Skeletal muscle fibers count on nuclear numbers for growth|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9070318/|journal=Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology|volume=119|pages=3–10|doi=10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.04.015|issn=1096-3634|pmc=9070318|pmid=33972174}}</ref> Serat otot lurik ngandung miofibril anu diwangun ku ranté protéin panjang tina miofilamén. Aya tilu jenis miofilamén: ipis, kandel, jeung élastis, anu digawé babarengan pikeun ngahasilkeun kontraksi otot. Miofilamén ipis lolobana diwangun ku aktin, sedengkeun filamén kandel lolobana diwangun ku miosin; ieu dua filamén téh silih séréd (geser) pikeun mondokkeun ukuran serat nalika kontraksi otot. Jenis miofilamén anu katilu nyaéta filamén élastis anu diwangun ku titin, nyaéta hiji protéin anu ukuranna kacida gedéna. Dina garis-garis otot lurik, miosit ngabentuk filamén poék anu nyusun pita A. Filamén aktin anu ipis mangrupakeun filamén caang anu nyusun pita I. Unit kontraksi pangleutikna dina serat otot disebut sarkomér, anu mangrupakeun unit anu terus ngulang di antara dua pita Z. Sarkoplasma ogé ngandung glikogén anu nyadiakeun énergi pikeun sél nalika ngalakukeun olahraga berat, sarta mioglobin, nyaéta pigmén beureum anu neundeun oksigén nepi ka engké diperlukeun pikeun aktivitas otot.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|edition=6. ed|title=Anatomy & physiology: the unity of form and function|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780077691929|publisher=McGraw-Hill|date=2012|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-07-337825-1|first=Kenneth S.|last=Saladin}}</ref> Rétikulum sarkoplasma, anu mangrupakeun jenis husus tina rétikulum éndoplasma lemes, ngabentuk jaringan di sabudeureun unggal miofibril tina serat otot. Ieu jaringan téh diwangun ku kelompokan dua kantong tungtung anu ngalegaan, anu disebut ''terminal cisternae'', sarta hiji T-tubul (tubulus transversal) anu nembus sél nepi ka kaluar di sisi sabalikna. Babarengan, ieu tilu komponén téh ngabentuk ''triad'' anu aya di jero jaringan rétikulum sarkoplasma, anu mana unggal T-tubul boga dua ''terminal cisternae'' di unggal sisina. Rétikulum sarkoplasma ieu fungsina salaku wadah panyimpenan ion kalsium. Jadi, nalika aya poténsial aksi (rangsangan listrik) anu nyebar dina T-tubul, hal éta bakal méré tanda ka rétikulum sarkoplasma pikeun ngaluarkeun ion kalsium tina saluran mémbran sangkan bisa ngarangsang kontraksi otot.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sugi|first=Haruo|last2=Abe|first2=Takahiro|last3=Kobayashi|first3=Takakazu|last4=Chaen|first4=Shigeru|last5=Ohnuki|first5=Yoshiki|last6=Saeki|first6=Yasutake|last7=Sugiura|first7=Seiryo|date=2013|title=Enhancement of force generated by individual myosin heads in skinned rabbit psoas muscle fibers at low ionic strength|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3655179/|journal=PloS One|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e63658|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0063658|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3655179|pmid=23691080}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Dina otot rangka, di unggal tungtung serat otot, lapisan luar tina sarkoléma bakal ngahiji jeung serat téndon dina bagian sambungan mioténdinus (''myotendinous junction''). Di jero serat otot anu napel kana sarkoléma, aya loba inti sél anu bentukna gépéng; sacara émbriologis, kaayaan sél anu boga loba inti ieu téh alatan lobana mioblas anu ngahiji pikeun ngahasilkeun unggal serat otot, anu mana unggal mioblas nyumbangkeun hiji inti sél.<ref name=":1" /> == Référénsi == n1dw7qhqbegx4ftlzq26sx0p9ok7qa6 0 108671 711502 711117 2026-08-06T15:37:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 711502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar | caption = | birth_name = | birth_date = {{birth date|2005|4|9|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Malang]], [[Jawa Wétan]], [[Indonesia]] | other_names = | education = [[Universitas Brawijaya]] | occupation = Aktivis | boards = | children = | parents = | relatives = [[Hadi Tjahjanto]] (mamang) |image=}} '''Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar''' (lahir 9 April 2005) nyaéta saurang aktivis asal Indonésia. Anjeunna mangrupakeun pangadeg organisasi hak asasi manusa Aktivis Indonesia NGO sarta Ketua Umum [[Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam (Indonesia)|Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam Komisariat Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Brawijaya (HMI FK UB)]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ketua HMI FK UB Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar Siapkan Revolusi Internal |url=https://www.indonesiana.id/read/192902/ketua-hmi-fk-ub-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar-siapkan-revolusi-internal |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=Indonesiana.id |language=id}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-08 |title=Aktivis Muda Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar Pimpin HMI FK UB, Bawa Arah Baru Pergerakan Mahasiswa Kedokteran – HMI FK UB |url=https://www.hmifkub.com/aktivis-muda-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar-pimpin-hmi-fk-ub-bawa-arah-baru-pergerakan-mahasiswa-kedokteran/ |access-date=2026-06-04 |language=id}}</ref> Raynan meunang pangajén ''The Best Medical Faculty Ambassador'' ti [[Universitas Brawijaya]] dina taun 2025 sarta dianggap minangka salah sahiji aktivis anu boga pangaruh dina mingpin bab Kastrat dina bulan Méi jeung Oktober 2025 ku [https://ismki.or.id/ ISMKI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260606074736/https://ismki.or.id/ |date=2026-06-06 }}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Profil Raynan: Aktivis Muda Peraih Gelar The Best Faculty of Medicine Ambassador 2025 |url=https://www.netralnews.com/profil-raynan-aktivis-muda-peraih-gelar-the-best-faculty-of-medicine-ambassador-2025/L3FaWEZMby84b2hUUWgzU1hpdjFTZz09 |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=netralnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Anjeunna mangrupikeun putra ti dokter spesialis panon Darwan Triyono, sarta kaponakan ti urut Menteri Koordinator Bidang Politik, Hukum, jeung Kaamanan Indonésia [[Hadi Tjahjanto]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-24 |title=Hubungan Menarik Aktivis Muhammmad Raynan Rizky Akbar Yang Ternyata Keponakan Dari Ex-Menkopolhukam RI! {{!}} Siaran Berita |url=https://siaran-berita.com/hubungan-menarik-aktivis-muhammmad-raynan-rizky-akbar-yang-ternyata-keponakan-dari-ex-menkopolhukam-ri/ |access-date=2026-06-04 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kompasiana.com |date=2026-05-26 |title=Terkuak!! Aktivis Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar adalah Keponakan dari Mantan Menkopolhukam Hadi Tjahjanto! |url=https://www.kompasiana.com/mukholladun/6a15a6fdc925c46ab871bb84/terkuak-aktivis-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar-adalah-keponakan-dari-mantan-menkopolhukam-hadi-tjahjanto |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=KOMPASIANA |language=id}}</ref> ==Karir Aktivisme Pulitik== Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar ngamimitian kagiatan aktivismena nalika kuliah di Fakultas Kedokteran [[Universitas Brawijaya]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mengenal Sosok Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar, Aktivis Pergerakan dari Malang |url=https://www.netralnews.com/mengenal-sosok-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar-aktivis-pergerakan-dari-malang/ZmJBbXkra2RTRGk4L21KcmtPbXJ0UT09 |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=netralnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Nalika masih janten mahasiswa kedokteran, anjeunna aktip dina advokasi mahasiswa, inisiatif partisipasi warga, sarta diskusi pulitik ngeunaan démokrasi, kawijakan publik, jeung partisipasi nonoman di Indonésia. Anjeunna dipikawanoh minangka sosok anu ngadorong mahasiswa kedokteran pikeun leuwih aktip dina urusan sosial jeung pulitik.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Profil Lengkap Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar, Aktivis dari Kedokteran UB |url=https://www.netralnews.com/profil-lengkap-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar-aktivis-dari-kedokteran-ub/R2M0U0RrbVE2VWw5ajlWZEdPUndFZz09 |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=netralnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Dina Désémber 2023, Raynan ngadegkeun [[Organisasi non-pamaréntah|organisasi non-pamaréntah (NGO)]] Aktivis Indonesia sarta salajengna ngajabat salaku pangadeg jeung koordinator organisasi éta.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-14 |title=Kisah Inspiratif Raynan, Aktivis HAM Dari Kedokteran Brawijaya {{!}} Siaran Berita |url=https://siaran-berita.com/kisah-inspiratif-raynan-aktivis-ham-dari-kedokteran-brawijaya/ |access-date=2026-06-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> Organisasi éta diadegkeun minangka platform mandiri anu museur kana advokasi publik, partisipasi warga, sarta nyebarkeun isu sosial, pulitik, ékonomi, jeung budaya anu aya patalina jeung masarakat Indonésia.<ref name=":0" /> Dina taun 2024, anjeunna janten anggota Parlemén Mahasiswa Fakultas Kedokteran [[Universitas Brawijaya]]. Dina taun 2025, anjeunna ngajabat salaku Menteri Aksi, Kajian, jeung Propaganda dina parlemén mahasiswa éta, kalayan kalibet dina nyusun kajian kawijakan, mobilisasi mahasiswa, sarta kampanye advokasi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kisah Raynan, Mahasiswa Kedokteran yang kini menjadi Aktivis dan Pendiri NGO |url=https://www.netralnews.com/kisah-raynan-mahasiswa-kedokteran-yang-kini-menjadi-aktivis-dan-pendiri-ngo/eXJzR0dpeS9COVhveUJIVWx3WXUzQT09 |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=netralnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Sapanjang taun 2025, Raynan muncul minangka salah sahiji tokoh penting dina gerakan mahasiswa di lingkungan Kompleks Kedokteran [[Universitas Brawijaya]], anu ngawengku Fakultas Kedokteran, Kedokteran Gigi, jeung Élmu Kaséhatan. Anjeunna ilubiung sarta ngakoordinasikeun rupa-rupa aksi mahasiswa ngeunaan tata kelola démokratis, akuntabilitas nagara, kawijakan belanja publik, sarta panolakan kana sababaraha inisiatif législatif anu dianggap kontroversial. Salah sahiji épisode aktivismena anu paling kasohor lumangsung nalika aksi protes ngalawan révisi Undang-Undang Tentara Nasional Indonésia (TNI) dina Maret 2025, nalika anjeunna dilaporkeun ngabantu ngagerakkeun mahasiswa tina fakultas-fakultas kaséhatan di Malang.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rapid Rise of Indonesian Activist Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar |url=https://en.netralnews.com/the-rapid-rise-of-indonesian-activist-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar/QVREeFhyT1F0TEtpNDNPOEF2RXNpQT09 |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=netralnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Tanggal 21 Pébruari 2026, Raynan narima mandat salaku Formatur Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam (HMI) Fakultas Kedokteran [[Universitas Brawijaya]] pikeun masa bakti 2026–2027. Anjeunna teras resmi ngajabat minangka Ketua Umum HMI FK UB dina Maret 2026. Dina kapamingpinanana, organisasi éta nekenkeun pangwangunan kader, diskursus intelektual, partisipasi warga, sarta reformasi organisasi pikeun nguatkeun peran mahasiswa kedokteran dina urusan publik.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Resmi Menjadi Ketua Umum HMI FK UB, Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar Rebrand Organisasi |url=https://www.netralnews.com/resmi-menjadi-ketua-umum-hmi-fk-ub-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar-rebrand-organisasi/MDRuTVdYcE8rL0tnWkYyUXNDU01CQT09 |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=netralnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Salaku koordinator Aktivis Indonesia jeung pamingpin HMI FK UB, Raynan ngamajukeun partisipasi pulitik nonoman, keterlibatan dina démokrasi, kabébasan nyatakeun pamadegan, sarta kalibetna mahasiswa dina ngaréngsékeun rupa-rupa pasualan sosial. Aktivismena ogé dipatalikeun jeung usaha pikeun ngawangun hubungan anu leuwih raket antara komunitas akademik jeung gerakan masarakat sipil di Indonésia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Raynan dan Wajah Baru Pergerakan Mahasiswa Kedokteran |url=https://www.indonesiana.id/read/191524/raynan-dan-wajah-baru-pergerakan-mahasiswa-kedokteran |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=Indonesiana.id |language=id}}</ref> ==Kontrovérsi jeung Hubungan Kulawarga jeung Pamaréntah== Dina taun 2025, sababaraha média Indonésia jeung panitén pulitik ngalaporkeun yén Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar miboga hubungan kulawarga jeung urut Menteri Koordinator Bidang Politik, Hukum, jeung Kaamanan sarta urut Panglima TNI, [[Hadi Tjahjanto]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-24 |title=Hubungan Menarik Aktivis Muhammmad Raynan Rizky Akbar Yang Ternyata Keponakan Dari Ex-Menkopolhukam RI! {{!}} Siaran Berita |url=https://siaran-berita.com/hubungan-menarik-aktivis-muhammmad-raynan-rizky-akbar-yang-ternyata-keponakan-dari-ex-menkopolhukam-ri/ |access-date=2026-06-04 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kompasiana.com |date=2026-05-26 |title=Terkuak!! Aktivis Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar adalah Keponakan dari Mantan Menkopolhukam Hadi Tjahjanto! |url=https://www.kompasiana.com/mukholladun/6a15a6fdc925c46ab871bb84/terkuak-aktivis-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar-adalah-keponakan-dari-mantan-menkopolhukam-hadi-tjahjanto |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=KOMPASIANA |language=id}}</ref> Numutkeun laporan éta, Raynan mangrupakeun kaponakan [[Hadi Tjahjanto]] ngaliwatan hubungan kulawarga gedé anu asalna ti Malang, Jawa Wétan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-28 |title=Aktivis HAM Kerabat Menkopolhukam! Fakta Menarik Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar {{!}} Siaran Berita |url=https://siaran-berita.com/aktivis-ham-kerabat-menkopolhukam-fakta-menarik-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar/ |access-date=2026-06-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> Laporan ieu narik perhatian publik sabab Raynan geus leuwih tiheula dipikawanoh minangka aktivis mahasiswa jeung pangatur organisasi masarakat sipil sacara mandiri saméméh hubungan kulawarga éta dipikanyaho ku masarakat. Sababaraha panitén nyorot béda anu cukup mencolok antara karir [[Hadi Tjahjanto]] dina widang militér jeung pamaréntahan jeung kalibetna Raynan dina gerakan mahasiswa, [[Organisasi non-pamaréntah|organisasi non-pamaréntah]], sarta advokasi nonoman.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kompasiana.com |date=2026-05-24 |title=Terungkap! Aktivis Muhammad Raynan Rizky Akbar punya hubungan Keluarga dengan Ex-Menkopolhukam RI! |url=https://www.kompasiana.com/mediamahasiswa/6a13039d110fce25cc17f272/terungkap-aktivis-muhammad-raynan-rizky-akbar-punya-hubungan-keluarga-dengan-ex-menkopolhukam-ri |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=KOMPASIANA |language=id}}</ref> Sanggeus laporan éta sumebar, sawatara diskusi dina média sosial nyorot sipat hubungan kulawarga anu dianggap teu disangka-sangka éta. Nepi ka ayeuna teu aya bukti anu nunjukkeun yén hubungan kulawarga éta miboga peran langsung dina karir aktivisme atawa kagiatan organisasi Raynan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Raynan: Aktivis yang Menghapus Stigma bahwa Mahasiswa Kedokteran Apatis |url=https://www.indonesiana.id/read/189147/raynan-aktivis-yang-menghapus-stigma-bahwa-mahasiswa-kedokteran-apatis |access-date=2026-06-04 |website=Indonesiana.id |language=id}}</ref> ==Tingali ogé== * [[Hak asasi manusa di Indonésia]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Tautan luar== {{Portal bar|Indonesia}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rizky Akbar, Muhammad Raynan}} [[Category:Alumni Universitas Brawijaya]] [[Category:Aktivis Indonésia]] [[Category:Aktivis hak asasi manusa Indonésia]] [[Category:Kalahiran 2005]] __INDEKS__ __PRANALABAGIANBARU__ mlfluq4hhy25g2yw5tsh9yfeymomue6 0 108781 711550 711401 2026-08-06T22:56:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260806)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 711550 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Plant morphology buds axillary.png|thumb|Kuncup kélék (ditandaan warna konéng) pernahna dina sesela antara daun jeung watang tutuwuhan.]] '''Kuncup kélék''' (atanapi '''kuncup aksilar''' / '''kuncup lateral''') nyaéta [[kuncup]] [[émbrio|émbrionik]] atawa [[organogenesis|organogénik]] nu aya dina kélék [[daun]] (pancatatan antara daun jeung watang). Unggal kuncup mibanda poténsi pikeun ngabentuk tunas anyar, sarta bisa husus pikeun ngahasilkeun tunas végétatif ([[watang]] jeung dahan) atawa tunas réproduktif ([[kembang]]). Sanggeus ngabentuk, kuncup bisa cicing dina kaayaan [[dormansi|dorman]] pikeun sababaraha waktu, atawa bisa langsung ngembang ngabentuk tunas anyar. <ref>{{cite book |title=STBI4102 – Struktur dan Perkembangan Tumbuhan |last1=Samiyarsih |first1=Siti |last2=Suwandi |first2=Harsini |last3=Sumarsono |last4=Iriawati |last5=Suradinata |first5=Tatang |last6=Wardini |first6=Trimurti Hesti |edition=1 |publisher=Universitas Terbuka |location=Tangerang Selatan |year=2025 |isbn=9786342492895 }}</ref> == Gambaran umum == Kuncup kélék nyaéta kuncup émbrionik nu cicing dina kaayaan dorman dina sesela antara watang jeung [[gagang daun]] (''pétiole'') hiji tutuwuhan.<ref name="BellBryan2008_18">{{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Adrian D. |last2=Bryan |first2=Alan |title=Plant Form: An Illustrated Guide to Flowering Plant Morphology |year=2008 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-850-1 |page=18}}</ref> Ieu kuncup mucunghul sacara éksogén tina lapisan luar [[kortéks]] watang. Kuncup kélék moal ngembang jadi tunas nu tumuwuh aktif dina tutuwuhan nu mibanda '''[[dominansi apikal]]''' nu kuat (kecenderungan pikeun ngan ukur nuwuhkeun kuncup terminal dina watang utama). Dominansi apikal kajadian sabab [[méristém]] apikal pucuk ngahasilkeun [[auksin]] nu nahan tumuwuhna kuncup kélék. Kuncup kélék bakal mimiti ngembang nalika kakeunaan leuwih saeutik auksin, misalna lamun tutuwuhan sacara alami mibanda dominansi apikal nu leutik, lamun dominansi apikal diputuskeun ku cara neukteuk kuncup terminal, atawa lamun kuncup terminal geus tumuwuh cukup jauh nepi ka pangaruh auksinna ngurangan.<ref name="Berg2007">{{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=Linda |title=Introductory Botany: Plants, People, and the Environment, Media Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/introductorybota0000berg_x2y8 |year=2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-534-46669-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductorybota0000berg_x2y8/page/238 238]}}</ref> Salah sahiji conto kuncup kélék nyaéta "panon" dina beubeutian [[suuk|kentang]]. === Pangaruh auksin === Sarengna tumuwuh méristém apikal jeung ngabentukna daun-daun anyar, wilayah sél-sél méristématik katinggaleun di daérah buku (''node'') antara watang jeung daun. Kuncup kélék ieu biasana aya dina kaayaan dorman lantaran ditahan ku auksin nu dihasilkeun ku méristém apikal—kajadian nu dikenal salaku dominansi apikal. Lamun méristém apikal dipiceun atawa geus tumuwuh leuwih jauh tina kuncup kélék, éta kuncup kélék bisa aktif deui (bébas tina hambatan hormon). Siga méristém apikal, kuncup kélék bisa ngembang jadi watang atawa kembang. === Kasakit nu mangaruhan kuncup kélék === Kasakit tutuwuhan tangtu—terutama nu disababkeun ku [[fitoplasma]] (''phytoplasmas'')—bisa ngawujudkeun [[prowalatra|proliferasi]] dina kuncup kélék, nepi ka ngajadikeun tutuwuhan katingali rimbun pisan kawas rungkun (''bushy''). == Réferénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Morfologi tutuwuhan]] ruzzjdxxdijy9ym6akyj2lkm63suhkw